THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1978


Table of Contents

PREFACE

The aim of the New Zealand Official Yearbook, of which this is the 83rd edition, is to present annually a comprehensive statistical survey of the economy and population of New Zealand, with a background of text aimed primarily at the non-specialist.

As a series, Official Yearbooks are a rich source of material for research workers and students. Each section is revised annually, and (within the limits of space) every endeavour is made to give information as fully and clearly as possible. However, in the nature of things, a Yearbook which takes almost 12 months to produce cannot be completely up to date. Additional and more recent information on many of the subjects mentioned in the Official Yearbook can be obtained from Parliamentary reports, from the Information Service releases, bulletins, and other publications of the Department of Statistics, and especially from the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. With the Official Yearbook to give him background and historical perspective, and the Monthly Abstract to give him the latest figures, the student of the New Zealand economy is well-equipped.

Taking the place of a special article in this Yearbook is a list of selected abbreviations, contractions, and acronyms. The use of abbreviations is a common feature of modern life. It is unusual to open a newspaper without finding at least one in a headline, and such acronyms as CORSO, UNESCO, and OPEC are more easily recognised than the full names of the organisations they represent. A comprehensive list of abbreviations, contractions, and acronyms would be book-length; in fact, a number of full-length dictionaries of abbreviations exist. The present list includes many abbreviations in common use, but the principal criterion for inclusion has been the use of the abbreviation in the Official Yearbook or in other statistical publications.

Another short special feature introduces the new General Price Index, which has been under development in the Department of Statistics for the past 3 years.

The Yearbook owes much to the assistance and co-operation of other Government departments, the producer boards, the Reserve Bank, and a considerable number of other official bodies, as well as to the compiling sections of this department. I would like to express my appreciation to all the people involved, and especially to the staff of the Government Printing Office, without whose work there would be no Yearbook. The volume was edited by N. G. Killick, B.A., who would also like to express his appreciation of the assistance and co-operation he has received.

E. A. HARRIS, GOVERNMENT STATISTICIAN.

Department of Statistics, Wellington, NEW ZEALAND. September 1978.

Chapter 1.

Chapter 1.

The interpretation of the symbols used in the tables throughout this publication is as follows:

  • – nil or zero

  • .. figures not available

  • not yet available — space left blank

  • … not applicable

  • – amount too small to be expressed

  • x revised

METRIC SYSTEM

The conversion of the system of weights and measures used in New Zealand to metric units was substantially completed by the end of 1976.

As far as possible, statistics in this issue have been converted to the metric system, but for various reasons, this has to be a gradual process extending over a number of years.

CONVERSION OF BRITISH (IMPERIAL) AND SI (METRIC) UNITS

Some relationships between common British units and common $1 units are shown in the following table.

Length
1 in.= 25.4 mm
 = 2.54 cm
1 ft= 30.48 cm
 = 0.305 m
1 yd= 0.914 m
1 mile= 1.609 km
1 mm= 0.039 in.
1 cm= 0.394 in.
1 dm= 3.937 in.
1 m= 39.37 in.
 = 1.094 yds
1 km= 0.621 miles
Area
1 sq ft= 0.093 m2
 = 929.03 cm2
1 sq yd= 0.836 m2
1 acre= 0.405 hectare (ha)
1 sq mile= 2.590 km2
 = 259 ha
1 m2= 10.764 sq ft
 = 1.196 sq yds
1 da= 0.247 acres
1 ha= 2.471 acres
1 km2= 247.1 acres
 = 0.386 sq miles
Volume
1 cu in.= 16.387 cm3
1 cu ft= 0.028 m3
1 cu yd= 0.765 m3
1 cm3= 0.061 cu in.
1 m3= 35.315 cu ft
 = 1.308 cu yds
Capacity
1 pt= 0.568 litres (1)
1 qt= 1.137 l
1 gal= 4.546 l
1 litre= 1.760 pts
 = 0.880 qts
 = 0.220 gal
Weight
1 oz= 28.35 grams (g)
1 lb= 0.454 kilograms (kg)
1 cwt= 50.802 kg
1 long ton= 1.016 kg
 = 1.016 tonnes (t)
1 g= 0.035 oz
1 kg= 2.205 lb
1 t= 2,204.62 lb
 = 0.984 long tons
 = 1.102 short tons
Velocity
1 mile per hour (mph)1.61 kilometres per hour (km/hr)
1 kilometre per hour (km/h)0.621 miles per hour (mph)
Pressure
1 pound per sq in. (psi)6.89 kilopascals (kPa)
1 kilopascal (kPa)0.145 pounds per sq in. (psi)
1 ton per sq in. (ton/in2)15.4 megapascals (MPa)
1 megapascal (MPa)0.0647 tons per sq in. (ton/in2)
Temperature
Degree Fahrenheit (°F)9×°C +32/55
Degree Celsius (°C)5/9 (°F-32) 9

Chapter 2. Section 1 GEOGRAPHY

Table of Contents

New Zealand is in the south-west section of the Pacific, that great ocean stretching across one-third of the earth's surface. To the west, beyond the Tasman Sea, is Australia, 1,600 kilometres away. From its position on the rim of the Pacific basin, New Zealand is a little over 10,000 kilometres from San Francisco and Panama and a similar distance from Tokyo and Singapore. In area 26.9 million hectares, it is similar in size to the British Isles and Japan.

One of the chief charms of the New Zealand landscape is its infinite variety. Such level lowlands as exist are small in area; contrasts between coastal plain and bordering hard-rock mountains are abrupt. High mountains make up most of the South Island area—often stark and bare or mantled in permanent snow. By contrast, most of the North Island is weak-rock hill country. From Cook Strait to the Bay of Plenty a hard-rock mountain core dominates the North Island scene, forming an effective barrier between east and west; the only low level gap across it is at the gorge cut by the Manawatu River near Palmerston North.

A peculiar and special feature of the North Island is the volcanic country of the interior. Here are the largest North Island lakes and in a line from Ruapehu to White Island, most of the still active volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers.

The most spectacular mountains are in the South Island; high mountains, deep and narrow valleys, swift rivers, and glacial lakes, large and small, give infinite variety to the scene. It is in this high country that ice has left its special mark in glacial troughs and fiords and, above all, the noble southern lakes. There is little weak-rock hill country in the South Island; the lowlands are mainly bordering plains, basin plains, and valley plains. Of these the most extensive are the plains of Canterbury and Southland.

New Zealand has large areas of luxuriant forests which are the delight of trampers, campers, and hunters. Forests cover nearly a quarter of the total land area, of which national parks and scenic reserves set aside as permanent forest form 2.4 million hectares.

The indigenous forests may be grouped broadly into two main formations: mixed temperate evergreen forest and southern beech forest. The former is a mixed community of many species of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of southern beech. Generally, the mixed temperate evergreen forests are the forests of the north and of the warm, wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes. The beeches form the forests of the south, of the high mountains, and of the drier lowlands. But there are extensive areas where the types mingle in forests of extremely varied composition.

Mountains, forests, lakes, rivers, and beaches have influenced the characteristics of the people. New Zealand society has been shaped and subtly tempered by a number of factors—geographical, historical, social, and psychological during more than a century of growth as a nation. New Zealand today represents both an extension and a modification of the European tradition. In addition to its Maori population. New Zealand has experienced in recent years a considerable inflow of Polynesians from its associated territories and elsewhere in the Pacific. Auckland has become the major city of Polynesia, and as such a focal point of the South Pacific. The Polynesian (including Maori) population is of greater significance than its relatively small numbers would suggest. Outside the Pacific area New Zealand may present a basically European face to the world, but the preservation of distinctive life-style by the Maori, together with a close compatibility (extending to frequent intermarriage) between the two races, has doubtless been a determining factor in the evolution of New Zealand society.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION—The islands of New Zealand have been shaped from the projecting crests of earth folds which rise as broad ridges from the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, 1,600 kilometres east of the continent of Australia. There are three main islands—North, South, and Stewart separated only by relatively narrow straits—with adjacent islets and a small group called Chatham Islands, 850 kilometres to the east of Lyttelton. Dating from 1842 the administrative boundaries of New Zealand, including the minor islands, extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude and from 162 degrees east longitude to 173 degrees west longitude. Inhabited outlying minor islands are Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 930 kilometres north-east of the Bay of Islands, and Campbell Island, 590 kilometres south of Stewart Island.

The Ross Dependency, some 2,300 kilometres to the south, has been under New Zealand's jurisdiction since 1923 and comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160 degrees east and 150 degrees west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60 degrees south. The area of the Ross Dependency is estimated at 414,400 square kilometres.

The area of New Zealand can be classified as follows.

AREAOF NEW ZEALAND (1 April 1977)

 Area in Square Kilometres
North Island 
  Districts11,960
  Counties99,429
  Cities and boroughs (less pt Porirua City in harbour, 2 km2)3,092
  Town districts8
  Adjacent Islands not included in a territorial local authority— 
    Three Kings7
    Little Barrier28
    Mayor14
    White4
    Other islands (Browns, Mokohinau, Motiti, Motuhora (Whale), etc.)16
    Reclamations1
    Other offshore islands—Kermadec33
      Total, North Island114,592
South Island 
  Counties151,364
  Cities and boroughs602
  Town districts5
  Stewart Island1,746
  Adjacent islands not included in a territorial local authority (Solander, etc.)4
  Other offshore islands— 
    Inhabited—Campbell106
    Uninhabited—Auckland (612 km2), Snares (2 km2), Antipodes (22 km2), Bounty (2 km2)638
      Total, South Island154,465
      Total, North and South Islands269,057

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: Coastline—Since the combined length of the North and South Islands extends over 1,600 kilometres, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 450 kilometres at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coastline in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand land mass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

In the North Island, Whangarei, Auckland, Tauranga, and Wellington are natural harbours which have been developed into ports for extensive use by overseas ships. At Napier and Gisborne artificial harbours have been made. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several other deep and sheltered harbours exist, but production from the hinterland is limited. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and Fiordland form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. By dredging and by breakwater construction, ports capable of accommodating overseas vessels have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff Harbours and on the coast at Timaru. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, although an overseas port has been developed at New Plymouth, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents.

Mountains—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 200 m contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (2,518 m), Ruapehu (2,797 m), Ngauruhoe (2,290 m), and Tongariro (1,968 m), they do not exceed an altitude of 1,800 m. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe have been particularly active from time to time. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Turakirae Head, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa Ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto Ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Moehau Range parallels the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only area above 1,200 m on the west coast of this Island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (3,764 m), while 19 named peaks exceed 3,000 m. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell Ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa Range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Richmond Ranges, while to the north-east are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

There are at least 223 named peaks of 2,300 m or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 2,740 m in the South Island.

Mountain or PeakHeight (metres)
NORTH ISLAND
Ruapehu2,797
Egmont2,518
Ngauruhoe2,290
Tongariro1,968
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges 
  Tapuaenuku2,884
  Alarm2,865
Southern Alps 
  Cook3,764
  Tasman3,500
  Dampier3,440
  Silberhorn3,279
  Lendenfeldt3,201
  Mt. Hicks (St. David's Dome)3,183
  Malte Brun3,176
  Torres3,163
  Teichelmann3,160
  Sefton3,157
  Haast3,138
  Elie de Beaumont3,109
  Douglas Peak3,081
  La Perouse3,079
  Haidinger3,066
  Minarets3,066
  Aspiring3,036
  Hamilton3,022
  Glacier Peak3,007
  De la Beche2,992
  Aiguilles Rouges2,966
  Nazomi2,961
  Darwin2,961
  Chudliegh2,952
  Annan2,947
  Low2,942
  Haeckel2,941
  Goldsmith2,905
  Conway Peak2,901
  Bristol Top2,898
  Walter2,898
  Grey2,893
  Green2,836
  Hutton2,834
  D'Archiac2,828
  Ronald Adair2,827
  Earnslaw2,823
  Hochstetter Dome2,822
  Nathan2,804
  Barnicoat2,799
  Sibbald2,798
  Arrowsmith2,795
  Spenser2,794
  The Footstool2,765
  Rudolf2,755
  The Dwarf2,751
Derran Range 
  Tutoko2,756

Glaciers—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman Glacier has a length of 29 km and a width of 9 km. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (17 km), the Mueller (13 km), the Godley (13 km), and the Hooker (11 km), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 600 m. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 15 km and 13 km respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 200 m and 210 m.

Rivers—New Zealand rivers, owing to the high relief of the country, are mostly swift-flowing and difficult to navigate. As sources of hydro-electric power the rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. The Waikato and the Rangitaiki in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, Clutha, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes.

Following is a list of the more important rivers. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system, whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

RiverLength (kilometres)

*Cook Strait is defined as follows: northern limit is a line between northern point of Stephens Island and Kapiti Island: southern limit is a line between Cape Palliser and Cape Campbell.

NORTH ISLAND
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean 
  Piako90
  Waihou (or Thames)175
  Rangitaiki193
  Whakatane105
  Waipaoa (from source, Mata River)121
  Waiapu (from source, Waipapa Stream)113
  Wairoa (from source, Hangaroa River)137
  Mohaka (from source, Taharua River)172
  Ngaruroro154
  Tukituki113
Flowing into Cook Strait* 
  Ruamahanga124
  Hutt56
Flowing into the Tasman Sea 
  Otaki48
  Manawatu182
  Rangitikei241
  Turakina137
  Whangaehu161
  Wanganui290
  Waitotara108
  Patea143
  Waitara98
  Mokau158
  Waikato (from source, Upper Waikato River)425
  Wairoa (from source, Waiotu Stream)132
  Hokianga (from source, Waihou River)72
SOUTH ISLAND
Flowing into Cook Strait 
  Pelorus64
  Wairau169
  Awatere126
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean 
  Clarence209
  Conway48
  Waiau-uha (or Waiau)169
  Hurunui138
  Waipara64
  Ashley97
  Waimakariri161
  Selwyn95
  Rakaia145
  Ashburton90
  Rangitata (from source, Clyde River)121
  Opihi80
  Pareora56
  Waihao64
  Waitaki (from source, Hopkins River)209
  Kakanui64
  Shag72
  Taieri288
  Clutha (from source, Makarora River)322
Flowing into Foveaux Strait 
  Mataura240
  Oreti203
  Aparima (Jacobs River)113
  Waiau (from source, Clinton River)217
Flowing into the Tasman Sea 
  Hollyford76
  Cascade64
  Arawhata68
  Haast64
  Karangarua37
  Cook32
  Waiho (from source, Callery River)32
  Whataroa51
  Wanganui56
  Waitaha40
  Hokitika64
  Arahura56
  Tararnakau80
  Grey121
  Buller (from source, Travers River)177
  Mokihinui56
  Karamea80
  Heaphy35
  Aorere (from source, Spee River)72
  Takaka (from source, Cobb River)72
  Motueka108
  Waimea (from source, Wai-iti River)48

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the early economic development of the country.

With the very successful acclimatisation of freshwater fish, notably trout, many rivers now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while some of the larger ones of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, have their own particular beauty. As reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the rivers and streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, Manapouri, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect. A series of narrow man-made lakes have been produced in connection with hydro-electric development along some of the rivers. In 1965 Lake Benmore, New Zealand's largest artificial lake, was created. It lies on the Waitaki River in North Otago and covers 79 sq km in area and consists of two arms, the main arm being 30 km in length and the Ahuriri Ann 18 km in length.

Some particulars of the more important lakes are given in the following table.

LakeLength, in Kilometres*Greatest Breadth, in Kilometres*Area, in Square KilometresDrainage Area, in Square KilometresApproximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Metres per SecondMaximum Height Above Sea Level in Metres (Range in Brackets)Greatest Depth, in Metres

* 1 kilometre equals 0.621 miles.

†1 square kilometre equals 0,386 square miles.

‡The range in lake levels is not available for all lakes.

NORTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Taupo40,227.46063,289127x357 (1.5)159
Rotorua12.09.780526..280 (0.6)26
Rotoiti16.14.83464224279 (0.6)70
Tarawera11.28.9361368299 (0.6)87
Rotoaira4.82.8131297564 (0.9)..
Waikaremoana19.39.75442718614 (13.7)256
Wairarapa19.36.4803,201..820
Rotoehu4.83.2844..295 (1.2)..
Rotoma5.23.61231..316 (1.8)..
Okataina6.44.81065..310 (2.7)..
Okareka2.42.0321..354 (1.2)..
Rotomahana6.42.8970..340 (6.7)..
Rerewhakaitu4.02.88....439 (1.2)..
Tikitapu1.61.21....416..
Rotokakahi4.01.65281396..
Artificial       
Ohakuri33.80.4144,791157287..
Atiamuri6.40.415,128165252..
Whakamaru21.70.885,581174226..
Maraetai7.20.846,190191188..
Waipapa9.70.416,475198127..
Arapuni16.10.8136,876207111 (0.6)..
Karapiro24.10.487,45922154..
Whakamarino0.80.4......274..
SOUTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Rotoiti8.92.81018412616 (1.8)76
Rotoroa14.53.22337627446 (1.5)152
Brunner8.98.939414..85109
Kaniere9.72.01628..131197
Coleridge17.73.236559..510207
Sumner9.72.414337......
Tekapo17.75.6961,42487715 (7.6)189
Pukaki15.38.0831,355128500 (9.1)..
Ohau17.74.8601,19165527 (1.7)..
Hawea30.68.01191,46963345 (16.2)392
Wanaka45.14.81922,543202279 (4.3)..
Wakatipu77.24.82932,978174310 (2.1)378
Te Anau61.29.73443,302276209 (4.6)276
Manapouri28.98.01424,623386185 (6.4)443
Monowai19.31.62827214196 (4.0)..
Hauroko35.42.47158331156 (1.8)..
Poteriteri28.92.4474143029..
Waihola6.42.085,698..(Tidal)16
Ellesmere22.512.91811,930..(Tidal)2
Artificial       
Cobb4.80.42736808 (15.2)..
Waitaki4.80.869,712344230..
Roxburgh32.20.4615,571489131..
Mahinerangi14.51.6213117391..
Benmore—       
  Ahuriri Arm18.54.4797,77034036096
  Main Arm29.8

GEOLOGY—The islands of New Zealand are part of the unstable circum-Pacific Mobile Belt. This is a region where volcanoes are active and where the Earth's crust has long been buckling and breaking at a geologically rapid rate. The interplay, in the past, of earth movements and erosion has made the sedimentary rocks that cover almost three-quarters of New Zealand. Land areas that the earth movements have raised have been attacked by erosion, and the sand, mud, shingle, and other debris thus formed has been carried away to the sea, where it has accumulated in great thicknesses to form rocks such as sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, and conglomerate; the shells and other skeletons of sea creatures have accumulated to form thick layers of limestone. Many of the sedimentary rocks are in distinct layers called strata. Earth movements have later raised them above the sea to form land, and the strata have in many places been tilted and folded by pressure. Seas have advanced and retreated over the New Zealand area many times and these sedimentary rocks represent almost every geological period since the Cambrian (see Time Scale). Their age is revealed by the molluscan shells, foraminifera, and other fossils that they contain, as well as by various radioactive techniques.

As well as sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure schist, gneiss, marble and other metamorphic rocks, and granite, diorite, gabbro, serpentine, and other intrusive igneous rocks. Most of these metamorphic and intrusive rocks are hundreds of millions of years old. They were formed at depth in the Earth's crust early in New Zealand's history, in the "roots" of ancient mountain ranges, long ago destroyed, and are visible at the land surface today only because erosion has removed thousands of metres thickness of other rocks that once covered them. The metamorphic rocks developed by the action of heat and pressure on the thick sediments (up to tens of thousands of metres) deposited in huge, elongated sea basins (geosynclines), which continued to sink as the deposits accumulated. When these geosynclines were slowly compressed during major mountain-building episodes the deeper sediments were subjected to great pressure and shearing stress, which caused new minerals and structures to develop, changing the sediments into metamorphic rocks. The granites and other intrusive rocks are coarsely crystalline, and are usually considered to have intruded into the outer crust in a molten state during mountain building; some, however, may be the products of an intense metamorphism of sediments.

GEOLOGICAL TIME-SCALE

ErasPeriodsApproximate Time Since Period Began (Years)
CenozoicHolocene (Recent)Quaternary10 thousand
Pleistocene2 million
PlioceneTertiary11 "
Miocene25 "
Oligocene38 "
Eocene60 "
Paleocene70 "
MesozoicCretaceous 135 "
Jurassic 180 "
Triassic 225 "
PaleozoicPermian 270 "
Carboniferous 350 "
Devonian 400 "
Silurian 440 "
Ordovician 500 "
Cambrian 600 "

Geological History—Evidence of the earliest-known events in New Zealand's history is given by ancient rocks in Nelson, Westland, and Fiordland that were formed in the early Paleozoic era, perhaps as long as 600 million years ago (some in Westland may be older). They include thick, geosynclinal sedimentary rocks. This suggests that a large land mass existed nearby at that time to yield the great volume of sediments, but little has been deduced about its shape or position.

The history of the later part of the Paleozoic era, and the Mesozoic era, is rather better understood. For a vast span of time from the Carboniferous period—probably until the early Cretaceous period—an extensive geosyncline occupied the New Zealand region. At first, during much of late Paleozoic time, huge quantities of submarine lava and volcanic tuff were included in the materials that accumulated in the geosyncline, but in the later Permian and Mesozoic times the sediments were mainly sand and mud, derived probably from some land west of present New Zealand; they were compacted into hard greywacke (a type of sandstone) and argillite (hard, dark mudstone).

In the early Cretaceous period one of the main mountain-building episodes in New Zealand's history took place. Although geosynclinal sedimentation continued through the Cretaceous period in eastern New Zealand, the geosyncline elsewhere was compressed, and the sediments were intensely crumpled and broken and raised above the sea, probably forming a large, mountainous land mass. Some of the geosynclinal deposits, now exposed over much of Otago, alpine Westland, and parts of Marlborough Sounds, were metamorphosed into schist and gneiss by high temperatures and the tremendous deforming pressures to which the geosyncline was subjected.

The time that has elapsed since the intense folding of the strata in the New Zealand geosyncline in the mid-Cretaceous period may be considered as the later geological history of this country, embracing roughly 100 million years.

During the early part of this late history, erosion slowly wore down the mountains that had risen, producing a land of low relief. Over these worn-down stumps of the Mesozoic mountains the sea gradually advanced, beginning its transgression earlier in some areas than in others. In the early Cretaceous period it began to submerge land in the region of present North Auckland and the eastern margins of the North and South Islands, and thick deposits of mudstone and sandstone accumulated in some parts of these areas. At the close of the Mesozoic era, and in the very early Tertiary land became so reduced in size and relief that little sediment was formed, and only comparatively thin deposits of fine bentonitic and sulphurous muds, and fine, white, foraminiferal limestone accumulated. In some areas New Zealand's main coal deposits accumulated in swamps on the surface of the old land. These became buried by marine deposits as the sea continued its transgression in the Eocene period.

By the Oligocene period, most of the land was submerged, and in shallow waters free of land sediments, thick deposits of shell and foraminiferal limestone accumulated. (Scattered, remnant patches of this Oligocene limestone furnish most of New Zealand's cement and agricultural lime.)

After the Oligocene submergence earth movements became more vigorous; many ridges rose from the sea as islands, and sank or were worn down again; sea basins formed and rapidly filled with sediments. New Zealand's late Tertiary environment has been described as follows: "The pattern of folds, welts, and troughs that developed was on a finer scale than in the Mesozoic … the land moved up and down as a series of narrow, short, interfingering or branching folds. … We can think of Tertiary New Zealand as an archipelago. … A kind of writhing of part of the mobile Pacific margins seems to have gone on …". The thick deposits of soft, grey mudstone and sandstone that now make up large areas of the North Island, and some parts of the South Island, are the deposits that accumulated rapidly in the many sea basins, large and small, that developed in the later Tertiary.

Very late in the Cenozoic era—in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods—one of the greatest episodes of mountain building in New Zealand's history took place. Earth movements became intense, and slowly pushed up the Southern Alps and other main mountain chains, and determined the general shape and size of the present islands of New Zealand. Much of the movement during this mountain-building period (the Kaikoura Orogeny) took the form of displacement of blocks of the Earth's crust along fractures called faults. The total movements of the earth blocks adjacent to major faults amounted to thousands of metres. It must have been achieved very slowly, probably by innumerable small movements, each less than a few metres. The blocks adjacent to "transcurrent" faults moved not only vertically but also laterally along the faults. The New Zealand landscape today in some regions shows well preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault-scarps—steep faces hundreds or even thousands of metres high. Fault movements continue to the present day, and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century. Many minor but revealing landscape features such as scarplets, fault ponds, and shutter ridges show where movement has been occurring in recent centuries.

Erosion during this time has eaten into the major landscape forms that the earth movements built, carving detailed landscape patterns of peaks, ridges, valleys, and gorges, and the deposition of the debris has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans, and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have driven back the headlands and built beaches, spits, and bars. The Pleistocene period was the time of the Ice Age, and in the high mountains of the South Island glaciers carved deep valleys and carried huge loads of rock, dumping them in the lower parts of the valleys as moraines. The late Pleistocene glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the basins occupied by most South Island lakes; there were small glaciers also on Ruapehu, where remnants survive, and on Mount Egmont and the Tararua Range. Sea-level changes accompanied the formation and later melting of the land ice, affecting the erosion or deposition of the rivers and thus being responsible for the formation of the many prominent river terraces in this country.

Volcanic activity of the past few million years has played an important part in making the rocks and shaping the landscape of parts of the central and northern North Island. Banks Peninsula, a twin volcanic dome in Canterbury, also achieved much of its growth then. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times in New Zealand have been in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty Coast: andesite lava, scoria, and ash were erupted in the Pleistocene period and later to build the huge volcanoes, Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Ngauruhoe. More than 8,000 cu km of molten rhyolitic magma was erupted in the form of ignimbrite, pumice, and rhyolite lava, building up the Volcanic Plateau. This is one of the largest and youngest accumulations of acid volcanic rocks in the world.

Mount Egmont is a huge, conical, andesite volcano, with the remnants of two other volcanic cones nearby; all are of Pleistocene age. In the Waikato there are eroded Pleistocene cones of approximately basic andesite composition. The largest is Pirongia, some 900 m high. Auckland city and the area immediately to the south has been the scene of many eruptions of basalt lava and scoria in late Pleistocene and Holocene times; and many small scoria cones can be seen in the locality. Late Tertiary and Quaternary basaltic eruptions in North Auckland have built lava plateaus and many young cones.

EARTHQUAKES: Geophysical Background—An earthquake occurs when energy is suddenly released from a volume, of rock within the Earth's outer layers, and is radiated outwards in the form of elastic waves that can be felt at places near the origin, and detected by sensitive instruments at greater distances. Earthquakes are most common in certain geographically limited regions, one of which includes New Zealand. Within these disturbed zones, young fold mountains, oceanic trenches, volcanoes, anomalies in the Earth's gravitational field, and active geological faulting are also usual, and like the earthquakes have their ultimate cause in the internal processes incidental to the major structural development of the Earth, and as yet imperfectly understood.

The seismically active zones define the margins of a system of stable blocks or plates which are not completely inactive, but experience large earthquakes only infrequently, and are thought to be the primary units of the Earth's crust. Two of these units, the Pacific and Indian Plates, abut in the vicinity of New Zealand, forming a triple junction with a third, the Antarctic Plate, south of Macquarie Island. As a result of thermally generated convective movements in the deeper levels of the earth, relative displacement of the plates is occurring, and this provides the continuing source of the energy that is intermittently released as earthquakes.

Instrumental records have shown that at the time of an earthquake large shearing movements take place at the source. It seems probable that all major earthquakes are the result of the breakage of rock under strain, but other factors such as the presence or absence of liquid in the pores and fractures of the rock are also of primary importance in determining the time and place at which a shock occurs.

In large shallow earthquakes a rupture may appear at the surface, forming or renewing movement on a geological fault. In regions where the majority of earthquakes are very shallow, such as California, there is a tendency for the earthquake origins to cluster near geological fault traces, but in regions where there is deeper activity, such as New Zealand, this is not so. For example, there is little activity near the Alpine Fault, which stretches for some 500 km from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti, and is considered one of the world's largest and most active faults. Conversely, instances of fault movement that have not been accompanied by earthquakes are known. Practical assessments of earthquake risk must therefore be based upon the statistics of known earthquake distribution, and the broader geological setting of the origins.

New Zealand Seismicity—Compared with some other parts of the Pacific margin, such as Japan, Chile, and the Philippines, the level of seismic activity in New Zealand is moderate. It may be roughly compared with that prevailing in California. A shock of Richter magnitude 6 or above occurs on the average about once a year, one of magnitude 7 or above once in ten years, and one of about magnitude 8 perhaps once a century, but in historic times only one shock (the south-west Wairarapa earthquake in 1855) is known to have approached this magnitude.

Other natural disasters and accidents are together responsible for more casualties than earthquakes, the most serious seismic disasters in New Zealand having been the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 1931 in which 255 deaths occurred, and the Buller earthquake of 1929 in which there were 17. The total resulting from all other shocks since 1840 is less than 15. The last earthquake to cause deaths occurred at Inangahua in 1968, when 3 people died.

Regarded broadly, the zone of seismicity within which New Zealand lies extends continuously from the triple junction south of Macquarie Island to Samoa. When looked at more closely, breaks in continuity and changes in the character of the activity become apparent. There are changes in direction, in the positional relationship of the deeper and shallower activity, and in its association with the other geophysical and geological features of the region.

Within New Zealand itself, at least two separate systems of seismic activity can be distinguished. The main seismic region, which is the larger, covers the whole of the North Island apart from the Northland peninsula, and the South Island north of a line passing roughly between Banks Peninsula and Cape Foulwind. The southern, or Fiordland seismic region includes southern Westland, western Southland, and western Otago. Less clearly defined activity covers the remainder of the two main islands, and extends eastwards from Banks Peninsula to include the Chatham Islands.

Shallow earthquakes, which are the most numerous, originate within the Earth's crust, which in New Zealand has an average thickness of some 35 km. These shocks are responsible for almost all damage to property, and now and in the past they have been widely scattered throughout the country. In historically recent times, the main and Fiordland seismic regions have been significantly more active than the rest of New Zealand, but neither the central seismic region that lies between them nor the Northland peninsula has been free from damaging shocks. The details of the present pattern are not necessarily unchanging, and could alter significantly after the occurrence of a major earthquake. Because of this, because of the broader geophysical setting, and because of the distance to which the effects of a large earthquake extends, it would be highly imprudent to treat any part of New Zealand as free from the risk of serious earthquake damage.

Many active regions of the Earth have only shallow earthquakes, but in others shocks have been known to occur at depths as great as 700 km below the surface. It is thought that these deep shocks originate within the edges of crustal plates that have been drawn down or thrust beneath their neighbours. Such deep events are common in both the main and Fiordland seismic regions of New Zealand, but their relative positions with respect to the shallow activity and to other geophysical features are rough mirror images. This is believed to indicate that in the North Island, the edge of the Pacific Plate lies below that of the Indian Plate, while in the south of the South Island the Pacific Plate is uppermost and the Indian Plate has been thrust beneath it.

The most important system of deep shocks in New Zealand lies in a well-defined zone beneath the main seismic region, stretching from the Bay of Plenty to Nelson and Marlborough. The maximum depth of occurrence is about 400 km at the northern end, and decreases smoothly to a depth of about 200 km before the southern boundary of the region is reached. Along the whole of the system, there is also a decrease in maximum depth from west to east. In northern Taranaki, near the western limit of this activity, a small isolated group of shocks at a depth of about 600 km has also been recorded. In the central seismic region only shallow shocks are known.

The maximum depth of the earthquakes in the Fiordland region appears to be only about 160 km, but it is only recently that instrumental coverage has been adequate for a proper study of this area. Here, the deep activity is more concentrated than in the north, lying close to Lakes Te Anau and Manapouri.

Both earthquakes and volcanoes are found in geophysically disturbed regions, but although small earthquakes usually accompany volcanic eruptions, large ones are rare. Regions of active volcanism are also subject to periodic outbreaks of small earthquakes, all of similar magnitude, and very numerous. These events are known as "earthquake swarms". Although the number of shocks may cause alarm, it is unusual for even minor damage to result. There is not often a simultaneous volcanic outbreak, but swarms do not seem to occur in non-volcanic regions. In New Zealand they have occurred in the volcanic zone mat includes Mt. Ruapehu and White Island, in the Coromandel Peninsula, in parts of Northland, and near Mt. Egmont.

Seismological Observatory—Each year the Seismological Observatory, Wellington, a section of the Geophysics Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, publishes the analyses of many hundred earthquakes originating in the New Zealand region, using data obtained from its own network of recording stations, and from stations in other countries. The instrumental data are supplemented by information about felt effects, supplied by a large number of voluntary observers, who complete a standard questionnaire.

The network of recording stations controlled by the Observatory is now one of the world's largest and most extended, covering the main islands of New Zealand, a large part of the south-west Pacific, and the Ross Dependency. The 35 permanent stations now operating are:

Afiamalu, Apia (Western Samoa); Nandi (Fiji); Niue; Rarotonga (Cook Islands); Raoul Island (Kermadecs); Cape Reinga, Onerahi, Great Barrier, Auckland, East Cape, Karapiro, Whakatane, Gisborne, Wairakei, Tuai, Tarata, Chateau, Taradale, Mangahao, Castlepoint, Cobb River, Wellington, Kaikoura West, Kaimata, Christchurch, Chatham Islands, Mount John, Milford Sound, Oamaru, Roxburgh, Monowai, Oban; Campbell Island; Scott Base (Antarctica).

At Afiamalu, Rarotonga, Wellington, and Scott Base the equipment includes instruments of internationally standardised pattern designed to record both local and distant activity. The stations at Karapiro and Roxburgh are also equipped to record both local and distant shocks. At the other stations, many of which record more than one component of the ground motion, the instruments are primarily intended for the study of shocks within about 1000 km. Scott Base and several of the island stations provide preliminary readings by radio, but all final analyses are made at the Observatory in Wellington.

Two networks of more closely-spaced stations, connected to central recorders by radio links or land lines, provide for detailed studies of small earthquakes in particular regions. One, for general research purposes, is centred on Wellington, and the other, near Lake Pukaki in the South Island, is primarily intended to monitor any change in earthquake activity associated with the development of a hydro-electric power scheme. These networks also provide valuable readings of New Zealand and overseas earthquakes. Portable equipment is available for more intensive study of aftershock sequences, earthquake swarms, and micro-earthquakes, and for other research projects. In addition, the department's physics and engineering laboratory maintains a network of strong motion recorders intended to provide data on large shocks for engineering purposes.

The information collected and published by the Observatory covers all significant earthquakes in the New Zealand region. It is made freely available to the public and the press, as well as to seismologists, engineers, and other specialists. In addition, a very large number of distant earthquakes are recorded, and readings of these, as well as of the local activity, are regularly sent to international agencies and to overseas seismologists who have a need for them. The Observatory itself carries out a vigorous programme of research into problems of seismicity and earthquake mechanism, and into the structure and constitution of the Earth's crust and its deep interior.

Earthquakes During 1977—1977 was a year of only moderate earthquake activity in New Zealand. As is usual, nearly 1,000 earthquakes of Richter magnitude 4 or greater (or reported, felt) were located by the Seismological Observatory, but no earthquake was large enough to cause more than minor damage. The largest shock of the year occurred on the evening of 18 January 1977. It had a magnitude of 6.2 and a shallow focus about 25 km east of Cape Campbell. The earthquake was felt strongly on both sides of Cook Strait, and caused some minor damage, particularly to chimneys in Marlborough and Wellington. The felt area extended from Taranaki to Banks Peninsula.

Several other shallow shocks reached a magnitude of 5 or more. Three of these occurred in the central parts of the South Island. A shock on 11 May, of magnitude 5.4, was centred near Porter's Pass, and twin shocks of magnitude about 5.2 occurred eight hours apart on 26 October in the Southern Alps near the headwaters of the Rangitata River. These shocks were all felt extensively in Westland and Canterbury. On 1 June there was an earthquake of magnitude 5.3 near Whakatane, which caused some minor damage there and at Edgecumbe. The earthquake was widely felt in the area round the Bay of Plenty, and was followed by numerous aftershocks.

The largest deep earthquakes during the year had magnitudes of about 5.6. One such shock occurred on 24 April in Cook Strait about 100 km north of Nelson, at a depth of 190 km, and was felt from southern Taranaki to mid-Canterbury. Other deep shocks of comparable magnitude occurred beneath the central part of the North Island on 12 August and 21 November.

The Fiordland seismic region was unusually quiet, with the largest shock of magnitude only 4.7. This earthquake, on 2 April, was centred off the coast near Caswell Sound.

There were several instances of isolated reports of earthquakes well to the north of New Zealand being felt here. A major earthquake near Tonga on 23 June was reported felt in Wellington at a distance of more than 2,200 km. This earthquake had a magnitude of about 7 and caused considerable damage in Tonga. A deep shock of magnitude 5.9, 500 km north of the Bay of Plenty was also felt slightly in the Wellington area on 22 March.

Swarms of small shallow earthquakes occur periodically in volcanic areas. Such an instance was reported this year from Purangi, in Taranaki, about 40 km north-east of Mt. Egmont, where a series of shocks was reported felt between 18 and 23 February. The Observatory located ten shocks, the largest of magnitude 3.5. Although small, shocks such as these can be felt strongly near the epicentre. These shocks were strong enough to cause houses to creak, windows to rattle, and mirrors to move on walls.

The only significant activity of the central volcanoes of the North Island was on 2 November, when there was a moderate steam eruption from Mt. Ruapehu, with some ash emission. White Island, on the other hand, was more than usually active throughout the year, and has been in a state of ash eruption since 26 December 1976. Lava was produced in mid-March, and major ash eruptions occurred in July, and again on 25 August when the largest eruption of the year took place.

WEATHER INFORMATION—The New Zealand Meteorological Service maintains networks of meteorological stations within New Zealand, its island dependencies, at Scott Base and the South Pole and, by arrangement, in the Cook and Gilbert Islands and in Tuvalu. The weather observations are transmitted regularly to Wellington for international exchange, for the preparation of weather forecasts and special warnings, for compiling climatological statistics, and for providing a general weather information service for Government departments, industry, and the general public. All weather observations are preserved in the Meteorological Archives, Wellington.

Observations recorded at a few selected stations in 1977 are summarised in tables which follow but for further detailed climatological statistics reference should be made to the annual publications of the New Zealand Meteorological Service: Miscellaneous Publications No. 109 Meteorological Observations, and No. 110 Rainfall Observations. Current statistics appear monthly in the New Zealand Gazette. Special reports are published from time to time to supplement the regular data publications.

Most weather data are now held in computer accessible-data files, and several kinds of computer output are available to provide an alternative means of dissemination of information to the printed publications.

CLIMATE—Situated between 34°S and 47°S the main islands lie within the broad belt of strong westerly winds which encircles the hemisphere south of about latitude 35°S. Just to the north is the high-pressure ridge of the subtropics from which barometric pressure decreases southwards over New Zealand to the deep low-pressure trough located near latitude 70°S.

The weather pattern from day to day is dominated by a succession of anticyclones, separated by troughs of low pressure, which pass more or less regularly from west to east across the Australia-Tasman Sea - New Zealand area and beyond. In this region there is no semi-permanent anticyclone such as those found in similar latitudes over the Indian Ocean and eastern Pacific Ocean respectively. The troughs normally have a north-west to south-east orientation and are associated with deep depressions centred far to the south. A typical weather sequence commences with a low-pressure trough approaching from the west. Freshening north-westerly winds prevail with increasing cloud, followed by rain for a period during which winds may reach gale force. The passage of the trough, with its associated cold front, is accompanied by a change to cold south-westerly or southerly winds and showery weather, occasionally with some hail and thunder. Barometers then rise with the approach of the next anticyclone from the west. Winds moderate and fair weather prevails for a few days as the anticyclone moves across the country.

While the sequence just described is very common the situation is frequently much more complex. The troughs are very unstable systems where depressions readily form, some of which develop into vigorous storms that may pass over New Zealand at any time of the year. Occasionally in summer a cyclonic storm of tropical origin passes over or near New Zealand accompanied by gales and heavy rain affecting mainly northern and eastern districts of the North Island. The anticyclones vary in size, intensity, and rate of movement. Their centres, on the average, follow a track across the North Island but individual centres may pass either north or south of the country, the more northerly tracks being favoured in spring and the southerly tracks in autumn. At times when little development occurs within the troughs the anticyclones follow each other at intervals of about 6–7 days.

The other main factors which influence the climate of New Zealand are, first, its position in the midst of a vast ocean, and second, the shape and topography of the country itself.

Hot air masses from the interior of Australia in summer or freezing air masses from the Antarctic, which occasionally reach New Zealand, retain little of their original character after their long ocean passage. Thus, there is an absence of extreme variations of temperature. On the other hand, since abundant supplies of moisture are supplied by evaporation from the ocean, and depressions are frequently and vigorous, the average precipitation is high.

The main of high mountains, which extends from south-west to north-east through the length of the country, rises as a formidable barrier in the path of the prevailing westerly winds. The effect is to produce much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east than in the north-south direction. In some inland areas of the South Island just east of the mountains the climate is distinctly continental in character, despite the fact that no part of New Zealand is more than 130 km from the sea.

Winds—Winds from a westerly quarter prevail in all seasons, with a general tendency to increase in strength from north to south. However, considerable local modifications to the general air flow occur during its passage across the mountainous terrain. Approaching the main ranges the flow from the west turns towards the north-east and on descending on the eastern side swings towards the south-east. This results in an increased number of south-westerlies in Westland and a predominance of north-westerlies in inland districts of Otago and Canterbury, where strong gales from this quarter occur at times in the late spring and summer. Daytime sea breezes usually extend from the coast inland for 30 km or more during periods of settled weather in summer. On the Canterbury coast the wind comes most frequently from the north-east, partly because there is a persistent sea breeze from this quarter, but south of Dunedin south-westerlies predominate. Cook Strait, the only substantial gap in the main mountain chain, acts as a natural funnel for the air flow and is a particularly windy locality afflicted by gales from the south-east as well as the north-west. This "funnel" effect is also in evidence about Foveaux Strait. North of Taranaki the general air flow is more from the south-west, and there is a noticeable reduction of windiness in the summer.

An indication of the variation in the frequency of strong winds from summer to winter, and in different parts of the country, is given in the next table. These figures were all obtained by the use of anemographs at airports (except for Auckland where the site is at Mechanics Bay).

StationAverage Number of Days with Gusts ReachingYears of Data
34 knots or More52 knots or More
Nov-AprMay-OctYearNov-AprMay-OctYear
Kaitaia1632480.71.62.321
Whangarei1626420.81.42.28
Auckland2028480.91.62.524
Tauranga1523380.50.71.222
Rotorua1116270.30.20.59
Hamilton913220.60.68
Gisborne2127480.40.91.329
New Plymouth3348812.14.76.822
Napier1721380.60.51.123
Wanganui3742792.74.47.116
Palmerston North2622481.10.81.918
Wellington909818818.822.741.58
Nelson2014340.50.30.830
Blenheim2315380.70.51.230
Westport1420340.41.01.423
Hokitika1420340.31.31.68
Christchurch3123541.51.32.829
Timaru1512270.70.61.315
Dunedin2832602.62.85.411
Gore2920490.90.95
Invercargill5345985.85.010.827

Rainfall—The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rainfalls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall (see map) ranges from as little as 300 mm in a small area of Central Otago to over 8000 mm in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part it lies between 600 and 1500 mm, a range regarded as favourable for plant growth in the temperate zone. The only areas with under 600 mm are found in the South Island to the east of the main ranges. These include most of central and north Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are central and southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu where the average rainfall is 700–1000 mm a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 1500 mm. Over a considerable area of both Islands rainfall exceeds 2500 mm a year but, with the exception of Westland, this is mountainous and unoccupied, much of it being forest-covered.

For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. This predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards. It is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island but, over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. The rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased in and west of the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, while a complementary decrease occurs at the same time in the lee of the ranges

Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island there are at least 150 rain days (days with at least 0.2 mm of rain) a year except to the east of the ranges where there are, in places, fewer than 125 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 600 mm generally have about 100 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply; in Stewart Island and Fiordland rain days exceed 200 a year. Over most of the country between 55 and 65 percent of the rain days also qualify as wet days (2.5 mm or more). The percentage increases to over 70 in Westland, but in the low rainfall area of inland Otago there are only about 40 wet days a year compared with 100 rain days.

On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, the reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agricultural purposes. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn, when very dry conditions may develop east of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay.

The highest daily rainfall on record is 582 mm which occurred at Rapid Creek, Hokitika Catchment, where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 6000 mm. Other areas with considerably lower rainfall are also subject to very heavy daily falls; such areas are to be found in northern Hawke's Bay and in north-eastern districts of the Auckland Province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district and in Otago and Southland daily falls reaching 80 mm are very rare.

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL (MILLIMETRES) (1941–70)

StationJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
Kaitaia Aerodrome799484119152157150165122112102941430
Kerikeri76124112142178178183196142114991041648
Dargaville6684791041321501321379710984791253
Auckland (Albert Park)6494861141271351371429410784841268
Tauranga Aerodrome8484114114137132137137107114841041348
Rotorua991141171171501501421371271221041321511
Taupo8194769110912211710984102841121199
Hamilton (Ruakura)718184991121321171179710791891197
Taumarunui8999841091321521351241171371241301432
New Plymouth Aerodrome1071021021171631681631471121351171321565
Masterton (Waingawa)645876711021071029174746976964
Gisborne Aerodrome74619191109112112117747158641034
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)1501401681802111881982261501501471522060
Napier515866618489798151534364780
Wanganui696461748691817658816989899
Palmerston North84697474869991846989791041002
Wellington (Kelburn)8184949713213514012410211284861271
Westport Aerodrome1551681571912011881831701701832011852152
Hokitika Aerodrome2312512392342722292412362392572772342940
Milford Sound5315696305264834193784245385466385546236
Nelson Aerodrome7474818911279919476817474999
Blenheim514351537658666153534851664
Hanmer Forest8681919911799104114899789991165
Lake Coleridge616158767971817974767671863
Christchurch514658588456585346464656658
Lake Tekapo514348535348534856515151606
Timaru585858484836413841485869601
Dunedin (Musselburgh)746176747166564648587171772
Queenstown746676717966646176767664849
Alexandra463838282820151520283330339
Gore766976797679564853698179841
Invercargill Aerodrome897994104911076966748694891042

MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL 1941–70

Thunderstorms—Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and west where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year; east of the ranges (except in Gisborne) the figure is five or less.

Hail—Hail is most frequent in the south-west where it is reported on about 20 days a year, but for the greater part of the country it occurs on about 5 days a year or less. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally large stones cause local damage to glasshouses, and to orchards and market gardens, chiefly in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay.

Temperature—Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 15°c in the far north to 12°c about Cook Strait, then to 9°c in the south. With increasing altitude, temperatures drop about 2°c per 300 m. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature are the warmest months of the year; July is the coldest. Some temperature statistics for selected places are included in the table on climatological averages. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they exceed 30°c on a few afternoons in most summers, usually in association with a north-westerly Föhn wind. The extremes for New Zealand (measured in a standard thermometer screen) are 42°c, which has been recorded in three places: Jordan (Marlborough), Christchurch, and Rangiora (Canterbury); and –19°c at Ophir (Central Otago).

As is to be expected, there is a small annual range of temperature (difference between mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months). In Northland and in western districts of both Islands the annual range is about 8°c. For the remainder of the North Island, and east coast districts of the South Island, it is 9°-10°c. Further inland it exceeds 11°c in places, reaching a maximum of 14°c in Central Otago where there is an approach to a continental type of climate.

Frost—It is well known that local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. On a calm, clear night the cold air in contact with a sloping surface gravitates slowly downhill to collect in valleys and depressions, and it is these "Katabatic" drifts which are mainly responsible for local temperature variations at night. Gently sloping ground with a northerly aspect tends to be least affected by frost. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. At Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer (1.3 m above the ground) has registered below 0°c only once in 65 years, yet up the harbour at Whenuapai Aerodrome there are eight screen frosts per annum on the average. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the most severe winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island. Even in these areas night temperatures as low as –12°c are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild and pastures maintain continuous growth. In both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all the year round.

Snow—The majority of New Zealanders rarely see snow except on the mountains. The North Island has a small permanent snow field above 2,500 m on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 600 m even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts, and in some years may lie for a day or two even at sea level. In Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is around 2,000 m in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 300 m of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 300 m, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent and have caused serious losses of sheep during severe winters in the past. However, only rarely does the winter snow line there remain below 1,000 m for extended periods.

Relative Humidity—Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 percent in coastal areas and about 10 percent lower inland. It varies inversely to the temperature, falling to a minimum in the early afternoon when temperature is highest and frequently lying between 90 and 100 percent during clear nights. As the following table shows, the diurnal variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter.

StationMean Relative Humidity
JanuaryJuly
3 a.m.3 p.m.3 a.m.3 p.m.
 percent
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)85639074
Gisborne85578769
Ohakea Aerodrome87628972
Wellington89718777
Christchurch83578870
Hokitika94768770
Invercargill87689077

Very low humidity—from 30 percent down to about 5 percent—occurs at times in the lee of the Southern Alps where the Föhn effect is often very marked. In summer the hot, dry "Canterbury Nor'-wester" is generally a most unpleasant wind. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be rather oppressive though temperatures rarely reach 30°c. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

Sunshine—The sunniest places are near Blenheim, the Nelson-Motueka area, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2,350 hours a year. The rest of the Bay of Plenty and Napier are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours. Even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1,800 hours. Southland, where sunshine drops sharply to about 1,700 hours a year, lies on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. Four hundred miles further to the south at Campbell Island the sunshine has the extremely low value of 650 hours a year. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months. To eliminate the effect of varying day-length the summer and winter sunshine at a few selected stations has been expressed as a percentage of the possible sunshine.

StationSummerWinter
 percent
Auckland5447
Hamilton5443
New Plymouth5446
Napier5650
Wellington5341
Nelson5957
Hokitika4645
Christchurch4746
Dunedin4042
Invercargill4135

As these figures indicate, there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Climatological Averages—The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

StationAnnual AveragesAir Temperatures (Degrees Celsius)
Altitude (metres)Rain Days (1.0 mm or More)Wet Days (2.5 mm or More)Bright Sunshine (Hrs)Days of Screen Frost (min. air temp, less than 0°C)Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumMean Annual
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
Kaitaia Aerodrome801381032,138015.52415158282
Kerikeri731351012,014I15.12515136290
Dargaville201471082,011314.6231514729–2
Auckland (Albert Park)491401022,140015.42314168273
Tauranga Aerodrome4118902,285814.2241414529–2
Hamilton (Ruakura)40131992,0541713.2231312329–3
Rotorua307123971,9332512.5231212329–3
Gisborne Aerodrome4113812,224614.0241413432–2
Taupo376123872,0683911.8231111229–4
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)643164131611.120911328–1
Taumarunui1711401111,7243912.9241312231–5
New Plymouth Aerodrome271421162,102013.12113135260
Napier292642,262614.1241314432–2
Wanganui22117872,092413.5221214529–1
Palmerston North34127911,8261513.0221213428–3
Masterton (Waingawa)114123882,0072912.2241211231–4
Wellington (Kelburn)126124952,014012.52011136261
Nelson Aerodrome296722,4034111.9221212128–3
Blenheim484582,4703612.6231212232–4
Westport Aerodrome21691401,937112.11912124250
Hanmer Forest387115881,9238510.12299–232–9
Hokitika Aerodrome391681441,8832511.3191111326–2
Lake Coleridge36498747010.121910–131–7
Christchurch785581,9853711.7221112132–4
Timaru1781551,8103911.0211011032–4
Milford Sound31831652710.318910225–3
Queenstown32993721,9315310.122810–130–5
Alexandra14164392,0478110.623711–232–8
Dunedin (Musselburgh)2119791,695810.9191011330–2
Gore72137931,6984010.12199031–5
Invercargill Aerodrome01571111,627489.61899028–5

NOTES: (1) Averages of rain days and wet days 1950–70; sunshine 1941–70; mean temperature, mean daily maximum and mean daily minimum 1941–70; other temperature data and days of screen frost, various periods—all exceeding 10 years.

(2) For normal monthly and annual rainfall for these stations, see table under subsection on Rainfall.

(3) At Hanmer, Queenstown, and Alexandra the possible sunshine is considerably reduced by hills or mountains, by amounts varying from ¾ hour per day at Alexandra to 1½ hours per day at Hanmer and 3¼ hours per day at Queenstown. The reductions in actual sunshine are less than this—mainly between half and three-fifths of the above amounts.

Brief Review of 1977—From May to September pressures were unusually high to the south of New Zealand, giving a marked absence of westerly winds throughout the period. Districts east of the main ranges experienced cloudy wet conditions during these months, but on the West coast of the South Island it was unusually dry and sunny from June to September. This was a cold wet year in places exposed to the south.

In the North Island rainfall was above normal in Poverty Bay, Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, Wellington, and parts of Manawatu, Taranaki, and Waikato. Some areas on the West coast of the North Island and Wellington were above by as much as 40–50 percent. Parts of the Bay of Plenty and Northland were below normal by 25 to 30 percent. The major part of the South Island was below normal by 10 percent, and in Westland, South Canterbury and Central Otago by 25 to 40 percent. Areas above normal (by 10 to 25 percent) were parts of Marlborough, Banks Peninsula, coastal Otago, and Southland.

Throughout the whole country temperatures were below average, some isolated areas in the extreme north of Northland and parts of coastal Otago being near normal. The average departure over the whole country was 0.3°c below normal. In parts of Northland, Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay, Manawatu, Wairarapa, Wellington, Northern Canterbury and Southland temperatures were more than 0.5°c below normal, and in some areas in the North Island by nearly 1.0°c.

Parts of Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, Nelson, Otago, and Southland had 100 to 150 hours less sunshine than normal. Some areas of Northland, Westland, Buller, and Canterbury had up to 100 hours more sunshine than normal, but over the rest of the country the duration of sunshine was close to average.

Seasonal Notes—January was very dry in parts of Northland and the Bay of Plenty, but in Canterbury and northern Buller more than twice the normal monthly rainfall was recorded. On the 18th heavy rain fell in Westland, Canterbury and Marlborough, with some stations recording falls of between 50 and 200 mm. Major flooding occurred in Greymouth on the 19th when the Grey River broke its banks. Temperatures were below normal over most of the country; in parts of Canterbury, Otago and Southland by as much as 2.5°c. Most areas north of the Waikato had 20 to 30 more sunshine hours than normal, but in the South Island some areas were below normal by up to 45 hours. Grass growth was good in most areas, but haymaking conditions were poor in Taranaki, Wairarapa, and the South Island.

During February dry conditions continued in northern parts of the North Island, with stations in Northland recording only 15 percent of their normal rainfall. Fiordland and Westland were also very dry having only 40 to 50 percent of the normal monthly fall. In Hawke's Bay heavy rain on the 23rd and 24th caused major flooding in the Wairoa area, one station recording 230 mm in 24 hours on the 23rd/24th.

Parts of Hawke's Bay had nearly four times the normal rainfall for the month. Pastures were showing little growth but considerable falls of rain towards the end of the month did bring some relief to farmers.

March was a dry, warm, sunny month until the 21st when substantial rainfalls were recorded over a period of three days in Northland, Auckland, the east coast of the North Island, and Westland. Lowry Hills, a rainfall station in North Canterbury, recorded no rainfall during the month. This had never happened before in any month since the station started in 1947. Farmers reported dramatic grass growth after the heavy rain in the latter part of the month, but it was not sufficient to keep stock in good condition.

During April there was a predominance of winds from a southerly quarter, with comparatively warm temperatures during the first half of the month, but cold wintry spells in the latter half. Conditions were dry in Northland, Bay of Plenty, and Canterbury, the only areas with above normal rainfall being Taranaki, Wellington, Poverty Bay, Hawke's Bay, and Wairarapa in the North Island. On the 16th and 17th heavy rain in northern Hawke's Bay caused major flooding in Wairoa, closing main highways and cutting communications for 24 hours. More than 290 mm was recorded at Wairoa in a 48 hour period up to 9 a.m. on the 17th. The only area with significantly below normal sunshine hours was inland Otago. Farmers in the North Island reported good grass growth until cold temperatures at the end of the month retarded growth. In Nelson, Marlborough and Canterbury growth was poor owing to dry conditions, and hay was being fed to stock.

May was another month with a predominance of winds from a southerly quarter, and this was reflected in the cold temperatures over the whole country. On the 17th and 18th gale force winds, snow and cold temperatures affected most areas of New Zealand. Communications, roads, and electricity services were disrupted in many areas from Auckland to Southland. Most of New Zealand had above or near normal sunshine hours for the month apart from Wairarapa, Otago, and Southland which were below normal by 20–40 hours. Stock in most areas was reported to be in good condition, except in the hill country where it was affected by cold wet conditions.

In June conditions were cloudy and wet over the major part of New Zealand with the exception of some areas in Central Otago, Southland, and Westland. On the 20th and 21st heavy rain in the Gisborne area caused widespread flooding and land slips. A fall of 156 mm in 24 hours at Gisborne was the highest recorded in any June since 1894. Temperatures were above normal over most of the country, slightly below in Northland, Hawke's Bay, Canterbury, Otago and Southland. The stations at Greymouth and Westport recorded their lowest June sunshine totals since the stations began. Although the ground was very wet towards the end of the month, farmers reported good grass growth and stock in good condition.

July was a cloudy month over most of the country, especially on the east coast of the South Island. Gales and rain on the 3rd and 4th caused severe flooding in the Christchurch and Banks Peninsula areas. Rainfall was above normal over the northern half of the North Island, Manawatu, Wairarapa, Wellington, and the east coast of the South Island. Temperatures were above normal over most of New Zealand, with only a few isolated areas in both Islands being slightly below. Wet conditions and lack of sunshine at the beginning of the month retarded grass growth, but there was an improvement towards the end of the month. Dry conditions prevailed in Westland, Fiordland, Central Otago, and Southland.

August was the third consecutive month with a marked absence of westerly winds and a predominance of winds from an easterly quarter. It was a cloudy, wet month in most areas east of the main ranges, except for the area south of Christchurch; elsewhere it was generally drier than normal. In Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa cold, wet weather at the end of the month killed more than 12,000 lambs, the heaviest losses entailed for many years. The rainfall was above normal by as much as 50–100 percent in these areas, and also in Taranaki, Poverty Bay, and Wellington. Wairarapa and Wellington recorded their lowest August sunshine totals since 1965 and 1966 respectively, but Hokitika was 25 percent above normal. Apart from the lamb losses in the areas mentioned most farmers reported good grass growth and lambing proceeding well.

September was the coldest for many years over most of New Zealand, many stations in both Islands recording mean temperatures below normal by more than 2.0°c. Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa farmers were seriously affected by continuing cold southerly winds and rain, which added to the stock and lamb losses experienced at the end of August. Heavy rain caused many large land slips, and many farms were affected by large scale erosion. Rainfall stations in southern Wairarapa recorded monthly totals of more than 200 percent above normal. Sunshine totals for the month in Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa were down by at least 40 hours.

October was a cool dry month except in parts of the South Island, with sunshine hours near or above normal. At Musselburgh, Dunedin, a maximum temperature of 31.0°c was recorded on the 28th. It was the warmest October day since records began in 1865. Some of the worst flooding for many years occurred in Southland on the 29th and 30th. Most farmers throughout New Zealand reported slow grass growth, and areas in the east of the North Island experienced a shortage of feed, with stock condition not as good as usual.

During November most of the country had cold, dry sunny weather, with occasional warm fine spells. The only areas with above normal rainfall were Waikato, Taranaki, Manawatu, Wellington, and Marlborough. The east coast of the North and South Islands were appreciably below their normal monthly rainfall. The only areas with slightly lower sunshine for the month were parts of Auckland and Southland. Grass growth was not good in Hawke's Bay and Wairarapa because of the continuing warm dry weather, and more rain was needed to rejuvenate grass damaged in the August and September wet spell.

December was a cold month throughout most of New. Zealand, and although many areas in both islands had above normal rainfall, it was comparatively sunny on the whole. Some areas of Otago and South Canterbury were favoured with more than 40 hours more sunshine than usual, but the Dunedin rainfall total for the month was nearly 130 percent above normal. Other areas with monthly rainfalls appreciably above normal were Poverty Bay, Wellington, Marlborough, and parts of Canterbury. In most of New Zealand temperatures were below normal by 0.5°c to 1.0°c. The low temperatures retarded crop growth in many areas. Pasture growth was poor in South Canterbury and North Otago.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1977—The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1977 were made at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time, i.e. 2100 hours Greenwich mean time.

StationRainfall (mm)Rain Days (1.0 mm or More)Bright Sunshine (hours)Screen Frost Days*Air Temperature (Degrees Celsius)
Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumExtremes
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum

*Minimum Air Temperatures less than 0.0°C.

Dargaville118615520390514.321.514.913.48.229.0–2.0
Whangarei136912721010023.515.613.128.50.3
Auckland116613522010015.222.714.815.28.726.94.2
Tauranga Aerodrome117811123510214.023.214.313.66.628.4–0.6
Rotorua, Whakarewarewa132911422601212.321.912.111.64.728.2–1.3
Taupo103310820953711.321.410.99.62.728.2–6.3
Hamilton, Ruakura127213820951613.022.314.011.64.927.2–2.8
Taumarunui151814518013012.322.312.511.13.331.0–3.9
New Plymouth Aerodrome148113422670112.920.713.213.16.125.8–0.9
Masterton117014319002221.011.910.23.131.3–3.3
Gisborne Aerodrome137610421990413.623.713.912.53.834.2–1.1
Onepoto, Waikaremoana24681580810.720.210.210.03.428.0–1.6
Napier99810521700823.913.513.44.7–2.2
Palmerston North DSIR91312417690812.520.212.412.35.130.0–1.4
Wellington, Kelburn174413720330011.918.510.712.26.126.40.1
Wanganui102612520400313.120.612.813.15.528.4–0.3
Westport Aerodrome207316620540311.818.612.811.75.123.5–2.4
Hokitika Aerodrome244916819731411.118.212.510.43.523.5–1.2
Milford Sound5532176389.917.610.09.31.624.6–2.7
Nelson Aerodrome8599423163811.821.112.111.42.925.9–3.1
Blenheim7297924763212.322.712.111.42.931.5–3.2
Hanmer Forest12531241781969.419.78.47.8–0.633.9–7.2
Lake Coleridge671100819.918.99.08.6–0.129.3–5.7
Christchurch8409319853011.220.73.610.23.432.3–2.6
Lake Tekapo5236721911078.518.15.47.6–1.231.0–8.3
Timaru4968718263610.719.98.89.72.330.6–3.5
Dunedin, Musselburgh94514216380710.617.08.910.03.731.0–2.0
Queenstown6878618944510.119.98.59.10.729.7–3.6
Alexandra22957203010210.220.88.49.0–1.432.5–6.6
Gore DSIR9351351726449.216.98.18.11.826.4–3.8
Invercargill Aerodrome11061481523449.416.69.48.71.625.4–5.5

For 1977 the mean sea level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time were: Auckland, 1015.5; Kelburn, Wellington, 1013.0; Nelson Aerodrome, 1013.3; Hokitika Aerodrome, 1013.3; Christchurch, 1012.0; and Dunedin Airport, 1011.7.

Chapter 3. Section 2 HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Table of Contents

EARLY HISTORY: General—When New Zealand was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had migrated to these islands at least 300 years previously. It is generally accepted that the Maoris came originally from South-east Asia, whence, as proto-Polynesians, they moved eastwards from island to island until they reached the eastern Pacific, where they settled the islands now known collectively as Polynesia. From Polynesia the ancestors of the Maori sailed south-west in ocean-going canoes to reach New Zealand and these voyages were probably spread over several generations, perhaps several centuries. Oral Maori history and genealogy support the view that there was a final wave of migration of considerable magnitude about A.D. 1350. Adapting themselves to a new physical environment, in isolation from the outside world, the Maoris produced forms of social and economic organisation and material culture which were significantly different from their Polynesian prototypes.

Coming from tropical latitudes, the Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island, and when discovered by Europeans were in a high state of neolithic civilisation, with marked superiority in the arts of wood carving and military engineering. Their principal social unit was the family group, and from combinations of the numerous groups were formed the subtribes and tribes. They had highly developed social and ritualistic customs, and their system of land tenure and methods of cultivation were communal within the subtribes. Inter-tribal and intra-tribal warfare was common, and as individuals Maoris displayed exceptional courage and intelligence.

From the early days of European settlement in the first half of the nineteenth century many Maoris believed that their interests were best served by co-operation with the settlers. For the most part the Europeans adopted a humanitarian attitude to the Maori people, who accepted their assurances and found a satisfactory safeguard for their interests in the exercise of their rights and privileges as British subjects. As the Europeans established a self-contained and aggressively growing society, there grew up a rivalry for land and a clash of power. In the 1860s Maori tribes in Taranaki, Waikato, and Bay of Plenty fought the settlers and Government troops in a series of sporadic campaigns based on loss of land rights and rising Maori nationalism. After 1870 there followed the development of a European colony of settlement with Maori people making further economic adjustments to European ways.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However, the virility of the race gradually asserted itself, and from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing though still forming a minority component.

Discovery by Europeans—On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as "Nieuw Zeeland". Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and, after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north, he had the misfortune to come into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain (then Lieutenant) James Cook sighted land on 7 October 1769 near Gisborne. Cook and a party of men from the Endeavour landed at Gisborne on 9 October 1769. On his first voyage Cook spent 6 months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can best be described by saying "he found New Zealand a line on a map, and left it an archipelago". Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, 1774, and in 1777. His careful observations made New Zealand known to the western world; the accounts of his voyages were translated into a dozen languages.

The 15 islands forming the Cook Islands group were discovered piecemeal over a period of 240 years, the first by the Spanish explorer, Mendana, in 1595, several by Captain Cook during the period 1773 to 1777, and the last, Nassau, in 1835.

The European discovery of Niue Island was made by Captain Cook in 1774. It was formerly believed that the first recorded discovery of the Tokelau group was made by the Spanish explorer Pedro Fernandez de Quiros in 1606. However, it is now thought that it was one of the northern Cook Islands that he sighted, and that the first European to visit Tokelau was Commodore Byron, R.N., who sighted Atafu in 1765.

European Settlement and Colonisation—Whaling stations sprang up along the New Zealand coast from 1792 onwards and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, was responsible for the establishment of the first mission station in the Bay of Islands.

The growing white population in the Bay of Islands, and the lawlessness of crews of visiting ships led to the appointment by the British Government of James Busby as British Resident at Waitangi in 1833. The Governor of New South Wales in 1837 sent Captain William Hobson, in command of HMS Rattlesnake, from Sydney to the Bay of Islands to report on New Zealand. Among other things, Hobson suggested a treaty with the Maori chiefs and the placing of British subjects under British law. On 29 January 1840 Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty.

By 1840 numerous mission stations had spread through the northern half of the North Island. Conversion of Maori tribes to Christianity was accompanied by the introduction of new crops and methods of cultivation and pacification of the warring tribes.

The first body of immigrants to reach New Zealand under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived at Port Nicholson, Wellington, on 22 January 1840 to found the initial settlement of the New Zealand Company. The colonists were in the main sturdy resourceful people seeking a better future than was offering in nineteenth century industrial England.

The guiding genius of the company, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, aware of the intention of the British Government to annex New Zealand, had earlier (in 1839), dispatched his agents in order to purchase large areas of land from the Maoris before the Crown could assume a monopoly of land purchase.

Wakefield's scheme of colonisation was based on the sale of land to investors or men of wealth for development by labouring class immigrants. With the profit from land sales the company could bring out more immigrants. Wakefield aimed at a balance between landowners and labourers; in effect he aimed to transplant a cross-section of English society. But, ignorant of the system of tribal ownership of Maori land, the company had bought land from individual Maoris; then Hobson provided that all European land titles should derive from the Crown which would be the only purchaser of land from the Maoris. Title to land remained a difficulty for some years and was a cause of distress to the colonists and, combined with a considerable degree of absentee ownership and land speculation, made most precarious the existence of the early company settlements of Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson. The company had brought nearly 10,000 persons to New Zealand by 1848. The later settlements of Otago, in 1848, and Canterbury, in 1850, organised under the aegis of the New Zealand Company in co-operation with the Free Church of Scotland and the Church of England respectively, achieved a much greater measure of success owing to the absence of any large Maori population and to satisfactory land purchase arrangements.

The non-Maori population in the main settlements in 1842 totalled 3,801 in Wellington, 2,895 in Auckland, 2,500 in Nelson, 895 in New Plymouth, 380 in Russell, 263 in Hokianga, and 198 in Akaroa. By 1862 the non-Maori population had reached 125,000 (as against 55,000 Maoris) and by 1866 it had jumped to 200,000 with men from Australia joining in the gold rush to Otago. Migration then dropped away until 1874 when there was a high inflow for several years from Britain with the Vogel policy of public works development.

After the death of Hobson in 1842, subsequent governors, through lack of funds and weak administration, found themselves unable to protect the small and helpless settlements from threatening Maori aggression engendered by strong feelings on land ownership. The response of the Colonial Office was to appoint Captain George Grey as Governor and to provide him with adequate funds and troops so that he soon restored order and won not only the confidence of the Maoris but also for a time that of the settlers. Grey, through his chief land purchase officer, Donald McLean, endeavoured to buy up land in advance of the settlers' needs in order to prevent conflict between settlers and Maoris. By 1858 the census revealed that the settlers outnumbered the Maoris who, fearful that they were being swamped by the settlers, became increasingly reluctant to sell their land. At the same time the intensified settler pressure for more land led McLean to negotiate only with those Maoris still favourably disposed to land sales. This practice alarmed the other Maoris and finally the war broke out in 1860 over a land dispute at Waitara in Taranaki where settler demand for land was strongest. The return of Grey as Governor did not solve the problem for, as an autocrat, he could not work with elected ministers nor could he regain the confidence of the Maoris and finally he quarrelled with the commander of the Imperial troops. Widespread confiscation of Maori land by the settlers' government in order to pay the cost of the war included land belonging to friendly as well as hostile Maoris and aroused further resentment. The war had died down by 1870 and during the term of Donald McLean as Native Minister some measure of reconciliation began.

Public Works and Farm Development—The absence of hostilities and the discovery of gold there had allowed the South Island to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally but began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool.

By 1870 the gold boom had ended in the South Island. To remedy the situation of economic stagnation, Sir Julius Vogel began a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction and for immigrant labour. The results of this policy were to double the population to 500,000 by 1880, to immensely improve transport and communications, and to encourage industry in the towns where most of the immigrants had congregated.

With the introduction of refrigeration in 1882 and steam navigation in the late 19th century, the development of exports of frozen meat and dairy products assured the dominance of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's external trade. These developments, with a continued substantial investment of British capital, particularly in farming and food processing industries, established that degree of specialisation to meet the needs of the British market, which shaped the entire New Zealand economy during its first hundred years.

The depression of the 1880s, a consequence of a fall in world price levels, resulted in unemployment and large emigration but export prices recovered in the nineties. From 1880 onwards the natural increase of births over deaths exceeded the net inflow from migration.

In 1891 John Ballance, as leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier to be followed on his death in 1893 by Richard John Seddon, who remained Premier until his death in June 1906. The Government pursued a vigorous legislative programme in which the main emphasis was on social justice.

The expansion of the exports in dairy produce and frozen meat during the 1890s produced more intensive settlement and the rise of a new farming class in which the "cow-cockie" was the dominant figure. These farmers, having benefited by the spread of prosperity, were in 1911 mainly responsible together with the city businessmen for the overthrow of the Liberal regime. The new Reform Government under William Massey, in order to strengthen the primary producer, introduced measures of which the extension of rural credit was typical.

Three years after the advent of the Reform Party, the First World War, 1914–1918, broke out, leading to a coalition Government and an Imperial commandeer of exports which created the precedent for the establishment after the war of central boards to regulate the exports of pastoral products. War activities were marked by heavy casualties in proportion to the population while the landing at Gallipoli signified the growing awareness of a sense of nationhood.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921–24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reduction, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and on the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydro-electric schemes and highways.

Land values rose steeply, accelerated by Government efforts to settle returned servicemen on the land, and between 1915 and 1925 forty percent of the occupied land had changed hands. New Zealand was extremely vulnerable to the overseas price fluctuations of the pastoral products. With the advent of the depression by 1930, farmers, despite greatly increased production, were faced with a serious decline in income (over forty percent) together with heavy mortgage commitments on land bought at high prices so that many were faced with foreclosure. In the towns, tradesmen and shopkeepers faced bankruptcy, and wage earners unemployment or reduction in wages. A Coalition Government was formed in 1931 to meet the crisis. Partly as a result of measures taken by this government and partly as a result of a rise in overseas price levels a general economic revival was taking place by 1935.

DEVELOPMENT AS A NATION—The election of a Labour Government, under the leadership of Michael Savage, in 1935 led to changes in administrative policy and a renewed emphasis on social problems.

The financial needs of the Second World War from 1939 onwards were met with virtually no overseas borrowing. Financing the war by taxation and internal borrowing also assisted in the achievement of a successful stabilisation policy. Full employment in war was followed by full employment in peace. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force.

At the 1949 election the Labour Government was defeated after holding office since 1936. It was succeeded by a National Government, under the leadership of Sidney Holland.

During his time as Prime Minister, Holland initiated a constitutional change with the abolition of the Legislative Council on the grounds that it no longer possessed any effective function.

In 1957, the Labour Party gained a narrow victory at the polls under the leadership of Walter Nash. Budgetary policy to meet a recurrence of the balance of payments crisis proved unpopular and at the 1960 election, the National Party under the leadership of Keith Holyoake was returned to power, as it was in subsequent elections in 1963, 1966, and 1969. Early in 1972 John Marshall became leader of the National Party. At the 1972 election the Labour Party swept back into power under Norman Kirk; after his untimely death in 1974 W. E. Rowling became Prime Minister. At the 1975 election there was a dramatic reversal of the position 3 years earlier, and the National Party under Robert Muldoon was returned to power with a substantial majority.

International affairs have assumed growing importance in recent decades. It was evident when peace returned to the Pacific area in 1945 that New Zealand found itself in a different world, where its relations with the countries geographically closest to it would grow rapidly in importance. The course of New Zealand's international relations in recent years is dealt with in some detail later in this section.

Relations with Europe—For almost a hundred years the economy of New Zealand was shaped to supplying the needs of the British market. Farm production constantly expanded, so that New Zealand became one of the world's greatest exporters of pastoral produce. The bulk of this produce went to Britain. The decision of Britain to become part of the European Economic Community with effect from 1973 and thus subject to a new pattern of trading arrangements would have been disastrous for New Zealand's exports of dairy produce and lamb, but for the negotiating of special arrangements for continuing trade.

Pacific Orientation—Increasing interest has been taken in recent decades in the welfare and social development generally of both the rapidly growing Maori population and the inhabitants of the islands of the Pacific with New Zealand ties.

New Zealand has experienced in recent years a considerable inflow of Polynesians from its associated territories and elsewhere in the Pacific. One-tenth of the New Zealand population is Maori or Polynesian, and there are more Niue Islanders in New Zealand than in Niue. Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islanders are New Zealand citizens who freely move back and forth. These people have undoubtedly had a big influence on the character, attitudes, and behaviour of the rest of the New Zealand population—most have some understanding of the "Polynesian way". New Zealand has a number of other basic links with the South Pacific, due in part to the common colonial history shared with such nations as Fiji. This British heritage has given a common language and the democratic tradition. Today all the independent states of the South Pacific are associated in the British Commonwealth.

The most recent political development is the establishment of the South Pacific Forum. This group, comprising the leaders of the independent and self-governing nations of the South Pacific (Cook Islands, Niue, Western Samoa, Tonga, Fiji and Nauru), together with Australia and New Zealand, has had highly successful meetings in their respective capitals. The South Pacific Forum is a new concept in international relations—an exciting development. There is no constitution, there is no agenda, and there is no formality. The leaders come together in private sessions for frank and concentrated discussion on practical matters of direct relevance to the people of the Pacific. The island leaders themselves suggested the formula and proposed Australian and New Zealand participation. Clearly they saw the need to exchange views, discuss projects and priorities, and generally to secure on a regional basis effective collaboration and co-ordination at the highest level. A South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation has been established with a broad programme of trade, production, and economic development. It is based in Suva.

Expansion of overseas aid to the Pacific and to Asia from 1973 onwards has been a feature of the Labour Government under Kirk and subsequently under Rowling, and more recently of the National Government under Muldoon.

Sovereignty—On 29 January 1840 Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived in the Bay of Islands. His instructions from the British Government required him to take possession of the country with the consent of the Maori chiefs, this policy being designed by the Colonial Office strongly influenced by missionary opinion, to safeguard the well-being of the native people. Hobson read his commission at Kororareka on 30 January and on 6 February 46 chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, a compact whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights were secured to the chiefs and their tribes (with the Crown having the sole right of purchase) and in return the Queen extended her protection and all the rights and privileges of British subjects. Other chiefs throughout both Islands later adhered to this Treaty.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it, provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

One aspect, that of native affairs, was withheld from the responsible Ministers, and the Governor, as representative of the Crown, continued to act independently of his elected advisors in this sphere. In 1861 Grey attempted unsuccessfully to hand over this responsibility but the Ministers were unwilling to assume responsibility for the cost of the war. Finally in 1864 Sir Frederick Weld instituted the "self-reliant policy" whereby the colony accepted responsibility for the settlement of difficulties with the Maoris and consented to the withdrawal of troops by the Imperial Government.

In recognition of a nascent sense of nationality and of an increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters New Zealand was given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony, the new title taking effect on 26 September 1907.

Of the constitutional events in recent years the passing by the United Kingdom Parliament of the Statute of Westminster in December 1931 was of major importance. The draft of this statute was submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. In other words, its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the legislatures of those countries. It was not until 1947 that the New Zealand Government formally adopted the Statute of Westminster.

Development of New Zealand's International Relations—Until the early 1930s New Zealand's external interests were almost exclusively centred on its relationship with Britain. The British Navy protected New Zealand and Britain took the bulk of New Zealand's exports. Where Britain led, New Zealand followed, not blindly but with pride and conviction. Britain, as a great power, played a major role in world affairs. New Zealand's "foreign policy" consisted chiefly of seeking to modify British policy in those few cases where New Zealand had a strong interest or a viewpoint rather different from that of Britain.

The emergence of a distinctively New Zealand foreign policy is usually regarded as dating from 1935. The Labour Government strongly upheld the principle of collective security and pressed for vigorous collective action by the League of Nations against aggression in Abyssinia, Spain, and China at a time when the United Kingdom was pursuing the policy which came to be known as "appeasement".

There was, however, no suggestion that New Zealand was departing from its historically close association with Britain. The course it would follow in the event of war was never in doubt. When war broke out the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in these terms:

"Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear behind Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand."

But the Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world and made it necessary for New Zealand to adopt a more independent foreign policy. The New Zealand Government established (in effect from 1943) a career foreign affairs service, and made a beginning in stationing its own diplomatic representatives in countries where New Zealand's interests made their presence necessary. In particular, New Zealand sought to foster good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and Asia and to increase the measure of security and welfare in these areas.

Woven into post-war policy was the traditional New Zealand belief in the principles of collective security and international justice, which the United Nations was pledged to support. There was also the belief that the international community should give high priority to the welfare and political advancement of dependent peoples and to the elimination of poverty, disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

The wartime alliance of the two Pacific Commonwealth countries of Australia and New Zealand with the United States found expression in peacetime in the ANZUS Treaty, in which, for the first time, New Zealand and Australia entered into a security treaty with a foreign country. The ANZUS Treaty, which came into force in April 1952, gives an assurance of United States support in the event of an armed attack in the Pacific area and so constitutes New Zealand's major safeguard against aggression. The signing of the Manila Treaty in 1954 and the establishment of SEATO, like the formation of the ANZUS alliance, took place against a background of continuing instability and violence in South-east Asia.

The scope of New Zealand's interests in Asia widened considerably in the years following signature of the Manila Treaty. Diplomatic relations were established with a growing number of countries in the area, leading to increased co-operation in fields besides that of defence. By the mid-1960s New Zealand had more widespread representation in Asia than in Western Europe.

The political evolution of the South Pacific, with the emergence of Western Samoa, Nauru, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, and Tonga as independent states and the Cook Islands and Niue as self-governing countries in free association with New Zealand, has led to the development of a new pattern of relationships, bilateral and multilateral, between New Zealand and its South Pacific neighbours. In addition to its special relationship with Western Samoa (a former United Nations Trust Territory administered by New Zealand), the Cook Islands, and Niue (whose people retain New Zealand citizenship), New Zealand has close bilateral ties with Fiji, Nauru, Tonga and Papua New Guinea. A relationship is rapidly developing with other Pacific countries approaching independence, such as the Solomon Islands, the Gilberts, and Tuvalu.

New Zealand is co-operating with these countries at the regional level in the South Pacific Forum, where the independent and self-governing countries in the South Pacific, together with Australia and New Zealand, discuss their common problems.

The Forum, in 1973, established the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC) which is aimed at facilitating co-operation and consultation on trading, transport, and economic matters among forum members.

New Zealand is endeavouring also to promote the economic and social welfare of the South Pacific peoples and to foster an emerging sense of regional identity through its membership of the South Pacific Commission, an organisation whose members are not only the South Pacific's independent and self-governing countries but also those territories remaining under British, French, and American administration.

Her Majesty the Queen, in right of New Zealand, is responsible for the external relations of the former dependent territories of the Cook Islands and Niue, which are now self-governing. The Secretary of Foreign Affairs is the Administrator of Tokelau, which is a non-selfgoverning territory administered by New Zealand.

New Zealand has continued to place special importance upon its membership of the United Nations. It is an active participant in the work of the General Assembly, and has been a member of all Councils of the Organisation. In 1950 it provided troops to the United Nations Command in Korea and has contributed military observers and civilian police in various peace-keeping operations. It has sought to assist all efforts to attain the political and social objectives outlined in the Charter.

The historical links with Britain and with Western Europe and North America remain close, as does the economic relationship with Britain, New Zealand's largest single customer. Although New Zealand has been making satisfactory progress in diversifying her markets, especially within the Pacific Basin, her trading and other interests in the European Economic Community remain a major policy concern.

The Labour Government, which was elected in 1972, emphasised its wish to strengthen New Zealand's bilateral links with the nations of Asia and the Pacific as well as expand regional cooperation, its commitment to a vigorous programme of aid to less-developed countries, and its belief that the United Nations can and should do more to protect and advance the interests of its smaller members. Successive governments have made clear New Zealand's total rejection of all doctrines of racial superiority and its determination to play a more independent role in world affairs. A new element in New Zealand's foreign policy in 1974–75 was the introduction of a Cultural Relations Exchange Programme. The Government, aware of the contribution cultural relations can make to the growth of better international understanding, set aside the sum of $50,000 annually to promote cultural exchanges. In 1975–76 emphasis was placed on exchanges with China.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN RECENT YEARS—The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has the primary responsibility of advising and assisting the Government in formulating and executing decisions in the field of New Zealand's external relations. It is the agency through which other governments and their representatives in New Zealand communicate with the New Zealand Government. It operates New Zealand's aid programmes and maintains New Zealand's diplomatic and consular representation abroad. The ministry's overseas functions are discharged through a network of 45 diplomatic and consular posts consisting of embassies, high commissions, consulates-general, and other permanent missions. At home, the preparation and co-ordination of foreign policy recommendations is carried out in close association with a number of other Government departments.

The ministry has a substantive role in the formulation and execution of New Zealand's economic policies. In Wellington the ministry works closely on these questions with other departments such as the Treasury, Department of Trade and Industry, Customs Department, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Economic activity is as much part of an overseas mission's everyday work as its political, consular, and trade functions. Officers of the ministry have a major responsibility to inform foreign governments of New Zealand's policies, negotiate agreements, and keep the New Zealand Government informed of economic developments in the country to which they are accredited.

The ministry's involvement in the economic sphere was amply demonstrated in the events leading up to Britain's entry into the EEC. The negotiations in Luxembourg, that decided the terms of British entry and the special arrangement for New Zealand exports of butter and cheese to Britain, were preceded by an intensive campaign of publicity for New Zealand's case, continuous ministerial and official contacts in Britain and Europe, and a series of visits to New Zealand by British and European Ministers, officials and journalists directly concerned with Common Market affairs. In all this activity the ministry played a full part in Wellington, with other departments, and abroad where its officers were heavily involved.

Since British accession, New Zealand has pressed continuously for improvements in its terms of trade with Britain. As a result New Zealand's position post-1977 was strengthened by the Dublin Declaration, issued by the Community Heads of Government on 11 March 1975, following a British initiative to have the question considered.

The ministry has a special role also as a clearing house for material provided by New Zealand posts overseas for other departments, and through its posts it performs numerous services on behalf of departments without representatives abroad. It must also ensure that overseas posts are kept supplied with up-to-date information about New Zealand.

In the Official Section at the end of the Yearbook the diplomatic and other New Zealand representation overseas is listed.

New Zealand in the Commonwealth—As a member of the Commonwealth New Zealand is able to consult and co-operate with 35 other countries in a wide variety of activity, both governmental and non-governmental. The value to New Zealand of its Commonwealth links is derived not only from the practical benefits of what the Commonwealth does but also from the heterogeneous composition of the association. Its 36 members take in the 6 continents and the 5 oceans of the world. The Pacific region is now fully represented in the Commonwealth. Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa and Papua New Guinea are full members along with Australia and New Zealand, and Nauru has special status. The Cook Islands and Niue are not eligible for full membership because of their continuing constitutional association with New Zealand. They cannot therefore attend Commonwealth Heads of Government meetings. They are entitled, however, to participate in Commonwealth meetings dealing with those subjects for which their governments are responsible.

As the Commonwealth has grown and changed, its relationships have taken on a new scope and emphasis. As Commonwealth heads of government affirmed in the Commonwealth Declaration adopted at their meeting in 1971, the association "provides many channels for continuing exchanges of knowledge and views on professional, cultural, economic, legal and political issues among member states. These relationships we foster and extend for we believe that our multinational association can expand human understanding and understanding among nations, assist in the elimination of discrimination based on differences of race, colour, and creed, maintain and strengthen personal liberty, contribute to the enrichment of life for all, and provide a powerful influence for peace among nations." New Zealand, itself a country where different races live in harmony, sees in the Commonwealth a special opportunity for multi-racial co-operation and understanding.

The value of the association in providing a forum for the exchange of views between a large number of diverse nations, as set out in the Declaration, was illustrated at the Heads of Government Meetings, most recently in 1975 in Kingston, Jamaica, and in 1977 in London. Discussions were frank, informal, and private, ranging over topics which included changing power relationships, trade, monetary and other economic issues, security, nuclear testing, development assistance, foreign investment, international transport, and South African questions. The last two meetings have paid special attention to the world economic situation, especially the problems of developing nations. Periodic meetings of Commonwealth Ministers of Finance, Trade, Health, Law, and Education promote the exchange of views and functional co-operation in diverse fields of national activity. Ministerial meetings are supported by conferences and seminars of officials and professional and technical specialists.

The belief of member countries in the potential of the Commonwealth led to the establishment of a permanent Commonwealth Secretariat in London in 1965 to be the main agency for multilateral communication among Commonwealth governments. The Secretariat promotes consultation and disseminates information on matters of common concern, organises meetings and conferences, and coordinates many Commonwealth activities. Prominent among these is the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation. The fund is financed by voluntary contributions from most Commonwealth countries. Its primary purpose is to promote economic development through self-help and mutual assistance.

Besides contributing to the budget of the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, New Zealand provides financial support to a number of other intergovernmental Commonwealth organisations which promote co-operation in specific areas. New Zealand also contributes to the Commonwealth Foundation, which was established at the same time as the Secretariat to promote close links in the professions throughout the Commonwealth. It has sponsored official and non-official Commonwealth professional organisations and strengthened the links between administrators, engineers, lawyers, accountants, scientists, and private individuals in the different Commonwealth organisations. Like the Secretariat it has provided a focus for Commonwealth activities and a basis for extending international co-operation.

New Zealand's Relations with Western Europe—Until recently New Zealand's dealings with the countries of Western Europe have tended to concentrate almost entirely on trade matters and particularly on the question of access to the European Economic Community for New Zealand's agricultural exports, for this was (and still is) of crucial importance to New Zealand.

Inevitably, however, the wider political and economic aspects of New Zealand's relations with the states of Western Europe have come to assume greater significance, as we have acquired more knowledge and understanding of the issues affecting each other, and especially as the European Community begins to play an increasing role in international affairs.

New Zealand shares a great deal in common with the countries of Western Europe in terms of shared historical experience, democratic political systems, and lifestyles. New Zealand's membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the International Energy Authority (IEA) underlines the community of broad economic interests. The range of bilateral contacts between New Zealand and individual countries of Western Europe, in all fields, steadily expands, their continued development being one of the main aims of New Zealand's foreign policy.

New Zealand's Relations with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe—New Zealand's relations with the countries of Eastern Europe have developed considerably in recent years, especially in the field of trade. This growth has been reflected in the expansion of New Zealand's diplomatic representation in the area. New Zealand's Ambassador in Vienna is accredited to four East European countries, Poland, Hungary, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. New Zealand's Ambassador in Rome is accredited to Yugoslavia.

Trade is also a major element in New Zealand's relations with the Soviet Union, which is now the fifth largest market for New Zealand's exports. The New Zealand Embassy in Moscow was reopened in 1973.

New Zealand and the Middle East—New Zealand has developed its relations with countries in the Middle East since 1973 in response to the enhanced importance of the region in world political and economic affairs. The greatly increased price of oil and the possibility of a supply cut with renewed hostilities has made it important that New Zealand develop its relations with producing countries. The increased oil revenues have given greater purchasing power to the countries in the region which, with their development programmes and rising standards of living, have a rapidly growing demand for goods and services which New Zealand can provide.

Relations with Iran have developed quickly. In 1974 a number of ministerial and official visits were exchanged between the two countries, culminating in the visit to New Zealand in September 1974 of Their Imperial Majesties, the Shah and Shahbanou and the signing of a trade agreement. In early 1975 New Zealand opened an embassy in Tehran. Relations with other countries in the Middle East have been developed as a result of a goodwill mission visiting the major Arab countries in early 1974, and with ministerial visits between New Zealand and Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Bahrain. New Zealand has accredited a non-resident Ambassador to Egypt and to Iraq In 1975 an embassy under a Charge d'Affaires was opened in Baghdad, and both Egypt and Israel opened embassies in Wellington. In 1977 a consulate-general was opened in Bahrain.

New Zealand and the Asian Area—Since the Second World War, and particularly since 1955, there has been a noteworthy growth in New Zealand's relations with the countries of the Asian/Pacific area. New Zealand has a direct interest in the maintenance of peace and the growth of prosperity in the area. It enjoys a close relationship with Japan, the Republic of Korea, and with the countries which make up the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN): Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines. Since the normalisation of relations with the People's Republic of China in 1972, New Zealand's contacts with China have been increasing. New Zealand also enjoys long-established ties with the countries of South Asia (particularly through the Commonwealth connection) and Burma.

Trade with Asia is becoming more and more important to New Zealand. Private initiative, with Government assistance, has been able to develop new markets, new products, new selling processes, and new economic and commercial relationships. A pattern of regular economic consultations with our main trading partners has been developed; bilateral economic agreements have been concluded.

Aid activities have been expanded. In the early 1950s aid programmes, except for assistance to New Zealand's own Pacific territories, were largely directed towards the Indian subcontinent in the form of capital grants, which called for little direct New Zealand participation. Since the mid 1950s, technical assistance programmes have been enlarged to bring students to New Zealand and send New Zealand experts into the area. Aid activities now utilise New Zealand's industrial and engineering skills as well as those in the more traditional agricultural and health fields.

New Zealand's growing interests and involvement in Asia are reflected in the changing pattern of its diplomatic representation. Prior to 1955, when New Zealand opened a post in Singapore, it had only one diplomatic mission in the region, in Tokyo. Representation has now been established in all of the ASEAN countries, in New Delhi, Peking, Hong Kong, and Seoul. Many of these missions are accredited to other Asian capitals. The network thus created enables New Zealand to assess external events in the light of this country's own interests and needs, and to work directly with other countries in areas of common concern. New Zealand has also developed its political contacts with countries of the area in other important ways. Exchanges of visits by Heads of State and Government Ministers and parliamentarians have increased, and the development of regular bilateral consultations has also been encouraged.

New Zealand has placed particular emphasis on supporting regional organisations for cooperation and consultation in both the political and development fields. It is one of a small group of nations closely associated with ASEAN, which it sees as a force for stability and economic development in South-east Asia. It has initiated a number of joint projects with ASEAN for development and trade co-operation. New Zealand is an associate member of the South-east Asian Ministers of Education Organisation (SEAMEO), and a member of the Ministerial Conference for the Economic Development of South-east Asia (MEDSEA), an organisation which is in the process of redefining its role following changes of government in the countries of Indo-China.

The degree of cultural interchange between New Zealand and the countries of Asia has expanded steadily. Where once New Zealanders looked largely to Britain for cultural inspiration and experience, now their horizons have broadened. Increased contacts with Asia have brought with them an awareness of what the cultural background of the countries there can offer New Zealand. Professional bodies, sporting associations, cultural groups, and universities today have links with similar organisations in Asia, as well as with more traditional partners such as Britain and Australia. The development of civil air links, and the concurrent growth of tourism, have also helped to bring a wider range of contacts.

Nowhere within the Pacific Basin has New Zealand's adaptation to changed circumstances been more complete than in its relationship with Japan. Today that association is one of the most important that New Zealand has and it is friendly and rewarding for both sides. Its elements are varied—trade, consultation, co-operation, and a growing range of cultural, educational, sporting, and personal ties. In many ways, the conditions for a developing trading relationship are ideal, for the two countries are located in different hemispheres, their economies are complementary, and each has in abundance some things that the other needs. Despite those advantages, commercial exchanges have not been completely straightforward, and over a number of years New Zealand has pressed (to little avail) for improved conditions of access for certain important commodities, including beef and dairy products. Even so, Japan today is New Zealand's second biggest market and its third largest source of supply. For Japan, New Zealand does not occupy so important a place but on both sides there are expectations of continued and expanding trade and of closer involvement together in other settings.

Meanwhile, the steady growth in the extent and cordiality of New Zealand's relations with the People's Republic of China further illustrates New Zealanders' changing perceptions of Asia. Although not yet a substantial trading partner, China is increasingly important to New Zealand as a major power with a leading role in Asia and in the "third world".

New Zealand and the South Pacific—New Zealand has a long history of interest and involvement in the South Pacific. In the latter part of the 19th century Prime Minister Richard Seddon harboured ambitions of a South Pacific empire controlled by New Zealand, and as a result of pressure from Seddon the administration of the Cook Islands and Niue, which were British colonial possessions, was handed over to New Zealand in 1901. The number of New Zealand Pacific dependencies increased when, following the establishment of the League of Nations, Western Samoa, which had been occupied by New Zealand troops at the outbreak of the First World War, became a mandated territory under the administration of New Zealand. In 1925 the Tokelau Islands (now known as Tokelau) then part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, were ceded by the United Kingdom to New Zealand.

Despite its geographical situation, the acquisition of overseas dependencies in the South Pacific and the ethnic kinship of the Maori and the Polynesian peoples, New Zealand's present identity as a South Pacific country was slow in developing for a number of reasons. Culturally, New Zealand has been closer to Western Europe than to the Pacific. For many years almost all of New Zealand's exports went to the United Kingdom. Politically, New Zealand's outlook was oriented towards Europe and, more recently, South-east Asia. Also the Pacific Islands were, and in some cases still are, administered by other countries.

But during the 1960s there was a dramatic emergence of new nations in the South Pacific. New Zealand encouraged this development in its own territories.

In Western Samoa, which had become a United Nations Trust Territory administered by New Zealand, political and constitutional development was carried forward in accordance with the wishes of the Samoan people. This culminated in the establishment of the independent State of Western Samoa on 1 January 1962. On 4 August 1965 the Cook Islands became a self-governing nation in free association with New Zealand. In an exchange of letters between the New Zealand Prime Minister, the Right Honourable Norman Kirk, and the Premier of the Cook Islands, Sir Albert Henry, in April 1973 clarifying the special relationship between the Cook Islands and New Zealand, it was agreed that there were to be no legal fetters of any kind upon the freedom of the Cook Islands to make their own laws and control their own Constitution. Although New Zealand has a statutory responsibility for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands, it is intended that the Cook Islands be free to pursue their own policies and interests in these as well as other areas. Cook Islanders remain New Zealand citizens under the Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964.

Niue became self-governing in free association with New Zealand on Constitution Day, 19 October 1974. It is written into the Niue Constitution Act 1974 that New Zealand will continue to be responsible for the external affairs and defence of Niue, that Niueans will remain New Zealand citizens, and that New Zealand will provide necessary economic and administrative assistance.

Tokelau is still included within the boundaries of New Zealand and is administered under the authority of the Tokelau Islands Act 1948. Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens. By agreement with the Government of Western Samoa the office for Tokelau Affairs is based in Apia and handles Tokelau transactions with the outside world, especially with New Zealand. Decisions about day-to-day living in Tokelau are made by the village councils.

The developments in New Zealand's territories are part of a wider pattern of political evolution in the region. In 1968 Nauru became an independent republic; in 1970 Fiji became independent; and in the same year Tonga rejoined the Commonwealth. In 1975 Papua New Guinea became fully independent after being self-governing since December 1973. In 1976 the Solomon Islands became self-governing, as did Tuvalu which came into existence when the British Government agreed to the separation of the Ellice Islands from the former Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Independence for the Gilbert Islands is expected in 1979.

It is natural that New Zealand and its South Pacific neighbours should have become very closely associated. One important reason has been the movement of Pacific peoples into New Zealand. Cook Islanders, Niueans and Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens and move freely back and forth. New Zealand's historical association with Western Samoa, which is reflected in the Treaty of Friendship signed in August 1962, and its close association with the Kingdom of Tonga, has resulted in a flow of immigrants and visitors under work permit schemes from both countries.

New Zealand has also played an active role in building up regional co-operation in the South Pacific. A major step in this direction was the creation of the South Pacific Forum comprising the independent and self-governing countries of the South Pacific, Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, Papua New Guinea and the Gilbert Islands, together with Australia and New Zealand which, at the invitation of New Zealand, met for the first time in Wellington in August 1971. Since then meetings have been held in Canberra, Suva, Apia, Rarotonga, Nuku'alofa, Nauru, and Port Moresby. The Forum also has two observer countries; Tuvalu, and the Solomon Islands. Both these countries are expected to become independent shortly, and they will then become full members of the Forum.

The South Pacific Forum provides the opportunity for the leaders of the South Pacific states to discuss common problems, exchange information, consider priorities, and plan programmes for mutual and regional benefit. The topics considered include such matters as regional trade, shipping, civil aviation, telecommunications, education, law of the sea, fishing, disaster relief, and nuclear testing.

At the Canberra session of the South Pacific Forum in 1972 members agreed to establish the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC) to deal with trade and related matters. The main purpose of the SPEC is to advise Forum members on ways of promoting regional trade and free trade among Island members and to encourage collaboration in areas such as regional transport which will assist the economic development of the Island members. The headquarters of the SPEC are in Suva, Fiji.

The South Pacific Commission, created in 1947 by the Canberra Agreement of which New Zealand is a signatory, is the other major regional body. Representatives from 22 governments and territorial administrations from within the South Pacific Commission comprise the South Pacific Conference. The Conference which meets annually decides the work programme of the Commission. Since its establishment the Commission has helped to build up a sense of regional identity and it has accomplished much in promoting the economic and social welfare of the South Pacific peoples. It is primarily a technical assistance organisation and its budget in 1977 totalled A$2.8 million. The main regular contributors to the budget are the participating governments in the area—the United Kingdom, the United States of America, France, Australia, Fiji, Nauru, Western Samoa, Papua New Guinea, and New Zealand. Australia, France, Nauru, and New Zealand have in recent years made additional voluntary contributions to the budget, which has enabled the Commission to undertake a number of special projects of value to the region as a whole.

The United Nations and its specialised agencies are also an important source of technical assistance in the South Pacific. The independent countries of the region are members of various UN bodies, and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has a regional office in Fiji.

New Zealand and Australia—New Zealand's most comprehensive bilateral relationship is with Australia. Geographical proximity reinforces the important historical, cultural, and Commonwealth ties between New Zealand and Australia that have given rise to this unusually close and mutually beneficial relationship. New Zealand established a diplomatic office in Australia in 1943, very early in its diplomatic history, and in 1944 the Canberra Pact was signed. This paved the way for a tradition of joint consultation and co-operation that reflects the interdependence of the two countries' interests and the goodwill and friendship of their peoples. In matters of foreign policy, in defence and in the economic field, the degree of co-operation also reflects the importance of each country to the other and a need for continuing close working contacts. Regular and increasingly frequent ministerial and official meetings have taken place, with a minimum of formality, to cover almost the entire range of government activity. Moreover, the two countries are bound together by innumerable personal contacts facilitated by freedom of travel across the Tasman, and by institutionalised links in business, finance, education, the professions, and in nearly all fields of national activity.

New Zealand and Australia share a foreign policy objective in acting to promote stability and development in the South Pacific and South-east Asian regions of their immediate vicinity, as well as a more general interest in co-ordinating their positions on major international political and economic questions of current concern, in the United Nations, the Commonwealth, GATT, and elsewhere. In the economic context, Australia is a major trading partner for New Zealand, Australia's largest single market for manufactured exports. Trade has significantly expanded and the two economies become increasingly related under the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), dating from 1965–66. The Agreement is at present being comprehensively reviewed in the interests of restoring a better balance to the relationship which has been sustained markedly in Australia's favour. In the defence field, the former ANZAC partners continue to co-operate closely, both in relation to training programmes and exercises and the provision of equipment and other supplies, and in terms of the broader issues of defence policy, especially in their common membership of ANZUS.

New Zealand and the Americas—Continuing and close contact with the United States is an essential part of New Zealand's foreign policy. The United States remains New Zealand's principal security guarantor, is a major trading partner, and has an important influence on the New Zealand way of life. The two countries share a common English-speaking heritage and a friendship of long standing, both in peace and war.

Since the opening in Washington in 1941 of New Zealand's second diplomatic mission, close consultations have been held with the United States on many bilateral questions and international issues of common interest. Basic similarities in political philosophy and social and economic processes have encouraged the development of close governmental relations, which have been supported by increasing contacts, both official and non-official, across a broad range of activities.

This comprehensive bilateral relationship finds expression in political, strategic, economic, and cultural fields. Under the ANZUS arrangements initiated in 1951, New Zealand looks to the United States for fundamental assistance in the maintenance of its national and regional security. In turn, where national interests coincide, New Zealand is able to offer the United States active support for its constructive international role and to provide a friendly and stable influence in the South Pacific. On the economic side, bilateral trade has expanded to the extent that the United States is now the fourth largest market for New Zealand's exports and the fourth largest source of imports. Regular intergovernmental consultations are held to review the trading relationship, which recently has been weighted in favour of the United States. Programmes for scientific and technical co-operation, and academic and cultural exchanges serve to maintain an awareness of New Zealand in the United States and to promote a vigorous and beneficial interchange of ideas and experience.

New Zealand and Canada, through a common British heritage and long association in the Commonwealth, have traditionally enjoyed a close and special informal relationship, with long-established bonds of friendship between the New Zealand and Canadian people. Since New Zealand established diplomatic representation in Canada in 1942, there have been many ministerial and official exchanges in a broad range of fields in which the two countries' basic compatibility and similarity of attitude have provided invaluable opportunities for bilateral consultation and cooperation. New Zealand and Canada have also built up a record of co-operation on many international issues, particularly in Commonwealth and United Nations contexts. New Zealand's particular interest and involvement in the South Pacific, and Canada's in the Caribbean, have provided a useful basis for the exchange of experience, and both countries share a presence and a direct interest in the affairs of the Pacific Basin.

Canada is one of New Zealand's major trading partners, being at present the second largest market for New Zealand beef and a growing market for lamb. Regular intergovernmental consultations help to keep the trading relationship under review and provide a basis for negotiation on specific difficulties. They also facilitate co-operation on economic and financial policy matters of wider international importance.

New Zealand's relations with the Caribbean have been concerned largely with mutual Commonwealth interests and with a substantial export trade, mainly in dairy products. Since September 1974, the New Zealand High Commissioner in Ottawa has been cross-accredited to Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Guyana, and Barbados. The sole resident representation is in Port of Spain (Trinidad and Tobago), New Zealand assistance is being extended to these four Commonwealth countries and to the multilateral Caribbean Development Bank under a modest aid programme.

New Zealand's contacts with the countries of Latin America, limited in the past due to geographical orientation and widely different historical and cultural backgrounds, have developed considerably in the 1970s. A substantial growth in trade preceded the establishment of New Zealand representation in Chile and Peru in 1972, and in 1974 diplomatic relations were entered into with Mexico. Peru has in recent years been New Zealand's largest export market in Latin America, and a major marker for New Zealand dairy produce. Other significant Latin American markets for New Zealand dairy produce are Mexico, Ecuador (from which New Zealand has imported bananas), Venezuela, and some of the Central American republics (notably El Salvador and Costa Rica). As part of the continuing process of diversifying its economic relations, New Zealand has recently devoted increased attention to exploring the possibilities for expanding trade with the countries of Latin America. In recognition of the growing political importance of the region as a whole and particularly of the largest countries, Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina, opportunities are also being taken to enhance bilateral relations. Several official visits have taken place in recent years. At the private level, New Zealanders have long been interested in and frequent travellers through the countries of South America.

In the field of overseas assistance, New Zealand maintains a modest but important technical co-operation programme in Peru, under which New Zealand experts are helping in the development of key areas of Peruvian agriculture. New Zealand is also assisting in the organisation of the Peruvian National Parks.

New Zealand in the United Nations—Successive New Zealand Governments have strongly supported the development of the United Nations as a major instrument for maintaining peace and security, for developing friendly relations among countries, for promoting international co-operation aimed at solving economic and social problems, and for ensuring respect for human rights.

New Zealand has consequently played an active and prominent role in the various areas of United Nations activity. In the 1976–77 biennium New Zealand contributed US$1,842,321 to the regular budget of the United Nations.

International Security—At San Francisco in 1945 the New Zealand Prime Minister, the Right Honourable Peter Fraser, argued forcefully but unsuccessfully for the elimination of the Security Council veto and for a strengthening of the collective security provision of the Charter. Since then New Zealand has actively supported the development of the United Nations' capacity for peacekeeping activities and worked consistently for international arms control and disarmament measures. New Zealand contributed forces to the United Nations Command in Korea, military observers to the United Nations Observer Groups in Palestine, Kashmir and the Lebanon, and a civilian police unit to the United Nations peacekeeping force in Cyprus. In recent years New Zealand has been closely involved in moves to promote the cessation of all forms of nuclear testing, as a key step towards halting the nuclear arms race.

New Zealand served on the Security Council in 1954 and 1955 and again in 1966.

Economic and Social Activities—There has been increasing emphasis in recent years on making use of the United Nations as a forum to help resolve the formidable economic and social problems that face the world. This has been done both in the regular organs of the United Nations, such as the General Assembly, and the Economic and Social Council and its functional and regional commissions, and at special conferences, such as those on the environment (at Stockholm in 1972), population (at Bucharest in 1974), food (at Rome in 1974), the role of women (at Mexico in 1975), and water (at Mar del Plata in 1977). During 1974 and 1975 Special Sessions of the General Assembly were held specifically to discuss development issues. The former enunciated the declaration and Programme of Action on the establishment of a new international economic order.

During 1977 New Zealand served on the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Statistical Commission, the Economic and Social Council, and the Commission on the Status of Women. New Zealand also participated actively in the session of the Conference on the Law of the Sea held in June and July 1977 in New York.

Specialised Agencies—New Zealand is a member of all the specialised agencies, and is also a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which, though not strictly a specialised agency, exists under the aegis of the United Nations. New Zealand's contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, which are based for the most part on a scale of assessment similar to that used in the United Nations itself, in total considerably exceed our contribution to the United Nations' regular budget. In 1977, for example, our contributions to the budgets of the International Labour Organisation (ILO), the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the World Health Organisation (WHO), and the UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) alone totalled US$1,212,273.

Convinced of the value of the form of international co-operation that the agencies represent, New Zealand participates actively in their work. In the case of the technical agencies, there are direct benefits to New Zealand in membership. Membership of the Universal Postal Union, for example, is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country; and the International Telecommunication Union works to promote the most rational and efficient operation of world-wide telecommunications services. The World Meteorological Organisation is the medium for establishing a world-wide network for the rapid exchange of meteorological information, which is of particular value to remote island countries like New Zealand. The ILO is concerned with protecting the basic dignities and freedoms of the wage earner and brings together representatives of governments, employers, and workers to frame international conventions on working and living conditions.

In addition to its contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, New Zealand gives voluntary assistance in the form of further monetary grants, the services of experts to developing countries (for example in agriculture, physiotherapy, police work, forestry, and education) and donations of equipment or commodities. In 1977 New Zealand served on the Council of FAO and participated in most of the major meetings of the Agencies.

New Zealand's membership of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation allows this country to participate in international efforts to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of the underdeveloped areas of the world. It also serves to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to more varied sources of capital for capital projects or for balance of payments purposes.

New Zealand is also a foundation member of the Asian Development Bank, established in 1967 under the auspices of the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP) to foster economic growth and co-operation in the Asian/Pacific region.

New Zealand has supported United Nations agency activity which will help the social and economic development of the Pacific Islands. Examples of such projects are: the work of WHO in eradicating yaws and tuberculosis; FAO's efforts to control the rhinoceros beetle which ravages much of the islands' coconut crops, and its support for a regional fisheries development agency; the establishment by UNESCO of a curriculum development unit at the University of the South Pacific; the placement in Suva of a development assistance team, backed by ESCAP and the specialised agencies; the operation of a telecommunications training school set up under UN Development Programme (UNDP) auspices in Suva; and the joint venture under the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) in conjunction with regional organisations to establish a comprehensive environmental management programme in the region.

New Zealand has in the past served on the governing bodies of UNESCO and the Universal Postal Union (UPU), as well as FAO, and was a member of the Executive Board of WHO from 1972 to 1974.

New Zealand's Defence Policies—After the Second World War the international scene was clouded for many years by the Cold War. New Zealand was affected by the tensions of the period and took steps to provide for its defence in concert with its allies. As a small country with limited resources, New Zealand alone was not able to defend its extensive but isolated territory against aggression by any militarily significant power. It therefore supported efforts to give effect to the provisions of the United Nations Charter which looked to the creation of a universal system of collective security. In the meantime it accepted that it should act in concert with like-minded countries in order to strengthen its security in its own region.

Recent developments in international affairs—especially the improvement of the United States* relations with China, the ending of the war in Vietnam, the growth in the number of major power centres (multipolarity)—have led to a relaxation of tensions that has lessened the likelihood that New Zealand might be involved in war. Changes in United States policy, which now emphasises that the primary responsibility for long-term stability in Asia rests with the countries of the area, and the large reduction of the British defence presence outside Europe have given new impetus to regional initiative. The relaxation of cold war tensions has given New Zealand and other small nations greater freedom of action but it has also reinforced the requirement for closer collaboration on a regional basis. It has also meant that New Zealand's relations with the countries of South-east Asia are no longer to be regulated primarily by defence considerations.

By means of staff exchanges, exercises, training programmes, and the provision of facilities under its Defence Mutual Assistance Programme, New Zealand co-operates with several countries in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific in building up one another's defence capacity, thereby contributing to regional stability. It is also a partner in the Five Power Defence Arrangements relating to Malaysia and Singapore, which, although ostensibly military in nature, are primarily a political instrument for fostering stability and co-operation and helping to preserve national integrity and independence.

The Five Power Defence Arrangements—The basis of the Five Power Defence Arrangements is not a formal treaty or arrangement but a statement incorporated in the communique of the meeting of Ministers of the five powers (Britain, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand) held in London in April 1971. At that meeting the Ministers declared, in relation to the external defence of Malaysia and Singapore, "that in the event of any form of armed attack externally organised or supported or the threat of such attack against Malaysia or Singapore, their governments would immediately consult together for the purpose of deciding what measures should be taken jointly or separately in relation to such attack or threat".

The Australian, New Zealand, and United Kingdom forces stationed in Malaysia and Singapore under the Five Power Defence Arrangements were grouped into an ANZUK Force. The Australian Government decided in 1973 to withdraw most of its ground forces by April 1975, while retaining two RAAF squadrons in Malaysia. The ANZUK Force was disbanded in early 1974 and the New Zealand contingent based in Singapore became known as New Zealand Force South-east Asia. Later the United Kingdom Government announced, as part of its defence review, that it would withdraw its forces based in Singapore by April 1976, and this has been done.

In August 1975 the New Zealand Government announced that it had decided in principle that the New Zealand Force in Singapore should return home to New Zealand in the next 2 years or so. This decision was reviewed by the new Government in 1976 in the light of its own consultations with the regional countries. In announcing on 9 September 1976 that there would be no early return of the New Zealand Force stationed in Singapore, the Minister of Defence said that during a recent visit to Singapore he had been assured by its Prime Minister and Minister of Defence that the Force was welcome to remain.

SEATO—Eight governments—Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States—signed the South-east Asia Collective Defence Treaty, also known as the Manila Treaty, on 8 September 1954. The South-East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) established under the treaty, in addition to military planning, undertook activities intended to foster the security and stability of the regional member countries and to carry out, on a modest scale, projects designed to promote their economic and social development. For example, it sponsored research in the fields of tropical medicine, agriculture, and engineering.

The ending of the Vietnam war in 1975 and other developments in the region led Governments in South-east Asia to re-assess many of their attitudes and policies. On 24 July 1975 the President of the Philippines and the Prime Minister of Thailand—the two remaining regional members of SEATO after the withdrawal of Pakistan in 1973—reached agreement in principle that "the Organisation should be phased out to make it accord with the new realities in the region". After further consultations among members, the SEATO Council of Ministers decided at its annual meeting in New York on 24 September 1975 that, while the Organisation had over the years made a useful contribution to stability and development in the region, "in view of the changing circumstances it should now be phased out". This process was completed on 30 June 1977. No move was made, however, to abrogate the Treaty.

ANZUS—There is no direct threat to the security of the New Zealand homeland at present. In the unlikely event of such a threat materialising New Zealand would be able to turn for assistance to its partners in the ANZUS Pact. This tripartite security treaty between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States was signed at San Francisco on 1 September 1951 and came into force on 29 April 1952. It assured New Zealand and Australia of American support in the event of aggression in the Pacific.

In the absence of any foreseeable need to invoke the security provisions of the treaty, ANZUS can be seen as a durable expression of a strongly-based community of interest and attitude among the three democracies that are parties to it. The close relationship among the three countries is reflected in the informality and ease of their consultation under the ANZUS Treaty. Meetings of the Council of Ministers are generally held once a year to discuss matters of common interest.

NEW ZEALAND'S AID AND OTHER RESOURCE FLOWS TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES—During 1976–77 official development assistance (ODA) amounted to $55.3 million or 0.43 percent of GNP—a decline from the $59.7 million of the previous year. The level of ODA marked a peaking of a programme of development assistance that had come through a period of rapid expansion in the previous few years. The decision to apply restraint to ODA reflected the Government's resolve to hold the expenditure of public moneys in the light of the country's severe economic difficulties. Bilateral and regional assistance totalled $44.1 million, with $11.2 million going to multilateral institutions. The bilateral/multilateral ratio was 80:20. The South Pacific continued to be the main region of concentration for New Zealand bilateral and regional assistance, accounting for $26.8 million or 61 percent of the total bilateral allocations. South and South-east Asia also received a substantial portion of ODA—$15.2 million. Smaller programmes operated in Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. The total programme involves the skills and experience of hundreds of New Zealanders together with New Zealand capital and commodity and training assistance, all of which are carefully geared to respond to the aid partners' own developmental priorities.

Total Resource Flow—New Zealand's official development assistance, virtually all administered by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs External Aid Division, is but one part, albeit the major one, of New Zealand's total flow of resources to developing countries—the transfer of goods, services, and capital. The total picture includes private flows, and the grants and activities of voluntary agencies. For the year ended 31 March 1977, the total flow of resources from New Zealand to developing countries was estimated at $61,946,076, comprising:

 ($)

*Based on Ministry of Foreign Affairs voluntary survey.

Official development assistance55,345,146
Private flows*1,070,278
Grants by voluntary agencies*5,530,652
  Total flow of resources61,946,076

The figure of $61.9 million represented 0.48 percent of GNP, which compares with the international target of 1 percent of GNP for donor countries' total flow of resources to developing countries.

Bilateral ODA 1976–77—Under its bilateral aid (government-to-government) programmes, New Zealand responds, where possible, to the basic developmental needs of selected countries, mainly in the South Pacific and South and South-east Asia, with small programmes also in Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean. Hundreds of projects are undertaken with inputs of New Zealand expertise and/or material and capital resources. The projects vary from major geothermal power development in Indonesia and the Philippines to afforestation schemes in the Pacific and pasture improvement projects in Peru and Tanzania. Some projects, involving the provision of experts, are completed in a few months; others involve commitments of several years. The transfer of New Zealand expertise, particularly in the field of agriculture, is supplemented by training offered under the bilateral aid programme to nominees from recipient countries. There were about 800 holders of training or study awards in New Zealand during 1976–77. This training is linked to specific requirements in the recipient countries and is sometimes directly related to the maintenance of a development project involving New Zealand input.

Bilateral programmes in the South Pacific and South-east Asia are supplemented by programmes promoting regional development co-operation, particularly in the fields of education, transport, and communications. Bilateral assistance also includes commodity and distress relief.

A country breakdown of bilateral ODA in 1976–77 shows the direction and scope of New Zealand assistance:

ODA: BILATERAL AID 1976–77

 NZ$(000)
South and South-east Asia 
  Afghanistan3
  Bangladesh377
  Bhutan22
  Brunei7
  Burma139
  India325
  Indonesia4,801
  Kampuchea65
  South Korea532
  Laos21
  Malaysia2,339
  Maldives29
  Nepal517
  Pakistan219
  Philippines2,318
  Singapore246
  Sri Lanka209
  Thailand2,022
  Vietnam126
  China15
  Regional902
  Other9
    Total15,243
South Pacific 
  Solomon Islands402
  Cook Islands6,068
  Fiji6,228
  Gilbert Islands96
  Nauru2
  New Hebrides350
  Niue3,034
  Papua New Guinea1,795
  Tokelau889
  Tonga1,785
  Tuvalu12
  Western Samoa2,946
  Regional3,240
    Total26,847
Africa 
  Gambia1
  Ghana7
  Kenya47
  Malawi3
  Mauritius5
  Nigeria2
  Rhodesia29
  Sierra Leone17
  Swaziland35
  Tanzania334
  Zambia56
  Regional158
    Total694
Latin America 
  Chile3
  Peru395
  Regional8
    Total406
Caribbean 
  Barbados25
  Jamaica94
  Trinidad and Tobago1
  Guyana58
  Regional4
    Total182
Western Asia 
  Egypt60
  Malta35
  Iran24
  Iraq1
     Total120
   Voluntary agencies244
  Halls of residence56
  Commonwealth Education Scheme27
  Other285
     Total612
  Total Bilateral Aid44,104

Multilateral ODA 1976–77—The multilateral programme enables New Zealand to make a contribution to development work which would usually be beyond the scope of the bilateral aid programme, either in terms of the scale of the projects or their ability to help developing countries beyond the regions of concentration of the bilateral aid effort.

Multilateral assistance amounted to $11,240,439 during 1976–77, including a contribution of $3.67 million to the International Development Association (World Bank). Other major recipients of New Zealand multilateral aid included the United Nations Development Programme ($1,508,221), the Asian Development Bank ($1.4 million), the World Food Programme ($734,358), the United Nations Children's Emergency Fund ($700,000), and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation ($573,939).

MULTILATERAL ODA 1976–77

 NZ$(000)
United Nations agencies and funds 
  United Nations Development Programme1,508
  World Food Programme734
  United Nations Children's Emergency Fund700
  United Nations Fund for Population Activities350
  United Nations Relief and Works Agency120
  United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees79
  United Nations Education and Training Programme for Southern Africa15
  United Nations Trust Fund for South Africa7
  United Nations Trust Fund for Namibia4
  United Nations Disaster Relief Office10
    Total3,527
Common wealth programmes 
  Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation574
  Commonwealth Youth Programme37
    Total611
South Pacific Institutions 
  South Pacific Commission366
  South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation104
    Total470
Development Finance Institutions 
  International Development Association— 
    Fourth replenishment3,670
  Asian Development Bank— 
    Technical Assistance Fund75
    Capital subscription1,400
  Caribbean Development Bank150
  I.M.F. Oil Subsidy315
    Total5,610
Other contributions 
  Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research25
  International Planned Parenthood Federation262
  International Committee of the Red Cross26
  Nam Ngum hydro-electric scheme256
  Miscellaneous multilateral institutions90
  ODA proportion of assessed contributions to other agencies363
    Total1,022
    Total Multilateral ODA11,240

Non-official Flows—The Government maintains a close association with private groups and organisations interested in development assistance through bi-monthly meetings with New Zealand voluntary agencies, and through the Advisory Committee on External Aid and Development, established in September 1975 to examine, debate, publicise and advise on New Zealand assistance, public and private, to developing countries. Under the Voluntary Agency Support Scheme the Government provides a subsidy for approved projects undertaken by New Zealand private agencies in developing countries. Government assistance to voluntary agencies, including grants to CORSO, Volunteer Service Abroad and Trade Aid Inc., amounted to $244,294 in 1976–77. Estimates of private grants overseas made by voluntary agencies for development activities rose slightly to $5.53 million in 1976–77—a figure based on a survey conducted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The figure is probably underestimated, given the difficulty of covering all agencies which meet primary development criteria.

CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: General—New Zealand is a sovereign independent unitary state, being in form a constitutional monarchy with responsible government and a unicameral legislature.

In common with the United Kingdom, New Zealand has no single written instrument purporting to be its supreme or fundamental law. Its constitution is contained in the statutes of the Imperial and New Zealand Parliaments and the decisions of the superior courts of both jurisdictions. Some statutes have greater constitutional significance than others.

To the extent that its constitution is unwritten it is flexible, but restraints by way of conventions prevent, at least in normal circumstances, arbitrary or improper alteration of the constitution and the abuse or misuse of legislative or executive power.

Statutes such as the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 (United Kingdom) recite law which, by reason of political, legal, and social development, may appear obsolete. If the spirit of the law in such a case cannot readily be observed by the use and development of convention, the law may be repealed, cf. Constitution Amendment Act 1973 (New Zealand). On the other hand, some conventions may be translated into substantive law after a period of time. Thus, the Civil List Act 1950 provides that no person may be appointed or remain a Minister of the Crown unless concurrently, he is a member of the House of Representatives, thereby ensuring the continuation of the system of ministerial responsibility.

The fundamental canon of the constitution is that Parliament is supreme or "sovereign" The question as to where sovereignty lies does not arise in the sense of its vesting in the people or the legislature or the monarch. Nor can it be argued, except in a very loose sense, that the legislature reflects and executes the will of the people. Reality dictates that the will of the people is expressed through the ballot box in choosing its government and legislature. That is not to say that individuals and organisations do not express their views on measures which may become law but their voice and influence is limited, if only paradoxically, by the very nature of government which the country possesses, that is, representative and responsible.

The constitutional theory of the separation of powers does not operate fully in New Zealand. The Executive Government consists of members of the legislature who are appointed by the Governor-General as Ministers of the Crown but who are, in practice, those members of the Government party who are selected for office by the leader of the Government party or elected to the ministry by their parliamentary fellows through caucus. Strictly speaking, ministers, being members of the legislature, are thereby "responsible" to it for their actions and those of their departments. Moreover, the Executive Government, collectively, is held to be answerable in the same way for its policies and the means of implementation. However, for so long as the two-party system continues to operate in New Zealand so that one party, gaining a majority at the polls, becomes the government of the day, the quantum of responsibility will depend largely on that government's observance of the conventions surrounding the concept. The rigours of individual ministerial responsibility have been eroded to the extent that where it is a question of the appropriate Minister being in the position of respondeat superior for the acts or omissions of his officers or department, the convention that he should resign appears to have fallen into desuetude.

The Sovereign—The Queen, in right of New Zealand, is styled: "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God Queen of New Zealand, and Her Other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith", Royal Titles Acts 1953 and 1974.

Being a constitutional monarchy, the Sovereign's powers are defined and circumscribed, first by law and then by convention.

In the Sovereign's absence, most of the royal powers are exercised by her representative, the Governor-General, in terms of the 1852 Act and the Instructions and Letters Patent of 1917 (the latter are under revision at the present time and will be amended so as to reflect constitutional developments which have occurred since promulgation). It should be noted that the Governor-General is not a viceroy and it would therefore be possible but unlikely for him to act ultra vires. By convention, the Queen and the Governor-General avoid becoming embroiled overtly in the "politics" of government, although the Sovereign and Governor-General remain an integral part of the legislative process.

Many of the formal procedures associated with government and administration require the participation of the Queen or Governor-General, inter alia, summoning, proroguing, and dissolving Parliament; assenting to measures passed by the House so as to give them the force of law; appointing judges of the Supreme Court and senior officials of State; appointing ministries and individual Ministers; conferring knighthoods and other honours. Most of the royal functions will be performed on advice of the Executive Government and little, if any, information is available as to whether this advice has always been taken without demur within the last 70 years. To reject advice would place the Governor-General in a very difficult situation, his appointment and tenure being at the pleasure, ultimately, of the New Zealand Government. Learned writers have suggested that he would only refuse to act on advice were he reasonably certain that he could find another member of the legislature willing and able to form a government enjoying the confidence of the House or, if this were not feasible, that his rejection would he vindicated by the electorate were he to dissolve Parliament and cause a general election so as to break a deadlock in the House. To reject advice otherwise, or fail having tried the alternatives, would be to invite his own recall.

Speculation remains, of course, on whether the Governor-General would reject advice even in the circumstances outlined above. The question is to determine how much real power, active or residual, is now possessed by the Governor-General. Recent amendments* to the 1852 Act have shorn the Governor-General of the legal basis of powers which had lapsed already, in great part, by operation of convention.

*See New Zealand Constitution Amendment Act 1973 (N.Z.).

Nevertheless it should not be supposed that the Sovereign or the Governor-General have become constitutionally redundant. Many of the powers held and exercised by the Executive Government arise by virtue of the royal prerogative, defined by Dicey as the "residue of discretionary or arbitrary authority, which at any given time is legally left in the hands of the Crown". While many of the prerogative powers have been superseded by statute (there is debate on whether the prerogative is thereby extinguished or continues to subsist), substantial areas remain untouched, the majority of prerogative powers being exercised by Ministers with or without reference to the Governor-General.

Although calls for its abolition are made from time to time, the Monarchy seems to be an accepted part of New Zealand's constitutional and political structure although overt involvement in the political arena whether by the Queen or the Governor-General might well have the effect of engendering substantial support for abolition.

Parliament—Since the abolition of the Legislative Council (Upper House) in 1950, Parliament, for most purposes, has consisted of the Governor-General (the Queen when resident in New Zealand) and the House of Representatives. By convention, this has come to mean the House of Representatives—the Governor-General exercising only those constitutional powers which serve to confer on measures before the House and passed by it, the force of law.

The New Zealand Parliament is a creation of the United Kingdom Parliament and, unlike its creator, cannot claim to be a court of record. However, it has followed Westminster and acts as a court of equity in so far as it will hear petitions from individuals and groups. The basic rule is that the petitioner(s) must have exhausted all available legal and equitable remedies, if the subject matter of the petition is justiciable.

The question of parliamentary privilege escapes precise legal definition. The most that can be said is that the courts will define the ambit of the privilege and within those limits Parliament may do as it will. As yet, the matter has not been tested in a New Zealand court.

The New Zealand Parliament holds plenary power to make laws for New Zealand including those having extra-territorial effect (in this context section 49 of the New Zealand Loans Act 1953 is something of a curiosity). Plenary legislative power was not assumed until 1947 with the passing of the Statute of Westminster (Adoption) Act 1947.

Any residual doubts about the power of the New Zealand Parliament were removed with the passage of the New Zealand Constitution Amendment Act 1973 (New Zealand).

The doctrine that one Parliament cannot bind its successor operates in New Zealand. It would seem therefore that those provisions of the Electoral Act 1956 relating to: (a) the constitution and order of the Representation Commission; (b) the number of General electoral districts, their boundaries based on the total population; (c) the tolerance (5 percent) within which the Commission must work in relation to (b): (d) the age of voting (18 years since 1974); (e) the secret ballot; (f) the duration of Parliament; while expressed as being entrenched by s. 189 of the 1956 Act, in that amendment to any of the above provisions must receive a majority vote of 75 percent or receive the consent of the electors by referendum, are entrenched in a moral sense only. It would be open to any Parliament to repeal section 189 and then proceed to amend or repeal the "entrenched" provisions by ordinary legislation. The same result would be achieved by repealing the 1956 Act in toto.

Meeting, etc., of Parliament—Parliament is summoned, prorogued, or dissolved by the Governor-General and lasts for a maximum of 3 years although there have been some exceptions. The 1852 Act provided for quinquennial Parliaments but this provision was abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act 1879 which substituted a 3-year term. Since 1881 elections have been held at 3-year intervals except that the term of the Parliament during the First World War was extended to 5 years by special legislation and that of the twenty-fourth Parliament to four by the Electoral Amendment Act 1934. The 3-year term was restored by a 1937 Amendment but the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to 5 years because of war-time conditions. The 3-year term was enacted in the Electoral Act 1956 and a referendum in 1967 favoured its continuation.

By convention, the Governor-General would accept the Prime Minister's advice to dissolve Parliament before expiry, as was done in 1951, unless the Governor-General were of the opinion that the Prime Minister no longer commanded a majority in the House and that a ministry could be formed without having to hold elections, a situation which would be unlikely to arise.

Until 1973, sessions (the period between summons and prorogation) usually covered the months June through to November. However, in 1974 Parliament met as early as February and sat until early November. The 1974 session lasted 119 sitting days (a record) compared with 118 in 1977. Strictly speaking, business introduced during a session and not completed at the time of prorogation, lapses and requires to be reintroduced during the next session, although it has become usual for some business to be carried forward to the next session.

House of Representatives—For all practical purposes "Parliament" is synonymous with "House of Representatives" but from the constitutional viewpoint distinctions need to be drawn.

The House comprises 87 members (92 following the 1978 General Election) including 4 from the Maori electorates. With certain exceptions (the insane, for example), any person who is not an alien and who is 18 years of age or more may vote in a general election.

The Speaker is elected at the start of a new Parliament and presents himself to the Governor-General for confirmation. By Act, the House claims and possesses all privileges, rights, and immunities claimed and possessed by the House of Commons as at 1 January 1865. This claim is reiterated by the Speaker to the Governor-General at the time he presents himself for confirmation in his office. The act of claiming the rights, privileges, and immunities of the House and its members can only be described as historical re-enactment when real power has passed from the Monarchy to the Executive Government.

It is customary in New Zealand, unlike the United Kingdom, for the Speaker to change according to the government of the day. The Chairman of Committees is also elected soon after the start of a new Parliament. Though he performs the same functions as those performed by his seventeenth century predecessors, the original reason for the House having a Chairman of Committees has never arisen in New Zealand, but the manner and form of the Westminster Parliament has been carried over and maintained in this regard so as to form an integral part of the procedure of the House. That is not to say that the New Zealand House is an antipodean mirror of the Westminster Commons—the differences are many but the form of both Houses is not dissimilar.

The primary functions of the House are to vote supply; pass legislation; to exercise supervision and control of the Government; to consider petitions from individuals or organisations seeking redress for alleged grievances or changes in the existing law. The Opposition may, where necessary or desirable, seek to bring down the Government by a vote of no confidence, although within context of a two-party House the chances of a successful vote in this regard are normally slight.

Financial control over the Government is exercised by the House in so far as expenditure of public money must be authorised in the form of an Appropriation Act. A more detailed examination of the Estimates is carried out by the Public Expenditure Committee. However, no appropriation can be made without the recommendation of the Crown (i.e., the Government).

Most Bills are introduced by the Government as a result of decisions made in Cabinet or the Government caucus or both. By convention, the procedure for passing a public Bill is: (a) on introduction, formal first reading; (b) some time after, a second reading which is a debate on the principles and policy underlying the Bill; (c) a clause-by-clause debate with the House sitting as a Committee of the Whole House; (d) the Bill is reported back to the House from the committee and later read a third time. Having passed the three readings, the Bill is printed in its final form incorporating amendments (if any) and sent to the Governor-General for the Royal Assent.

Any member may introduce a Bill. Of course, it is always open to a Government to defeat such a Bill at any stage of its progress. In 1976, the Government refused to allow two Opposition Bills to be introduced and given a first reading. A practice has arisen whereby a private member's Bill will sometimes be withdrawn and substituted by a Government measure incorporating all or some of the provisions in the former Bill.

Special procedures apply to local and private Bills. A local Bill is one which proposes to affect a particular part of the country and is sought, usually, by the appropriate local authority. Each local Bill stands referred to the Local Bills Committee after its first reading. Its recommendation carries weight with both the House and the Government.

A private Bill is one which applies to a person or group of persons and is introduced after public notice, by a member by way of petition on behalf of the Bill's promoters. It is then referred to a committee of members for consideration and report.

The relations of the House with its members and non-members and the relations of member with member within its precincts are contained in the Standing Orders and the rulings thereon of successive Speakers.

Legislation—It is rare for the Government to accept amendments to legislation from the Opposition although it may sometimes do so if the amendment is constructive and does not conflict overtly with the policy considerations (if any) underlying the measure. Much of the legislation is what might be described as "departmental" in that it is sought by a Government department or agency and does not necessarily affect or reflect the political views of either the Government or the Opposition.

With the increasing load thrust on the House it has become customary for the more controversial or complex pieces of legislation to be referred for further consideration to select committees which comprise usually between seven and nine members, the Government party being in the majority. During the 1975 session, there were some 24 select committees. The aim in using these committees is that it affords a chance for the members to consider the measure in a more detailed fashion and gives individuals and organisations whose interests may be affected, should the legislation become law, an opportunity to state and have their views considered. Changes, sometimes substantial, are made to legislation as a result of this procedure. This practice of lobbying, both by groups and individuals, pervades all facets of political life. It can be argued that those who are familiar with the select committee procedure and used to advancing a particular view are in a superior position in being able to make their views known to the members individually and collectively. While issue cannot be taken with this practice provided no element of bribery or corruption enters into it, nevertheless, it can be argued that those who stand to be affected most by law, whether directly or indirectly, do not have the same opportunity to make their views and ideas known. A number of reasons might be advanced for this contention but primarily it would seem to be a case of the greater bulk of people being unaware of how "to work the system". Although no empirical research has been done, it would be interesting to be able to isolate the extent to which the influence of lobbyists has or has not contributed towards the increasing use of select committees.

With the ever-increasing complexity and volume of legislation and the range of subjects which it concerns or touches, the House cannot exercise full and proper control over subordinate legislation authorised by statute. Although all Statutory Instruments* require to be laid before the House and are subject to review by the Statutes Revision Committee, in practice such control has not been exercised.

Party System—The two major political parties are Labour and National (the latter comprising the Government since December 1975). The other principal parties putting forward candidates at the 1978 General Election were Social Credit and Values.

At a general election any person being qualified as an elector may offer himself for election but it seems that only those who are candidates proffered by a political party have more than a marginal chance of election. The party forming the Government is that which gains the majority of scats, not necessarily the majority of votes cast. Unlike Australia, New Zealand does not have a preferential system of voting nor does the law require everyone to vote, although each eligible elector must register as such. The convention operates that if a Government is defeated at a general election it resigns before the House meets and does not wait to be defeated on a vote in the House. The members for each party form their respective caucuses to which the policies and tactics of the party are submitted for discussion and, where necessary, decision. The discussions of caucus are never published.

Salaries, etc.—Until the making of the Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974, section 27 of the Civil List Act 1950 provided that on the recommendation of a Royal Commission the Governor-General might from time to time, by Order in Council, fix the salaries and allowances to be paid to the Prime Minister and other Ministers of the Crown or members of the Executive Council, to Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, and to the Speaker and Chairman of Committees and other members of the House of Representatives, and that a Royal Commission should be appointed for this purpose within 3 months after the date of every general election of members of Parliament. At April in the intervening years, adjustments were made on a basis matching that for the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969; the Government Statistician provided the Prime Minister with a certificate specifying the percentage movements in average weekly ordinary time earnings outside the State Services (as ascertained from the April half-yearly survey of industries in the private sector conducted by the Department of Labour) and adjustments might be made by Order in Council to the salaries of Ministers and members. The 1974 regulations suspend the operation of section 27 of the 1950 Act. The salaries and allowances of Ministers and members of Parliament are now considered and fixed by the Higher Salaries Commission originally established by the 1974 regulations and now provided for by the Higher Salaries Commission Act 1977.

*Statutory Instruments include: Orders in Council, ministerial orders, proclamations, and departmental instructions.

The following table sets out the salaries and allowances payable as at 31 March 1978.

OfficeSalaryExpense Allowance

*An additional allowance of $3,500 is paid to the Minister holding the portfolio of Foreign Affairs.

†Plus travelling allowance $35 per day and house allowance $600.

‡Plus electorate allowance.

§Residential quarters and certain services are provided in Parliament Buildings for the Speaker.

||In addition to members allowance.

 $$
Prime Minister36,2048,500
Deputy Prime Minister27,9763,700*
Minister with Portfolio24,1363,500
Minister without Portfolio20,8452,750
Parliamentary Under-Secretaries18,1022,750
Speaker23,0392,800§||
Chairman of Committees19,7481,680||
Leader of the Opposition24,1363,500
Deputy Leader of the Opposition18,1021,400||
Chief Whips16,7314,000
Junior Whips15,9084,000
Members14,8114,000

There is an additional electorate allowance depending on classification of electorates: (a) electorates which are wholly urban, $415; (b) electorates which are substantially urban, $415; (c) electorates which are partially urban and partially rural, $935; (d) electorates which are ordinary rural, $1,815; (e) electorates which are predominantly rural, $2,125. The special additional allowance for Southern Maori electorate is $660 and for each of the other Maori electorates it is $330. The daily sessional allowance is $8 and the night allowance for members entitled thereto is $18.

In addition to the salary and allowances, members are entitled to certain travel concessions and a stamp allowance.

Former Prime Ministers receive an annual payment of $1,000 for each full year in office, with a maximum of $5,000 a year, after retirement, defeat at the polls, or when a member only. This is subject to a 2-year minimum period having been served as Prime Minister.

An amendment in 1973 to the Civil List Act provides that a defeated member of Parliament will continue to receive salary at the rate of an ordinary member for 3 months after the date of the election.

Under the Superannuation Act 1956 there is a compulsory contributory superannuation scheme for members of the House of Representatives. The scheme provides that a retiring allowance shall be payable to a member after 9 years service and the attainment of 50 years of age, and shall be calculated at the rate of one thirty-second of the basic salary for a member as at the date of his ceasing to be a member, for each year of service with a maximum of two-thirds of that basic salary, or alternatively the member may elect to take a variable retiring allowance so as to secure a level income or he may elect to receive a refund of his contributions. The annual contribution is 11 percent of an ordinary member's salary, and the Government subsidises the fund. The rate of contribution was increased by 1 percent from 1 April 1970 to provide for cost-of-living adjustments to be made to retiring allowances. In the case of a male member dying and leaving a widow surviving, she becomes entitled during her widowhood to receive an annuity of half of the retiring allowance to which her husband would have been entitled had he retired age 60 years at the time of his death, or $390 a year, whichever is the greater.

In addition to the foregoing a new member elected for the first time receives a grant of $100 which is a "once only" payment.

ADMINISTRATION AND EXECUTIVE RESPONSIBILITY—After the election of a new Parliament, it is the responsibility of the leader of the party, which is most likely to secure and retain the support of the majority of members in the House, to form a Government. Although procedures for the selection of new Ministers have varied between the two principal parties, the Prime Minister has the final responsibility for allocating portfolios. A portfolio comprises a specific field of Government activity—for instance all matters relating to education will be allocated to one Minister who is henceforth known as the Minister of Education.

A Minister may have more than one portfolio and in addition responsibility for the supervision of one or more Government departments in which the activities carried out, though important, do not rank as portfolios. Occasionally, a Minister is appointed without portfolio, as, for example, a Minister of State. There are also Parliamentary Under-Secretaries without Ministerial rank who assist certain Ministers in the work of their portfolios: the Under-Secretaries are not members of the Executive Council or of Cabinet.

Executive Council—In the legal sense those members of Parliament who have been appointed Ministers comprise the Executive Council. The Governor-General normally presides over meetings of the Council. The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. The Royal Powers Act 1953 provides that the statutory powers conferred on the Governor-General may be exercised either by Her Majesty the Queen in person or by the Governor-General. In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council: but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

The Civil List Act 1950, in section 6, provided that no person shall be appointed a Minister or a member of the Executive Council unless he is a member of Parliament and that a person who ceases to be a member of Parliament cannot continue to be a Minister or a member of the Executive Council for more than 21 days. This gave statutory recognition for the first time to what had long been the convention.

After the General Election 1975 the newly-appointed Executive Council consisted of 20 members. Two members, exclusive of the Governor-General or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

The Governor-General receives a salary and an allowance which are determined from time to time by the Civil List Act 1950 for the salaries and expenses of his personal establishment, plus all expenditure incurred in respect of the transport to and from New Zealand and the travel within or outside New Zealand of the Governor-General and his family and staff.

Cabinet—The membership of the Executive Council and Cabinet is identical but Cabinet, unlike the Executive Council, is not a body created by any legal document. The existence of Cabinet was not recognised by statute until a passing reference was made in the Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962.

The fact that the Juridical Acts to give legal force to certain of the decisions of Cabinet are taken by others—the Crown, the Executive Council, a Minister of the Crown or a Statutory Commission—does not diminish the power and authority of Cabinet. Cabinet is the top committee of the administrative system, with responsibility for co-ordinating the work of the various Ministers and taking those decisions which largely determine the nature of the legislation put before Parliament and the regulations which the Executive Council is asked to approve.

Cabinet discussions are informal and confidential, anonymity being maintained as to the individual advocacy or opposition to particular proposals. The Cabinet system enables general agreement to be reached on any line of action proposed by either an individual Minister or by the Government as a whole. In Parliament a Minister can be confident that his legislative or other proposals will have the unqualified support of the Government no matter what divergences of opinion may have been apparent before general agreement was reached in Cabinet. A consistent and agreed course of action on any particular issue can be determined. The work of Cabinet thus exemplifies the concept of the collective responsibility of the Government.

Cabinet is assisted in its work by a number of Cabinet committees, the membership of which includes those Ministers principally concerned with the subject matters handled by the committee. These include committees covering Foreign Affairs, Economic Affairs, Expenditure, Communications, Government Works, Legislation and Parliamentary Questions, Social Affairs, the State Services and Transport. Some of the committees are supported by inter-departmental committees of officials. All Cabinet committees have delegated authority from Cabinet to make decisions within their terms of reference.

The Cabinet Office is responsible for the servicing and co-ordination of Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning as well as providing liaison and advice within the inter-Departmental framework. The Secretary of the Cabinet is also Clerk of the Executive Council.

Government Departments—The Minister as the political head of a department of State may in fact have several departments under his control. There are, however, some 40 different departments with separate functions in New Zealand. Each of these has a permanent head who is responsible for the work and administration of the department. He is of course responsible to the Minister in charge of the department, while he also acts as adviser to the Minister on all matters within his appointed competence. Besides ensuring that the ministerial policy and directions communicated to him are effectively put into practice, his functions as the adviser include assessing the consequences of any executive action resulting from his departmental activity, evaluating the merits and demerits, whether political, social, or financial, of various modes of action, and making suggestions for improvements and for new policy measures as derived from departmental experience in the day-to-day execution of policy.

Departments can be broadly classified according to the administrative or regulatory, developmental, or social nature of their activities. Within the first group are the servicing subgroup, such as the Legislative, Prime Minister's, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Printing Office, Crown Law, Valuation, Statistics, and Audit; the finance subgroup—Treasury, Customs, Inland Revenue; the regulatory subgroup—State Services Commission, Internal Affairs, Labour; the defence and law and order subgroup—Ministry of Defence, Justice, Crown Law, and Police; the research subgroup—Scientific and Industrial Research.

In the second group are the transport and communications subgroup, such as Ministry of Transport, Post Office Railways, and Tourist and Publicity; the developmental—Ministry of Works and Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Lands and Survey, Forest Service, Energy, Maori Affairs, Trade and Industry; the commercial—Public Trust, Government Life Insurance, Housing Corporation, Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, and State Insurance.

The third group comprises the Education, Health, and Social Welfare Departments.

This broad division serves merely to indicate the field of the dominant activity or purpose of the particular department. Most departments have servicing, informative, and regulatory functions, and many are equally regulatory and developmental in nature.

In addition to the system of direct administration in the form of Government departments, there are other activities over which the State exercises some ultimate measure of control or ownership, though divorced in varying degrees from immediate supervision. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand (the central bank), and one trading bank, are entirely State-owned, although the actual administration is quite independent, subject in the case of the Reserve Bank to the proviso that it must give effect to the monetary policy of the Government, as communicated to the bank by the Minister of Finance, and to any resolution of Parliament in respect of Government monetary policy.

Further instances of this principle are shown by the airlines corporation, which, although owned by the State, is administratively self-contained, and by the Tourist Hotel Corporation. In certain other avenues the type of administration is in between the normal departmental form and that evident in the corporation type; of such is the National Roads Board, which, though determining policy to a large degree, yet makes use of departmental administrative structures for implementation of policy.

Some administrative organisations have also quasi-judicial functions. Examples of this class are the Price Tribunal, Transport Charges Authority, and Licensing Control Commission.

OMBUDSMEN—Since 1962 there has been an Ombudsman able to investigate, on complaint or on his own initiative, any administrative decision, recommendation, act, or omission of a Government department or related organisation as it affects any individual. The Ombudsman does not have power to reverse departmental decisions, but he may make his recommendations to the department and to the Minister, and if, in his opinion, no appropriate action is taken he may report to the Prime Minister and then to Parliament. He has very wide powers to call for documents and files. The Government cannot refuse information, except in matters relating to the security of the State or to Cabinet proceedings.

Under the Ombudsmen Act 1975 jurisdiction was extended to local authorities and a range of specified national boards, councils, and other organisations. Provision was made for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and additional (including temporary) ombudsmen.

An analysis of complaints made to the Ombudsmen and the resultant action is given in the Official section of this Yearbook.

JUDICIARY—The hierarchy of courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrate's Court. Apart from these courts of general jurisdiction there are other courts dealing with specific fields. In the latter category is the Arbitration Court concerned with awards and orders governing wage determination and conditions of employment in industry.

PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS—The law on elections is contained in the Electoral Act 1956 and its amendments. At every census the Chief Electoral Officer is to arrange with the Government Statistician to deliver to every occupier or person in charge of a dwelling forms of application for registration as an elector. This form is to be completed by every adult who is residing in the dwelling on the day of the census. Following the population census (every 5 years) the boundaries of General (formerly known as European) electorates are revised, and the new boundaries are to come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The Government Statistician is required to supply population figures to the Surveyor-General as soon as possible after the census.

The term "General population" means total population with the following exceptions:

  1. Maoris—defined in the 1975 Amendment as "a person of the Maori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person who elects to be considered as a Maori for the purposes of this Act";

  2. Persons residing on board ship, whether as passengers or members of the crew or otherwise;

  3. Persons residing temporarily as guests in any licensed hotel;

  4. Persons residing temporarily in any naval, military, or air force camp. station. or establishment;

  5. Persons residing as patients and inmates in any hospital.

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of the Representation Commission to define new General electoral districts. The commission comprises eight members. Five of these are official members; the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, the Director-General of the Post Office, and the Chairman of the Local Government Commission (who is without voting rights). Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government and one to represent the Opposition. The eighth member is appointed, on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the commission or a majority of them, to be the chairman of the commission. The chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The number of general electorates is based on total population under a formula that allocates 25 seats to the South Island. The total South Island population (excluding those on the Maori roll) is divided by 25, and the quota thus obtained for each South Island electorate is then divided into the North Island population (again excluding those on the Maori roll) to give the number of electorates in the North Island.

The number of Maori seats is fixed at four. The total Maori population is the number of Maoris or persons of Maori descent who have elected to be considered as Maoris who have chosen to be registered as electors of Maori electoral districts and their children aged 18 years and under.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of 1 month is given during which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. These objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision reached on boundaries which then define the new electoral districts.

All general elections and by-elections are held on a Saturday. Polling hours in all electorates are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

Any serviceman aged 18 years or over serving overseas is qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which he last resided before he left New Zealand.

Franchise—Since September 1974, persons 18 years of age and over have had the right to vote in the election of members of the House of Representatives. (From 1893 onwards all persons aged 21 years had voting rights and the qualifying age had been lowered to 20 years in 1969.)

Registration of Electors—Registration as an elector is compulsory, although it is not compulsory to vote. To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 18 years and must (a) be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, (b) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year, and (c) except in special cases have resided continuously for 3 months or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for 3 months or more in any other electoral district. Broadly speaking the qualifications restrict the right to vote to permanent residents. Maoris and persons of part-Maori descent may elect to be included on either the General or the Maori electoral roll.

Voting at parliamentary elections is by secret ballot. In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the main and supplementary rolls of electors compiled prior to an election may vote at that election.

A vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his district. An elector may, however, vote as a "special voter", either at a polling booth outside his district or by post for reasons of distant travel on polling day, sickness, etc.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT: General—The present system of local government in New Zealand has evolved since the abolition of the provinces in 1876. Until fairly recently it has consisted of a structure of territorial local authorities—counties, boroughs, and town districts—and a further structure of special-purpose or ad hoc authorities, such as harbour boards, pest destruction boards, and electric power boards. Major changes were made by the Local Government Act 1974, which provided for the introduction of regional government, and for the establishment of district councils (as a new form of territorial authority) and "communities" (below territorial authority level). The Local Government Act also extended the role of the Local Government Commission in the reorganisation of local government. The Local Government Act as originally enacted has, however, undergone modifications, especially as a result of amending legislation in 1976 and 1977. The present situation is outlined below.

Consolidation and amalgamation of the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, the Counties Act 1956, and the Local Government Act 1974, is proceeding. This process, begun in 1977, is being carried out by way of a series of amendments to the Local Government Act, as the principal Act. When the process is completed there will be one Act containing all the provisions relating to the Local Government Commission and to the constitution, powers, and functions of regional authorities, territorial authorities, and communities.

Territorial Local Authorities—There are four kinds of territorial local authorities in existence:

Boroughs—The Municipal Corporations Act 1876 provided for the incorporation of the 36 boroughs then in existence and for the creation of new boroughs. Boroughs are currently governed in part by the Municipal Corporations Act 1956, but, from 1 April 1978, they have been subject also to the Local Government Act 1974, in consequence of the enactment of the Local Government Amendment Act (No. 3) 1977. Boroughs provide for the needs of concentrated populations and until 1978 there had to be a population of at least 1,500, with an average density of population of at least one person per 4,000m2 before they could be constituted. A borough containing a population of 20,000 or more may be proclaimed a city, but the corporation remains unaltered.

Counties—Counties were originally constituted by the Counties Act 1876. That Act has been superseded by the Counties Act 1956 and, from 1 April 1978, the Local Government Act 1974. Generally counties are concerned with the needs of rural areas. Initially, there were 63 counties but with increasing settlement this number increased to 129 in 1920. Since then the number of counties has been reduced by mergers and at 1 April 1977 there were 99 counties, of which 98 were actively functioning, Fiord being a sparsely-populated county in which the Local Government Act 1974 and the Counties Act 1956 are not wholly operative.

Town Districts—The town district represents a form of territorial local government intermediate between the county and the borough. It implies a certain concentration of population. There were two types of town district—dependent and independent. On the enactment of the Local Government Act 1974, the four existing dependent town districts became community councils. Independent town districts do not form part of the county within which they are situated, nor are they subject to any county council control. After 1 April 1978 no new independent town districts are to be constituted.

District Councils—This form of territorial local authority was introduced by the Local Government Act 1974 in recognition of the fact that nowadays many territorial authorities are neither "boroughs" nor "counties" in the sense that they are neither wholly urban nor wholly rural. District councils may now be constituted either by Local Government Commission scheme or by a borough council or county council passing a special order to that effect. The Governor-General may proclaim a district under a district council to be a city if in his opinion it is predominantly urban and it has a population of not less than 20,000. Where as a result of amalgamation or union the new boundaries of the district of a district council coincide with those of a region, the district council may undertake the functions of a regional body. In this case, no united or regional council need be established for the region.

Communities—The Local Government Act provides for the establishment of "communities" within the districts of territorial local authorities. Since 1976 a community may be constituted, by Local Government Commission scheme or by special order of the territorial local authority, only in an urban area within the rural part of a territorial authority district that is predominantly urban in character, or in an urban area within a territorial authority district that is predominantly rural in character, or in the whole of the area of one or more off-shore islands forming part of a territorial authority district. This has brought the position nearer to that existing prior to the enactment of the Local Government Act. which superseded parts III and IV of the Counties Act 1968 under which county towns and county boroughs were able to be constituted within counties.

Although not local authorities in the true sense, each community has either a "district community council" or a "community council" of not less than 5 nor more than 12 members, elected by residents and ratepayers for a 3-year term.

District Community Councils—By statute, except for certain reserved powers dealing with finance, staff, and planning, a district community council may exercise all the powers and functions of its parent territorial authority. A district community council may be established only in respect of a community having a population of not less than 1,500.

Community Councils—These derive most of their powers by delegation from their territorial authority, at its discretion. Once again, powers dealing with finance, staff, and planning cannot be delegated. In addition to exercising such powers as may be delegated to it by the territorial authority, the general purpose of a community council is to co-ordinate and express to the parent territorial authority the views of the community on any matter of concern to it, after consulting and obtaining the consent of the territorial authority to take appropriate action in the interests of the community, and to undertake, encourage, and co-ordinate activities for the general well-being of the residents of the community.

Regional Government—Apart from the Auckland Regional Authority, which was constituted by a local empowering Act in 1963, the regional bodies to be established under the Local Government Act will be new to local government in this country. Regions and united or regional councils will be determined by the Local Government Commission and established by Order in Council giving effect to a final regional scheme of the commission.

Regional bodies will come to possess their functions through several means. First, every united or regional council will have two mandatory functions—regional planning (under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977) and civil defence. Besides these two mandatory functions, the Local Government Act provides, with qualifications in some cases, that a united or regional council may undertake functions relating to regional reserves, forestry, regional roading, and community services. The commissions' regional scheme constituting a united or regional council may provide for the regional body to undertake the functions of any territorial authority or (where a special purpose authority or the appropriate Minister concurs) a special purpose authority. A united or regional council is empowered to undertake exclusively any new regional function which is not undertaken by any other local authority in the region; the Commission, by scheme, can provide that that function may be one that other local authorities are not empowered to undertake under any other statute. A united or regional council may also enter into an agreement with a constituent authority to undertake any function of that authority where, in the opinion of either party, that function would be more effectively and economically undertaken by the regional body. Finally, united and regional councils may enter into agreements with the Crown whereby they may exercise any function or provide any service for or on behalf of the Crown.

Criteria were provided in 1976 as to which type of regional body a region is to have. A region which has a population of not less than 325,000 and which includes one or more cities will normally have a regional council; in other regions—more rural in nature—a united council will be the rule. In either case, however, the converse type of regional body may be established by the commission if two or more territorial authorities in the proposed region (having sufficient weighting in capital value, population and area) so prefer. The membership of both united and regional councils will not be less than 12.

The main differences between the two types of regional body are as follows:

United Councils—These are to be appointed by the constituent (territorial) authorities. To obtain finance they will make levies on their constituent authorities. One of the constituent authorities is to be appointed as the administering authority of the united council, that is, to staff and service the united council. The united council concept is designed to meet requirements of those regions where the range of functions, or the nature of the responsibilities involved, do not justify the setting up of an organisation of the scale implicit in a directly elected regional council.

Regional Councils—These are to be directly elected. They will have direct rating powers. The establishment of a separate organisation is envisaged.

Special-purpose Authorities—Special-purpose authorities differ from territorial authorities in that each is charged with only one major function. The need for the most efficient and economic discharge of the major function being the prime consideration, their boundaries may either extend beyond or fall within those territorial authorities in the same geographical area. Only rarely do the boundaries coincide. Sometimes, as is the case with a number of pest destruction boards and hydatids control authorities, territorial authorities themselves are also constituted as, and perform the functions of, special-purpose authorities. The more important special-purpose authorities, are those administering harbours, hospitals, and the retail distribution of electricity. Others are engaged in water supply, urban drainage and transport, soil conservation and rivers control, pest destruction, nassella tussock control, hydatids control, and land drainage.

Fire boards and urban fire authorities went out of existence as special-purpose authorities when on 1 April 1976 their functions and assets were taken over by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission (see section 8B).

Number of Local Authorities—Local authorities actively functioning at 1 April 1977 were as follows:

Territorial Authorities—County councils, 98; borough (including city) councils, 132; town councils (independent), 5; district councils, 4.

Communities—Also within the framework of territorial local government, although not local authorities as such, were: district community councils, 13; community councils, 109.

Regional Authorities—There was one regional authority.

Special-purpose Authorities—River boards (2 boards also have the powers of land-drainage boards), 6; land drainage boards, 27; urban drainage boards, 4; catchment boards, 13; catchment commissions, 4; regional water boards, 1; water supply board, 1; valley authority, 1; electric power boards (including 1 electric power and gas board), 38; transport board, 1; harbour bridge authority, 1; road tunnel authority, 1; independent harbour boards, 16; pest destruction boards (separately elected), 61; wallaby board, 1; nassella tussock boards, 2; plantation board, 1; forestry corporation, 1; crematorium board, 1; hospital boards, 29; town hall board of management, 1; museum trust boards, 3; independent domain boards, 433; independent scenic boards, 25. Borough and county councils also functioned as harbour boards in 8 cases, as county pest destruction boards in 38 cases, as hydatids control authorities in 84 cases, as domain boards in 185 cases, and as scenic boards in 54 cases. In addition, there were 22 district roads councils of the National Roads Board constituted under the National Roads Act 1953. Although these district roads councils are not local authorities in the strict sense of the term they are intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, providing an advisory service to the National Roads Board concerning the roading needs and the allocation of national roading funds within their respective districts.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT COMMISSION—To promote reform of the structure of local government a Local Government Commission was first established, as a quasi-judicial body, in 1946. The present Local Government Commission, constituted by the Local Government Amendment Act (No. 2) 1977, comprises a chairman appointed by the Minister of Local Government and two other members, one appointed by the Minister on the nomination of the New Zealand Counties Association and the other on the nomination of the Municipal Association of New Zealand. It replaces a commission of five members. Where the commission is to consider a proposal affecting a local authority other than a territorial authority, it may request the Minister of Local Government to appoint a person having special knowledge of the functions undertaken by that local authority, to be a temporary member of the commission.

The commission will continue to carry out investigations, prepare schemes, and make recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that the system of local government in any local authority will best provide for the needs and well-being of its residents and the continued development of the district; that local authorities have such district boundaries and such functions and powers as will enable them to provide most effectively and economically essential or desirable local government services and facilities; that local authorities shall have such resources as will enable them to engage adequate services and to obtain and operate adequate technical facilities, plant, and equipment; and that districts shall be of such a size and nature as will promote efficient local government and avoid the necessity of uneconomic expenditure.

The legislation now sets out in more detail than formerly the procedures to guide the commission, with more emphasis being placed on consultation on proposals at an early stage, prior to formulating a provisional scheme. After the hearing of objections to a provisional scheme, the commission may draw up a final scheme. There are two distinct kinds of scheme which the commission may prepare and issue:

Regional Schemes—A principal task of the commission continues to be the preparation of regional schemes for the constitution of regions and regional bodies (united councils or regional councils) throughout New Zealand by 31 December 1979, or as soon as possible thereafter. The Minister of Local Government may refer a final regional scheme back to the commission for reconsideration of any of its provisions.

Reorganisation Schemes—Consideration of a proposal for a scheme for the union of local authority districts, the constitution or abolition of any district, the adjustment of boundaries, or a transfer of functions from one local authority to another, may be initiated by the commission itself or at the request of the Minister of Local Government or of any local authority. A new feature is provision for the appointment of conciliators by the commission to inquire into and negotiate on a proposal for a reorganisation scheme.

The Local Government Act as originally enacted brought most special-purpose authorities (other than hospital boards and education boards) within the jurisdiction of the commission. An amendment in 1976, however, removed the automatic jurisdiction of the commission in relation to special-purpose authorities so that it may now act only in those cases where the appropriate Minister or the special-purpose authorities concerned agree to their inclusion in a scheme.

GENERAL POWERS OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Act under which they are constituted. As mentioned above, the Local Government Act is coming to be the main governing Act for territorial authorities, as it already is for united, regional, district community, and community councils.

There are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. Other legislation applicable to territorial, regional, and various other types of local authority includes the Rating Act 1967, the Public Bodies Meeting Act 1962, the Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968, the Public Bodies Leases Act 1969, the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, the Public Works Act 1928, the Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963, and the Joint Council for Local Authorities Services Act 1977.

For most harbour boards there is, in addition to the general Harbours Act, a special Act for each board which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—urban drainage boards, transport boards, the Auckland Regional Authority, the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, the Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority, and the Waikato Valley Authority—derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

A local authority has no legislative powers beyond the authority to make bylaws within limits defined in its constituting Act, but it can promote legislation on matters which affect the government of the area under its jurisdiction and which it is not already empowered to deal with. If the subject is transient and not contentious and is approved by Government, it is usually dealt with by the inclusion of an appropriate section in the annual Local Legislation Act passed by Parliament for this purpose. If, on the other hand, the local authority seeks powers of a permanent or major nature additional to those conferred on it by general Acts it must submit to Parliament a special local Bill. The extent to which the foregoing privileges are used may be gauged from the fact that the annual Local Legislation Act usually contains 20 to 25 sections, while about 15 Local Acts are passed each year.

Franchise—Under the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, local elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. They were last held on 8 October 1977. Enrolment of residential electors is compulsory. In a poll on any proposal relating to loans or rates, a ratepaying qualification is necessary.

Apart from a few special-purpose authorities, some of whose members are appointed by other local authorities or by Government, members of local authorities are elected triennially, any qualified elector being eligible to seek election. In general the franchise extends to all persons aged 18 years or over who either possess a rating qualification or who possess a residential qualification in the district of the local authority concerned. The right to vote for members of land drainage and river boards is, however, restricted to those who possess rating qualifications. In the case of regional councils the right to vote is limited to those who reside in the region.

A person who is an alien (other than an enemy alien) may vote in local authority elections but is not capable of election or appointment as a member of any local authority.

Voting Procedures—Under the provisions of the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, any local authority may determine whether an election or poll is to be conducted by personal attendance at a polling booth or by way of postal vote. Since 1970, county councils had been authorised by legislation to use postal voting but other local authorities had been able to employ this method only on approval being granted by Order in Council. Where the franchise is to be exercised by personal attendance at a polling booth, the local authority may decide to conduct the election or poll over a period of not more than 11 consecutive days instead of confining voting to a single day.

Remuneration of Members—The remuneration of members of local authorities is governed by the statutes constituting the various types of local authorities. Most special purpose authorities pay their chairmen an annual allowance with a maximum fixed for each type of authority. The maximum payable to mayors of boroughs and cities and county council chairmen varies according to the population of the local authority. The chairman and members of a united or regional council may also be paid such annual allowances as may from time to time be approved by the Minister of Local Government with the concurrence of the Minister of Finance.

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING—The Town and Country Planning Act 1953 provides for the making and enforcement of regional, district and maritime planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1960. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works and Development who may delegate his authority to the Commissioner of Works.

Chapter 4. Section 3 POPULATION

Table of Contents

GENERAL—By world standards, New Zealand's population is small—only an estimated 3.2 million at the end of 1977. Our rate of growth, however, was, until recently, higher than in almost any other developed country. A main cause of this, until recent years, has been the relatively large gains from net migration. Because of the age of our population, our potential for growth will continue to be high for some time after the average family size has become small—as it is expected to do.

New Zealand's first million of population was recorded in 1908, 68 years after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. In 1952, 44 years later, the second million was reached, and the third million late in 1973.

POPULATION GROWTH—Population has two sources of gain—natural increase (excess of births over deaths) and net migration (excess of arrivals over departures). In the early years in New Zealand, the bulk of the increase was through migration. From the late 1870s natural increase permanently displaced immigration as the chief contributor to population growth. At the census of 1881 the percentages of the total population born in New Zealand and born overseas were approximately equal (50.2 percent New Zealand born to 49.8 percent overseas born), and each succeeding census until 1961 recorded an increased proportion of New Zealand-born. Since 1961 (when the New Zealand-born made up 86 percent of the population) the proportion has fallen slightly mainly because increased international travel and tourism have meant that at each census increased numbers of overseas-born tourists and travellers have been included in the population as enumerated on census date. At the 1976 census 83.3 percent of the population was recorded as having been born in New Zealand.

During the present century, natural increase has accounted for over three-quarters of the growth of population. New Zealand's rate of natural increase is relatively high compared with other countries whose population is predominantly of European origin.

The natural increase rate has, in the main, closely reflected the changes in the birth rate, with a low point of 8.63 per 1,000 in 1935 and high points of 18 per 1,000 in 1947 and 1961; in the 1960s the average rate was less than 14 per 1,000. Like the low birth rate of the thirties, the fall in the birth rate in the sixties and seventies is a feature that New Zealand shares with a number of other developed countries, and notably with Australia, Canada, and the United States.

The natural increase in recent years is shown in the following table. A 50-year series of vital statistics is included in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

PeriodMarch YearsCalendar Years
Births*DeathsNatural IncreaseBirths*DeathsNatural Increase

*Excluding Section 14 birth registrations which are "late" registrations. See Yearbook Section 4B Births.

‡Provisional.

 (thousand)
1946–1950x239.588.0151.5244.588.1156.3
1951–1955x258.193.1165.1263.294.2169.0
1956–1960x294.6101.5193.1300.1102.9197.2
1961–1965x319.4110.5208.9317.3112.1205.2
1966–1970x306.0118.6187.4307.5120.2187.3
1971–1975x308.6124.8183.9304.4124.8179.6
1976–1977111.551.260.3109.251.457.8
  Total 1946–1977......1,846.1693.81,152.4

Migration, however, has continued to add to the population quite substantially except during depression and war periods, the recession conditions of 1968–69, and the most recent period. Gains from external migration since the Second World War are shown in the following table. Movements of the armed forces are not included.

PeriodMarch Years* Migration CainCalendar Years Migration Gain

*March years ended in years listed.

†Excess of departures.

‡Provisional.

 (000)(000)
1946–195027.432.5x
1951–195566.669.0x
1956–196049.243.9x
1961–196563.970.2x
1966–19706.06.5
1971–1975107.8116.9x
1976–1977–7.2–34.2
—Total 1946–1977313.7304.8

Most of the inward migration has been from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Netherlands. In more recent years increasing numbers have come from the Pacific Islands, notably Western Samoa. A changed economic climate in the country brought a net migration loss to population for the years ended March 1968, 1969, and 1970, but these losses were more than compensated for by relatively heavy gains to the population from net migration during the years ended March 1973, 1974, and 1975. There was a sharp fall in the net gain from migration in the year ended March 1976, a net loss of 13,727 in the year ended March 1977, and a further net loss in the year ended March 1978.

CENSUS STATISTICS—Population statistics are based primarily on the five-yearly population census. Intercensal population estimates are based on the most recent census data available, adjusted in accordance with later figures of births, deaths, and migration. Estimates of the populations of particular localities, e.g., cities and boroughs, also take into account local economic developments, housing schemes, the numbers on school rolls, changes in boundaries, and any other factors leading to, or indicating, changes in population.

The basis adopted for the population census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of population physically present in the place of enumeration at the time of enumeration.

All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand, i.e., island territories are omitted except where their inclusion is specifically stated. Though Tokelau is constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons it is administered separately. The Cook Islands and Niue are self-governing but the islanders are New Zealand citizens.

The most recent Census of Population and Dwellings in New Zealand was taken on 23 March 1976.

PRESENT POPULATION—The following table gives a summary of population. A 50-year time series is given in the statistical summary towards the back of this Yearbook.

TerritoryDateMalesFemalesTotal

*Includes population of Kermadec Islands 9 (males) and Campbell Island 9 (males).

New Zealand*31 March 19771,568,4001,572,0003,140,400
Island Territory— 
  Tokelau25 October 19767478281,575
Ross Dependency23 March 19767979

At 31 December 1977 the population of New Zealand was provisionally estimated at 3,151,700.

INCREASE OF POPULATION—The growth of population has been substantial in each intercensal period. The lowest rates are those of 1926–36, which included some years of economic depression, and of 1936–45, which included 6 years of international war, and of 1966–71, mainly attributable to a marked change in migration patterns.

Census DatePopulation*Increase or Decrease
IntercensalIntercensalAnnual Average

*Numbers of persons in New Zealand armed forces overseas are excluded.

  NumberPercent
25 September 19451,702,330128,5188.170.83
17 April 19511,939,472237,14213.932.37
17 April 19562,174,062234,59012.102.31
18 April 19612,414,984240,92211.082.12
22 March 19662,676,919261,93510.852.11
23 March 19712,862,631185,7126.941.35
23 March 19763,129,383266,7529.321.80

POPULATION POLICY GUIDELINES—Early in 1973 an Inter-Departmental Committee on Population Questions was established in recognition of the growing worldwide importance attaching to issues associated with population. Late in 1974 the Government directed the committee to prepare a paper discussing the main issues to be taken into account in formulating a specific population policy for New Zealand. The committee's report, published in September 1975, discussed the world population situation; New Zealand's population situation in relation to fertility and mortality trends and patterns, and both external and internal migration; and the implications of current and projected population trends in New Zealand, taking into account the relationship of population to physical resources, the economy, and society as a whole. It concluded by laying down broad guidelines for a population policy. Because of the need for the co-ordination of population activities within the orbit of the New Zealand Planning Council established in March 1977, a Working Group on Population was formed in June of that year.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The annual average percentage increases of population for the period 1971–76, are given in the following table for certain selected countries. (Source: United Nations: Demographic Yearbook 1975 and Population and Vital Statistics Report, 1977).

CountryAverage Annual Percentage Increase

*1971–76 intercensal rate of growth.

Australia1.4
Canada1.4
Denmark0.4
France0.6
Germany, West0.1
India2.1
Japan1.3
Netherlands0.8
New Zealand1.8*
Sweden0.3
Switzerland0.4
United Kingdom0.1
United States0.8
U.S.S.R.0.9

INTERCENSAL RECORDS—Intercensal estimates of total population are prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration. The figures in the table following have been revised in line with 1976 Census results and exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

YearPopulation at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent

*Provisional

Years Ended 31 March
1972x1,452,5001,454,2002,906,70045,7001.62,875,500
1973x1,482,2001,484,8002,967,00060,4002.12,927,700
1974x1,513,6001,517,0003,030,60063,5002.12,986,400
1975x1,542,3001,546,7003,089,00058,4001.93,047,000
19761,560,2001,564,3003,124,50035,600x1.2x3,097,500x
19771,568,4001,572,0003,140,30015,8000.53,120,700
1978*  3,145,8005,4000.23,128,800
Years Ended 31 December
1972x1,476,0001,478,4002,954,30057,7002.02,912,900
1973x1,506,3001,509,5003,015,80061,5002.12,970,800
1974x1,537,4001,541,6003,079,00063,2002.13,031,800
1975x1,561,4001,566,5003,127,90048,9001.63,086,900
19761,572,4001,575,9003,148,200x20,400x0.7x3,116,200
19771,574,0001,577,9003,151,9003,6000.13,127,700

The following table shows the New Zealand Maori population. The figures for 1971–75 have been revised in line with the 1976 Census results.

YearNew Zealand Maori Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
Years Ended 31 March
1971x115,100112,600227,7005,5002.5224,700
1972x119,900117,600237,5009,9004.3232,300
1973x124,500122,400246,9009,4003.9242,300
1974x128,500126,500255,0008,1003.3250,900
1975x132,300130,600262,9007,9003.1258,500
1976135,800134,300270,1007,2002.7266,500
1977138,200136,600274,8004,8001.8272,500
Years Ended 31 December
1971x118,600116,300234,9008,8003.9230,000
1972x123,400121,200244,6009,7004.1239,900
1973x127,500125,400252,9008,3003.4248,800
1974x131,000129,200260,2007,4002.9256,600
1975x135,000133,400268,4008,1003.1264,600
1976137,800136,000273,8005,4002.0271,200
1977139,800137,900277,7003,9001.4275,700

POPULATION PROJECTIONS—An indication of possible future growth of the total New Zealand population (including Maoris) up to 2011 is given by the detailed alternative projections which follow.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels and difficulties in forecasting the future behaviour of these components of population change.

It should be understood that, as with all demographic projections prepared by the Department of Statistics, these projections are not strict forecasts or targets, but conditional forecasts based on the stated assumptions. Presentation and use of the projections, therefore, cannot be divorced from consideration of the assumptions adopted.

These national population projections represent a departure from the Department's traditional policy in that they incorporate alternative short-term assumptions involving changing annual levels of net immigration as described in the footnotes to the table.

Single-year-of-age-specific projections, equivalent to those in the table below, are available on application to the Demographic Specialist Studies Section, Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Christchurch.

As at 31 MarchProjected Total New Zealand Population*According to the Net Immigration Variant Designated
LowMediumHigh
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*These projections have as base the estimated population at 31 March 1977. They are based on the following assumptions: (a) That future fertility experience will be in accordance with the "medium" variant (see below); (b) That 1970–72 Life Table mortality rates (total population) apply throughout the projection period.

†(a) The "low" net immigration variant assumes net annual immigration during years ending 31 March as follows: –22,000(1978). –16,000(1979), –10,000 (1980), –5,000 (1981), zero (1982) and 5,000 (1983 onwards);
(b) The "medium" net immigration variant assumes net annual immigration during years ending 31 March as follows: –22,000 (1978). –14,500 (1979), –7,000 (1980), zero (1981) and 5,000 (1982 onwards);
(c) The "high" net immigration variant assumes net annual immigration during years ending 31 March as follows: –22,000 (1978), –10,000 (1979), zero (1980) and 5,000 (1981 onwards).

‡The three alternative fertility assumptions—designated "high", "medium" and "low"—have been derived by analysis of trends in birth rates within maternal age groups. Extrapolations of "least squares" linear trends, derived from data for the periods 1962–75 and 1971–75, provide the basis for the fertility projections. Various constraints have been imposed on birth rates for some maternal age groups to ensure that total fertility levels remain within demographically acceptable limits. For all fertility variants, projected birth rates are assumed to remain constant from 1982 onwards at the levels projected for the year ended 31 March 1981.

(Thousand)
1977 (Base)1,5681,5723,1401,5681,5723,1401,5681,5723,140
19781,5711,5753,1461,5711,5753,1461,5711,5753,146
19791,5751,5803,1551,5761,5813,1571,5781,5843,162
19801,5811,5883,1691,5831,5913,1741,5891,5973,186
19811,5891,5993,1881,5941,6033,1971,6031,6113,214
19821,5991,6113,2101,6081,6183,2261,6181,6263,244
19831,6131,6253,2381,6221,6323,2541,6331,6413,274
19841,6281,6403,2681,6371,6483,2851,6481,6573,305
19851,6431,6553,2981,6521,6633,3151,6631,6723,335
19861,6581,6713,3291,6681,6793,3471,6791,6883,367
19911,7371,7513,4881,7481,7603,5081,7591,7703,529
19961,8121,8273,6391,8231,8363,6591,8351,8473,682
20011,8771,8913,7681,8881,9013,7891,9001,9123,812
20061,9301,9453,8751,9421,9553,8971,9551,9673,922
20111,9791,9963,9751,9912,0073,9982,0052,0204,025

The following diagram presented on a ratio scale shows the growth of actual population from 1882 to 1977 and projections through to 2011.

POPULATION

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and are published in two parts as Volume 1, Location and Increase of Population, Part A. Population size and Distribution and Part B. Population Density of the Census of Population and Dwellings.

North and South Islands—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of NZ Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands since 1901.

Census YearTotal PopulationTotalPercentages
North IslandSouth IslandNorth IslandSouth Island
1901431,471384,391815,86252.947.1
1911610,599447,7131,058,31257.742.3
1921791,918479,7501,271,66862.337.7
19361,018,038555,7741,573,81264.735.3
19451,146,315556,0151,702,33067.332.7
19561,497,364676,6982,174,06268.931.1
19661,893,326783,5932,676,91970.729.3
19762,268,393860,9903,129,38372.527.5

The 1976 Census revealed that the population of the North Island continues to increase at a greater proportionate rate than that of the South Island. At the 1976 Census the North Island population was 2,268,393, a 10.6 percent increase on the 1971 total of 2,051,363. At the same census the South Island total was 860,990, an increase of only 6.1 percent on the 1971 total of 811,268. However, between the 1971 and 1976 Censuses, births in the South Island totalled almost 78,000 and deaths over 38,000, giving a net natural increase of approximately 40,000. The fact that the total population increase was nearly 50,000 indicates a net migration inflow to the South Island during the inter-censal period. This is in contrast to the previous inter-censal period (1966–71) when a net migration outflow of approximately 16,000 was indicated.

Statistical Areas—In the following table are shown the areas and the populations of the statistical areas at the 1976 Census and an estimate at 31 March 1977.

Statistical AreaArea (Square Kilometres)Population Census 23 March 1976Estimated Population 31 March 1977
Northland12,629107,013107,500
Central Auckland5,594797,406801,200
South Auckland-  Bay of Plenty36,760472,083475,000
East Coast10,88048,14748,000
Hawke's Bay11,303145,061145,600
Taranaki9,721107,071107,100
Wellington27,705591,612593,300
  Totals, North Island114,5922,268,3932,277,700
Marlborough10,85935,03035,200
Nelson18,04675,56275,700
Westland15,41524,04924,100
Canterbury43,371428,586430,000
Otago37,100188,903188,900
Southland29,136108,860108,700
  Total, South Island153,927860,990862,600
  Totals, New Zealand268,5193,129,3833,140,300

Statistical Divisions and Main Urban Areas—Statistical Divisions and Main Urban Areas are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. Statistical divisions are a new concept. The basic criterion for a statistical division is a population of 75,000 or more within the area of economic and social interests of a heavily populated centre. Seven statistical divisions have been established, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, Napier-Hastings, Palmerston North, Wellington (including Hutt), Christchurch, and Dunedin. The division, like the urban area, does not have any administrative functions, but embraces areas of unified community, economic, and social interests. In addition to the central city or borough, urban areas include neighbouring boroughs and town districts and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population. Maps of statistical boundaries are available at Government bookshops. Adjustments of Urban Area boundaries have been made because of the peripheral growth of population in some of the urban centres.

The populations of the 7 Statistical Divisions and the 24 defined Urban Areas are given below.

Statistical Division (S. Div.) and Main Urban Area (U.A.)1971 Population Census1976 Population CensusPercentage IncreaseEstimated Population 31 March 1977
1971–1976
Auckland S. Div.—
  Northern Auckland U.A.107,977137,42127.3138,800
  Western Auckland U.A.89,948108,13920.2109,100
  Central Auckland U.A.286,785289,1250.8288,400
  Southern Auckland U.A.165,048208,10126.1210,000
  Sub-total, Combined Auckland U.A.649,758742,78614.3746,300
  Remainder S. Div.48,62454,62012.354,800
  Total698,382797,40614.2801,200
Hamilton S. Div.—
  Hamilton U.A.80,81294,77717.395,900
  Remainder S. Div.55,19459,8298.460,200
  Total136,006154,60613.7156,100
Napier-Hastings S. Div.—
  Napier U.A.43,60150,16415.150,500
  Hastings U.A.45,51250,81411.651,100
  Remainder S. Div.7,8208,0322.78,020
  Total96,933109,01012.5109,700
Palmerston North S. Div.—
  Palmerston North U.A.57,06563,87311.964,300
  Remainder S. Div.23,66724,8515.024,900
  Total80,73288,7249.989,200
Wellington S. Div.—
  Upper Hutt Valley U.A.30,98635,58414.835,900
  Lower Hutt Valley U.A.92,01497,1945.697,400
  Porirua Basin U.A.47,85855,69816.456,100
  Wellington U.A.136,782138,9381.6139,100
  Sub-total, Combined Wellington U.A.307,640327,4146.4328,500
  Remainder S. Div.16,39222,21435.522,400
  Total324,032349,6287.9350,900
Christchurch S. Div.—
  Christchurch U.A.275,968295,2967.0296,600
  Remainder S. Div.26,64230,41414.230,500
  Total302,610325,7107.6327,200
Dunedin S. Div.—
  Dunedin U.A.111,059113,2221.9113,300
  Remainder S. Div.6,6817,2047.87,160
  Total117,740120,4262.3120,400

Main Urban Areas Not in Any Statistical Division

Main Urban Area1971 Population Census1976 Population CensusPercentage IncreaseEstimated Population 31 March 1977
1971–1976
Whangarei34,02939,06914.839,400
Tauranga40,34948,15319.348,500
Rotorua39,75246,65017.447,000
Gisborne30,16131,7905.431,900
New Plymouth38,78043,91413.244,200
Wanganui37,98239,6794.539,800
Masterton20,14721,0014.221,100
Nelson37,99442,43311.742,700
Timaru28,95929,9583.430,000
Invercargill50,68153,7626.153,900
  Total, 24 Main Urban Areas1,930,2492,134,75510.62,144,900
  Total, 7 Statistical Divisions1,756,4351,945,51010.81,954,600

Cities and Boroughs—The population of cities and boroughs is now given.

City or BoroughEstimated Population at 31 March 1977Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—
  Kaitaia4,300526
  Kaikohe3,590544
  Whangarei (city)35,3004,354
  Dargaville4,6001,133
  Helensville1,250532
  East Coast Bays (city)23,9001,558
  Takapuna (city)62,7008,610
  Devonport10,950445
  Northcote9,950540
  Birkenhead20,0001,266
  Waitemata (city)80,70037,550
  Henderson7,120517
  Glen Eden8,490503
  New Lynn10,500564
  Auckland (city)150,1007,472
  Newmarket1,36074
  Mt. Albert28,200983
  Mt. Eden19,700598
  Mt. Roskill34,7001,862
  Onehunga16,700768
  One Tree Hill11,450983
  Ellerslie5,600301
  Mt. Wellington20,5001,650
  Howick14,000621
  Otahuhu10,600560
  Papatoetoe (city)23,000907
  Manukau (city)140,60056,548
  Papakura (city)21,7001,380
  Pukekohe8,8201,405
  Waiuku3,540593
  Tuakau1,750442
  Huntly5,770785
  Cambridge7,9201,071
  Ngaruawahia4,420450
  Hamilton (city)89,1005,555
  Te Awamutu7,670713
  Taumarunui6,4301,815
  Paeroa3,830574
  Waihi3,440539
  Te Aroha3,2001,126
  Morrinsville4,820476
  Matamata5,090533
  Putaruru4,410395
  Tokoroa18,9001,359
  Mt. Maunganui10,2001,411
  Tauranga (city)33,9003,828
  Te Puke3,850532
  Rotorua (city)37,5002,667
  Taupo13,0001,446
  Kawerau7,8202,174
  Murupara2,980287
  Gisborne (city)29,8002,628
  Wairoa5,490649
  Napier (city)47,4003,021
  Hastings (city)35,1001,949
  Havelock North8,420514
  Waipawa1,830692
  Dannevirke5,650526
  Woodville1,550427
  Waitara6,100575
  New Plymouth (city)38,0002,380
  Inglewood2,640284
  Stratford5,440816
  Eltham2,330647
  Hawera8,540514
  Patea2,000575
  Ohakune1,400841
  Raetihi1,200388
  Wanganui (city)37,5003,392
  Taihape2,800778
  Marton4,950573
  Feilding11,000855
  Foxton2,780306
  Palmerston N. (city)58,3004,302
  Levin14,9001,298
  Otaki4,250666
  Kapiti15,10017,428
  Upper Hutt (city)30,90048,428
  Lower Hutt (city)64,8008,967
  Petone8,7601,044
  Eastbourne4,7801,273
  Porirua (city)43,2008,508
  Tawa12,350550
  Wellington (city)139,70026,343
  Pahiatua2,610291
  Masterton19,5501,799
  Carterton4,000512
  Greytown1,920442
  Featherston2,550307
  Martinborough1,390442
     Total, North Island cities and boroughs1,760,200309,455
South Island—
  Picton3,320426
  Blenheim17,2501,770
  Nelson (city)33,0004,762
  Richmond6,6501,052
  Motueka4,4001,021
  Westport4,990308
  Runanga1,450487
  Greymouth8,3001,068
  Hokitika3,540273
  Rangiora6,040357
  Kaiapoi4,790318
  Riccarton7,280339
  Christchurch (city)172,40010,635
  Lyttelton3,3101,036
  Ashburton14,3001,226
  Geraldine2,060301
  Temuka3,740395
  Timaru (city)29,4002,343
  Waimate3,380312
  Oamaru13,5501,161
  Port Chalmers3,130410
  Dunedin (city)82,50015,685
  St. Kilda6,520249
  Green Island7,010781
  Mosgiel9,340787
  Milton2,230204
  Kaitangata1,110518
  Balclutha4,750509
  Tapanui930121
  Lawrence580249
  Roxburgh770208
  Naseby12076
  Alexandra4,190987
  Cromwell1,220740
  Arrowtown430134
  Queenstown3,210416
  Gore9,230946
  Mataura2,380515
  Winton1,990231
  Invercargill (city)49,9005,574
  Bluff2,960866
  Riverton1,590403
     Total, South Island cities and boroughs539,10060,199
     Grand total, all cities and boroughs2,299,300369,654

District—A new concept in local government—the district—appears in the 1976 Census statistics in the form of the Thames-Coromandel District, constituted on 1 October 1975 and amalgamating the former Thames and Coromandel Counties and Thames Borough. Similar amalgamations occurred between 23 March 1976 and 1 April 1977 resulting in the constitution of three more districts; Whakatane (from Whakatane B. and Whakatane Co.), Waitomo (from Waitomo Co. and Te Kuiti B.) and Waipukurau (from Waipukurau B. and Waipukurau Co.).

DistrictEstimated Population at 31 March 1977Approximate Area in Square Kilometres
Thames-Coromandel16,8002,212
Waipukurau7,8802,031
Waitomo11,3003,407
Whakatane27,2004,310
Total, North Island63,20011,960
Total, New Zealand63,20011,960

Town Districts—The population of town districts—i.e., those contained in the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located.

Town DistrictEstimated Population at 31 March 1977Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—
  Hikurangi1,180389
  Manaia960206
  Waverley1,150202
Total, North Island3,280797
South Island—
  Wyndham730275
  Otautau960198
Total, South Island1,690473
Total, New Zealand4,9701,270

Communities—The following table lists communities with estimated populations of 1,000 or more at 31 March 1977. The parent county is shown in parentheses. The population of communities (previously known as county towns or dependent town districts) are included in the administrative county populations given in a later table.

CommunityEstimated Population at 31 March 1977Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
  Kerikeri (Bay of Islands)1,020347
  Moerewa (Bay of Islands)1,36075
  Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)1,640229
  Paihia (Bay of Islands)1,520232
  Raglan (Raglan)1,330372
  Kihikihi (Waipa)1,260212
  Whitianga (Coromandel Div.)1,470293
  Whangamata (Thames Div.)1,210485
  Thames (Thames Div.)6,8101,103
  Waihi Beach (Ohinemuri)1,200209
  Katikati (Tauranga)1,370960
  Papamoa Beach (Tauranga)1,210253
  Mangakino (Taupo)1,580261
  Turangi (Taupo)5,560579
  Edgecumbe (Whakatane Dist.)1,650172
  Ohope (Whakatane Dist.)1,610544
  Ashhurst (Oroua)1,630173
  Foxton Beach (Manawatu)1,020397
  Tairangi (Porirua City)7,400..
  Cannon's Creek (Porirua City)11,200..
South Island
  Kaikoura (Kaikoura)1,960283
  Darfield (Malvern)1,030233
  Halswell (Paparua)4,830204
  Brighton (Taieri)1,110183
  Fairfield (Taieri)1,690143
  Wanaka (Lake)1,200309
  Te Anau (Wallace)2,420395

District Communities—The following table lists the estimated populations of district communities as at 31 March 1977. The parent county is shown in parentheses. The populations of district communities (previously known as county boroughs) are included in the administrative county populations given in the following table.

District CommunityEstimated Population at 31 March 1977Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
  Warkworth (Rodney)1,610577
  Wellsford (Rodney)1,690554
  Hibiscus Coast (Rodney)10,2006,210
  Otorohanga (Otorohanga)1,980227
  Ngongotaha (Rotorua)2,290513
  Opotiki (Opotiki)2,630299
  Bulls (Rangitikei)1,970405
  Waikanae (Horowhenua)4,2901,060
  Shannon (Horowhenua)1,640342
  Heretaunga-Pinehaven (Hutt)5,8804,700
  Wainuiomata (Hutt)19,50026,614
  Total53,60041,501
South Island
  Hornby (Paparua)8,720491
  Sockburn (Paparua)6,4001,066
  Total15,1001,557
  Total, District Communities68,70043,058

Extra-county Islands and Shipboard Population—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, cities and boroughs, and independent town districts, the New Zealand totals include shipboard population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised an estimated total of 3,920 persons at 31 March 1977.

Counties—The following table gives the estimated population of individual counties at 31 March 1977 together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that "administrative counties" do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include district communities, and communities which form parts of counties.

Administrative CountyEstimated Population at 31 March 1977Approximate Area, in Square Kilometres
North Island—
  Mangonui7,7602,481
  Whangaroa2,080622
  Hokianga4,3101,588
  Bay of Islands16,7502,131
  Whangarei15,9002,675
  Hobson5,3001,929
  Otamatea6,2001,108
  Rodney30,5002,334
  Waiheke3,210155
  Great Barrier Is.380285
  Franklin18,5501,477
  Raglan9,8202,411
  Waikato17,0001,655
  Waipa15,8001,129
  Otorohanga9,7401,976
  Taumarunui5,7604,808
  Hauraki Plains5,240603
  Ohinemuri4,570624
  Piako11,0001,168
  Matamata13,0002,602
  Tauranga18,9501,829
  Rotorua19,1002,681
  Taupo13,9507,244
  Opotiki6,7503,124
  Waiapu4,5102,818
  Waikohu3,1702,650
  Cook8,1402,841
  Wairoa5,6304,128
  Hawke's Bay20,2004,838
  Waipawa3,4601,347
  Dannevirke4,5302,245
  Woodville1,470404
  Clifton2,0901,176
  Taranaki10,600588
  Inglewood2,890521
  Stratford5,0202,157
  Egmont5,560622
  Eltham2,850509
  Waimate West2,000215
  Hawera4,520495
  Patea2,8601,527
  Waimarino1,3602,147
  Waitotara2,8801,226
  Wanganui2,8001,189
  Rangitikei14,7504,486
  Kiwitea1,820930
  Pohangina1,020671
  Oroua5,230492
  Manawatu6,630692
  Kairanga6,300461
  Horowhenua14,4501,420
  Hutt26,000429
  Pahiatua2,170741
  Eketahuna1,900828
  Masterton4,1102,386
  Wairarapa South2,6001,140
  Featherston3,0202,471
  Total, North Island counties448,20099,429
South Island—
  Marlborough11,25010,478
  Kaikoura3,5902,344
  Golden Bay3,9702,618
  Waimea16,7007,511
  Buller3,5105,035
  Inangahua2,2202,440
  Grey4,7603,957
  Westland6,03011,440
  Amuri2,7504,273
  Cheviot1,360875
  Waipara2,6402,476
  Ashley3,5301,241
  Rangiora4,840263
  Eyre3,160459
  Oxford1,700814
  Malvern6,7305,046
  Paparua31,600445
  Waimairi69,000115
  Heathcote8,79034
  Mt. Herbert870171
  Akaroa1,570437
  Chatham Islands600963
  Wairewa700438
  Ellesmere8,2901,200
  Ashburton11,0506,174
  Strathallan9,3902,675
  Mackenzie8,7107,456
  Waimate5,4503,558
  Waitaki8,9906,315
  Waihemo1,730880
  Waikouaiti4,160837
  Taieri8,3502,368
  Bruce3,4101,350
  Clutha5,5802,695
  Tuapeka4,0903,560
  Maniototo2,3703,477
  Vincent4,1207,620
  Lake4,47010,235
  Southland25,8009,577
  Wallace12,4509,653
  Fiord707,861
  Stewart Island5101,746
  Total, South Island counties320,800153,110
     Grand total, all counties769,000252,539

Urban Concentration of Population—The bulk of New Zealand's population is located in urban areas, where the most rapid growth rates are occurring. This is due largely to the development of both manufacturing and tertiary industries in urban areas, which provide employment for a growing labour force. Other factors, including better social, cultural, educational, and economic opportunities, serve to attract persons to these areas, while the majority of immigrants tend to settle in the larger urban centres. These factors, combined with amalgamation of farms, centralisation of dairy factories, and increasing agricultural mechanisation (resulting in less labour required), combine to produce a noticeable rural-urban drift. Urban concentration features are common to "developed" countries at advanced stages of economic development.

The 1976 Census figures showed that many rural areas and a number of small and intermediate sized towns are continuing to decline in population. Thirty-nine counties recorded smaller populations than at the previous census in 1971. Of 54 small towns (1,000 to 4,999 population) 12 had declined in population between 1971 and 1976 compared with 22 during the previous inter-censal period. Two intermediate towns (5,000 to 9,999 population, situated outside urban areas) showed decreases in population compared with six at the previous census.

The following table shows the urban-rural distribution of the population. Urban population has been defined as that of the 24 defined Main Urban Areas plus that of all boroughs, town districts, communities, district communities, and townships with populations of 1,000 or over.

CensusUrbanRural*
NumberPercentNumberPercent

*Excludes shipping.

Total Population x
1926941,10267.1460,57232.9
19361,054,77567.2514,33832.8
19451,217,14271.6482,00328.4
19561,610,15274.2559,46225.8
19662,126,76479.6545,34420.4
19712,341,51081.9515,97518.1
19762,592,68083.0532,44317.0
New Zealand Maori Population x
19269,90515.653,71484.4
193614,21217.368,08782.7
194525,41425.773,31074.3
195647,92635.089,15665.0
1966123,77461.677,32138.4
1971160,62470.766,67429.3
1976205,68876.264,26323.8

In the process of urbanisation some cities and areas have grown more quickly than others. There is a tendency towards concentration of population in the largest centres and also a drift of population from the south to the north. Where the two tendencies reinforce each other, as they do in the case of the combined Auckland Urban Areas the rate of growth has been very rapid. Likewise the Urban Areas of Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, and Rotorua, which had a combined population in 1926 of 40,164, in 1976 comprised 228,649 inhabitants.

The initial reason for the drift to the north lay in the change in emphasis of farming activities in which the development of dairying played an important part. The expansion of dairying in itself called for the development of factory processing facilities and service industries. These farming trends have been reinforced by the growth of forest processing industries in the North Island and compounded further by the general tendency for the large-scale manufacturing units to be located close to the biggest local markets.

In the larger cities a notable feature of recent decades has been a movement of population from the central or "inner" areas to the perimeter or "outer" areas as families in decayed areas have moved to State rental houses and as residential units in the city centres have been replaced by shops, offices, places of entertainment, and other commercial or industrial buildings. More recently, there has been an offsetting movement with the building of multi-storey flats in the inner areas.

The distribution of population by size of centres is shown in the following table.

Sizes of Centre (City, Borough, Town District, or Community)Number of CentresPercentage of Population in These Centres
19261961197119761926196119711976

*Includes Urban Division of Thames-Coromandel District.

1,000–2,499634543487.53.02.42.4
2,500–4,999234740396.27.25.04.7
5,000–9,99911343532*5.99.68.87.4
10,000–24,9991221232513.315.012.812.5
25,000 and over412222524.132.544.650.4
  Total11315916316957.067.373.677.4

In the South Island a higher proportion of the population is rural, that is, outside urban communities, than in the North Island, the proportion being 21.6 in the South Island against 15.2 percent in the North Island, at the 1976 Census of Population.

Males and Females—Final statistics from the census of 23 March 1976 showed that females outnumbered males by 5,299 in the total population (excluding Armed Forces overseas), there being 1,562,042 males and 1,567,341 females. Females per 1,000 males at recent censuses have been:

CensusExcluding N.Z. Armed Forces OverseasIncluding N.Z. Armed Forces Overseas
19451,044991
1951991989
1956989987
1961990988
1966992991
19711,0001,000
19761,0031,003

There are marked differences in the sex composition of the population of different parts of New Zealand. Females tend to outnumber males in urban areas and to be outnumbered in rural areas. One important reason is doubtless the generally better employment and educational opportunities for women and girls in the larger industrial and commercial centres.

DENSITY OF POPULATION—Generally speaking, a dense population must depend upon intensive land utilisation or industrialisation. In New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, and large areas of hilly country which cannot be closely settled, while the growth of mechanisation in fanning tends to reduce the size of the labour force engaged in fanning operations.

Nevertheless, the trend of economic development is providing employment for a growing labour force. More extensive mechanisation, further advances in science and technology, and increases in productivity, wealth, and consumption have paved the way for further specialisation of production and more concentrated urbanisation.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The following table provides comparative density figures on a statistical-area basis over a 50-year period from 1926 to 1976 population censuses.

Statistical AreaArea in Square KilometresPersons Per Square Kilometre
1926x1945x1951x1961x1971x1976x
Northland12,6294.35.36.06.87.68.5
Central Auckland5,59442.259.368.392.0124.8142.5
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty36,7603.95.66.79.511.512.8
East Coast10,8803.13.53.84.34.44.4
Hawke's Bay11,3036.27.08.110.111.812.8
Taranaki9,7217.47.98.910.310.411.0
Wellington27,70510.112.614.117.120.021.4
  Total, North Island114,5927.810.011.514.717.919.8
Marlborough10,8591.71.92.12.62.93.2
Nelson18,0462.32.63.13.53.84.2
Westland15,4151.41.61.61.61.51.6
Canterbury43,3715.05.86.57.99.29.9
Otago37,1004.03.94.34.84.95.1
Southland29,1362.22.42.73.23.73.7
  Total, South Island153,9273.33.64.14.75.35.6
  Total, New Zealand268,5195.26.37.29.010.711.7

NEW ZEALAND MAORI POPULATION—For statistical purposes, all persons of half or more Maori ancestry have, in the past, been defined as Maoris. This differs from the wider definition introduced in the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1974. That Act states that "Maori" means a person of the Maori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person.

Because of these changes, a two-part question on ethnic origin was introduced at the 1976 Census of Population.

A total of 270,035 persons either specified themselves as being of half or more Maori descent in the first part of the question or (without answering the first part) indicated in the second part of the question that they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand or descendants of such.

It is probable that some of the persons answering the second part of the question only were, in fact, of less than half Maori origin. The inclusion of this unknown number in the total of 270,035 means that this total is not directly comparable with the 1971 Census total of 227,414 persons of half or more Maori origin. It also means that the intercensal percentage increase figures are overstated as a result of the wider definition. It is considered, however, that the inclusion of these estimated 65,000 to 70,000 persons here and in later Maori figures from the 1976 Census with the estimated 200,000 to 205,000 persons who did specify half or more Maori origin will better preserve general comparability with Maori statistics from earlier censuses based on the former definition than would the omission of those who did not specify their degree of Maori origin.

On the wider definitional basis, including all persons of less than half Maori descent as well as the estimated 65,000 to 70,000 persons who indicated Maori origin but did not specify the degree, the 1976 Census count was 356,847. The 1971 Census count of those who specified some degree of Maori origin was just over 290,000. Thus, on the broader definition, the increase in the Maori population during the 5 years 1971 to 1976 was almost 67,000, or over 23 percent.

The decline in the number of Maoris during the early years of European settlement and throughout most of the nineteenth century is a matter of history. The present century has witnessed a resurgence of vitality among the Maori people which has been reflected in a strikingly high birth rate.

A statement of the N.Z. Maori population on the basis of persons of half or more Maori origin is now given for each census from 1901. Members of the Armed Forces overseas are excluded.

Census YearNew Zealand Maori Population*Intercensal IncreaseIntercensal IncreaseAverage Annual Increase

*Prior to 1976 comprises persons who specified themselves as half or more New Zealand Maori and in 1976 this group plus those who indicated they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand but did not specify the degree of Maori origin.

 Numberpercent
190145,5493,4368.161.59
190650,3094,76010.451.98
191152,7232,4144.800.96
191652,9972740.520.09
192156,9873,9907.531.62
192663,6706,68311.732.24
193682,32618,65629.302.62
194598,74416,41819.941.93
1951115,67616,93217.152.89
1956137,15121,47518.563.46
1961167,08629,93521.834.02
1966201,15934,07320.393.84
1971227,41426,25513.052.48
1976x270,03542,62118.743.49

The increasing urbanisation of the Maori population as younger Maoris seek better job opportunities in the cities and boroughs is a population trend of considerable sociological significance. At the 1926 Census the urban N.Z. Maori population totalled 9,905 (15.6 percent). By the 1976 Census the comparable figure was 205,688 (76.2 percent), the largest concentration being in the Southern Auckland Urban Area where 29,222 were enumerated in 1976.

Urban population is defined as that of the 24 defined Main Urban Areas plus that of all boroughs, town districts, and communities of 1,000 or over.

Of the 270,035 Maoris at the 1976 Census, 250,677 were in the North Island.

The Maori population, which until recently was not greatly affected by external migration, is a much younger population than the non-Maori.

The following table for 1976 shows the high proportion (45.3 percent) of Maori children under 15 years compared with the total population (29.7 percent), and the low proportion of people in the older age groups.

Age Group (Years)Percentage in Age Group (1976 Census)
New Zealand Maori*Total Population

*Comprises persons who described themselves as being half or more Maori, plus those who indicated that they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand, but who did not specify the degree of Maori descent.

Under 1545.329.7
15–1912.39.6
20–4430.933.2
45–597.914.6
60 and over3.613.0
  Total100.0100.0

EXTERNAL MIGRATION—In recent years there has been a large increase in New Zealanders going overseas on business, seeking better employment opportunities, on pleasure trips, and on working holidays, resulting in much higher levels of migration. The arrivals include many New Zealanders returning from travel overseas, as well as growing numbers of tourists from overseas countries.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the latest 5 years are given in the following table. Crews of vessels, through passengers, and members of the armed forces, have not been taken into account in this table. (Later figures are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of this Yearbook).

Year Ended 31 MarchArrivalsDeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*Excess of departures over arrivals.

1973247,135222,247469,382233,721210,186443,90725,475
1974316,681281,418598,099298,474266,458564,93233,167
1975359,067319,588678,655343,489306,025649,51429,141
1976352,980325,684678,664351,950321,522673,4725,192
1977349,324317,900667,224357,650325,844683,494–16,270*

From 1968 to 1970 there was an alteration in the net migration flow. This is illustrated in the following diagram which covers all passenger migration, excluding through passengers and crews. The excess of departures over arrivals recorded during the March years 1967–68 to 1969–70 was a migration feature unknown since the depression of the 1930s. It was followed by 6 years of migration gains, but the two latest years, 1976–77 and 1977–78, have each witnessed substantial losses.

EXTERNAL PASSENGER MIGRATION

Long-term Migration—The following table gives an analysis of long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for March years. (Short-term migration is analysed in Section 37: Travel and Tourism.) In the year ended March 1977 there was a net loss of 19,072 from permanent and long-term migration compared with a gain of 5,300 in 1975–76.

YearLong-term (Including Permanent) ArrivalsLong-term (Including Permanent) Departures
New Permanent ArrivalsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Arrivals (Immigrants)Permanent Departures of New Zealand ResidentsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Departures (Emigrants)
AssistedSubsidisedTotal (includes others)N.Z. Residents ReturningLong-term Visitors*N.Z. Residents DepartingLong-term Visitors Departing

*Arrivals: after absence of, or intending to stay, 12 months or more respectively. Departures: persons intending to stay away for, or after stay in New Zealand of, 12 months or more respectively.

1972–735063,03626,66616,69411,29154,6517,81821,8585,80735,483
1973–744504,83638,12117,12314,57169,8159,59126,8325,91542,338
1974–754377,67034,14217,56614,19265,9009,05027,6396,77243,461
1975–761093,39920,04616,83011,58448,4607,30827,3848,46843,160
1976–7743713,40015,5228,09837,02013,04836,1646,88056,092

The countries of origin and destination of these long-term (including permanent) migrants are shown in the following table.

YearAustraliaCanadaIndiaUnited KingdomCook Islands and NiueFijiWestern SamoaNetherlandsSouth AfricaUnited StatesAll Other CountriesTotal
Immigrants by Country of Last Residence
1972–7317,7302,05621921,6761,9499703828196412,3095,90054,651
1973–7420,3192,12926731,8112,2801,1895537438472,4267,25169,815
1974–7521,4861,51721827,4862,2861,3247768607312,0407,17665,900
1975–7618,23496025014,5541,3321,2361,2627406202,0127,26048,460
1976–7713,4409562609,1561,0161,1681,1065325761,5807,23037,020
Emigrants by Country of Next Residence
1972–7315,2308321839,7573518716474846421,7174,76935,483
1973–7420,5001,17911610,8634407575836004931,8554,95242,338
1974–7519,3441,34416011,8545507288094605241,7395,94943,461
1975–7618,0901,26011612,1367968621,2324748122,0705,31243,160
1976–7728,2501,25810813,3907148801,1106282882,1667,30056,092

Ages—The following table gives the age distribution of long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for the year ended 31 March 1977.

Age, in YearsLong-term ArrivalsLong-term DeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Under 153,8683,6587,5265,0044,7449,748–2,222
15–191,6121,9183,5302,6003,6126,212–2,682
20–243,9344,2308,1649,3987,81617,214–9,050
25–447,7006,10413,80410,8627,59018,452–4,648
45–641,5041,4282,9321,8581,6783,536–604
65 and over4426221,064406524930+134
  Total19,06017,96037,02030,12825,96456,092–19,072

The occupations of working persons in long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for the year ended March 1977 are given in the following table.

Occupation GroupLong-term ArrivalsLong-term Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Professional (including nurses and teachers)3,0602,9566,0164,2464,4088,654
Administrative and managerial1,0861761,2621,3642621,626
Clerical workers8883,1184,0061,4585,8067,264
Sales workers6063749801,2027321,934
Farmers and fishermen770568261,1341161,250
Miners and quarrymen76768080
Transport and communications workers5961227181,2522621,514
Tradesmen, factory workers, labourers4,4963944,8909,9001,02410,924
Personal and other services5807981,3781,1401,2502,390
Not specified8841009841,1241221,246
  Total, actively engaged13,0428,09421,13622,90013,98236,882

Origin—The following table shows for the latest 3 years the birthplaces of long-term (including permanent) migrants.

Country of BirthImmigrants*Emigrants
1974–751975–761976–771974–751975–761976–77

*Persons arriving in New Zealand for a period of 12 months or more (including permanent arrivals). Plus New Zealand residents returning after an absence of 12 months or more.

†New Zealand residents departing for a period of 12 months or more (including permanent departures). Plus overseas visitors departing from New Zealand after a stay of 12 months or more.

North America2,3541,8701,4581,3561,6281,502
  Canada877522438505590516
  United States of America1,3161,292930808974930
South America155158190284036
Europe29,17715,0969,1608,3768,71011,230
  Netherlands943790620348370530
  United Kingdom26,19512,7007,4107,1347,4989,442
Asia2,5462,4341,8901,0481,0401,192
  Malaysia881876488387378410
Africa752636514204278268
Oceania30,90428,24023,77232,44431,44841,830
  Australia11,3739,1026,5783,0623,9244,534
  Cook Islands and Niue2,1141,156886339482428
  Fiji664794746213342396
  New Zealand15,72915,68614,13827,26025,48635,036
Other Countries12263651634
     Total65,90048,46037,02043,46143,16056,092

IMMIGRATION POLICY: Permanent Entry—New Zealand's immigration policy is designed to encourage the entry of skilled labour into New Zealand, but to protect domestic employment opportunities for New Zealand citizens and residents who have the right to reside here permanently. At the same time, strong emphasis is placed on humanitarian considerations such as family reunification and refugee entry.

In general, applicants for permanent entry must be between the ages of 18 and 45 years, of sound mental and physical health, and, if married, have no more than 4 dependent children.

Occupational Grounds—The New Zealand Government periodically determines the occupational skills in demand in New Zealand which serve as occupational grounds for migration to New Zealand. Migration is encouraged from countries with which New Zealand has traditional migration links, while the Government discourages the recruitment of skilled labour from countries where it is needed.

Family Reunification—Favourable consideration is also given to people applying to enter on humanitarian grounds. The reunification of families which are based in New Zealand is encouraged by the New Zealand Government, so long as the New Zealand family is willing to sponsor the applicant. This is the main criterion for the entry of people from the South Pacific region into New Zealand, along with a special arrangement under which a quota of citizens from Western Samoa may enter New Zealand for settlement each year.

Refugees—The admission and resettlement of refugees who come within the mandate of the United Nations Commissioner for Refugees, has also been an important priority of the New Zealand Government. In the resettling of refugees in New Zealand the Government works in close co-operation with the Inter-Church Commission on Immigration. New Zealand has accepted a significant number of refugees since World War II, the larger groups being as follows:

1944: 755 children and 82 adults were accepted from Poland.

1949–50: 941 displaced persons from Europe.

1950–51: 978 displaced persons from Europe.

1951–52: 2,663 displaced persons from Europe.

1956: 1,117 Hungarian refugees.

1959: The first 20 families of "hard core" refugees (families with one or more handicapped members) arrived in New Zealand. By the early 1960s 200 "hard core" refugees had arrived in New Zealand for resettlement.

1965: 50 orphans from Hong Kong for adoption in New Zealand. 80 White Russian Christians from the Sinkiang Province in China.

1968: 100 Czechoslovak refugees.

1970–71: 42 Chinese refugees from Indonesia were accepted. 25 Czechoslovak refugees came from transit camps in Europe.

1972: 244 Ugandan Asians from transit camps in the U.K. and Europe were accepted following their expulsion from Uganda.

1974–77: 236 Chilean refugees in 70 family groups.

1975–77: 47 Russian Jewish families.

1975–76: 45 Vietnamese families comprising 112 persons were accepted.

1977: 70 Vietnamese families, "boat people", comprising 412 persons were accepted from camps in Malaysia and Thailand.

Inter-Departmental Committee on Resettlement—The resettlement of migrants in New Zealand is co-ordinated by the Inter-Departmental Committee on Resettlement which constantly reviews the facilities already available to assist new arrivals and considers how best to ensure that existing agencies and services are related in a more direct and co-ordinated way to the resettlement objectives of New Zealand's immigration policy. The ICR, in consultation with other Government agencies and non-Government bodies, works to identify any areas in which steps are not being taken to meet the reasonable requirements of new migrants, and as appropriate, to develop proposals to satisfy these requirements.

Temporary Entry—Entry permits for people wishing to visit New Zealand on a temporary basis are generally issued for periods of 6 months, though visitors may be granted extensions at the discretion of the Immigration Division. With the passing of the Immigration Amendment Act 1977, a distinction has been created between working and non-working entry permits for people visiting New Zealand on a temporary basis. Visitors to New Zealand who wish to work while in New Zealand must now apply for a temporary work permit. Otherwise they will be prohibited from working in New Zealand.

This legislation is designed to protect the New Zealand labour market during the present worldwide employment crisis. It will not, however, affect Australian citizens who wish to work while in New Zealand, nor will it affect persons born in the Cook Islands, Niue, or Tokelau who are New Zealand citizens and therefore have unrestricted right of entry into this country.

South Pacific Work Permit Schemes—Visitors from the South Pacific countries will also remain largely unaffected by the new legislation. New Zealand already has special work permit schemes in operation for citizens of Tonga, Fiji and Western Samoa. Under these schemes, agreed upon after negotiations with the respective Governments, workers may undertake employment in response to specific job offers from New Zealand employers. Employers are required to make financial and other commitments to ensure the welfare of Island workers while they are in New Zealand, and the Department of Labour checks that the accommodation offered is of a suitable standard. The maximum period of employment of these schemes is 11 months. The long-term intention is to supplement these schemes with training and employment programmes aimed at improving the reserve of skills in the Island countries concerned, along with programmes of economic development to enable them to provide more local employment opportunities.

Formalities—Except for New Zealand citizens, all persons entering New Zealand are required to obtain entry permits under the Immigration Act 1964. This legislation is administered by the Department of Labour. The actual permit to enter is issued at the New Zealand port of entry, in the form of an endorsement in a passenger's passport (or any other travel document). All persons intending permanent residence in New Zealand require prior approval before setting out on their journey. The requirements for visitors vary according to the nationality of the traveller and the purpose of the visit. The following categories of travellers, however, are exempt from prior authority and entry permit requirements (whether entering permanently or temporarily) under a special exemption:

  1. Australian citizens;

  2. Citizens of other Commonwealth countries and the Republic of Ireland who have been granted the right to reside permanently in either Australia or New Zealand, provided they are travelling direct to New Zealand from Australia.

This arrangement does not, however, exempt such persons from the provisions of the Immigration Act 1964 relating to prohibited immigrants. The following categories of persons are prohibited from entry to New Zealand whether for permanent or temporary entry:

  1. Mentally disordered persons, or people suffering from tuberculosis, leprosy, or syphilis;

  2. Persons who have been convicted of an offence and sentenced to a term of imprisonment or other form of detention for 1 year or more or to any form of indeterminate detention for which they may be detained for a period of 1 year or more;

  3. Persons who have been deported from New Zealand (except for a certain class of ship deserter), or deported from any other country.

Those within any of the above categories who enter New Zealand without first obtaining special permission to do so commit an offence which requires the Court to order deportation if conviction is entered.

To obtain permission to settle in New Zealand, intending immigrants, other than Australian citizens, should first write to the nearest overseas representative of the New Zealand Government or write direct to the Secretary of Labour, Private Bag, Wellington, New Zealand for the necessary application forms. Each application is considered on its merits.

PASSPORTS—Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued and renewed within New Zealand by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington, Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, at Rarotonga and Niue by the New Zealand Representative, and overseas by the representatives of New Zealand at Apia, Athens, Baghdad, Bahrain, Bangkok, Bonn, Brussels, Canberra, Geneva, The Hague, Hong Kong, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New Delhi, New York, Noumea, Nukualofa, Ottawa, Paris, Peking, Port Moresby, Port of Spain, Rome, San Francisco, Santiago (Chile), Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington. United Kingdom, Canadian, Australian, Malaysian, Singapore, and Indian passports are issued and renewed in New Zealand by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

Entry into New Zealand—Apart from British subjects and the wives of British subjects arriving from Australia, no person 16 years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless he is in possession of a valid passport or other recognised travel document. Exemption from the passport requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Act and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act) may be granted in exceptional circumstances by the Minister of Internal Affairs, A British subject who is a master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives does not need to produce a passport.

With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, every alien landing in New Zealand requires a visa.

Departure from New Zealand—Every person leaving New Zealand, with the exception of a British subject travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

CITIZENSHIP—The current basic law on New Zealand citizenship is the Citizenship Act 1977, which came into force on 1 January 1978. Previously, the relevant law was the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948.

Under the Citizenship Act 1977, New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways: (a) by birth in New Zealand; (b) by descent (i.e. birth outside New Zealand); (c) by grant of citizenship. Those persons who were citizens under the previous Act (whether by birth, descent, naturalisation or registration) at 31 December 1977, retain their status under the current legislation. The current legislation also allows for citizenship by descent through the female line. To be eligible for a grant of New Zealand citizenship a person (other than the spouse of a New Zealand citizen; or a person under 18 years of age) must—(a) have resided in New Zealand for the 3 years immediately preceding the date of application; (b) be entitled in terms of the Immigration Act 1964 to reside in New Zealand permanently; (c) be of full capacity; (d) be of good character; (e) have sufficient knowledge of the English language and of the responsibilities and privileges attaching to New Zealand citizenship; (f) intend to continue to reside in New Zealand or to enter or continue Crown service under the New Zealand Government, or service in the employment of a person, company, society, or other body of persons resident or established in New Zealand.

Under current legislation everyone who acquires New Zealand citizenship by grant must swear allegiance to the Queen of New Zealand. British subjects or Commonwealth citizens whose country recognises Queen Elizabeth II as Head of State are required to take the oath on the application form. Other persons whose country of birth does not give this recognition are required to swear allegiance at a public ceremony. The public ceremonies, at which applicants are presented with their certificates granting them New Zealand citizenship, are held in an atmosphere of dignity and solemnity. During 1976–77 there were 205 ceremonies at which 1,288 candidates took the oath.

New Zealand citizens may be deprived of New Zealand citizenship if they voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality by any formal act other than by marriage and have acted in a manner that is contrary to the interests of New Zealand or voluntarily exercised any of the privileges or performed any of the duties of another nationality or citizenship in a manner that is contrary to the interests of New Zealand. Citizenship obtained by fraud, false representation, mistake, or wilful concealment of relevant information may be withdrawn. Under certain conditions New Zealand citizenship may also be validly renounced.

The following table shows the number of persons, by country of birth, who were granted citizenship in the 2 latest available years ended 31 March.

Country of Birth1975–761976–77
NaturalisationRegistrationTotalNaturalisationRegistrationTotal
Australia74745050
Austria1541911415
China2327504558103
Denmark951413922
Fiji9898159159
Germany103141144054
Greece182442344276
Hong Kong336394040
Hungary18422191433
India41271317134141
Indonesia232043131326
Ireland51518787
Italy129219514
Kenya22225252
Malaysia237396868
Netherlands166122288204174378
Poland262147212142
Romania34711516
South Africa1656722384107
Switzerland291039353469
Tonga2262813334
U.S.S.R.5495914
United Kingdom13,2193,2204,3484,348
United States182038354075
Western Samoa11181191167168
Yugoslavia523991504898
Other countries4926831761404465
  Total5054,4764,9816116,1436,754

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS—Up to 31 December 1977 the registration of aliens in New Zealand was provided for by the Aliens Act 1948, which was administered by the Department of Internal Affairs. Upon the introduction of the Citizenship Act 1977 the requirement that aliens be registered was abolished.

The following table shows, by country of nationality, the number of males and females on the register.

Country of Nationality1 April 19761 April 1977
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Afghanistan516617
Albania7777
Austria345128473358135493
Belgium5240925747104
Bulgaria6086860868
Burma2022227633
Chile4851997681157
China8896811,5709327211,653
Czechoslovakia75391147539114
Denmark518297815530308838
Finland87831708984173
France141181322164205369
Germany6374701,1076744861,160
Greece5806141,1946016221,223
Hungary208113321215117332
Indonesia1307120115483237
Israel221234311849
Italy665242907693263956
Japan168220388207260467
Korea411758542074
Lebanon212344242549
Nepal1241615520
Netherlands7,4395,71513,1547,6985,94013,638
Norway1095616511561176
Philippines62431057554129
Poland358265623359266625
Romania181230181331
South Africa172184356205212417
Spain382159412465
Sweden988918710997206
Switzerland7374471,1847904831,273
Thailand6212919173153226
Turkey192140212142
United States2,8802,0284,9083,3232,3355,658
U.S.S.R.869217893104197
Vietnam846114510276178
Yugoslavia8494981,3478605161,376
Other countries157110267180117297
Stateless411758422062
  Total17,94013,08531,02519,15314,02633,179

CENSUS OF POPULATION AND DWELLINGS 1976—The series of tables on the following pages contain provisional statistics from the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings based on a representative sample of population and dwelling questionnaires. Where such statistics are not yet available, tables based on the 1971 Census have been retained.

MARITAL STATUS—The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the Census of 1976 is summarised in the following tables. All figures are provisional.

Age Group (Years)Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedWidowedDivorcedTotal*

*Including persons not specifying status.

Males
16–19117,0602,29030119,490
20–2481,45046,3101,04070280129,340
25–3439,320175,3804,9102302,820223,260
35–1412,750144,6104,1307203,130165,650
45–5412,470142,4703,6102,3103,790164,950
55–648,970108,1702,1905,3303,440128,310
65–745,57067,7201,0508,5801,99085,060
75 and over2,48022,3302209,86040035,420
  Total, 1976280,070709,28017,18027,10015,8501,051,480
  Total, 1971250,372632,10811,59826,79811,442937,954
Females
16–19104,03011,63027010115,960
20–2448,60076,9403,140150470129,360
25–3421,600187,4107,7101,1503,850221,750
35–447,680142,9105,2203,1404,810163,800
45–548,170132,9603,8109,8905,170160,100
55–649,84098,0802,09025,2003,870139,190
65–749,61051,43092039,4002,420103,920
75 and over7,02013,77027040,63076062,510
  Total, 1976216,550715,13023,430119,56021,3601,096,590
  Total, 1971186,619637,92214,139104,53314,711959,378
Total
16–19221,09013,92030010235,450
20–24130,050123,2504,180220750258,700
25–3460,920362,79012,6201,3806,670445,010
35–4420,430287,5209,3503,8607,940329,450
45–5420,640275,4307,42012,2008,960125,050
55–6418,810206,2504,28030,5307,310267,500
65–7415,180119,1501,97047,9804,410188,980
75 and over9,50036,10049050,4901,16097,930
Total, 1976496,6201,424,41040,610146,66037,2102,148,070
Total, 1971436,9911,270,03025,737131,33126,1531,897,332

The percentage distribution of the population aged 16 years or over according to marital status is given in the following summary.

Marital Status1966x19711976x
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Never married28.120.826.919.527.119.6
Married66.866.167.866.667.265.7
Legally separated0.81.01.21.51.62.0
Widowed3.110.92.910.92.610.7
Divorced1.11.21.21.51.41.9
  Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

HOUSEHOLDS—There was a provisional total of 939,340 private households living in permanent dwellings at the Census in 1976. The following table analyses the type of household by the number of occupants. A complete one-family-only household consists of a husband and wife with or without unmarried children of any age who are living at home.

Type of HouseholdTotal Private Households*Number of Private Households* with Number of Members
1234567 or more

*Resident in permanent dwellings.

One-family-only—
  Complete550,360190,86095,050130,91079,77034,50019,270
  Incomplete with children absent31,3407,2608,5007,0704,5201,9302,060
  Incomplete with one parent absent53,16025,06015,1307,4003,4601,280830
  Incomplete with one parent and child(ren) absent4,8202,2501,080710410230140
  Total639,680225,430119,760146,09088,16037,94022,300
Multi-person—
  One family plus other persons (non-family)76,95021,64017,32016,06010,52011,410
  Multi-family with or without other persons15,6303,0203,1503,2206,240
  Total92,58021,64020,34019,21013,74017,650
Non-family56,41038,62010,6904,6601,720500220
One person150,670150,670
  Total939,340150,670264,050152,090171,090109,09052,18040,170

In the following table complete one-family-only households at the 1976 Census are analysed by membership and the employment status of the head of the household.

Employment Status of HeadTotal HouseholdsHusband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
Actively engaged in the labour force—
  Employer49,5709,9208,23013,6610,9004,5502,310
  Own account worker51,33011,6608,55014,4209,9204,6702,110
  Salary or wage earner362,94098,67068,45099,72057,43024,50014,170
  Unemployed2,450730550500280190200
  Relative assisting2201306030
  Not specified610220110130705030
  Total467,120121,33085,950128,46078,60033,96018,820
Not actively engaged in the labour force—
  Retired77,13066,4207,8301,780640220240
  Student1,0707602107030
  Housewife2,3201,240380310180110100
  Other2,7201,110680290320210110
  Total83,24069,5309,1002,4501,170540450
  Grand total550,360190,86095,050130,91079,77034,50019,270

The following table shows the composition of one-complete-family-only households in 1976 analysed by the age group of the head of the household.

Age group of Head (in Years)Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More ChildrenTotal
Number of Households
Under 2069084090101,630
20–2418,42010,5606,1609201303036,220
25–4435,23036,84089,25059,57025,56012,610259,060
45–6473,35040,00034,10018,7508,7106,490181,400
65 and over63,1706,8101,31052010014072,050
  Total190,86095,050130,91079,77034,50019,270550,360
Percentage of Age Group
Under 2042.351.55.50.6100.0
20–2450.929.217.02.50.40.1100.0
25–4413.614.234.523.09.94.9100.0
45–6440.422.118.810.34.83.6100.0
65 and over87.79.51.80.70.10.2100.0
All ages34.717.323.814.56.33.5100.0

The following two tables show, for one-complete-family-only households, the income group analysed by the membership of the household. The income given in the first table is the income of the head of the household, while in the second table the total household income is shown. In a considerable proportion of households, the total household income was substantially above the income of the head of the household, indicating at least one other income recipient in the family. The statistics are provisional.

Income of Head*Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
One ChildTwo ChildrenThree ChildrenFour ChildrenFive or More ChildrenTotal

*Estimated income before tax, other than Social Welfare Benefits, for the year ended 31 March 1976.

$Number of Households   
Nil25,7403,9701,27069037039032,430
1–1,99927,1903,9901,9401,12061035035,200
2,000–3,99924,1909,3809,3605,9103,0402,12054,000
4,000–5,99948,97031,78038,63022,51010,8006,450159,140
6,000–7,99934,44023,50038,71022,7308,8704,290132,540
8,000–9,99914,48010,75020,74012,8605,0402,66066,530
10,000–14,99910,2008,04014,2509,4003,6801,95047,520
15,000–19,9992,3801,8302,9402,1701,02044010,780
20,000 and over2,1601,2502,4101,8908404008,950
Not specified1,1105606604902302203,270
  Total190,86095,050130,91079,77034,50019,270550,360
Income of Household*Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
One ChildTwo ChildrenThree ChildrenFour ChildrenFive or More ChildrenTotal
$Number of Households   
Nil22,7001,02037022013011024,550
1–1,99923,5301,77089052029021027,210
2,000–3,99917,3306,0005,0203,4001,5001,09034,340
4,000–5,99925,88019,23024,06013,3205,8403,31091,640
6,000–7,99922,63018,26029,68017,4007,1203,40098,490
8,000–9,99922,59015,29023,94014,1605,4302,73084,140
10,000–14,99941,89022,23030,34018,5308,2004,320125,510
15,000–19,9998,6606,7509,6506,8503,0902,13037,130
20,000 and over3,9703,3505,5304,3402,2301,34020,760
Not specified1,6801,1501,4301,0306706306,590
  Total190,86095,050130,91079,77034,50019,270550,360

The following table shows persons living alone in 1976 by age, sex, and marital status. The statistics are provisional.

Age Group (in Years)Marital Status
Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedDivorcedWidowedTotal*

*Including those of unspecified marital status.

Males Living Alone
Under 2095020970
20–243,41063010020104,170
25–448,8402,4802,3101,3008015,060
45–647,9202,8201,9803,0702,94018,810
65 and over3,3001,8506001,0509,22016,100
  Total24,4207,8004,9905,44012,25055,110
Females Living Alone
Under 208104020870
20–241,920450210102,590
25–444,2607909506903907,090
45–646,7502,3201,6703,49014,95029,230
65 and over7,6202,1306801,91043,42055,780
  Total21,3605,7303,5306,10058,76095,560

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS—The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the 1966, 1971 and 1976 Censuses.

Religious ProfessionNumber of AdherentsPercentage
196619711976196619711976

*1976 figure includes adherents of those religious professions in the table for which individual totals are not yet available.

Anglican (Church of England)901,701895,839915,20233.731.329.2
Presbyterian582,976583,701566,56921.820.418.1
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)425,280449,974478,53015.915.715.3
Methodist186,260182,727173,5267.06.45.5
Baptist46,74847,35049,4421.71.71.6
Protestant (undefined)46,09037,475..1.71.3..
Christian (undefined)21,54833,187..0.81.2..
Ratana27,57030,15635,0821.01.11.1
Latter Day Saints25,56429,78536,1301.01.01.2
Brethren23,13925,768..0.90.9..
Salvation Army17,73719,371..0.70.7..
Seventh Day Adventist9,55110,477..0.40.4..
Jehovah's Witness7,45510,318..0.30.4..
Agnostic4,9609,481..0.20.3..
Atheist5,4749,291..0.20.3..
Church of Christ10,3018,930..0.40.3..
Congregational12,1017,704..0.40.3..
Lutheran5,7305,930..0.20.2..
Ringatu5,6055,635..0.20.2..
Eastern Orthodox3,6054,319..0.10.2..
Hindu3,5993,845..0.10.1..
Hebrew4,1043,803..0.20.1..
Undenominational3,0693,709..0.10.1..
Assemblies of God2,0283,599..0.10.1..
Apostolic Church1,8412,361..0.10.1..
Undenominational Christian1,9681,903..0.10.1..
Christadelphian1,6281,667..0.10.1..
Christian Scientist1,161816....
Rationalist1,696779..0.1..
All other religious professions23,49924,694295,800*0.90.99.5
No religion (so returned)32,78057,485579,1021.22.018.5
Object to state210,851247,0197.98.6
Not specified19,300103,5330.73.6
  Total2,676,9192,862,6313,129,383100.0100.0100.0

The category recorded as "Object to state" represents those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject.

AGE DISTRIBUTION—Census age-group figures are shown in the following table. Estimates of age distribution for inter-censal and later years are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Age (Years)1971 Census1976 CensusPercentage of Total Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal19711976x

*Under 20 years.

0–4151,916145,946297,862151,086145,019296,10510.49.5
5–9158,310151,494309,804159,187152,586311,77310.810.0
10–14154,286147,671301,957163,869156,458320,32710.510.2
1528,39027,28655,67632,68631,57364,2591.92.0
16–19104,726100,387205,113120,649115,829236,4787.27.6
20–24119,447115,512234,959131,644127,931259,5758.28.3
25–2994,62292,690187,312125,668123,472249,1406.58.0
30–3484,18182,509166,690100,84798,651199,4985.86.4
35–3976,99774,192151,18989,71787,380177,0975.35.7
40–4483,25178,445161,69677,89974,732152,6315.64.9
45–4980,87978,488159,36784,16178,717162,8785.65.2
50–5469,14171,658140,79978,16677,535155,7014.95.1
55–5965,26466,919132,18366,54770,639137,1864.64.4
60–6455,59758,260113,85760,92466,304127,2284.04.1
65–6942,70047,91490,61449,80556,643106,4483.23.4
70–7428,46237,22165,68333,82642,02975,8552.32.4
75–7916,75426,61243,36619,94230,13650,0781.51.5
80–849,92317,30127,22415,41931,70747,1261.01.5
85–894,5428,20412,7460.4
90 and over1,4683,0664,5340.2
  Total1,430,8561,431,7752,862,6311,562,0421,567,3413,129,383100.0100.0
Under 15 years464,512445,111909,623474,142454,063928,20531.829.7
15–64 years862,495846,3461,708,841968,908952,7631,921,67159.761.4
65 years and over103,849140,318244,167118,992160,515279,5078.58.9
Minors*597,628572,7841,170,412627,477601,4651,228,94240.939.3
Adults833,228858,9911,692,219934,565965,8761,900,44159.160.7

ETHNIC GROUPS—The following table displays the broad ethnic origins of the New Zealand population.

Ethnic GroupPopulation Census
1966197119711976

*Covers persons of full descent and those of mixed, both European (all degrees) and Maori (where less than half Maori descent).

†Comprises persons who specified themselves as half or more N.Z. Maori, plus those who indicated they were persons of the Maori race of N.Z., but did not specify the degree of Maori origin.

‡Half or more.

§Includes not specified.

European2,426,3522,561,2802,568,5322,693,183
Maori201,159227,414227,414270,035
Other Origins—
  Pacific Islanders—
  Cook Island Maori8,66313,772*12,91318,610
  Samoan11,84222,198*19,54027,876
  Niuean and Tokelauan2,8465,459*5,3097,425
  Tongan1,3892,075*1,4727,443
  Other1,5311,909*1,684
  Sub-total, Pacific Islanders26,27145,413*40,91861,354
Chinese10,28312,818*12,47014,860
Indian6,8437,807*7,1409,247
Fijian1,3232,021*1,15180,704§
Syrian, Lebanese, and Arab1,0991,126*890
Other ethnic groups3,5894,752*4,116
Sub-total, others23,13728,524*25,767104,811§
Total2,676,9192,862,6312,862,6313,129,383

COUNTRY OF BIRTH—From 1945 to 1961 the New Zealand-born population remained at about 86 per cent of the total population: since 1966 the proportion has dropped slightly, mainly because increased numbers of New Zealanders have been overseas at census date and increased numbers of overseas tourists have been in New Zealand. At the 1976 Census, 83.3 percent of those enumerated gave New Zealand as their birthplace, 9.3 percent gave the United Kingdom, 2.0 percent Australia, 1.0 percent the Cook Islands and Western Samoa, and 0.7 percent the Netherlands.

The next table shows the duration of residence in New Zealand of persons born overseas.

Years of Residence1966 Census1971 Census1976 Census
Number Born OverseasPercentage of Specified CasesNumber Born OverseasPercentage of Specified CasesNumber Born OverseasPercentage of Specified Cases

*Including unspecified.

†Includes overseas born short-stay visitors.

‡Provisional.

0–4103,06426.590,36022.3160,14031.6
5–956,87714.667,30416.659,96011.8
10–1461,35115.752,98113.163,67012.5
15–1938,95710.055,38713.749,8609.8
20 and over129,29733.2139,51134.3173,80034.3
  Total396,925*100.0418,462*100.0525,310*100.0

INTERNAL MIGRATION—The 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings included, for the first time, a question on internal migration. Respondents were asked to state their usual place of residence 1 year and 5 years prior to the census.

The following table gives a summary by Statistical Areas of the percentages of the population who had changed or not changed their residences within the year prior to the 1971 Census. It will be seen that, in New Zealand as a whole, 83.59 percent of the population were living at the same address as a year previous. The greatest mobility of population was found in the two main concentrations—Central Auckland Statistical Area (in which 18.62 percent of the population had moved within the year) and Wellington Statistical Area in which 17.70 percent had moved.

Usual Residence on Census Night (1971)Residence One Year Prior to Census (1971)
UnchangedElsewhere* in N. Z.Pacific IslandsOther CountriesNot Specified or No Settled Abode

*Includes, in those local authority areas subdivided for statistical processing purposes, persons who changed residence between the subdivided portions.

Percentage
Northland S. A.87.4411.560.020.760.22
Central Auckland S. A.81.3814.940.211.931.55
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty S. A.83.9513.790.071.921.28
East Coast S. A.85.8411.450.010.622.08
Hawke's Bay S. A.85.2012.890.030.731.15
Taranaki S. A.87.5511.09..0.730.63
Wellington S. A.82.3014.640.121.551.39
  North Island83.0914.060.121.401.33
Marlborough S. A.86.7211.150.010.881.23
Nelson S. A.84.9312.450.021.680.92
Westland S. A.88.378.72..0.542.37
Canterbury S. A.83.8914.090.031.130.86
Otago S. A.85.8111.960.020.951.26
Southland S. A.85.6112.720.031.020.63
  South Island84.8613.040.031.100.98
  New Zealand83.5913.770.091.311.23

Data based on residence 5 years prior to the 1971 Census indicate that 61.31 percent of the total population were still at the same address in 1971 as they were 5 years previously, but that 38.69 percent—almost 4 in every 10—had moved at least once during the 5 years. In Central Auckland Statistical Area 43.49 percent and in Wellington Statistical Area 41.22 percent of the population recorded that they had been living elsewhere 5 years prior to the 1971 Census.

STATISTICS OF WORLD POPULATION—The area and estimated population of the major areas and selected countries at mid-year 1976 are shown in the following table. (Source: U.N. Population and Vital Statistics Report.)

Major Areas and CountriesAreaPopulation

*World and major area figures are provisional totals for mid-1977.

†Includes Central America and the Caribbean.

Major Areaskm2 (000)million
  Africa30,319424
  America—North24,249354
  America—Latin17,832230
  Asia27,5802,355
  Europe4,937478
  Oceania8,51022
  U.S.S.R.22,402260
     World Total135,8304,124*
Selected Countries
Africa
  Algeria2,38217.3
  Angola1,2476.8
  Egypt1,00138.1
  Ethiopia1,22228.7
  Ghana23910.3
  Kenya58313.8
  Morocco44717.8
  Mozambique7839.4
  Nigeria92464.8
  South Africa1,22126.1
  Sudan2,50616.1
  Tanzania, United Republic of94515.6
  Uganda23611.9
  Zaire Republic2,34525.6
America—North
  Canada9,97623.1
  United States9,363215.1
America—Latin
  Argentine2,76725.7
  Brazil8,512109.2
  Chile75710.5
  Colombia1,13924.4
  Peru1,28516.1
  Venezuela91212.4
Asia
  Afghanistan64719.8
  China9,597852.1
  Hong Kong14.4
  India3,288610.1
  Indonesia1,904139.6
  Iran1,64833.4
  Iraq43511.5
  Israel213.5
  Japan372112.8
  Jordan982.8
  Korea—North12116.2
  Korea—South9835.9
  Lebanon103.0
  Malaysia33012.3
  Nepal14112.9
  Pakistan80472.4
  Philippines30043.8
  Saudi Arabia2,1509.2
  Singapore0.62.3
  Sri Lanka6614.3
  Syria1857.6
  Thailand51443.0
  Turkey78140.2
Europe
  Austria847.5
  Belgium319.9
  Bulgaria1118.8
  Czechoslovakia12814.9
  Denmark435.1
  France54752.9
  Germany—East10816.8
  Germany—West24961.5
  Greece1329.2
  Hungary9310.6
  Ireland, Republic of703.2
  Italy30156.2
  Luxembourg30.4
  Netherlands4113.7
  Norway3244.0
  Poland31334.4
  Portugal929.4
  Romania23821.4
  Spain50536.0
  Sweden4508.2
  Switzerland416.3
  United Kingdom24455.9
  Yugoslavia, Republic of25621.6
Oceania
  Australia7,68713.6
  Fiji180.6
  New Caledonia190.1
  New Zealand2693.1
  Papua New Guinea4622.8

Chapter 5. Section 4 VITAL STATISTICS

4 A—NATURAL INCREASE

The rate of natural increase (excess of births over deaths) is important to national planning; along with net migration it is the major component of population growth. While in recent years the natural increase rate in New Zealand has fallen, in line with the trend in the majority of developed countries, the New Zealand rate remains higher than for most other countries of predominantly European stock. The following table shows the numbers and rates of natural increase for the last 5 years, and emphasises the high rate for the Maori component of the population.

YearTotal PopulationMaorisNatural Increase Rates per 1,000 Mean Population
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseTotalMaori
197360,72725,31235,4157,3841,3806,00411.9224.81
197459,33625,26134,0756,9831,2735,71011.2423.09
197556,63925,11431,5256,7781,3335,44510.2121.55
197655,10525,45729,6486,6261,3205,3069.5119.56
197754,17925,96128,2186,7851,4165,3699.0219.47

In the 6 years to 31 December 1976 New Zealand gained by natural increase of population a total of 209,228.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—An international comparison of birth and natural increase rates for certain countries is made in the following table. The rates, which are for 1976, are taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.

CountryRate per 1,000 of Population
BirthsDeathsNatural Increase
New Zealand17.38.39.0
Japan16.46.310.1
Australia16.78.38.4
France13.610.53.1
Italy14.09.74.3
Canada15.87.28.6
Norway13.39.93.4
United States14.78.95.8
Netherlands12.98.34.6
United Kingdom12.112.2–0.1
Switzerland11.79.02.7
West Germany9.811.9–2.1

4 B—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION—The law as to registration of births is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. A birth is normally registered at the office of the Registrar nearest the place of birth.

Birth statistics are compiled by the Department of Statistics from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year. The figures do not include still births, except where multiple births are discussed. A special classification of still births is given later in this subsection.

Under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, provision is made for births not registered in the ordinary way to be recorded at a later date in a special register kept by the Registrar-General. Such cases include elderly people requiring evidence of age for social security purposes. Until 1971 these late registrations were included in published live-birth statistics but they are now excluded. The numbers are normally relatively small; in 1976 they totalled 223.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The following table shows the numbers of births and the rates for the last 5 years. Late registrations (see above) have been excluded from all these figures. It will be noted that the birth rate, which fell in the early 1960s and then appeared to stabilise at 22 to 23 births per 1,000 of mean population in the later 1960s, has now resumed the decline.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean Population
TotalMaoriTotalMaori
197360,7277,38420.44x30.51
197459,3366,98319.5728.24
197556,6396,77818.3526.82
197655,1056,62617.6824.43
197754,1796,78517.3224.61

REFINED BIRTH RATE—"Crude" rates of the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age, do not take account of variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages. Refined rates are provided by computations of the nuptial birth rate per 1,000 married women of 16–44 years of age, or the total births per 1,000 of all women aged 15–44 years. The following table gives both rates for census years (on the basis of the births registered in that year and the population as at the census) together with the "crude" rate for the year.

Census YearBirth Rate per 1,000 Women"Crude" Birth Rate per 1,000 Mean Population
Married Women 16–44 YearsTotal Women 15–44 Years

*Provisional.

1956191.7128.125.93
1961199.3140.626.99
1966155.2114.422.44
1971173.3112.922.51
1976131.6*83.2*17.68

The percentage of married women among women in the child-bearing age groups was 68.4 in 1971 compared with 51.6 in 1926. A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages; as the birth rate varies with age, the change in age constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

The following diagram shows numbers of births and deaths and indicates the relatively high rate of natural increase in New Zealand.

VITAL STATISTICS

The period since the Second World War was marked by a high birth rate until 1962, when the level dropped; this experience was also shared by Australia, Canada, and the United States. During the years 1962 to 1966 the crude birth rate fell from 26.16 to 22.37 per 1,000 of mean population. From 1966 until 1971 the crude birth rate remained relatively constant, but since 1971 the downward trend appears to have been resumed. In the following table the New Zealand crude birth rate is compared with that of Australia, Canada, and the United States.

CountryBirth Rate per 1,000 Mean Population
19691970197119721973197419751976
(Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics and Statistical Yearbook.)
New Zealand22.422.022.521.720.419.518.317.7
Australia20.420.621.720.518.918.418.416.7
Canada17.617.416.815.915.515.415.415.8
United States17.918.317.215.715.015.014.814.7

The decline of the birth rates over the period from 1961 has been the subject of discussion by demographers, notably at world population conferences. This change in fertility pattern has coincided in time with increasing use of oral contraceptives; their greater effectiveness in birth control appears to have had a significant influence on fertility. Demographers have emphasised the need for further research, stating that it is important to study demographic variables involved in the decline in the birth rate, including changes in age distribution, timing of marriage and birth, past success in achieving the desired family size, and changes in the desired number of children. It is important to determine the extent to which smaller families and postponed births are the result of changes in social attitudes and economic goals, and the extent to which they are the result of improved methods and knowledge of birth control having made possible a control of fertility previously considered desirable but largely unattainable.

REPRODUCTION INDEX—The reproduction index is based on the fact that the future size of a population is related to the number of women in the reproductive age groups at any given time. The gross rate is based on the number of female children born, and the average number of girls that will be born to a woman during her reproductive period, while the net rate takes into account fertility rates at different ages and the percentages of female survivors at those ages, obtained from life tables. A net rate of 1.0 indicates zero population growth, and a higher rate a rising population.

Reproduction rates during 6 recent years were as follows.

YearGross RateNet Rate
19721.4681.426
19731.3521.313
19741.2671.231
19751.1791.146
19761.0961.065
19771.0841.053

SEX OF CHILDREN BORN—The numbers of boys and girls born during the latest 6 years are given in the following table.

In each year, more boys than girls are born, a disparity "explainable" on account of the higher death rates of males at every age level. The death rate per 1,000 live births for babies under 12 months of age in 1975 was 18.49 for boys and 13.33 for girls; for children of from 1 to 4 years of age it was 1.04 for boys and 0.91 for girls; for children aged 5 to 14 years it was 0.50 for boys and 0.30 for girls; and the pattern repeated itself with each age group through adolescence and adult life.

YearNumber of Births ofMale Births per 1,000 Female Births
MalesFemales
197331,09729,6301,050
197430,51128,8251,058
197528,87427,7651,040
197628,54426,5611,075
197727,78826,3911,053

MULTIPLE BIRTHS—In 1976 there were 54.582 confinements which resulted in live births; of these 519 cases resulted in all live multiple births and 18 cases where one of twins was still-born. In one additional case both twins were still-born.

The likelihood of still births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases.

YearSingle CasesCases of TwinsCases of TripletsTotal CasesStill Birth Rate per 1,000
LiveStillBoth LiveBoth StillOne Live One StillAll LiveTwo Live One StillSingleMultipleSingle CasesMultiple Cases
197261,97660959411121362,5856309.736.5
197359,5685265668143260,0945938.840.5
197458,2224705398233258,6925758.057.4
197555,464438568524555,9026027.848.2
197654,045403515118454,4485387.435.3

AGES OF PARENTS—Information as to the relative ages of parents of nuptial living children whose births were registered in 1976 is shown in the following table for the total population. Registrations of births under Section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 are excluded.

Age of Mother, in YearsAge of Father, in Years
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445–4950–5455–6465 and OverTotal Cases

*Including 3 cases of triplets and 14 cases where one of twins was still-born.

Single Births
Under 206032,160351531312313,187
20–241606,9197,6031,150241461911516,154
25–2988069,3385,4221,09320961299216,977
30–34688293,0221,673368143451336,164
35–391959269742443147461821,736
40–447144715911134111384
45 and over1113164329
  Total7729,96318,1889,9303,8101,22949917260844,631
Multiple Births
Under 205163125
20–24161481131125
25–2991045853179
30–34112283152180
35–3927111030
40–44224
45 and over11
  Total687169104532032444*
  Grand Total77810,05018,35710,0343,8631,24950217460845,075*

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS—The following table gives for 1976 the number of previous issue, i.e., children born alive, in conjunction with the age of mother.

Age of Mother in YearsNumber of Previous Issue
0123456–910–1415 and OverTotal Nuptial Cases

*This number represents 44,631 single cases and 444 multiple cases.

Under 202,2378967633,212
20–247,3636,4491,9814135613416,279
25–294,7836,6473,8831,3113471345117,156
30–341,1141,6821,694966418180178126,244
35–392783133482872091371712211,766
40–445545394145369631388
45 and over1234447530
  Total15,83116,0348,0243,0251,07950450770145,075*

In the following table the total issue and average issue are shown for mothers by age groups where a birth occurred in 1976.

Age of Mother in YearsTotal MothersTotal IssueAverage Issue
Under 203,2124,2911.34
20–2416,27928,3661.74
25–2917,15638,0572.22
30–346,24418,1702.91
35–391,7666,6353.76
40–443882,0215.21
45 and over301936.43
Total45,07597,7332.17

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1976) born up to the present time to those mothers of nuptial children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing, marriages only. The averages for recent years have been as follows: 1972, 2.29; 1973, 2.30; 1974, 2.23; 1975, 2.19; and 1976, 2.17.

FIRST BIRTH—Statistics of nuptial first confinements show that in recent years there have been reduced proportions occurring within 1 year after marriage and within 2 years after marriage.

YearTotal Nuptial CasesTotal Nuptial First CasesProportion of First Cases to Total CasesFirst Cases Within 1 Year After MarriageFirst Cases Within 2 Years After Marriage
NumberProportion to Total First CasesNumberProportion to Total First Cases
   percent percent percent
197253,27219,99137.537,67938.4112,52762.67
197351,04217,95835.186,39435.6111,65559.33
197449,49117,84536.065,77832.389,91955.58
197546,73916,70935.755,15330.848,92153.39
197645,07515,83135.124,47228.258,02850.71

The following table gives the duration-of-marriage factor in first confinements over a longer time-series. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern births of non-Maoris only.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197419751976
Under 146.2538.4742.6449.8532.3830.8428.25
126.7926.3030.5626.4223.2122.5522.46
210.2411.2811.5611.4218.4817.8218.15
36.167.885.955.0711.9212.9012.69
43.967.183.302.826.947.408.51
5–95.497.365.053.566.528.029.48
10 and over1.111.530.940.860.550.470.45
  Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

In the following table first confinements occurring to mothers in different age groups are expressed as a percentage of the total first confinements. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern confinements of non-Maoris only.

Age of Mother, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197419751976
Under 208.907.339.0819.6417.9616.0514.13
20–2440.3941.7947.7152.6748.1446.5546.51
25–2932.7929.5427.7918.2826.7429.2230.21
30–3413.1014.6110.396.005.516.377.04
35–393.795.363.922.571.341.451.76
40–440.991.341.020.810.300.340.35
45 and over0.040.030.090.030.010.020.01
  Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child were as follows: 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; 1954, 25.32; 1964, 23.65; 1974, 23.29; 1975, 22.92; and 1976, 23.87 years.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS—The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the latest 6 years, with the percentages they bear to total births registered, are given in the following table. Comparisons of the ratio of ex-nuptial births to all live births (either on a year-to-year basis or on an international basis) should be made with caution. Some of the difficulties were discussed in supplements to the January 1967 and November 1975 Monthly Abstracts of Statistics. For example, the ex-nuptial ratio as a true indicator of ex-nuptial fertility is of limited value because it is influenced by extraneous factors. Ex-nuptial ratios may change not so much because of changing numbers of ex-nuptial births but because of a change in nuptial fertility experience as measured by nuptial birth numbers. This situation is well illustrated by experience during the 1962–77 period when ex-nuptial births increased from 5,227 to 10,265 while nuptial births showed an overall fall from 59,787 to 43,914, resulting in the ex-nuptial ratio exaggerating the "real" rise in the ex-nuptial fertility level. Again, a social factor to be borne in mind is that unmarried mothers are not infrequently de facto wives with comparatively stable relationships.

YearNumberRatio*

*Ex-nuptial births as a proportion of total births.

19729,39414.86
19739,20615.16
19749,37015.79
19759,40716.61
19769,59717.42
197710,26518.95

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movement in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. The figures for census years are as follows. Up to 1961 the statistics relate to non-Maoris only; from 1966 Maoris are included.

Census YearUnmarried Women 15–44 Years of AgeEx-nuptial BirthsEx-nuptial Birth Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Women

*Provisional.

1945156,3261,82411.67
1951130,3431,93514.85
1956129,8772,31017.79
1961138,0183,33224.14
1966183,9966,94037.72
1971199,1478,98145.10
1976213,700*9,59744.90

In 1976 the total number of ex-nuptial confinements resulting in live births was 9,507. Of these, 9,414 cases were single births, 88 were twins and one case of triplets. There were four cases of twins in which one child was still-born. The total number of ex-nuptial live births was 9,597. From the following table, it will be seen that of the 9,507 mothers, 4,233 or 44.53 percent, were under 20 years of age.

AgeNumber of Mothers
11
121
139
1466
15283
16753
171,066
181,021
191,034
20855
21664
22613
23478
24–291,790
30–34571
35–39230
40–4467
45 and over6
  Total9,507

Reregistration—An ex-nuptial child whose parents have later married may be reregistered from birth by reason of such marriage. Applications for registration must be made within 3 months after the date of the marriage.

The number of reregistrations in each of the latest 6 years were as follows: 1971, 1,749; 1972, 1,619; 1973, 1,482; 1974, 1,517; 1975, 1,433; 1976, 1,478.

The Children and Young Persons Act 1974 requires that all ex-nuptial births be notified to a social worker so that inquiries may be made concerning the circumstances of each mother and child for the purpose of offering advice and assistance.

The following table shows the outcome of the inquiries made in recent years. Inquiries relate to some births from the preceding year and do not cover all births in the year stated.

Location of Infants197419751976
No.%No.%No.%
Re-registered after marriage of parents265327832803
Remaining with mother (parents cohabiting)2,411272,758322,76434
Remaining with mother (parents not cohabiting)2,606292,942342,93536
Placed with relatives234321032062
Placed with strangers with view to adoption1,633181,322161,04613
Placed with strangers, no expressed wish to adoption6913216
In children's home or other institution on a long-term basis3231401
Committed to care of Social Welfare5012531
Not traced1,448168391082310
Died12521292811
  Total8,8731008,5661008,222100

ADOPTIONS—The following table shows the number of adoptions which have been registered during 4 recent years.

YearMalesFemalesTotal
19731,7491,7753,524
19741,7371,6293,366
19751,6751,6473,322
19761,4571,4852,942

Of the 2,942 adoptions registered in 1976, 994 were children under the age of 1 year, 1,044 were aged 1 to 4 years, 592 were aged 5 to 9 years, and 312 were aged 10 years and over.

In 1972, for the first time for many years, there was a substantial drop in the number of adoption orders made by the Court and this trend has continued. Of the 2,942 adoptions finalised in 1976, social workers of the Social Welfare Department were concerned with 2,554 or 87 percent. Maori welfare officers handled most of the others.

The following table, which relates only to cases handled by the department, shows the number and status of children adopted over the last 4 years.

Status of Children Adopted1973197419751976

*These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.

Ex-nuptial2,5512,3912,1061,902
Nuptial451506571593
Not known*86797459
  Total3,0882,9762,7512,554

In 1976, 75 percent of the children adopted were born out of wedlock. Of these children born out of wedlock, 85 percent were aged less than one year at the time of placement for adoption. Fifty-three percent were placed with strangers.

The next table shows the age at placement according to the status of the children adopted in 1976.

AgeNuptialEx-nuptialNot KnownTotal

*These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.

Under 1 year2811,609221,912
1–5 years39922133
6 years and over1816135
Not known*25518534474
  Total5931,902592,554

The following table shows the original relationship between adopted children and their new parents.

Relationship1973197419751976
  Strangers2,0001,8211,5811,347
  One parent and spouse770903877913
  Relative or close friend318252293294
  Total3,0882,9762,7512,554

STILL BIRTHS—Although it is compulsory to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. Particulars of causes of still births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one "which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue". Still births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths. The rate was 0.76 per 100 births in 1977, when still births totalled 413.

4 C—DEATHS

NUMBERS AND RATES—The death rate (by which is usually meant the crude death rate, the number of deaths per 1,000 of total mean population) is less subject to fluctuation than the birth rate. In the absence of wars, epidemics, and other large-scale disasters, it changes slowly. The New Zealand crude death rate was 8.53 in 1924 and fifty years later, in 1974, it was 8.33. In between, it had reached a peak of 11.05 in 1942, during the Second World War. The low point was 8.14 in 1975, since then it has risen very slightly. In contrast, the birth rate (21.63 in 1924 and 19.57 in 1974) had been as low as 17.38 in 1935 and as high as 27.64 in 1947. At present (1977) it is falling below even the level of the 1930s Depression years. Depressions, wars, peace, prosperity, and the popularisation of improved methods of birth control have all left their mark on the birth rate.

Under normal conditions, the most important factor affecting the crude death rate is the age-structure of the population, which (like the death rate itself) changes slowly. An ageing population will tend to have a high death rate, while a young one (provided that infant mortality is not abnormally high) will have a low one.

The following table sets out the numbers of deaths and the crude death rates per 1,000 of mean population. (Maoris are defined as persons with half or more Maori ancestry and the term non-Maori covers all other persons.)

YearNumbersCrude Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
197323,9321,38025,3128.745.708.52
197423,9881,27325,2618.585.158.33
197523,7811,33325,1148.345.288.14
197624,1371,32025,4578.484.878.17
197724,5451,41625,9618.615.148.30

The chief merit of the crude death rate is that it is easily calculated, requiring only the number of deaths and the size of the population "at risk". However, it is very misleading when comparisons are being made between two or more populations with different age-structures, such as the Maori and non-Maori populations of New Zealand. The Maori population is a "young" one, with a high proportion of children and young people in those age groups in which the death rate is normally very low, and relatively few elderly people in those age groups in which the death rate is normally high. The non-Maori population is older, with a considerably smaller proportion of children and young people and a larger proportion of elderly people. The result is that a comparison of crude death rates gives a false picture of Maori mortality as compared with non-Maori.

In the following table, based on 1973 figures, adjustments made to effect a truer comparison show that mortality for Maoris is relatively higher than for non-Maoris; in addition, a comparison is supplied in age-specific rates for the two races in each sex (age-specific rates are the number of deaths per 1,000 (or per 10,000, etc.) of the population in the specified age groups).

Ethnic GroupAll Ages Rates per 10,000 Mean PopulationAge-specific Rates per 10,000 of Population at Ages
Crude RateMaori Rate Adjusted to Non-Maori PopulationUnder 5 Years5–14 Years15–24 Years25–44 Years45–64 Years65 Years and Over
Males
Maori68.3152.460.16.529.547.3239.0943.1
Non-Maori95.6..44.14.816.917.3127.9741.9
Females
Maori47.0142.637.34.510.333.1178.3738.2
Non-Maori79.0..32.72.45.610.768.0552.5
Both Sexes
Maori57.0149.648.95.520.040.2209.1843.4
Non-Maori87.4..38.53.611.414.197.8632.9

For both Maoris and non-Maoris the death rate in males exceeds the death rate in females by a considerable margin. The following table sets out the number of deaths and the respective crude death rates for each sex separately for the latest 5 years.

 Deaths of MalesDeaths of FemalesTotal DeathsMale Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths
 NumberRate*NumberRate*NumberRate*

*Deaths per 1,000 of mean population.

197313,9299.3711,3837.6725,3128.52122
197413,7569.0711,5057.6025,2618.33120
197513,8038.9311,3117.3425,1148.14122
197613,9848.9811,4737.3625,4578.17122
197714,317..11,644..25,9618.30123

Deaths of Maoris, included in these figures, in 1977 totalled 1,416, of whom 805 were males and 611 females.

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR—In 1975 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were July, August, and June, with totals of 2,589, 2,450, and 2,313 respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January), February had the least number of deaths (1,720), followed by November with 1,786.

AGES AT DEATH—Deaths registered during the year 1976 are shown according to age in the following table.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1438328766
1–410683189
5–9633598
10–147146117
15–1924084324
20–2424174315
25–2915177228
30–3413469203
35–39174108282
40–44247197444
45–49450294744
50–547023981,100
55–599896001,589
60–641,4238112,234
65–691,8811,0782,959
70–742,0971,4123,509
75–791,8331,6643,497
80–841,3071,6902,997
85–899191,4282,347
90–944137051,118
95–99100259359
100 and over53338
  Total13,98411,47325,457

The Maori population is a very young one compared with the non-Maori and as a result there is a considerable variation in the proportions of deaths of Maoris and non-Maoris which take place at various ages. The following table illustrates the position for the year 1976.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total DeathsPercentage of Maori Deaths in Total Deaths per Age Group
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
Under 58161393.3810.5314.55
5–14182330.752.5015.35
15–24547922.276.9714.40
25–149651924.0014.5516.59
45–645,21745021.6134.097.94
65 and over16,41041467.9931.362.46
  All ages24,1371,320100.00100.005.19

In the following table is given a time series for rates of death per 1,000 of mean population by age groups. Health measures have achieved an immense saving of young life and a prolongation of life especially among elderly women.

YearUnder 1*1–45–1415–2425–3435–4445–5455–6465–7475 and Over

*Per 1,000 live births in this case.

†Non-Maori figures only as Maori deaths at ages not available for these years.

(Rates per 1,000 of mean population in each age group)
Males
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59141.67
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17128.60
194143.654.391.362.532.933.959.2021.1347.44140.27
196125.861.340.491.281.472.687.3919.6547.33126.31
197518.491.040.501.551.312.587.6319.9046.67129.98
197615.340.870.421.691.252.507.1619.0147.55130.03
Females
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
192142.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.81120.23
194137.753.841.201.942.443.506.9015.0438.60118.92
196119.501.160.350.530.871.954.5911.2229.89104.74
197513.330.910.300.550.851.774.3110.5525.4196.26
197612.350.710.260.570.661.874.4810.3925.1894.27
Both Sexes
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
194139.814.121.282.222.673.728.0218.1643.04129.15
196122.761.250.420.911.182.316.0015.4137.67114.01
197515.960.980.401.061.082.185.9915.0735.15108.65
197613.900.790.341.140.962.205.8514.5535.43107.32

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of the total population by sex is shown in the following table. Prior to 1974 the data relates to the non-Maori population only.

YearMalesFemales
age (years)
190141.6437.68
192148.4546.97
194158.6559.60
196163.8067.32
197164.7570.04
197364.0670.63
197462.9068.88
197562.8769.00
197663.7869.54

The average age of death of Maoris in 1976 was 48.10 and 50.86 years for males and females respectively. The younger age composition of the Maori population is an important factor to be borne in mind.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE—Life tables, depicting the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for particular calendar periods for the non-Maori component of New Zealand's population, have been constructed at regular intervals since 1880. The most recent tables prepared by the Department of Statistics are based on the 1971 population census, together with mortality statistics for 1970–72.

Life tables contain a measure of the degree of longevity of the population called the "expectation of life". The expectation of life at any age is the average remaining lifetime for persons of this age, assuming that mortality rates at each age continue at the level shown by the life table. The life expectancy at selected ages at the present time, for the non-Maori population in New Zealand, is shown in the table below. The overall longer span of life enjoyed by females, compared with males, is evident. Further details concerning life table methodology and construction and trends in New Zealand life expectancies can be obtained from New Zealand Life Tables 1970–72.

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
069.0975.16
169.2775.15
268.3874.26
367.4573.31
466.4972.35
565.5371.38
1060.6666.49
1555.7861.59
2051.1656.74
2546.5351.89
3041.8047.03
4032.4037.46
5023.5228.37
6015.8219.91
709.8212.48
805.536.76
902.943.29
1001.231.31

The long-term trend since 1880 for non-Maoris has been a steady improvement in life expectancy for both sexes. The improvement has been striking for the younger ages but relatively small for the advanced ages. Progress in medical science, coupled with improved social conditions, has resulted in substantial reductions in mortality for all ages up to middle age. This trend has continued up to 1970–72 for females, but the decline in male mortality between 1965–67 and 1970–72 was not sufficient to offset the increase between 1960–62 and 1965–67, and male life expectancy has not returned to the 1960–62 level. The following table displays the life expectancy for non-Maoris revealed by each life table compiled during the past 60 years for the three exact ages of 0, 20, and 60 years.

Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
1911–1560.9647.6115.5463.4849.1416.72
1921–2262.7648.6616.0365.4350.3617.29
1925–2763.9948.9315.7966.5750.9617.23
193165.0449.6116.2267.8851.2817.30
1934–3865.4649.8916.0668.4552.0217.49
1950–5268.2951,1516.1972.4.54.6418.53
1955–5768.8851.4416.1973.8855.8719.16
1960–6269.1751.5316.0974.5156.3319.39
1965–6768.6750.8915.8274.8456.4619.68
1970–7269.0951.1615.8275.1656.7419.91

The expectation of life at various ages for the Maori population is shown in the following table. These expectations are taken from New Zealand Life Tables 1970–72.

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
060.9664.96
161.5265.58
260.7964.80
359.8963.88
458.9662.94
558.0261.98
1053.2657.12
2043.9747.54
3035.1538.14
4026.5629.22
5018.9021.14
6012.9614.60
708.729.90
805.045.94

Life expectancy at birth for Maori males decreased by 0.48 years between 1965–67 and 1970–72 while that for Maori females increased by 0.18 years. This is the first time that a decline in Maori male life expectancy has been experienced in the history of Maori life tables—first produced in 1950–52. It can be attributed to increased mortality in most ages resulting from a greater number of fatal accidents and a higher incidence of cancer. A similar decline in life expectancy was experienced by non-Maori males between 1960–62 and 1965–67, while similar trends were evident in some other western countries about this time.

The expectation of life of Maoris is shorter than that of non-Maoris at all except the highest ages. A comparison at age 0 shows that life expectancy is 8.13 years greater for non-Maori males and 10.20 years greater for non-Maori females. For the period 1965–67, the differences were 7.23 years and 10.06 years respectively.

The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the total population of New Zealand with that for selected overseas countries. Sources: United Nations Demographic Yearbook and Population and Australia.

CountryPeriodLife Expectancy at Birth (Years)
MalesFemales
Australia197268.1974.99
Canada1970–7269.3476.36
Denmark1972–7370.876.3
England and Wales1970–7268.975.1
France197268.674.4
Netherlands197371.277.2
New Zealand1970–7268.5574.60
United States197468.275.9

REGISTRATION OF DEATH, BURIAL AND CREMATION—Deaths ate required to be registered by the funeral director within 3 days after the day of burial. The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Burial and Cremation Act 1964. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision exists for the disposal of the dead. Cremation may be carried out if the deceased is not known to have left any written direction to the contrary.

The rate of cremation for every 100 deaths registered has more than doubled since 1950. The following table relates cremations to the number of deaths since 1950. Prior to 1970 the statistics concern deaths of non-Maoris only.

YearDeaths RegisteredCremationsRate per 100 Deaths Registered
MalesFemalesTotal
195016,7151,7991,4543,25319.46
196019,5242,9582,5825,54028.38
197024,8405,4184,4749,89239.82
197425,2616,0735,19511,26844.61
197525,1146,0865,15811,24444.77
197625,457....11,68745.91

DEATHS BY CAUSES—The selection of cause of death recommended by the World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases is based on the concept of selecting the underlying cause of death.

The certifier's statement largely determines the cause, but to obtain more accurate data the nosologists also refer to all autopsy reports received, cancer case registrations, coroners' reports, and hospital case summaries.

Medical practitioners certified 82 percent of deaths registered in 1975 and 18 percent were certified by coroners. Of the deaths certified by doctors, 16.4 percent were subject to autopsy whilst 96 percent of deaths certified by coroners were subject to autopsy. Overall, 31 percent of all deaths had autopsies performed.

Detailed information about causes of death is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre in New Zealand Health Statistics Report—Mortality and Demographic Data.

The following table is a summary of causes of death, numbers and rates per million of mean population for the years 1973 to 1975.

Cause of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
197319741975197319741975*

*Provisional rate based on 1974 mean population.

Enteritis and other diarrhoeal disease374053121317
Tuberculosis of respiratory system33263211911
Other tuberculosis including late effects555142181714
Infectious hepatitis101317346
Syphilis and its sequelae693231
All other infective and parasitic diseases778093262631
Malignant neoplasm4,7084,9665,0071,5811,6311,645
Benign neoplasm and neoplasm of unspecified nature24323781112
Diseases of thyroid gland3228251198
Diabetes mellitus467475472157156155
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency1268423
Anaemia454958151619
Alcoholic psychosis and alcoholism497381162427
Meningitis2735279119
Multiple sclerosis252618896
Paralysis agitans9110692313530
Epilepsy374729121510
Chronic rheumatic heart disease212233240717779
Hypertensive disease426377379143124125
Ischaemic heart disease7,1137,0786,9652,3882,3252,288
Other forms of heart disease629638656211210215
Cerebrovascular disease3,5133,4583,2351,1791,1361,063
Diseases of arteries, arterioles, and capillaries741801823249263270
Acute respiratory infections including influenza139128152474250
Pneumonia935828888314272292
Bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma1,1171,0561,072375347352
Other diseases of respiratory system243230239827679
Peptic ulcer159165149535449
Appendicitis131313444
Intestinal obstruction and hernia8490106283035
Cirrhosis of liver143165191485463
Diseases of gallbladder565365191721
Nephritis and nephrosis146130117494338
Infections of kidney826761282220
Hyperplasia of prostate645535211811
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium141013534
Rheumatoid arthritis716360242120
Congenital anomalies342331342115109112
Birth injury, difficult labour, and other anoxic and hypoxic conditions173135149584449
Other causes of perinatal mortality252234227857775
All other diseases805782812270257267
Motor vehicle accidents837730689281240226
All other accidents914980989307322325
Suicide and self-inflicted injury261273293889096
All other external causes718961242920
  Total25,29025,25425,1158,4908,2968,250

PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH—Heart disease, malignant neoplasms (cancer), and cerebrovascular disease were again the leading causes of death in 1975 (the latest year for which data are available).

Death rates per million of mean population from leading causes of death are shown in the following table and graph.

 197319741975*

*Provisional, based on 1974 mean population.

All heart disease2,7812,7012,681
Malignant neoplasms (cancer)1,5811,6311,645
Cerebrovascular disease1,1791,1361,063
Accidental causes581553540
Pneumonia314272292

PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH

Heart Disease—Heart disease as a group of diseases is still the leading cause of death in New Zealand but death rates from this cause have fallen in recent years. The standardised mortality ratios show that for males, the rates have fallen by 8 percent between 1969 and 1975 and for females, the rates have fallen by 10 percent in the same period.

The numbers of deaths and standardised mortality ratios for heart disease, excluding acute rheumatic forms and congenital malformations, for the latest available 10 years are shown below.

YearAll Forms of Heart DiseaseCoronary Heart Disease
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*

*Base years 1950–52 = 100.

†Provisional.

19654,7101003,394793,6191542,159163
19704,886993,405724,2281692,560177
19714,938983,413704,3137722,619176
19724,784933,515704,2621642,838187
19734,922953,361664,4351682,678173
19744,795913,427664,3201612,758175
19754,845923,315644,2941602,671169

The standardised mortality ratio shows the number of deaths registered in the year of experience expressed as a percentage of those which would have been expected in that year had there operated the sex-age mortality of a standard period (the 3 years 1950–52 were chosen). The standardised mortality ratio has been adopted to eliminate the distorting effect of the changes which take place over a period in the age-structure of the population.

Coronary (ischaemic) heart disease showed a small decrease in crude rates during the 3 years since 1972. The standardised mortality ratios for both sexes are subject to fluctuation. During the period 1959 to 1975, female standardised mortality ratios for coronary heart disease exceed the male rate at each year.

Cancer—In New Zealand one death in five in 1975 was caused by cancer. The cancer crude death rate has increased in each of the past 4 years (for which figures are available) from 155.2 per 100,000 population in 1972 to 164.5 in 1975.

A detailed report on cancer mortality and morbidity in New Zealand is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. These reports cover mortality from cancer and also survey all cases reported to the National Cancer Registry by hospitals, and by the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the Cancer Society of New Zealand.

A summary of numbers of deaths from cancer, crude death rates, and standardised mortality ratios is provided in the following table.

YearNumber of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Mortality Ratios*Number of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Mortality Ratios*

*Base years 1950–52=100.

†Provisional.

  Males  Females 
19501,431148.2991,286134.697
19601,724144.31011,566132.592
19702,436173.01262,024143.599
19712,479175.21262,007142.396
19722,411165.41212,115145.099
19732,567172.31262,141143.899
19742,682176.11292,284150.2103
19752,726179.0 2,281150.0 

The standardised mortality ratio for males has increased steadily from the 1960 level of 101 to 129 in 1974. This would indicate that there has been a real increase in the death toll in the male sex and this, as discussed later, is mainly attributable to the rise in lung cancer. The standardised mortality ratio for females remained fairly constant at around 93 from 1960 to 1969, but has risen in recent years. The 1974 ratio of 103 is the highest recorded since 1943. This increase can also be attributed to a steep rise in lung cancer among females.

A classification of cancer deaths during 1974 according to age and sex is now given. Ninety-two percent of deaths from cancer during 1974 were at 45 years of age or above, and 59 percent were at 65 years of age or above.

Age Group in YearsDeaths of MalesDeaths of Females
NumbersRate per 100,000 of Population at Ages givenPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages givenNumbersRate per 100,000 of Population at Ages givenPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages given

*All ages crude rate.

Under 5138.32.0128.02.5
5–14257.816.3134.313.0
15–24269.45.9259.515.6
25–4411831.215.915542.333.0
45–64844299.623.4816285.937.8
65 and over1,6561,477.320.41,263837.815.8
  All ages2,682176.1*19.52,284150.2*19.8

The upward trend of deaths from cancer of the lung for both males and females continued in 1975. There were 989 deaths from this cause, an increase of 39 deaths over the previous year. One death in twenty-five registered in 1975 was caused by cancer of the lung. Cancer of the breast accounted for 18 percent of all female cancer deaths making this the principal primary site of cancer in females.

Other sites for which upward trends were recorded are oesophageal cancer in males, and cancer of the large intestine in females.

The following table shows deaths from cancer (malignant neoplasms) by sex and selected sites, registered in New Zealand during 1974 and 1975.

SiteSexNumbersRates per Million Mean Population
1974197519741975*

*Provisional rate based on 1974 mean population.

Buccal cavity and pharynxM42572837
F24251616
OesophagusM86825654
F43432828
StomachM227215149141
F15413510189
Large intestineM247248162163
F338326222214
RectumM1501439894
F1261308385
Bronchus, trachea, and lungM762789500518
F198200130132
BreastM1312
F447422294277
Cervix uteriF95896259
Corpus uteriF63534135
Ovary, fallopian tube, and broad ligamentF1231518199
ProstateM281265184174
Bladder and other urinary organsM83765450
F26381725
Skin, all formsM65834354
F55493632
BrainM71774751
F56673744
Lymphosarcoma and reticulum-cell sarcomaM53533535
F29351923
LeukaemiaM1091157276
F86865757
All other and unspecified sitesM505520332341
F421432277284
      Total cancer deathsM2,6822,7261,7611,790
F2,2842,2811,5021,500

Cerebrovascular Disease—Cerebrovascular disease, the third of the principal causes of death in New Zealand, affects mainly the late-middle-aged and the elderly. In 1974, 3,458 persons (1,396 men and 2,062 women) died of this disease. Of these, only 147 were below 50 years of age, and 2,880 were 65 years of age or above.

The World Health Organisation defines cerebrovascular disease as follows:

"Cerebrovascular diseases are diseases of the central nervous system (the brain and spinal cord) of vascular origin. The term covers a wide range of clinical manifestations, varying from subarachnoid haemorrhage resulting from a rupture of Berry aneurysm on the one hand to arteriosclerotic Parkinsonism and dementia on the other."

The incidence of deaths from cerebrovascular disease over a series of years is shown in the following table.

YearDeathsRate*

*Rate per million of mean population.

19612,7381,128
19622,7291,097
19632,7761,092
19642,7571,061
19652,8751,086
19663,0671,143
19672,8251,035
19683,1101,128
19693,0701,104
19703,2131,140
19713,3101,156
19723,4471,182
19733,5131,179
19743,4581,136
19753,2351,063

INFANT AND PERINATAL MORTALITY—The following table shows New Zealand infant and perinatal mortality numbers and rates for 1974–75. An infant death is defined as a liveborn infant dying before the first year of life is completed. A neonatal death is defined as the death of a liveborn infant before the 28th day of life; a post neonatal death as the death of a live-born infant between the 28th day and the first year of life.

Perinatal Mortality—Perinatal deaths comprise stillbirths and deaths in the first week of life. The late fetal death (stillbirths) and the perinatal mortality rate are calculated per 1,000 total births (stillbirths plus livebirths), while the death rate for neonatal and infant deaths is calculated per 1,000 livebirths.

DeathYearMaoriNon-MaoriTotal Population
No.RateNo.RateNo.Rate
Late fetal1974689.64368.35048.4
 1975487.04238.44718.2
Early neonatal19747510.74067.84818.1
 1975639.34098.24728.3
Perinatal197414320.384216.098516.5
 197511116.383216.594316.5
Neonatal19748311.94769.15599.4
 19757611.24749.55509.7
Post neonatal1974699.92975.73666.2
 1975639.32945.93576.3
Infant197415221.877314.892515.6
 197513920.576815.490716.0

The explanation of the higher rate for Maoris between the twenty-eighth day and the end of the first year is the susceptibility of the Maori baby in its home environment to forms of infection such as gastro-enteritis and pneumonia.

In a review of neonatal and postnatal deaths, issued by the Health Department in November 1976, it was shown that eight countries, selected on the basis of their having one million or more population and on their reporting of data regarded by World Health Organisation as complete, had a lower infant mortality rate than New Zealand. These eight were Sweden, Finland, Japan, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, France, and Switzerland. The following table shows infant mortality rates for selected countries (including some of the eight) during 1973. The figures represent deaths per 100,000 live births.

CountryAge of Child
Under 1 YearUnder 1 Day1 and Under 7 Days7 and Under 28 Days1 Month and Under 1 Year

Source: World Health Statistics Annual.

Sweden98533734896203
Japan1,132214367159392
Netherlands1,153277451118306
France1,25899460221478
New Zealand1,620538319120642
Australia1,649694364124468
England and Wales1,688552400161574
United States1,772722421153476

Because the Maori post-neonatal rate is about double that for non-Maoris, it is sometimes stated that New Zealand's infant mortality rate is as a consequence inordinately high. In 1973 the infant mortality rate for Maoris was 1,991 per 100,000 live births and for non-Maoris it was 1,569. Even if the non-Maori rate were used, New Zealand's international ranking would remain unchanged.

The following diagram illustrates infant mortality rates in New Zealand.

INFANT DEATHS UNDER 12 MONTHS

Causes of Infant Mortality—Deaths from the principal causes of infant mortality, and the rate per 1,000 live births, are shown for the latest available 3 years in the following table.

Cause of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per 1,000 Live Births
197319741975197319741975
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis1151231111.92.12.0
Gastro-enteritis, diarrhoea, also dysentery1811150.30.20.3
Congenital anomalies2132272143.53.83.8
Neonatal disorders arising from certain diseases of the mother6055571.00.91.0
Birth injury, difficult labour, and other anoxic and hypoxic conditions4443440.70.70.8
Asphyxia of newborn unspecified3429390.60.50.7
Haemolytic disease of newborn11580.20.10.1
Hyaline membrane disease4336370.70.60.7
Immaturity and multiple pregnancy5457580.91.01.0
All other causes3923393246.55.75.7
Total infant deaths98492590716.215.616.0

MATERNAL DEATHS—The Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968 defines a maternal death as "a death that occurs during pregnancy or within a period of three months after the date of termination of a pregnancy". Deaths from complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium numbered 10 in 1974 with a rate of 1.7 per 10,000 live births. Deaths occurring during pregnancy or within 3 months of delivery but not due to complications of pregnancy or childbirth or the puerperium numbered 15 in 1974 with a rate of 2,5 per 10,000 live births.

DEATHS OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN—A review of the mortality rates of children aged between one and under five years in New Zealand and in selected countries in 1972 was prepared by the Department of Health in 1976. The data, abstracted from the World Health Statistics Annual, revealed New Zealand as having a relatively poor record in this field among the developed nations of the world. The Department of Health stated that the purpose of the review was "to identify those causes of death which need special study if New Zealand's sorry performance in caring for its preschool children is to be improved". In all, 25 countries had lower mortality rates for pre-school children in 1972 than did New Zealand.

Principal causes of deaths among New Zealand children aged 1 and under 5 years of age in 1972 are shown in the next table, together with the death rates from these causes in Sweden (which had the lowest child-mortality rate of any country), England and Wales, and Australia.

Cause of DeathNumber of Deaths per 100,000 Children aged 1–4 Years
SwedenEngland and WalesAustralia*New Zealand

*1971.

Infective and parasitic diseases17118
Malignant neoplasm6545
Leukaemia2354
Meningitis11..2
Epilepsy..112
Acute respiratory infections1426
Viral and other pneumonia1786
Bronchitis, emphysema and asthma..112
Spina bifida..2..2
Congenital anomalies of heart4656
All other congenital anomalies5469
Motor vehicle accidents461115
Accidental drowning and submersion63119
All other accidents59911
All other causes1015149
All causes48758795

This review was based upon one year's deaths only. The question of how representative the 1972 figures are of each country's mortality experience may be a matter open to discussion. Nevertheless, the difference between the New Zealand and the Swedish mortality rates among pre-school children is so large that some direct comparison is justified. If New Zealand is to approach the mortality rate of Sweden, five disease groups could well receive close attention, for each of which the New Zealand rate is substantially higher than that for Sweden. The groups are: infective and parasitic diseases; acute respiratory infections; viral and other pneumonia; motor vehicle accidents; and other accidents.

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES—Accidents, poisonings and violence caused approximately 8 percent of the total deaths in each of the years 1973 to 1975.

The following table shows deaths from external causes for the latest 3 years. In this table, falls on board ship and from horseback are classified as transport accidents.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
197319741975197319741975

*Includes drowning from water transport.

†Provisional.

Motor-vehicle accidents837730689281240226
Other transport accidents315341101713
Accidental poisoning31264410914
Accidental falls486524496163172163
Accidents caused by machinery25353681112
Accidents caused by fire and explosion of combustible material483848161216
Accidents caused by firearms201110743
Accidental drowning and submersion*121127121414240
Suicide and self-inflicted injury261273293889098
Homicide25443181410
All other external causes198211223666973
Total deaths from accidents, poisoning, or violence2,0832,0722,032699681668

An analysis of deaths by the principal external causes during 1975 is given by sex and age-group in the following table and in the notes following it.

Age group (in years)Motor Vehicle AccidentsAccidental DrowningsAccidental PoisoningsAccidental Falls
MFMFMFMF
Under 15544034153165
15–24227452110192
25–3458192124101
35–4432181315183
45–543618432113
55–6437127123172
65–74301922232734
75 and over25191292256
      Total499190102192816190306
Age GroupSuicide and Self-inflicted InjuryHomicideAll Accidents, |Poisonings and Violence
MFMFMF
Under 1515116093
15–2437155335178
25–34261516350
35–4434152212042
45–543317612945
55–6433213112648
65–74191129982
75 and over1241143303
      Total1959821101,291741

Motor Vehicle Accidents—Fatality rates from motor vehicle accidents fell again in 1975. The 1973 peak rate of 281 per million decreased to 240 in 1974 and to 226 in 1975. The previous table illustrates the extent to which young men aged 15–24 were involved in motor vehicle fatalities. Although representing only 9 percent of the population this group accounted for 33 percent of all deaths from motor vehicle accidents in New Zealand. The male death rate from motor vehicle accidents has been approximately two and a half times greater than the female rate over the latest 5 years compared with a difference of three and a half times greater in the latter half of the nineteen-fifties.

Accidents with tractors are the main feature of fatalities on farms. Later sections deal with statistics of industrial and farm accidents.

Accidental Drowning—Of the 121 deaths from accidental drowning and submersion registered in 1975, 35 (29 percent) were as a result of water transport accidents. Those under 15 years of age accounted for 40 percent of drownings. There is a greater toll from drowning among males than among females as is the case in most external causes of death. In 1975 male deaths accounted for 84 percent of all deaths from drowning.

Accidental Falls—There were 496 deaths from accidental falls in 1975. This is one accident area in which the total female mortality exceeds the male. However as shown in the preceding table there is an excess of male deaths over female deaths at each age group under 65 years. At ages 65 years and over female age specific death rates from falls were 81 percent higher than male age specific death rates. In 1975, at ages 75 years and over, the female age specific death rates were 60 percent higher, In 1975 the home was the place of occurrence of 45 percent of fatal accidental falls and, in fact, falls are the chief cause of death in home accidents.

Suicide and Self-inflicted Injury—The 1975 suicide rate of 96 per million mean population is the highest rate recorded since 1970. The male rate of 128 per million is exactly double, the female rate. The previous table shows the lower numbers of deaths by suicide among women at all ages.

Site of Non-transport Accidents—The place of occurrence of fatal non-transport accidents (excluding surgical and medical misadventure and late effects of accidental injury) is shown in the following table. As mentioned previously, falls are the chief cause of accidental fatalities in the home, exacting a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. Accidents occurring at home and in residential institutions (rest homes, hospitals, etc.) accounted for 61 percent of all fatal non-transport accidents in the 3-year period 1972 to 1974.

Place of OccurrenceNumberRate per Million of Mean Population
197219731974197219731974
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)392376373134126123
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)375040131713
Mine and quarry62121
Industrial place and premises304249101416
Place for recreation and sport122218476
Street and highway162423588
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)171413654
Residential institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)142147163494954
Other specified places113118126394041
Place not specified687693232631
      Total833871899286292295

Approximately 43 percent of fatal non-transport accidents occurred in or about the home.

Water Accidents by Location—The following table shows provisional figures of drownings during 1977 by location. Figures of drownings in this table may differ from those in a previous table in this section. Figures in the earlier table, supplied by the National Health Statistics Centre, represent deaths registered as drownings following the results of inquests. The table following, supplied by the New Zealand Water Safety Council, includes persons known (or almost certainly known) to have been drowned although the bodies have not been recovered.

LocationAge in Years
Under 55–1516–3031–50Over 50Total

*Includes victims of unspecified ages.

†Includes 6 in private swimming pools.

‡Includes 4 in household baths, 3 in farm ponds, and 2 fishing off rocks.

Boating accidents171316544*
Rivers and streams4696328
Seas and beaches253314*
Scuba diving5218
Harbours1113
Lakes and lagoons1124
Swimming pools718
Other421310
Total, 19771719323018119*

4 D—MARRIAGES

GENERAL—Marriage may be solemnised in New Zealand either by a celebrant included in the list of marriage celebrants under the Marriage Act 1955. or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. A licence must be obtained from a Registrar of Marriages before a marriage by a marriage celebrant can be solemnised. Marriage by a marriage celebrant may be solemnised at any time between 6 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be solemnised at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business; notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage.

The Marriage Amendment Act 1976 extended the right of solemnising marriages to nominated members of approved organisations of a non-religious character.

In the case of a person under 20 years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parents or guardian is necessary. Consent of a Magistrate may be sought in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

Since 1933 the minimum age for marriage has been 16 years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to be void, however, by reason only of an infringement of the minimum age.

Since 1 April 1952 it has been required under the Maori Purposes Act 1951 that every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be solemnised in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a non-Maori.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The numbers of marriages and rates during recent years are shown below. The marriage rate, like the birth rate, has been declining in recent years.

YearNumberRate per 1,000 of Population
197226,8689.22
197326,2748.84
197425,4128.38
197524,5357.95
197624,1547.75
197722,5897.22

Comparison with Other Countries—Marriage rates for certain countries for 1976 are given below. (Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.)

CountryRate per 1,000 Mean Population
Australia8.1
Belgium7.2
Canada8.6
France7.1
Germany, West6.0
Italy6.3
Japan7.8
Netherlands7.0
New Zealand7.8
Sweden5.4
United Kingdom7.3
United States9.9

MARITAL STATUS PRIOR TO MARRIAGE—The following table gives marital status prior to marriage for the latest 5 years.

YearSingleWidowedDivorcedTotal Persons Married
BridegroomBrideBridegroomBrideBridegroomBride
197223,60723,6611,0171,0812,2442,12653,736
197322,76822,9701,0201,0392,4862,26552,548
197421,70521,9629721,0352,7352,41550,824
197520,86320,9658909582,7822,61249,070
197620,06120,2379411,0213,1522,89648,308

The nature of the marriage according to marital status of persons prior to marriage is given next.

YearMarriages Between Bachelors andMarriages Between Widowers andMarriages Between Divorced Men and
SpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced Women
197222,3102631,0342185292701,133289822
197321,4262531,0892445262501,300260926
197420,3462501,1092234952541,3932901,052
197519,3382501,2751784362761,4492721,061
197618,4702561,3351884542991,5793111,262

During the years 1938–40 there were 95 male divorcees who remarried for every 100 female divorcees who remarried. In the period 1972–76 more male divorcees than female divorcees remarried.

The number of widows per 100 widowers who remarried was 67 in 1938–40, but with a changed social outlook the position in 1972–76 was that 106 widows remarried for every 100 widowers.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED—The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period of years but is now declining slightly. On 1 January 1971 the age of majority was lowered from 21 to 20 years of age. In 1976 one bride in every four was under 20 years of age, the proportion of grooms being one in sixteen.

Of the persons married in 1976. 7,991 or 16.54 percent were under 20 years of age; 22,368 or 46.30 percent were returned as 20–24 years; 8,895 or 18.41 percent as 25–29 years; 4,689 or 9.71 percent as 30–39 years; and 4,365 or 9.04 percent as 40 years of age and over.

The following table relates to the 1976 calendar year.

Age of Bridegroom, in YearsAge of Bride, in YearsTotal Bridegrooms
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over
Under 201,1782941321,487
20–244,5036,44958974284111,648
25–296813,1141,48929067965,656
30–3410562665333512330131,885
35–39231442912321456542942
40–445521041331289266580
45 and over9411001221832631,2381,956
      Total brides6,50410,7203,2391,1886744631,36624,154

The following table shows since 1965 the proportions of men and women who married at each age group for every 100 marriages.

PeriodUnder 20*20–24*25–2930–3435–3940–4445 and OverTotal

*Under 21 and 21–24 respectively before 1971.

Males
1965–6915.2344.7921.246.313.462.346.63100.0
19748.3150.9720.896.623.432.317.47100.0
19757.6648.9922.427.243.642.347.71100.0
19766.1648.2223.427.803.902.408.10100.0
Females
1965–6945.3333.629.083.052.101.815.01100.0
197431.6943.0211.754.152.261.655.48100.0
197529.2643.9312.524.732.401.845.32100.0
197626.9344.3813.414.922.791.925.66100.0

The average ages (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females are shown in the following table.

YearAverage Age at Marriage
BridegroomsBrides
197126.2523.40
197226.3823.54
197326.5423.68
197426.7823.94
197527.0524.16
197627.4524.52

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the latest 5 years according to marital status were as shown in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
BachelorsDivorcedWidowersSpinstersDivorcedWidows
Age in Years
197223.7340.0657.6421.2035.8050.67
197323.7639.2957.4521.3035.1251.39
197423.8439.1557.4521.4435.0651.04
197524.2138.7856.7321.5935.0950.54
197624.2938.5957.4321.7034.9050.93

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides in 1976 was 20 years. In the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied and for recent years it has been 21 to 24; in 1976, it was 22 years.

Marriage of Minors—Of every 1,000 men who married in 1976, 62 were under 20 years of age, while 269 in every 1,000 brides were under 20. Since 1 January 1971 the age of majority has been 20 years. In 1,178 marriages in 1976 both parties were given as under 20 years of age, in 5,326 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 309 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

As already stated, the proportion of minors among persons marrying now appears to be levelling off or even falling. The main reason for this is the changing age structure of the population, with a slowly diminishing proportion consisting of minors of marriageable age.

In the table below figures are given for the last 5 years.

YearAge in YearsTotal Minors and 20-Year-olds
161718192016–20 Years16–19 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–20 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–19 Years
Bridegrooms
1972402297111,3922,6044,9762,37218.528.83
1973302466791,3182,5354,8082,27318.308.65
1974311916271,2642,4254,5382,11317.868.31
1975371645421,1372,2074,0871,88016.667.66
1976121133909721,9923,4791,48714.406.16
Brides
19727481,4942,7323,7124,11412,8008,68647.6432.33
19736931,4452,6803,6473,88912,3548,46547.0232.22
19746111,2812,5833,5773,66711,7198,05246.1231.69
19754951,1522,2523,2793,47010,6487,17843.4029.26
19763879492,0323,1363,3819,8856,50440.9226.93

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES—Of the 24,154 marriages performed in 1976, Anglican clergymen officiated at 5,440, Presbyterian at 5,256, Roman Catholic at 3,255, Methodist at 1,576, and clergymen of other churches at 2,286, while 6,341 marriages were solemnised by registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before registrars in each of the 6 latest years.

ChurchPercentage of Marriages
197119721973197419751976

*Including marriage celebrants other than ministers of religion.

Anglican25.6425.0724.4523.7722.6222.52
Presbyterian22.5522.6521.7321.4521.4921.76
Roman Catholic15.4415.1314.7814.3513.6813.48
Methodist7.396.857.226.896.716.52
Others*7.447.607.788.359.229.47
Before Registrars21.5422.7024.0425.1926.2826.25
      Total100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population at the general census of 1971, 31.3 percent were recorded as adherents of the Anglican Church, 20.4 percent Presbyterian, 15.7 percent Roman Catholic, 6.4 percent Methodist, and 26.2 percent were of other religion or of no religion, or objected to stating their religious profession.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS—The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act was 4,712 at 1 April 1977. The principal churches to which they belonged are shown hereunder. The term "officiating minister" in the Marriage Act has now been replaced by "marriage celebrant" since, under the latest Amending Act, a celebrant need not necessarily be a minister of religion.

ChurchNumber
Roman Catholic Church931
Anglican (Church of England)780
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand686
Methodist Church of New Zealand349
Baptist254
Salvation Army241
Ratana Church of New Zealand142
Brethren187
Latter Day Saints162
Ringatu Church88
Assemblies of God85
Associated Churches of Christ54
Jehovah's Witness125
Seventh Day Adventist55
Apostolic Church31
United Pentecostal Church24
Liberal Catholic Church20
Congregational Church of Samoa20
Other religious bodies465
Others13
      Total4,712

DIVORCE AND OTHER MATRIMONIAL PROCEEDINGS—From 1 January 1969, some important changes applied in the principal legislation on grounds for divorce; the period of 3 years was reduced to 2 years for separation by agreement and decree of separation or separation order, and in cases living apart and unlikely to be reconciled the period of 7 years was reduced to 4 years.

Divorce—A petition for divorce may be presented to the Supreme Court on one or more of several grounds, which include adultery, desertion, separation by agreement for not less than 2 years, separation by decree of separation or separation order for not less than 2 years, and the parties living apart for 4 years and not likely to be reconciled. Where the parties are separated or living apart one of the parties must have been resident in New Zealand for at least 2 years immediately preceding the filing of the petition. The Court is required to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation of the parties to the marriage.

Petitions filed for dissolution or nullity of marriage and decrees granted by the Supreme Court in recent years are shown in the following table.

YearPetitions FiledDecrees NisiDecrees Absolute
Number GrantedRate per 100 Marriages During YearRate per 10,000 of Mean Population
19734,8303,9503,61613.7612.14
19745,3684,6294,45717.5414.64
19756,2305,3984,76119.4115.42
19766,1535,6155,40122.3617.33
19776,2655,4885,38123.8517.20

The next table gives the grounds of petitions and decrees during the two years, 1975 and 1976

GroundPetitions FiledDecrees Absolute Granted
Husbands' PetitionsWives' PetitionsHusbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions
19751976197519761975197619751976
Adultery829775603568575719401496
Desertion1559313512511299104118
Separation by agreement1,4491,4271,4371,5621,1821,2641,1551,318
Separation by Court order375370470511218269365443
Having lived apart for 4 years or more351345392322296324327317
Non-consummation or non-cohabitation62071494611
Other62151933816
      Total3,1713,0323,0593,1212,3952,6822,3662,719

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year. A decree nisi normally applies for at least 3 months, before a decree absolute is granted.

In 1,247 of the 5,401 cases where decrees absolute were granted during 1976 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 979 cases, 2 in 1,438 cases, 3 in 884 cases, and 4 or more in 853 cases.

The number of living issue affected by the decrees absolute of their parents during each of the last 5 years were as follows: 1972, 6,872; 1973, 7,457; 1974, 8,722; 1975, 9,556; and 1976, 10,548.

The following table shows the duration of marriage by ages of husbands and wives at the time of marriage, for cases in which decrees absolute were granted in 1976.

Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age (in Years) at Marriage
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and over (Including Not Stated)Total
Husbands (All Petitions)
Under 5763227929121657591
5–9255946260725142751,701
10–14140606187753923351,105
15–19654131707421816767
20 and over63609404923711211,237
      Total5992,8961,1003421601002045,401
Wives (All Petitions)
Under 52482154916121338591
5–9784653111452720611,701
10–1451043467282514271,105
15–19296338732916312767
20 and over33362818844214191,237
      Total2,1712,268488162101541575,401

Dissolution of a Voidable Marriage—A decree of dissolution of a voidable marriage puts an end to the marriage from the date of the decree. On average there are only about 20 such decrees in New Zealand each year. The principal ground is non-consummation.

CONCILIATION PROCESSES—Under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, the principle was introduced of having specialist magistrates to exercise jurisdiction in domestic matters, although this has not generally been possible in practice. The Act aims to encourage by all practicable means the reconciliation of married couples who institute court proceedings, unless the court is satisfied that an attempt at reconciliation would be inexpedient. Domestic proceedings became a separate division from civil and criminal proceedings in Magistrates' Courts. (See Section 8A, Justice).

In 23 centres local Marriage Guidance Councils provide trained conciliators and in addition to this the Court Conciliation Centre in Auckland, using counsellors trained in a marriage guidance setting, provides a full-time service.

In 1975–76 1,937 couples were referred by the Court and were dealt with by Marriage Guidance counsellors. In 37 percent of these cases conciliators were successful in helping clients to a resumption of the marriage or a better understanding of their difficulties, with a resultant simplification of the work of the Courts. When the contribution of the Court Conciliation Centre in Auckland is added, it appears that specialist help is being offered to about 70 percent of those whose applications for separation are heard by the Courts.

MARRIAGE GUIDANCE—A National Marriage Guidance Council was established in 1950 as a voluntary agency to assist with social problems arising from unhappy or maladjusted marriages. From 1959 to 1968 an adviser in marriage guidance was attached to the staff of the Justice Department. An advisory committee was also set up to keep Government informed and to organise, with the assistance of appropriate professional groups, a programme for the selection, training, and accrediting of voluntary marriage counsellors. Although the training system is kept under constant review, the procedures followed have become well established and administration has now been taken over largely by the National Council with the support and advice of the department.

There are now 24 councils affiliated to the National Marriage Guidance Council and these provide counselling centres staffed by some 200 accredited counsellors. Counsellors, in all centres, assist the courts by serving as conciliators under the Domestic Proceedings Act. (See also Section 8A, Justice.)

The National Marriage Guidance Council employs a full-time director to organise and co-ordinate the work of affiliated councils. At the local level the work of 530 trained volunteers in the fields of counselling and marriage education is supported and co-ordinated by 7 local directors, 3 part-time co-ordinators and 29 receptionists or secretaries.

The council maintains statistical oversight of the nature and extent of marriage counselling casework, which has yielded significant results. Of the 6,173 cases referred, over half were initiated in the first 10 years of marriage and a further 30 percent in the second 10 years. There were over 11,000 children of these marriages. In 47 percent of the cases the husbands occupation was described as "skilled, semi-skilled, or unskilled worker". In 25 percent, husbands were in "minor business, clerical, shop assistant, foreman type" occupations, and 11 percent were in the "professional, managerial" class. Some 52 percent of the clients reported that they had been helped. In 32 percent of the cases, there was a negative result; in 3 percent of the cases, clients were referred for help elsewhere, and in 13 percent the cases were uncompleted for a variety of reasons.

A 'high proportion' (65 percent) of clients seek marriage guidance and counselling only when they are either contemplating separation or actually living apart, and the service is now training more people to act as tutors in marriage education and seeking other means of making better contact with married people before marital difficulties become too severe.

Educational work includes the conducting of courses for young couples in preparation for marriage, and parent groups. The number of adults taking advantage of educational programmes totalled 14,000 in 1976–77. A significant proportion of this work is in the parent education field, and complements the traditional provision of courses in human relations in primary, intermediate, and secondary schools.

In those centres where the council is established, marriage guidance service is readily available to those whose marriages are in difficulty. There is a growing recognition by the public of the importance of this service and a greater readiness of people in trouble to make use of it.

Chapter 6. Section 5 HEALTH AND HOSPITALS

5 A—HEALTH AND MEDICAL SERVICES

GENERAL—The nation's health is the responsibility of a partnership of central and local government, private medical practitioners, para-medical workers, charitable and religious organisations and private citizens, with the Central Government providing encouragement, financial assistance and incentives, and assuming final responsibility. This has been a deliberate policy of successive Governments, although emphases have varied from time to time according to political and economic conditions and demands for specific services. Growing urbanisation and industrialisation, with consequent intensification of the problems of pollution of water, air, and land, are imposing a current emphasis nationally and locally on environmental health.

Public health services have to do with environmental health, communicable diseases and quarantine, occupational health and toxicology, radiation protection, food and nutrition, health education, family health, dental services and certain aspects of nursing. In the case of environmental health the concern of the Department of Health and local authorities is with matters such as the provision and protection of public water supplies, sewage treatment and disposal, food hygiene and housing standards. Its objectives are the maintenance of a healthy environment by the application of the principles of preventive medicine.

ADMINISTRATION—The functions of local authorities are defined by statute and regulation. Elected local authorities must appoint a sufficient number of health inspectors qualified under the Health Inspectors Qualifications Regulations 1975. Where a local authority is too small to need a separate, full-time inspector, the Act permits two or more to combine to share the cost. In some smaller sparsely-populated districts where a local authority does not employ its own inspector, the departmental inspectors of health do the work and the authority pays for it. Only 25 percent of inspectors are employed by the department.

In each of the 18 health districts, the medical officer of health, who is a medical practitioner with special qualifications in public health, is the adviser to all local authorities in his district; in some cases his approval is required before action can be taken by a local authority, and in others he is the first line of appeal against its decisions. He is required to keep the Director-General of Health and the Board of Health informed of local authority deficiencies in their responsibilities under the Health Act

Diseases which are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 must be notified by doctors and hospitals to the medical officer of health who is responsible for control measures; within this area the local authority health inspector is subject to his direct supervision and control. New programmes of immunisation are undertaken by the department and, when established, vaccines are provided free and the general practitioner encouraged in this work. Quarantine arrangements for both aircraft and ships comply with obligations under the International Health Regulations. Medical officers of health administer this service. The broad objective is the control of communicable and chronic diseases in man and the keeping of New Zealand free of quarantinable diseases.

Accident prevention and the health of industrial and agricultural workers is the care of the Department of Health in conjunction with the Department of Labour. The aim is to prevent occupational disease, control toxic hazards, raise standards of first-aid services, and ensure the safe use of agricultural chemicals.

Food and nutrition standards aimed at protecting the consumer are laid down. An extensive programme, backed by legislation, governs the packaging, labelling, storage, and sale of poisons. Special environmental problems, such as radiation protection, occupational health, and atmosphere pollution, are also the responsibility of the Department of Health.

The objectives of health education programmes are to increase understanding of the value of health, to inform people of health services available, and to equip them with knowledge and skills they can use to solve health problems.

Family health responsibilities include medical and nursing supervision of infant, pre-school, and school children; inspection of schools and child care centres; immunisation of infants against poliomyelitis, etc.; and the administration of regulations bearing on home safety.

A dental service, directed by dental officers and staffed by dental nurses, provides regular dental treatment for all pre-school, primary, and intermediate school children. Arrangements with private dental practitioners ensure similar treatment for adolescents up to the age of 16 years and for dependants up to the age of 18 years. Dental Health education is also undertaken.

The Department of Health is responsible for the organisation and control of nursing services to the public in general; in hospitals (public or private); in homes for the aged, incapacitated, or infirm or in any other places where the Department of Health has responsibility. Considerable delegation has taken place, mainly to hospital boards whose chief nursing officer is responsible to the chief medical officer for the administration of the services provided. The department reviews its nursing services and those provided by hospital boards. Basic nursing education is provided in 27 hospital schools of nursing and 4 technical institutes. Post-basic nursing education is available from New Zealand School of Advanced Nursing Studies (which is controlled by the Department of Health) and from Victoria and Massey Universities. Post-basic courses in teaching methods are available from teachers' colleges in Hamilton and Wellington, and 3 technical institutes have courses in Community Health Nursing.

Within its public health nursing service, the department employs over 300 well-qualified nurses. Their work includes supervising the health of babies and small children, taking part in child health (including health education) programmes, providing a service to small industries and people in "at risk" occupations, taking part in disease control programmes, and assisting elderly people and people with mental health problems.

The Department of Health works closely with and seeks the advice and help of boards, committees, and councils such as the Board of Health, the Medical Research, Dental, Hospitals Advisory, Pharmacy, Nursing, and Radiological Advisory Councils, the Hospital Works, Medical Services Advisory Committees, and the Dietitians, Physiotherapy, Occupational Therapy, Opticians, and Plumbers and Gasfitters Boards. In all, officers of the department serve on over 100 boards, committees, and other organisations concerned with health.

In addition, there are very close working relationships with professional and other associations, voluntary health and welfare agencies, the universities, and other Government departments.

The department is responsible for the administration of a number of Acts dealing with health and social welfare. These will be found listed under Public General Acts in the Official section of this Yearbook.

A detailed report of the activities of the Department of Health is given in the annual report of the Director-General of Health (parliamentary paper E. 10).

Expenditure of the Department of Health in the 3 latest years is given in the following.

Activity Programme1974–751975–761976–77

*Mostly grants to hospital boards. Total grants in the three years above amounted to $328,929,256; $401,563,582; and $458,763,502 respectively.

†Mostly grants or Medical and Pharmaceutical Benefits, etc., under the Social Security Act 1964 for which expenditure in the three years above was $91,372,514; $116,023,408; and $133,628,812 respectively.

‡The Government provides a subsidy of $1 for $2 on the total cost of approved works for main water supply facilities, sewerage reticulation, and sewerage disposal schemes which have been put into effect by local authorities. Expenditure in the three years above was $8,599,401; $11,489,488; and $13,801,180 respectively.

§Now included in Vote: Housing.

 $(000)
Administrative services3,6084,4294,680
Dental services16,46918,22218,221
Hospital services*343,387419,476481,301
Family health services7,7888,6828,908
Grants to Medical Research Council2,6092,8253,283
Medical and pharmaceutical services93,261118,123136,357
Public health and environmental protection14,67918,72521,789
Welfare services4,6693,7846,560
Data processing services1,0354,686
Housing for the elderly and youth hostels§4,8977,245
Funded from Consolidated Revenue Account491,367602,546685,785
Psychiatric hospital buildings2,0303,4034,330
Public buildings construction201455345
Funded from Works and Trading Account2,2313,8584,675
      Totals493,598606,404690,460
      Less departmental receipts1,2927961,354
      Net expenditure492,306605,608689,106

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH: Local Authority Control—The provision and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises including eating houses in which food is manufactured and sold, are primarily the responsibility of local authorities, but the Department of Health exercises general supervision. In the case of some of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental inspectors on behalf of, and by arrangement with, the local authority. The department undertakes the basic training of health inspectors employed by local authorities and conducts specialist and refresher courses for them.

Department of Health Control—The objectives of the Department of Health in environmental health control are: (a) to create and maintain a healthy environment for the general public by the application of the principles of preventive medicine and the administration of legislation directly and indirectly related to this end; (b) to control air pollution; (c) to provide scientific services and undertake research on all aspects of the use of ionising radiation with special emphasis on the medical applications and public health aspects. To monitor public exposure to radiation from all sources and to take action to reduce this where necessary. To promote general understanding of the nature of the hazards involved in radiation exposure in their current perspective; and (d) to conserve hearing and detect its early deterioration.

Air Pollution Control—Air pollution, once accepted as the natural accompaniment of city dwelling and industrial production, is now recognised as a health problem.

The Clean Air Act 1972 provides for the control of existing and potential sources of air pollution. It places considerable emphasis on co-operation between Central Government, local authorities, industry, and the public, and in effect places on the occupier of any premises an obligation to keep air pollution to a minimum.

The provisions of the Clean Air Act 1972 include the following:

  1. standards can be prescribed limiting the emission of air pollutants and failure to observe them made an offence;

  2. the Clean Air Council was set up to give advice, co-ordinate activities, promote research and evaluate control equipment, and publish reports, advice and information on the prevention and control of air pollution;

  3. a wide range of industrial processes are required to be licensed under the Act;

  4. clean air zones can be established, and local authorities are authorised to advance to householders the cost of converting domestic fires to comply with the Act;

  5. certain sections of the Act can be applied (so far as they are applicable) to motor vehicles, aircraft, hovercraft, and locomotive engines, and power is given to make regulations governing necessary modifications, the use of particular fuels, and the concentration or rates of emission of air pollutants.

Under the Clean Air (Licensing) Regulations 1973 licences are issued by the Department of Health to industrial works requiring category A licences. Local authorities licence works scheduled in category B of the Act.

The first clean air zone under the Act has been established in Christchurch.

CONTROL OF DRUGS—The definitions of "drug" in the Food and Drug Act 1969 established groups to which differing provisions apply. Therapeutic drugs, that is those substances or mixtures whether used internally or externally for the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of any illness or injury of the human body or for modifying any physiological process or desires or emotions, and chemical contraceptives are required, before being introduced commercially, to be "acceptable", according to a procedure under the Food and Drug Act. No new therapeutic drug may be distributed in New Zealand without the consent of the Minister of Health, under sections 12 and 13 of the Act.

This Act also requires that any drug which has been changed in any way, in use, strength, or labelling must not be distributed until 90 days after notice of the change has been given to the Director-General of Health, who may consent to earlier distribution of a changed drug if he is satisfied of the drug's safety. If the Director-General considers the change to be of such character or degree that the drug ought not to be distributed without the consent of the Minister, the drug is referred to the Minister and may not be distributed until the Minister's specific consent has been obtained. A therapeutic drug is also restricted to sale from pharmacies only, unless special authority is given for general distribution in a schedule to the Therapeutic Drugs (Permitted Sales) Regulations 1970.

A cosmetic, dentifrice, detergent, disinfectant, or antiseptic does not have to be "cleared" for marketing unless claims in labelling or advertising bring it within the definition of a "therapeutic drug".

As in the case of food, the Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any drug intended for sale. Measures provide for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where drugs are manufactured or packed. Control over medical advertisements is also incorporated in this legislation.

Under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964, certain drugs may not be sold to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. This legislation also requires specific warning statements to be included in the labelling of certain drugs such as the antihistamines, aspirin, phenacetin, paracetamol, and hexaclorophane.

Controlled Drugs—Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 the import, export, cultivation, production, possession, distribution, supply, and administration of a wide range of narcotic and other drugs is strictly controlled. Except for medical practitioners, dentists, pharmacists, veterinary surgeons, those having the care of patients being lawfully supplied with drugs, the patients themselves, and other specified persons, or those who have been issued with a licence under the Act, the procuration, manufacture, possession, consumption, supply, or offer to supply controlled drugs is a serious offence.

Controlled drugs are divided into three classes. The heaviest penalties are for offences involving drugs in Class A, which include heroin, lysergide, desomorphine, and cantharidin. Offences involving the possession or use of drugs in Class C, which include cannabis plants, fruit, and seeds, are to be punished with fines but not by imprisonment unless by reason of previous convictions or exceptional circumstances.

Illegal dealing in controlled drugs is subject to heavy penalties.

To curb illicit drug abuse, a National Drug Intelligence Bureau has been set up jointly by the Departments of Health, Customs, and Police.

FOOD AND NUTRITION—The Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any articles of food or drink which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food intended for sale. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where food is manufactured or packed. Regulations lay down minimum standards for many classes of food, control additives of all kinds, and deal with labelling of food packages. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food. Regular sampling of foods is undertaken by departmental inspectors and the samples are analysed in the Chemistry Division (DSIR) or its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity whereby a purchaser of any food would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of that food, whether or not it is standardised by regulations.

A Food Standards Committee, composed of highly qualified persons, meets regularly to discuss the latest technical advances in food production and to make appropriate recommendations for amendments to the legislation.

The nutrition section of the Department of Health provides advice on nutrition and dietetics to dietary departments of hospitals, and food service departments of welfare and other institutions. It is responsible for nutrition education programmes and provides a nutrition information service for Government departments, organisations concerned with production and marketing of food, and the public. The section also carries out dietary research projects, generally in liaison with medical research teams concerned with nutrition research.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY—Since 1957 medical officers of health have had responsibility for occupational health. The objective of the occupational health programmes is to work with labour, management, the medical profession, and other groups to assist in improving the health of workers.

The Department of Labour, which is responsible for accident prevention, hours of work, employment of women, and children etc., calls to the attention of the Department of Health any health problems which factory inspectors may encounter. The Factories Act 1946 gives to medical officers of health or other authorised officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authority as inspectors of factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. The suspension of workers on health grounds, approval of respirators and similar protective equipment and the arrangements for medical examinations are undertaken by the Department of Health. A series of regulations deal with hazards, many of them being administered by the two departments, each in its own sphere.

A similar understanding has been established with the Waterfront Industry Commission and New Zealand Railways, and illustrates the general pattern of arrangements between the Department of Health and other Government departments. An occupational health laboratory was established at Wellington in 1964.

Occupational Diseases—The notifiable occupational diseases are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 and details of diseases notified are published annually in the report of the Director-General of Health.

Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons—The advertising, distribution, use, labelling, and packing of all poisons and toxic substances is controlled under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964. A manufacturer or importer must notify the Registrar of Poisons before importing or putting on the market any new substance which might be toxic, be it a chemical, household preparation, cosmetic, or drug. Special safeguards are provided for certain hazardous chemicals, used in agriculture or horticulture. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. Labels for "Restricted Poisons" must bear statements of the precautions to be taken in use, the symptoms of poisoning and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Registrar of Poisons. This legislation is at present under extensive review.

Control of Health Hazards—An increasing number of specific health hazards are formally controlled, namely, lead processes, electroplating, spray painting, sand blasting (siliceous blasting agents in factories are prohibited), fumigation, aerial application of poisons (where, in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport, a special rating is required by pilots) and agricultural chemicals. A number of other specific hazards are currently receiving consideration.

Medical, Nursing, and First-aid Services—Minimal first-aid requirements have been laid down by the Department of Health, which generally endeavours to encourage both the development of medical and nursing services and the raising of first-aid standards throughout industry generally. While there are no statutory obligations on industry to provide medical and nursing services, an increasing number of factories do provide such services. To meet the needs of small plants the department has developed industrial health centres with financial support from the Waterfront Industry Commission in the case of harbour areas, and the Accident Compensation Commission in the case of general industry.

Pre-employment Examinations—Pre-employment medical examinations are required for young workers before entering factory employment.

National Audiology Centre—The National Audiology Centre assists with the early detection of deafness and conservation of hearing. The centre conducts and promotes research into noisy industries, occupational deafness, and other forms of deafness. An advisory service is provided for those working with deaf people and training is given to those responsible for testing groups for hearing loss.

Radiation Protection—The National Radiation Laboratory provides the administrative and technical services required by the Radiation Protection Act 1965 and Regulations 1973 and the Transport of Radioactive Materials Regulations 1973. Prior approval must be obtained for the import or export of any radioactive material. Each owner of irradiating apparatus (source of X-rays) or radioactive material must ensure that they are used only under the control of a person specifically licensed for the purpose.

The laboratory provides the licensees with free monitoring, advisory, calibration, or other services which will assist in achieving radiation safety. Trained officers regularly visit all places where sources of ionising radiation are used. A service is available for measuring the exposures received by radiation workers.

The laboratory advises the requirements for the transport and disposal of radioactive materials and is responsible for monitoring a wide range of environmental samples for natural or man-made radioactivity.

FAMILY HEALTH—Medical practitioners give ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention under the Social Security Act. Free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with the St. Helens Hospitals, all public maternity hospitals and maternity wards. Ante-natal classes to prepare mothers for the baby's arrival are also being developed, and doctors can refer patients to these to supplement their own ante-natal instructions. In the case of women living far away from the main centres of population, ante-natal work is supplemented by the public health nurses employed by the Department of Health, or by district nurses employed by hospital boards.

Approximately 99 percent of confinements take place in maternity hospitals or in maternity units of public hospitals. The medical care of the mother and child is based on co-operation between the Department of Health, hospital boards and the medical and nursing professions. All private maternity hospitals are licensed under the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Department of Health has responsibility for ensuring that regulations regarding buildings, equipment, and staff are observed. Medical officers of health, through their senior nursing staff, exercise general supervision over the work of private hospitals in the local areas.

Family Planning—General practitioners provide the major portion of family planning services. Contraceptives are provided free for those who need them for medical reasons, where cost would be a barrier. Since 1971 priority has been given to family planning as a health measure. In addition to the private doctor service 36 Family Planning Association clinics are now in operation in various centres of the country. The Government provides a grant to meet the cost of salaries of doctors, nurses, and health assistants (clinical) employed by the association in approved clinics.

A number of hospital boards have established family clinics within their obstetrics and gynaecology departments to provide additional facilities for the public and training for doctors, medical students, and nurses, and other boards are being encouraged to provide these facilities.

Child Health—The Department of Health offers a preventive child health service. Babies are normally examined at about 6 weeks of age and again at 9 months. Additional examinations are given whenever there is anxiety over physical, mental, or emotional development. Public health nurses undertake supervision of infants and pre-school children although the major proportion of this service is provided by the nurses of the Plunket Society. Where necessary the children are referred to family doctors or medical officers of the Department of Health.

A consultative service is provided for schools, with special emphasis on the health supervision of handicapped children, both in the normal schools and in special education classes. Nursing staff make regular visits to all schools and from pre-school record cards and by consultation with teachers and parents refer children for examination by medical officers. Correspondence School children are kept under health supervision as necessary and any school child requiring treatment is referred to the appropriate family doctor. Vision and hearing testing is carried out by trained staff for pre-school children, and again in Junior I and Form I. Tests are also offered to pupils in secondary schools where it is known that parents of pupils with difficulties are not taking any action.

The Government supports the Children's Health Camps Board which maintains six permanent camps for the short-stay placement of children convalescent after illness, for those whose physical health is unsatisfactory, and for those suffering from minor emotional disorders. Medical officers select children for admission and undertake general health supervision of the camps. Children derive benefit from the ordered routine of camp life which provides a diet designed to improve nutrition and a balance of free activity, rest, and sleep. The Department of Education maintains school classes with emphasis on remedial teaching.

Immunisation Programme—Protection by two doses of the oral vaccine for poliomyelitis is available to all infants. Protection against diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus is a routine procedure and a triple vaccine is used. It is preferable that immunisation be done by the family doctor, and the course of injections should be commenced as soon as possible after babies are 3 months old. Arrangements can be made for mothers who are unable to have the immunisation done privately to attend with her child at a departmental clinic. If necessary in country areas the public health nurse will visit the home to immunise the child. Booster doses (against diphtheria, tetanus, and polio) are given at 18 months and after the child's fourth birthday or as soon as possible after the child commences school. Further booster doses (against tetanus only) are recommended at 10-yearly intervals and on injury. Measles vaccination is available from family doctors for infants from 10 months of age onwards. Rubella vaccination is available from family doctors for pre-school children.

HEALTH HAZARDS AND HEALTH EDUCATION: Alcoholism—In New Zealand alcoholism rates as a major public health problem. There is no accurate measure of the number of alcoholics but experts in the field suggest that there are at least 53,000 chronic alcoholics, and that an average of 10 people (family, friends, and working colleagues) are affected in each case. The figure for chronic alcoholics does not include excessive drinkers, estimated to number from 50,000 to 200,000.

In 1974 slightly over 2,500 people (2,100 men and 400 women) were treated for alcoholism or alcoholic psychosis in psychiatric and general hospitals, and records of psychiatric hospital patients in particular show a sharply rising rate of admissions. Much valuable work in the provision of treatment, rehabilitation, and support facilities for those with major alcoholic problems is done by church and social welfare agencies, especially the Salvation Army, Alcoholics Anonymous, and the National Society of Alcoholism and Drug Dependence. Nevertheless, there is no doubt that large numbers of problem drinkers remain unrecognised as such, and consequently untreated.

Smoking—Smoking, especially cigarette smoking, is an acknowledged public health hazard. It is implicated as an important causative factor in lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, and emphysema, and it greatly increases the risk of heart disease and certain pregnancy-related and neonatal disorders.

The following table showing the smoking habits of New Zealanders by sex and age group is derived from the 1976 Census of Population. It is based on the provisional results of a survey that covered more than 2 million men and women of 15 years of age and above. Almost 47 percent of male smokers and 32 percent of female exceeded 20 cigarettes a day.

Smoking PracticeAge Groups (Years)Total
15–1920–2930–3940–5960 and Over

*Never smoked cigarettes regularly or never smoked them at all.

†Do not smoke now, but used to smoke regularly (one or more cigarettes a day).

‡Smoke regularly (one or more cigarettes a day).

Percentage
Males
Never smoked*60.344.436.627.126.637.4
Not smoking5.512.418.528.438.521.4
Smoking28.441.542.942.431.638.5
Not specified5.81.71.92.13.32.7
      Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
 Females
Never smoked*61.349.650.351.566.055.2
Not smoking5.711.212.113.212.211.4
Smoking29.637.435.332.916.730.5
Not specified3.31.82.32.45.12.9
      Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
 Total Population
Never smoked*60.847.043.539.248.846.4
Not smoking5.611.815.320.923.716.3
Smoking29.039.439.137.723.234.4
Not specified4.61.82.12.24.32.8
      Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The advertising of cigarettes on TV and radio has been banned by the Broadcasting Council. Cigarette manufacturers have an agreement with the Government to restrict the size of newspaper advertisements, ban cinema advertising, and print a health warning on cigarette packets. A survey of the tar and nicotine content of New Zealand-manufactured cigarettes has been undertaken, and the Government has established an Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health to discuss and make recommendations on educational programmes, safety factors, appropriate legislation, research and evaluation.

Health Education—It is being increasingly recognised that the individual must be encouraged to take a more active interest in, and responsibility for, his own health. This is particularly relevant where alcoholism and diseases arising from smoking are concerned, but it is also relevant in other areas. For example, immunisation, ante-natal care, and venereal disease. All these topics have been covered by the health education programme of the Department of Health.

Medical and dental officers, public health nurses, dental nurses, and inspectors of health all devote some of their time to health education. The health education officer acts as a co-ordinator and stimulates and extends health teaching and health programmes in the district. Health education officers hold the diploma in education issued by the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health. Advertisements on health subjects are screened on television and published in national periodicals. Leaflets, pamphlets, and posters are available on many health topics from district health offices.

The Department of Health's official bulletin Health has a circulation of over 80,000 and is issued free to the public 4 times a year. It gives health information and publicises various aspects of the department's work.

Officers are available for lectures and discussions on health with schools and community groups.

DENTAL HEALTH—New Zealand's dental health service combines a school dental service for children, dental benefits for adolescents, and private practice for adults. There are 14 dental districts, three schools for dental nurses in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and the dental school at the University of Otago.

School Dental Service—The objective of the service is to improve the dental health of the pre-school and school children by regular and systematic treatment at 6-monthly intervals, commencing at the age of 2½ and continuing through the highest class at primary or intermediate school.

The school dental nurse, after completing the two-year training course, is posted to a school dental clinic where she provides routine dental care for children. A school dental nurse has a patient group of about 450 in a non-fluoridated area and up to 650 where the water is fluoridated. Regular visits are made to the clinic by the Principal Dental Officer and the Dental Nurse Inspector, who assist the dental nurse to maintain a high standard of performance in all aspects of the work. The School Dental Service Gazette is published bi-monthly as a media for continuing education.

The dental care comprises examination, cleaning, application of sodium fluoride, fillings in temporary and permanent teeth, extraction of deciduous teeth, and dental health education. Some children are referred to dentists for additional care.

In 1977, 1,303 school dental nurses provided dental care for 612,214 children. The treatment included 2,039,222 fillings and 57,385 extractions. Indicators of the success of the service are the acceptance—67 percent of pre-school children aged 2½ to 4 and 95 percent of the primary school children are enrolled, and the small number of extractions—less than 3 for every 100 teeth saved by fillings.

Adolescent Dental Service—Dental care for adolescents up to 16 years of age and, if dependent, up to 18 years of age is provided by private dentists as a dental benefit under the Social Security Act, the dentist being reimbursed on a fee-service basis. Children who remain at school after their sixteenth birthday and qualify for the extended family benefit, or who are otherwise dependent upon parents for support, continue to receive the dental benefit to their eighteenth birthday.

Eligibility for dental treatment as an adolescent is contingent upon a person's having undergone regular dental care, either at a school dental clinic or from a private dental practitioner.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at 6-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

The treatment (other than treatment requiring special approval) which may be provided as dental benefits, and the fees payable, are set out in the Schedule to the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960.

Dental Health Education—Dental Health Education is an integral part of the school dental service and includes activities in the clinics and the classroom. Educational materials are produced by the

Department of Health for the school dental service and for general use in the community. Materials specifically for dentists are produced by the Dental Health Committee of the New Zealand Dental Association.

Dental Research—The Dental Unit of the Medical Research Council carries out research in a wide range of dental problems. Further research is undertaken by the Dental School of the University of Otago and there is also a small research unit within the Division of Dental Health of the Department of Health.

Fluoridation—Approximately 64 percent of all persons living in water-reticulated areas are drinking fluoridated water, which reduces the need for dental treatment.

REHABILITATION OF DISABLED CIVILIANS—The rehabilitation of disabled and handicapped persons has received increasing emphasis over recent years in New Zealand. Public hospitals are the hub for development of an adequate medical rehabilitation service, with co-operation from Government and voluntary agencies in furthering the medical, social, and vocational welfare of the disabled.

Rehabilitation centres for the treatment of the severely disabled are established at Otara, under the Auckland Hospital Board's administration, and Palmerston North under the Palmerston North Hospital Board's administration. For the rehabilitation of persons suffering from spinal injuries and paraplegia, specialist spinal injury centres are in course of development at Auckland and Christchurch. Rehabilitation activities are also being carried out in the physical medicine departments of most general hospitals, at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Rotorua, and in many of the psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

The Rehabilitation League is the principal agent of Government in vocational rehabilitation. The main function of the League is to provide facilities for work assessment and work experience for the disabled. Policy is decided by a central board of management and district committees administer the centres which are established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Napier.

A National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, comprising representatives from the Departments of Labour, Social Welfare, Health, and Education, and the Accident Compensation Commission, advise the Government on steps to co-ordinate and promote rehabilitation in New Zealand.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE—Physical medicine is concerned with potentially disabling conditions such as rheumatic diseases, cerebral palsy, and other disorders of the locomotor system.

The national centre for the treatment of rheumatism is established at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which has approximately 100 beds set aside for diagnosis, research, and treatment of these diseases. Full physiotherapy and occupational therapy facilities are provided and active steps towards rehabilitation of patients are carried out. A large number of outpatients are referred from all parts of New Zealand and a few from overseas are seen every year.

Physiotherapists and occupational therapists work together in preventing and controlling deformity, and teaching people how to overcome their disabilities. Social workers assist in bridging the gap between rehabilitation and vocational and social resettlement.

A cerebral palsy unit is situated at Queen Elizabeth Hospital providing residential accommodation for 20 children. At this unit the activities of a team of physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists are co-ordinated by the supervisor of the unit working under a physician. Patients can be referred by their doctors to the physician in charge of the unit for assessment only, or for admission and treatment. Cerebral palsy visiting therapist services are operating under hospital boards. Post-graduate courses are given to physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists.

Cerebral palsy day schools have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Parents of cerebral palsy cases who seek their children's admission first apply to the appropriate medical officer of health or education board. The schools are administered by the education boards, but close liaison exists between the schools, the Rotorua unit, and the visiting cerebral palsy therapists.

I HEALTH STATISTICS—The National Health Statistics Centre is responsible for the annual publication of Health Statistics Reports on mortality, morbidity, mental health, cancer, and hospital management as well as the publication of Trends in Health and Health Services every two years.

The Centre also prepares special statistics for the various divisions of the Department and for research workers in different fields both in New Zealand and overseas. A constant liaison is maintained with the World Health Organisation, which is supplied with statistical material giving a picture of health trends in New Zealand. In addition, from time to time, special statistical investigations are made into important aspects of public health and diseases that warrant specific study.

Since July 1975 the Centre has been monitoring the incidence of selected congenital malformations reported by medical practitioners to the Health Department.

NATIONAL HEALTH INSTITUTE—The institute is the Department of Health's centre for the scientific study of public health problems. It contains an epidemiology section and public health laboratories (microbiology, virology and environmental health).

The epidemiology section conducts field research into matters of public health interest.

The public health laboratories provide diagnostic and reference services in bacteriology and virology for medical officers of health, hospital and private laboratories, and general practitioners, as well as for the other sections of the institute. The Institute is the national centre for those reference services which are organised on an international basis, such as salmonellosis, leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis, influenza, and staphylococcal phage typing.

MANAGEMENT SERVICES AND RESEARCH UNIT—This unit provides health services administrators and managers with a quantitative basis for making decisions on the utilisation of health resources.

Survey research undertaken provides the means by which needs and demands can be identified, as well as a basis for the promulgation of alternative proposals to meet those needs and demands. The unit is actively involved in health planning at national, local, and community levels encouraging both providers and consumers of health care to participate in the development of their own services.

The health services manpower resources were quantitatively assessed in 1974 and the data has been continuously updated since then. Using this data base, workshops on medical manpower (1976) and nursing manpower (1977) have been held. The outcome of these workshops provided a basis for manpower planning in these fields. Additionally the unit has been involved in a variety of projects throughout the health service aimed at improving existing and developing new structures.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL—The Medical Research Council of New Zealand has the following functions:

  1. To initiate, foster, and support medical research;

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organisations concerned with medical research;

  3. To collect and disseminate scientific information, including the publication of reports.

At the end of 1977 research was in progress in most fields of medicine including the pre-clinical, clinical, and para-clinical sciences. Increased emphasis was also being placed on the fields of social medicine and community health, and on research into health services, and the earlier work of the council on medical research in the South Pacific through its South Pacific Medical Research Committee was being continued.

The council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by private medical research foundations and societies such as the Cancer Society of New Zealand, and regional medical research foundations established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Palmerston North, Hawke's Bay, Otago, and Southland.

The council administers the Medical Research Endowment Fund, from which an annual expenditure of $4.0 million is incurred in supporting research projects at the Universities, the Christchurch and Wellington Clinical Schools of Medicine, and the institutions of the Auckland, Wellington, North Canterbury, and Otago Hospital Boards.

The council employs a staff of about 50 full-time workers. A further 260 workers are employed by other institutions under project grants from the council.

The council awards scholarships and fellowships to selected graduates and undergraduates who wish to engage in medical research.

The council is empowered to receive bequests and donations to the fund for furthering the objects of the council as set out in the Medical Research Council Act 1950.

MEDICAL COUNCIL—The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, consists of the Director-General of Health, the deans of the faculties of medicine in the Universities of Otago and Auckland, and eight registered medical practitioners appointed on a representative basis.

The council deals with all applications for registration under the Act. Until an applicant is able to satisfy the council that he has obtained house officer experience, in a resident medical capacity, of not less than 12 months or has otherwise obtained comparable experience, registration is on a conditional basis. Persons registered conditionally may practise only in an approved hospital. A medical education committee responsible to the council exercises general supervision over the training of persons conditionally registered. The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1977 was 6,984, but not all are in active practice in New Zealand.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided.

DOCTORS AND DENTISTS—The following table, based on figures in the World Health Statistics Annual 1973–1976, shows for selected countries the number of inhabitants per doctor and per dentist. Most of the data refers to 1972, 1973, or 1974.

CountryInhabitants
Per DoctorPer Dentist
New Zealand8502,890
Australia7202,460
England and Wales7603,460
Denmark6201,310
Sweden6501,160
France6802,090
Netherlands6703,290
West Germany5201,960
Canada6002,650
United States6101,970
Japan8702,740
U.S.S.R.3402,480
Iran2,57016,410
India4,16065,620
Kenya16,300192,030
Brazil1,6603,120

The definition of doctor (physician) used in compiling this table included all graduates of a medical school or faculty actually working in a country in any medical field (practice, teaching, administration, research, laboratory work, etc.). A similar definition referring to graduates or qualified personnel of a dental faculty or school applied to dentists.

In New Zealand, between 1959 and 1972 the population per active general practitioner increased from 1,780 to 2,256. During the period 1972 to 1975 there was a slight improvement; population per active practitioner fell to 2,022. In 1976 there were 1,578 doctors in active general practice, giving a ratio of general practitioners to population of about 1 to 1,990.

While there has been some improvement in recent years in the distribution of doctors in rural and semi-rural areas, the position in many urban areas remains unsatisfactory. There remains the intraurban maldistribution, where well-established, middle-class areas tend to be relatively overprovided with general practitioners, while some other areas suffer from a shortage of general practitioners.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS: Dentists—Under the Dental Act 1963 there was constituted a Dental Council, the functions of which are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists. The number of practising dentists holding annual practising certificates at 31 May 1977 was 1,130. Under provisions of the Dental Technicians Regulations 1968, a Registration Board for Dental Technicians was constituted. In 1977 there were 401 registered dental technicians.

Nurses—The Nursing Council of New Zealand was constituted under the Nurses Act 1971. Its functions include making recommendations on nursing programmes to be undertaker by candidates for examinations in relation to minimum standards required for registration; the conduct of examinations; the granting of approval of Schools of Nursing, subject to Ministerial concurrence; the registration of overseas nurses; and the exercise of disciplinary powers.

The Nurses Regulations 1973 provided for 3-year hospital-based programmes for registration as general/maternity nurses, male nurses, psychiatric nurses, and psychopaedic nurses. They also provided for the registration of community nurses from 18-month courses, maternity nurses from 6-month courses (provided the nurses already hold general registration) and the 6-month programme for registration as midwives of nurses previously registered as maternity nurses.

The Nurses Amendment Act 1975 provided for the registration of Comprehensive Nurses from a student-based 3-year course conducted at four Technical Institutes.

During 1976–77 there were 25,952 registered nurses holding a current annual practising certificate. The council's register shows total registrations in excess of 90,000.

Physiotherapists—The New Zealand Physiotherapy Board is constituted under the Physiotherapy Act 1949. The board's functions are the examination and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, the issuing of special licences, and the conduct of those registered under the Act.

The training period for physiotherapists is 3 years. Full-time training is conducted at the Physiotherapy Department, Auckland Technical Institute, and at the School of Physiotherapy, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin. From 1 February 1976 the control of this school was transferred from Otago Hospital Board to Otago Polytechnic Council. All students are required to pass the State Examination in Physiotherapy to qualify for registration.

During 1977, 135 physiotherapists were registered, bringing the total on the register (which includes some no longer practising) to 2,824.

Occupational Therapists—The Occupational Therapy Board is constituted under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949. The board is concerned with the registration and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy.

The Central Institute of Technology, Wellington, conducts the 3-year course of training and clinical experience is gained at hospitals. Students who successfully complete the course are awarded a diploma in occupational therapy and then registered. There are some 320 occupational therapists in active practice.

Dietitians—Under the Dietitians Act 1950 is constituted the Dietitians Board, which is concerned with the training, examination, and registration of persons engaged in the practice of dietetics.

The training period for a dietitian is, in the case of the holder of a degree of bachelor of home science conferred by the University of Otago or of the holder of a diploma in home science of the University of Otago, 12 months in a hospital training school. In 1977 there were 528 registered dietitians.

Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians—The Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Act 1976 provides for the Constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of four registered optometrists to be appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Optometrical Association Incorporated, one registered optometrist who is actively engaged in teaching optometry to be appointed on the nomination of the Council of the University of Auckland, two registered dispensing opticians to be appointed on the nominations of the Association of Dispensing Opticians and Optical Dispensers of New Zealand Incorporated, two ophthalmological specialists who are registered in respect of that speciality under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, to be appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Medical Association, and one other person being an officer of the Public Service employed in the Department of Health.

Two hundred and seventy-six Annual Practising Certificates were issued for the year ended 31 March 1977 and 288 for the following year.

Chiropodists—The Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966 provided for the constitution of a Chiropodists Board. The Chiropodists Regulations 1967 specify that the board shall consist of one officer of the Department of Health, three persons entitled to registration as chiropodists who have been nominated by a society representing the interests of chiropodists, and a medical practitioner who has been nominated jointly by the Medical Association of New Zealand and the Executive Committee of the New Zealand Orthopaedic Association. The board's functions include the promotion of high standards of education and conduct among persons engaged or intending to become engaged in chiropody, the exercising of disciplinary powers in accordance with the Act in respect of registered chiropodists and the conducting of special examinations. The board also deals with all applications for registration under the Act.

There are approximately 245 registered chiropodists, but not all are engaged in active practice. A significant number of those in active practice work only part time.

Plumbers—The Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Board consists of 13 member/representatives from the Municipal and Counties Association, the Gas Association, the New Zealand Drainlayers Association, an engineer employed by a local authority or drainage board, the Master Plumbers Society (2), the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Related Trades Industrial Union of Workers (2), Department of Labour, Department of Education, Department of Health, and one other person, to be appointed by the Minister.

The board is concerned with the registration of plumbers, gasfitters, and drainlayers. It issues annual licences to craftsmen and registered plumbers and gasfitters, and limned certificates. It has also authority and responsibility for disciplinary action against craftsmen, plumbers, and gasfitters if it is established they have done unsatisfactory work.

In New Zealand, except in specially exempted areas, all sanitary plumbing denned in the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Act 1977 can only be performed by craftsmen and registered plumbers and holders of limited certificates working in the employment or under the supervision of craftsmen plumbers.

Specifications and standards of workmanship and materials in plumbing work are prescribed in the provisions of the Drainage and Plumbing Regulations enacted under the Health Act.

Pharmacists—In 1977 there were 2,683 names on the Pharmaceutical Register in New Zealand. All registered pharmacists, except those who notify the registrar that they have conscientious objection to membership, automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the society's affairs being managed by a council constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1970.

The council consists of 12 members, 11 being pharmacists, and 1 a barrister appointed by the Minister of Health. Seven members are elected on a district basis by registered pharmacists who are proprietors of pharmacies and four by members of the Pharmaceutical Society who are not in the previous category. The main function of the council of the Pharmaceutical Society is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the public interests.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered pharmacist.

The present system for pharmacy education requires a minimum of 3 years' attendance at the School of Pharmacy, Central Institute of Technology, Upper Hutt, at which the diploma in pharmacy is obtained. There is also a 4-year degree course in pharmacy at the University of Otago. Graduates from both courses are required to gain 12 months' pre-registration experience before becoming eligible for registration as pharmacists.

Any pharmacist or company in which not less than 75 percent of the share capital is owned by a pharmacist or pharmacists may establish one pharmacy. Unqualified persons or companies in which less than 75 percent of the share capital is pharmacist-owned must, however, secure the consent of the Pharmacy Authority, set up under the Act, before commencing business, and in all cases the establishment of more than one pharmacy under the same ownership, or the holding of an interest in more than one pharmacy by any person, is subject to the consent of the authority. All pharmacies must be registered with the society. There are about 1,155 pharmacies in New Zealand. A survey in 1973 showed that on average there were 1.56 pharmacists per pharmacy; about 200 pharmacists work outside community pharmacies in hospitals, Government departments, and the pharmaceutical industry.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS—Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, administered by the Department of Health and dealing with medical and like benefits, is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Medical Benefits—Medical benefits apply to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, these being principally:

  1. Medical services in maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading.)

  2. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate.

  3. Medical services other than anaesthetic services, involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner.

Every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services is entitled, on behalf of the patient, to receive from the Department of Health a fee of $1.25 for a service provided in normal hours and up to $4.00 for a service rendered at night or on Saturdays, Sundays, or holidays; for social security beneficiaries, pensioners and their dependants, and for patients approved as "chronically ill", the benefit ranges from $3 to $7; in the case of all children and young persons up to their sixteenth birthday, and those for whom family benefit continues to be paid, the benefit ranges from $4.75 to $8. For initial consultations with recognised psychiatrists, paediatricians, neurologists, and neurosurgeons and general physicians, the Department pays a benefit of $20; with all other specialists, the benefit paid for children and young persons is $10, and the benefit paid for all other patients is $5. These rates apply only to the first occasion on which a patient is referred by a general practitioner to a specialist, and, in the case of an inter-specialist referral, with prior concurrence of the original doctor. For subsequent visits, the fee paid by the Department reduces to $1.25 for each visit, except in the case of Social Security beneficiaries and pensioners and their dependants, and the "chronically ill" for whom the fee is $3, and $4.75 in the case of children and young persons. In designated rural areas, an incentive bonus is payable. In 1977, the immunisation benefit was increased to $2.25 when the vaccine is administered by the doctor or a registered general nurse in his employ and under his direction. The immunisation benefit is in full settlement and no extra charge should be made. Most doctors make a claim directly from the Department of Health and ask patients for the balance of their fees. A minority require their patients to pay the whole fee and make personal claims on the Department of Health.

The number of medical practitioners providing general and specialist medical services in 1976 was 4,048 and the cost per head of population in the year ended 31 March 1977 was $9.89. The average population per active practitioner providing medical care in 1976 was 1,992.

Pharmaceutical Benefits—Persons receiving medical attention under the Act are entitled, generally without cost to themselves, to those medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials, prescribed by their medical practitioners and which are included in the Drug Tariff.

Prescriptions passed for payment in the year ended 31 March 1977 totalled 25,370,000 or 8.1 per head of population. The average cost per prescription was $3.34, the cost per head of population being $27.02.

Hospital Benefits—Treatment is provided free by public hospitals where a patient is entitled to hospital benefits under the Act. In the case of private hospitals and other approved institutions benefits paid are in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients. The rates from 1 October 1975 are as follows:

  1. For surgical treatment $12.00 a day, with a minimum of $24.00.

  2. For medical (including psychiatric) treatment $9.00 a day (from 1 January 1976).

  3. For geriatric treatment $11.00 a day.

  4. Hospital treatment for maternity patients $12.00 a day.

Free treatment is accorded outpatients at public hospitals; this also covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses, hearing aids, artificial limbs, surgical footwear, wheelchairs, orthopaedic implants in private hospitals, ileostomy and colostomy appliances, and urinals. It does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. In respect of surgical footwear, part payment by the patient is required.

Psychiatric Hospitals—Treatment of patients in public psychiatric hospitals is also free. A licensed (private) psychiatric hospital may be recognised and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment are payable accordingly.

Maternity Benefits—Maternity benefits cover ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere. Recognised specialists may make a charge on the patient over and above the benefit. Licensed maternity hospitals are entitled to receive fees of $12.00 in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding 14 days.

X-ray Diagnostic Services—These X-ray diagnostic services on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, attract a health benefit:

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen.

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs.

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance, visas, emigration permits, and examinations for the sole or primary purpose of obtaining medical certificates for production to some other person, are not included in the free services. Eligible X-ray examinations at public hospitals are free, but those undertaken by private radiologists are limited to a specified benefit. Additional charges are the patient's responsibility.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services—The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and associated medical services.

The following services are not included:

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

Physiotherapy Benefits—Physiotherapy treatment afforded by contracting physiotherapists is the subject of a benefit under the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The standard benefit is $1 for each recommended treatment, but a higher rate of $1.50 is payable for beneficiaries and their dependants who qualify for the higher medical benefit. Where patients are treated in groups the universal benefit is 40 cents per patient.

To qualify for the benefit, physiotherapy treatment must in all cases be recommended by a registered medical practitioner. Treatment is limited to 6 weeks on a single recommendation but in the case of certain specified illnesses the Director-General of Health may extend the period of treatment on any one recommendation up to 6 months.

Home-nursing Services—Under the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944. home-nursing services are provided free where the services are afforded by a registered nurse, midwife, or maternity nurse in the employ of the Department of Health, a hospital board, or an organisation recognised for the purpose.

Domestic Assistance—Monetary assistance is given to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic help in the home, where it is required because of age and infirmity, or to support family situations in which the mother is incapacitated or needs help on account of family commitments.

Dental Services—The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960 provide for free dental treatment. These benefits are confined to persons who are under 16 years of age or under 18 years if still attending school or otherwise dependent. Treatment may be provided in a State dental clinic, by a contracting dentist for whom there is a prescribed scale of fees, or in the dental department of a public hospital.

Artificial Aids—The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, such as artificial limbs, hearing aids, and contact lenses.

Breast Prostheses—Women undergoing a mastectomy on or after 29 July 1976 are entitled to a benefit of up to $30 to meet the cost of an initial breast form. Patients entitled to the benefit are issued with a certificate of eligibility prior to discharge from hospital for presentation to the supplier.

Contact Lenses—These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities: (a) conical cornea, (b) high myopia, where the degree of myopia present in the greatest axis of the better eye is not less than –10 diopters, (c) monocular aphakia, if the restoration of binocular vision is highly desirable by reason of the patient's occupation or other circumstances and binocular vision cannot be restored without the use of contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an approved ophthalmologist.

Lenses may also be supplied in respect of any other ocular condition which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacles; in these cases recommendation by two ophthalmologists is necessary.

Hearing Aids—A free aid may be supplied, or a subsidy of $45 is payable towards the purchase of a hearing aid where the patient suffers a hearing loss which renders the use of an aid necessary. A subsidy of up to $70 is payable towards the cost of an aid for a patient under 16 years of age.

Eligibility on medical grounds for the provision of a hearing aid is to be determined by an otologist employed or engaged by a hospital board or the Department of Health.

Normally a patient will be eligible for the payment of the full benefit only once every 5 years. However, if in the opinion of the authorising otologist, a patient's existing aid is inadequate after less than 5 years from the date of its issue, and a new aid is required to improve hearing ability, the hearing aid benefit at full rates is to be payable.

Artificial Limbs—The free supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1956 or under the provisions of the Accident Compensation Act 1972.

  2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an approved orthopaedic surgeon.

  3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser, be satisfactorily fitted.

For the purposes of the regulations "artificial limb" includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes limb socks for such limbs and for female amputees, replacement understockings.

Orthopaedic Implants—Artificial hips and similar implants also qualify for benefit under the arrangements for artificial aids.

Wheelchairs—Manually operated wheelchairs are available through hospital boards on a free loan basis to disabled persons who require them on medical grounds. Motorised wheelchairs are the subject of a 50 percent benefit towards their cost. The balance of the cost may be assisted with grants from lottery funds.

Acrylic Artificial Eyes—A benefit of up to $50 is available to all patients who have had an eye removed on and from 22 July 1977. For adults, the benefit is available towards the cost of the initial prosthesis only. Children and young persons will also be entitled to a benefit of up to $50 towards the cost of replacement eyes prior to their sixteenth birthday.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of health benefits during five financial years.

Item1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77
 $(thousand)
Maternity Benefits—
      Medical practitioners' fees3,3643,2694,8325,1484,866
      Medical practitioners' mileage fees101101145152139
      Obstetric nurses' fees224817
 3,4673,3724,9815,3085,022
Medical benefits—
      General medical services11,82017,37819,90228,18028,394
      GMS mileage151137128125118
      Specialist medical services1,7212,1482,2532,6352,668
      Rural practice bonus and other incentives405545425587594
      Immunisation benefit127407433457496
Practice Nurse Subsidy2696491,257
 14,22520,61423,41032,63333,527
      Private practice and post-graduate grants2427382140
      Special area and other arrangements — Section 117 Social Security Act164153161152129
 189180199173169
Hospital Benefits—
      Treatment in private hospitals—maternity benefits397388368336351
      Treatment in private hospitals—medical, surgical, and Karitane7,0167,5416,7083,2614,120
      Treatment in private hospitals—geriatric benefit_2,3848,58911,728
      Treatment in approved institutions6267006878251,199
 8,0398,63010,14713,01117,398
Pharmaceutical Benefits—
      Drugs supplied—
      By chemists39,32344,39755,72768,91683,654
      By medical practitioners and Department of Health181207148164140
      To institutions and private hospitals5155626047871,057
 40,02045,16656,47969,86784,851
Supplementary Benefits—
      Dental services2,8493,1354,4045,3345,158
Laboratory services7,3557,8609,16910,72812,136
Artificial aids2124353776
Physiotherapy services2462516131,0011,238
Radiological services7881,1841,6001,7061,752
Specialist services (neurosurgery)22
 11,26212,45715,82118,80620,368
      Total77,20290,418111,037139,798161,336

WELFARE SERVICES—Government assistance is offered to religious and voluntary organisations and local authorities in providing housing, accommodation, and services for elderly people and others whom it is considered are in special need. Under this partnership with Government, the social service agencies of all the major religious bodies, as well as other welfare organisations, have established additional accommodation for the aged, frail, and sick who need residential care in either an old people's home or a geriatric hospital. Where it is not possible to meet the need of elderly people through these agencies, the provision of residential care for the aged becomes a hospital board responsibility. At 31 March 1977 religious and welfare organisations provided 7,832 home and hospital beds for the elderly. Hospital boards maintain 868 old people's home beds.

Other measures which are of importance in assisting elderly people to remain in their homes as long as possible are receiving increased attention. Chief amongst these are the provision of district nursing services, home aid, meals-on-wheels, laundry services, and occupational therapy. In general the services are provided by hospital boards with voluntary organisations and old people's welfare councils assisting in various ways. The importance of old people's clubs and social centres, with an adequate range of services, is also receiving increasing recognition. Government lottery funds are being used to assist in providing suitable premises and assisting welfare councils with administrative costs. At 31 December 1976 the number of meals delivered daily by the meals-on-wheels service was 5,022; the service is operated by 28 hospital boards.

Old People's Homes and Hospitals—Subject to maximum subsidies of $16,000 per bed for old people's homes and $19,000 for geriatric hospital beds, and certain other conditions, religious or welfare organisations providing accommodation for old people may be granted 100 percent of the approved building cost. Since October 1974, the policy has been widened to provide an 80-percent subsidy towards the cost of approved improvements and the upgrading of existing accommodation, and 100 percent for fire protection work as required by the local authority. The administration of policy is a Department of Health's responsibility.

During the year 1976–77, subsidies amounting to $6,833,761 were approved to assist in the provision of accommodation for 537 old people. From April 1950 to 31 March 1977 subsidies totalling $51,452,070 have been approved, and buildings erected as a result will accommodate 7,635 old people.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS—Over the years voluntary welfare organisations have made valuable contributions to certain aspects of the field of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from the public funds. Among the more important are the Royal N.Z. Society for the Health of Women and Children (Plunket Society), the New Zealand Red Cross Society, {he St. John Ambulance Association, the New Zealand Society for the Intellectually Handicapped, the Cancer Society, and the National Heart Foundation. A fuller list of voluntary organisations in the field of health was published in the 1976 and earlier editions of the Yearbook.

5 B—HOSPITALS

GENERAL—The Hospitals Act 1957 requires the Minister of Health to ensure the provision and maintenance by hospital boards of hospitals and hospital services and to encourage the provision and maintenance of private hospitals. The Department of Health advises the Minister on, or determines in respect of boards, the extent and standard of hospital and allied services, the building requirements to provide these services, the numbers and levels of the main groups of professional staffs to be employed, the appropriate annual financial grants, the salaries and conditions of employment of about 60 percent of staff and the measure of financial assistance to be given to private hospitals, including loan finance. The department also licenses and supervises private hospitals, inspects the work of all hospitals and compiles financial and statistical data about them. There are 29 hospital boards and 155 private hospitals.

Since 1 April 1958, the cost of hospital treatment in public hospitals has been borne entirely by the State. Private hospitals, which provide about one-sixth of the available beds, receive payment from the Government for hospital treatment of patients; additional fees may be claimed from the patients.

Hospital and home nursing services involve the Department of Health in establishing and assisting to maintain minimum standards of nursing service in general hospitals, in homes for the aged, etc., in advising, inspecting and reporting on such services in hospitals; and generally advising the Minister on nursing.

Experience has been that, generally speaking, boards, committees and councils play a most valuable part in helping to formulate health policies and programmes, and, in certain cases, in administering policies or programmes laid down by Government. The setting-up of such agencies enables the Minister and the Department of Health to draw upon expert advice and wide experience and ensures that non-departmental people with up-to-date knowledge, day-to-day working experience and responsibility in particular areas of health play a worthwhile part in health administration. A partnership of this kind is particularly important in the case of public hospitals, which are run by democratically elected boards. Recognition of this is seen in the requirements of the Hospitals Act that the Minister of Health may not act in certain public hospital matters without a recommendation from the Hospitals Advisory Council.

The department's objectives in the case of physical medicine and rehabilitation are to stimulate interest and co-ordinate treatment of diseases such as chronic arthritis, poliomyelitis, and cerebral palsy; to promote and maintain a unified rehabilitation service and to maintain and develop physiotherapy and occupational therapy services. It supervises physiotherapy and occupational therapy training, licensing and services, and supervises the provision of rehabilitation services in public hospitals. (See Section 5A.)

The welfare services involving the department include the medical and social care and general welfare of the aged. The department advises the Minister on subsidies to be paid to religious and welfare organisations which provide homes and hospital beds for the elderly, and administers legislation governing the standards and oversight of old people's homes.

HOSPITAL BOARDS—General and psychiatric hospitals are controlled by locally elected hospital boards. A hospital board of 8 to 14 members is elected every 3 years for each hospital district. It is the duty of every hospital board to provide, maintain and staff such institutions, hospital accommodation, and medical, nursing, and other services as the Minister of Health considers necessary.

In recent years there has been a pressure of activity, replanning, and development in all medical services for which hospital boards are responsible. This replanning of medical services has been undertaken against a background of sharp population increases in most urban areas. More rapid and comfortable transport is encouraging the build-up of specialist diagnostic and therapeutic resources in regional centres.

The Director-General of Health is authorised to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint assistant inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

Hospital boards are required to operate their own ambulance services unless they enter into some arrangement with a subsidised voluntary agency. In this regard the Order of St. John and organisations such as the Wellington Free Ambulance perform valuable services.

HOSPITAL ACCOMMODATION: Public Institutions—The number of beds in public institutions available at 31 March 1977 and the average number occupied dining the year are set out in the following table. These statistics relate to patients and inmates in all institutions (general, maternity, special hospitals, old people's homes, and psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals) including institutions under the control of the Department of Health.

Type of BedBeds AvailableAverage Number of Occupied Beds per Day
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
General14,9134.811,406.03.6
Maternity2,8040.91,448.10.5
Psychiatric and Psychopaedic9,5603.18,163.42.6
Total hospital beds27,2778.721,017.56.7
Non-hospital beds9480.3904.20.3
      Total28,2259.021,921.77.0

In addition to the 27,277 hospital beds in public institutions there were 4,852 (4,706 general and 146 maternity) in the 155 licensed private hospitals. If the beds in licensed private hospitals are included, the ratio of beds per 1,000 of population becomes 6.3 for general beds and 0.9 for maternity beds.

The average number of occupied hospital beds per 1,000 of population in hospital districts varies from 6.3 to 24.4. This variation can be accounted for in the main by the fact that many hospitals to a varying extent draw patients from other districts. Other factors which influence the figures are the availability of medical practitioners and their habits in sending patients to hospital or retaining them for home treatment, the availability of private-hospital beds, housing facilities, domestic assistance, private or district nursing assistance, and the efficiency of the outpatient departments.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public institutions for the year ended 31 March 1977 was 202, comprising 102 general hospitals, 64 maternity hospitals, 20 old people's homes, and 16 psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

A total of 392,930 persons were treated or maintained in public hospitals or similar institutions during the year ended 31 March 1977. This figure, which included persons in maternity beds, psychiatric and psychopaedic beds, and non-hospital beds in old people's homes but not hospital outpatients, was equivalent to 12.6 percent of the population. The 1975–76 figure was 386,395.

Outpatient attendances at public hospitals (including dental but excluding X-ray, laboratory, and pharmacy) totalled 3,250,875 during the year ended 31 March 1977, compared with 3,010,459 the previous year.

Waiting Lists—At 31 March 1977 there were 33,397 names on waiting lists for admission to public hospital, a rate of 10.67 persons per 1,000 residents.

STAFF—Non-Psychiatric and -Psychopaedic Hospitals—The number of staff employed by hospital boards in non-psychiatric and non-psychopaedic hospitals for the latest 2 years are as follows:

Category of StaffAs at 31 March
19761977
Professional staff—
      Medical1,8671,998
      Dietitians117123
      Medical laboratory workers505567
      Occupational therapists151171
      Physiotherapists351376
      Radiographers340362
      Other905914
      Social workers122148
      Nursing staff11,31911,822
      Students7,8707,489
      Clerical3,7323,784
      Domiciliary824888
      Other10,71510,747
      Total38,81839,389

Psychiatric and Psychopaedic Hospitals—The number of staff employed by hospital boards in psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals for the latest 2 years are as follows:

Category of StaffAs at 31 March
19761977
Professional staff—
      Medical123123
      Dietitians1215
      Occupational therapists5749
      Physiotherapists1518
      Radiographers12
      Other198200
      Social workers4848
      Nursing staff3,0363,065
      Students821921
      Clerical402418
      Domiciliary1420
      Other2,4872,652
      Total7,2147,531

FINANCE: Loans—Boards have been authorised by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme. The position of loan liability is set out in the following table.

YearAmount UpliftedRepayment*Balance Owing

*Includes payments from sinking funds.

 $(000)
1974–7531,69117,603179,217
1975–7641,32715,787204,376
1976–7752,76613,893242,996

Payments—Hospital board expenditure is subject to control by the Minister of Health. The sum provided by Government for public hospital maintenance expenditure is allocated to the individual hospital boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of known increases in commitments plus an allowance for normal growth. A portion of the total is, however, held in reserve, to enable special allocations to be made to boards having to meet the cost of commissioning major capital works reaching completion during the year. Additional grants are also made for general wage increases which may be approved after the basic allocation has been made. Grants for minor capital works and equipment are made to boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of price increases plus an allowance for growth. Major works over $20,000 are financed by loans raised by hospital boards, interest and principal repayments being met by Government grants.

Expenditure for both public and psychiatric hospitals is as follows:

Grants to hospital boards—1974–751975–761976–77
      Capital—$(000)$(000)$(000)
            Special capital516689349
            Health centres591533330
            Repayment of loan principal and payments to Sinking Fund13,49914,52413,723
            Works and Equipment6,9327,8188,935
 21,53823,56423,337
Operating costs—
      Basic operating costs297,739367,099422,011
      Interest on loans9,05510,17312,748
      E.D.P. reserve12412246
      Commonwealth medical co-operation scheme602140
      P.A. management consultants7154
      Special items342380339
      Special employment150227
      Special geriatric hospital patient assistance scheme14
 307,392377,999435,425
 328,929401,563458,762

PRIVATE HOSPITALS—At 31 March 1977 there were 155 licensed private hospitals, providing a total of 4,852 beds. Private hospitals are shown by type and by number of beds in the following table as at 31 March of the years stated.

Type of HospitalNumber of HospitalsLicensed Beds
197519761977197519761977

*Included with other entries.

Maternity12107102178146
Medical and surgical3636341,1771,5571,539
Medical94971032,3972,7262,934
Medical and children's (Karitane)666255210200
Maternity, medical, and surgical333466**
Psychiatric222333333
      Total1531541554,4304,7044,852

Hospital benefits are paid to patients in registered private hospitals according to the nature of the treatment given; for surgical and maternity treatment, $12 per day, and for medical (including psychiatric) treatment, $9.00 per day. A benefit for geriatric patients of $8 per day was introduced in 1974. This was increased to $11 in 1976.

The Government assists in the development of private hospitals by the provision of loan money at low interest rates. However, during 1974–75 this assistance was restricted to proposals for alteration and upgrading work. Amounts paid by way of private hospital loans during the latest 3 years were as follows: 1974–75, $167,291; 1975–76, $201,203; and 1976–77, $37,559.

PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—The total expenditure on psychiatric hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions) and particulars of receipts during 5 recent financial years are shown in the next table. This expenditure was incurred by the Department of Health until 31 March 1972, since which date psychiatric hospitals, with the exception of the Lake Alice Hospital, have become the responsibility of hospital boards.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal ExpenditureReceiptsNet ExpenditureAverage Cost per Occupied Bed
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$
197334,39712734,2693,660
197442,28943141,8584,625
197548,54080247,7385,582
197661,8161,04460,7727,381
197772,6701,35771,3139,018

PUBLIC HOSPITAL PATIENTS: Principal Diseases and Disabilities—Detailed statistical information is supplied to the Department of Health about every patient, except normal maternity cases, discharged from or dying in public hospitals in New Zealand.

The following summary shows the principal diseases and injuries treated, together with the number of deaths and the fatality rate percent of total cases, in public hospitals in 1973. The disease headings are the subtitles of the International Classification of Diseases. More detailed information is available in Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data, Health Statistics Report.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in mortality statistics. Congestive heart failure, for instance, is comparatively highly ranked in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some underlying disease, which would take precedence over congestive heart failure in the statistics of causes of death. Hospital returns show each disease for which the patient was treated while in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which the patient was admitted, regardless of what other unrelated diseases may have been present or developed during the stay in hospital. In mortality statistics, on the other hand, the underlying cause of death is of paramount importance. In the summary below a patient admitted on account of an injury is classified according to the nature of the injury. Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the injury, e.g., motor-vehicle accident, accidental fall, etc.

DISEASES AND DISABILITIES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1974 (INCLUDES READMISSIONS)

Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsDeaths in Public HospitalsFatality Rate Percent
Intestinal infectious diseases3,071230.7
Tuberculosis1,002383.8
Zoonotic bacterial diseases30
Other bacterial diseases642558.6
Poliomyelitis and other enterovirus diseases of central nervous system43320.5
Viral diseases accompanied by exanthem82120.2
Arthropod-borne viral diseases4636.5
Other viral diseases1,99180.4
Rickettsioses and other arthropod-borne diseases19
Syphilis and other venereal diseases18221.1
Other spirochaetal diseases9311.1
Mycoses9544.2
Helminthiases111
Other infective and parasitic diseases27131.1
Malignant neoplasm of buccal cavity and pharynx414368.7
Malignant neoplasm of digestive organs and peritoneum3,06787328.5
Malignant neoplasm of respiratory system2,44863325.9
Malignant neoplasm of bone, connective tissue, skin, and breast3,3052407.3
Malignant neoplasm of genito-urinary organs3,67540811.1
Malignant neoplasm of other and unspecified sites2,51662925.0
Neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue2,42328111.6
Benign neoplasms4,629140.3
Neoplasm of unspecified nature30193.0
Diseases of thyroid gland840101.2
Diseases of other endocrine glands3,2221665.2
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency491122.4
Other metabolic diseases800313.9
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs2,043462.3
Psychoses3,1301324.2
Neuroses, personality disorders, and other non-psychotic mental disorders4,848340.7
Mental retardation21931.4
Inflammatory diseases of central nervous system443419.3
Hereditary and familial diseases of nervous system160138.1
Other diseases of central nervous system3,5472346.6
Diseases of nerves and peripheral ganglia1,33170.5
Inflammatory diseases of the eye806
Other diseases and conditions of the eye4,82380.2
Diseases of the ear and mastoid process3,8541
Active rheumatic fever47830.6
Chronic rheumatic heart disease921899.7
Hypertensive disease2,0481004.9
Ischaemic heart disease10,6571,62615.3
Other forms of heart disease4,65276116.4
Cerebrovascular disease6,2932,11733.6
Diseases of arteries, arterioles and capillaries2,99846815.6
Diseases of veins and lymphatics, and other diseases of circulatory system6,8431261.8
Acute respiratory infections (except influenza)4,862130.3
Influenza36161.7
Pneumonia5,8455499.4
Bronchitis, emphysema and asthma7,7133825.0
Other diseases of upper respiratory tract9,8632
Other diseases of respiratory system1,4281037.2
Diseases of oral cavity, salivary glands, and jaws2,36120.1
Diseases of oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum3,0261324.4
Appendicitis5,802120.2
Hernia of abdominal cavity5,675330.6
Other diseases of intestine and peritoneum4,7941503.1
Diseases of liver, gall bladder, and pancreas4,9581953.9
Nephritis and nephrosis1,109978.7
Other diseases of urinary system4,293731.7
Diseases of male genital organs3,719441.2
Diseases of breast, ovary, fallopian tube, and parametrium2,927
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs11,3234
Complications of pregnancy2,418
Urinary infections and toxaemias of pregnancy and the puerperium1,231
Abortion5,3701
Delivery1,459
Complications of the puerperium625
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue3,20680.2
Other inflammatory conditions of skin and subcutaneous tissue86820.2
Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue1,56960.4
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever4,658922.0
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint5,382230.4
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system2,658130.5
Congenital anomalies6,9781792.6
Certain causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality4,0862235.5
Symptoms referable to systems or organs14,731180.1
Senility and ill-defined diseases2,5451756.9
Fracture of skull, spine, and trunk4,8891352.8
Fracture of upper limb4,068100.2
Fracture of lower limb7,2703134.3
Dislocation without fracture1,327
Sprains and strains of joints and adjacent muscles1,223
Intracranial injury (excluding those with skull fracture)8,8531111.3
Internal injury of chest, abdomen, and pelvis982707.1
Laceration and open wound of head, neck, and trunk2,00240.2
Laceration and open wound of upper limb2,755
Laceration and open wound of lower limb1,72940.2
Laceration and open wound of multiple location237
Superficial injury45330.7
Contusion and crushing with intact skin surface2,52740.2
Effects of foreign body entering through orifice97430.3
Burn1,968201.0
Injury to nerves and spinal cord51630.6
Adverse effect of medicinal agents3,471140.4
Toxic effect of substances chiefly non-medicinal as to source1,309110.8
Other adverse effects2,197211.0
Special admissions without sickness7,81680.1
      All conditions291,44112,5634.3

Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals—The average duration of stay in public hospitals in 1974 was 14.5 days. Among sufferers from specified diseases and disabilities, the longest average stays were made by those with cerebrovascular disease (72 days), followed by patients with other diseases of the nervous system (52 days), tuberculosis (47 days), and sufferers from arthritis and rheumatism (37 days).

Accident Cases—A summary is given below of accident cases treated as inpatients in public hospitals during 1974 (figures include readmissions).

Type of AccidentTotal CasesPercentage of All Accident CasesAverage Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay as Percentage of Total
Transport—
      Railway510.118.19230.1
      Motor-vehicle traffic11,33621.813.3150,67323.4
      Motor-vehicle non-traffic4710.99.44,4060.7
      Other road vehicles1,9113.76.412,1981.9
      Water1940.410.62,0510.3
      Aircraft860.112.31,0610.2
      Total transport14,04927.012.2171,31226.6
Non-transport—
      Accidental poisoning2,0964.02.04,2580.6
      Accidental falls11,87822.918.6221,45934.4
      Other accidents13,41325.88.4113,15617.6
      Total non-transport27,38752.712.4338,87352.6
Surgical and medical complications and misadventures4,1888.115.565,09010.1
Late effects of accidental injury1,7513.426.045,5397.1
Suicide and self-inflicted injury2,5784.94.812,2591.9
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons1,6963.35.49,1181.4
Legal intervention22.04
Injury undetermined whether accidentally or purposely inflicted2980.63.81,1460.2
Injury resulting from operations of war1337.14820.1
      Grand total51,962100.012.4643,823100.0

The largest group comes under the heading "Non-transport—Other accidents", which includes accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments, machinery, falling objects, fire and hot objects, and so on.

About a quarter of all accidents came in this group. The two next largest groups comprised accidental falls and motor-vehicle traffic accidents. Victims of accidental falls also had the longest aggregate stay in hospital. This was due to the long periods spent in hospital by elderly people who have sustained fractures of the femur in falls. Almost one in every four patients had been injured in a fall of some kind.

Motor-vehicle traffic accidents comprised the third largest group, and had the second largest aggregate stay. Traffic accidents on roads are analysed in tables in Section 12D Roads and Road Transport.

Accidents in the Home—A high percentage of non-transport accidents, especially those involving young children and elderly people, occur in the home. Accidents in the home in 1974 are included by type of accident in the previous section, but they are not separated out from accidents sustained elsewhere. The following table shows the number of patients discharged from, or dying, in public hospitals after treatment for accidents sustained in the home. It includes only inpatients in public hospitals; not, of course, the large numbers of home accident cases treated in outpatient departments, doctor's surgeries, and in the home itself.

Cause of AccidentTotal PatientsAggregate Duration of Stay in Hospital (Days)
Accidental poisoning by—
      Drugs and medicaments9041,942
      Petroleum products and other solvents359598
      Pesticides, fertilisers, and plant foods143279
      Noxious foodstuffs and poisonous plants78101
      Other solid and liquid substances288450
      Gases and vapours21147
Accidental falls5,176106,527
Struck by falling objects103877
Accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments1,5928,530
Accidental burns95017,431
Accidents caused by foreign bodies6091,758
All other and unspecified accidents2,30019,541
      Total12,523158,181

Deaths in Public Hospitals—The percentage of deaths in public hospitals to all deaths are shown in the following table.

YearDeaths in Public HospitalsTotal DeathsPercentage of Deaths in Public Hospitals to Total Deaths
196912,02624,16149.8
197012,29124,84049.5
197112,27324,30950.5
197212,44524,80150.2
197312,79725,31250.6
197412,56325,25449.7

Age and Sex of Patients—The age and sex of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1974 are shown below.

Age GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1 year8,8266,51015,336
1–4 years12,6388,64821,286
5–9 years10,8797,83318,712
10–14 years8,5826,47215,054
15–19 years11,27311,53022,803
20–24 years9,55613,16222,718
25–29 years6,83212,43719,269
30–34 years5,3849,85415,238
35–39 years4,9508,07713,027
40–44 years5,5587,85413,412
45–49 years6,7337,93914,672
50–54 years7,5647,80615,370
55–59 years7,8526,44714,299
60–64 years9,0987,13616,234
65–69 years8,8946,92015,814
70–74 years7,9926,46814,460
75–79 years5,0835,41110,494
80–84 years3,2564,1247,380
85 years and over2,3133,5505,863
 143,263148,178291,441

PATIENTS IN PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—Under the Mental Health Act 1969 the control of psychiatric hospitals (with the exception of Lake Alice Hospital, Marton, which will continue to make national provision for security patients) was transferred from the Department of Health to local hospital boards from 1 April 1972.

A detailed report Mental Health Data is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. The report contains administrative and clinical data about first admissions and readmissions (including replacements from leave), transfers, discharges, and deaths for all inpatients under psychiatric care. The report also presents information about psychiatric disorders in terms of age and sex, domicile, race, and length of stay.

In 1967 the statistical system was enlarged to include, in addition to people treated as inpatients in psychiatric hospitals, people treated in psychiatric inpatient units in public hospitals. The system was further enlarged in 1969 and 1972 with the inclusion of alcoholics treated in Salvation Army institutions. These developments provide more comprehensive data about treatment of people with psychiatric disorders in the community, but the greater coverage prevents strict comparability with statistical data published for earlier years.

At the end of 1974 there were 9,824 people on the registers of psychiatric hospitals of the Department of Health, 184 in psychiatric units of public hospitals, and 180 in Salvation Army institutions, a total of 10,188. There were 13,128 registrations during the year (excluding transfers and changes of status), of which 10,807 or 82 percent were voluntary patients. The average number of occupied psychiatric hospital beds was 8,930, which was 210 fewer than in 1973. The average number of resident patients per 100,000 mean population has declined steadily over the last 30 years.

The following table gives the annual averages and the rates per 100,000 mean population for those in psychiatric hospitals and public hospitals. Final summary figures for 1975 and provisional figures for 1976 are included. More detailed figures for these years were not available at the time of going to press.

YearResident in Psychiatric HospitalOn Leave from Psychiatric HospitalTotal for Psychiatric HospitalsPatients in Public Hospitals
Average NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRate

*Provisional.

All Patients
19729,398322.6x1,49851.410,896374.01625.6
19739,140307.7x1,65855.8x10,798363.5x1635.5
19748,930294.5x1,80159.4x10,731353.9x1846.0
19758,475274.51,70955.410,184329.9....
1976*8,171262.21,80557.99,976320.1....

First Admissions—In 1974 there were 3,190 first admissions (1,764 male and 1,426 female) to psychiatric hospitals, 1,767 (629 male. 1,138 female) to psychiatric inpatient units, and 35 males to Salvation Army institutions, a total of 4,992. The number of informal patients (4,141) exceeded the number of non-voluntary patients (851) by more than five to one.

First admissions to psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals during 1975 and 1976 totalled 3,165 and 3,117 for the respective years. Readmissions totalled 6,002 in 1975 and 6,107 in 1976.

The numbers and rates per 100,000 of mean population of patients in psychiatric care are shown in the following table.

YearsInformal PatientsNon-Voluntary PatientsAll Patients
TotalRateTotalRateTotalRate

*Average over 5 years.

NOTES—Since 1967 the figures include psychiatric inpatients in public hospitals. The figures from 1969 include patients in Rotoroa Sanatorium and the figures from 1972 include those in The Bridge in Wellington.

1965–69*3,626133.397635.94,602169.2
19704,127146.486930.84,996177.2
19713,869135.180328.04,672163.1
19724,035138.486529.74,900168.0
19734,370146.785928.85,229175.5
19744,141136.085128.04,992164.0

Admissions to psychiatric hospitals for alcoholism and drug addiction under the Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act 1966 are shown in the following table. The 1975 figures are provisional.

HospitalSection 8Section 9Total
197419751974197519741975

*Figures include Carrington.

Oakley*61394882109121
Kingseat422857329960
Tokanui162331264749
Porirua71135154226
Sunnyside7912181927
Cherry Farm132417123036
 146134200185346319
Rotoroa443917146153
The Bridge (Wellington)16138152428
      Total206186225214431400

Readmissions are not included in the above table.

Admissions under section 8 of the Act are made as a result of applications from the patients themselves; applications under section 9 are a result of applications made on the patients' behalves by reputable persons. Rotorua Sanatorium and The Bridge., Wellington, are conducted by the Salvation Army.

General Trend—The average number of occupied beds in psychiatric hospitals in 1976 was about 2.6 per thousand of population. This is the lowest figure recorded since 1907. No absolute conclusions can be drawn from a low bed-occupancy rate; but a consistently falling rate, despite substantial admission rates, can fairly be assumed to indicate an active philosophy of treatment and successful therapeutic programmes.

Diagnosis—The three leading diagnoses in 1974 were: depressive neurosis, 812 cases; alcoholism (all forms), 686 cases; and schizophrenia and paranoid states, 611 cases. These three diagnoses accounted for 42.2 percent of first admissions.

Readmissions—A readmission is a person admitted as an inpatient for psychiatric care who has previously received psychiatric care in a New Zealand hospital.

Readmission rate is not necessarily an indication of therapeutic failure and may in many respects be a more accurate index of therapeutic vigour. It is still possible to encounter grossly over-simplified ideas with regard to the operations of psychiatric hospitals. For example it is sometimes' assumed that discharge from hospital is, or should be, an indication of final and complete cure.

In certain respects the long-established practice of publishing readmission rates for psychiatric hospitals (no similar figures appear for general hospitals) seem to perpetuate this misconception. Readmission figures are sometimes quoted as evidence that psychiatric hospitals "do not actually cure people." As with many other types of illness psychiatric disorders may require more than one hospital admission before the condition is stabilised.

Discharges—There are three principal ways of being discharged from psychiatric hospital: (a) outright discharge, which means being formally discharged at the time of leaving hospital; (b) discharge on leave; and (c) discharged "not committed", which means being discharged from a psychiatric hospital on the grounds that the patient's mental condition does not warrant his being detained. All people discharged from a psychiatric unit of a public hospital are discharged outright.

There were 14,048 discharges in 1974. Of these, 11,332 were outright discharges, 2,359 were discharges on leave, and 357 were discharged "not committed".

The principal diagnoses were: schizophrenia and paranoid states, 2,930 cases; all forms of alcoholism, 2,437 cases; and depressive psychosis, 1,629 cases.

Outright discharges from psychiatric hospitals in 1975 totalled 7,189 and in 1976, 7,082.

Duration of Stay—Over half (56.7 percent) of those discharged left hospital within a month of admission, 27.0 percent left in the next 2 months, and a further 7.5 percent were discharged in the subsequent 3 months. The average stay of all discharges was 30 weeks.

Numbers and rates of first admissions, readmissions, and discharges of patients under psychiatric care during 1974 are shown by diagnosis in the following table.

DiagnosisFirst AdmissionsReadmissionsDischarges
No.Rate*No.Rate*OutrightLeaveNot CommittedTotal

*Per million of mean population.

Senile and pre-senile dementia2558410835134381173
Alcoholic psychosis752513444118584180
Other organic psychoses20868255842791123394
Schizophrenia and paranoid states6112012,2687451,942970182,930
Depressive psychosis5801911,0223361,51610941,629
Other functional psychoses224747032317341696909
Depressive neurosis8122678212701,5383761,581
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders2407919765430144448
Alcoholism6112011,6965571,830407202,257
Other personality disorders5601849893251,1991611681,528
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children22975135443192313355
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition1043412541151438202
Mental retardation26687894294882217101,109
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)2177115049260192353
      All cases4,9921,6409,4973,12011,3322,35935714,048

Deaths—In 1974 there were 539 deaths in psychiatric hospitals, and in psychiatric units of public hospitals. In addition 71 died while on leave.

The principal diagnosis was senile and pre-senile dementia, 179 cases. Next were schizophrenia and paranoid states, 86 cases, and mental retardation, 83 cases.

In 1974, 70 people died during the first month in hospital, and a further 63 deaths occurred in people who had been in hospital for over 1 month but under 3 months.

The total of deaths in psychiatric hospitals in 1975 was 509, and the provisional total for 1976, 474.

5 C—HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS OF NEW ZEALAND CHILDREN

GENERAL—In recent years increased interest has been shown in the heights and weights of New Zealanders—adults as well as children. Medical and health experts have formed the impression that the heights of persons in New Zealand have increased significantly over the past 50 years. It is likely that weights have also increased.

Most recent New Zealand figures certainly show that the above impression is justified, at least as far as school children are concerned. They also show that maturity judged by the development of secondary sex characteristics in both male and female children occurs on the average at an earlier age.

Surveys of the heights and weights of primary school children in New Zealand were made in 1913, 1925, 1934, 1954, and (most recently) in 1969. In 1973, for the first time, a survey was made of the development of pre-school children.

The various surveys of New Zealand school children have revealed a pattern of growth similar to that of children in other developed countries. The growth spurt appears between 11 and 12 years in girls and between 12 and 14 years in boys, and in both sexes is associated with early maturation. It is probable that in line with other countries the development of secondary sex characteristics are occurring earlier than in past years. Causes of earlier physical development are likely to have been multifactorial and to include better housing and education, improved nutritional standards, fewer debilitating diseases, and the effects of measures taken to prevent deficiency diseases.

New Zealand figures suggest that significant changes in height, which have been a feature of the past half-century, will not continue. There is reason to believe that the continued weight increases are indicative of an emerging problem of overweight for height at all ages. This suggests that in New Zealand obesity may become the main nutritional problem. In view of its relationship to cardiovascular and other diseases in the adult, obesity requires greater attention when the health and physical development of New Zealand children are considered.

PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN—In early 1973 the Department of Health joined with the Plunket Society in the first national survey of the growth and development of pre-school children. Supine height, weight, chest, and head circumferences were measured. The age groupings as plotted consisted of one group for each month in the first year of life, and one group for each quarter year of life, and one group for each quarter year following. The sample consisted of 4,951 girls (of whom 570 were Maoris and 114 Pacific Islanders.) and 5,161 boys (of whom 593 were Maoris and 123 Pacific Islanders).

The following table shows smoothed mean measurements for New Zealand pre-school children in 1973.

AgeLengthWeightChestHead
YearMonthBoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirls
  cmkgcmcm
056.0555.624.804.6437.2436.7338.6238.02
0257.7457.155.245.0138.4337.7339.4938.89
0361.2660.056.145.7340.2939.2741.0540.17
0464.3462.526.986.4041.7340.5242.3541.23
0566.4164.547.677.0442.9341.6543.4442.24
0668.0866.318.257.6443.9842.7544.3243.10
0769.6267.928.758.1444.9443.7245.0443.82
0871.0869.449.198.5545.7544.5245.6744.44
0972.4770.889.588.8946.4245.1846.1944.96
01073.8072.259.939.2046.9745.7246.6445.40
01175.0873.5410.259.4847.4446.1647.0445.78
1076.3274.7810.549.7447.8346.5247.3946.12
1379.7478.2111.2910.4548.7647.3448.2046.91
1682.8081.3111.9111.0849.4748.0048.7947.52
1985.5684.1612.4511.6850.0548.5849.2348.00
2088.0786.7412.9212.2450.5549.1549.5948.41
2390.3689.1213.3812.7951.0349.7049.9148.74
2692.4991.3313.8813.3351.4950.2450.1949.04
2994.4693.4114.3813.8551.9450.7550.4149.29
3096.3495.4014.8714.3952.3951.2450.6449.52
3398.1397.3115.3514.9152.8551.7350.8449.72
3699.9099.1615.8315.4253.2952.2051.0249.90
39101.63100.9316.3215.9253.7252.6751.1950.06
40103.39102.6916.8016.4254.1253.0951.3550.25
43105.13104.4017.2816.9254.5053.5051.5050.36
46106.84106.0817.7817.4354.8753.9051.6450.49
49108.49107.7618.3517.9755.2154.2851.7850.61
50110.09109.3818.9318.5555.5454.6451.8950.72

The growth patterns for length, as indicated by the quarterly increments, showed for both boys and girls a very rapid growth in the first year followed by a gradual de to approximately 1 centimetre per quarter, the rate of growth which was maintained for the remainder of the child's early years until the growth spurt at the onset of puberty.

The pattern of growth for weight resembled that for length, a swift increase declining in rate to about 2 to 3 kilograms per year. This rate of gain stayed fairly constant from just under 2 years of age until the age of 3 to 9 years.

As a general statement, it can be said that the pattern of physical development of pre-school children in New Zealand is virtually identical with that observed in children in affluent communities in other countries. Most authorities now agree that little difference exists between the height-weight patterns of well-nourished children regardless of their ethnic origins.

A comprehensive report on this 1973 survey has been published by the Department of Health in its special report series under the title Growth of New Zealand Pre-School Children.

PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN—Each successive survey of primary school children has shown general increases over the preceding survey in heights and weights at all ages, in some decades more marked than others. The 1969 survey shows that the very marked gain in both heights and weights which occurred between 1934 and 1954 now tends to be slowing down, especially at the lower age levels, although a significant gain in weights at the higher age levels still seems to be continuing. In the 1969 survey the total number of school children included in the sample was 24,852, taken from 19 health districts in proportion to the populations of the districts. Approximately equal numbers, about 2,000, were sampled from each age group from 5 to 15 years. Roughly one-sixth of the children were Maoris and five-sixths were, in the main, Europeans but included small numbers of Indians, Chinese, Samoans and other Pacific Islanders of the same Polynesian stock as the Maoris themselves. The number of Maoris was chosen again in relation to the total Maori population in each district.

As previous surveys had shown little significance in the difference of heights and weights between urban areas and rural districts no attempt was made during the 1969 survey to obtain separate figures for geographical groupings although, in selecting schools, allowance was made in the choice of as not to overload the figures in the direction of either urban, rural, or socio-economic groups.

Information from the surveys is related in the following tables.

MEAN HEIGHTS (cm)

Average Age (Years)19131925193419541969
BoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirls

NOTE: 1934 values are converted from whole inches.

5    109.2109.2    
      112.75111.68112.23111.51
6112.1112.6  114.3114.3    
      118.72117.81118.34117.61
7117.8117.4  119.4119.4    
      124.61123.60124.62123.87
8123.8123.4  124.5124.5    
      130.20129.03130.09128.87
9128.7131.1  129.5129.5    
      135.31134.42135.27134.28
10132.5132.5134.2134.4134.6134.6    
10½  136.8135.8  140.46140.31140.10140.03
11136.5136.7138.9138.2137.2139.7    
11½  141.0141.0  145.03146.35145.38147.66
12141.1141.8142.5143.9144.8144.8    
12½  144.5147.6  150.47152.48151.26152.95
13145.6148.0146.8150.1149.9149.9    
13½  149.4151.9  156.79156.92157.48158.02
14150.6152.1151.9153.8154.9154.9    
14½  154.4155.7  162.94159.51164.56160.45
15155.2152.6  157.5157.5    
15½      168.00161.16169.18162.21

MEAN WEIGHTS (kg)

Average Age (Years)19131925193419541969
BoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirls

NOTE: 1934 values are converted from whole pounds.

5    19.118.6    
      20.7220.0620.3319.93
620.420.7  20.920.4    
      22.9222.4822.6422.30
722.422.1  22.722.2    
      25.4625.0225.3525.30
824.824.3  24.924.5    
      28.1327.8128.2227.73
927.126.6  27.727.2    
      31.3230.9830.8730.77
1028.928.630.129.529.929.5    
10½  31.430.4  34.4934.9633.9734.60
1131.431.432.632.232.733.1    
11½  33.433.7  37.4939.3737.8840.49
1234.234.634.735.935.437.2    
12½  36.238.4  41.7344.6442.3745.05
1337.639.938.140.939.942.6    
13½  39.842.9  47.0249.8547.9350.69
1442.743.441.945.344.045.8    
14½  44.047.4  53.2854.3354.5254.55
1545.445.5  46.749.0    
15½      58.6756.6560.1358.16

A detailed report on the 1969 survey was published in the special report series of the Department of Health entitled Physical Development of New Zealand School Children 1969.

International Comparison—In the following table New Zealand figures of height are set alongside those of other national surveys. A similar comparison of weights was given in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

In height New Zealand school children of 1969 compared very closely with Canadian children of the same year; the only marked difference was that New Zealand girls weighed consistently more than their Canadian counterparts. American children in 1963 do not appear to have differed greatly in height from New Zealand children in 1969, but were heavier, the difference being greater in boys. Comparison with the United Kingdom 1965 figures showed only slight differences in weight but New Zealand girls tended to be heavier.

The results of surveys will be affected to some extent by the time of the year at which they were made; growth in height is greater in the spring whereas weight tends to show a spurt in the autumn months.

Average Age (Years)BoysGirls
U.S. 1963Canada 1969N.Z. 1969U.K. 1965U.S. 1963Canada 1969N.Z. 1969U.K. 1965

NOTE: New Zealand figures are interpolated median heights.

Source: Department of Health

Median Height (Inches)
646.045.045.445.045.545.045.144.6
748.547.547.847.548.047.047.546.9
850.749.550.149.550.149.049.749.1
952.851.552.251.852.351.551.751.3
1054.654.054.253.754.553.553.853.6
1156.556.056.255.856.557.556.556.0
1258.558.058.358.059.058.559.258.5
1360.860.560.760.361.661.061.361.0
1463.663.563.562.963.062.562.762.8
1565.966.065.965.963.763.063.563.6

Chapter 7. Section 6 SOCIAL WELFARE

6 A—SOCIAL WELFARE AND SOCIAL WORK

GENERAL—Social services and the whole concept of state-supported or state-subsidised social welfare are continually evolving in response to the changing needs of society and the greater recognition of the responsibilities of that society towards its less-fortunate or more-vulnerable members.

The New Zealand social welfare system has grown pragmatically to meet local needs, and in the light of local experience, rather than under the influence of social or political theories. Even the 1938 Social Security Act, rightly regarded as a landmark in the history of social welfare in New Zealand, did not introduce any sweeping theoretical changes, and since then ideas have been refined and enlarged rather than radically altered.

Nowadays the Department of Social Welfare, formed in 1972 from an amalgamation of the Social Security Department and the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education, is the main Government agency in this field.

Also involved in social welfare are the Departments of Health, Education, Justice, Labour, and Maori Affairs.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are to:

  1. Administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Children and Young Persons Act 1974; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; the Rehabilitation Act 1941; and the Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies for New Zealand.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities in Government or voluntary organisations.

  5. Maintain close liaison with and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among any organisations and individuals (including departments of State and other agencies of the Crown) engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

  7. Provide administrative services to boards, councils, committees, and agencies.

The objects of the department's administrative services are to provide such administrative support, advisory, training, and research services as necessary for the efficient and effective administration of the department's functions. The department is a principal adviser to Government on matters of social welfare policy. It also has particular responsibilities to private and voluntary organisations. Units with special responsibilities for liaison with such organisations and for publicity and information have been established so that the public are kept abreast of developments.

The objectives of the policy for benefits and pensions are:

  1. To safeguard individuals in the community against loss of income or reduction in income brought about by age, incapacity, widowhood, orphanhood, unemployment or other circumstances by providing income security at a level which will enable them to belong and participate in the community; and benefits for children as a contribution towards their maintenance.

  2. To provide assistance towards housing finance for families of moderate means by way of an advance of family benefit.

  3. To provide additional benefits for those whose income and financial resources are insufficient to meet their living costs and other commitments.

  4. To provide pensions on the death or disablement of members of the forces as recompense for physical loss, at a level reviewed and set each year at 1 April in accordance with movements in the Consumers Price Index; and to provide other allowances and concessions according to the nature and extent of disablement.

  5. To provide and maintain a service to ensure the rehabilitation and resettlement in civil life of former members of the forces.

The objectives of the policy for social work services are:

  1. To make better provision for the maintenance, care, and control of children who are under the protection of the State and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, maltreated, and delinquent children.

  2. To establish and maintain institutions, or arrange foster homes, for the care and control of children committed to the guardianship of the State.

  3. To promote and maintain a preventive work, social work, and general counselling service for persons and families facing social and economic difficulties.

  4. To promote and maintain an effective rehabilitation service to ensure that disabled persons are given encouragement, counselling, and assistance to restore them to a fuller and more meaningful life.

The social work services involve individual and family casework and general welfare work. Emphasis is given to the care and control of children including those with emotional or behavioural problems.

The residential programme includes the inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and the licensing and supervision of child care centres in order to ensure satisfactory standards are maintained. This division also has a responsibility for children in licensed foster homes.

Added emphasis is to be given in the programme to the rehabilitation of disabled persons. Coordination with other agencies which also have responsibilities in this work, such as the Department of Health and Department of Labour, is achieved through representation of the department on the National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, which also acts as an advisory body to Government on rehabilitation.

MAIN FEATURES OF SOCIAL WELFARE SYSTEM—The present system cannot be characterised according to any single principle, theory, or formula. As already stated, it has evolved from changing needs and experience in dealing with them. For example, it looks like a form of community insurance, but is not financed, funded, or administered on an insurance basis. It is financed from general taxation; but a person's benefit bears no relation to his tax contribution. While basically income-tested and selective as to need within classes of benefit, it is also universally applied without regard to other income or means in three main cases (national superannuation, family, and medical benefits) and in the lesser miners' benefit. It transfers income from the more to the less affluent mainly on the basis of greatest help for those in greatest, need. It reflects the traditional humanitarian, egalitarian, and pragmatic approach of New Zealanders and, most importantly, reflects an acceptance of community responsibility for social welfare. The main features of the system are:

  1. Eligibility for benefits (other than emergency) is based on residence for varying qualifying periods and not on the amount of tax paid.

  2. Benefits (other than family, miners', national superannuation, and medical benefits) are subject to an income test with the amount of benefit being reduced if other income is over a prescribed level. Emergency benefits and additional benefits are subject to tests of both income and property.

  3. In paying national superannuation and family benefit without any tests of income or need it is assumed that for everybody over 60 years of age, and for all families with dependent children, a community-financed income supplement is necessary and desirable, irrespective of actual financial need or resources. Miners' benefit is not income tested, on the accepted assumption that if a person is disabled by disease arising from mining he needs to be compensated for losing income and enjoyment of life and that the income loss does not require to be established or tested.

  4. The concept of the family as the fundamental economic and social unit is recognised by the payments made in respect of the otherwise ineligible but dependent wife and children of a beneficiary; and the taking into account of the income of the husband or wife (legal or de facto) of a beneficiary when assessing the amount of those benefits subject to an income test.

  5. Contribution under a graduated income tax system and payment of benefits at a flat rate irrespective of contributions (that is, taxes paid) distinguishes the New Zealand system from many of those of other countries.

  6. The cash and medical benefits give a comprehensive coverage of need.

  7. Beneficiaries are given incentives to self-help and to work. From the start, amounts payable from standard benefits have been set below the average wages of low-earner groups; and small incomes, and most property, have been disregarded in assessing an individual's benefit. Conversely, national superannuation for people over 60 years, and the benefits for widows and domestic purposes beneficiaries with dependent children, or over a prescribed age, recognise these people's right to stop working if they want to.

  8. Funding is through taxation. The right to "contract out" on the grounds that the individual may not need, or qualify for, public aid is denied in the community interest, as it is with other State services such as education, defence, police.

  9. The Social Security Commission has wide discretionary power to grant, withhold, or reduce benefits, and a general power of direction is given to the Ministers of Health and Social Welfare.

  10. With certain exceptions no person is entitled to more than one analogous benefit from either New Zealand or overseas.

  11. Standard rates with supplements, rather than differential rates according to the class of benefit, relate benefits to need rather than to the cause of need.

ADMINISTRATION—The Social Security Commission in the Department of Social Welfare administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Welfare, Part I of the Social Security-Act 1964 dealing with cash benefits, while matters concerning medical, hospital, and other related benefits are administered by the Department of Health under the direction of the Minister of Health (see Section 5A).

The War Pensions Act 1954 is also administered by the Department of Social Welfare, which likewise handles ex-servicemen's rehabilitation.

Child welfare activities are governed by the Children and Young Persons Act and other legislation detailed later in this section.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS—From 1 April 1964, when the Social Security Fund was absorbed into the Consolidated Revenue Account, the payment of medical benefits has been made by the Department of Health from money appropriated by Parliament for this purpose. From 1 April 1958, the cost of public hospital administration has been borne directly by general taxation; treatment in public hospitals is free. Details of medical benefits are set out in Section 5A—Health and Medical Services.

Payments—The New Zealand system has developed the following types of social security assistance.

Cash benefits as of right for those eligible by category, residence, and income, paid at flat standard rates (plus allowance for dependants) without regard to taxes paid.

Emergency benefits for those who need help but who are not, for any reason, eligible for standard benefits.

Additional benefit is available to beneficiaries who have limited income and assets.

Medical and pharmaceutical benefits for all members of the community; free public and subsidised private hospital care.

Universally applied benefits (with no means test) for dependent children, and for those over 65 years of age.

Particulars of payments under the Social Security Act during the last 5 financial years are contained in the following table.

Item1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77

*A considerable number of superannuation beneficiaries transferred to age benefits during the year following changes in tax law for those over 65 years of age.

†Expenditure for emergency benefit now included in expenditure for related benefit.

‡Expenditure on additional benefit, which replaced supplementary assistance from July 1975, is included with expenditure for the related standard benefit.

§National superannuation came into effect from 9 February 1977. The amount shown is for the period 9 February to 31 March 1977. Expenditure on superannuation and age benefits which were replaced by National superannuation is for the period 1 April 1976 to 8 February 1977.

Cash benefits— $(thousand)   
      National superannuation§114,980
      Superannuation133,236*135,681140,950165,781159,432
      Age115,840*169,583224,853311,795326,879
      Widows21,15824,82127,96734,42839,045
      Domestic purposes30,15648,90380,774
      Orphans235295381400516
      Family128,733160,103153,175164,695156,614
      Invalids9,83011,71013,66518,14623,130
      Miners9392848597
      Unemployment5,0343,4625,1558,49313,429
      Sickness11,36514,59015,88618,46724,414
      Emergency14,12519,526
      Benefit on death2,5983,954
Supplementary assistance4,1513,9125,4202,045
Advances for repairs to homes71101180276272
Aid to families caring for disabled persons8164
Employment subsidy for disabled civilians84632
Capitalisation of family benefit6,3327,1146,3298,1614,770
       Total cash benefits450,211550,994624,207784,284948,472
Health benefits-
      Maternity3,4673,3724,9815,3085,022
      Medical14,41320,79523,60932,80633,697
      Hospital8,0398,63010,14713,01117,398
      Pharmaceutical40,02045,16656,47969,86784,851
      Supplementary11,26212,45715,82018,80520,368
       Total medical benefits77,20290,418111,037139,798161,336

About one-half of the total expenditure on cash benefits (including supplementary assistance advances for repairs to homes, and employment subsidy for disabled civilians) is paid without an income test.

The following table summarises social welfare expenditure according to type of benefit and per head of mean population, and also relates expenditure to national income.

Year Ended 31 MarchNational Income at Factor CostExpenditure*
Health BenefitsFamily BenefitsOther BenefitsTotalPer Head of Mean Population

*Excluding capitalised family benefits.

$(million)$
Amount 
19736,48177.2128.7315.1521.0177.98x
19747,514x90.4160.1383.7634.3212.40x
19758,184111.0153.2464.7728.9239.22x
19769,541x139.8164.7611.4915.9295.70x
197711,149161.3156.6787.11,105.0354.10
Percentage of Expenditure to National Income 
1973...1.22.04.98.0...
1974...1.22.15.18.5...
1975...1.41.95.78.9...
1976...1.51.7x6.4x9.6x...
1977...1.41.47.19.9...

Government expenditure on social services (including health and education) is shown in relation to total Government expenditure in a table in the Statistical Summary at the back of this Yearbook.

Benefits and Pensions in Force—The total number of persons in respect of whom social welfare cash benefits were payable at 31 March 1977 was 903,647. Particulars of the various social welfare benefits in force at 31 March for the 5 latest years were as follows:

Class of Benefit19731974197519761977

*About 25,000 superannuation beneficiaries transferred to age benefit during the year following changes in tax law for those over 65 years of age.

†Figures for emergency benefit now included with related benefit.

‡Supplementary assistance was replaced by additional benefit from 2 July 1975. Figures are included with related benefits.

§Replaced by national superannuation from 9 February 1977.

National superannuation371,697
Superannuation126,581*119,025114,834111,738§
Age140,719*160,137174,514188,459§
Widows'16,96216,85416,73816,72616,211
Domestic purposes17,23123,04728,401
Orphans'316387376411420
Family429,804445,040452,389463,006464,156
Invalids'8,8429,1309,4149,91710,707
Miners'6652454137
Unemployment7824832,8945,1273,651
Sickness8,1627,3057,8309,0778,367
Emergency11,36714,661
Supplementary assistance17,76418,26019,480
       Total762,365791,334815,745827,549903,647

Relationship to Wages—In the following table, based on one compiled originally for the Royal Commission on Social Security 1972, standard weekly benefit rates are related to nominal award wages and average weekly earnings.

YearStandard Benefit Rate*Percentage of Nominal Award WagePercentage of Average Weekly Earnings
UnmarriedMarriedUnmarried BenefitMarried BenefitUnmarried BenefitMarried Benefit

*Standard rate includes widows', miners', invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits (except that a lesser rate is payable to unmarried invalids and sickness beneficiaries under 18 years and unemployment beneficiaries under 20 years).

†Relates to adult males only and is the average of a comprehensive survey of the wages of occupational groups used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index compiled by the Department of Statistics. The average is determined after occupations are "weighted" according to their relative importance in the survey.

‡In the half-yearly survey, weekly wage payout and hourly earnings relate to all employees, males and females, adult and juvenile combined. Salaried executives are included but no working proprietors. Earnings include overtime, bonuses, and all allowances and special payments.

 $$%%%%
197323.7039.5032.954.731.652.7
197426.8544.7032.654.430.350.5
197530.7551.2632.954.932.153.5
197636.2260.3634.2x56.9x33.656.0
197741.3068.8434.657.633.856.3

CASH BENEFITS—The rates of benefits have been increased from time to time, mainly as a result of the increased cost of living. More recent increases for age, invalids', widows', and miners' benefits are shown in the following table.

Date of IncreaseAmount of Increase per Week
Married CouplesUnmarried Beneficiaries

*Does not include age benefit. This was replaced by national superannuation from 9 February 1977.

 $$
15 Jan 19753.201.90
2 Jul 19753.362.00
14 Jan 19764.072.45
28 Jul 19765.043.02
12 Jan 9773.64*2.18*
27 Jul 19774.84*2.90*
11 Jan 19784.96*2.98*

The list below gives a summary of the weekly rates for cash benefits. The term Unmarried includes those widowed or divorced. Later rates are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

BenefitWeekly Rate
12 Jan 197727 Jul 197711 Jan 1978
Invalids* and Sickness*—
Unmarried—$$$
      18 and over38.4041.3044.28
      Under 18 without dependants29.3031.5033.75
Married-
      Husband or wife separately32.0034.4236.90
      Husband (wife included)64.0068.8473.80
Widows*38.4041.3044.28
Domestic purposes—
      Solo parent or woman alone38.4041.3044.28
      Caring for sick or infirm—
      Unmarried and 18 or over38.4041.3044.28
      Unmarried and under 1829.3031.5033.75
      Married32.0034.4236.90
Unemployment*—
      Unmarried person—
      Twenty years and over38.4041.3044.28
      Under 20 years without dependants29.3031.5033.75
      Married man (wife included)64.0068.8473.80
*Any Of The Above Benefits With Dependent Children
      Solo parent and 1 child61.0065.8470.80
      Solo parent and 2 children64.0068.8473.80
      Increased by $65 a year ($1.25 p.w.) for each subsequent child
      Married couple with 1 child67.0071.8476.80
      Increased by $65 a year ($1.25 p.w.) for each subsequent child
Miners—
      Unmarried person38.4041.3044.28
      Married man (wife included)64.0068.8473.80
      Miner's widow36.8039.7042.68
Orphans19.2020.6022.05
Family—
      Each dependent child3.003.003.00

Additional benefit is available to beneficiaries with limited incomes and assets and may include an allowance in respect of accommodation costs and any special needs. Emergency Benefits—According to circumstances.

National superannuation(9 Feb 1977)(18 Aug 1977)(2 Mar 1978)
 $$$

†National superannuation is not subject to an income test but is taxable.

Married person38.4241.3644.00
Single person46.1049.6453.28
Married couple76.8482.7288.00

Standard Hospital Rate—The usual rate of benefit for a person whose benefit is reduced while in hospital is $9.00 a week for the first 13 weeks, then a reduction to $4.50 a week, but this may be increased if necessary to meet continuing expenses.

Basic Income Exemptions—Family and miners benefits are paid regardless of the financial circumstances of the beneficiary. National superannuation is not subject to an income test but is taxable. Other benefits are reduced if the income of the beneficiary and spouse is more than the income exemption. The basic income exemptions at the end of 1977 were as follows:

Widows Benefit and Domestic Purposes Benefit for solo parents and women alone—$884 a year increased to $1,092 a year if the applicant has a dependent child.

Invalids Benefit and Domestic Purposes Benefit for person caring for sick or infirm—$884 a year. Sickness and Unemployment Benefits—$17 a week (but see below regarding unemployment benefits and personal earnings).

Orphans Benefit—$260 a year.

Adjustment of Benefit for Income Above Exemption—Invalids, widows, and domestic purposes benefits are reduced by $1 for every complete $2 a year of income over the appropriate income exemption and up to $1,300 a year, then $3 for every $4 a year.

Sickness benefits are reduced by 10c for every 20c over $17 a week up to $25 a week, then 15c for every 20c a week of income.

Unemployment benefits are reduced by 10c for every 10c of personal earnings in excess of $10 a week. The first $10 a week of personal earnings (if any) is added to other income and the benefits are reduced by 10c for every 20c of other income over $17 a week up to $25 a week, then 15c for every 20c a week.

Orphans benefits are reduced by $3 for every complete $4 a year of income over $260 a year.

National Superannuation—National superannuation, for persons aged 60 or over, replaced age and superannuation benefits from 9 February 1977. It is subject to a 10-years residence test and is taxable, but is not subject to an income test unless payment is claimed for unqualified spouse. There are no special contributions required as national superannuation is financed from ordinary government revenue.

The rates of national superannuation represent a percentage of the average ordinary-time weekly wage. At the introduction of the scheme on 9 February 1977 the rate was 70 percent of the average ordinary-time weekly wage, rising to 80 percent from 30 August 1978. The single rate is 60 percent of the married rate. Rates are adjusted every 6 months in line with the results of a survey carried out by the Department of Labour. The review dates for national superannuation are different from those for other social welfare benefits.

Widows' Benefits—Subject to an income qualification every widow who is the mother of one or more dependent children under 16 years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of a dependent child under 16 years of age who satisfies certain conditions is also entitled to the benefit.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' benefits in force at 31 March 1977, according to the number of dependent children. (Deserted wives (711) are also included.)

Number of Dependent ChildrenWidows' Benefits
Nil10,003
13,077
21,720
3809
4345
5 or more257
Total16,211

Domestic Purposes Benefits—Persons who qualify for domestic purposes benefit are:

  1. A woman with a dependent child or children who is living apart from and has lost the support of or is inadequately maintained by her husband, or who is divorced from her husband, or whose husband is a prisoner;

  2. An unmarried mother of one or more dependent children;

  3. A father of one or more dependent children who has lost his wife by death, divorce or some other cause.

  4. Women without dependent children who come within the definition of "a woman alone", which is a woman who has never been married or who has lost the support of her husband, and who has cared for dependent children or for incapacitated relatives.

  5. Other persons qualifying for the domestic purposes benefit are those required to give full time care and attention at home to a person who would otherwise have been admitted to hospital.

In the case of both a solo parent and a woman alone de facto marriages are considered as marriages.

Orphans' Benefits—A benefit in respect of orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under 16 years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was ordinarily resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than 3 years preceding the date of his or her death.

The number of benefits in force at 31 March 1977 was 420 (in respect of 499 children).

Family Benefits—The rate of the benefit is $3 a week for each child, until he or she reaches 16 years, or, if a full-time school pupil, the end of the year in which 18 years is reached.

A family benefit or portion of a family benefit may be paid in a lump sum in advance for a period not exceeding 52 weeks in respect of the first child or a child who has commenced his first year of intermediate or secondary education.

A family benefit may be paid in cash, or to the credit of the Post Office Savings Bank account of the mother. The number of family benefits being paid to Post Office Savings Bank accounts at 31 March 1977 was 220,690. The total number of benefits in force at 31 March 1977 was 464,156 covering 1,031,499 children, compared with corresponding figures of 463,006 and 1,040,525 at 31 March 1976. At the end of the 1976 school year there were 83,700 children over 16 at school in respect of whom benefits were being paid.

The average number of children in respect of whom benefits were paid was 2.22 per family at 31 March 1977.

Under the provisions of the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964, family benefits; may be capitalised and paid in advance to assist parents with the erection or purchase of house properties, whether previously occupied or not, additions or alterations to existing homes, or in certain circumstances the repayment of mortgages and other obligations on family homes. In outline, the measure provides for the capitalisation of up to $1.50 of the weekly family benefit in respect of each of one or more children from the age of 1 year up to the age of 16 years, provided that the total of the advance or advances in the case of any one family is not less than $400 nor more than $2,000. The maximum income limit for eligibility is $95 a week for a family with one child, rising by $5 a week for each additional child.

Details of family benefit capitalisation in recent years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchApplications for Capitalisation ApprovedCapitalised Value of Benefits
  $(000)
19737,1656,332
19745,9807,114
19756,5656,329
19767,8168,161
19772,6634,770

Invalids' Benefits—An invalids' benefit is payable if a person is—(a) is totally blind; or (b) is permanently and severely restricted in his capacity for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

In computing the income of any blind person no account is taken of his personal earnings. In addition, the benefit of a totally blind person may within certain limits be increased by up to 25 percent of his personal earnings. The personal earnings of a severely disabled beneficiary may be disregarded in whole or in part in computing his benefit.

Miners' Benefits—A miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted pneumoconiosis or any other occupational disease and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, provided that compensation in respect of the same disability is not being received.

Unemployment Benefits—An applicant for unemployment benefit is required to satisfy the Commission: (a) that he is unemployed; (b) that he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work; (c) that he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment; (d) that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months at any time. A person who is a full-time student is not entitled to an unemployment benefit.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first 7 days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. The Commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding 6 weeks, the commencement of the benefit if the applicant: (a) has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason; or (b) has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker. The benefit may be terminated if the beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit—e.g., national superannuation.

If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a wife, an allowance may be paid in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

Benefits were granted to 28,255 persons in 1975–76 and 25,601 persons in 1976–77.

The rates of benefit may be reduced having regard to the income received by the applicant or his wife in excess of $ 17 a week. For personal earnings of the applicant exceeding $10 a week the deduction is 10c for 10c of the excess. For income which is not earnings in excess of $17 a week the deduction is 10c for 20c up to $25 a week and thereafter 15c for every complete 20c. The rate of benefit must not exceed the pre-benefit loss of earnings rate.

The number of applications for unemployment benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1976 and 1977 were 40,878 and 39,706 respectively, 28,255 persons being granted a benefit in 1975–76 and 25,601 in 1976–77. At the end of March 1977, 2,199 benefits were in force compared with 3,882 at the end of the previous year. Payment of additional benefit for a dependent wife was included in 374 of the benefits in force at 31 March 1977 and in 679 of the benefits in force at 31 March 1976.

Sickness Benefits—A person over the age of 15 years who is incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and as a result suffers a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, may apply for a sickness benefit.

The number of persons granted sickness benefit was 36,062 in 1975–76, and 34,900 in 1976–77.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1976 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit (based on a 10 percent sample of the estimated 34,900 benefits which ceased).

Period on Benefit (Weeks)Number of Benefits
MalesFemalesTotal
Up to 58,2303,68011,910
5–84,8302,0306,860
9–122,6101,7004,310
13–253,3803,7907,170
26–381,2501,2302,480
39–51660180840
52–77420210630
78–103170120290
104 and over200210410
       Total21,75013,15034,900

Benefit on Death—As from 1 April 1975, a lump sum benefit is payable following the death of persons under 60* years of age, who leave dependants not entitled to lump sum payment under the Accident Compensation Act. A dependent widow or widower (including a party to a de facto relationship) will receive $1,000, and subject to a maximum of $1,500 for children, each dependent child will be paid up to $500.

Emergency Benefits—An emergency benefit may be granted on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit other than family benefit.

Additional Benefit—Additional benefit is available to social security beneficiaries and others who have limited income and assets.

Married couples may receive up to $10 a week, and single persons may receive up to $6 a week. Either may receive up to a further $6 a week for accommodation costs, and up to $2 a week for special needs (e.g., costs associated with health). Under special circumstances, lump sum payments may be authorised.

Since 1973 a telephone rental concession equal to one-half of the amount of the rental may be granted to persons in receipt of age, invalids', widows', or related benefits. Since 1 January 1975 a concession equivalent to one-half of a television licence fee has also been available for these persons.

Disability Allowance—A disability allowance of up to $8 a week was introduced from 10 October 1975 for disabled persons receiving an income tested benefit or for persons whose income is such that they could qualify for an income tested benefit. The allowance can also be paid in respect of the disabled wife or child of such a person. The purpose of the allowance is to meet special expenses arising from the person's disability, such as transport costs, special diet, domestic help or medicines not on free list, etc.

Reciprocity with Australia—The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948, provided for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. (A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.)

For the purpose of any application for a benefit (except the New Zealand miners, orphans or domestic purposes benefits) residence in Australia or birth in Australia is regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for invalids' or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive national superannuation unless he has attained the age of 70 years or if under 70, he will be required to establish that he would have been able to qualify, on income grounds for an Australian age pension had he remained in Australia. The act also provides that the department shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1977 comprised 567 national superannuation; 41 widows' benefits; 52 invalids' benefits; and 3 sickness benefits—a total of 663 compared with 682 a year earlier.

Reciprocity with United Kingdom—The Social Security (Reciprocity with United Kingdom) Act 1969 provides for reciprocity in a comprehensive range of benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The general principle of the agreement is that persons migrating from one country to the other will be taken into the social security scheme of the receiving country and paid benefits by the receiving country under the laws and conditions applicable to other residents of that country. Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1977 comprised 13,293 national superannuation benefits; 215 widows' benefits; 6 orphans' benefits; 138 invalids' benefits; 2 sickness benefits; and 1 unemployment benefit—a total of 13,655 compared with 13,516 a year earlier.

New Zealand Residents in the United Kingdom—In the United Kingdom the agreement applies to former residents of New Zealand who claim retirement pensions, widows' pensions, widowed mothers' and guardians' allowances, family allowances, sickness and unemployment benefits under the National Insurance Act.

The qualifying age for retirement pensions under the National Insurance Act is 60 years for women and 65 years for men.

*Reduced to 60 from 65 years of age from 1 October 1976.

It is to be noted that, although a man may have been in receipt of national superannuation when he left New Zealand, he is not entitled to retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless he is 65 years of age. Special provisions apply to married women arriving in the United Kingdom from New Zealand as far as entitlement to the United Kingdom retirement pension is concerned.

Persons in receipt of social security benefits in New Zealand otherwise than by virtue of the Reciprocal Agreement, who leave New Zealand wholly or mainly for a visit to the United Kingdom, will normally have their benefits suspended on departure, but if they return to New Zealand within 24 months they will be paid arrears of their social security benefits for some period of their absence.

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES—Friendly societies or lodges had a membership of 57,000 in 1976 compared with 113,000 in 1938 before the introduction of social security. They provide sickness and death benefits for members. The funds of the lodges totalled $44.8 million as at 31 December 1975.

Specially Authorised Societies—The majority of new societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act in recent years have been specially authorised societies in the form of credit unions; the number of such societies registered is now 191 and their funds totalled $31.1 million in 1975.

Medical Care Societies—The provision of benefits to provide part or all of the costs of medical or surgical attendance in return for voluntary contributions may be administered through a separate fund of a traditional friendly society or through a society providing only such benefits, including the costs of private hospital treatment. The latter type of society may be registered under the Friendly Societies Act 1909, but at least two are known not to be so registered. It is, therefore, not possible to give comprehensive statistics of either membership or funds related to such benefits. The number of individuals covered for such benefits is approximately 400,000 in societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act solely for the purposes and could be in excess of this figure in respect of traditional societies.

SOCIAL WORK—The establishment of the Department of Social Welfare from 1 April 1972 resulted in a widening of the scope of social work formerly undertaken by the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education and the Social Security Department. Although much of it is still concerned with the care, protection, and control of children and young persons, it now includes counselling work with the mentally and physically disabled, solo parents and their children, and the aged. The department now maintains a team of social workers and other staff who provide a general, individual, and family welfare counselling and guidance service for all age groups as well as undertaking general field investigation and inquiry work.

Services For Community Care—Assistance is given to community organisations providing care and training in the community for the handicapped, both physically and mentally, and for socially deprived children and pregnant women.

Financial assistance is given by way of subsidy to establish and operate residential homes, day care centres and sheltered workshops. At 1 April 1977 the range and levels of available subsidies were as follows:

  1. Socially deprived children (i) 50 percent of capital cost of establishing residential accommodation and $7 per week for each child in residence. (ii) 66⅔ percent of capital cost of establishing day care centres and $4.50 per week per child attending.

  2. Mentally handicapped persons: 100 percent of capital cost of establishing residential accommodation (with a limit of $8,000 per bed), and $3.50 per day for each child in residence.

  3. Physically and/or mentally handicapped persons: 66⅔ percent of capital cost of establishing day care, sheltered workshop, and training facilities and 75 percent of cost of staff salaries.

  4. Unsupported pregnant single women, and women with young children: 70 percent of capital cost of establishing residential accommodation (with a limit of $2,400 per bed).

Other assistance to organisations in this field include:

  1. An advisory service covering a wide range of activities from forward planning to details of administration and design;

  2. The engagement of Ministry of Works in the search for, inspection of and purchasing of suitable properties, on behalf of any organisation wishing to establish a subsidisable social welfare facility.

Standards of care and training are set by regulations, requiring residential and day care centres to be registered, and by periodic inspections to ensure that the standards are being maintained.

Social Work with Children and Young Persons—Besides clerical officers, social work services involve 530 social workers and 538 institution workers. Casework duties include preventive work; investigations and reporting for the Children's Court; supervision of children in their own homes; foster home, institution, and work placement; adoption and ex-nuptial birth inquiry work; the licensing of foster parents defined in the Act; reporting to courts on matrimonial proceedings affecting custody of children; registration of child care centres; inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and examination of requests made by them for financial subsidies; the oversight of immigrant and refugee children. Social workers receive assistance in many of these duties from about 600 honorary social workers, who are people of integrity and local standing in their communities.

Institutional care facilities include long-term training centres for difficult and delinquent children, short-term facilities providing classification, emergency, and temporary care for both infants and older children, and family homes which provide care for children of all ages either on a short-term or long-term basis.

Social workers undertake a wide variety of miscellaneous investigations and inquiries concerning the welfare of children. Cases may be referred by neighbours, police, teachers, employers, doctors, solicitors, etc., or by parents themselves who are seeking advice and guidance. Some of these cases will respond quickly to help. Others may need preventive oversight and guidance over several months or even 2 or 3 years. Financial help can be given in special cases. In a relatively small number of cases preventive help is not sufficient and court action is the outcome of inquiries.

Social workers, on receiving from the registrars notifications of ex-nuptial births, make confidential inquiries and assist the mother as necessary in making provision for her child. From figures in the Births section of this Yearbook, it will be seen that about 60 percent of children born ex-nuptially remain with their mothers, whether or not she is living with the father, and only 16 to 18 percent are made available for adoption. Placements in adoption homes are made by social workers for those children (about three-fifths) for whom placements have not been made by private persons and other organisations. The smaller proportion of children being offered for adoption is thought to reflect the beginnings of a changing pattern in society, with an increase both in de facto liaisons and in the proportion of mothers wanting to undertake the sole care of a child.

Under the Adoption Act 1955 a social worker must give prior approval to the placement for adoption of a child or young person under 20 years of age, or alternatively, the applicants must apply for an interim order of adoption from the court. The court is required to obtain a social worker's report on such a placement before granting an order. A waiting period of at least 6 months is normally required, during which the placement is supervised by a social worker, before a final order can be made.

Any person who is not a close relative and who undertakes to care for a child under the age of 6 years apart from its mother for a period of more than 28 consecutive days for payment or reward must have her home licensed by a social worker. At 31 December 1975 social workers were visiting 136 children so placed.

Inspecting children's homes operated by private organisations and administering schemes of Government financial assistance to these homes is another important social welfare function. Financial assistance is given by payments of $11 per week for each child in care and subsidies of up to 50 percent on expenditure for extension or replacement of buildings or additions to facilities. A similar capital subsidy is available for private organisations to help in providing accommodation for unmarried mothers and their children.

Regulations for the registration and licensing of child care centres (e.g., day nurseries, creches, etc.) have been in force since 1961.

The Department of Social Welfare has built up a considerable body of knowledge on new trends and methods in the fields of both residential and day care for children. As a result it has become an important point of reference for information and advice.

Children and Young Persons Proceedings—The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, which came into effect on 1 April 1975, introduced substantial changes in the procedures under which the department carries out its functions in relation to juvenile offending and other problems concerning the welfare of children.

The main thrust of the Act is to extend the provisions for young offenders to be dealt with through care, protection, and control proceedings rather than through criminal prosecutions and to provide for such proceedings to be dealt with by newly-created children's boards rather than by courts.

Prior to the new Act, children or young persons coming to the notice of the police for offending were dealt with either by the Youth Aid section of the New Zealand Police or by prosecution in the Children's Court. Children and young persons considered to be in need of care, protection, or control were generally dealt with by way of complaint to the Children's Court under the provisions of the Child Welfare Act 1925.

Under the provisions of the Children and Young Persons Act 1974, a legal distinction is made between children (defined in the Act as persons under the age of 14 years) and young persons (defined as persons aged 14 years but less than 17 years).

Where a young person comes to notice for offending, the matter may be dealt with by the Youth Aid section of the New Zealand Police by way of consultation between the police and a social worker.

Children's boards deal with children coming to official notice either for offending or because they are considered to be in need of care, protection, or control.

The Youth Aid section and the children's boards can deal with cases coming to their attention in several ways. These include warnings by the board or Youth Aid section, oversight by a social worker or Youth Aid officer, counselling of the child or young person, and counselling of the parents or guardian.

Both the children's board and the Youth Aid section have the option of referring any matter to a Children's and Young Persons Court.

Children's and Young Persons Courts—The Children's and Young Persons Courts were established by the Children and Young Persons Act 1974. These Courts began operation on 1 April 1975. Figures in the following table are for the year ended 31 December 1976.

Children's and Young Persons CourtsNumber of Appearances
Appearances involving complaint under Children and Young Persons Act 19742,780
Appearances involving charges for offences10,109
       Total appearances12,889

Total Cases Coming to Notice—The table below gives total numbers of cases coming to official notice each year during the period 1972 to 1976.

YearYouth Aid Cases Not Referred to Court or Children's BoardsChildren's Board Cases Not Referred to CourtCourt AppearancesTotal NumberPercentage Increase on Previous Year
197212,435...13,04925,4847
197311,570...12,97124,541–4
197412,588...13,28725,8755
197512,6792,25112,76027,6907
197611,7413,07212,88927,702

The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, by making legislative provision for the youth aid scheme and by creating the children's boards, has increased the range of formal provisions by which cases can be resolved without court action. It might be expected, therefore, that virtually all disposals not involving court action will now appear in the statistics while in the past there were undoubtedly a number of informal disposals which escaped the statistical net. Thus, even in the absence of any increase in the number of cases being dealt with, the new procedures might be expected to produce an increase in the statistics for disposals not involving the Courts. This in fact is what is observed: while the number of court appearances remained essentially static (12,760 for 1975 compared with 12,889 for 1976) the number of non-court disposals decreased from 14,930 in 1975 to 14,813 in 1976 (comprising 11,741 youth aid non-prosecution cases and 3,072 children's board non-prosecution cases).

Appearances finalised in the Children's and Young Persons Court up to 31 December 1976 numbered 12,889.

Decisions of the Children's and Young Persons Court during 1976 are summarised in the following table.

DecisionNumber
Discharged, or admonished and discharged2,212
Admonished with some other penalty (fine, costs, restitution, forfeiture, driving licence, etc.)3,302
Admonished and returned to the care of Director-General421
Placed under supervision of a social worker3,758
Placed under guardianship of Director-General1,038
Referred to Magistrate's Court or Supreme Court for decision or sentence1,659
Other order made499
       Total12,889

It can be seen from the table that the Children's and Young Persons Court resulted in a total of 1,038 children and young persons being placed under the guardianship of the Director-General during 1976. The corresponding figure for 1975 was 985. Further, 3,758 children and young persons were placed under the supervision of a social worker compared with 3,525 in 1975.

State Wards—State wards are children and young persons who, for a variety of reasons, have been subject to an order made by the Children's and Young Persons Court placing them under the guardianship of the Director-General of Social Welfare. The events leading to the making of such orders are as diverse as the people concerned, but they can be roughly divided into two broad categories. The first is parental inability or failure to provide a stable, permanent home or to meet a particular child's special needs. This would include cases of neglect, ill-treatment, and desertion as well as serious family problems beyond parent's control.

The second category is that of seriously disturbed or anti-social behaviour on the part of children and young persons which is beyond the capacity of their parents to amend or control.

The placement and oversight of wards is a major responsibility of social workers acting on behalf of the Director-General, and it is no light task. In addition to children placed under the Director-General's guardianship or in his temporary custody by court order, there are increasing numbers coming into care by way of voluntary agreement with parents. Such children are treated in almost every way as though they were wards. Parents seeking the department's help in this way do so for a variety of reasons, such as their own serious ill health, family break-up, and other pressures within the family or their desire to seek special care for a disturbed or difficult youngster. In 1976 there were 6,294 state wards and 577 children in care under voluntary agreements.

At 31 December 1976 a total of 6,871 children and young persons were under care and control of the department. The reasons for their being placed were as follows:

Placed under the guardianship of the Director-General by court order5,888
Under control by virtue of an agreement with parents577
On court remand, postponement, warrant, etc.406
       Total6,871

Children and young persons may come into care at any time from soon after birth to the age of 16 years. (Guardianship orders under the Children and Young Persons Act 1974 are not made in respect of young people over the age of 17 years.) Wards are automatically discharged at the age of 20 years but in practice, and depending on their circumstances, most are discharged with the approval of the Director-General at a much earlier age. Many return, after a period away from home, to the care of parents or members of their extended family and are discharged as soon as the Director-General is assured that they are no longer in need of supervision.

The majority of wards are cared for in the community and in 1976, 54 percent were living in foster homes, departmental family homes, or in the homes of relatives and friends. Sixteen percent were with their own parents as a trial prior to possible discharge. Of the remainder, 10 percent were at work.

A proportion of wards, especially those in older age groups, come into care because of anti-social, even criminal, behaviour. With help and guidance, some of these settle in the community but some have to be admitted to the department's various training institutions, usually after assessment and trial in boys' and girls' homes. A proportion go on to institutions under the control of the Department of Justice. In all, 20 percent of the wards in care are in institutions.

Details of children and young persons under the control and supervision of the department at 31 December 1976 are shown in the following table.

Placement of ChildrenNumberPercentage
In foster homes2,87742
Placed with parents for trial period1,07916
Living with and supported by relatives1963
In employment (excluding those with relatives, etc.)65910
In residential colleges811
Receiving tertiary education3--
In Government short-stay homes4196
In Government family homes6259
In private institutions3745
In Department of Education special schools651
In hospitals311
In psychiatric hospitals741
On probation28--
In Social Welfare and Department of Justice residential training centres3435
Absent without leave17--
       Total6,871100

WELFARE OF MAORI PEOPLE AND PACIFIC ISLAND POLYNESIANS—The legislative basis of the Maori welfare programme is the Maori Welfare Act 1962 and the aim is the social and economic advancement and the promotion and maintenance of the health and general well-being of the Maori community and the facilitation of full integration of the Maori race into the social and economic life of the country. An important feature of the programme is that it does not seek to impose standards from without; rather, it calls upon the Maori people to exercise control and direction of their own communities in the essentials of good citizenship and civic responsibility.

The Maori welfare organisations consist of two statutory groups and various voluntary groups. The statutory groups are:

  1. Maori associations comprising the New Zealand Maori Council, the district Maori councils, Maori executive committees, and the Maori committees. All are democratically elected and work independently of the department.

  2. The Maori Affairs Department, which works closely with all Maori groups as it realises that its main objectives cannot be achieved without full acceptance and participation by the people themselves.

The Maori Affairs Department through the activities of its community services division in particular, collaborates with and gives Maori associations and other groups such assistance and advice as may be necessary or helpful so that the members themselves may find and apply their own solutions to their problems and develop and achieve the utmost satisfaction from their own culture. The department also collaborates with appropriate social welfare agencies, State and voluntary, in helping individuals and families who are experiencing difficulties in adapting themselves to their social and economic environment, accepting the full responsibility where a need is not being met. The department actively encourages these State and voluntary organisations to understand and to communicate successfully with the Maori so that they can work more effectively with him.

The Maori Affairs Department, again primarily through its community services division, assists Pacific Islanders of New Zealand nationality to adjust to the New Zealand situation and provides advisory services to individuals or groups facing difficulties.

The primary function of the New Zealand Maori Council is to encourage Maoris as individuals and in groups to take the initiative in matters affecting their own welfare and that of their kinsfolk, to be a forum of discussion in which they can crystallise their ideas and gain the co-operation of others in actively pursuing mutually agreed objectives and eventually achieving progressive improvement in the various spheres of welfare. By its own request it is charged with the duty of maintaining and promoting harmony between Maori and non-Maori.

Maori wardens carry out special functions. They are appointed by the Minister at the initiative of Maori committees to whom they are responsible. Their function is to assist in the maintenance of order and in stamping out mischief before it becomes crime. Wardens do not usurp the duties of the police but are an influence among the people in maintaining law and order.

The Maori Women's Welfare League was formed in 1951 and has branches throughout the country. Its membership approximates 3,000. Special tribal groups, social, sports, and cultural clubs, church groups, women's and other organisations are some of the many other groups which have their own spheres of action promoting and furthering the physical, social, spiritual, and moral well-being of the people.

The primary function of the Maori Women's Welfare League is to educate the mothers of the race to an appreciation of higher standards of attainment on the home front. It also interests itself actively in education, particularly at the pre-school level.

The Act provides for subsidies to be paid on moneys raised by the Maori people through their associations for the promotion of welfare. The subsidy granted in the financial year ended 31 March 1977 amounted to $110,000.

An inter-departmental committee fosters and finances research into social and educational aspects of Maori and Islander welfare.

Maori community officers are intended to carry out quite a different range of functions from those of other social workers. They are not intended to replace child welfare officers, probation officers, truant officers, and so on. Although they are available when other social workers encounter problems which are peculiarly Maori, their primary function is to work with groups rather than individuals. For example, it is not strictly a Maori community officer's duty to deal with a Maori child playing truant from school, but if truancy is a common problem amongst Maori students in any locality, it is the community officer's duty to hold discussions with parents and try to convince them of the importance of ensuring that their children attend school regularly. A great deal of time of the community services staff is occupied in informing Maori and Island parents of vocational opportunities open to their children, in recruiting and organising vocational training groups for school leavers, stimulating the formation of play centres and other pre-school groups, and in dealing with youth problems in the cities.

6 B—WAR PENSIONS AND REHABILITATION

GENERAL—The war pensions programme is largely the outcome of New Zealand participation in two world wars in which large numbers of citizens served as members of the forces. It applies also to service in Korea, South-east Asia, and in any emergency, including obligations undertaken under the charter of United Nations.

The war pensions scheme has developed from one which initially gave limited compensation for those returned from active service to one of comprehensive coverage for ex-servicemen who are disabled or incapacitated at any time of their lives as a result of their service, and for their dependants and also for the dependants of those who have died as a result of war service.

The war pensions legislation is designed to provide (a) basic pensions to compensate for disablement or death, which provide for physical loss and are therefore compensatory in character, and (b) supplementary pensions, in appropriate cases, to meet loss of income. The latter depend on the means of the pensioner and are economic in character, acting as income maintenance and being therefore similar to social security benefits.

ADMINISTRATION—For many years social security monetary benefits and war pensions have been administered by the same department.

The authority for paying war pensions is vested in the War Pensions Board, an independent body appointed by the Minister in Charge of War Pensions, with a chairman, a medical member, and a representative of the members of the forces appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Returned Services Association. The administration of the War Pensions Act is, however, the responsibility of the Secretary for War Pensions who acts under the general direction and control of the Minister.

It is laid down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first 2 months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The boards are not bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

RATES AND ALLOWANCES—The list below summarises the rates of war pensions and allowances. The pensions for war disablement and war widows are now adjusted annually on a cost of living basis.

PensionWeekly Rate
12 January 197727 July 197711 January 1978

      Increased by $1.25 a week for each subsequent child

*Adjusted annually at 1 April in relation to movements in the consumers price index. The increase at 1 April 1974 was $1.80, at 1 April 1975 $2.60, at 1 April 1976 $3.80, and at 1 April 1977 $3.55 for total disablement pension.

†Subject to means test on income.

 $$$
Disablement pension*
      Total disablement25.9029.4529.45
      Special additional pension for blindness or serious disablement15.5517.7017.70
Economic pension
      Unmarried person38.4041.3044.28
      Married person32.0034.4236.90
Wife's pension32.0034.4236.90
War widow's pension—
      Basic pension*19.1021.7521.75
      Economic pension38.4041.3044.28
      Mother's allowance—
      One dependent child22.6024.5426.52
      Two dependent children25.6027.5429.52
      Increased by $1.25 a week for each subsequent child Orphan's pension20.2521.6523.10
Child's pension3.003.003.00
Widowed mother's pension (totally dependent)—
      Basic pension*19.1021.7521.75
      Economic pension38.4041.3044.28
Widowed mother's pension (partly dependent)—
      Basic pension*4.004.004.00
      Economic pension36.1539.0542.03
War service pension and war veteran's allowance
      Unmarried38.4041.3044.28
      Married male32.0034.4236.90
      Married female32.0034.4236.90
      Age supplement (each)1.501.501.50
      Gratuity (veteran's widow)57.5063.0566.03
Dependent children (replacing the rates shown where there are dependent children)
      Solo parent and one child61.0065.8470.80
      Solo parent and two children64.0068.8473.80
      Increased by $1.25 a week for each subsequent child Married couple and one child67.0071.8476.80

Economic pensions, war service pensions, and war veterans' allowances are subject to a means test on income and are reducible if income from other sources exceeds $17 a week or $884 a year. In the case of a widow supporting a dependent child or children the allowable income without reduction in pension is, however, $21 a week. In the computation of a wife's pension, the income of the husband only is taken into account.

Travel grants and other concessions may be made to severely disabled persons.

The social security legislation permits basic war disablement and war widows' pensions to be paid concurrently with any social security benefit and to be entirely disregarded for income tests.

Pensions for Dependants—From 1 April 1971 wives' pensions have not been payable in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 unless such pension was already payable at that date. From 1 April 1971 the wife of a member of the forces pensioned for total blindness in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 may receive a war service pension but not an age supplement. In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family.

Economic Pensions—An "economic pension" is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension a War Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property the cost of living and other relevant matters.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disablement do not receive economic pensions.

Servicemen pensioned in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 have not, from 1 April 1971, been eligible to receive an economic pension unless already in receipt of an economic pension at that date. At 31 March 1977 there were 3,864 economic pensions in force.

War Veterans' Allowances—These make provision on economic grounds for ex-servicemen, mainly of the First World War, who have become unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical incapacity. At 31 March 1977 there were 6,642 allowances in force.

War Service Pensions—From 1 April 1971 the war service pension is payable on economic grounds in respect of overseas service in the Second World War or any subsequent war or emergency in which members of the New Zealand forces have served. Payable subject to an income test, the pension is designed for disabled or prematurely retired ex-servicemen who saw service overseas after 3 September 1939. Ex-servicemen of other Commonwealth countries may also qualify as applicants for the pension.

An applicant must also fulfil one of the following conditions: (a) be in receipt of a war disablement pension of not less than 70 percent of the maximum pension payable for total disablement; or, (b) being in receipt of a war disablement pension of less than 70 percent, unable by reasons of physical or mental infirmity to undertake permanent employment.

There are residential qualifications of 5 years for an ex-member of New Zealand forces, or an ex-member of other Commonwealth forces, who was a bona fide resident of New Zealand at the commencement of the war or emergency in which he served, and 20 years for other applicants.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pension in determining the amount of the basic war service pension. A war service pension cannot be paid concurrently with a social security benefit other than a family benefit.

The war service pension will ultimately be the only war pension paid for economic reasons. The rates and income exemption for this pension are similar to social security benefits and, by agreement with the War Pensions Board, the same general rules of treatment of income and assets are applied. In most respects, therefore, the war service pension is similar to its civilian counterparts, the sickness, or invalids' benefit as appropriate.

Where any war service pensioner and/or his wife has attained the age of 65 years, an age supplement of a maximum of $78 a year each is added to the basic war service pension. At 31 March 1977 there were 6,392 war service pensions in force.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS—These pensions are payable where death or disablement was suffered by a member of the Emergency Reserve Corps in the course of service (including training), or was directly attributable to such service.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS—Pensions and allowances are paid in respect of death or disablement of members of the mercantile marine as a result of the Second World War.

ADDITIONAL BENEFIT—Additional benefit, which replaced supplementary assistance from 2 July 1975, is available to recipients of income-tested pensions and allowances, on a similar basis to social security additional benefit. At 31 March 1977, 5,033 additional benefits were being paid to recipients of war pensions.

WAR BURSARIES—Bursaries for educational purposes are available to children of ex-servicemen in receipt of war service pension or 70 percent disablement pension and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose deaths war pensions are paid.

During 1976–77, 930 bursaries were granted, expenditure being $129,414 for the year. The 1975–76 figures were 1,030 bursaries and $150,000.

WAR PENSIONS MEDICAL RESEARCH TRUST BOARD—When a pensioner dies, any unpaid pension money not paid to dependants in the normal way may be paid to the War Pensions Medical Research Trust Fund for research into mental disorders or other fields of medical research beneficial to former members of the forces. This Medical Research Trust Fund is administered by a trust board which ensures that the money is applied to research beneficial to former members of the forces.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS, ALLOWANCES, ETC.—During the year ended 31 March 1977, the department dealt with 3,300 applications for war pensions. Of these, 1,102 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, war veterans' allowances, war service pensions, and pensions in respect of peacetime forces. The total for the previous year was 3,121. Of these, 829 were in respect of the applicant's own disability.

The number of appeals to the War Pension Board dealt with in 1976–77 was 306, of which 111 were upheld.

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force, except peacetime forces and war service pensions, at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the years given.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914–18)Second World War (1939–45)K ForceWar VeteransSouth AfricanMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsSupplementary Assistance*Total

*Supplementary assistance has been replaced by additional benefit from 2 July 1975. Expenditure for additional benefit is included in expenditure for the related standard benefits.

Number in Force
19755,91322,3862328,391221463037,579
19765,35922,2852337,5802204..35,483
19774,84722,1692476,6421194..33,929
Expenditure $(000)
19757,45221,57910918,627222515047,946
19767,77623,84912118,623320518050,577
19778,60535,92215421,1404286..65,859

The foregoing figures of expenditure include the following:

  1. Travelling allowances of $3.05 a week, paid to 711 pensioners at 31 March 1977.

  2. Clothing allowances, of which 1,063 were being paid at 31 March 1977.

  3. Gallantry awards of which 181 were being paid at 31 March 1977.

The following are not included.

  1. Costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security, amounting to $209,903 in 1976–77.

  2. Railway and bus concessions to pensioners with severe disablement and locomotive disabilities, costing $32,244 in 1976–77.

  3. Funeral grants which cost $70,835 in 1976–77.

Administration costs in connection with war pensions and allowances are included in the administration costs of the Department of Social Welfare which are given in Section 6A.

Pensions paid in respect of all wars and types of service are shown by class in the following table.

At 31 MarchDisablement PensionsDependants of Disabled Ex-membersOn Account of DeathTotal
WidowsParents and Other Dependants
First World War, 1914–18
19762,5321442,67675,359
19772,1881192,53644,847
Second World War, 1939–45
197619,3752802,45517522,285
197719,3062452,48013822,169
K Force
1976227321233
1977240331247
Vietnam Force
1976166132172
1977181..32186
Peacetime Forces
19761,102463121,181
19771,181462121,259
Other
197641112155
197742112156

All forms of rehabilitation assistance available to ex-servicemen of the Second World War and K force ceased on 31 March 1965.

Resettlement assistance is available to men who have served in South-east Asia for 6 months prior to 1 April 1972 and for 12 months after that date.

Application for housing loans, which attract a 3 percent concession rate of interest, and interest free furniture loans of $400, must be lodged within 5 years from the date of return to New Zealand after qualifying service or 2 years after discharge from the forces whichever is the later.

Applications for subsidised trade training, and education assistance must be lodged within 2 years of return to New Zealand. Limited preferences in farm ballots are also available to ex-servicemen with a farming background.

Special provisions exist to ensure that rehabilitation assistance will continue to be available to all ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be interrupted or become necessary as a result of disability arising from service.

Expenditure—Rehabilitation expenditure (including loan authorisations) for the 3 latest years ended 31 March was as follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197519761977

*Now administered by the Housing Corporation.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance181810
Trade training—
      Salary subsidy10812
      Training of blinded ex-servicemen192025
Loans—
      Interest concessions716842*
      Loans authorised5,3136,9506,613
Reserve Fund contribution103121*
       Total6,1797,9596,660

6 C—SUPERANNUATION AND PROVIDENT FUNDS

GENERAL—For many years the Government, local authorities, and increasing numbers of employers have operated superannuation schemes to enable employees to make provision for their retirement in addition to the benefits provided under national schemes.

The Government Superannuation Fund in its present form was established on 1 April 1948, amalgamating funds which had been in existence since the early 1900s. Its revenues consist of members' contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated Revenue Account, trading departments, and other bodies, and interest earned on investments.

The National Provident Fund was established on 1 March 1911, with the object of providing a superannuation scheme for the general public. It also provides superannuation for the employees of local authorities and other approved bodies, and maintains an investment pool in which local bodies invest their surplus funds and which provides an important source of their loan finance.

A scheme under which National Superannuation is payable to all New Zealanders over 60 years of age who meet a 10-year residential qualification was introduced from 9 February 1977. More details of this scheme are given in Section 6A Social Welfare and Social Work.

GOVERNMENT SUPERANNUATION FUND—The Government Superannuation Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as statutory chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury as deputy chairman, the Chairman of the State Services Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Directors-General of Education and the Post Office, the Commissioner of Police, and five members appointed on the nomination of various employee organisations and one on the nomination of the Minister of Defence.

Membership—All State employees may belong to the fund and this covers those in departments under the control of the State Services Commission, the Education Service, the New Zealand Railways, and the Post Office. Membership is compulsory for permanent members of the armed forces, the Police, the Prison Service, judges of the Supreme Court, Maori Land Court judges, magistrates, members of Parliament, and members of the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau public services. In addition, from 1 January 1964 membership has been compulsory for permanent employees of the Government, except married women, from age 17 to age 24 years.

Contributions—Deductions are made from basic salary on a sliding scale according to the age from which membership of the fund dates. These are at the rate of 6 percent to age 29 years increasing by 1 percent steps each succeeding 5 years of age until a maximum rate of 11 percent is payable from age 50 years. From 1955 contributors have been able to elect to contribute at 60 percent of normal rates and be eligible for only that proportion of the standard benefits.

Credit may be purchased in certain circumstances for periods of Government service not currently ranking and for full-time study or periods of training outside Government service and which resulted in a qualification being gained. Certain intervals in Government service may also be purchased for superannuation purposes. The costs of buying credit for these periods varies according to age and salary at the time of purchase.

Benefits—The principal objective of the fund is the payment of an allowance on retirement, which is usually between ages 60 and 64 years, but may be earlier with the consent of a contributor's controlling authority and of the board where retirement is because of medical unfitness for further duty. Standard retiring allowances are calculated at one one-hundred-and-twentieth of the average of a contributor's salary over the final 5 years of service, for each year of contributory service, plus an equal amount for the first 40 years of service. In some cases of short service the average of the salaries over the final 3 years of service is used. Up to a quarter of the annual allowance may be surrendered on retirement in return for a cash payment of nine times the amount commuted. Those reaching normal retiring ages may also elect to receive a higher rate of allowance to age 65 years in return for a lower rate thereafter.

On death before or after retirement an allowance at the rate of half the allowance a contributor would have received had retirement occurred on the date of death, or half the allowance actually being paid at the time of death, is payable to any surviving spouse, for life or until remarriage. To this is added $78 a year for children to age 16 or 18 years where schooling is extended, or possibly to a higher age in the case of inability to earn a living because of physical or mental reasons.

All allowances are paid in advance in instalments each 28 days and no recovery is made where an entitlement ceased during a benefit period.

A cost-of-living adjustment scheme was introduced in 1969 providing for allowances to be increased relative to movements in the Consumers Price Index. Existing and future contributors pay an extra 1 percent of their salaries to participate but those already retired at the time the scheme was introduced receive an ex gratia adjustment based on 70 percent of price movements. Those who were already contributors in 1969 receive the basic 70 percent adjustment plus the proportion of the remaining 30 percent that the period paying the extra contributions bears to their total superannuation service. The adjustments reflect price rises that occur from age 60 years for superannuitants and age 55 years for widows.

Special Conditions—Armed forces contributors may qualify for a retiring allowance after completing their engagements with not less than 20 years' service, whatever their age at the time. In 1972 a special variation of the cost-of-living adjustment scheme was introduced allowing this group to pay an additional 0.7 percent of salary additional to the rates payable under the main adjustment scheme, in return for which they now receive adjustments after age 60 years for price movements since retirement.

Female contributors who were employed before the introduction of equal pay for women in the State Services in 1962 still retain some special conditions related to the former entitlement of women to retire on completion of 30 years service or on reaching age 55 years, but those joining the fund since 1962 have the same conditions as males.

Judges of the Supreme Court contribute at the rate of 8 percent of their salaries and their retiring allowances are based on a varying formula which produces a maximum of two-thirds of the final salary after 20 years' service. They normally retire on attaining age 72 years and with service up to 10 years they are paid the appropriate proportion of an allowance of a quarter of their salary. Each year of service beyond 10 attracts an addition to the allowance of one twenty-fourth of salary up to 20 years. A widow of a judge receives half her husband's entitlement with a minimum of 15 percent and a maximum of 25 percent of his final salary.

Magistrates and judges of the Maori Land Court contribute at the rate of 9 percent of their salaries for retiring allowances based on one thirty-sixth of their final salary for each year of service, up to a maximum of two-thirds after 24 years' service. They normally retire at age 60 years and the widow's benefits are calculated as for judges.

Members of Parliament contribute at the rate of 11 percent of an ordinary member's salary for an allowance based on one thirty-second of an ordinary member's salary at the point of retirement for each year of service, up to a maximum of two-thirds after approximately 21 years' service. They qualify for an allowance from age 50 years on retiring from Parliament after not less than 9 years' service or not less than 8 years if this covers the duration of at least three sessions. The standard provisions for spouses and children apply.

Police and Prison Service contributors are obliged to retire at age 60 years and to enable older entrants to attain additional superannuation service their service is counted as 1 year and one-seventh if they join the fund after age 25 years. A lesser fraction is added for those joining between 20 and 24 years. Increased rates of contributions are payable by those whose service is scaled up. The standard benefits apply.

Statistics—As at 31 March 1977 there were 130,176 contributors to the Government Superannuation Fund who paid $58,991,025 into the fund during the year. At 31 March 1977 there were 31,126 superannuitants who were entitled to $64,975,834 a year, made up as follows:

Qualification for AllowanceMalesFemalesTotalAnnual Allowances
    $(000)
Retired for age or length of service16,7173,39020,10753,983
Medically unfit8361901,0261,623
Total retiring allowances17,5533,58021,13355,606
Widows...8,7958,7959,277
Children6525461,19893
       Total allowances18,20512,92131,12664,976

Total assets at 31 March 1977, which amounted to $404,405,630 included investments in Government stock, $388,186,600.

The average effective interest earning of the fund for the year ended 31 March 1977 was $5.91 percent.

As at 31 March 1977, contributors to the Government Superannuation Fund were distributed as follows:

Branch of ServiceNumberPercentage of Total
Armed Services11,6719.0
Education Service36,60628.1
Police4,4953.5
Post Office21,53516.5
N.Z. Railways11,5968.9
Public Service40,98931.5
Other employers3,2842.5
       Total130,176100.0

The following table gives a summary of financial statistics, together with the numbers of contributors, for the latest available 4 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of ContributorsAnnual Contributions*Interest Received From InvestmentsSubsidy From Government Trading Departments, and OthersAnnual Value of AllowancesAccumulated Fund

*Includes transfers from National Provident Fund.

†Based on retiring and other allowances at end of year. Actual total paid during year ended 31 March 1977 was $62,019,188, plus $16,002,019 for retiring allowances capitalised.

    $(000)  
1974114,98437,23713,16332,24339,094267,244
1975120,04244,02315,21837,80644,526305,610
1976133,33454,52517,93547,25650,539357,618
1977130,17658,99121,80356,12164,976401,665

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND—The National Provident Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as statutory chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and up to three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The fund now provides services in five separate areas:

  1. Public Fund—The two oldest pension schemes have catered for the general public on an individual basis, sometimes with encouragement from their employer or as members of a group.

  2. Local Authorities Superannuation—Three schemes cover employees of all local bodies, quasi-government and other approved organisations, firemen, and nurses.

  3. National Superannuation Schemes—Two employer subsidised schemes are available, one for farm employees and the other for any employees of companies, firms, Government departments, or local authorities willing to become contributing employers. A further scheme is available for the self-employed.

  4. Supplementary Scheme—This scheme offers a choice of benefits beyond the minimum requirements of compulsory superannuation.

  5. Local Authorities Investment Pool—This ancillary activity enables local authorities to invest surplus funds at interest.

The State guarantees the benefits payable under all the schemes and meets all administration expenses. There are some elements of State subsidy in the public fund and local authority schemes, and a guarantee of minimum interest earnings in the national schemes.

Public Fund—Membership was available to any resident of New Zealand from age 15 to age 59.

The first scheme of the fund, the Level Premium Scheme, available since 1911 and now closed to new members, enables contributors to purchase a pre-determined weekly pension from age 60 years by paying fixed regular contributions according to age on joining. For the first $20 per week a State subsidy of 25 percent is built into the contribution rates and after 5 years' membership contributors qualify for incapacity, widows', and dependent children's allowances.

The Annual Single Premium Scheme, which has been available to individuals and the self-employed since 1958, accepts contributions of any amount from members at any time. The contributions paid during each year are applied at the end of that year towards the purchase of a pension from age 60 years according to the contributors' then age. Only the first $1,000 contributed each year attracts State subsidy and this ceases once the aggregate pension purchased reaches $20 per week. There is a widow's benefit.

In both schemes contributors may defer for up to 5 years the start of their pensions, which then increase by 10 percent each year of deferment and contribution may continue. On accepting the pension, or at age 65 years, contributors may vary the amount payable by surrendering up to a quarter in return for a lump sum equal to nine times the annual amount foregone. Level Premium Scheme members may choose a joint and survivorship option, which is a reduced pension payable for life to either the beneficiary or the surviving spouse. The Annual Single Premium Scheme offers the choice of surrendering part of the pension entitlement to purchase an annuity for an approved dependant or an additional entitlement for a widow.

Local Authorities Superannuation—The schemes provide superannuation with the contributions and benefits related to salaries and service for local government employees, with schemes to suit the special needs of firemen and nurses and variations for Air New Zealand aircrew.

The standard conditions are substantially the same as those for the Government Superannuation Fund set out in the section on that fund. As there is provision for transfer to and from that fund, State and local authority employees have a wide range of employment possibilities open to them without loss of accrued superannuation rights.

A scheme for adjusting allowances in accordance with rises in the cost of living was introduced on 1 April 1971 for the contributing employees and superannuitants of contributing authorities which agreed to pay the extra subsidies involved. This was almost 2 years later than the cost-of-living adjustment scheme of the Government Superannuation Fund. Similarly the increase in the basic rate of adjustment to 70 percent took effect from October 1974, 6 months after the Government scheme but otherwise the adjustment schemes are similar.

National Superannuation Schemes—The national scheme for farm employees was originally prepared at the request of the Federated Farmers of New Zealand to assist in retaining farm employees. Contributions may be from 50c per week up to 5 percent of gross earnings and are subsidised by an equal amount from the employer. These aggregate payments accumulate at compound interest until retirement, normally between ages 60 and 65 years, when the credit may be used to purchase an annuity for life, or up to half may be used to purchase an annuity for a wife. Up to a quarter of the credit may be taken as a lump sum or a greater proportion where there is a demonstrated housing need. Pensions paid to members age 66 years or older, or widows age 56 years or older, are adjusted annually as reserves allow and when cost-of-living increases are warranted. If a contributor dies before retirement his widow is entitled to the benefit of his credit in the fund immediately, or she may defer her election. A contributor may withdraw his personal contributions plus 3 percent compound interest after a minimum period of 10 years from joining, or may cease to contribute temporarily or permanently but still retain his accrued rights with his credit continuing to earn interest and bonus until retirement. The scheme is now closed to new members as an approved restricted scheme.

The National Superannuation Scheme is a general extension of the farm employees' scheme and any employee is eligible to join, provided his employer is willing to subsidise contributions on a dollar-for-dollar basis. The two schemes were similar except for the right to take more than a quarter of the credit at retirement in a lump sum. The National Superannuation Scheme for the Self-employed is similar to the national scheme, except that contributions of any amount may be made at any time and there is, of course, no employer subsidy.

Investment Pool—The Local Authorities Investment Pool continues to be the main avenue for the temporary investment by local authorities, and other approved bodies, of surplus loan moneys and reserve funds. During the year the proceeds of an overseas loan for container port development of 75 million Swiss francs (NZ$30.29 million) was received into the Investment Pool and allocated to the four harbour boards involved. As all the money was not required immediately it was reinvested in the Pool, and this enabled the fund to increase its lending to other local authorities. This amount partly accounted for the overall balance of $218.9 million as at 31 March 1977, compared with $156.7 million as at 31 March 1976.

Investments by Fund—During 1976–77 the level of demands made on the fund by local authorities for loan assistance totalled $117.3 million, of which the amount approved by the investment committee totalled $108.7 million. The overseas loan for container port development is excluded from these figures. The fund's lending to local authorities in recent years is shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchNo. of ApplicationsAmount Considered $(million)Amount Approved $(million)
197351250.347.5
197453852.247.6
197567891.383.2
1976876134.6117.5
1977676117.2108.7

Comparative Survey—The following table provides a survey of financial and other statistics of the National Provident Fund for the latest available 3 years.

Item 1974–751975–761976–77
New contributors during yearNo.57,070123,73613,867
Total contributors at end of yearNo.115,788235,082244,148
Local authority scheme—
ContributorsNo.17,55020,03618,895
Contributions$(000)20,73128,57128,736
Public Fund—
      ContributorsNo.98,238215,046225,253
      Contributions$(000)12,13428,77324,663
Pensions and allowances at end of yearNo.9,3919,91610,544
Income—
      Contributions$(000)32,86557,34453,399
Interest$(000)15,77019,75924,223
Government subsidy$(000)4,9176,0426,003
       Total income$(000)53,55283,14683,625
Outgoings—
Pensions and allowances$(000)7,3229,48711,278
Other benefits$(000)3,6224,50214,223
       Total outgoings$(000)10,94413,98925,502
Investment pool at end of period$(000)143,082156,671218,932
Funds at end of period$(000)270,147338,822396,521

Chapter 8. Section 7 EDUCATION, SCIENCE, AND THE ARTS

7 A—EDUCATION

Public discussion of education has often been spirited and controversial. What people care about they are prepared to argue about. But on one matter of fundamental importance there has been broad, if often implicit, agreement. It has long been accepted by New Zealanders of all ages and in all walks of life that, whatever else it should or should not do, the public system of education should provide opportunity for all children, regardless of background, ability, and promise, to develop their abilities so that their lives may become personally satisfying and socially useful. The continuing thrust of policy has been towards the creation of opportunity through education (Public Education in New Zealand, Department of Education, 1973.)

GROWTH OF EDUCATION—Since 1945 education in New Zealand has been marked by extensive growth. In 1945, school, college, and university enrolments combined were 328,000 or 19.3 percent of the population but by 1977 the combined enrolments had risen to over 990,000 or almost 32 percent of the population. This growth is accounted for by increased births for the major part of the period; a marked tendency for pupils to stay on longer at school and also to undertake further education after leaving school; and the development of new educational services. In the last 25 years the number of pupils in primary schools has almost doubled and pupils in secondary schools have increased almost fourfold, while the number of students in universities has more than trebled and students receiving technical education quadrupled.

At the same time education has grown more intensive and education expenditure has expanded from 6 percent of total Government expenditure in 1945–46 to 15.7 percent in 1975–76. (In 1976–77 it represented 14.7 percent.)

The strongly egalitarian temper of New Zealand society—a product of historical, geographical, and economic factors—is reflected in education administration by the policy of making education at all levels freely available. In few other countries is there closer approximation to equality of educational opportunity—and few countries have a larger proportion of their populations in schools, colleges, and universities.

ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION—The Education Act 1964 provides for free and secular education in State primary and secondary schools, and compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 and 15 years. University education is provided under the Universities Act 1961, and funds for universities are distributed by the University Grants Committee.

The central administrative body directing education is the Department of Education, whose permanent head is the Director-General of Education. The department consists of professional and administrative officers with its head office in Wellington. To bring administration closer to schools and institutions in the system the department has regional offices in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, each under the control of a superintendent.

The Department of Education, in discharging its responsibility to the Minister for administration of the system, advises the Minister on policy and development, controls the expenditure of money voted, ensures that schools are built and equipped when and where required and that teachers are recruited and trained, checks that standards are maintained in all schools, both State and private, and assesses the efficiency of teachers. An important professional function of the department is to conduct curriculum revision and development and to recommend curriculum changes to the Minister.

Machinery for planning in the broadest sense as it affects national development is the concern of the Educational Development Council. It also considers the establishment of priorities in educational development.

The control and management of State primary schools is the responsibility of the 10 education boards, and local secondary school boards control State secondary schools. These boards are responsible for the schools in their area. They are the employing authorities of the teachers. They disburse the grants received from the Department of Education for the maintenance of schools and building of new schools, and for equipment and teaching materials. No local rates are levied for education either by municipal or local education authorities.

The Department of Education directly administers the Correspondence School and State special schools. It controls the inspectorate, supervises the staffing of schools, and conducts the School Certificate Examination. All State and registered private schools are visited regularly by inspectors who give assistance and guidance to teachers in educational matters. The department also administers the capital expenditure voted for school buildings.

There are a number of private primary and secondary schools in New Zealand conducted either by religious bodies or private individuals. These schools are required by the Education Act 1964 to comply with defined standards of accommodation and teaching as a pre-requisite for compulsory registration under the Education Act.

The Department of Education has official contacts with the National Council of Adult Education and the University Grants Committee but the universities are independent in their educational activities.

Education Boards and School Committees—The members of education boards have in the past been elected solely by members of school committees on a ward system, but provision has now been made for the appointment to each board of a teacher to represent all teachers employed by the board.

Each State primary school controlled by an education board has its school committee, elected by the parents of pupils and adults resident in the school district. It is a statutory body charged with management of property and other matters on behalf of the board. The members of school committees form the electorates for electing education board members.

A school committee's essential function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide, along with voluntary parent-teacher associations, a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters.

Secondary School Boards—Secondary schools are controlled and administered by their own boards of governors. The local boards controlling secondary schools (either singly, or several schools in the same town) are made up of representatives of the parents of pupils, of the education board of the district, and of other local groups and organisations and provision has recently been made for the election of teacher representatives. The boards are constituted by the Minister and published in the New Zealand Gazette. In some metropolitan areas, groups of secondary schools have been linked together for administrative purposes under secondary school councils but each school still retains its own board of governors which has a large measure of autonomy in the control and management of its own school.

Technical Institute Councils—Technical institutes, including the Technical Correspondence Institute, are controlled by councils with members representing business and industry, local authorities, the university, and governing bodies of secondary schools.

Community Colleges—Amendments to the Education Act in 1974 created a new category of institution "Community Colleges" designed to meet continuing education needs particularly in provincial centres. They are governed as Technical Institutes. The first community college was opened in Hawke's Bay in 1975.

Teachers' College Councils—Teachers' college councils have the usual administrative functions, combined with some professional responsibility for the training of teachers. They include representatives of education boards, of the Department of Education, the university, and of the teachers' organisations.

Private Schools—There are a number of private primary and secondary schools conducted by religious bodies or private individuals. Financial assistance is provided by the State subject to certain conditions. Academic bursaries, secondary school bursaries, and Maori scholarships may be tenable at private secondary schools. Assistance for transport by rail and road and (in some cases) a boarding allowance may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or secondary. School publications are supplied to private schools. From February 1970 the Government has made grants to independent schools on the basis of teachers' salaries. For the first year the proportion was 20 percent and the estimated cost $2.5 million; the proportion rose by stages to 50 percent in 1976. Associated government controls are applied before new independent schools can be built, and there is a requirement that after a transitional period, new teacher entrants to independent schools must possess certain minimum qualifications.

In October 1975, the Private Schools Conditional Integration Act was passed to enable the voluntary integration of private schools into the State system. Wesley College, a Forms I to VII boys boarding school, integrated on 1 February 1977. Other private schools are entering into negotiations. All Catholic schools have expressed their intention to integrate.

Co-education—Co-education applies at all stages of the school system. All State primary schools and some private primary schools teach boys and girls together. At the secondary level all district high schools and three-quarters of the State secondary schools have both boys and girls on their rolls, whilst the remaining quarter of the State secondary schools and nearly all of the private secondary schools are single-sex schools. A comparison of the total enrolment of all secondary schools (State as well as private) shows that over the last two decades, there has been a trend toward the provision of more co-educational than single-sex schools.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION—The following table shows the net expenditure from public funds on each branch or service of education for the latest March years.

Item1975–761976–77
Net ExpenditurePercentage of Total

*Programme VII included in Programmes I–VI in 1975–76.

Programme—$(000)$(000) 
I—Administration and General9,7609,9541.4
II—Pre-school Education8,5568,8991.3
III—Primary and Secondary Education—
      Administration and support services97,31529,3734.2
      State primary education175,720195,84328.0
      State secondary education117,101131,04018.7
      Assistance to private schools12,45519,0052.7
      Special education7,2768,3041.2
      Sub-total—Programme III409,867383,56554.8
IV—Higher Education—
      University education104,25094,13013.5
      Teacher training46,89643,5626.2
      Senior technical education43,80535,1765.0
      Community education1,6830.2
      Sub-total—Programme IV194,951174,55124.9
V—National Library3,8713,9360.6
VI—Research
Total—Programmes I to VI—Funded from Consolidated Revenue Account627,005580,90583.0
VII—*Education Buildings—
      Primary and secondary schools..68,1889.7
      Universities..28,5264.1
      Teachers colleges..6,5791.0
      Technical institutes/community colleges..15,2152.2
Total—Programme VII—Funded from Works and Trading Account..118,50817.0
       Total627,005699,413100.0

The foregoing figures do not include revenue received by universities from endowments, fees, etc., which are available for educational purposes.

The following table gives Government net expenditure on education and relates it to total Government expenditure in national accounting terms. The share of public expenditure devoted to education has increased significantly in relation to other forms of Government expenditure in recent decades (although there has been a decline since 1974). Much of the increased spending in earlier years was a direct consequence of roll growth.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet Education ExpenditureAs Percentage of Total Government Expenditure
Current (Salaries, etc.)*BuildingsTotalCurrent Education ExpenditureTotal Education Expenditure

*About 66 percent of current expenditure is on salaries of teachers and other staff.

†Provisional.

  $(million) percent
1973315.661.2376.813.916.6
1974375.065.2440.214.5x17.0x
1975440.086.6526.613.9x16.7x
1976505.3121.7627.012.6x15.7x
1977582.4117.0699.412.214.7

The following figures relate Government net expenditure on education to gross national product and mean population.

Year Ended 31 MarchExpenditure from Public FundsExpenditure as Percentage of Gross National ProductExpenditure per Head of Mean Population

*Provisional.

 $(000)percent$
1972335,0515.2116.48
1973376,8395.0128.51
1974440,2075.1146.96
1975526,6305.6172.08
1976627,0055.7x202.42x
1977699,4005.6*224.12*

An international comparison of public expenditure on education as a percentage of gross national product is given in the following table for selected countries. Educational expenditures in many countries have been rising twice as fast as national income. These figures, which refer mostly to the year 1974, are taken from the U.N. Statistical Yearbook 1976.

Public Expenditure on Education as Percentage of G.N.P.
Australia6.4
Austria5.3
Canada7.6
Denmark7.1
France4.7
Germany, Federal Republic of4.1
Italy5.2
Japan3.6
Netherlands7.9
New Zealand5.6
Switzerland4.8
United States6.6

International comparisons need to be treated with reserve because of the differing education systems and expenditure measures.

EDUCATION BUILDINGS—The increases in school population coupled with the increasing urbanisation of the population and the development of new housing areas has led to a continued expansion of the school building programme. Figures for additional permanent and temporary classrooms completed in recent years are shown below. The figures do not include classrooms to replace obsolete accommodation.

YearPrimarySecondary
1972847570
1973810551
1974888434
1975780480
1976979551
1977685407

The year 1976–77 was one of considerable activity in education building. One new secondary school, 13 new primary schools, 3 new intermediate schools, and 2 Form I-VII schools were opened during the 1976–77 school year.

Building expenditure for 1976–77 was as follows:

 $(m)
Universities (including equipment)28.5
Education buildings68.2
Technical institutes15.2
Teachers colleges6.6
Pre-school buildings1.2

Pre-school—Successive governments have given considerable priority to the provision of financial assistance to pre-school organisations for the establishment of buildings. A building code specifying the architectural and educational requirements of pre-school buildings was issued by the department in 1976. Education boards are now involved in the planning and maintenance of pre-school buildings, many of which are being sited on primary school grounds.

Primary—As a result of the falling total primary school roll experienced in recent years, the remodeling and replacement of existing primary school buildings, rather than the provision of additional school accommodation, occupies increasing prominence on current education board building programmes.

New primary school buildings continue to reflect the development and adaptation of the "open plan" concept to meet current educational needs. Many attractive and innovative designs have been developed by education board architects in concert with the teaching staff and the inspectorate.

Secondary—The S68 standard plan remains the principle design used for new secondary schools. Since its inception this plan has been modified a number of times to reflect changing requirements. The current version known as the S68 Mk4 is to be used for new secondary schools expected to open in the early 1980s.

Concurrently the department is developing a series of other standard secondary school plans. These include a school based on the Whanau design, the first block of which was completed during 1976 at Penrose High School. The design of a relocatable secondary school was also commenced during 1977. This will be used in areas where the long-term need for a school is uncertain.

Tertiary—The Government approved, as from 1 April 1978, the establishment of new community colleges at Northland (Whangarei), Rotorua, and Southland (Invercargill) and, as from February 1978, senior technical divisions of secondary schools at Tauranga Boys College, Gisborne Boys High School, Wanganui Boys College, and Timaru College. A programme of new buildings and alteration work was commenced during 1977. A programme of major work for technical institutes continued during the year. The major capital works programme for teachers colleges neared completion.

Proposals prepared in the Department of Education for building and other capital requirements of technical institutes and teachers' colleges are considered, before submission to the Government, by special works committees representative of the Department of Education, the Ministry of Works and Development and the Treasury. Major capital works undertaken in recent years have included 2 new primary teachers colleges (North Shore and Hamilton) and major additions made to the existing permanent colleges following the introduction of 3-year training for primary teachers. A college for the secondary division of the Christchurch Teachers College has been built on a new site adjacent to the University of Canterbury. Senior technical education has also required substantial new buildings or additions to existing buildings, the biggest single project being the Central Institute of Technology at Trentham near Wellington.

University Buildings—University buildings in use in 1965 had an area of 2 million sq ft; estimated requirements for 1980 are 8 million sq ft for teaching, library, administration, and student union buildings. Building and other capital requirements of universities are handled through the University Works Committee. This committee prepares for the approval of the Government an annual programme of projected expenditure on university capital works—buildings, land purchase, furniture and equipment, and subsidies on halls of residence. Expenditure in recent March years has been: 1970–71, $11.5 million; 1971–72, $14.6 million; 1972–73, $20.1 million; 1973–74, $18.6 million; 1974–75, $19.8 million; 1975–76, $26.4 million; and 1976–77, $28.5 million.

During 1974, the Government approved a building programme for the 5 years ending on 31 March 1979 setting out the University Grants Committee's latest assessment of the needs of the universities for capital works. Including the balances still to be spent on jobs under construction the total of the 5-year programme was over $148 million. New works included in the programme were teaching buildings for the growth of the existing universities and for the expansion of medical education.

Technical Institute Buildings—The current 5-year building programme for technical institutes which is kept under review by the Technical Institutes Works Committee is estimated to amount to $79.3 million, with $11.5 million allocated during 1977–78.

Teachers Colleges—The current 5-year building programme for teachers colleges is estimated to cost $15.95 million, with $5.6 million allocated for expenditure during 1977–78.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS—The numbers of scholars and students receiving instruction in educational institutions are shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers at 1 July.

Type of Institution197519761977

*Figures collected for the first time for 1976.

†Provisional.

‡Includes 521 kindergarten trainees in 1976 and 398 in 1977.

Pre-school
      Playcentres22,40022,801x21,396
      Kindergartens32,35734,07535,560
 54,75756,876x56,956
Primary
      Primary schools under board control390,444390,350391,696
      Intermediate schools77,31677,31574,334
      Forms 1 and 2 at Form 1 to 7 schools5,0155,6155,574
      Chatham Islands schools155146170
      Correspondence school9631,0211,209
      Departmental special schools587482430
      Department of Social Welfare schools89112
      Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind989596
      Private primary schools50,74549,89949,309
 525,323525,012522,930
Secondary
      State secondary schools184,249x193,894195,770
      District high schools and area schools3,0162,8562,793
      Correspondence school709762728
      Departmental special schools*..109151
      Department of Social Welfare schools*..291292
      Private secondary schools31,80432,37932,281
 219,778x230,291232,015
Technical
      Technical Correspondence institute19,63421,71222,022
      Other technical institutes—
      Full-time students3,6664,2604,729
      Part-time students33,09135,151x31,801
      Technical classes at other institutions—
      Full-time students174253217
      Part-time students59,32462,49764,688
 115,889123,873x123,457
Teacher training
      Teachers colleges7,2117,5216,837
      Kindergarten training centres568
 7,7797,5216,837
University institutions
      Full-time internal students25,87528,374x29,130
      Part-time internal students11,05611,522x11,719
      Extra-mural students5,1916,311x6,857
      Agricultural short courses280173212
      Medical short courses344018
 42,43646,420x47,936
       Total965,962x989,993x990,131

TEACHING STAFF—Statistics of full-time teaching staff at all educational institutions are shown in the following table.

Institution19751976
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*Includes 621 manual training assistants employed at manual training centres in 1975 and 635 in 1976.

Kindergartens18358363992995
Primary—
      State*7,40012,10019,5007,79212,34320,135
      Private2701,4171,6872961,5431,839
 7,67013,51721,1878,08813,88621,974
Secondary—
      State6,5904,07010,6606,5783,80110,379
      Private7737141,4876896641,353
 7,3634,78412,1477,2674,46511,732
Technical institutes and New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute1,2322311,4631,3212281,549
Teachers colleges468142610459165624
University institutions2,5012562,7572,5272662,793
       Total19,23519,76539,00019,66520,00239,667

The levelling-off in the growth of primary school rolls which, on the basis of known births, is expected to continue until at least 1982, combined with a higher retention rate of teachers in the service, has resulted in a favourable staffing situation in primary schools. This has enabled all primary schools from 1977 to be staffed on a ratio of 1 teacher to every 31 pupils.

Improved pupil-teacher ratios have also been implemented for secondary schools.

The growth in school and university student population is illustrated by the diagram below, which is drawn on a logarithmic scale.

SCHOOL POPULATION

Overseas Students—Overseas students attending New Zealand institutions at 1 July 1976 totalled 4,469, of whom 1,341 were from the South Pacific area (excluding Australia) and 2,680 from South-East Asia.

Projected Students—A projection of education rolls, made in 1976 by the Department of Education and based on policies and trends at the time, is set out in the following table.

PeriodRolls
Pre-School KindergartenTotal PrimaryTotal SecondaryTertiary*

*Equivalent full-time students.

Actual 197634,100525,000230,30058,500
Projected— 198043,600520,500229,10062,700
198555,600526,200238,70063,900

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS: School Certificate—A School Certificate Examination conducted by the Department of Education is taken by the majority of pupils at the end of three years of secondary education. The course of each candidate must include English, history or geography or a foreign language, mathematics or science. A candidate may enter the examination in any number of subjects up to six and is credited with passes in the individual subjects in which he or she is successful.

Sixth Form Certificate—A new certificate was introduced in 1969 to replace the Endorsed School Certificate. Sixth Form Certificates are awarded to pupils who have satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year on a single-subject basis—to a maximum of 6 subjects—beyond the level of School Certificate.

University Entrance—Pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a four years' secondary school course. Pupils not accredited for entrance to university may qualify by passing the University Entrance Examination which is conducted by the University Entrance Board.

The University Bursaries examination and the University Entrance Scholarship Examination, taken by secondary school pupils usually in Form VII, are also conducted by the University Entrance Board; they are competitive examinations for supplementary awards for study at a university.

Higher School Certificate—Higher School Certificates are awarded after a 5-year course to pupils who have been accepted for entry to the Sixth Form and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 2 years; and to pupils who have obtained a qualification recognised by the University Entrance Board for admission to a university in New Zealand and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year.

Examination passes at other than university examinations are set out in the following table.

YearSchool Certificate*OtherUniversity EntranceUniversity Entrance ScholarshipUniversity Bursaries A and B

*Includes Certificate of Attainment.

†The number includes Trained Teachers Certificate, Diploma of Teaching, Technical Teachers Certificates, City and Guilds of London Institutes Examination. Technological, Engineers, and Surveyors Assistants and Public Service Shorthand Typists Examination are not now administered by the Department.

‡Includes both accredited passes and passes by examination.

197246,98792514,2911313,588
197347,6651,20314,4291333,600
197449,200x854x14,5171393,731
197552,34684415,3341383,858
197654,88080416,6561594,269
YearTechnician Certificate 3-year CourseN.Z. Certificate 5-year CourseCertificates Issued
IntermediateFinalTradeAdvanced TradeIndustrial Practice
19722469646472,38463628
19732941,2007192,51074720
19743341,4348822,11564516
19753187529742,241621125
19766911,4501,1631,475647229

For undergraduate study, 159 university junior scholarships and 4,269 bursaries were awarded in 1976.

Comparative figures for the number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination and the number of passes by accrediting and by examination are given in the following table.

YearPasses
CandidatesAccreditedBy Examination
197224,57211,9652,326
197324,84012,3902,039
197424,84912,2002,317
197524,40712,5162,318
197628,32913,5913,065

SPECIAL EDUCATION—Whenever possible, handicapped children are enrolled with other children, at ordinary pre-school services and in ordinary classes at their local primary or secondary school. When necessary, buildings are modified, special equipment is provided, and ancillary staff are appointed to assist their teachers, who are advised on suitable teaching programmes by the Department of Education inspectors of schools and psychologists, and by other specialist advisers.

A comprehensive range of special education services has been developed for those handicapped children whose special needs cannot be met in ordinary classes through these measures. Small part-time groups for handicapped pre-school children are attached to selected kindergartens and playcentres. Education boards provide special classes and resource centres at primary schools or separate special schools for pupils who are backward (mildly or moderately mentally-retarded), intellectually handicapped (more seriously mentally retarded), deaf, visually handicapped, physically handicapped or maladjusted.

The education boards also administer special classes in hospitals, special schools in psychiatric hospitals, speech clinics and reading clinics, and employ itinerant teachers to assist children in ordinary classes who have a hearing handicap or serious reading difficulties.

Special classes for deal, backward, and maladjusted pupils are provided at selected secondary schools.

The Department of Education itself administers 6 residential schools—2 for deaf children (which also admit day pupils). 2 for backward children and 2 for maladjusted children. The Department also provides the teaching services in Department of Social Welfare institutions for socially maladjusted children, and the education service in penal institutions administered by the Department of Justice.

This network of special schools and classes is supported by 3 specialised guidance services which also assist children in ordinary classes. The Hearing Assessment and Guidance Service offers guidance to the parents and teachers of deaf children. The Visiting Teacher Service provides liaison between teachers and the parents of pupils whose progress at school may be hampered by home difficulties. The Psychological Service provides a comprehensive diagnostic and advisory service for children who have learning or social difficulties. It maintains a close liaison with all secondary school guidance staff and with all health, education, and welfare services for children. These three services assisted approximately 35,000 pre-school and school age children in 1976.

In 1976 some 1,460 teachers were employed in the special education and guidance services. A total of 14,467 children were enrolled full-time in special classes and schools, and 4,545 children were enrolled at speech or reading clinics.

The following table shows the number of pupils receiving full-time special education at primary and secondary schools (including intermediate, correspondence, and special schools) at 1 July 1976.

GroupBoysGirlsTotal
Visually handicapped144124268
Visually and hearing handicapped81119
Hearing handicapped5894971,086
Speech handicapped3,0231,3954,418
Physically handicapped162132294
In health camps139129268
In hospitals387279666
Intellectually handicapped1,0527671,819
Backward2,4981,4513,949
Home emergency13922
Maladjusted403235638
Educationally retarded491156647
Correspondence school:
      Individual programme10761168
      Home training section11986205
       Total9,1355,33214,467

In addition, 417 male and 218 female adults received full-time special education in 1976.

The Department of Education co-ordinates the administration and development of the special education services for handicapped children through the district senior inspectors of primary and secondary schools.

PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION—Children below the age of 5 are not enrolled in State primary schools except in a very few areas. Pre-school education is provided mainly by 2 national voluntary organisations which receive support from the State. Some assistance from Government is also available to voluntary educational organisations for handicapped pre-school children, and to voluntary social welfare agencies for children needing full day care. Other institutions include informal family play groups, private and community kindergartens, and play centres which operate independently and receive no direct Government financial assistance.

The Government pays the full cost of new sites for free kindergartens and recognised playcentres, a subsidy of $4 to $1 for buildings, and a subsidy of $2 for $1 for equipment. The maintenance of the buildings is the financial responsibility of the Government. In areas of special need, the cost of buildings and equipment may be met in full by the Government. Grants are made available to both organisations for administration and day to day running costs.

In July 1976 there were 34,075 children enrolled at 424 free kindergartens and 24,065 children at 697 recognised playcentres. About 13,000 children below 5 years of age were enrolled in other pre-school groups.

Kindergarten teachers are now trained in 7 of the teachers colleges and the Government gives training and student allowances on the same basis as primary and secondary teachers. Playcentre supervisors are trained part-time within their own associations and work on a part-time voluntary basis.

PRIMARY EDUCATION—At the age of 5 years a child may enter, and at 6 years must enter, a primary school or, if living in an isolated area, must enrol with the primary department of the Department of Education's Correspondence School. The top 2 years of the primary course, Forms I and II, may be taken at an intermediate or a Form I-VII school. On completing instruction in Form II, usually after 8 years' school attendance, a child normally enters Form III of a secondary school, or alternatively the secondary department of a district high school. All children are required to attend school until they reach the age of 15 years.

The curriculum of the primary and intermediate schools, as set out in the syllabuses of instruction, covers oral and written language (including reading and handwriting), mathematics, social studies, art and crafts, science, physical education (including swimming), health education, music, end, for some children in Forms I and II, French. At the Forms 1 and II levels, creative crafts such as woodwork, metal work, homecraft, and sewing are available to both girls and boys.

Teachers have the assistance of specialist teachers in a variety of fields, including science, physical education, art and crafts, reading, mathematics, music, Maori language programmes, and language programmes for Maori children. Itinerant specialists are also available to help teachers in small rural schools and teachers of infant classes. Specialist assistance in helping children with special needs is provided by the psychological service, speech therapists, visiting teachers, and advisers on deaf children.

The Basic Equipment Grant enables all schools to build up an adequate supply of teaching equipment and is supplemented by free textbooks, basic primer readers, art, craft, and physical education equipment. Schools also receive a book grant to purchase additional textbooks and other reading materials.

State Primary Schools—The figures set out in the following table refer to all pupils in state primary schools and intermediate schools and departments, including Chatham Islands schools.

YearSchools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments)Pupils at 1 JulyPupils at 30 SeptemberPupils at End of Year
19722,250464,310480,836490,002
19732,234465,773484,350495,961
19742,218466,858485,360496,442
19752,215467,915484,058498,434
19762,194467,811483,807494,722

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the State primary schools, Chatham Islands schools, and Forms I and II at intermediate schools at 1 July in each of the years shown.

Age, in Years19751976
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal

*Includes 55 under 5 years of age.

Includes 106 under 5 years of age.

529,83028,48158,311*31,11129,86460,975
629,54527,99157,53629,56827,96457,532
728,59027,68056,27029,39428,13257,526
829,06527,92256,98728,96027,80856,768
927,18226,12553,30728,37627,31755,693
1027,52525,78853,31327,95226,83354,785
1129,11528,02257,13727,26125,61152,872
1228,27026,49754,76727,16325,69052,853
1310,8908,11519,00510,2987,44917,747
14541345886380218598
15886615410878186
16 and over104138242137139276
       Total240,745227,170467,915240,708227,103467,811

Size of Classes—The sizes of classes at State primary schools at 30 September are shown in the following table.

YearPupils in Class
19 or less20–2425–2930–3435–3940 or moreTotal

*Figures not available, included under 25–29.

1973**7,4715,2443,26026116,236
1974**9,0445,8951,8972316,859
19752,1192,2623,7976,0472,8614917,135
19762,1152,6774,0386,1882,4364017,494

NOTE—Prior to 1970 special classes were excluded from this table, but from 1970 onwards special classes are included in the official size of class statistics. The table includes intermediate schools and departments and Chatham Islands schools.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1976 there were 72,717 Maori children attending State primary schools and 3,106 attending private primary schools. Staffing is more liberal in schools with a large proportion of Maori or other Polynesian children.

Intermediate Schools—Pupils on the rolls of the 140 intermediate schools and 1 intermediate department at the end of 1976, numbered 77,315. Of all children in Forms I and II at State primary schools at 1 July 1976, 71.6 percent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the latest 3 years were as follows.

Age, in Years197419751976
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
10 and under280458738284401685361402763
1112,53513,48926,02412,62813,47326,10112,46813,26025,728
1219,10918,17437,28319,23417,99537,22919,27718,25337,530
137,3675,49612,8637,3855,57112,9567,4605,47912,939
14303174477184144328209127336
151410241071710616
16 and over123 213
       Total39,60937,80377,41239,72537,59177,31639,78737,52877,315

Private Schools—The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools, including primary departments in private secondary schools.

YearNumber of SchoolsPupils atTeachers
1 July30 SepEnd of yearMaleFemaleTotal
197233150,85952,12452,3732531,4071,660
197332550,71151,86151,8752751,3851,660
197432550,57451,49551,6042841,4021,686
197532850,74552,02552,6262701,4171,687
197632749,89951,20151,8342961,5431,839

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic Church schools of which there were 250 in 1976 with 43,030 pupils.

SECONDARY EDUCATION—The secondary syllabus is based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialisation within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate stage. All types of secondary schools are required to give all pupils during the first 2 years of their secondary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

The following table shows the number of secondary schools in existence during each of the latest 5 years.

YearState Secondary SchoolsSecondary Departments of District High Schools and Area SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsTotal
197222355114392
197322950114393
197423348112393
197524142109392
197625437106397

District high schools are State primary schools with a secondary "top" and the basic course is academic, as in the normal secondary school. Where staffing and equipment allow, special courses are provided in agriculture, commercial practice, and domestic science. In 1976, 27 of the State secondary schools enrolled only boys and 23 schools only girls, with 204 schools co-educational. Most of the private schools are single-sex schools. There were 76 State secondary schools with over 1,000 pupils.

The inspection of secondary schools is carried out by inspectors of secondary schools attached to the Department of Education. In 1976 there were 63 inspectors. The entitlement is 69. The numbers of each sex attending schools providing secondary education at 1 July 1976 were: State secondary schools, 98,882 boys and 95,012 girls; secondary departments of District High Schools, Area Schools, and reorganised District High Schools, 1,431 boys and 1,425 girls; private secondary schools, 16,071 boys and 16,292 girls; full-time pupils in the secondary department of the Correspondence School numbered 275 boys and 487 girls.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1976, 26,823 Maori pupils were receiving secondary education. This number comprised 24,469 pupils attending State secondary schools and 2,354 pupils attending private secondary schools.

About 1 in 8 secondary pupils in the North Island is now Maori. There is a steady improvement in the number of Maori pupils passing the School Certificate Examination and progressing to Forms VI and VII.

Secondary School Hostels—In 1976 there were 44 hostels for State secondary schools. A programme for 5-day hostels at certain rural secondary schools is being developed to strengthen rural secondary education.

Attainment Levels of State and Private Secondary Schools—The following table gives particulars of pupils who left schools providing secondary education, classified according to years of attendance and attainments.

Year of Attendance19751976
First1,1251,022
Second7,0496,746
Third17,09218,350
Fourth17,59620,094
Fifth10,97611,973
Sixth and over395540
       Total54,23358,725
University scholarship138166
University bursary3,7074,079
Higher School Certificate2,9803,133
University Entrance7,6338,266
Sixth Form Certificate6,7828,040
School Certificate (three or more subjects)5,9596,445
School Certificate (one or two subjects)7,0617,314
No attainments19,97321,282
       Total54,23358,725

Probable Destination of State and Private Secondary Pupils—An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils who left secondary schools during 1976 is contained in the next table.

Probable DestinationBoysGirlsTotal
Further full-time education at: University3,7632,2786,041
      Teacher training: 
      Attending university full-time129275404
      Others (including kindergarten)1709531,123
      Technical institutes9832,2233,206
      Other full-time education102342444
To join labour force:
      Professional, technical and related workers—
      Technicians9794531,432
      Health services1132,7552,868
      Others402437839
      Clerical work1,7606,5098,269
      Sales work1,2242,7023,926
      Service work (including Armed Forces)—
Entering apprenticeships2,8915143,405
      Others1,0679261,993
      Agriculture, fishing, hunting—
      Entering apprenticeships9741211,095
      Others2,4814012,882
      Production, transport equipment operators, and labourers—
      Entering apprenticeships4,1222744,396
      Others3,2321,6954,927
      No occupation or unknown5,7865,68911,475
       Total30,17828,54758,725

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT—The Curriculum Development Unit, established in 1963 following a recommendation by the Currie Commission on Education, has an essentially, co-operative role in New Zealand education. The principal functions of the unit are to prepare co-ordinate and revise curricula and syllabuses at all school levels; to provide handbooks and resource materials for teachers; to initiate pilot schemes of new courses and methods; to bring new or revised methods to the attention of teachers; and to assist teachers themselves in developing curricula at the local school level. Professional officers in the unit have responsibility for development in areas including science, mathematics, English, social studies, Maori language and studies, foreign languages, music, libraries, audio-visual media, drama, physical education, reading, and examinations and tests.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools—In order to give children in country districts the advantage of special equipment and more specialised teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been a feature of the last 30 years. Three types of composite schools have been developed in recent years to bring together larger concentrations of children from Form 1 and above: Form I—VII schools; area schools; and district high schools (reorganised type).

The first Form I-VII school was opened in 1962 and by 1976 there were 37 of these schools. This type of school usually developed from the translation of the secondary department of a district high school with the addition of Form I and II pupils from neighbouring primary schools. They receive improved staffing, accommodation, and equipment in the endeavour to promote equality of educational opportunity for country children.

However, a large number of Form I and II children remain in the country districts too small to support a Form I-VII school.

In these districts, area schools and district high schools (reorganised type) have been established.

The area school is a unified school providing education from the infant stage to Form VII for all children in the immediate vicinity, and from Form I upwards for children from contributing schools over a wider area. The first area school was opened in 1969, and more recently a number of district high schools have been reorganised and are operating on the same basis. At 1 July 1976 there were 18 of these schools.

Transport and Boarding Allowance—In recent years school transport facilities have been steadily developed until now almost 17 percent of the total school population receive assistance in one form or another. Most of these pupils are conveyed by buses under contract to education boards or operated by the Department of Education.

The trend towards consolidating small country schools and improving educational facilities in larger rural centres has been paralleled by the continuing movement of families into provincial towns and cities. These factors are resulting in only a relatively small increase in transport services.

Pupils carried by the school transport services have increased from almost 113,000 (including rail transport) in 1971 to 121,235 in 1976, while the number of separate transport services has increased from 2,550 to 2,727. These services covered a total of over 39,000,000 kilometres for the year, at a cost of over $15 million.

School boarding bursaries were increased in 1977 from $400 to $500 a year. The number of pupils receiving boarding bursaries decreased slightly to 3,671 in 1976 compared with 3,673 the previous year.

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding allowances as at 1 July 1976, according to the type of school attended.

Type of SchoolPupils on RollPupils Transported to SchoolPupils Receiving Boarding Allowance
State primary schools467,81165,43586
State secondary schools (including district high schools)196,75049,9332,047
Private primary schools49,8992,007127
Private secondary schools32,3793,8601,411
       Total746,839121,2353,671

Correspondence School—Correspondence classes are conducted for the education of children in very remote areas and for those unable to attend school because of lengthy illness or other causes. A corporate school spirit is developed through the school badge and uniform, daily radio lessons, club activities, the publication of a school magazine, periodical exhibitions of work, and by parents' and ex-pupils' associations. The personal link between the pupil and the school is strengthened by a number of teachers visiting pupils in their homes. At a district level, school day and school week gatherings are held in order to enable pupils to gain the opportunity of social education by working in the classroom.

Young persons in employment, including uncertificated teachers of small State primary schools, inmates of Department of Justice institutions, pupils of secondary schools who require examination subjects which their own schools cannot provide, officers of Government departments, and others who are unable to attend classes at secondary schools, also receive tuition as part-time students of the Correspondence School. In addition, the school enrols teachers for the Diploma in Teaching courses.

In 1976 there were 8,440 pupils on the roll of the Correspondence School, 1,021 being in the primary division, 762 full-time and 5,336 part-time students in the secondary division, 791 students taking the Diploma in Teaching course, 286 students studying for Trained Teachers Certificates, 216 students in the Retraining Programme, and 28 students undertaking the teaching for intellectually handicapped children course. The staff of the school consists of the principal, deputy principal, an associate deputy principal, 174 secondary teachers, 38 primary teachers, 8 tutors, 5 resident teachers and 48 clerical personnel.

A new building to house the school will be completed in 1978.

Agricultural Clubs—More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in livestock rearing and crop growing which are judged annually on the club field day, usually held at the school or local centre.

The agricultural instructors and advisers on school science employed by the education boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the farmers' organisations.

HEALTH SERVICES—Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Health and Medical Services) of this Yearbook.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS—In 1976 there were 9 teachers colleges (North Shore, Auckland, Auckland Secondary, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch (Primary and Secondary), and Dunedin), with staffs totalling 624 (459 males and 165 females). At 1 July 1976 there were 9,573 students in training. This number includes 1,771 holders of secondary teacher studentships (Division U) and 230 holders of primary teachers studentships (Division S) who were attached to teachers colleges while attending universities as full-time students as part of their training for teaching and 676 graduates undertaking training for secondary teaching.

The minimum entry qualification for admission to primary teacher training (Division A) and for entry to the secondary 3-year commercial course and the 3-year home-economics course, is Sixth Form Certificate with acceptable grades in four subjects. University Entrance is required for the 3-year Division B course in general secondary subjects, and the 1-year Division C course is for graduates. Other specialist secondary training courses of 1 year's duration for adults include woodwork and metalwork, commercial, music, and Maori language and these courses have various minimum entry requirements.

The following table shows the number of students in these three divisions at 1 July.

YearDivision ADivision BDivision C
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
19731,4934,671243183448371
19741,5214,358252200317400
19751,4144,186244195319409
19761,3064,188213189332344
19771,0703,929161202357359

The normal course of training for Division A students is a period of 3 years at a teachers college, followed by a further period of 1 year as a probationary assistant attached to a State primary school. The primary teachers' studentship scheme which was introduced in 1965 enables a number of selected students to attend university full time as part of the primary teaching course. Specialist studentships are available to selected students who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of deaf children.

Although the normal period of training for teaching is 3 years, courses may be shortened to 2 years for students partway through degree courses and to 1 year for university graduates and specialists courses such as are mentioned above for secondary teaching as well as those courses for speech therapists or teachers of the deaf or children with handicaps.

A concurrent secondary teacher training course (Division B) was introduced in 1966. The course provides for up to 3 years of concurrent training at a university or a technical institute and at a teachers college, and is available at Auckland Secondary Teachers College and at the secondary division of Christchurch Teachers College.

Successful Division B students may complete the teachers college course with six units of a degree or equivalent and apply for a Teachers University Studentship for a year of full-time university study in order to complete a degree. Under the provisions of this concurrent course a successful student may commence his career of teaching as a teacher-trained university graduate in 4 years. This is the same period of time taken by students who are awarded a studentship for 3 years full-time university study (Division U) followed by the 1-year course of teacher training for graduates in Division C.

A total of 1,251 students were admitted to secondary training courses in 1976 compared with 1,611 in the previous year.

The ages and classification of students at teachers colleges at 1 July 1976 are shown in the following table. Division E students are included in this table; Division E is a 2-year course for kindergarten student teachers.

CourseUnder 17 Years17 Years18 Years19 Years20 Years21–24 Years25 years and OverTotal
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMFCombined

NOTE—In addition the following students on studentships and bursaries were enrolled at teacher colleges in 1976:

Division A—
      First year11245484132624841554133645320473871,4081,795
      Second year536464115527941401189941744041,3091,713
      Third year2214347012349620821652684281,2711,699
Specialist615125112125266995
Graduate (1-year course)11112684343561131192
       Total112474891681,1152421,1682596924214631682491,3064,1885,494
Division B—
      First year82021753241363571
      Second year1581616112914335650106
      Third year1611188472267121104225
       Total9202715273029115863311213189402
Division C Total3232482648157332344676
Division E—
      First year1628931183251304256260
      Second year7890332341233258261
       Total162167121515592537514521
Other courses23664851582330705994334428
       Total 1976115475961881,3732571,4012938538129023544291,9525,5697,521
 MFT
Division S (primary teacher studentship)71159230
Division U (secondary teacher studentship)8778941,771
Division B (secondary bursar studentship)262046
Secondary teacher bursaries325

FREE TEXTBOOKS IN SCHOOLS—Free textbooks are supplied to all primary and secondary pupils in both State and private schools. Under the free textbooks scheme, the books remain the properly of the school controlling authorities and are issued on loan to pupils. The school authorities have a wide discretion in their choice of suitable books.

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE—This service, which is financed by the Department of Education and administered by the National Library of New Zealand, aims at giving children access to the best literature. Books for children and young people are sent on repository loans or on exchange to approximately 2,973 schools. The schools served are primary, both public and private, intermediate, and district high schools. Pupils of the Correspondence School also receive books regularly.

All schools, including secondary schools, receive additional books on request. Some 2,034,391 requests were filled during the year ended 31 March 1977.

AUDIO-VISUAL TEACHING AIDS—A varied series of programmes linked with the curriculum are broadcast each school day from all main national radio stations. Special lessons are also broadcast each day for Correspondence School pupils.

National Film Library—The National Film Library was founded in 1942 at the Government Film Studios, Miramar, by combining the libraries of the Tourist and Publicity Department, the Department of Education, the High Commission for Great Britain, and the High Commission for Canada. It remained under the control of the Tourist and Publicity Department until 1945 when, the full stock of the Army Educational Welfare Services was incorporated into the National Film Library and the responsibility for the National Film Library was handed over to the Department of Education.

In January 1955 a branch was opened in Auckland and in January 1966 a further branch was opened in Christchurch. Films are now distributed to the north half of the North Island by the Auckland branch, to the South Island (excluding the Nelson Education Board area and Marlborough north of Kaikoura) by the Christchurch branch, the remainder of the country by the Wellington branch. In addition, the Wellington office also offers a service to the Chatham Islands and to Western Samoa, Tokelau, Niue, Pitcairn, and the Cook Islands.

Each year the library spends substantial amounts on films, and stocks have been further augmented by valuable gifts from many of the diplomatic missions, from other Government departments, from various organisations, and from commercial enterprises. In fact, the National Film Library now holds most of the diplomatic film libraries which are supplemented by the embassies as they deem necessary.

In its 16 mm film section the library has over 44,000 prints of some 11,000 titles, and each week over 12,000 films are issued to some 3,000 educational institutions and over 4,000 community organisations. In addition to films, the Wellington branch also offers a record and cassette loan service, an audio-tape reel/cassette copying service, and a sample sheet music service. These services at present are limited to educational institutions only.

The record library has in stock some 10,000 records, comprising 6,000 titles, Issues during 1977 totalled 11,300. In 1977 the record library also commenced a cassette loan service. The tape duplicating section each year issues 40,000 copies of the 3,000 masters at present held by the library and sells recorded cassettes to schools at cost. The library also holds full copying rights on a further 25,000 masters.

Museums—To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers training college in each of the four main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

School Publications—The School Journal, an illustrated magazine, is published in four separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. Parts 1 and 2 are published 5 and 6 times a year, while Parts 3 and 4 for the senior classes appear four times a year. Bulletins dealing mainly with literature and language, social studies, science, history and geography, particularly of New Zealand, are published every year for primary and secondary schools. These and other publications are prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private.

A wide range of syllabuses, textbooks, and handbooks is published for secondary and primary schools.

Te Wharekura, a bulletin in the Maori language published three times a year, and Te Tautoko a supplementary reader, are issued free to secondary pupils studying the Maori language. Te Purapura is a publication for primary pupils who are learning Maori.

The Education Gazette is published by the department twice a month. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State and private schools.

Education, a magazine for teachers, is published 10 times a year, as is Education News, a publication designed mainly for parents and administrators.

A number of publications are issued for the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand to accompany the broadcasts to schools, and for the Vocational Guidance Office; and the department also publishes occasional reports and studies.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE—Assistance with careers, and with occupational and educational choices, is offered through Vocational Guidance Centres in Auckland, Papatoetoe, Hamilton, Napier, Wellington, Lower Hutt, Christchurch and Dunedin. An information service about occupations, training, entry requirements, etc. is available to members of the public, who may make appointments with vocational guidance staff for individual assistance or to discuss the vocational plans of their children.

Vocational guidance officers also provide a support service to secondary schools and encourage them to develop vocational programmes for their students. Within the schools, either career advisors or, in a growing number of schools, guidance counsellors, are responsible for helping students with their vocational plans. Vocational guidance personnel assist by visiting the schools in the district and interviewing young people the school staff feel need extra help. They provide the schools with up-to-date information about training, employment and occupations. Seminars for school personnel are arranged to help keep them informed.

School work is supplemented by careers exploration courses of various kinds which enable young people to gain a more realistic understanding of the opportunities available to them.

Adults wishing or needing to change their occupation, and who are seeking second chance training or education, can also be assisted by vocational guidance officers.

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION—The system of university education in New Zealand has evolved in recent years from a federal university with constituent colleges to a system of separate universities and a university college of agriculture. These are the University of Auckland, the University of Waikato (at Hamilton), Massey University (at Palmerston North), the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury (at Christchurch), and the University of Otago (at Dunedin), with Lincoln College a constituent agricultural college of the University of Canterbury.

At the centre there is the University Grants Committee which functions under the Universities Act 1961. The primary function of the University Grants Committee is to advise the Government of the needs of New Zealand for university education and research. It determines the allocation of grants of money which it recommends for appropriation by Parliament to meet these needs, and reviews the expenditure by the universities of money appropriated by Parliament. The University Grants Committee is also responsible for the award of scholarships, and through its statutory subcommittee, the Research Committee, for the distribution of a Government grant for research. Another statutory subcommittee of the University Grants Committee, the Curriculum Committee, has responsibility in respect of regulation of courses for degrees and diplomas. In the performance of its duties it is required to have regard to the comparative equivalence of courses.

The Universities Entrance Board was established on 1 January 1962 to maintain a common educational standard for admission to the universities. The board prescribes the conditions of examinations for University Entrance, Entrance Scholarships, the University Bursaries Examination, and Fine Arts Preliminary.

The special problems of legal education are the province of the Council of Legal Education which prescribes the examination requirements of candidates for admission as barristers and solicitors of the court.

The characteristics of university systems vary from country to country. They show marked differences in levels and sources of finance, public or private; in the constitution of the student population and the means adopted to support it; and in the relationships of the universities to other forms of tertiary education. The characteristics of the New Zealand university system are distinguishable from those of other national systems and may be partly explained as reflecting the New Zealand point of view. Thus, in our welfare state, there has arisen a public expectation that most of the finance required for the capital and running needs of the universities, and for a contribution towards the support of students by bursaries, will come from the public purse.

The test which applies for entrance to university is not financial but achievement at secondary school. In a country where equality of opportunity for self-improvement still counts for much, the right to a university education is conferred by qualifying for University Entrance. It is true that the relatively open system of admission entails some uncertainties about student numbers and planning university facilities for them. It also leads to higher failure rates arising from the mixed quality of the first-year intake; but this situation is improving in some respects without depriving the universities of their characteristics of open entry. Seventh Form work is now taken by the majority of entrants to the universities, and the fees charged and bursaries paid are now more closely geared to successful study after entry. It is likely, too, that the strengthening and diversifying of courses offered in the technical institutes will enable them to cater better for some students and improve the efficiency of tertiary education as a whole, In the meantime, however, relatively ready access to university education associated with flexible degree structures meets the national needs well and at a cost which is modest by overseas standards.

Apart from the income from students' fees and the relatively small amounts now available to some of the universities from endowments, the block grants from the Government determine the income of the universities to meet their running costs for each 5 years. Under the block grant system that has been in operation since 1950, grants have been calculated and approved 5 years in advance to enable the universities to plan their activities ahead in the knowledge of what their income from the Government will be. They are block grants in the sense that they are not itemised and their detailed calculation is not disclosed to the universities. This has the effect of making the governing bodies—the university councils—not only responsible for arranging their budgets within their incomes, but also free to make their own decisions about the allocation of new expenditure among the many competing academic proposals which arise within the institutions. With these grants the university councils have an obligation to expand existing classes as necessary where student numbers increase and, subject to the scrutiny of the Curriculum Committee, to offer such courses as they see to be warranted by the demands put on them by the students and by the New Zealand community in which they exist.

The universities regard as their primary function the pursuit and dissemination of knowledge through study, teaching, and research. They have always endeavoured to perform this function with due regard to the specific needs of New Zealand, through their professional schools and through the general disciplines.

The universities in Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago, besides offering courses in the faculties of arts, science, commerce, law, and music, specialise in certain fields. The University of Otago provides courses in medicine and dentistry, mineral technology, home science, and physical education; the University of Canterbury provides courses in engineering (mechanical, electrical, civil, agricultural, and chemical) and fine arts; the University of Auckland provides courses in architecture, fine arts, engineering (mechanical, chemical and materials, electrical, engineering science, and civil), and medicine; and the Victoria University of Wellington provides courses in architecture, public administration, and social science. Massey University provides courses in agriculture, horticulture, food technology, and veterinary science, as well as courses in arts and science, and also provides extra-mural tuition in a number of subjects to students throughout New Zealand. The University of Waikato offers courses in the schools of humanities, social sciences, and science and, in association with the Hamilton Teachers College, offers courses in its School of Education leading to a Diploma in Education and the degree of Bachelor of Education.

Free University Education: Scholarships—The most important awards for those entering university are the University Junior Scholarships. These scholarships are tenable for 3 to 6 years, depending upon the minimum time in which the holder, studying full time, could complete the recognised course taken under the scholarship. The University Junior Scholarship provides a scholarship allowance of $300 a year and is tenable with a tertiary bursary (see Bursaries below). These scholarships together with privately endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Scholarships awarded during degree courses include Senior Scholarships awarded by the individual universities and Lincoln College (and of a value to be determined by them). The various university institutions also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The scholarships awarded at the end of the university course, which are listed in full in the university calendars, include the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarships, post-graduate scholarships, the Macmillan Brown Agricultural Scholarships, the Shirtcliff Scholarships, the Gordon Watson Scholarship, the B.P. Post-graduate Scholarships, the William Georgetti Scholarships, the Unilever Scholarships, the Edward and Isabel Kidson Scholarships, the McKee Trust Post-graduate Scholarships, the Rutherford Scholarships, and the National Research Scholarships. Most of the post-graduate scholarships and post-doctoral fellowships are tenable in New Zealand. The other awards are in general tenable overseas.

Bursaries—A new system of bursaries for students entering upon a university course was introduced in 1976.

Fees Bursaries are awarded to students following part-time or full-time courses who have qualified for entrance to the university. These bursaries provide payment for tuition fees.

Tertiary Bursaries are awarded to students who hold University Entrance and Higher School Certificate, or certain Sixth Form qualifications, and are tenable for any recognised course at a university in each year of the bursary. Also, a student who is credited with 2 units in any year or 3 units over a period of years will qualify for a tertiary bursary.

A tertiary bursary may be held with a fees bursary. It allots $26 per week for a full-time student, increasing to $29 a week in the fourth and subsequent years. The allowance is abated by $11 if the student is not required to live away from home to attend university. Special rates are available for married students with dependants.

The tertiary bursary is also tenable for full-time courses at technical institutes and teachers colleges.

Supplementary Allowances of $150 or $100 a year are awarded to students who gain A or B passes in the University bursaries examinations.

All these bursaries are subject to strict rules as to terms and suspension. A student who in any year does not pass in a prescribed number of units or subjects will have his bursary suspended and it will not be reinstated unless in a subsequent year of study he is credited with a prescribed number of passes.

Further details of the amounts payable and other conditions for these bursaries are available from university liaison officers and from the Head Office of the Department of Education, Wellington.

Students—In 1976 there were 39,896 students actually in attendance at the seven universities; 4,444 were graduates, 36,817 undergraduates (1,365 were enrolled in more than one course). In addition, there were 6,311 students attached to the various universities, but exempt from lectures, and 213 students who were taking short courses. Comparable figures for the latest 5 years are given in the following table. Students now exceed 1 percent of the population.

YearStudents Attending LecturesExempt StudentsTotal
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
197223,47711,5751,7991,37838,229
197322,97512,2481,8851,66438,772
197422,68512,8142,0232,09039,612
197523,13013,8012,4772,71442,122
197624,43715,4592,8833,42846,207

The following table gives particulars of internal students who were taking definite courses at universities, including Lincoln agricultural college, during 3 recent years. Additional information is published in Education Statistics of New Zealand available from the Department of Education, Wellington.

Course197419751976
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture1,1321621,2941,8082722,0801,6533201,973
Architecture46876544599115714588142730
Arts and music4,9346,88811,8224,7596,88211,6414,9867,47812,464
Commerce3,5535514,1043,5126914,2033,6458444,489
Divinity51960461359581573
Education7331,3182,0517611,4962,2578171,7472,564
Engineering2,274692,3432,160432,2032,328642,392
Fine Arts135154289369330699149156305
Technology316663821766424036876444
Home Science2102101981981192193
Law2,0955232,6182,0686582,7262,0077252,732
Medicine and Dentistry1,2995121,8111,4255681,9931,3876142,001
Physical Education138157295168148316151140291
Science4,8511,7926,6434,7061,8586,5644,4561,6906,146
Surveying822841351114619515210
Veterinary Science3017637715760217317133450
Others1,2235541,7771,1877921,9792,2171,5543,771
       Total23,58513,11936,70424,03614,19938,23525,32315,90541,228
Adjustment for students enrolled in more than one course9003051,2059063981,3048864461,332
       Total22,68512,81435,49923,13013,80136,93124,43715,45939,896

Students on the books of the university institutions in 1976 are shown in the following table.

AucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Universities
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMF
Internal students
      Full-time4,7882,4801,1629982,2031,0642,7781,6223,4771,4739801603,2201,96918,6089,766
      Part-time1,7021,5443744115288881,4251,0491,1301,11077135936785,8295,693
      All internal students6,4904,0241,5361,4092,7311,9524,2032,6714,6072,5831,0571733,8132,64724,43715,459
External students
      Taking courses at Massey University8310722322,2302,888104142566855602,5503,297
      Taking courses at own university1153057393615215956333131
      All external students19813727392,2302,88814317871702141162,8833,428
      All students6,6884,1611,5631,4484,9614,8404,3462,8494,6782,6531,0571734,0272,76327,32018,887
      Overseas students included in total560144125581997251823249514886222791172,262793

Internal students by years of university study in 1976 are shown in the following table.

Year of University StudyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Internal StudentsOf these, Overseas Students numbered*
MFTotalMFTotalMFTotalMFTotal

*Includes 116 external students.

First5,1052,9558,0609111,8512,7626,0164,80610,822529241770
Second4,0032,3776,3806091,0361,6454,6123,4138,025417181598
Third3,4292,0095,4384967031,1993,9252,7126,637381123504
Fourth2,4941,1713,6657316921,4233,2251,8635,08830293395
Fifth1,5366202,1567925231,3152,3281,1433,47121970289
Sixth or later2,0416342,6752,2908883,1784,3311,5225,85341485499
       Total18,6089,76628,3745,8295,69311,52224,43715,45939,8962,2627933,055

The ages of internal students at universities in 1976 are shown in the following table.

Age in Years at 1 JulyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Internal Students
MenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotal
Under 18430500930603003604908001,290
182,9732,0665,0392006838833,1732,7495,922
193,3772,1035,4802355447793,6122,6476,259
203,2791,7945,0733164077233,5952,2015,796
212,4821,0563,5384774659422,9591,5214,480
221,8846232,5075973589552,4819813,462
231,2203211,5414662867521,6866072,293
247651999644312496801,1964481,644
25–291,4755412,0161,5169052,4212,9911,4464,437
30–344112246356595021,1611,0707261,796
35–391621322943923807725545121,066
40 and over1502073574806141,0946308211,451
       Total18,6089,76628,3745,8295,69311,52224,43715,45939,896

Holders of bursaries in 1975 and 1976 are shown in the following table.

Bursary19751976

*Fees and allowances bursary.

†Fees and allowances boarding bursary.

Fees bursaries (part-time)1,1966,007
Fees bursaries (full-time)2,1002,506
Abated tertiary bursary7,241*8,889
Unabated tertiary bursary 10,15411,665
Marriage allowance185
Supplementary allowance $1507,3887,686
Supplementary allowance $1004,6374,992
Teachers university310165
Secondary teachers bursary132
Teachers bursary1,1681,195
Teachers college students3,2773,284
State service study awards115126
Other5
       Total25,58034,024

The nature of residence of full-time students at universities in 1976 is shown in the following table.

Nature of ResidenceAucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Full-time StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered
MFTotalMF
Living at home4,1255714562,0812,1311546776,6543,54110,19511242
In halls of residence5574728814837403821,3883,2101,6934,903492201
Boarding546171322162325671291,2195031,72222790
Sharing flat or house with other students1,8619221,3781,3671,7375372,4506,6343,61810,2521,057315
Other, and not known17924230307175458914111,3029337
       Total7,2682,1603,2674,4004,9501,1405,18918,6089,76628,3741,981685

Occupations of part-time university students in 1976 are shown in the following table.

OccupationMalesFemalesTotal
No occupation other than study558326884
University staff521312833
Teacher5985571,155
Teachers college student7521,8482,600
Government employee1,0065561,562
Local body employee175144319
Private employment1,7306272,357
Self-employed person26994363
Housewife5984989
Full-time student at technical institute142034
Other occupations201225426
       Total5,8295,69311,522

Total of assisted overseas students at New Zealand universities in 1976, by the nature of the assistance, are shown in the following table.

Nature of AssistanceMalesFemalesTotal

*Includes MARAC, bilateral aid, ASPAC, and Commonwealth Education Scheme.

Assisted by the New Zealand Government—
      Colombo Plan23377310
      Island Territories Scholarships9413
      Commonwealth Scholarships19625
      Aid to Africa Scholarships15217
      Others*19726
 29596391
Other assistance from—
      Fijian Government31233
      Samoan Government88
      Other Governments (Malaysia, Perak, Hong Kong)19524
      WHO, UNESCO, Fulbright, CES8412
      MARA Awards11
      Other47653
 11417131
      All assisted overseas students409113522

Graduates—The numbers of degree graduates from New Zealand universities for the year ending with the graduation ceremony in 1975 and 1976 are shown in the following table.

CourseFirst DegreePost Graduate
1975197619751976
Arts1,6811,692435416
Music294557
Law3353511422
Science1,1291,149227249
Commerce5455743916
Philosophy148143
Divinity18348
Architecture52529
Engineering:
      Civil1461605141
      Electrical95114
      Mechanical10973
      Chemical5142
      Science76
      Agricultural46
Agriculture5132
Horticulture66
Forestry Science231551
Agricultural Science91822627
Horticultural Science232962
Medicine and Surgery15216757
Medical Science26
Dental Surgery435161
Veterinary Science464511
Social Science74801522
Home Science162631
Pharmacy172211
Technology44392
Education10912067
Fine Arts81012
Others126
       Total4,9065,0091,009980

Time Taken to Complete First Degrees—The following table shows the time taken to complete first degrees for the year ending with the graduation ceremonies in 1976.

DegreeMinimum TimeMinimum Time + One YearMinimum Time + Two YearsMinimum Time + Over Two YearsAll Students
TotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomen
Bachelor Honours
      Arts4125834928
      Law447611527
      Science17653111218954
      Engineering1465621545
      Other2761286
       Total4349632451472100
Bachelor
      Arts7374674252301861043501761,698977
      Commerce18137158241341898657185
      Law107281302834528329964
      Science631236299681262579171,135346
      Engineering135373124152474
      Medicine and surgery1894542312324648
      Agriculture and horticulture881137111313912
      Other92454219183501120278
       Total2,1608721,2063745451556262134,5371,614

Staff—The staffing of university institutions in 1976 is shown in the following table.

PositionFull-time StaffPart-time Staff
MFTotalMFTotal
Teaching posts—
      Full professor37063762121
      Senior lecturer, associate professor, reader, lecturer-in-charge1,2901011,39112413137
      Lecturer67510477918236218
      Junior lecturer, assistant lecturer16350213871299
      Instructor and demonstrator, engaged in teaching33538817158975
       Total, established teaching posts2,5312662,7971,2312191,450
Other staff-
      Technician, research assistant, and other technical staff not engaged in teaching8432641,107134558
      Library staff793193985887145
      Administrative staff, clerical and office staff3279001,22720122142
      Groundsmen, tradesmen, cleaners etc.48616465078183261
       Total, non-teaching staff1,7351,6473,382169437606

Of the full-time teaching positions, there were 64 positions filled temporarily and 119 not filled, and of the part-time positions 2 were filled temporarily and 33 not filled.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION—In 1945 technical education was a variant form of secondary education. It was provided by separate technical high schools and technical departments in other secondary schools, and was avowedly vocational in purpose. During the past 15 years technical education has been transferred from the secondary to the tertiary sector of the educational system. Technical high schools as such no longer exist. Vocational education and training is now provided by 14 technical institutes and one community college, supported by apprentice and other tertiary vocational courses provided in 6 secondary schools.

This transformation is the result of a number of policy decisions which have created a demand for types of education and training in the post-secondary phase of a person's career.

The passing of the Apprenticeship Act 1948 made it compulsory for apprentices to undertake technical classes; the establishment, in 1949, of the Trades Certification Board and of national trades examinations gave point and direction to apprentice studies; the passing of the Technicians Certification Authority Act 1958 and the introduction of New Zealand Certificates gave encouragement to technician studies; the approval by the Government, in 1969, of the establishment of technical institutes in centres where there is sufficient technical work to occupy 10 tutors full-time advanced the opening of minor institutes in provincial centres by several years; the approval by the Government, in 1972, of the establishment of community colleges allows traditional technical education to be provided in conjunction with other educational services meeting the specific circumstances of the local community, particularly in the non-metropolitan provincial centres. There has been increasing investment in technical institute buildings: more than $14.7 million was spent in the 1975–76 year alone. Technical institute bursaries, which were introduced first in 1965, have now been discontinued and from 1976 technical institute students on full-time yearlong courses are eligible, along with university students and teacher trainees, to receive the Standard Tertiary Bursary.

Technical education in New Zealand is still developing and expanding at a very rapid rate. It is being developed through national and regional technical institutes as well as smaller technical institutes or community colleges in provincial centres. The Central Institute of Technology, which gives a predominantly national block course service but also provides some special courses of a national character such as pharmacy, chiropody and occupational therapy, opened in 1960. In 1972 the institute moved to its permanent accommodation at Heretaunga—a building project costing $5.5 million. Included in this contract is a 500-bed hostel.

Technical institutes have been opened in the 6 main centres of population, and, with the opening of Manukau Technical Institute in 1970, the first of a number of suburban institutes was opened to serve the Greater Auckland area. The second, Carrington, opened in 1976. Since 1971, institutes have also been opened in the provincial centres, Invercargill, Nelson, and New Plymouth.

The full list of technical institutes is as follows; Auckland, Manukau, Carrington, Waikato, Taranaki Polytechnic, Palmerston North, Central Institute of Technology, Petone Technical Institute, Wellington Polytechnic, Nelson Polytechnic, Christchurch, Otago Polytechnic, Southland Polytechnic, and the New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute. In addition, the Hawkes Bay Community College, which has enough technical education courses to justify calling it a small technical institute, opened in 1975. More community colleges or technical institutes are likely to be opened in the next 10 years in Northland, Rotorua, Porirua, Wanganui, Timaru, and Tauranga.

A standing committee on relationships in tertiary education has been set up to consider the problems of placement of courses and the rationalisation of tuition in the technician, semi-professional, and professional fields.

Trade and Technician Courses—The beginnings of technician training date from the early 1950's and were a result of the efforts of the engineering profession to specify a role for a highly-trained person whose qualifications were derived, not from study in a university school of engineering, but from theoretical studies taken in conjunction with industrial experience. The New Zealand Certificate of Engineering was introduced in 1954. This led, in 1960, to the establishment of the Technicians Certification Authority to prescribe courses and syllabuses and conduct examinations for technicians, and to grant diplomas or certificates.

The term "technician" covers a wide field, but national New Zealand Certificate courses have been devised for engineering, draughting, draughting (architectural), science, building, land surveying, quantity surveying, and commerce. In addition, there is a certificate in garage management, and courses leading to technicians' certificates in radio telegraph and telephone engineering, surveying, automotive engineering, electricity, and civil draughting, and for forest rangers and hospital officers. The instruction for New Zealand Certificate courses is part-time, or by regular intermittent periods in full-time classes, or by correspondence from the Technical Correspondence Institute supplemented in science and workshop subjects by short practical courses at an institute. In a few cases, study can be taken at full-time courses in a technical institute, but for the first 2 or 3 years only. All New Zealand Certificates require students to be suitably employed during the last 2 stages of the course.

During the last 15 years there has been a spectacular increase in the range of technician courses and the number of students studying for New Zealand Certificates. New Zealand Certificates awarded annually have increased from 29 in 1960 to 1,163 in 1976.

Apprenticeship training accounts for over 40 percent of the enrolment load of technical institutes. Examination prescriptions for a full range of trade courses and shorthand typing are prescribed by the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, which conducts 2 qualifying and trade certificate examinations for apprenticeship, and usually an advanced trade certificate examination to be taken at about the end of the apprenticeship. Up to 31 March 1976, this Board has issued 43,356 New Zealand trade certificates and 11,782 Advanced Trade Certificates.

Apprentices in almost all trades are obliged to spend at least 3 years in vocational part-time studies. However, the long established pattern where apprentices attend evening theory classes and short block or day release courses for practical training, is undergoing a radical change. An incentives scheme, approved by Government in 1974, subsidises the wages of apprentices on block training and encourages the adoption of lengthened block courses, particularly in the first year of training.

In addition to the national trade and technician courses, there are a large number of courses available which have been organised regionally to meet local demands. These include courses in commerce, work study, electronic data processing, journalism, and in industrial and commercial design. In addition, instruction is given on the examination syllabuses devised by independent organisations such as the New Zealand Society of Accountants, the Chartered Institute of Secretaries, and New Zealand Institute of Valuers.

Statistics of students taking full-year courses in technical education at 1 July 1976 are shown in the following table. Courses are classified according to the International Standard Classification of Education.

Full-time Courses: As at 1 July 1976MalesFemalesTotal Students
Level 3
      Fine or applied arts6271133
      Commercial and business511,5281,579
      Medical and paramedical27384411
      Trade, craft, and industry375197572
      Other courses192847
Level 5
      Commerce and business studies195115310
      Science221537
      Medical and paramedical185595780
      Engineering2345239
      Surveying29130
      Draughting7827105
      Trade, craft, and industry38341
      Other courses115114229
       Total1,4303,0834,513
Part-time Courses: As at 1 July 1976Day or Day and Evening CoursesEvening Courses OnlyCorrespondence CoursesMalesFemalesTotal
Level 3
      Technicians' Certification Authority courses86301,6961,7051071,812
      Apprentice3,2026,68811,76520,84780821,655
      Vocational2,82216,8615,55311,54113,69525,236
Level 5
      Technicians' Certification Authority courses4,2862,1903,0137,8461,6439,489
      Professional and advanced technical3,6433,4243,0098,2841,79210,076
Level 9
      Non-vocational3,92049,0982,01214,34840,68255,030
       Total17,95978,29127,04864,57158,727123,298
Block Courses Held During 1976Student-weeksMalesFemalesTotal Students
Trade courses78,14919,6191,27820,897
Technicians Certification Authority courses and N.Z. Certificate courses16,4502,6972562,953
Other courses28,2443,2656693,934
       Total122,84325,5812,20327,784

New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute—The Department of Education established the Technical Correspondence School (now the Technical Correspondence Institute) in 1946, and from small beginnings, with a staff of a half dozen or so, this institute now employs over 450 full-time staff. With over 20,000 students on the roll, the Technical Correspondence Institute is easily the biggest single educational institution in the country. It teaches one-third of all students enrolled at technical institutes in New Zealand. The Institute writes, illustrates, and prints the material for all the courses offered by it, as well as writing and publishing authoritative textbooks on technical subjects with accent on New Zealand law, practice, and conditions. The eight text books at present in print are widely used not only by Technical Correspondence Institute students but also by all other technical teaching institutions, tradesmen and technicians, and even the general public.

The Technical Correspondence Institute parallels the teaching standards of other technical institutes, and also provides instruction in many subjects not taught elsewhere. Of the apprentices who sit the annual examinations of the Trades Certification Board, some 40 percent are directed to enrol at the Technical Correspondence Institute.

The Institute also prepares a large percentage of candidates for the Technicians Certification Authority examinations in engineering, building, commerce, draughting, and science as well as for other professional and industrial examinations Voluntary students studying for advanced trade, technician or professional qualifications comprise about two-thirds of the roll The Technical Correspondence Institute offers over 900 subjects, from ladies' hairdressing, plumbing, and agriculture to airline pilots' licence and professional accountancy. To enrol at the Technical Correspondence Institute students must be engaged in the vocation relevant to their course of study, hence their correspondence studies are supported by practical experience. In some cases, laboratory work or practical instruction is required as part of the course. In such cases students attend short block courses at the Central Institute of Technology or other institute.

Vocational Training Council—This council was established by the Vocational Training Act 1968. Its responsibilities and activities are set out in Section 32, Employment. There are 26 industry training boards set up under the council.

EDUCATIONAL ATTENDANCE LEVELS OF ADULT POPULATION—The 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings included a question on the highest post-primary places of learning attended by all those 15 years and over. An analysis is set out below; where persons have attended more than one institution they have been included only once in the most comprehensive category. The secondary category excludes those who attended a teachers college, technical institute, or university.

InstitutionUrban AreasNew Zealand
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*Excludes those who also attended a teachers college, technical institute, or university.

†Sole tertiary institution attended.

Secondary*394,236492,742886,978603,641705,6241,309,265
Teachers college6,92526,31933,24410,11938,75848,877
Technical institute110,74735,811146,558143,86942,806186,675
University67,23629,94097,17682,89935,574118,473
Teachers college and university11,35517,38428,73915,82722,94638,773
University and Technical Institute12,8503,20416,05414,9333,64118,574
Other tertiary32,19953,11985,31843,95470,176114,130
       Total635,548658,5191,294,067915,242919,5251,834,767

NEW ZEALAND COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH—The Carnegie Corporation of New York was instrumental in founding the New Zealand Council for Educational Research in 1933 and supported it with grants for 10 years. Since 1945 the council has been supported principally by State funds, the remainder coming from contributions from educational bodies, philanthropic foundations, business organisations, and its own trading operations. It has remained, however, under independent control as provided for in the New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1945 (updated in 1972).

In its research programme, the council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and its main publications (55 research reports and 25 shorter studies in education) include critical surveys of major policy issues in New Zealand education and accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. These have brought about or helped reshape major developments in such areas as secondary, university, and adult education, intermediate schools, consolidation of rural schools, and care of children with special needs. The Council also publishes a number of periodical publications, newsletters, the New Zealand Journal for Educational Studies, and a special research information package for teachers.

Since the 1930s, the council has served as the main source of supply for overseas and locally standardised educational and psychological tests used by universities, Government agencies, hospitals, business firms, and schools. In 1965 the council established a special Test Development Division to produce achievement tests designed specifically to suit the curriculums of New Zealand schools. Known as the Progressive Achievement Tests, they are now used extensively in schools throughout this country, and also in Australia.

The council employs its own permanent research staff as well as temporary' research fellows or project assistants, and it also assists honorary research workers in other institutions such as universities, teachers colleges, and schools. Its current research programme includes major projects related to educational planning, the supply of qualified people in the community, teaching practices, Maori and pre-school education, and services for children with special needs. The council also acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters and maintains eight local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Palmerston North, Hamilton, Manukau, and Suva (Fiji).

MAORI EDUCATION FOUNDATION—The Maori Education Foundation Act 1961 established the Maori Education Foundation for the general purpose of promoting and encouraging the better education of Maoris and of providing financial assistance for that purpose. The capital resources of the foundation are $2,304,000. The principal purpose for which the Board of Trustees is empowered is to apply the income of the foundation to the educational and vocational training of Maoris. This includes the provision of bursaries to assist Maoris attending secondary schools or any New Zealand or overseas university, agricultural college, or institution of similar status; the provision of post-graduate scholarships for Maoris holding university degrees or diplomas; and the making of special research or study grants to Maoris undertaking special research or study projects. The bulk of the foundation's income is expended on grants to individuals. During the 1977 academic year, assistance totalling $575,000 was granted to nearly 1,500 pupils and students. The bulk of the grants were towards the cost of board and tuition of secondary boarding school pupils. In a number of cases, Foundation grants are a necessary supplement to other scholarships and awards. Financial assistance towards the cost of tertiary studies was made to 239 students in 1977.

POLYNESIAN EDUCATION FOUNDATION—In 1972 a Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation was set up on similar lines to the Maori Education Foundation. The aim is to assist New Zealand resident Pacific Islands families to further the education of their children. In 1977 the foundation granted awards to 33 tertiary students and 8 secondary school students.

EDUCATION OF MAORI AND PACIFIC ISLAND CHILDREN—In 1970 the National Advisory Committee on Maori Education, which was set up to advise the Minister of Education on all aspects of Maori education, made recommendations to the Minister concerning curricula, staffing of schools, pre-vocational, and vocational training, teacher training, adult education, and early childhood education. The committee's report, published in 1971, stated that to achieve equality of opportunity for Maori children, measures that were unequal had to be taken. It was further stated that Maoritanga—the sense of Maorihood and of traditional Maori culture and values—had to be recognised as a worthy study for teachers and for all New Zealand children, Pakeha and Maori alike This has led to a far-reaching recognition in schools of Maori culture and traditions.

At the end of 1977 the committee met to evaluate progress and to determine further lines of development. A report was made to the Minister in April 1978.

Policies have been introduced to meet the recommendations in the original report, especially through teacher training. All teachers colleges now have courses in Maori language and Maori studies, and a special one-year course to train Maori-English speakers to teach Maori in secondary schools, began in 1974. Recently emphasis has been placed on educational provision for Pacific Islanders living in New Zealand. The establishment of a Pacific Islanders Educational Resource Centre, an English language teaching unit, and a supplementary training course for Pacific Island-trained teachers are evidence of this.

The educational performance and progress of Maori and Pacific Island children as a whole group has not equalled that of other New Zealand children for a variety of complex reasons, largely linguistic and cultural. Generally, Maori and Pacific Island children have not stayed on as long at secondary school and relatively few of those doing so have continued their education at the tertiary level. In some cases, this has not been possible economically. Strenuous efforts have been made, particularly in recent years, to encourage Maori children to continue their education by increasing the appreciation of their problems on the part of teachers, by creating school situations conducive to a desire for further education, and by involving parents more closely in their children's education. Practical assistance has been given by increasing the number and value of scholarships awarded each year by the Department of Education. The Maori Education Foundation and the Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation have also given valuable help to Maori and Pacific Island students at the senior levels of education particularly. The importance of, and the opportunities available in, vocational education beyond the secondary school level have been brought to the notice of young Maori and Pacific Islanders, through the schools and through vacation courses. Special trade training courses have been set up and extended.

If the efforts to upgrade the education of Maori and Pacific Island children are measured solely in terms of the proportion who pass subjects in the School Certificate examination, who obtain a trade certificate or a New Zealand certificate at the technician's level, or who complete a university degree, it is obvious that there is still much room for improvement. But it is fair to state that a good deal has been achieved at all levels of education and that there is a greater awareness of the value of education on the part of children and parents. In the whole country, too, there is a better informed appreciation of Maori and Pacific Island society and culture and of the need for special measures so that all children of these races in New Zealand receive the maximum benefit from the opportunities offered them.

CONTINUING EDUCATION—Under the Education Amendment Act 1974, a new definition of "continuing education" was introduced which, among other effects, removed a previous legal distinction between non-vocational and vocational education.

In 1973 a feasibility study was published on the setting up of a community college in Hawke's Bay and the college opened in 1975. Further studies have been conducted and community colleges in Northland and Rotorua will open in 1978.

National Council of Adult Education—The functions and powers of the National Council of Adult Education are set out in the Adult Education Act 1963. The council advises the University Grants Committee, the Director-General of Education and other bodies on adult education, co-ordinates and conducts pilot projects and experiments, maintains a national library and documentation centre on adult education, and publishes occasional papers and reports as well as a periodical entitled Continuing Education in New Zealand.

University Extension—Although full responsibility and control of their continuing education activities rests with the universities, they use various systems to ascertain the views and in some cases to seek advice from various community interests.

The typical extension department in each university has a director in charge and a staff of lecturers in a range of academic disciplines. In addition to teaching, the lecturers may plan and develop sections of the department's programme or have special responsibility for a geographical area and its programme. All 6 universities now carry out extension work, and show marked differences in their approaches and systems of organisation. A large number of part-time lecturers supplement the activity of the full-time staff (numbering about 40). The work is carried out by various methods —lecture courses, study conferences, seminars, schools of varying length (both residential and non-residential), and correspondence courses. While most universities continue to provide substantial extension programmes of liberal studies for the general public, there has been a rapid increase in programmes designed for specialised groups, largely occupational. Some of these are national in scope.

Secondary Schools—Most organised adult education is being done by evening classes in secondary schools. Since the revision of the School Certificate regulations to allow single subject passes, there has been some increase in adult classes leading to the School Certificate Examination, but there is a very wide range of other examinable and non-examinable courses. A new provision to the Education Act in 1975 allows adults to return full-time or part-time to secondary schools, in day classes. There has also been an increase in the number of technical institutes which cater for a wide variety of education interests.

Correspondence Education: Main agencies are the Correspondence School (about 5,500 adult students), the extramural studies of Massey University (6,311), and the Technical Correspondence Institute (21,721).

Voluntary Agencies—Many voluntary organisations make some provision for continuing education. For most of them, such as the Play Centres Federation, continuing education is incidental to other purposes. The following two organisations, however, have continuing education as their primary purpose.

Workers' Educational Association—District councils of the Workers' Educational Association exist in Auckland, West Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, and are now funded annually through the Department of Education. In Auckland and Canterbury there is a full time organising tutor provided by the technical institute. District councils, in their own right, organise additional courses, summer schools, public forums and seminars. The co-ordinating body is the New Zealand Workers' Education Association which also publishes the WEA Review, and operates a postal book discussion scheme on a national basis. It also, jointly with trade unions and the National Council of Adult Education, conducts a postal education scheme for trade unionists and their wives.

Countrywomen's Co-ordinating Committee—This national liaison committee of the Countrywomen's Institute and the Women's Division of Federated Farmers has regional committees at Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin and over 50 district committees. The organisation co-operates with other adult education organisations and also arranges classes of special interest to women.

Community Centres—Community centres on an experimental basis were opened some 20 or more years ago at Feilding, Christchurch and Westport. These centres received some assistance, directly or indirectly, from public funds. A new "Community Action Programme" in the Wairarapa region is being supported by Government under the provisions for community centres.

INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION—The Directorate for International Education provides technical advice to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on education activities under New Zealand's Overseas Aid Programme in South-East Asia and the Pacific and in Commonwealth countries outside that region. It provides advice to the Government on academic questions affecting the education and training of private overseas students in New Zealand. It also provides advice on New Zealand participation in the activities of international educational organisations, including the Commonwealth and the South-East Asian Ministers of Education Organisation.

In the Pacific, the directorate on request fills about 70 teaching and educational administrative positions. Officers and teachers serving in the islands have their service, grading, and superannuation rights protected. Advisory visits are made to most of the islands, and supplies of resource material and apparatus are sent regularly to some countries. The directorate is continuing to print books in the vernacular for some areas.

The directorate operates a scholarship system giving island students education and training not otherwise available. In 1977 299 students attended New Zealand schools, trade centres, teachers colleges, universities, Government departments, private firms, and technical institutes. In 1976 there were 8,510 candidates from 91 island schools for the New Zealand School Certificate compared with 7,492 from 84 schools in 1975, and 1,862 candidates from 41 schools for the New Zealand University Entrance Examination compared with 1,566 from 38 schools in 1975.

The directorate is responsible for bi-lateral educational and cultural exchange programmes such as the New Zealand – Japan Exchange Programme. The latter is funded by the New Zealand and Japanese Governments and provides financial and administrative support for a wide range of activities for school teachers, artists, and scholars. Since the programme began operation in 1975, a primary objective has been the development of Japanese language learning and teaching in New Zealand. It is serving as a model for the development of programmes with other countries.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development—Membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1973 enabled New Zealand to participate in the activities of its Education Committee. In 1975 New Zealand also became a member of OECD's Centre for Educational Research and Innovation and the programme on educational building.

SECTION 7 B—SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC SERVICES

"… the way in which society handles the commodity of information, which is what changes us, and the commodity of data, which are the raw materials of information, will prove to be critical in the good management of affairs and even to the preservation of human freedom." (Platform for Change, Stafford Beer, 1975.)

Societies around the world seem to be only just realising that information is a commodity as are resources, goods, and money, and in the long term may be the most valuable. However, it only achieves this value if it is communicated effectively to the desired audience. UNESCO has been closely concerned with the problems of communication, its most recent international endeavour in this being to organise in Florence in April 1977 a colloquium on the "free and balanced flow of information between developed and developing countries". In New Zealand, the National Commission for UNESCO organised a conference of co-operating bodies in November 1977 on the subject of communicating change. Several of the recommendations from this conference had a bearing on science, its relationship to change, and how it is communicated to the decision-makers, who regulate change, and the general public, who are influenced by change. The conference hoped that the National Commission could take the initiative in stimulating production of non-technical reports of scientific and technological developments, including developments in the media of communication, so that research could also be done on the impact of the media (and the changes they communicate) on cultural, family, and community values. For example, research has shown that processing of agricultural products is not only possible but economically advantageous; this could lead to development of processing industries in country towns, leading to rejuvenation of rural communities and enabling links with Maori culture to be retained; however, the changes in roles within town families made possible by the availability of such processed foods, which are quick and convenient to prepare, may also further erode the traditional concept of the nuclear family. The public, as well as decision-makers, have a right to know what change is occurring so that they can choose whether or not such developments are wanted.

The sort of problem that can arise when proper communication is not made is exemplified by the controversy over genetic engineering, i.e., the scientific manipulation of the inherited characteristics of organisms in the hope of creating useful new organisms. Although information that this work was being done in New Zealand was available, it was not in a form the public understood until some scientists, following overseas precedent, pointed out in the mass media some of the dangers of the work. As a result of the public reaction it was shown that safety precautions in New Zealand were generally as stringent as the best overseas, being based on those recommended by the U.K. Williams Committee. A Royal Society of New Zealand Committee under Professor Irvine has been set up to look into the adequacy of these guidelines, and to advise the Ministers of Health and of Science and Technology on whether the guidelines should be extended to all microbiological work and whether any legislation is needed. Some MPs and the New Zealand Association of Scientists have asked for a full public inquiry. It is likely that most of the criticism of those doing this research would have been forestalled if their work had been communicated in assimilable form to the public at the outset.

As New Zealand is isolated geographically, the technology of communication is important. The National Research Advisory Council established a Communications Working Party to make recommendations on research in this field. New Zealand operates ionosondes at bases extending from Rarotonga to Antarctica, and their data and magnetic observations are used internationally in communications research and practice. As well as serving international needs, New Zealand has its own needs accentuated by this isolation and by its obligations in Antarctica and its 200 mile marine exclusive economic zone. In particular this latter development calls for good communications if enforcement is to be practical. Based on the assumption that efficient communications are available, the Ministry of Defence has constructed mathematical models of how to protect what have now become New Zealand's fishery resources. From gaming theory some of the problems of inspection of foreign vessels have been shown up.

New Zealand's geographical position is also important for satellite tracking. There is close liaison with the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration, in particular with their Landsat programme. Several investigations have been done by various Government departments, as a result of which improvements have been possible in mapping, assessment of land use, hydrology, and vegetation, delineation of geological features, detection of forest diseases, and calculation of crop yield. In 1978 this facility is being extended by the Seasat programme, which enables ocean resources to be monitored. It is hoped that New Zealand will eventually have its own receiving station in Wellington. Through links with another satellite, the Peacesat communications link, which has a terminal at Wellington Polytechnic, there have been several interchanges between scientists in the last few years. In 1977 the session of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science congress dealing with communications was transmitted by satellite, and scientists in Australia were able to have a full discussion session with colleagues in New Zealand and in other Pacific nations.

Within New Zealand, communications between scientists have been improved by the development of links between learned societies. In the last 15 years, specialist societies have become affiliated with the Royal Society of New Zealand, and there are now over forty member bodies. On the 110th anniversary of its foundation in October 1867, the Royal Society's new science centre in Wellington was opened by the Minister of Science and Technology. Although it is not the complete building originally envisaged, it contains a large lecture hall and kitchen facilities and several meeting rooms and offices for use by member bodies.

The Royal Society was associated with the New Zealand Science Teachers Association and the Kiwanis Clubs in organising the first New Zealand Science Fair, sponsored by Philips Electrical Industries. School children have taken part in regional science fairs for some years; Philips, to commemorate their Golden Jubilee in New Zealand, brought together winning participants from Auckland, Bay of Plenty, Dunedin, Hamilton, Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, and Wellington, and sponsored the winner's participation in the European contest.

In the report of the Task Force on Economic and Social Planning, chaired by Professor Holmes, the far-reaching effects of developments in communications were noted. The efficiency of electronic transmission of information could reduce the significance of physical location, cut down transport needs, and it was hoped, slow the drift of population to the cities. More important, the availability of communications technology should facilitate the planning process and enable New Zealand to handle the commodity of information in ways compatible with good management and the preservation of freedom.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—An important development over the past year has been the establishment of a computer network, i.e., a series of nodes or computer terminals at each of the main centres at which there are DSIR divisions, namely, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Auckland, Palmerston North, and Lincoln. Although not established primarily for communication (the user committees meet in person rather than using the network for their deliberations), it is likely that there will be considerable transmission of data, and eventually research articles, "on line" via the nodes. Main access is to the State Services Commission's Cumberland Computer Centre, although other computers are used.

New Zealand does not neglect the flow of information to developing countries, a noteworthy part of DSIR's research effort being given as aid mostly to Pacific and South-East Asian countries. DSIR operates Totokoitu Research Station at Rarotonga, where work is done on production and processing of fruit and on soils. The department has also been involved in a UN Development Programme survey of pests and diseases of crops in South Pacific countries. The Co-ordinating Committee for Offshore Prospecting (South Pacific) has also had considerable assistance with compilation of regional geological data and maps and publication of results. Assistance has been given by various members of staff to Tonga and Western Samoa on ground water supplies, to Indonesia and the Philippines on geothermal energy, to Indonesia on marine sciences and mineral surveys, to Singapore on engineering metrology, to Tonga on soils, and to Niue on chemical engineering.

The secretariat for the Association for Science Co-operation in Asia has been transferred to DSIR with New Zealand's offer to host a conference of member countries. The main topics discussed at this conference as a basis for bilateral aid projects were geothermal and solar energy, and infant, dairy-based, and plant-protein foods.

Agricultural Production and Processing—Whatever progress is made in industrialisation in New Zealand, agriculture will remain the foundation of economic well-being. Although agricultural industry has shown its ability to adapt to changes induced by market forces, it would be much less painful to design and prepare for change rather than simply adjust to external pressures. The difficulty, of course, is to forecast correctly the direction of change and to be ready to adopt any plan for change. One possibility is to construct mathematical models of systems, so that possible alternative changes can be charted. DSIR last year organised a conference about management of dynamic systems in New Zealand agriculture.

The seasonal production of agriculture not only is difficult to manage but also has serious disadvantages in terms of under-utilisation of plant, high labour turnover, and uneven cash flow. Research emphasis is moving towards an integrated approach, so that, for example, breeding programmes for plants and animals would take processing and marketing into account as well as prevention of disease and raising of yields. An example is some of the work on forage crops being done at Plant Physiology Division. In an evaluation of crops and intensive systems of animal production ("feedlots") designed to even the production of animals for slaughter so that the meatworks season is extended, the quality composition and amounts of feed are adjusted by computer to the weight-gain requirements for the animals.

Another aspect of agricultural research in which DSIR has been involved is economising on the energy input. Primitive societies gain as much as 10 times the food energy from their agriculture as they expend in producing this food, whereas some technologically advanced societies produce, as food, as little as one-tenth of the energy expended in fuel. Work is being done on means of reducing this energy expenditure, as fuel for farm machinery, for manufacture of fertilisers, for transport from the farm, for processing, and for final distribution to the customer. It has to be reduced without incurring financial and/or production losses.

The major emphasis in Grasslands Division's pasture research programme is to study the management of pasture ecosystems in the major regions and to achieve both maximum production and utilisation of pasture through farming systems in which pasture production is closely matched to animal requirements, and inputs of energy, fertiliser, and labour are minimised. For Northland pastures, for example, where soil fertility is often low and rainfall erratic, rotational grazing and split lambing improve management flexibility, reduce stress on pasture during critical periods, and provide a better spread of stock supply for the freezing works. Lotus is being tested as a better adapted legume than clover. For hill pasture studies, a pasture management experiment of 10 self-contained farmlets has been established at Ballantrae. For dryland pastures in Canterbury, research has concentrated on pasture species that survive without irrigation, and considerable work has been done on production of grass seeds and on pollination of red clover. High country pastures in the Mackenzie Basin are being subjected to oversowing trials, and the effects of ground cover on seedling establishment are being assessed. Finally, the cool temperate pastures of Southland have problems of poor winter growth and inadequate nitrogen mineralisation in winter, both leading to a strongly seasonal production. DSIR work is showing that suitable seed mixtures can spread yields and that low-cost all-grass systems can give high animal production.

A legume species that has come into favour in recent years is lotus. It grows well on difficult infertile soils, has less need for fertiliser than clover because its phosphorus metabolism is more efficient, it does not cause bloat of cattle grazing it, and it contains feeding deterrents against two of the worst pests of pastures, grass grub and black beetle.

Because pasture productivity in New Zealand depends on legumes converting nitrogen from the atmosphere into fertiliser, considerable effort goes into improving the efficiency of this process. Different strains of Rhizobium, the bacterium associated with legume root nodules in which the process takes place, are tested for effectiveness with different species. Often when a new legume variety is bred, e.g., some lotus hybrids, a new Rhizobium is needed for efficient nitrogen fixation.

Some of the Plant Physiology Division's work on genetic engineering is concerned with nitrogen fixation. A free-living soil bacterium that fixes atmospheric nitrogen, Azotobacter, is being worked with to give it some of the characteristics of Rhizobium, namely the ability to enter into a mutually beneficial ("symbiotic") relationship with pasture plants, and to leak out nitrogenous nutrients Further developments are with pine seedlings, which normally have a symbiotic relationship with a fungus on their roots. The genetic engineering in this case entails transferring some of the nitrogen-fixing properties of these bacteria to this fungus, in the hope of improving the growth of the pine trees. Controversy arose because a few seedlings died, apparently because a pathogenic fungus had been formed, the process being difficult to control. All infected plants and the fungi responsible were safely destroyed. A new biohazard cabinet has been installed at the Palmerston North laboratories, and the work is continuing under conditions of Category 2 containment defined by the U.K. Williams Committee (referred to above).

It has been estimated that losses in primary production because of damage to pasture by insects amount to over $50 million each year. The main pests are grass grub, black beetle, and porina. Although lucerne, which is resistant to attack by the first two of these, has increased in popularity, it has been attacked by two pests recently introduced accidentally, a weevil and an aphid. The research effort on pasture pests is the largest on any problem in New Zealand, and involves the Entomology Division, other Government departments, and the universities, all working through a national coordinator. Although a short-term substitute for DDT has been provided by organophosphate pesticides, the long-term solution being sought will involve a minimum of toxic chemicals integrated with changed management systems, use of resistant plant species such as lucerne and lotus, and use of predators, parasites, and pathogens of the pasture insects.

Breeding of new varieties of plants with improved resistance to pests or diseases or with improved yields can result in big increases in production without the need for greatly increased input, and this is a major objective of Crop Research Division. Some success has been had in producing varieties of peas resistant to wilt, and ryecorn resistant to rust, and work continues on brassicas resistant to aphids and viruses, and potatoes resistant to viruses. Several high-yielding cereals have been produced, for example, varieties of barley, maize, and semi-dwarf wheats. Sorghums and various subtropical grasses are being evaluated as forage crops. Increased emphasis is placed on crops for processing, and work is being done on potatoes for canning, instant mash, and crisps, and on peas and tomatoes that can be harvested mechanically. New types of oilseed crops are being evaluated for a vegetable-oil industry, peppermint is being developed for its essential oil, and wild Solanum species are being developed as a new drug-producing crop.

Soil-borne diseases of crops are difficult to control, and, as well as breeding for resistance, work is being done at Plant Diseases Division on other means of overcoming these diseases. Work is also being done on fruit, both with a view to preventing problems such as bitter pit in apples and frost damage to apricots, and on developing less well known fruits such as kiwifruit and tamarillos for overseas markets.

As well as giving high yields, wheat varieties must have improved milling and baking qualities. At the Wheat Research Institute fundamental work on the milling process is being done, partly with the aim of simplifying testing for milling quality.

The nutritive value of the proteins in foods and feeds is investigated at Applied Biochemistry Division, particular emphasis being given to leaf protein concentrate as a food for animals and, ultimately, for humans. Special effort is devoted to the flavour of mutton. Studies also include the possibility of Using other natural resources such as seaweeds and wood wastes.

Most of the other agricultural processing work is done in support of work at research associations to which DSIR contributes finance, such as the Dairy Research Institute, the Meat Industry Research Institute, the Wool Research Organisation, and the Leather and Shoe Research Association. A noteworthy current project at the Dairy Research Institute is the attempt to produce a butter that will spread easily when taken from the refrigerator, and the low-melting butter that has been marketed in New Zealand is being superseded by an improved type with more of the spreading characteristics of margarine. At the Meat Industry Research Institute work is being done both on speeding up conditioning time by high-voltage stimulation immediately after slaughter and on improvements to tenderness by hanging carcasses in the squatting position. Expansion of facilities and staff, for studies on hygiene of meatworks and diversification of products and markets, is completed.

Part of the work of the Wool Research Organisation has been devoted to improving the acceptability of New Zealand crossbred wool for yarns. A range of acceptable semi-worsted hand-knitting yarns has been produced, and the self-twist spinning machine has been found to be adaptable to these slightly coarser wools.

At the Leather and Shoe Research Association, Palmerston North, studies are continuing on the prevention of grain defects in sheepskins.

Other Primary Production—Other work on forestry is done, in consultation with the Forest Service, by Ecology Division and Soil Bureau, both dealing with aspects of the ecology of native forests. Ecology Division's main interest in this respect is in the food and population changes of opossums in the Orongorongo Valley.

Staff at Chemistry Division ate investigating the chemical composition of radiata pine wood and bark, and the possibility of commercial production of tall oil, and the Physics and Engineering Laboratory is studying wood structure using the scanning electron microscope and has produced original and attractive books on the subject.

The Logging Industry Research Association undertakes research into all aspects of logging, from extraction from the forest to semi-processing and transport to the factory or dockside.

Geological Survey has intensified the search for exploitable industrial minerals and rocks (see Minerals section). The survey is also the permanent repository for all earth science information, including oil prospecting done by private groups.

In collaboration with the Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association, considerable work is being done on means of producing usable fertilisers from Christmas Island "B" and "C" phosphates, although the "A" phosphate, being the one currently used, has been the most systematically investigated as a convenient source of plant nutrients.

Energy—The department deals with all aspects of prospecting for coal, natural gas and oil, and geothermal steam. Mathematical models of the extent of the geothermal resources and suitable rates of exploitation have been developed, and gas fields are also modelled to give a closer idea of the extent of resource available. In addition sources of uranium, such as phosphate fertilisers, have been investigated.

As well as production of energy sources, advice on conversion and distribution of energy is given, mainly to other Government departments and local authorities. For example, advice is given about corrosion prevention in turbine and other equipment in geothermal power stations, in electrical conductors, and in underground gas pipelines. Mathematical assistance has been given in computer modelling of the electricity supply system, and geological advice has been given on the siting of power stations, a topic with heightened emphasis in the fact-finding that is being done on the potential for nuclear power in an earthquake-prone country.

There has been a resurgence of interest in using geothermal energy for power generation and for so-called low grade heat. It is also possible to use geothermal energy for refrigeration. Most of the potential of about 2000 megawatts of geothermal energy for electricity generation is untapped and, if lesser known fields, the possibility of recharge, and the ability to use low-temperature geothermal energy are included, the total potential is many times that for electricity generation. DSIR has recently appointed extra staff to work on geothermal problems.

One of the most productive lines of research is on district heating schemes. More energy is lost in cooling water that is discharged as "waste heat" from thermal power stations than is generated in electricity, a considerable proportion of which is used to heat domestic water to the same temperature as that discharged from the power station to pollute the adjacent waters. The department is hoping to transfer overseas technology to New Zealand conditions. It is also looking into the possibility of recharging geothermal sources with waste hot water.

A research group containing a representative of DSIR has been set up by the Energy Research and Development Committee. It will look into the possibility of using trees for production of transport fuels rather than for pulp, and of converting agricultural land to forestry or growing sugar beet, grass, or other crops such as potatoes, as sources of alcohol for liquid fuel. A plant which is likely to be looked at is a form of spurge from which hydrocarbons related to petrol can be extracted direct.

The Dairy Research Institute and the Meat Industry Research Institute are both running pilot studies of means of economising on energy in their respective industries. Hitherto, little note has been taken of energy consumption, and the installation of meters to assess fuel usage and boiler efficiency and regular recording of readings will show how much of this growing item of manufacturing costs can be reduced.

The Coal Research Association has redoubled its investigations into handling and marketing of coal, and improvements in efficiency of domestic and commercial coal-fired boilers. Useful work has also been done on briquetted coal.

In DSIR, an improved wood burner has been designed so that the first stage of combustion involves the production of combustible gases, which then are burnt to give a maximum thermal efficiency. Other studies have dealt with the wood gasification process.

One of the most urgent needs is for assurance of supplies of liquid fuels for motor vehicles. The concept of "energy farming", that is, production of energy sources from crops, is promising, and both methyl alcohol for addition to petrol and petroleum hydrocarbons themselves can be obtained from wood. Oil production from coal is being investigated, as is the extraction of liquid fuels from municipal wastes.

The Physics and Engineering Laboratory has patented a domestic solar heater which subsequently has been licensed for commercial production. Heat pumps, which are like a refrigerator in reverse, giving about three times as much domestic space heating energy as is put into the pump from the electricity supply, are also being tested, together with combined solar heater/heat pump and solar heater/district heating schemes.

Manufacturing—A noteworthy development this year has been the opening of a new industrial division, Industrial Processing Division, in Lower Hutt. The group has developed from the chemical engineering section of Chemistry Division, because of the growing realisation that New Zealand must do more processing of its products to survive in competitive world markets. Processing of local products, using a minimum of energy, will be taken from the laboratory, through the pilot-plant stage, to complete commercial production in conjunction with companies able and willing to develop products.

A success story for the Physics and Engineering Laboratory has been the introduction of thick-film technology to New Zealand. With technical assistance from DSIR, two firms are producing thick-film microcircuits for manufacture of radio paging devices and pocket receivers and similar devices used in remote data transmission. Several other firms have shown interest. One firm expects to replace all imports of thick-film substrates when its own manufacturing capability is completed.

The number of Laboratories registered under TELARC, the Testing Laboratory Registration Council, has been increasing and there is now a good network of Government and private laboratories able to provide testing facilities. This enables companies to adhere more closely to standards of machining strength, safety, and so on required of exported manufactured goods. The standards of any laboratory must be calibrated periodically against the national standards held at the Physics and Engineering Laboratory. The need for making accurate and reproducible measurements becomes greater as industrial technology increases in sophistication.

The Auckland and Christchurch Industrial Development Divisions and the Physics and Engineering Laboratory (in Wellington) between them provide an extensive liaison service for all kinds of industry in all parts of New Zealand. Each has its own staff of liaison officers who make contact and pass on information about industrial needs to appropriate expert consultants in their industrial division or in other industrially oriented divisions, such as Chemistry Division and Institute of Nuclear Sciences. In all the help to industry, close collaboration is maintained between several divisions, the research associations, and university engineering departments.

The Physics and Engineering Laboratory has a management advisory service, consisting of scientists with direct working experience in industry who advise on production control and costing so that technical advice offered is used most effectively. The group advises firms on use of computers, and has published a directory of all known computer installations in New Zealand.

Other experience with computers, in control of laboratory experiments, is also being applied in industry, for example in process control for milk-powder drying and in electronic weighing and grading of sheep carcasses.

Advice has been offered on various aspects of automation, particularly on numerical control of machine tools, a procedure well suited to short-run production of precision equipment.

Equipment now in use at Auckland Industrial Development Division enables production machining problems to be reproduced in the laboratory, and there is a "quick-stop" facility so that equipment is used to show where improvements can be made in minimising cutting forces, in optimising tool type and drill speeds, in lubrication, and so on. A widespread cause of lowered machine performances is incorrect balancing and excessive vibration, and advice on routine balancing has been successfully applied in industries ranging from papermaking to power generation.

This division has designed and built a carbon dioxide laser primarily in response to industrial inquiries about the use of lasers for cutting and drilling materials that are difficult to deal with by conventional methods.

Apart from standards testing and advisory work, the Christchurch Industrial Development Division has designed and built prototype industrial machinery, for example a knotting machine for producing string loops for holding lamb carcasses in position in the freezer, and a hydraulically operated wool-coring machine, for extracting samples from the highly compressed wood-hard bales used in recent years. Another development has been a sheep-skinning machine, which, when tested in a meatworks chain, produced carcasses more quickly and hygienically than hitherto.

Apart from pilot-plant and other studies towards development of new products in the way of minerals, fertilisers, and fine chemicals already mentioned and work on aspects of energy production, especially from geothermal sources, Chemistry Division is involved in helping industry control its undesirable by-products. A noteworthy project, in combination with the Wool Research Organisation, is the cleaning of woolscour effluents; this has the added advantage that the lanolin removed from the effluent is marketable. The Institute of Nuclear Sciences also is actively involved in pollution control studies and uses radioactive tracers and mathematical models to simulate tidal motion and predict sewage dispersion.

Building and Construction, Transport—Most of the work of DSIR in these spheres is done in support of various research associations and other Government departments. A wide variety of building materials, such as paints and wood finishes, adhesives, and plastics, metal, plaster, and stone components is tested for suitability for the job, strength, permanence, and the presence of undesirable chemicals.

A special study in DSIR is the design and construction of buildings to resist earthquake damage. A design in which load-bearing and vibration-damping structures are separated, leading to more efficient functioning of each, has been patented. The Building Research Association has been studying timber house framing with a view to revision of the code of practice, and has done considerable work towards preparation of a New Zealand code for fire resistance of buildings.

The Concrete Research Association, in collaboration with Chemistry Division, has been studying the behaviour of aggregates in relation to dimensional stability of concrete, and the use of pumice as a concrete aggregate. Work at the Pottery and Ceramics Research Association has dealt with bond strength between mortar and brick, and the testing of structural strength of brick masonry walls.

A problem that is becoming increasingly recognised is that of noise, the main source of which is road traffic, and DSIR has surveyed various urban and suburban areas to help specify requirements for insulation against noise. Studies have also been made of airport noise.

The Physics and Engineering Laboratory has constructed a portable light-meter for use in assessing the influence of inadequate street lighting on traffic accidents.

Natural Environment—A large part of DSIR's work concerns provision of information about the environment, and this work has been extended by the need for specialised comment on environmental impact reports. The information should help to minimise environmental deterioration and be a guide to the wise management of natural resources. Many projects are handled in co-operation with other Government departments, and several are done on a contract basis by university departments.

Mapping is the basis for further studies in the earth sciences. Geological coverage of New Zealand at a scale of 1:250,000 was complete by 1968; in recent years work has concentrated on regional mapping to produce maps to a scale of 1:50,000. Special maps, e.g., for coalfields at a scale of 1:15,840, are also produced. Gravity and magnetic maps, which are almost complete for the whole country, show up the large forces resulting in deformation of the earth's crust.

Assessment of geological history is particularly difficult in a geologically active country like New Zealand, which has had complex movements of rock types because of volcanic and earthquake activities. Geological Survey still devotes considerable effort to clarifying this, using fossils and (in collaboration with the Institute of Nuclear Sciences) radioactive dating. Recent important results have been the discovery of a zone of microfossils of Precambrian (the very earliest) age, establishing the relationship of zones of extinct planktonic graptolites in north-west Nelson to similar ones in eastern Australia, recognition of the entry of pollen of flowering plants earlier than was at first believed in the fossil record, and the discovery by amateur collectors of the first possible terrestrial dinosaurs in New Zealand and the second largest ammonite (an extinct shellfish) in the world.

A recent grant from the Golden Kiwi Lottery has enabled Geophysics Division to upgrade its instrumentation on Mt. Ruapehu. The new measurements, taken with those made during the last 20 years, will help scientists correlate significant readings with eruptions in the hope of finding some measurements that will enable eruptions to be predicted. A search for possible accumulation of magma which could erupt violently continues. Recent experiments have led scientists to believe that earthquakes can be predicted from changes in the ground near the expected shock. Physics and Engineering Laboratory is recording earth strain at various localities, Geological Survey is recording minute changes in shape of the earth's surface, and Geophysics Division regularly assesses the traces of radon, a radioactive gas associated with earthquake activity, in water supplies.

A network of stations attached to Physics and Engineering Laboratory studies various aspects of the upper atmosphere, such as its physical properties, and electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation streaming through. They also provide information to help correlate conditions in the ionosphere with meteorological phenomena. In a joint project with the Meteorological Service, acoustic radar equipment has been built to provide knowledge of changes in structure of the lower atmosphere. This will also provide information about atmospheric "inversions" that trap gaseous pollutants over industrialised areas. Precise measurements are being made of the increases in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere resulting from combustion of fossil fuels.

The Oceanographic Institute is well on the way to completing its survey of the ocean floor around New Zealand on a scale of 1: 1,000,000 and is carrying out more detailed seismic and magnetic surveys. Studies are being made of the sediments on the continental shelf and the slope, a practical outcome of this work being provision of guidance on the siting of oil and gas pipelines and power cable on the sea floor. The off-shore sea current circulation has been defined in general terms, and detailed surveys of particular areas such as the Foveaux Strait - East Cape region have begun. Marine minerals, such as manganese nodules, have been investigated with a view to commercial exploitation. Bathymetric surveys of major lakes have been made.

Additions to the series of monographs on the marine fauna of New Zealand are continually being produced as a basis for ecological studies concerned mainly with fish that feed on the sea floor and with all species in the food chain. A great deal is known now about diatoms and copepods in the plankton, which forms the first part of the food chain on which all life in the sea depends, but studies continue on the effects of variability of the environment and productivity of species themselves.

Part of Ecology Division based at Lake Taupo has started detailed studies of the lake and its catchment area and of other lakes in the Rotorua area. A complete registry of the nutrient status of lakes is being compiled. Ecology Division is also mapping the distribution of birds, lizards, frogs, and bats, and making complete studies of the ecology of various islands, e.g., Campbell Island and the Auckland Islands. Effects of birds and mammals on agricultural land and their ecology in forests are being studied.

Botany Division is completing a survey of all reserves and some national parks. Volumes 3 and 4 of Flora of New Zealand, dealing with grasses and monocotyledonous weeds respectively, are being compiled, and work continues on production of publications in the series Chromosome Atlas of the New Zealand Flora.

Work in the Antarctic is described in the Overseas Territories section.

Scientific Services—A special service developed in recent years by Auckland Industrial Development Division in collaboration with Auckland hospitals has been in design of medical instruments. A miniature transmitter has been developed for industry to market for coronary patients to enable them to be continuously monitored without being confined to bed. Another device enables the heart rate of unborn children to be monitored while the mother is awaiting childbirth. For patients receiving artificial respiration, a humidifier has been devised that ensures that the air delivered to the lungs is at a suitable temperature and moisture content.

Chemistry Division's branches at Auckland, Christchurch, and Lower Hutt continually assess a variety of products for the preventive medicine programme of the Department of Health. Regular checks are maintained on quality of pharmaceuticals, foods, and water supplies. Recent special investigations have included polyaromatic hydrocarbons in smoked foods, tin and lead in canned foods, pesticides and heavy metals in the total diet, dioxin in 2,4,5-T herbicide, and vinyl chloride in PVC plastic used in packaging. The Institute of Nuclear Sciences has developed a facility for measuring traces of lead and bromine and other toxic chemicals in the atmosphere, and also measures some short-lived radioactive products of nuclear fallout in rain and sea water. All the industrial divisions answer increasing numbers of calls about noise in the urban environment, at work, and near to airports.

A considerable amount of support is given to the police through the forensic services of DSIR. Chemistry Division routinely tests blood samples for alcohol content and also analyses illicit drugs. Staff from relevant divisions are called as expert witnesses at Coroners' inquests and other inquiries.

Geophysics Division is responsible for the New Zealand Time Service.

A management audit was recently done on information services with assistance from the State Services Commission. The main deficiencies pinpointed were in the provision of computerised storage and retrieval of information, in the policy for technology transfer, and in the publication of results for client organisations and the general public. Recommendations were made to overcome these problems.

The Science Information Division edits and publishes all the DSIR publications and maps mentioned and many others, and offers a publication service to all New Zealand scientists in its research journals, New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture, New Zealand Journal of Botany, New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, New Zealand Journal of Science, and New Zealand Journal of Zoology.

The department's reputation for expertise and standards of service is high with the general public and overseas, as well as in scientific circles in New Zealand. Its activities, achievements, and organisation are described in detail in the annual publication DSIR Research, available from the department, and its annual report to Parliament, available from the Government Printer.

Grants paid in 1976–77 to research and allied institutions by DSIR are shown in the following table.

InstitutionAmount
 $(000)
Universities (Auckland, Canterbury, Lincoln, Massey, Otago) and University Grants Committee248
Research associations—
      Building Research Association331
      Coal Research Association156
      Concrete Research Association62
      Dairy Research Institute607
      Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association164
      Launderers, Drycleaners, and Dyers Institute32
      Leather and Shoe Research Association84
      Logging Industry Research Association38
      Meat Industry Research Institute556
      Pottery and Ceramics Research Association69
      Wool Research Organisation426
New Buildings90
Overseas left—
      Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux175
      International Atomic Energy Agency101
      Others25
New Zealand institutions—
      Carter Observatory64
Cawthron Institute226
      Royal Society of New Zealand133
      Testing Laboratory Registration Council72
      Energy Research and Development Committee499
       Total4,158

Staff numbers and expenditure by DSIR for 1976–77 in scientific activity classifications are given in the following table.

ActivityStaff as at 31 March 1977Departmental ExpenditureGrantsTotal
  $(000)$(000)$(000)
Agriculture—Production7699,0564039,459
Agriculture—Processing759251,7082,633
Energy1602,1775372,714
Manufacturing2733,3283113,639
Natural environment4215,5533085,861
Other activities3984,8877135,599
Public building construction2,3172,317
       Total2,09628,2433,98032,223

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—Almost all agricultural research within the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is now conducted by the Research Division, which has a staff of approximately 260 scientists and 540 technicians. The headquarters is at Wellington.

Some servicing activities are carried out for farmers and advisory personnel. Chief among these is soil-testing. Each year in two soil-testing laboratories about 60,000 samples of soil from farms and experimental areas are analysed for pH and major elements as a basis for fertiliser recommendations by farm advisers.

Research is carried out at seven main stations, at some smaller experimental stations and areas, and on farmers' properties throughout the country. Major work areas of the seven stations are: animal and plant production (Invermay); animal production and some local diseases (Ruakura Animal); animal health (Wallaceville); hill country (Whatawhata); soil fertility and plant production (Ruakura Soil and Field); irrigation (Winchmore); and horticulture (Levin). In addition, field research staff investigate local problems throughout the country and test, on experimental areas and farms in a range of environments, the findings of research stations. A biometrics unit provides statistical services for research workers.

Major Agricultural Research Projects—Because of the vital importance of fertilisers to agricultural production, considerable work continues to be done on the fertiliser requirements of soils throughout New Zealand. Most major soil groups are being studied in detail. There are few, if any, soils or areas where it has not been possible to establish pastures satisfactorily with suitable fertilisers, seed, inoculants, and in some cases drainage. Problem areas such as sands peats, gumlands, pakihi soils, and high country (up to about 900 m) have been successfully and profitably improved, using specialised techniques and often specialised equipment.

From animal production research, targets have been set which are acting as a spur to producers. Six hundred to seven hundred kilograms of milkfat or beef per hectare; 340 kg of lamb and over 110 kg of wool—these are the levels of production which have been achieved from selectively-bred animals grazed on productive, well-utilised pastures. Studies of different classes of sheep in relation to beef cattle have provided valuable information on the most profitable type of stock to run.

Major sheep and cattle breed evaluation and improvement projects, in which both local and exotic stock are represented, fall into two groups: collaborative studies on properties administered by other Government departments, and integrated breeding studies on research stations in both the North and South Islands.

Animal health research is concerned with the diseases which afflict sheep and cattle. Internal parasites, mastitis, salmonellosis, facial eczema, bloat, brucellosis, hypomagneseamia and others are being investigated with the aim of finding more effective methods of prevention and control.

As farming becomes more intensive, diseases can have much greater effects, and science must continue to find answers to existing problems, and to new ones as they arise.

OTHER GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries are responsible for about 74 percent of the total Government science expenditure. An increasing number of other departments do, however, undertake or sponsor research. The departments concerned and the expenditure involved are listed later in this section and more details of their research activities are contained in the appropriate departmental sections.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OUTSIDE GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—The bulk of university funding comes direct from the Department of Education's Vote but university research is funded through the University Grants Committee. A number of Government departments are, however, substantially increasing their contact with the universities by granting research contracts for specific programmes of research.

There are 11 industry research associations which are funded jointly by Government and the industry they serve. The present associations are the Building Research Association, the New Zealand Coal Research Association, the New Zealand Dairy Research Institute, the New Zealand Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association, the Research Institute of Launderers, Drycleaners and Dyers, the New Zealand Leather and Shoe Research Association, the Logging Industry Research Association, the Meat Industry Research Institute of New Zealand, the New Zealand Concrete Research Association, the New Zealand Pottery and Ceramics Research Association and the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand. The total cost of the government funding for 1976–77 was $2,613,500. A new scheme which involved the classification of the associations into categories, with differing dollar-for-dollar subsidies, was introduced from 1 April 1975.

The only major endowed research organisation in New Zealand is the Cawthron Institute at Nelson which was established in 1920 with a bequest of $500,000 under the will of Thomas Cawthron. As the value of the investment of the bequest has declined the institute has received increasing income from other bequests, chemical services earnings, and from a Government grant which comprises about 42 percent of the institute's income.

The organisation of medical research is described in Section 5A, Health and Medical Services, under the headings Medical Research Council and National Health Institute.

THE PRESENT ORGANISATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH—Decisions on national scientific policies are made by the Minister of Science and Technology and the Cabinet, subject to the guidance and control of parliament during the annual consideration of the Estimates.

Scientific research in New Zealand is carried out by the research divisions of Government departments, universities, joint Government/industry-funded research associations and private organisations, such as the Cawthron Institute, which receive government assistance. Accurate statistics on proportionate expenditure on research are not yet available but means of obtaining the necessary information are being studied, as the data is needed both for internal use and for OECD comparative purposes. It is certain, however, that the majority of research in New Zealand is funded by Government departments, of which 74.2 percent is expended by DSIR and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Advising the Government on a co-ordinated national policy for scientific research, which takes into consideration the work of all these agencies, is the role of the National Research Advisory Council (NRAC), which was established on 1 April 1964 to advise the Minister of Science and Technology on:

  1. the promotion and development of scientific research in New Zealand;

  2. the planning and co-ordination of scientific research and services in New Zealand, including:

    1. the determination of priorities among research activities of Government departments having regard to research done by other organisations;

    2. the provision of scholarships and fellowships and the promotion of the training of research workers;

    3. the association of Government with industry in the promotion of fundamental and applied research, including the promotion of research associations;

    4. the collection and dissemination of scientific information including the publication of reports and journals:

  3. the promotion of co-operation with the governments of, or organisations in, other countries, or with international organisations, in scientific matters;

  4. any other matters that are appropriate for the carrying out of any of the above-mentioned functions, or that are referred to it by the Minister.

The National Research Advisory Council Act 1963 provides for six to nine members, including the chairman, to be appointed by the Governor-General and for three ex-officio members, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Director-General of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Secretary to the Treasury. The council is assisted by four advisory committees (each chaired by a council member), covering the fields of primary production, manufacturing and processing, environmental and energy research, and social services research.

By Government directive, all departmental proposals involving the establishment of new scientific activities or the major expansion, reduction, or modification of existing activities are referred to the council for evaluation, as are proposals likely to make substantial demands on scientific manpower or other scientific resources.

The major Government science activities and science groups are dealt with in one forward programme, the science Budget, which is based on manpower requirements. A five-year planning target is prepared, and the Council advises the Government annually on the appropriate allocation of resources to each of the various areas of scientific activity.

The following tables show the Government expenditure and manpower by department and scientific activity. Expenditure on public buildings is excluded.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY DEPARTMENT

DepartmentGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants*
1974–751975–761976–771974–751975–761976–77

*Included in gross expenditure in previous columns.

  $(000)  $(000) 
Agriculture and Fisheries12,84915,47317,249593671695
Defence7841,2151,306112
Education1,1201,1897531,0331,084628
Electricity18706964610
Energy Resources8..
Forest Service4,0705,2175,504295265
Internal Affairs4605075931..
Justice364989128
Labour242291305666
Lands and Survey162932162932
Maori Affairs14..14..
DSIR22,48226,72129,9062,7363,2913,980
Social Welfare1211341225910
State Services Commission536869..
Transport4,3235,2345,457..
Works and Development1,4531,9372,131186232226
       Total48,02858,13863,5934,6135,4265,682

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY SCIENCE BUDGET ACTIVITIES

ActivityGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants
1974–751975–761976–771974–751975–761976–77
  $(000)  $(000) 
Agriculture21,25424,75627,3812,2372,5692,825
Forestry4,3485,5545,7943273103
Fisheries1,2621,7172,004242524
Minerals1,4921,68078619319326
Manufacturing2,7723,4423,639119230311
Building and construction1,6562,0871,376450677476
Transport7839349565746
DepartmentGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants*
1974–751975–761976–771974–751975–761976–77

*Included in expenditure in previous columns.

†New activity from 1 April 1976, including elements from other activities such as Manufacturing and Minerals.

Natural environment10,84713,79414,834362440544
Social sciences8701,0371,152314379432
Human health8389941,052193332
Energy2,791547
Other scientific services1,9062,1431,828806803356
       Total48,02858,13863,5934,6135,4265,682

NOTE—The Government expenditure on buildings solely for scientific use is not included in the above tables. The figure for 1974–75 was $5,968,000, for 1975–76 was $5,301,792 and for 1976–77 was $4,767,853.

SCIENCE BUDGET MANPOWER: STAFF CEILINGS

Activity1975–761976–77

*New activity from I April 1976, including elements from other activities such as Manufacturing and Minerals.

Agriculture2,0312,054
Forestry489491
Fisheries116117
Minerals13263
Manufacturing295282
Building and construction137105
Transport7578
Natural environment1,0651,041
Social sciences9090
Human health8583
Energy*165
Other scientific services120151
       Total4,6354,720

GOVERNMENT RESEARCH EFFORT

Year Ended 31 MarchGross Expenditure on Science*Percentage of Total Government ExpenditureTotal Staff Employed

*Including expenditure on public buildings for science.

 $(000)  
197553,996x1.28x4,379
197663,439x1.17x4,635x
197768,3601.174,725

The figures on Government expenditure are not complete. They include expenditure on scientific technical, and support staff of the main science units within the Public Service; grants by these departments to research associations and other agencies; and expenditure on the science buildings and equipment of these departments, They do not include expenditure on scientific research and servicing in the trading areas of the State services such as New Zealand Railways and the Post Office or by the Reserve Bank; in the universities; the grants made to the non-government sector by the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee: the assistance to industry for research provided by the Development Finance Corporation ($2,384,000 in 1976–77); the allocation of Golden Kiwi lottery funds for scientific research ($250,000 in 1976–77); and the revenue foregone through taxation concessions to individuals and companies expenditure on research or donations to research foundations (Income Tax Act 1976).

In the most recent study undertaken, OECD has calculated civilian research and development expenditure as a percentage of gross national product to give the following country comparison. (This omits military and defence expenditure which inflates the expenditure unevenly for many countries.)

Source: OECD Member Countries, 1976.

CountryYearPercent of GNP
Australia19741.2
Austria19721.0
Belgium19731.2
Canada19741.1
France19731.7
Japan19741.7
Netherlands19741.8
New Zealand19730.9
Norway19721.1
United Kingdom19732.1
United States19732.4
West Germany19732.0

7 C—SUPPORT OF THE ARTS AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES

The quality of life depends not only on economic and material considerations and a pleasant unpolluted environment, but also on social and cultural advances. In other words, on the development and appreciation of literature and the arts.

Patronage has always been part of the history of the arts. In less egalitarian times it was usually royalty or a wealthy aristocracy that provided this; in modern times it is the State that must increasingly provide assistance if the arts are to flourish.

In New Zealand, as in most other countries, both the Government and local authorities have recognised the importance of the arts in the life of the community and have provided increasing support.

The traditional sources of assistance to the arts in New Zealand are the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, which had its origins in 1947 as a cultural fund; the New Zealand Literary Fund, administered by the Department of Internal Affairs, which was established in 1946; the New Zealand Historic Places Trust; and the National Art Gallery and Museum. Recently established are the New Zealand Authors' Fund, which compensates authors for the loss of royalties through having their books loaned out by libraries; a fund to assist art galleries and museums; and a lottery profits scheme to assist art organisations with capital projects. All three are administered by the Department of Internal Affairs.

The following table shows grants made in 1977–78 by the Government and from the lottery profits scheme.

GroupGovernment AssistanceLottery Grant
 $$
Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council1,700,000500,000
New Zealand Literary Fund53,0004,200
National Art Gallery and Museum329,00022,000
New Zealand Historic Places Trust123,000200,000
New Zealand Authors' Fund175,000
Cultural facilities300,000
Museums and Art Galleries Fund175,000
       Total2,555,0001,026,200

The Department of Education has also played an important role in the support of cultural activities, given new impetus through community colleges and such schemes as "Performers in Schools", which is operated jointly with the Arts Council. The other major contributor to cultural activity in New Zealand is the Broadcasting Corporation, the most notable contribution being made by the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra.

The financial contributions made to arts organisations through the Ministry and Council of Recreation and Sport are also a significant item.

In addition, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is involved in fostering the arts through its Cultural Exchange Programme, which was established in 1974. Much more attention is being given in present-day conditions to cultural exchange as an arm of foreign policy, reflecting the increasing interdependence of the world as well as detente. Modest in financial terms, the programme's objective is to facilitate exchanges in all branches of the arts, including music, theatre, painting, crafts, sculpture, and writing, so as to enable New Zealanders to gain a closer first-hand knowledge of the culture of other countries. At the same time, it is hoped that the programme will stimulate the already active cultural scene in New Zealand and through tours and exhibits abroad extend overseas knowledge of New Zealand's cultural achievements. In planning and implementing the programme the Ministry of Foreign Affairs works closely with such organisations as the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, art galleries, and other groups and individuals.

Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council—To commemorate the visit of Her Majesty the Queen to New Zealand in 1963, the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council was formed the following year. The Arts Council was charged to encourage, foster, and promote the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, to make accessible to the public of New Zealand all forms of artistic and cultural work, to improve the standard of execution of the arts, and to foster and maintain public interest in the arts and culture of New Zealand.

In pursuit of its principal objective of raising the standard of both the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, the council assists individuals working in the arts, and incorporated and non-profit making organisations, which have the capacity to work at a consistent level of artistic achievement so as to maintain sound standards of management and promotion, and which can offer career opportunities to trained and gifted people. Activities which are professional in character and standard thus receive priority of consideration for financial support.

During 1976–77 the council assisted over 200 individuals, as well as organisations or programmes. This assistance included training awards, maintaining training schools, annual grants for theatre, ballet, opera, and orchestral activity, film projects, assistance with touring exhibitions, aiding arts festivals, fostering experimental work in the arts, and assisting national arts organisations. The council maintained its policy of encouraging professional activity in the arts as a matter of priority. With this assistance, the country's professional theatres continued to maintain their high standards of performance; separate seasons of opera were presented in both Auckland and Wellington; the New Zealand Ballet Company continued to tour throughout the country with programmes that included new ballets by New Zealand choreographers; and the council was able not only to assist in the development of orchestral activity of a high standard in each of the main centres but also to finance the establishment of Auckland's first full-time professional orchestra.

The Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council Act 1974 provides for greater emphasis on regional development of the arts through three regional arts councils and through community arts councils.

The Government grant to the Arts Council for 1977–78 was $1,700,000. The Lottery Profits Board of Control grant for the same year was $400,000. An additional $50,000 was allocated by the Board of Control to the Arts Council for film projects, and another $50,000 was made available for the Traditional Maori and Polynesian Arts Council.

Film Commission—Late in 1977 an interim Film Commission was established by the Government and granted $50,000 by the Lottery Board of Control. It was intended that during 1978 the Commission would be formally established by legislation and its role in assisting the New Zealand Film Industry clearly defined.

ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS—In 1973 a fund was set up to subsidise capital works of art galleries and museums. Subsidies are made available by the Minister of Internal Affairs on the recommendation of an Advisory Committee. A small proportion of the fund is made available each year to the 6 major metropolitan art galleries and museums in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, to enable them to assist smaller art galleries and museums in their areas with approved non-capital expenses.

AWARDS IN LITERATURE AND ARTS—The following awards are available:

  1. New Zealand Literary Fund—This fund is financed by a yearly appropriation on the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs. Assistance from the fund is granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs, who is advised by the Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

  2. Scholarship in Letters—The scholarship of $6,000 is awarded annually to an established New Zealand writer by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. Applications are made to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

  3. Writing Bursary—The bursary is awarded annually to a New Zealand writer with potential by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. It is of the value of $4,000.

  4. Robert Burns Fellowship in Literature—This fellowship in literature is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. The fellow shall be resident for the academic year. The fellowship is open to New Zealand writers, preferably under 40 years. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

  5. Maori Writers' Awards—The Maori Purposes Fund Board annually makes available one award of $1,000 for creative writing in the English language, and another of $1,000 for creative writing in the Maori language. Applications from persons of Maori descent should be sent to the Secretary of the Maori Purposes Fund Board, Box 2390, Wellington.

  6. New Zealand Book Awards—Annual awards of $2,000 are made by the Minister of Internal Affairs with the support of the Literary Fund and the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, for the best books published each year in the categories of poetry, prose fiction, and prose non-fiction.

  7. Award for Achievement—The award for Achievement, of $500, recognises the contribution of one person to New Zealand literature. The award is granted each year by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

  8. Esther Glen Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually to the author of the most distinguished children's book written by a New Zealander. (Applications are not called for.)

  9. Russell Clark Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually to the illustrator responsible for the most distinguished illustrations for a children's book. The illustrator must be a citizen or resident of New Zealand. (Applications are not called for.)

  10. Hubert Church Prose Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, is available annually for the best first book of prose writing by a New Zealand author. (Applications are not called for.)

  11. Jessie Mackay Poetry Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund is available annually for the best first book of poetry written by a New Zealand author. (Applications are not called for.)

  12. Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award—The Bank of New Zealand, in association with the New Zealand Women Writers' Society (Inc.), sponsors a biennial prestige memorial award for the short story. For 1977 the award will be for an unpublished short story.

  13. Bank of New Zealand Young Writers' Awards—Concurrently with the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award, the Bank of New Zealand sponsors two awards for young writers. These are—the senior award, for entrants aged 24 years and under; and the junior award for secondary school students. Both awards are for the short story.

  14. Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship (Winn-Manson Menton Trust)—The fellowship is to allow a New Zealand writer to write and study at Menton in the South of France. Applicants must be serious writers who would use the fellowship to further their literary studies and endeavours. For 1977 the fellowship will consist of an award of $3,500 and return passage. Applications should be made to the Hon. Secretary, Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship, P.O. Box 10–256, Wellington.

  15. Young Writer's Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, the New Zealand Book Council, and the Department of Education, is available annually for writing by people under 20 years of age. There are categories for prose and poetry. Applications should be made to the Secretary, P.O. Box 2283, Wellington.

  16. James Wattle Book of the Year Award—This award is made each year by Wattie Industries Limited. Full conditions of entry for the James Wattie Book of the Year Award, which is aimed mainly at encouraging the growth of publishing in New Zealand, are available from the Secretary, NZBPA, care of P.O. Box 11005, Wellington.

  17. One-act Playwriting Competition—In this annual competition the winning play is workshopped and produced with the Theatre Federation assistance. Applications should be made to the Secretary, New Zealand Theatre Federation, P.O. Box 6158, Wellington.

  18. Biennial Playwriting Competition—This competition is for full length plays. For 1976 the winning play was workshopped and produced with Theatre Federation assistance. Applications should be made to the Secretary, New Zealand Theatre Federation, P.O. Box 6158, Wellington.

  19. Professor J. C. Reid Annual Award for Excellence in Arts Criticism—The Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council of New Zealand sponsors an annual award to journalists for excellence in arts criticism in conjunction with the New Zealand Journalists' Union. The competition is administered by the New Zealand Journalists' Union, Box 6545, Te Aro, Wellington 1.

  20. Frances Hodgkins Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand painters and sculptors preferably under 40 years. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

  21. Mozart Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand musicians who are serious composers. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Applicants should be at least 27 years old. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

  22. I.C.I. Writers' Bursary—The bursary of $5,000 is jointly funded by I.C.I. New Zealand Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. Its purpose is to enable a writer with potential, but not necessarily with a well established publication record, to work full time for up to one year on a particular project.

  23. A.H.I. Literary Research Award—The award of $7,000 is jointly funded by Alex Harvey Industries Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. The award is offered annually to writers for research towards the publication of literary, historical or critical works.

  24. Choysa Bursary For Children's Writers—The bursary of $5,000 is jointly funded by Quality Packers Limited and the New Zealand Literary Fund. The bursary is offered annually to writers of imaginative work for children.

PROTECTION OF ANTIQUITIES AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES—The Antiquities Act 1975, which came into force on 1 April 1976, includes provisions controlling the sale of Maori artifacts within New Zealand, and all artifacts found after 1 April 1976 are deemed to be prima facie the property of the Crown. In addition, there are export controls on a wide range of items of historical significance: Maori artifacts; chattels relating to the European discovery, settlement or development of New Zealand; certain written and printed matter; certain works of art, reproductions, prints, films and sound recordings; type specimens of animals, plants and minerals; meteorites; remains of extinct fauna; and certain items of shipwreck.

Whereas the Antiquities Act is essentially concerned with "portable" objects, a companion measure, the Historic Places Amendment Act 1975, deals more specifically with the protection of archaeological sites. This also came into effect from 1 April 1976. From that time, it is necessary to obtain the consent of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust before damaging, destroying, or modifying any archaeological site or undertaking a scientific archaeological investigation of any site.

To enable the purchase of Maori artifacts and historic paintings, the Government continues to make grants to the National Museum and to the National Art Gallery.

NATIONAL ARCHIVES—The Archives Act 1957 established a National Archives to provide for the custody and preservation of the public archives of New Zealand. The Chief Archivist, appointed under the Act, has certain statutory powers. No public archives, as defined in the Act, can be destroyed without her approval and she has powers of inspection and direction in respect of the keeping of public records. Government records of permanent value are deposited with National Archives, and are widely used for original research by scholars, students, officials, and the public. As well as the public archives (i.e., public records out of current use) there are small holdings of semi-official and private papers of Governor Sir Thomas Gore Brown and some political figures, including Sir Frederick Weld, W. P. Reeves, Sir James Allen, W. Lee Martin, C. F. Skinner, and T. P. Shand. The papers of the New Zealand Company, R. J. Seddon, Sir Walter Nash, and Norman Kirk provide larger collections. The Nash collection is one of great significance covering his life and times. Some of the more note-worthy public documents are to be found amongst the archives of the Governor, Colonial Secretary, Maori Affairs Department, Samoan administrations, the armed forces both in peace and war, and Legislative Department papers, 1854–1969.

National Archives has a records centre in Lower Hutt and one in Auckland. These provide storage for semi-current Government records as well as public archives. The total staff, including that of records centres, is 18. Officers of the National Archives collaborate with departmental records officers and occasionally with the State Services Commission on assignments on the management of current records. Some public archives of regional interest are deposited with certain non-government repositories approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs, such as the Hocken Library in Dunedin, the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch, the Hawke's Bay Art Society Gallery and Museum in Napier, the Auckland Institute and Museum, the New Plymouth Public Library, and the Marlborough Historical Society Museum in Blenheim.

During 1974 Government approved the transfer of Cabinet Office papers to National Archives on a regular basis. The regular transfer of this group of papers is considered to be of great significance for the future of archives and historical research in New Zealand.

National Archives and the Alexander Turnbull Library have joined in establishing a War History Documentation Centre to gather and preserve documentary material about New Zealand's part in the two World Wars.

National Archives publishes an annual Summary of Work, including a list of new accessions to its holdings. A cumulative list of holdings to 1 April 1976 was published in 1977.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST—The New Zealand Historic Places Trust was created by the Historic Places Act of 1954 to foster public interest in places and objects of national or local interest, and to assist and undertake their preservation, maintenance, and restoration. The Trust consists of 15 members, and has the support of a growing associate membership (6,002 at 30 September 1977). It operates locally through regional committees.

The Trust's main concern is to preserve sites and buildings. It has restored a number of properties and has also assisted in preserving many others by financial grants and technical advice. Twelve properties which are open to the public are administered; the Mission House at Waimate North, Kemp House at Kerikeri, Pompallier House at Russell, Clendon House at Rawene, the Mission House of Mangungu, Alberton, Ewelme Cottage and the Melanesian Mission Museum at Auckland, Hurworth House at New Plymouth, Old St. Paul's in Wellington, Hayes Engineering Works at Oturehua, and the Post Office at Ophir. The Trust also owns other properties and is involved in the administration of some which are owned by other organisations.

The Trust has marked many historic places with plaques and noticeboards, and historic sites are sometimes protected by some form of reservation (although this is not yet on a scale to satisfy the Trust). The accelerated loss of New Zealand's early historic heritage has always worried the Trust, and the Historic Places Amendment Act of 1975 is now doing much to protect archaeological sites, No person may lawfully investigate, damage, destroy or modify any archaeological site more than 100 years old except under a permit from the Trust. The Trust collaborated with the Ministry of Works and Development to survey areas affected by the Clutha power development, and the Maui gas pipeline, and to rescue and record the field monuments threatened by these projects.

The Trust publishes booklets and leaflets, usually about buildings and sites in which it has been actively interested. It also has a growing photographic collection.

7 D—LIBRARIES

GENERAL—In general, New Zealand is well served with libraries and the book stocks and circulation figures compare favourably with those of other English-speaking nations. In most centres the local authority maintains a public library.

Under the auspices of the New Zealand Library Association, a comprehensive system of inter-library co-operation has been developed, particularly in the use of resources by means of inter-library loans.

NATIONAL LIBRARY OF NEW ZEALAND—By the National Library Act 1965, the Alexander Turnbull Library, the General Assembly Library, and the National Library Service were combined to form the National Library of New Zealand.

A comprehensive collection of New Zealand material within the requirements of the Act is maintained by the Alexander Turnbull Library.

The National Library is responsible for maintaining and developing a central reference and lending collection, and for making its resources available to other libraries. On 31 March 1977 this collection comprised over 418,000 volumes together with 68,000 volumes of periodicals.

The library also acts as purchasing agent for most Government department libraries operating within the Public Account and provides a cataloguing, reference, and library advisory service for departments.

The library has facilities for the preservation and restoration of items of intrinsic value. Microfilming and photographic programmes ensure preservation of items primarily of information value.

General Assembly Library—The General Assembly Library was established in 1858 and provides library services for Parliament. The chief librarian is guided by a committee of members of Parliament headed by the Speaker.

Since 1903 the library has been the depository for books, periodicals, etc., published in New Zealand. It receives regularly copies of all New Zealand newspapers and about 1,700 New Zealand periodicals. Back files of both are very extensive. It also has one of the largest collections in the country of books or pamphlets relating to New Zealand. Several New Zealand newspapers are indexed daily.

The library has its strongest collections in subjects necessary to provide information for members of Parliament in their legislative duties. These include economics, politics, administration and law, biography and history. It has a good collection of Government documents, mainly from English-speaking countries—particularly parliamentary papers and debates—as well as publications of international organisations such as United Nations and its subsidiary organisations, the OECD, and the EEC.

During the parliamentary recess, the library, which holds about 400,000 volumes, is open to the public on the recommendation of a member of Parliament.

Alexander Turnbull Library—The Alexander Turnbull Library is a research library responsible for maintaining a comprehensive collection of library material relating to New Zealand, together with other specialist research collections. The original collection of 55,000 volumes bequeathed by Alexander Horsburgh Turnbull (1868–1918) has been increased to approximately 200,000 volumes of books and periodicals, 1,500 metres of manuscripts, 23,000 pictures of which 10,000 are original paintings and drawings, 17,000 maps, 300,000 photographic prints and negatives, and 9,000 reels of microfilm. The collections are augmented regularly by purchases, bequests, and donations from individuals and organisations.

The Trustees of the National Library in 1966 designated the Turnbull as the national collection of printed materials relating to New Zealand, and the Library now receives all New Zealand publications under the compulsory deposit provision of the Copyright Act and prepares the current and retrospective New Zealand National Bibliography. Supporting the collections of printed books, periodicals, and newspapers are extensive collections of private papers and archives, paintings, drawings and prints of historical and topographical interest, maps, photographs, and sound recordings. The Library also possesses research collections on the Pacific and the Antarctic with particular emphasis on history, early voyages, and ethnology. The general collections are strong in English literature, early printed books, and the development of the art of printing. The collection on John Milton and the mid-seventeenth century, a particular interest of Alexander Turnbull, is of international standing.

Extension Division—This division has two parts:

  1. Country Library Service—The Country Library Service, founded in 1938, has been extended through regional centres in Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch for closer contact with participating libraries. Bulk loans of books are made free of charge to libraries controlled by local authorities, both borough and county, which operate a free library service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. To towns where the population is less than 15,000, loans are made from book vans, special subject collections are sent, and thousands of books are supplied in response to requests for information and for individual titles. Libraries in towns with a greater population, excluding the main centres, also receive assistance. Their bulk loans are made direct from regional centres instead of, or in addition to, loans from book vans. Outside the boundaries of boroughs and town districts, groups of people may have books at the rate of $10 for 50 changed at regular intervals. Nine specially equipped vans, each carrying over 2,000 books, travel over the whole territory.

    Libraries obtaining books from the Country Library Service on 31 March 1977 included the following: local body free public libraries, 162; small community libraries and groups, 753; other libraries and institutions, 159. The number of books lent to these libraries totalled 389,955 and 143,600 books were lent on request and in loan collections during the year.

  2. School Library Service—The School Library Service, established in 1941, is responsible for providing a wide and varied choice of books of high imaginative quality or technical excellence for children at all levels of ability and stages of development. The bookstock at 31 March 1977 totalled 2,714,707.

    General exchanges of books for recreational reading are made by 13 district centres to State and private primary schools from Standard 1 upwards. An information and request service is available to teachers and pupils of primary and secondary schools. Public libraries which give free service to children and young people also receive circulating loans of books. Services to pre-school groups are given through local public libraries or direct from district offices.

For the year ended 31 March 1977, books in exchanges and repository loans totalled 810,140 and 1,236,394 books were provided through the information and request service.

Library School—Since 1946 the New Zealand Library School has offered to university graduates a full-time, 1-year course. It leads to a diploma and to library posts at the professional level. Some 768 students had successfully completed the course by the end of 1976 and in 1977 there were 40 New Zealand students. Students doing this course receive the same allowances as do students at teachers colleges. The school also conducts the block course for library assistants with University Entrance leading to the New Zealand Library Association Certificate and to library posts at the intermediate level. Students attend on a full-time basis, usually on leave with pay from their libraries, for three blocks of tuition spaced at intervals of about 9 months and each taking 4 weeks.

CENSUS OF LIBRARIES, 1974—The 5-yearly census of libraries for the year ended 31 March 1974 covered a total of 1,703 libraries, including 268 public libraries (of which 77 were suburban branches), 34 tertiary education libraries, 1,067 school libraries, the National Library, 98 libraries of learned societies and major commercial interests, and 76 libraries of government departments and associated organisations.

Tertiary education libraries comprised the libraries of the 6 universities and 3 libraries closely associated with them; libraries of 9 teachers' colleges; 1 agricultural college library; 6 libraries of theological colleges; and 9 libraries of technical institutes. Book stocks increased by 50 percent in tertiary establishments between 1969 and 1974.

In the period 1969 to 1974, public library membership increased by 21 percent and circulation by almost 17 percent—a sign of renewed interest in the library services despite a marked increase in the sale of television sets in the same period In the public libraries there were 4.48 books to each member and, on average, these books circulated 4.79 times annually. The numbers of public library staff remained almost constant between censuses but the numbers holding library qualifications rose by 39 percent.

School libraries were last surveyed in 1938 when a total of 114 district high and secondary schools were included. The average number of books per user was 7. In 1974, 360 district high and secondary schools were surveyed and the average number of books was 10 per user. The book stocks available increased by 51 percent. Primary (581) and intermediate (126) schools were also surveyed and library stocks surveyed for all schools included tapes, cassettes, gramophone records, films, and film strips as well as books.

A new survey held in 1974 was a census of bookshop or commercial libraries which numbered 159. Book stock numbered 487,365 and membership was 43,833—an average of 11 books a member. Of these libraries, 109 were in the North Island and only 50 in the South Island.

The following tables summarise the results of the 1974 Census. The full results are given in a report Census of Libraries 1974 available from the Government Printer.

SPECIALIST LIBRARIES

Class of LibraryBook Stock at 31 March 1974Circulation During Year ended 31 March 1974
Number of LibrariesBooksPeriodicalsTotalItems lent outside LibraryItems lent to other LibrariesItems borrowed from other Libraries

* Excludes armed forces and penal institutions which are included under public libraries.

    (thousand)   
National Library14,0262194,2452,761183
Libraries in Universities, etc.342,1396042,7431,5382633
Other Libraries—       
      Learned Societies and commercial interests987224431,165171813
      Government departments and associated organisations76*4759121,3871772929
Total2097,3622,1789,5404,6478178

PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AT 31 MARCH 1974

Class of LibraryNumber of Library SystemsOwn StockTotalFor Reference Only (Included in own Stock)Country Library Service Stock
AdultJunior
RentalFree FictionFree non-FictionFiction and non-fictionAdultJunior

*Incorporates 15 Christchurch suburban libraries.

191 library systems covering 268 libraries.

In centres with an estimated population served of—    (thousand)    
      50,000 and over9*3223471,2245052,39974132
      20,000–49,9991824311335421692736358
      10,000–19,999331098917916254065916
      5,000–9,999359972969636252911
      3,000–4,99925622328321451207
      Under 3,00045924620221791277
Sub-Total1659286891,9021,0334,55312318350
Armed forces and penal institutions261861253107181
Grand total1919467501,9271,0374,66012419152

PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOKS: CIRCULATION AND USE

Public LibraryNumber of LibrariesIssues from Own StockIssues from Country Library Service StockInter-library Loans
AdultJuniorTotalAdultJuniorLent to Other LibrariesBorrowed from Other Libraries
RentalFree FictionFree Non-fictionPeriodicals

*Incorporates 15 Christchurch suburban libraries.

†191 library systems covering 268 libraries.

In centres with an estimated population served of—     (thousand)     
50,000 and over9*5,0022,0671,0381581,98710,25211310
20,000–49,999182,1827439461601,4755,50610839--13
10,000–19,999331,0086566531021,0693,48820660--24
      5,000–9,99235607333354655611,92011946--18
      3,000–4,999252511091017159627842416
      Under 3,0004521370302934085523--7
      Sub-total1659,2633,9793,1224935,34422,201583192478
Armed forces and institutions2641562211213293--7
      Grand total1919,3034,0353,1444945,35622,333593195486

NOTE: Because of rounding, totals in the previous two tables may differ slightly from the sum of the individual items.

International Statistics on Libraries—The following tables compiled from published UNESCO and other statistics show New Zealand's position in relation to other English-speaking countries as regards library resources, borrowers, and book circulation.

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, SPECIAL AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES

CountryPopulation in year of Library Census (million)YearType of dataLibrary Category
NationalUniversitySpecialSchool

*In 1961.

Federal Government only, in 1965.

New Zealand3.01974Libraries1341741,067
Volumes (000)4,2452,7432,5524,829
Australia11.61966Libraries115....
Volumes (000)1,0004,241....
Canada21.81971Libraries1269580*3,271
Volumes (000)20128,4185,61312,513
South Africa22.91968Libraries347244..
Volumes (000)........
United Kingdom53.71963Libraries34781,177..
Volumes (000)11,00027,68814,850..
United States208.81971Libraries32,535354..
Volumes (000)23,603371,38926,794..

PUBLIC LIBRARIES

CountryPopulation in year of Library Census (million)YearNumber of LibrariesBook Stock Number of VolumesBorrowersCirculation Number of Volumes

*191 systems covering 268 libraries.

†519 systems covering 660 libraries.

‡Public library systems with over 400,000 service points including school libraries (18,199), hospital and prison libraries, but not including 327 book mobiles or 131 gramophone record libraries.

    (000)(000)(000)
New Zealand3.01974191*4,6601,03221,839
Australia11.619665229,5471,888..
Canada21.8197173226,160..62,162
South Africa22.91968519..1,2756,450
United Kingdom53.7196356277,200....
United States208.8197150,479191,079..421,236

Chapter 9. Section 8 LAW AND ORDER, AND PUBLIC SAFETY

8 A—JUSTICE

SOURCES OF LAW—The law of New Zealand consists of the common law, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament, statutes of the New Zealand Parliament, and regulations, bylaws, and other forms of subordinate legislation made under statutory authority.

The Common Law—The common law, sometimes referred to as case law or judge-made law, has been built up over the centuries by the courts in England and, later, in New Zealand and other countries where it was introduced. Like any living law, the common law continues to develop.

In New Zealand the policy of the courts has been to preserve uniformity with the common law in England. This is partly for reasons of convenience and partly because of the assumption prevailing in New Zealand that there is a single common law, the law of England, and that there are not separate, though similar, common laws in different countries.

United Kingdom Statutes—United Kingdom statutes in force in New Zealand comprise those passed before 1840 which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date, and those passed between 1840 and 1947 which extended to New Zealand expressly or by necessary implication. Many of these statutes have, of course, since been repealed.

New Zealand Statutes—In 1947 New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster, and our Parliament has since been the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country. There are no constitutional restrictions on the laws Parliament can pass.

LAW REFORM—In any progressive society the law requires alteration from time to time if it is to reflect the life of the community and adequately give effect to the needs of the people. As in other countries in modern times, legislation is by far the most important means by which the law of New Zealand is adapted to changing circumstances. The responsibility for bringing before Parliament proposals for the revision of the common law and that part of the statute law not administered by other departments of State is in the hands of the Minister of Justice. The Minister is assisted in carrying out his responsibilities by five standing committees each specialising in a particular area of the law. These committees consider topics referred to them by the Minister and report thereon to him. Until recently the Law Revision Commission, a large advisory body, also assisted the Minister of Justice In 1975 it was replaced with a smaller and more informal Law Reform Council. The Council comprises the Minister of Justice, the chairmen of the 5 standing committees, and the permanent heads of the State agencies involved in law reform. Its aim is to provide a means of communication among the committees and with those involved in the implementation of their reports.

Public Acts and regulations are drafted in the Parliamentary Counsel Office.

COURTS—The hierarchy of courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Courts. All exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, particular magistrates are appointed by the Governor-General to exercise the domestic jurisdiction of the Magistrates' Courts and, in practice, almost all magistrates have been so appointed. The Children and Young Persons' Court hear cases against those under 17 years of age.

As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1957 the Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice by virtue of his office as head of the judiciary and of a president and three judges of the Court of Appeal appointed by the Governor-General. An additional judge or judges of the Supreme Court may be nominated by the Chief Justice to sit on the Court of Appeal. The judges of the Court of Appeal are also judges of the Supreme Court, but have seniority over all other judges of that court except the Chief Justice or the acting Chief Justice.

The Court of Appeal may from time to time appoint ordinary or special sittings or may sit in divisions and may make rules in respect of places and times for sittings and similar matters. This court, unlike other courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. In addition to ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings in inferior courts may, on an order from the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. The Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Crimes Act 1961.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final except where an appeal lies to Her Majesty in Council (the Privy Council). In cases where the amount at issue exceeds $5,000 there is an appeal as of right. In other cases leave to appeal is required. This leave may in most cases be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final court of appeal in almost all civil cases and may also occasionally hear appeals in special criminal cases.

The Supreme Court, which was first established by the Supreme Court Ordinance 1841, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The members of the court are a Chief Justice and 22 other judges, the number being fixed by statute. An additional judge or judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. The fixing of the number of judges, together with the provision that the salary of a judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, who must retire at 72 years, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives.

In 1968 a separate Administrative Division of the Supreme Court was created. It consists of not more than four judges of the Supreme Court assigned to the Administrative Division by the Chief Justice. The Administrative Division determines disputes over the valuation of land and hears claims for compensation when land is taken for public purposes. It hears appeals from administrative tribunals under the following Acts: War Pensions Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Cinematograph Films Act. Animal Remedies Act, Land Act, Medical Practitioners' Act, Pharmacy Act, Nurses Act, Trade Practices Act. Distillation Act, Mining Act, Coal Mines Act, Town and Country Planning Act, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, and Clean Air Act. Other classes of applications may be referred to it by the Chief Justice.

Magistrates' Courts are set up under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 and possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases and domestic proceedings. The jurisdiction of the court is exercised by stipendiary magistrates, whose number is limited by statute to 65. Justices of the Peace can sit as a Magistrate's Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges. Justices of the Peace now deal with many prosecutions brought under the minor offences scheme. This is limited to offences that do not carry any liability to imprisonment, nor to a fine of more than $500.

Stipendiary magistrates must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the Supreme Court for at least 7 years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at 68 years of age.

Apart from these courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several courts with specialist functions. These include the Maori Land Court and Maori Appellate Court, which have jurisdiction in respect of questions relating to Maori land.

There are also numerous administrative tribunals exercising functions of a judicial nature and performing an important and increasing role in the legal system.

JURIES—The institution of the jury is regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1908. Subject to certain exceptions, every British subject between 20 and 65 years of age and resident within 30 km of a Supreme Court centre is liable to serve on a jury. The former right of women to exemption on request was removed in 1975, but there is a new exemption available to persons with continuous responsibility for the day-to-day supervision of a child under 6 years of age.

The list of exempted persons is contained in the Juries Amendment Act 1951. The following is a summary of the persons now exempted from jury service:

Members of the Executive Council and of the House of Representatives; judges of the Supreme Court; judges and members of the Industrial Court; judges and commissioners of the Maori Land Court; magistrates; visiting prison justices and members of parole boards; coroners; the chairman of the Local Government Commission; the chairman and members of the Licensing Control Commission; officers of Parliament; clergymen; members of religious orders; persons wholly engaged in teaching and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners, nurses, ambulance drivers, and dentists; registered chemists; members of the armed forces; Police and traffic officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels; members of fire brigades; certain Civil Defence personnel; members of an Inland Revenue Board of Review and certain officers of the Department of Justice, including those engaged in court or prison work, and wives of prison officers.

Special juries are provided for in section 71 of the Juries Act. That section provides that in a civil action in the Supreme Court triable by jury either party may, by leave of the court or a judge thereof, procure trial by a special jury instead of a common jury. Except with the consent of all the parties, however, no action may be tried with a special jury unless in the opinion of the court or a judge difficult questions in relation to scientific, technical, business, or professional matters are likely to arise.

LEGAL PROFESSION—In December 1977 there were 3,680 members of the New Zealand Law Society holding practising certificates.

PENAL SYSTEM—The penal system exists to protect the community against those who would break the laws which are laid down so that citizens may live harmoniously together and the common good be promoted. This purpose is achieved principally through the processes of deterrence and reformation; in modern times in New Zealand as in other countries emphasis is placed wherever possible on the rehabilitation of the offender.

The paramount policy is to ensure first that those who, by reason of the nature of their offences or character of their offending, are a serious danger to society are removed from the community. Subject to that, the goal is to deal with offenders within the community wherever possible—that is, to impose sanctions that do not involve imprisonment. Where prison or other forms of detention are necessary the aim is to do as much as possible during the sentence to rehabilitate the offender and to bridge the gap between institution and free society. The interest of the community as well as of the offender is promoted by his reformation.

Treatment of Offenders Within the Community—The principal penalties available to the courts in dealing with offenders outside a prison are fines, probation, and periodic detention.

Fines—Fines are by far the most common sentence imposed by the courts in New Zealand, even if traffic offences are not taken into account. For very minor offences the imposition of a fine is the only sanction available to the courts, but even where there is power to sentence the offender to a term of imprisonment the courts often content themselves with fining him.

Probation—The legislation on probation is contained in Part I of the Criminal Justice Act 1954. The court may release on probation any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily. Probation is a conditional suspension of punishment and provides the opportunity for an offender to rehabilitate himself in the community. An offender may be released on probation for a period of not less than 1 year or more than 3 years and during this time he must accept the supervision of a probation officer and observe conditions imposed regarding employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. These conditions are automatic, but the courts have power to impose further conditions at their discretion on granting probation. This power makes probation a very flexible type of treatment and it is coming to be more freely and imaginatively used. Where the offence consists of the destruction or damage of property, restitution of the whole or part of the loss is commonly required as a condition of probation. Some courts have in suitable cases made it a condition of probation that the offender do particular work of value to the community in his spare time. The probation method is widely used.

Persons on probation at 31 December were as follows: 1968, 4,318; 1969, 4,868; 1970, 5,204; 1971, 5,878; 1972, 5,837; 1973, 6,305; 1974, 6,602; 1975, 7,268; and 1976, 7,299. In December 1976, of all offenders on probation and in penal institutions, 78 percent were on probation.

Periodic Detention—The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962 made provision for sentences of periodic detention. Pursuant to this legislation residential work centres have been set up in Auckland, Otahuhu, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. These are available for offenders under 20 years of age. Where the Act applies, any person of the ages specified who is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment or who wilfully refuses to pay a fine may be sentenced to periodic detention for any term up to 12 months. Under the sentence the offender is required to attend a work centre on a certain number of occasions each week and while in custody must attend classes or groups, undergo physical training, or perform work either in the centre or outside it. Work outside a centre may be at a hospital or school, at the home of an elderly or infirm person, or on Crown or local authority property. Work centres for young people provide sleeping accommodation as well as other facilities, and in practice such offenders sentenced to periodic detention are usually required to attend during the whole of a weekend. Non-residential centres have been opened at Auckland, Christchurch, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, New Plymouth, Otahuhu, Papakura, North Shore, Taupo, Hastings, Levin, Masterton, Wellington, Whangarei, Tokoroa, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Palmerston North, Wanganui, Tauranga, Nelson, Dunedin, and Invercargill. At 31 March 1977 there were 1,783 detainees reporting.

Other Powers of the Court—Although not sentences in the strict sense, various other means are available to the courts in dealing with offenders whose offences are not serious. They include conviction and discharge, the effect of which is that the offender has a conviction recorded against him but no sanction is imposed, and conviction coupled with an order that the offender come up for sentence if called upon within a specified period. This is a suspension of punishment conditional upon good behaviour but is not subject to the positive conditions of a probation order.

Finally the court, although it may find an offender guilty, may discharge him without conviction if it considers the offence to be of a trivial or technical character.

Detention in Penal Institution—The sentences of detention which the courts may now impose are as follows—

  1. Borstal training, which means detention in a borstal institution for an indefinite period not exceeding 2 years. The offender must be at least 17 years (in special cases 15) but under 21 years. The time of his release is decided by the appropriate Borstal Parole Board, which must consider his case from time to time. After his release he is on probation for 12 months.

  2. Detention in a detention centre, the term fixed by statute being 3 months. The offender must be at least 16 but under 21 years of age, and he may earn up to 1 month's remission of his sentence by good conduct. After his release the offender is on probation for 12 months.

  3. Imprisonment for a stated number of years or for life. An offender sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term may earn remission of up to one-quarter of his sentence, or, in exceptional circumstances, up to one-third.

  4. Preventive detention, which means detention in prison for an indefinite term to be decided by the Prisons Parole Board, but in any event not less than 7 years. This sentence may be imposed on conviction for certain sexual offences if the offender has been convicted for a sexual offence on at least one previous occasion. The offender must be 25 years of age or over. After serving 7 years of his sentence the offender may be released on probation on the recommendation of the Parole Board, provided the board is of opinion that he is not likely to resume his criminal career. The period of probation in each case extends for life. Preventive detention was restricted to sexual offenders by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967. Hitherto it had been available for persistent offenders in a number of other cases.

Restrictions on imprisonment—The policy is to restrict the use of detention of offenders in an institution as far as is practicable, consistent with the protection of the community from dangerous criminals. In particular, short-term imprisonment is usually open to objection on several counts. The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967 accordingly provided that no court was to sentence any person to imprisonment for a term of less than 6 months unless, having regard to the nature of the offence and all the circumstances of the case, the court was of the opinion that no punishment other than imprisonment was appropriate. This provision was replaced in 1975 with one having wider application. A court in dealing with any one convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment is now required in each case to have regard to the desirability of keeping the offender in the community so far as is practicable and consonant with the safety of the community.

In 1975 a further restriction on detention was introduced which prohibits a sentence of detention (other than a sentence of periodic detention) being imposed on any person not legally represented at some time before conviction unless he had the means to pay for legal representation but declined to employ a solicitor, or he was offered legal aid and refused it.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Court of Appeal—The law relating to criminal appeals from the Supreme Court is contained in the Crimes Act 1961.

If it allows an appeal, the Court of Appeal may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried in the Supreme Court.

Applications filed in criminal cases and the results of the appeals are shown in the following table.

YearApplications FiledSentence VariedAppeal Dismissed or Disallowed
19721021785
197314919130
19741011883
197513227105
197616442122

Supreme Court—Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes—those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the Magistrate's Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence or has been committed for trial and subsequently changed his plea to guilty, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

YearTried in Supreme CourtSentences in Case of Committal for SentenceTotal SentencesTotal
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMPMFMF
Total Cases
19721,2918675239576141,328531,381
19731,3337381041393141,203551,258
19741,39716286248745101,607581,665
19751,9562011,227124387931,6142171,831
19761,8841391,26488616101,880981,978
Distinct Persons
19724293029120156944729476
197345229296201511244732479
1974587444283577550540545
1975749585473283763039669
19767425956637100766644710

Of the 801 distinct persons indicted during 1976, 603 were convicted, 6 were still awaiting trial at the end of the year, 138 were acquitted, 8 were found insane, and the prosecution was not proceeded with in the remaining 46 cases.

The next table summarises the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years.

YearTotal Convictions and SentencesDistinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
Offences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, and ForgeryOther OffencesTotalOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, and ForgeryOther OffencesTotal
19723109471241,38119521467476
1973472694921,25824217463479
19744341,0791521,66526220875545
19754741,0912661,831270223176669
19765511,1882391,978306260144710

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence19721973197419751976

*Includes persons charged with murder but convicted of manslaughter.

Murder295813
Attempted murder3321
Manslaughter*1210151525
Traffic offences involving death or injury58235
Assaults and wounding109117113153149
Sexual offences578611677104
Other offences against the person7128129
Burglary, breaking and entering, and stealing from the person7356797595
Theft, receiving, and fraud11090114126148
Other offences against property2326131912
Forgery and uttering82235
Other offences676375176144
Total476479545669710
Per 10,000 mean population1.631.611.792.172.28

Sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

Sentence19721973197419751976

*Also includes persons committed into the care of the Department of Social Welfare.

Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)6352896071
Ordered to come up for sentence1628122018
Discharged910458
Fined4462729391
Imprisoned291267284383422
Detention centre (includes periodic)*3238596568
Borstal training2020173329
Preventive detention12
Detained in mental institution116103
Total476479545069710

In 1961 the death sentence for murder was abolished. On conviction for murder a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment is imposed.

Magistrates' Courts—Magistrates deal with the majority of indictable offences. They have jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, rape, and perjury. A magistrate may, however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the Supreme Court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he is charged with any offence, indictable or summary, punishable by imprisonment for more than 3 months.

The following table classifies the convictions in Magistrates' Courts into more common offences or groups of offences for the latest 5 years. The figures refer to total charges, with the corresponding number of distinct cases following the totals in each year. There were 45,425 convictions against females in 1976 out of a total of 353,699 convictions, and 39,397 females were included in the 290,010 distinct cases.

Type of Offence19721973197419751976

*Excludes driving with excess blood alcohol. This is included in Other offences against good order, together with convictions for failing to take breath or blood tests. Convictions for these offences totalled 9,162 in 1975.

Excludes offences of negligence or drunk in charge causing death or injury; conversion; drunk in charge including excessive blood alcohol; failing to take breathalyser or blood tests: failing to stop after accidents involving injury.

‡From 1 April 1969 excludes overparking offences and from 1 July 1971 some speeding offences, both handled by traffic controlling authorities and previously dealt with as court cases.

§Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.

Common assault3,4053,7613,6433,7193,516
Sexual offences693704628576534
Other offences against the person1,3742,5572,8543,470x3,593
Theft7,4567,8458,3759,46110,544
Wilful damage1,7512,0222,1272,1952,336
Other offences against property (including forgery)12,3211,88412,27215,80418,336
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)*3,1113,0214,4886,139x7,210
Offensive conduct or language, and vagrancy5,3285,4446,7407,5817,221
Other offences against good order7,4728,7959,69011,12010,803
Breach of probation819811819951908
Offences relating to narcotics5321,0961,6411,9481,911
Failing to pay maintenance1,5101,3011,3391,5972,041
Other offences relating to administration of justice, drugs, etc.1,1231,5361,5921,4902,111
Failing to furnish return and making false return of land and income3,3023,6822,159x1,5662,473
Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing and Sale of Liquor Acts7,0286,2937,0806,8538,628
Deserting merchant ships5237384221
Other offences7,4977,6887,277x8,1439,489
Sub-total65,27468,47772,76282,655x91,6
Minor traffic offences166,457193,886219,395231,368262,024
Total231,731262,363292,157314,023x353,699
Distinct Cases§190,019213,945238,572257,208x290,010
Rate per 10,000 mean population for convictions, excluding minor traffic offences224.2230.6240.0267.8294.2

The next table classifies the result of hearing in all distinct cases heard in 1976.

Result of HearingOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, Forgery and CurrencyOffences Against Good OrderOffences Affecting Administration of Justice, etc.Other OffencesTotal

*Minor traffic offences accounted for 211,105 of the cases where fines were imposed.

†Mostly orders made.

Committed for trial or sentence331377531089878
Imprisonment6121,6041,093520493,878
Detention in detention centre92332109792605
Periodic detention4171,7191,292215413,684
Detention in borstal institution, etc.11554179721808
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)5692,4518662471084,241
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence if required370695337284501,736
Fined*3,8337,403233,9512,29215,019262,498
Convicted and discharged (or pay costs)1894709,00244870810,817
Suspended imprisonment (maintenance cases)1,1221,122
Miscellaneous345940235266634
Dismissed, withdrawn, or struck out1,2222,30724,6312,6722,33533,167
Discharged under section 42 of Criminal Justice Act2376481,394832602,622
Total distinct cases8,02118,606272,8388,37718,848326,690

Traffic Offences—Traffic offences form a large proportion of summary convictions. The most frequent traffic offences dealt with are breaches of parking regulations and excessive speed. Since 1 April 1969 parking infringements which result merely from overstaying a time limit have been dealt with outside the criminal law and from 1 July 1971 some local authorities and the Ministry of Transport have imposed speeding infringement penalties.

The following table analyses all traffic convictions dealt with in Magistrates' Courts for the latest 5 years.

Offence19721973197419751976

*Excludes trailers and caravans.

Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing death981089111495
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing injury215221240301351
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing death91914611
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing injury620202516
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury242349303236147
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use1,8981,8791,8782,2462,458
Driving, or in charge of, motor or other vehicle under the influence of drink or drug6,6367,8978,7029,5899,381
Exceeding speed limits32,80839,06842,51155,96859,525
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle33,13835,76139,16534,15538,586
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of other vehicle11189838979
Incorrect lighting of vehicles5,8416,0546,5185,9576,138
Offences relating to the registration, etc. of motor vehicles9,68511,90612,83911,08813,654
Offences relating to driver's licence17,59720,56123,36325,68328,287
Breaches of parking regulations34,07239,25343,90243,28548,858
Other traffic offences33,20541,19451,01455,14366,897
Total175,561204,379230,643243,885274,483
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population60.3068.8276.0879.0188.09
Convictions per 1,000 motor vehicles*130.14142.13152.20154.90168.27

The previous table excludes charges for which persons were sent up from the Magistrates' Courts to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. In 1976 there were 8 such charges for driving offences causing injury or death, 66 for converting a motor vehicle, and 24 for other traffic offences.

Disqualifications of drivers by length of disqualification are shown in the following table.

Period for which Driver Disqualified19721973197419751976

*Amended procedures for the processing of 1975 and 1976 data have resulted in more accurate statistics. Short-term disqualifications for earlier years have been overstated.

Under 3 months2,1183,1923,6871,9841,160
3 months and under 6 months4,6386,8776,4443,3282,594
6 months and under 1 year5,4117,2307,6177,7857,786
1 year and under 2 years5,0267,0997,3767,4508,107
2 years and under 3 years1,1281,3921,8671,9821,524
3 years and under 4 years408431553488449
4 years and under 5 years3431515353
5 years and over140162213173177
Total disqualifications18,90326,41427,80823,243*21,850*

Drunkenness—The following table shows the number of convictions for all types of drunkenness (except driving with excess blood alcohol), together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population, for each of the latest 6 years. Children and Young Persons' Courts, in which there were 84 convictions for drunkenness in 1976, are not included in this table.

TotalConvictions for DrunkennessPer 1,000 of Mean Population
YearMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemales
19713,6021563,7582.520.111.31
19722,9441673,1112.020.111.07
19732,8891323,0211.940.090.97
19744,2832054,4882.810.131.47
19755,833x3066,139x3.780.201.99
19766,8183927,2104.380.252.31

Repeated (or duplicate) convictions against the same person are included in the statistics shown in the preceding table.

In 1976 there were 7,944 distinct case convictions for driving with excess blood alcohol concentration compared with 8,319 cases in 1975. In addition 619 distinct case convictions were recorded for failing to take blood tests.

Offences by Women—Of the 404,526 charges dealt with in the Magistrates' Courts in 1976 51,464 or 12.72 percent, were preferred against females. This figure showed an increase of 10,467 from the 1975 total of 40,997.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women are of a relatively trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations.

Convictions for more serious offences are set out in the following table.

Offence19721973197419751976
Common assault134138141151155
Drunkenness167132205306392
Burglary, breaking and entering, etc.109157141147226
Theft1,8842,0552,2242,4732,569
Fraud and false pretences4628017031,1201,457
Offensive conduct or language245257333448386
Vagrancy14880809280

Women received into prison under sentence during 1976 numbered 246 compared with 240 in 1975. The more prevalent offences concerned were (with the previous year's figures in parentheses); robbery and stealing from the person, 8 (12); burglary, breaking and entering, etc., 30 (28); theft, 43 (45); fraud and false pretences, 32 (23); failing to pay fine, 21 (22); breach of probation. 12 (9); and common assault, 5 (7).

Assessment of Crime—One important index of crime in the community is the number of those who are convicted of offences. This gives a useful guide to the amount of crime, providing the proportion of crime reported and the proportion of known crime whose perpetrators are detected remains more or less constant. This, of course, may not be a justified assumption. A greater number of court convictions might mean merely more efficiency by the police and a greater willingness on the part of the public to report offences that previously went unreported. Care should therefore be taken to avoid reading too much into figures for court convictions.

Over the 10 years 1967 to 1976, the number of convictions in the Magistrates' Courts (excluding minor offences), increased from a rate of 17.4 per 1,000 mean population to a rate of 29.4. Most categories of serious crime show an upward trend. Total convictions for offences against the person (of which common assault and assaulting, resisting or obstructing the police form the major proportion), increased by 96 percent, property and forgery convictions increased by 95 percent.

History and current experience alike testify that crime almost invariably flourishes in large cities, particularly those that are growing rapidly and drawing large numbers of young people from a less sophisticated environment. This is less a penal problem than a social one. In New Zealand it has occurred to a marked degree only recently.

The following table gives an annual comparison by ages of the persons sentenced to penal institutions. In 1966, 35 percent of persons sent to penal institutions were 20 years of age or younger; in 1976 the proportion had risen to 42 percent. Similarly, 68 percent of those imprisoned in 1966 were under 30 years of age, in 1976 the proportion had risen to 79 percent.

Age in Years1965197019721973197419751976
1528566982846064
16117223321289301309299
17228380485430440454459
18267454490532437486534
19241427464403423393467
20238437442426369444410
21–247221,0441,1139799331,0911,204
25–29459600702667590686744
30–34313387436384348363369
35–39271253296252278242216
40–44227222239194222179170
45–49158196199137173145158
50–54126951291271138884
55–5968585349604455
60–6438163926223319
65–691212199131311
70 and over7154345
Total3,5204,8615,5014,9904,8095,0345,268

PROBATION—The following figures show the number of persons placed on probation during each of the latest 6 years.

YearNumberYearNumber
19714,27419745,647
19724,68719756,769
19735,31119766,569

The next table gives the number of offenders in each age group placed on probation during 1976, together with the period of their probation.

Age in YearsPeriod of ProbationTotal
MonthsYears
1214–151823
Males
Under 1724465233743619
      17–1847364246962881
      18–206911404449151,371
      20–25810984378361,434
      25–3027528163413510
      30–4023131131416440
      40–501081446344206
      50 and over555217391
       Total males2,8874451,721467325,552
Age in YearsPeriod of ProbationTotal
MonthsYears
1214–151823

*Includes 12 males on less than 12 months probation.

†Includes 40 males and 1 female on 16 or 17 months probation.

‡Includes 7 males and 2 females on 20 or 21 months probation.

§Includes 2 males and 2 females on 2½ years probation.

Females
Under 174614414105
      17–1893551251175
      18–201151265202214
      20–251551758322264
      25–3067632184127
      30–40395271586
      40–502129133
      50 and over111113
Total females5474828712691,017
Total, both sexes3,434*4932,00859341§6,569

PRISONS AND PRISONERS—The New Zealand prison population is accommodated in 26 institutions comprised of 17 prisons, 4 borstals, 3 detention centres, and 2 police jails. Any person serving a sentence of not more than 8 days may be detained at any police station, which is also deemed to be a prison for that period.

The prison population during the year 1976 is shown in the following table.

CategoryMalesFemalesTotal
Persons in prison at 1 January 19762,6361162,752
Receptions during the year (including multiple receptions of the same person, but excluding transfers)10,23955510,794
Discharges during the year (including multiple discharges of the same person, but excluding transfers)10,12857510,703
Persons in prison at 31 December 19762,747962,843
Daily average number of prisoners2,7701122,882

Not all prisoners received were actually persons undergoing sentence on conviction for criminal offences. Many, for example, are in custody awaiting their trial. In 1976, 172 debtors were released after being detained or imprisoned for non-payment of debt following a court order, and 34 were transferred to mental institutions.

Of the 10,794 receptions, 4,793 referred to persons who were remanded in custody pending a court hearing and who were later released after acquittal, a sentence not involving custodial detention, or a successful application for bail.

Persons received into penal institutions under sentence during 1976 are shown by age group and type of offence in the following table.

Age, in YearsOffences Against the PersonBurglary, Theft and FraudConversion, Wilful Damage, etc.Vagrancy and Drunkenness§Other OffencesTotal
Sexual OffencesAssaultsOther*

Includes wounding with intent and robbery. Aggravated robbery is included with assaults.

†Includes forgery and currency offences.

‡Includes all other property offences.

§Includes driving with excess blood alcohol concentration.

Under 2146235841,071288364732,233
21–24311455743570743921,204
25–292384252283160293744
30–3923502513312111231585
40–491515687596104328
50–59561315937139
60 and over111218335
       Total1545351991,9874064541,5335,268

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of distinct persons received into penal institutions under sentence during 1976.

Age, in YearsLength of Sentence
Under 1 Month1 Month and Under 3 Months3 Months* and Under 12 Months1 Year and Under 3 Years3 Years and Under 5 Years5 Years and OverOtherTotal

Includes detention in a detention centre.

Includes life imprisonment.

‡Includes borstal detention.

Under 217814390518038178722,233
21–24139216484302372421,204
25–29971552761692522744
30–391241381931001911585
40–499171985585328
50–59403351114139
60 and over129102235
       Total5817652,017819133798745,268

The special types of detention (or imprisonment) imposed during 1976 are included in the previous table. The following table gives these special types of detention by age of detainee at the time when received into custody.

SentenceAge in Years
15161718192021–2425–5455–59Total
Borstal training—          
      Males56135211224129252782
      Females724292010292
Detention centre1361731639731600
Preventive detention

Of the total of distinct persons received into penal institutions in 1976, 82 percent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 53 percent had been convicted more than six times.

The number of prisoners received to serve a sentence imposed during the year 1976 for criminal offences was 5,715 but deducting multiple receptions of the same prisoner, the number of distinct persons was 5,268 (5,022 males and 246 females). The corresponding total for 1975 was 5,477, and there were 5,034 distinct persons (4,794 males and 240 females).

An analysis is given below for the 5 latest years of distinct persons received into penal institutions according to nature of sentence.

Nature of Sentence19721973197419751976
Imprisonment4,1253,7063,4993,6113,794
Detention centre563558545585600
Borstal training813725763837874
Preventive detention121
Total5,5014,9904,8095,0345,268
      Rate per 10,000 of mean population18.8916.8015.8616,3116.91

The next table shows the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the latest 5 years.

A: 31 DecemberPersons in PrisonProportion per 10,000 of Population as at 31 December
Undergoing SentenceOn Remand and Awaiting Trial, etcTotalUndergoing SentenceTotal in Prison
19722,447842,5318.288.57
19732,3711962,5677.868.51
19742,2951452,4407.457.92
19752,5931592,7527.978.80
19762,7131302,8438.719.12

Classification—The key to successful penal work lies in understanding the individual prisoner, and in order to assist the prisons administration to this end classification boards operate in the main reception prisons (Mt. Eden, Wellington, and Christchurch) and at Auckland Prison. Similar boards also function at the main reception Borstal institutions.

Special emphasis has been placed on the treatment of people in prisons for the first time. If it is considered that they are likely to reoffend, then they are transferred to Wi Tako Prison where individual treatment programmes and specialist attention can be focused on their needs.

A census of convicted persons under the jurisdiction of the Department of Justice was taken as at midnight on 4 July 1972. This included persons sentenced to probation, periodic detention, and all forms of custody (borstal, detention centre, and prison).

The census revealed that a high proportion of persons included had had previous penalties. As would be expected this was most marked among prisoners. Seventy-two percent of male prisoners and 42 percent of females had been in penal custody before the present sentence. (Penal custody included prison, borstal, or detention centre). Comparable figures for males in other treatment categories were 31 percent of borstal trainees, 24 percent of probationers and parolees, 23 percent of periodic detainees, and 2 percent of detention centre detainees.

The great majority of persons in the census were aged 24 years or less—72 percent of the total.

In general the level of education reached by the persons in the Department of Justice census was low. Only 22 percent of male and 24 percent of female sentenced persons remained at school beyond Form IV.

An ethnic breakdown of sentenced persons showed that of the males 57 percent were New Zealand-born of non-Polynesian stock, 35 percent were Maoris, 2 percent were immigrant Polynesians, and 6 percent were other immigrants. The figures for females were 51 percent New Zealand-born of non-Polynesian stock, 42 percent Maoris, 2 percent immigrant Polynesians, and 5 percent other immigrants. Of those males in penal custody, 50 percent were New Zealand-born of non-Polynesian stock, 41 percent were Maoris, 2½ percent were immigrant Polynesians and 6 percent were other immigrants.

Measures Employed in Treatment: Vocational Training—Prisoners are put to work on some form of constructive employment, whether it be industrial production in a secure institution or food production on a prison farm. In addition, and particularly for the younger offender, an attempt is made to teach some trade skills.

Non-vocational Training—A variety of evening activities have been introduced into the prisons and training benefit is derived from these activities, whether they be recreational, educational, cultural, individual, or collective.

There are 18 full-time teachers serving in Auckland Prison, Mount Eden Prison, Christchurch Prison, Tongariro Prison Farm, Waikune Prison, Christchurch Women's Prison, Rolleston Prison, Wellington Prison, Wi Tako Prison; Waikeria and Waipiata Youth Institutions; and in Arohata and Invercargill Borstals. Part-time teachers provide a service for all other institutions. Teachers seek to help those prisoners whose educational attainment is such that they are disadvantaged in the community. They also assist those who are undertaking further education or technical courses either by correspondence or in prison classes. Such courses may be at any level ranging from illiteracy to university degree work. The interest thus shown by prisoners is encouraging, as in many cases it gives a prisoner better social and employment skills thereby reducing the chances of further offending.

All institutions receive at regular intervals a supply of well-chosen books from the National Library Service and, in addition, inmates are permitted a free use of the library's request service.

Psychological Services—Psychologists from the Department's Psychological Services are available to provide assessment and treatment and to assist the administration with decisions relating to an inmate's rehabilitation.

Not all assessments lead to psychological treatment. Of those that do, some will result in direct treatment by the psychologist in the form of counselling, psychotherapy, group therapy, or behaviour therapy. Others are dealt with by the combined efforts of the institution staff and psychologist to improve the offender's behaviour.

Referral may be through a classification or other committee of which a psychologist may be required to be a member but many inmates seek referral themselves.

Professional staff may be required to assist in developing programmes dealing with groups of offenders and in the psychology in-service training courses for prison officers.

Earnings—All prisoners are credited with modest earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to diligence. A portion of the earnings may be spent on tobacco, confectionery, and toilet necessities in a prison canteen, and this provides an incentive to good work and conduct. At the same time the loss of this privilege is a useful disciplinary measure. The balance of the earnings is paid to the inmate upon his or her release to help meet financial commitments during the first few days of freedom.

Punishments—An inmate charged with one of the less serious offences against discipline appears before the superintendent, who may impose a penalty or in his discretion refer the case to a visiting justice or to the court. A visiting justice may deal with all cases of offences against discipline and must deal with those which are outside the jurisdiction of the superintendent, unless he thinks they should be brought before the court. His powers of punishment are wider than those of a superintendent. The provisions as to offences and punishments are the same for both prisons and borstals.

Pre-release Hostels—The setting up in 1961 of the first pre-release hostel at Invercargill for male borstal inmates was an important step forward toward the goal of bridging the gap between the wholly controlled life of the penal institution and the responsibilities and temptations of free society. Further pre-release hostels have been established for male borstal inmates at Auckland, Hamilton, and Wellington, and at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch for adult male inmates. Selected inmates are sent to these hostels during the last part of their sentence. They live at these hostels and spend their leisure time there under supervision while working in the community. A pre-release hostel for women has been established in Auckland.

Release to Work—Under the Penal Institutions Amendment Act 1961, inmates may be released during the day to engage in private employment. The selection of inmates for this privilege is made on the recommendation of the superintendent of a penal institution, by a special committee chaired by a magistrate. The inmates are required to contribute part of their wages towards the cost of their maintenance in the institution and part may also be withheld in satisfaction of outstanding fines or debts. The balance is made available to their dependants or is held by the Department of Justice for payment upon final release.

Post-release Care—Offenders serving a sentence of borstal training, preventive detention, or imprisonment for 12 months or more are discharged on probation. For a period of time they must be under the supervision of a probation officer and, during any part of that period falling within the maximum period they could have been detained in an institution, are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is not satisfactory. Offenders sentenced to detention in a detention centre are also subject to probationary supervision for 12 months following release. The period of supervision has a dual purpose—it is the protection of the community against further offending and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and guidance during this period.

An offender serving a sentence of imprisonment of less than 12 months is on probation after release if the sentencing court so orders.

Parole System—The introduction of types of sentences designed to encourage the rehabilitation of an offender or to protect society against the hardened criminal, rather than merely to inflict punishment for an offence which has been committed, has created the need for a procedure to enable a person serving one of these sentences to be released as soon as he shows that he is fit to be returned to society.

This need is filled by the parole boards which have the responsibility of reviewing the cases of all persons sentenced to borstal training, preventive detention, or life imprisonment, and of recommending, or in the case of borstal trainees directing, release on probation at the appropriate time.

There are at present five parole boards: the Prisons Parole Board, which deals with all offenders except those sentenced to borstal training, and four Borstal Parole Boards which between them have jurisdiction over all borstal trainees. The Prisons Parole Board is now required to consider the case of every offender sentenced to a finite term of imprisonment for 5 years or more (thus excluding those sentenced to preventive detention or to life imprisonment, whose cases are dealt with under separate provisions) after the offender has served one half or 3½ years of his sentence whichever first occurs and annually thereafter until the offender is released.

The Prisons Parole Board consists of a judge of the Supreme Court as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, and at least one but no more than five other members, all except the Secretary for Justice being appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and being eligible for reappointment.

Each Borstal Parole Board consists of a magistrate as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, the superintendent of the local borstal institution in respect of which the board is appointed, and two residents of the locality in which the institution is situated. All the members except the Secretary for Justice and the superintendent are appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and are eligible for reappointment.

Categories of persons whose cases were considered by the Prisons Parole Board and the Borstal Parole Boards during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

YearBorstal DetentionImprisonmentPreventive DetentionLife ImprisonmentPersons on ParoleTotal
1972x1,79458131061,881
1973x1,73287512111,847
1974x1,71089716281,850
1975x1,897148818382,109
1976x1,944128917662,164

Of the cases coming before the boards in 1976, there were 959 recommendations made for release on probation and 35 persons on parole were favourably recommended for discharge.

JUVENILE OFFENDERS—Children's Courts were originally established in New Zealand under the Child Welfare Act 1925. The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, which came into force on 1 April 1975, renamed these Children and Young Persons Courts.

All offences, except murder or manslaughter on the one hand, and certain traffic offences not punishable by imprisonment on the other, committed by children under 17 years are dealt with in Children and Young Persons Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary courts. In addition, when an offender between 17 and 18 years comes before a regular court, the court may order his case to be heard in the Children and Young Persons Court.

Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children and Young Persons Court are not held in a courtroom. Proceedings in Children and Young Persons Courts are not open to the public, and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding magistrate.

When a child is brought before a Children and Young Persons Court and charged with any offence, it is not necessary to record a conviction even if the charge is proved. The court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction has been recorded.

The cases heard by Children's Courts and Children and Young Persons Court in the latest 3 years resulted as follows:

DecisionTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
197419751976197419751976

*Includes periodic detention.

Dismissed or withdrawn1,7952,1922,1649761,1751,148
Admonished and discharged5,3864,3543,5902,9002,5462,176
Committed to care of Social Welfare Department2,8772,1171,6341,102896911
Placed under supervision7,4156,1625,8663,2092,8862,927
Committed to an institution*2,7332,4282,947739700797
Fined4,6854,4494,0913,2423,2993,065
Otherwise dealt with3,1263,4863,4371,3971,5661,513
       Total cases28,01725,18823,72913,56513,06812,537

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in Children's Courts and Children and Young Persons Court during each of the latest 5 years. It is shown in two ways: i.e., total charges (meaning each offence counted once irrespective of the number with which a person is charged at the one time); and distinct cases (meaning only one charge, the most serious, is counted, irrespective of the number a person is charged with at the time). All the Children's Court and Children and Young Persons Court tables are shown in this way.

YearTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
197222,1664,27626,44210,3422,63212,974
197322,8144,18326,99710,9942,61013,604
197423,6034,41428,01710,8382,72713,565
197520,6794,50925,18810,3372,73113,068
197619,5174,21223,7299,8712,66612,537

Detailed statistics for Children's Court and Children and Young Persons Court cases during each of the latest 5 years are as follows:

Type of Offence19721973197419751976

*Includes wounding with intent and robbery. Aggravated robbery is included with assaults.

  Total Charges  
Sexual offences153182196161162
Assaults8181,0601,012964833
Other offences against the person678511372147
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering6,2526,2946,2075,3434,785
Theft, receiving, and fraud8,1627,5127,8927,0236,371
Unlawful conversion3,9604,2864,5793,7363,600
Wilful damage9041,0221,150836772
Other offences against property*255295319370252
Offences against good order2,2662,5922,9362,8352,764
Indigent or delinquent child1,5901,5721,4411,6292,187
Other offences2,0152,0972,1722,2191,856
Total26,44226,99728,01725,18823,729
  Distinct Cases  
Sexual offences113130146113114
Assaults678851841759685
Other offences against the person57778053117
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering2,6082,6082,5652,1932,104
Theft, receiving, and fraud3,5603,4233,6133,1342,935
Unlawful conversion of vehicles1,3051,5761,4761,5131,233
Wilful damage436461476420358
Other offences against property*8183989953
Offences against good order1,3641,5881,6661,7881,739
Indigent or delinquent child1,4371,4591,2551,4381,950
Other offences1,3351,3481,3491,5581,249
       Total12,97413,60413,56513,06812,537

CIVIL JURISDICTION: Supreme Court—The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior Courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other Courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the Supreme Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a lower Court. An appeal to the Supreme Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exceptions, all cases determined in the Magistrate's Court are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the latest 5 years.

YearNumber of Actions CommencedCases TriedJudgments Recorded (Entered or in Cases Tried)
With JuryWithout JuryNumberAmount ClaimedAmount Recovered
     $(000)$(000)
19723,9031083495374,7512,484
19733,8651002923874,1762,527
19744,571x71x340x465x5,0963,142
19755,056713965287,8935,392
19763,602634356165,5964,006

Court of Appeal—During the 5 years 1972 to 1976 there were 324 civil appeals, of which 117 were allowed, and also 8 cases removed to the Appeal Court, 4 resulting in judgment for the plaintiff, and 4 for the defendant.

Magistrates' Courts—Magistrates' Courts may now hear all claims up to $3,000, but if the parties agree in writing that the court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the Supreme Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the Magistrates' Courts during the latest 6 years.

YearPlaints EnteredCases Disposed of
NumberTotal Amount Sued for $(000)NumberTotal Amount Claimed $(000)Total Amount for which Judgment Entered $(000)
1971120,38815,32675,0357,5976,663
1972132,03620,12677,0579,5018,009
1973115,30519,66270,2679,5718,450
1974125,19224,11775,95111,1459,459
1975144,93829,92479,66313,57112,072
1976144,00533,85184,38815,89114,331

The average amount claimed in each plaint was $92 in 1966 and $235 in 1976.

COMPENSATION FOR VICTIMS OF CRIME—The Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963 introduced the first statutory scheme in the world for compensation by the State to persons injured by crimes of violence and to the dependants of persons killed by such acts. The scheme is now administered by the Accident Compensation Commission by virtue of section 12(4) (a) of the Accident Compensation Amendment Act 1974 in place of the Crimes Compensation Tribunal.

The availability since 1 April 1974 of compensation under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 has had a significant impact on the criminal injuries scheme, which should phase itself out. The accident compensation scheme caters for all personal injury by accident in New Zealand, and thus covers the whole range of listed criminal injuries, including pregnancy by rape and criminal infection with disease. The accident compensation scheme is designed as a fund of first resort and in practice the two schemes have merged in all but the residual area of property damage caused by escapers. In 1977 awards totalling $2,583 were made in 14 cases.

LEGAL AID—The Legal Aid Act 1969 introduced from 1 April 1970 a scheme of legal aid in civil proceedings for persons of small or moderate means, and gave effect to the principle that no persons should be prevented by lack of means from having his grievances heard and determined fairly by the courts of the land. The scheme applies to practically all civil proceedings other than divorce. In order to receive legal aid the applicant must have a sufficiently meritorious case. Except in special cases of hardship, every aided person is required to make a contribution of $15 towards the cost of proceedings, and he will be liable to make an additional contribution proportionate to his income and capital resources.

Of the applications received by the 19 district legal aid committees during the year ended 31 March 1977, 11,035 applications were granted, 912 were refused, 220 were withdrawn, and 1,150 lapsed.

The amount paid out in legal aid in the year ended 31 March 1977 was $1,374,388; set off against this were contributions of $183,053 from legally aided persons and recoveries of costs of $95,581. The net cost was $1,095,75.

Comparatively few problems have been presented to district legal aid committees. Such problems as do arise are referred to the Legal Aid Board which gives advice or makes a ruling as required in the particular case.

The Social Welfare Department is responsible, in accordance with the Act, for investigating the resources of persons applying for legal aid; for assessing their "disposable income" and "disposable capital" within the statutory limits and reporting to district committees on the maximum contribution, if any, that applicants should be expected to pay towards the cost of the proceedings in respect of which legal aid is sought.

THE LAW AND THE FAMILY—The work of Magistrates' Courts used to be classified as civil and criminal. Domestic proceedings were procedurally and administratively an uneasy appendage of the criminal side. Following the passing of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, the domestic side of the work of Magistrates' Courts ranks as a separate division alongside the civil and criminal divisions. There is, for instance a separate domestic record book, separate domestic statistics, and, wherever practicable, special courtrooms designed for the hearing of domestic cases. The aim here is to achieve a procedure which, though informal, still preserves dignity.

Domestic Proceedings—The basic objects of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968 are fourfold—

  1. To empower the court to ensure that a greater measure of justice is received by parties to domestic proceedings. The court is given much greater powers to ascertain the truth. It may call any person as a witness, and may require a lawyer to be provided—at public expense—to assist the court.

  2. To encourage by all practicable means the reconciliation of married couples. A duty is imposed on the court, and on the lawyers acting for each spouse, to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation, and to take all proper steps towards assisting a reconciliation. It is now possible to institute special legal proceedings for conciliation, quite separately from other proceedings under the Act. On the other hand, the Act acknowledges as a fact of life that reconciliation procedures may fail, or be obviously hopeless. In such circumstances, separation orders are made available on broad and untechnical grounds. Legal recognition (in the form of a separation order) is now given to the fact that a relationship has actually and permanently broken down.

  3. To ensure that parents have an equal legal responsibility to provide for all their children, whether born in or out of wedlock. As an extension of this principle, the Act for the first time places on the father of ex-nuptial children a limited legal responsibility to maintain their mother. He may be required to maintain her for up to 5 years after the birth of such a child—in other words, till the child reaches school age. Previously, such men were liable to maintain the children only, leaving the mother to fend for herself.

  4. To deal with the perennial problem of maintenance, in such a way that both husbands and wives are dealt with as fairly as possible, and also to ensure that the person liable to pay such maintenance does not escape that obligation.

The basis for the making of maintenance orders has been much simplified and the courts have been given clear guidelines on the principles to be followed when making them. Also, the procedure for enforcing maintenance orders has been considerably tightened up.

The following tables give statistics for the year ended 31 December 1976 of applications and orders made under the provisions of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968.

Nature of OrderApplicationsOrders Made

*Custody, 2,397; guardianship, 77; Custody order in favour of mother, 2,150; in favour of father, 157; in favour of other parties and divided, 90.

†Maintenance also granted in 1,306 cases, 1,205 of these in conjunction with a paternity order.

Separation5,8562,381
Maintenance6,7312,934
Custody or guardianship5,8052,474*
Non-molestation2,774234
Tenancy512190
Matrimonial home3,475807
Paternity2,6141,348
Consent to marry5233
Minor's contracts..87

The following were the grounds for the separation orders: serious disharmony, 2,137; defendant's conduct, 128; assault, 3; sexual offence, 3; disharmony and assault or defendant's conduct, 106; assault and defendant's conduct, 4. One hundred and twelve of the applicants were husbands.

Relative ages of parties when separation orders were made in 1976 are given below.

Age of Husband (in Years)Age of Wife (in Years)
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and overNot KnownTotal
16–1912618
20–24662522732350
25–2962112793351535
30–34426209161173420
35–39756146115241349
40 and over51467146440672
Not known21242837
       Total88509586412285472292,381

The next table shows, in the case of separation orders for 1976, the age of wife at separation and duration of marriage.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsAge of Wife (in Years) at date of separation order
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and overNot KnownTotal
Under 11214
11721612653
2396821103131155
331106313591186
4114391310121189
5905714941175
6685712562150
7297920661141
811912046132
98125751119
10–1412322267343449
15–1972142854303
20–24251323160
25 and over1521153
Not known111012
       Total88509586412285472292,381

Numbers of children involved in custody orders granted in 1976 are shown below.

ItemNumber of Children InvolvedTotal
123456789 and over
Numbers of orders70387942723489477652,397
Total children7031,7581,2819364452824948465,548

8 B—POLICE AND FIRE SERVICE

NEW ZEALAND POLICE—New Zealand's national police service dates, as a civil law-enforcement body, from the passing of the Police Force Act in 1886. Previously police work had been in the hands of the New Zealand Armed Constabulary raised in 1843, and again in 1867, and Provincial Police Forces.

The Armed Constabulary were raised to fight in the Maori-Pakeha Wars as well as to maintain civil order. The abolition of the Provincial Police Forces because of a requirement for centralised control coincided with the demise of the Armed Constabulary and pre-dated the introduction in 1886 of the New Zealand Police as a civil force.

Today the Police service is a national one and is controlled under the Police Act 1958. This act amended the title to New Zealand Police, the word "force" being discarded.

Organisation—The national administrative and operational control of the Police Service is vested in a Commissioner who is responsible to the Government through a Minister of Police.

Apart from criminal investigations and the normal police duties under the statutes, other functional responsibilities include crime prevention, community liaison and relations, youth aid, training, and search and rescue operations.

For operational purposes New Zealand is divided into 16 police districts. Auckland district, by virtue of its greater population, is controlled by an assistant commissioner. Other districts, because of their varying size, are commanded by officers ranging in rank from chief inspector to deputy assistant commissioner.

Policing is maintained by a system of mobile patrols and foot "beats" co-ordinated by an effective communications net which permits cohesion and direction of operations.

In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the Police Offences Acts, there are various statutes of a regulatory nature which the members of the Police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Gaming Act, Misuse of Drugs Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, and the Secondhand Dealers Act. They also undertake certain inquiries and other duties on behalf of other departments of the Government service.

Police in country districts in some cases hold such additional appointments as registrars and bailiffs at Magistrates' Courts, probation officers, and honorary fishery officers.

Recruiting—Recruit applicants for the Police who enter as constables must be between 19 and 34 years of age. Cadet applicants must be between 17½ and 19 years of age. All applicants must meet strict educational, character, physical, and medical standards designed to ensure only the best and most suitable personnel are recruited.

On appointment, recruit trainees attend a 14½-week training course and cadet trainees undertake a 12-month course at the Police College, Trentham, where they receive instruction in their powers and responsibilities as police officers.

Examinations for promotion to non-commissioned and commissioned ranks are aimed at selecting members who have shown the necessary potential to become effective supervisors and administrators.

Members who show a particular aptitude for the various specialist sections within the Police receive specialist training at the Police College and in the field.

Strength—The effective strength of the Police at 31 March 1977 was 4,466 sworn personnel, including 169 policewomen who have equal status and opportunity with their male counterparts. In addition to these members the Department employed 558 civilian staff.

Transport—At 31 March 1977 the Police vehicle fleet totalled 742, including 586 cars, 99 vans of various types, and landrover-type vehicles, estate cars, omnibuses, trucks, motor cycles, and other vehicles.

Crime Situation—During the past 10 years the number of offences reported to the police has increased by 72.6 percent. Annually, increases have been of varying magnitude, ranging from 1 percent to 13.4 percent. Despite additions to police staff this has meant that every policeman today must accept a 12.5 percent increase in the offences he handles. Yet these figures tell the story in part only. More than half of his time is spent providing community service type activities which are unrelated to actual breaches of the law.

Public demands for this service have greatly increased and will continue to do so while a 24-hour, 7-days-a-week service is provided by the Police. While this has been happening, a new sophistication in crime has meant that crime investigations have become both more difficult and often more protracted.

Today's criminal takes full advantage of modern technology, organisation, and transport in the commission of crime and also in circumventing detection.

Crime statistics do little to reveal the very substantial profits the criminal element extracts from the community by way of illegal drug trafficking or in the promotion of vice or in gambling. Profits from these sources provide the base for highly organised and lucrative criminal ventures. Again, where large amounts of money are the prerequisite to a successful criminal operation, there are those in the community who are prepared for large profits to make finance available, providing their remoteness from the more-obviously criminal aspects of the activity is assured.

Coincidental with the duties crime imposes upon the police, the ebb and flow of quite normal public activity produces added pressure for police services. A decade ago a more leisurely social pace required a concentration of police effort mainly in major centres.

Today the need for police service is far more widespread and general. Rural areas which were formerly free from the scourge of lawbreakers can no longer accept with certainty their remoteness as a guarantee against offenders.

Police presence is required at holiday resorts, at numerous sporting fixtures such as cricket, football, boxing, car rallies, golf matches, horse racing, motorcar and motor cycle events, pop concerts, and many other promotions. Roving gangs must be kept under surveillance and public demonstrations need to be supervised.

The pattern of criminal behaviour in New Zealand is changing.

There is clear evidence that crime is becoming organised and that the organisers are rapidly establishing themselves in legitimate or pseudo-legitimate enterprises which provide an ideal cover for their operations. These range from the disposal of all types of stolen goods to the more sinister trafficking in a variety of drugs.

So-called "white collar" crime has escalated in recent years, calling for new dimensions in police professionalism to deal with it. This aspect of police work is occupying more and more time.

To all these and other criminal activities must be added the overt challenge that violence and some "bikie" and kindred gang activities pose to social peace and tranquility.

Crimes and Offences During 1976—Crimes and offences reported to the Police during 1976 totalled 243,348 a 4.15 percent increase on the previous year's total of 233,644. Offences against property, a category which includes thefts, wilful damage, burglaries, unlawful taking of vehicles, and thefts from vehicles contributed 170,217 to the total of 243,348.

The clearance rate was 49.7 percent compared with 49.5 percent for 1975. During the year 15,660 offences reported in previous years were cleared giving a gross clearance rate of 56.1 percent. A summary of offences is given below.

OffencesCalendar YearVariation
19751976
Offences against the person11,75811,564–194
Offences against rights of property160,745170,217+9,472
Offences against morality and public welfare5,2825,002–280
Offences against public order14,34015,535+1,195
Offences affecting the administration of justice1,3051,219–86
Threatening offences616660+44
Drug offences2,8932,639–254
Traffic and motoring offences18,86717,914–953
Liquor and licensing offences10,84411,068+224
Gaming offences495448–47
Shipping and seamen offences240192–48
Offences against Arms Act1,8932,142+249
Other offences4,3664,748+382
       Total233,644243,348+9,704

Crime Prevention—The Crime Prevention Section of the New Zealand Police is engaged in advising sections of the community on methods of preventing crime. It maintains a close liaison with the private security industry.

During 1975 TV2 introduced a special five minute Police 5 weekly programme on all aspects of police work, and the Lions Clubs of New Zealand initiated a nationwide "SPEAK UP" campaign aimed at making members of the public more aware of how they can prevent crime and assist the Police.

Youth Aid—In 1959, the New Zealand Police established a Youth Aid Section to deal with increasing juvenile offending. It is also charged with the duties of initiating action by other social agencies to rehabilitate offenders and to assist schools in educating children in aspects of the law.

Youth Aid staff work on Joint Teams which are interdepartmental prevention teams made up of a Social Worker (Social Welfare Department), a Maori Community Officer (Maori Affairs Department), a Police Officer, and some voluntary workers.

In 1976 members of the Youth Aid Section gave talks to 327,105 children in schools, at outside meetings, or at Police Stations. In addition, in order to obtain the co-operation and interest of parents, members spoke to over 25,000 adults.

There was a slight drop (10.04 percent) in the number of juveniles dealt with during 1976, compared to the figure for 1975. The reason for this trend is not known. Of the cases handled, 14,676 were handled by referrals to Children's Boards (3,743 cases), and Children and Young Persons Courts (10,933 cases). Cases disposed of by informal means totalled 11,741, most of these being Police warnings (8,506 cases).

Search and Rescue—The number of Police controlled search and rescue operations rose from 770 in 1975–76 to 783 in 1976–77. Marine incidents numbered 493 and land searches increased by 5 to 290. The contribution of civilian volunteers assisting the Police in these operations amounted to 36,442 man-hours.

The increased use of helicopter support during search and rescue operations has done much to alleviate the suffering of injured or distressed persons, and at the same time, reduce the time and effort expended by searchers.

NEW ZEALAND FIRE SERVICE—The Fire Service Act 1975, which came into force on 1 April 1976, established an integrated fire service controlled directly by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission in place of the multitude of fire authorities. One of the main aims of the integration was the removal of the fire service's greatest problem - divided control spread unevenly over 277 fire districts administered by almost as many diverse local authorities, fire boards, and fire committees. However, the retention of the volunteer system is a central feature of the reorganisation.

The New Zealand Fire Service is organised in a 4-tier structure as follows:

  1. The New Zealand Fire Service Commission: The successor of the Fire Service Commission has 3 members, one (the chairman) with a special knowledge of administration, while the other 2 have had senior operational experience in the fire service. The term of office is not to exceed 5 years, but Commissioners may be re-appointed.

  2. Fire Regions: There are 6 administrative regions based on Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Their primary task is to co-ordinate their operational units to work in a close-knit organisation.

  3. Fire Areas: The fire regions are divided into fire areas, of which there are 22 in all. They are responsible for developing the fire fighting resources of their areas and for the training and operational efficiency of the 277 brigades.

  4. Fire Districts: Every united urban fire district, urban fire district, and secondary urban fire district which existed immediately prior to the commencement of the Fire Service Act 1975, was declared a fire district under the new Act.

The New Zealand Fire Service Since 1 April 1976—From 1 April 1976 the 277 fire authorities throughout New Zealand ceased to exist except for the purposes of transferring their assets and liabilities to the Commission. The operation and administration of the New Zealand Fire Service became the total responsibility of the New Zealand Fire Service Commission dealing through duly appointed commanders of regions, areas, and districts. Twenty-six of the 277 fire districts are served mainly by permanent firemen but with a leavening of nearly 1,000 volunteers. The remaining 251 fire districts are manned by volunteer firemen who are an essential, integral part of the New Zealand Fire Service.

The assets taken over by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission comprised some 376 fire stations, 375 houses and flats, and 743 assorted fire appliances deployed throughout New Zealand.

The Fire Service Act 1975 revised the apportionment of costs for the annual estimates of the New Zealand Fire Service between the insurance industry (including the levy on fire insurance policies) and the Government in the ratio of almost 3:1.

Fire Safety—Under Part II of the Fire Service Act the Fire Service Commission is required to take an active and co-ordinating role in the promotion of fire safety. To advise on this, the Commission has appointed a Fire Safety Advisory Committee, the membership of which includes representatives of the Accident Compensation Commission, the fire protection industry, the Building Research Association, the Insurance Industry Council, and the professional associations of architects, engineers, and master builders.

Fire safety officers annually inspect some 19,000 buildings for licence purposes.

Fire Calls—The total number of calls attended by brigades throughout New Zealand during 3 recent years are shown below.

 197419751976
False alarms, non-malicious3,4153,9823,653
False alarms, malicious2,3142,0942,070
Accidental2,0032,1072,504
Defective apparatus3,4914,0844,998
       Total all false alarms11,22312,26713,225
Special services5,3426,0115,969
Chimney fires2,4202,2342,844
Gorse, grass, rubbish8,5937,6036,911
Property fires10,06810,4659,932
Assistance calls to property fires218788374
       Total calls37,86439,36839,255

Loss of Life—Forty-seven lives were lost by fire during 1976 compared with 59 the previous year and 38 in 1974. The most common known causes were smoking in bed, which resulted in 7 deaths, and the careless disposal of smoking materials, which resulted in another 7 deaths.

Properties Involved in Fires—A summary of the types of properties involved in fires in recent years is given below.

Type of Property197419751976
Dwellings—   
      Private dwellings3,2653,6193,602
      Private detached buildings687572710
      Residential flats475472502
      Boardinghouses203229
      Holiday cabins11529
      Hospitals96110103
      Hostels242718
      Hotels567478
      Motels201920
      Caravans63217
      Buildings under construction or being demolished4124
      Other67119109
         Total4,7175,1325,241
Places of Public Assembly—   
      Schools687892
      Clubs272814
      Cinemas and theatres1911
      Churches131314
      Public halls12716
      Other98134136
         Total219269283
Shops and Offices—   
      Multiple office buildings373738
      Multiple stores443417
      Restaurants342729
      Takeaway food bars3931
      Fish and chip shops61533
      Butchers142319
      Groceries121218
      Dairies15298
      Other235271224
         Total452477417
Manufacturing and Industrial Properties—   
      Building trade (carpentry and joinery)385748
      Engineering works343432
      Furniture and upholstery342413
      Metal processing102225
      Motor vehicle assembly152122
      Motor vehicle servicing, garages, etc.82253
      Pulp and paper8811969
      Sawmills and timber mills3366111
      Wallboard27250
      Other564455505
         Total826892928
Bulk Stores and Warehouses9112532
Transport—   
      Private cars1,6841,7361,613
      Earthmoving machinery314735
      Motor cycles and scooters13310785
      Passenger transport vehicles (buses, etc.)241934
      Tractors664457
      Trucks24314399
      Other158256401
         Total2,3392,3522,324
Agricultural Buildings, etc.—   
      Farm buildings (not dwellings)263916
      Implement sheds244716
      Hay barns687896
      Other9114096
         Total209304224
Miscellaneous buildings—   
      Power distribution (sub-stations, transformers, poles, etc.)131149129
      Other7384125
         Total204233254
Miscellaneous—   
      Fences and hedges28211686
      Wharves152323
      Other2188112
         Total318227221

Chapter 10. Section 9 DEFENCE

Table of Contents

DEFENCE POLICY—The maintenance of defence forces and a defence potential in New Zealand are related to the support of broad national objectives. Some of these objectives are relatively fixed because they reflect unchanging basic factors, such as resources, geographical remoteness, and dependence on overseas trade. Others are the products of history or circumstances. The objectives of New Zealand's defence policy may be summed up as the preservation of the security, national interests, and independence of New Zealand; the provision of assistance to maintain the stability and security of New Zealand's partners; and the provision of material backing to political efforts to preserve peace through the United Nations or through regional arrangements. Defence policy has been elaborated in parliamentary papers A.19 in 1961, A.8 in 1966, and A.5 in 1972. International relationships are discussed in Section 2 of this Yearbook.

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION OF DEFENCE—The Governor-General as Commander-in-Chief is empowered to raise and maintain the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. These forces, together with public servants appointed under the State Services Act 1962, constitute the Ministry of Defence, which is responsible under the Minister for the central control of the whole field of national defence.

The Secretary of Defence is permanent head of the ministry and principal civilian adviser to the Minister, responsible in particular for co-ordinating the business of the ministry as a whole, including long-term financial planning as well as supervision of defence expenditure. In accordance with the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, the Secretary of Defence prescribes the pay, allowances, expenses, and other conditions of employment of all servicemen.

The Chief of Defence Staff is principal military adviser to the Minister; he is convenor and chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and conveys its advice to the Minister. Like the Secretary of Defence, he carries out inspections of the services and reports to the Minister.

Defence Council—The Defence Council is responsible for the administration and, through the officers appointed for the purpose, the command of the New Zealand Armed Forces. The Defence Council consists of the Minister as chairman, the Secretary of Defence and the Chief of Defence Staff as deputy chairmen, and the Chiefs of Staff of the 3 services, the Secretary to the Treasury and the Secretary of Foreign Affairs are associate members. In addition, the council may from time to time co-opt officers of other departments of State. Without limiting the duties of the Secretary of Defence or the Chief of Defence Staff, the Defence Council is responsible for advising the Minister of important matters of defence policy.

ROLES OF THE NEW ZEALAND ARMED FORCES—The roles and missions of the New Zealand Armed Forces are related to the following tasks:

  1. To provide regular forces for low intensity ground/air/naval operations in a variety of situations in our area of direct strategic concern.

  2. To provide regular forces for maritime reconnaissance/surveillance patrols over New Zealand territory and the surrounding waters.

  3. To maintain forces trained and available for use in a major emergency.

In addition, they discharge, wherever possible, a number of secondary roles, including:

  1. Assistance to the New Zealand community.

  2. The provision of mutual assistance, including technical aid, to certain countries in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific.

  3. Contributions to United Nations peace-keeping operations

CO-OPERATION WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—To facilitate exchanges on military matters New Zealand defence liaison staffs are maintained in London, Canberra, Washington, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Jakarta, and Bangkok. In addition some members of these staffs are duly accredited to other countries. The United Kingdom, Australia, and Malaysia have service representatives attached to their respective High Commissions in Wellington and there are service attach$eAs on the staffs of the French, Indonesian, and United States Embassies in Wellington. Several other countries have service attach$eAs accredited to, but not resident in, New Zealand.

DEFENCE SCIENCE—The Defence Scientific Establishment is at Auckland and is particularly involved in research in fields of concern to the Royal New Zealand Navy and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. The establishment also carries out metallurgical and other specialised studies related to the adaptation of equipment to the New Zealand environment.

Co-ordination of defence science policy is achieved through the Ministry of Defence, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the National Research Advisory Council. Commonwealth and allied co-ordination is achieved by membership of specialised bodies.

The Defence Scientific Establishment has been responsible for useful savings of foreign exchange, both in the rejection of faulty equipment as a result of metallurgical testings, and in enabling tasks previously carried out overseas to be undertaken in New Zealand. Electronic equipment produced by the Defence Scientific Establishment which has commercial potential has been made available to New Zealand industry for development and production and the work of defence scientists could result in the introduction into industry of new techniques bringing more economical production.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY FOR THE ARMED FORCES—The principal statute governing the armed forces is the Defence Act 1971. The present Acts dealing with the maintenance of discipline in each Service will be repealed when the Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971 comes into force and provides the Services with a common disciplinary code.

DEFENCE EXPENDITURE—Expenditure on defence in the 3 latest years ended 31 March was made up as follows.

Item1974–751975–761976–77
 $(m)$(m)$(m)
Personnel101.60114.19125.03
Travel, transport, and communications6.526.708.18
Maintenance, operation, upkeep, and rental10.7312.4813.62
Materials and supplies26.9532.2037.69
Services3.343.384.51
Other operating expenditure1.171.391.47
Grants, contributions, subsidies0.060.160.19
Capital works2.995.995.54
Capital equipment13.4916.9818.60
Total166.85193.47214.83

About 75 percent of the Defence Vote is spent within New Zealand, mainly on salaries, capital works, servicing, and general operating costs, so that there is an important feedback into the economy. Attempts are being made to become more self-supporting logistically.

Defence expenditure is related to Government expenditure and gross national product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchDefence ExpenditurePercentage of Government Expenditure*Percentage of Gross National Product

*Excludes repayment of public debt.

 $(m)percentpercent
1973129.825.11.8
1974140.514.71.6
1975166.854.51.7
1976193.474.11.8
1977214.834.21.7

STRENGTH OF ARMED FORCES—The following table gives the strengths of the regular forces of the three services over the last 6 years.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceTotal
19722,9665,4494,22212,637
19732,9725,4984,31912,789
19742,8455,5534,23212,630
19752,8505,5234,29712,670
19762,7345,4324,25412,420
19772,7265,4414,28912,456

Conditions of Service—On 1 September 1976 a completely new concept of service engagements was introduced with the abolition of fixed term engagements and the introduction of the assurance of 20 years' service. Included in this is the option of release at any time during that period without loss of terminal benefits provided the required notice is given. This now provides a service career as near as possible, in terms of length of service and right of release at will, to a career in a civilian occupation.

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY—The Government in New Zealand has since the earliest days made provision for naval forces in its defence measures. Royal Navy vessels regularly visited New Zealand waters, but these were soon supplemented by a number of Government-owned vessels, the first of which was the Australia, a schooner purchased from India in 1842. In addition, in 1877 the New Zealand Government began regular financial contributions towards maintaining Royal Navy ships in New Zealand waters. In 1921 the naval forces became the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy, and in 1941 they became the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Naval Staff exercises command and control of the Royal New Zealand Navy assisted in the performance of his functions by the Naval Staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

State of the Navy—Seagoing ships: 

*On loan from U.S. Navy.

†A replacement diving tender is under construction by Whangarei Engineering Co. Ltd.

   Frigates (Leander class)Waikato
Canterbury
Frigates (Otago class)Otago
Taranaki
      Survey shipMonowai
      Research shipTui*
      Patrol craftHaweaResource protection
Taupo
Rotoiti
Pukaki
      Inshore survey craftTakapu
 Tarapunga
      RNZNVR motor launchesKoura
Haku
Paea
Manga
Kuparu
      Diving tenderManawanui
      Dockyard service craftArataki

Shore Establishments—The naval base at Devonport, Auckland, consists of the office of the Commodore Auckland (the administrative authority of the RNZN), HMNZS Philomel (the naval barracks and base support establishment), HMNZS Tasman (specialist training schools), the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital, the Naval Supply Depot, and the Dockyard.

The Dockyard is under the charge of a Captain Superintendent and is capable of refitting all units of the RNZN. The RNZN Armament Depot is situated at Kauri Point and the RNZN Hydrographic Office is at Takapuna.

HMNZS Tamaki is the new entry seamanship and artificer apprentice training establishment for the Navy and is located at Narrow Neck, Devonport, Auckland.

HMNZS Irirangi is the naval radio receiving and transmitting station and is situated at Waiouru.

HMNZS Wakefield is the administrative unit for RNZN personnel in the Wellington area.

Strength of the Navy

CategoryAt 31 March 1975At 31 March 1976At 31 March 1977
Regular Forces   
      Officers (male and female)308309296
      Ratings2,4422,3082,303
      WRNZNS ratings100117127
       Total2,8502,7342,726
Non-regular Forces   
      Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve officers554
      Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve all ranks314287304
      Royal New Zealand Naval Fleet Reserve ratings2,5442,7032,898

Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service—The Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service was first formed in 1942 as a wartime service and in 1949 became a permanent part of the Royal New Zealand Navy. It was disbanded on 29 July 1977 and its personnel absorbed into the appropriate branches and trades of the RNZN as part of the implementation of the Government's policy on the employment of women.

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve—There is a division of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve in each of the 4 main centres—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—where reservists are given the basic elements of naval training.

THE NEW ZEALAND ARMY—The Army is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the Defence Act 1971, and the policy outlined in the Defence White Paper 1972. It comprises a Regular Force, Territorial Force, and the Army Reserves.

New Zealand has maintained militia forces since the passing of the Militia Act of 1845. The first regular forces were the Armed Constabulary formed in 1846. The oldest continuously serving unit in the Army traces its history to February 1864.

Formed Army units have been dispatched overseas on active service in the Boer War, World War I, World War II, occupation forces in Japan, plus Korea, Malaya and Borneo and subsequently Malaysia, and Vietnam. Units have been stationed in Malaysia and subsequently Singapore since the termination of active service in Malaysia in 1966.

Personnel are posted to one of the following corps: Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery; Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps; Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers; Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals; Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment; New Zealand Special Air Service; New Zealand Army Air Corps; Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps; Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps; Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps; Corps of Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers; Royal New Zealand Dental Corps; Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department; New Zealand Army Pay Corps; New Zealand Army Legal Service; Royal New Zealand Provost Corps; Royal New Zealand Army Education Corps; or the Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps.

Command and Administration—The Chief of General Staff exercises command and administration of the Army, assisted in the performance of his functions by the General Staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—In New Zealand the Army is organised into two commands, each with a functional responsibility nationwide, and is directly responsible to Defence Headquarters for the performance of its functions:

  1. Home Command—Provides the home base support for the Army in peace and war. This involves acting as the mounting agency for the deployment overseas of the Field Force and providing the machinery needed for mobilisation of the Army; the administration, maintenance, development and control of all Army land, buildings, equipment, vehicles, and training facilities; the preparation and conducting of training courses, promotion courses and examinations for all Army personnel; recruiting; development of a progressive welfare policy for the Army; and the provision of financial support and advice.

  2. Field Force Command—Commands and administers those elements of the Army in New Zealand which have an operational role in the event of mobilisation, i.e., 1 Infantry Brigade Group, 3 Infantry Brigade Group, and Logistic Support Group.

Units and staff deployed overseas remain under national command.

Strength of the Army

CategoryAt 31 March 1975At 31 March 1976At 31 March 1977

*Reduction due to phasing out of National Service.

Regular Forces   
      Officers (male and female)739721677
      Other ranks4,5734,4844,475
      RNZNC and NZWRAC (other ranks)211227289
       Total5,5235,4325,441
Non-regular Forces   
      Territorial Force (all ranks)5,6186,1715,861
      Officers Reserve566561520
      Class A Reserve Other ranks97*12*11*
      Class B Reserve1,9281,7531,540

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE—The Royal New Zealand Air Force was constituted as a separate armed service by the Air Force Act 1937 and its administration was vested in an Air Department which was responsible for military aviation and the regulation of civil aviation in New Zealand. With the passing of the 1964 Defence Act the Air Department was absorbed into the Ministry of Defence.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Air Staff exercises command and administration of the Royal New Zealand Air Force assisted in the performance of his functions by the air staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—The RNZAF in New Zealand is divided into two Groups and one independent base; in addition, one squadron with rotary winged aircraft forms part of the New Zealand forces based in Singapore. Operations Group, with Headquarters at RNZAF Base Auckland, is responsible for all operational functions and advanced pilot flying training, and Support Group, with Headquarters at RNZAF Base, Wigram, is responsible for all formal individual training (except advanced pilot training) and certain support functions. RNZAF Base, Shelly Bay, acts as the supporting administrative and domestic base for all RNZAF personnel assigned to Wellington for duty in Air Staff and Defence Headquarters.

The RNZAF provides support for the search and rescue organisations in New Zealand and the South Pacific area, and for the New Zealand civil defence organisation. In addition, the RNZAF provides support to civil and government agencies, which cannot be provided by civil aviation facilities.

The operational units of the RNZAF comprise: a utility helicopter support unit based in Singapore as part of the New Zealand Force, South-east Asia; maritime, long- and medium-range transport and helicopter squadrons based at RNZAF Base Auckland: and offensive support and medium-range transport communications squadrons at RNZAF Base, Ohakea. Flying training units are located at RNZAF Bases Wigram and Ohakea, while ground training is carried out at RNZAF Bases Auckland, Woodbourne, and Wigram.

Engineering—Direction of RNZAF engineering services is co-ordinated by Air Staff, Defence Headquarters. Specific levels of aircraft maintenance are assigned to bases and squadrons. A range of overhaul and repairs and some manufacture of aeronautical equipment is carried out at a No. 1 Repair Depot, RNZAF Base, Woodbourne. A proportion of repair and overhaul work is contracted to civil industry in New Zealand and overseas.

Strength of the Air Force

CategoryAt 31 March 1975At 31 March 1976At 31 March 1977
Regular Forces   
      Officers (male and female)701682677
      Airmen (male and female)3,2543,2503,307
      WRNZAF—airwomen342322305
       Totals4,2974,2544,289
Non-regular Forces   
      Territorial Air Force139146148
      Active Reserve413357487
      General Reserve807725625

ARMED FORCES OVERSEAS: Five Power Defence Arrangements—The Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement, under which New Zealand had maintained forces in Malaysia as part of a Commonwealth Strategic Reserve was terminated in October 1971. It was replaced by the 5 power defence arrangements, effective November 1971 by which Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom separately concluded agreements with Malaysia and Singapore. Within the framework of these arrangements, and at the request of the governments of Malaysia and Singapore, the three first-mentioned nations agreed to station elements of their armed forces in these countries. These elements were initially grouped into an ANZUK force, but the decision by Australia in 1973 to withdraw a substantial portion of its ground forces from the region led to New Zealand and the United Kingdom's deciding to establish separate national command arrangements. Accordingly, with effect from 31 January 1974, command of the New Zealand elements of the ANZUK force was transferred to the Commander, New Zealand Force South-East Asia. This New Zealand contribution to stability in the area currently comprises a frigate on station for a part of each year, an infantry battalion, an air transport squadron, a headquarters, periodic deployment of RNZAF strike aircraft to the area, and sundry supporting units. The withdrawal of British Forces from the area was completed in 1976.

United Nations Observers—At the request of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, New Zealand has provided military observers in United Nations truce supervisory operations in Kashmir since 1951 and in the Middle East since 1954. The number of observers in Kashmir has been four, except for the period of hostilities in mid-1965 when, for a short time, New Zealand provided nine officers. The number of observers in the Middle East has varied between two and seven. During 1976 New Zealand withdrew all observers from Kashmir and reduced the number of observers in the Middle East from five to four.

MUTUAL ASSISTANCE PROGRAMME—Since 1973 bilateral military assistance and co-operation activities, which had been conducted with several countries over a number of years, have been developed and administered as a mutual assistance programme involving now the ASEAN countries (Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia) plus Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and Tonga. The main aim of the programme is to help the countries concerned to improve the capability of their armed forces and at the same time to provide New Zealand with training experience and deployment opportunities in the countries concerned. Activities within the programme include training in New Zealand for personnel on an individual basis, or for small groups or, upon occasion, for units up to company size. Courses given range over a wide spectrum of military training limited only by the availability of places on particular courses and by the requirements of the countries to whom the assistance is available. Small numbers of New Zealand personnel are sent to these countries as instructors or on appointments arranged by way of interchange with officers coming to New Zealand. Senior officers are invited to this country on familiarisation and planning visits and as opportunity offers gifts of equipment are made.

Antarctica Support—New Zealand activities in Antarctica rely heavily on logistic support co-ordinated with the United States. The main defence contribution is related to the provision of RNZAF transport flights to McMurdo assisted by a mobile air movements team and Army cargo handlers. Both helicopter and transport aircrew are also assigned for duty with the United States forces and two physical training instructors have been assigned to Scott Base to assist in Antarctic survival instruction to both US and NZ personnel.

COMMUNITY ASSISTANCE: Hydrographic Survey—Two survey launches completed resurveys of Manukau Bar, Awanui River, and Raglan Bar during the period January–April 1977. The survey motor launches then commenced a survey of the entrance to Tory Channel. This survey will be completed during the 1978 survey season. HMNZS Monowai completed conversion as a survey ship in November and will commence survey work in March. 1978.

Fishery Protection—The introduction of the 200 mile exclusive economic zone on 1 April 1978 increased the need to maintain a surveillance and policy effort. The four patrol craft employed full time on fishery protection patrols are being supplemented by increased RNZAF surveillance flights and the use of a frigate for extended patrols.

Search and Rescue—All three services support the civil defence and search and rescue organisations. During the year 1 April 1976 to 31 March 1977 there were three major oceanic searches; 35 incidents involving Army manpower, vehicles, stores, equipment, and rations; and the RNZAF located and carried to safety some 50 people from 80 incidents.

Miscellaneous—Other assistance provided to the community ranges from airborne surveillance of foreign fishing vessels to fire-fighting and co-operative tasks with the Forest Service, NZR, NZED, and Meteorological Service; explosive ordnance disposal; assistance in civil emergencies; and participation in pageantry and ceremonial occasions.

NEW ZEALAND CADET FORCES—The Defence Act 1971 established the New Zealand Cadet Forces, in their own right and not as parts of the Armed Forces as before.

The Act authorises the Defence Council to raise and maintain elements of the sea cadets, school cadets and air training corps and also to allocate funds exclusively for the support of cadet activities. Civil sponsoring bodies for the cadet forces recognised by the Act as sharing responsibility for the corps with the Ministry of Defence are the Navy League of New Zealand, the Air Cadet League of New Zealand, and the Dominion Council of the Returned Services Association.

The strength of the New Zealand Cadet Forces during 1977 included 708 Sea Cadets led by 82 Sea Cadet Corps officers in 15 towns and 5 school units; 3,516 School Cadets led by 82 School Cadet Corps officers in 18 school units; and 1,964 Air Cadets led by 165 Air Training Corps officers in 44 towns and 5 schools.

STRENGTHS OF ARMED FORCES IN WAR: South African War—Approximately 6,500 troops from New Zealand served in the South African War.

First World War, 1914–18—A total of 124,211 persons (including 91,941 volunteers) were called up for overseas and home service prior to 12 November 1918. Of these, 100,444 went overseas.

Second World War, 1939–45—The net intake of men to the armed forces—i.e., exclusive of transfers between the services and of re-entries—during the Second World War was 194,000, equivalent to 67 percent of the male population between the ages of 18 and 45 years. In addition, approximately 10,000 women served in the forces. It is estimated that approximately 140,000 persons served overseas.

CIVIL DEFENCE—In 1959, a Ministry of Civil Defence was established within the framework of the Department of Internal Affairs, and three regional commissioners were appointed to implement Central Government policy within their regions. For civil defence purposes, the North Island was divided into two regions and the South Island formed a third region.

The Civil Defence Act 1962 formulated the concept and machinery of a national civil defence scheme. It provided for community self-help making the best use of resources and volunteers in each local community, and supporting these with the resources of Government departments and other agencies. The authority to declare local civil defence emergencies rests with local authorities who assume considerable powers once a state of emergency exists.

Each local authority is required to maintain an operative civil defence plan and organisation for its district or to unite with neighbouring local authorities in doing so for the combined districts. Regional and United Councils which are established under the Local Government Act have the responsibility for the co-ordination and, in an emergency, the control of civil defence measures in their constituent local authorities. At present there is only one regional authority civil defence organisation (Auckland Regional District) and 118 local authority civil defence organisations.

In a declared regional emergency, local authority civil defence measures would be co-ordinated and controlled by Regional Commissioners in Auckland, Palmerston North and Christchurch, who in turn would be responsible to the Director of Civil Defence. In a national emergency, civil defence operations would be directed from the National Civil Defence Operational Headquarters located in the executive wing of Parliament Buildings.

The participation and co-ordination of Government departments in civil defence is effected by the National Civil Defence Committee, comprising representatives from 12 Government departments. This committee has the general function of advising and assisting the Minister and Director in the planning and implementation of measures for the establishment, maintenance, and effective operation of civil defence. Members of this committee are represented on the three Regional Civil Defence Committees.

The Civil Defence Act authorises the Minister of Civil Defence to appoint national civil defence planning committees, responsible to him for drawing up plans covering different aspects of civil defence. These committees include representatives from a wide range of Government departments, local authorities, and public organisations. Once approved by the Minister, the responsibilities and functions set out in these national plans are binding on all the parties concerned.

Training of volunteers for local civil defence organisations is the responsibility of local authorities aided by the Ministry of Civil Defence, which provides subsidies and training handbooks, and assists in conducting courses for key personnel.

SECURITY INTELLIGENCE SERVICE—The New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969 gave statutory recognition to the New Zealand Security Service, which was established on 28 November 1956.

Subject to the control of the Minister in Charge of the Security Intelligence Service, the functions of the service are to obtain, correlate, and evaluate intelligence relevant to security; to advise Ministers on security matters; to co-operate as far as practicable and necessary with State Services and other public authorities in New Zealand and abroad in the performance of its functions; and to inform the New Zealand Intelligence Council on any new area of potential espionage, sabotage, terrorism, or subversion in respect of which the Director has considered it necessary to institute surveillance.

It is not a function of the Security Intelligence Service to enforce measures for security or to institute surveillance of any person or class of persons by reason only of his, her, or their involvement in lawful protest or dissent.

There is a Commissioner of Security Appeals, to whom complaints may be made in writing at the office of the Supreme Court in Wellington.

Chapter 11. Section 10 LAND DEVELOPMENT AND USE

10 A—PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

GENERAL—Planning for economic development and growth is the concern of a wide range of sectors, including agriculture, manufacturing, transport, forestry, building, mineral development, and energy production. Economic development in New Zealand is at present undergoing complex structural change with the rapidly growing manufacturing sector of increasing importance. This has led to an increased demand for land, both for industry and the associated urban development, a demand increasingly in conflict with agricultural use. Within the urban areas themselves, competing demands for industrial, commercial, residential and recreational land have arisen as proponents of each particular use have sought their most suitable available location. Left unchecked, these conflicts of interest could lead to unsatisfactory and uneconomic patterns of development. This has necessitated a planning framework within which competing demands can be resolved.

In recent years, world opinion has had forced upon it an appreciation of the damage to the environment, in the form of pollution and the destruction of natural resources, that can result from uncontrolled economic development. New Zealand, during the early years of the last century, suffered what is now recognised to have been irreparable damage from the destruction of native forests and wildlife. However, during the last decade New Zealand has taken warning from the unfortunate experiences of some more highly developed countries. Concern for possible future effects of economic growth on the environment led to the holding of the Physical Environment Conference in May 1970 and has resulted in the enacting of what is, by world standards, advanced environmental legislation.

LAND USE—With almost 27 million hectares of land and a population of just over 3 million, New Zealand has not in the past been conscious of the problems of resource utilisation experienced in the more densely settled countries. An extensive coastline (approximately 15,000 km), great variety of landscape and responsive soils, and a generally favourable climate at lower altitudes are some of the assets which, because of the small population, have been utilised without any serious detrimental effects on the social and economic fabric. In retrospect, however, it is apparent that some of the land and other resources have been wastefully exploited. Maori settlement brought significant ecological changes, largely through fires and hunting. The impact of European settlement was much greater, measured by the large areas of indigenous forest cover destroyed, the extensive native grasslands burnt for sheep grazing and ploughed for crops and sown pasture, the wetlands drained and reclaimed, the unsightly tailings left after gold mining, the increase in soil erosion, and the general loss of wildlife habitats.

The growth and changing distribution of the population have been strongly influenced by the distribution of the most productive soils. In the nineteenth century, when the population was small, the ultimate results of preferential settlement of the best agricultural land were not appreciated. Generally, the most productive areas became the most prosperous when the towns within them grew, and it was at the expense of the most productive soils. Later, manufacturing and tertiary industries tended to be located in these towns because of the labour, markets, and services they offered.

Between 1949 and 1964 urbanisation claimed about 15,800 hectares of good farming land, and expansion up to 1984 will require another 30,000 hectares of land. Considering that the total area of good farming land includes approximately 8,300,000 hectares of first-class pastoral land and 500,000 hectares of first-class cropping land and that agricultural production derives benefits from urbanisation, this is not considered a serious problem on a national scale. In certain localities, however, unrestricted urban expansion could have serious limiting effects on agricultural production in the future. The problem is most acute around Auckland, the population of which is now over 800,000, increasing at 2.5 percent a year, and likely to double in under 30 years. It is not possible to reverse the historical factors that have determined the present population distribution, but a national policy for the protection of the soils potentially most productive may be necessary. In the past, economic growth has been pursued with scant regard for its impact on the environment. Single and immediate use rather than balanced long-term use of resources has been the common practice, and has tended to place the advocates of exploitation and protection in opposing camps.

The problem now is how to combine the economic and social pressures on soil, water, plant, and fauna resources with the maintenance of ecological and aesthetic qualities.

In New Zealand the provision of extensive national parks and smaller reserves has done much to preserve (at least in selected areas) the characteristic beauty of the landscape, and to make it accessible to the general public for recreation and enjoyment.

Development schemes causing modification of natural features can, in the planning stage, make provision for restraint, restoration, and even the addition of compensating amenities. The rate of development in New Zealand must make this an essential ingredient of planning. But it must be stressed that there will be no more completely unmodified or true wilderness country. Once it is destroyed, wilderness is gone forever. Wilderness is extremely fragile, and soil erosion, degradation of vegetation, and destruction of animal species can come about through any alteration of the environment, even the most innocent access road.

Scientific investigations and research have reinforced the validity of the beliefs based on sentiment and aesthetics that there are dangers in any disturbance of natural equilibrium of air, water, soil, plants, animals, and stabilised land-forms, or in the pollution of any of them. Changes in the balance of dominance of even obscure organisms or a slowly declining water-table can be factors in the deterioration of countryside. It is essential to retain reference areas from which the changes in soils, plants, and animals resulting from man's activities can be assessed. A whole catchment will usually be the desirable minimum effective area.

Conservation, however, means much more than the preservation of scenic and scientific values. It implies the maintenance without diminution of the basic land resources on which New Zealand's economy and way of life are so largely based. Of these resources the most important are soil, water, and vegetation, the last both natural and introduced, and both forests and grasslands. The concept of conserving soil, water, forest, and grassland resources is dynamic rather than static, and embodies the principle of preservation through wise use.

The problems are capable of solution provided there is a sufficient understanding by administrators and by the public of the importance and often the interdependence of the different values involved and of the ecological implications of any decision affecting land use. Conflicts between different demands on the countryside are inevitable, but with adequate planning and management they are mostly capable of resolution. For example, an agriculturally productive landscape can provide such rich and satisfying contacts with the diversity of nature that in many ways the man-made landscape based on agriculture or forestry need be little less interesting and satisfying than the wild one. Likewise, soil conservation practices not only restore vitality and health to the soil but also create pleasing patterns in the landscape.

Conservation thus viewed becomes more than a matter of mere aesthetic preference, and demands a more complex approach than the isolation of a few areas. If this basis is accepted the principles and practice of conservation as management of the total environment must have high priority in any plans for national development.

The total area of New Zealand, excluding the island territories in the Pacific, but including the minor islands, is estimated to be 26,906,000 hectares.

The broad grouping of land use in 1975 is shown in the following table.

Land UseHectares (million)

*Including some areas of State Forest land.

Includes relatively small areas in cities and boroughs.

Occupied farm land— 
      Improved grassland9.23
      Tussock and other native grassland used for grazing4.71
Total grassland13.94
      Land in field crops, gardens, and orchards0.41
      Plantations of exotic trees0.70*
      Land in fern, scrub, and second growth5.90*
      Standing bush
      Barren and unproductive land
      Native timber
Total occupied farm land20.94
Land in cities and boroughs0.37
National parks, reserves, and domains2.65
Other land, including waste land such as mountains, bare rock, water surfaces, roads, etc.2.95
Total land26.91

Land can now no longer be considered an abundant resource in New Zealand. Because this is so, there is increasing acceptance that where other compatible uses are feasible, it is not necessarily sound policy to devote land to a single or restricted use. However, the need is also becoming recognised to identify the dominant purpose for which land is most suited, so that the pressure for comprehensive land use does not negate the principle that land should be used basically for its most suitable purpose with other uses being encouraged only to the extent that they are compatible.

Land Use Advisory Council—The Land Use Advisory Council was established in 1972 with the task of developing criteria on which sound land use decisions can be made; and its order of reference requires it to have regard to physical, ecological, economic, social, environmental, and other relevant factors, and to determine means by which these factors may be more precisely defined.

The council includes departmental, farming, economic, scientific, and geographic interests, and although its decisions are primarily intended to guide the use of lands of the Crown, it is hoped that the criteria it lays down will be of assistance to all who are required to make land use decisions.

The Council has studied urban sprawl and its effect on rural land, the protection of prime agricultural and horticultural land, the availability of basic land resource data for planning purposes, and the measures adopted by the Government for determining the use of its land. The experiences of a number of overseas countries in planning land development, use and management have been studied. Consideration has been given to the various legitimate uses of the nation's land, including such nonproductive use (in terms of food or goods) as recreation, soil conservation and water management, the preservation of wildlife, and historic and ecological management; and some thought has gone into the means for determining which use shall take priority in the event of there being two strong competing claims.

Too often land use has been determined on the basis of expediency, tradition, short-term economic considerations and other factors often unrelated to the real concerns of a sound national land use policy. Too often also, sufficient recognition has not been given to the need for preserving and enhancing the environment and for maintaining the conditions capable of supporting a quality of life, while providing the material means necessary to improve the national standard of living. New Zealand's economy and way of life are so largely based on the use of land that the maintenance of this resource is a matter of national concern.

Land Inventory—The Department of Lands and Survey is building up a land inventory. The object of the inventory is to identify land tenure, land use, and land cover; and for other contributing agencies to produce more detailed data relating to other basic issues such as soils and geology as will enable a more realistic appraisal of the resources of an area to be achieved. The existence of this data should enable both local and national Government to plan with greater confidence.

The regular coverage of aerial photography by the Department of Lands and Survey provides a useful monitoring tool for changes in land use. New Zealand is also participating in the Earth Resources satellite programme. The 5-yearly 1:100,000 urban flying programme will also assist local authorities to keep abreast of developments.

FRAMEWORK FOR PLANNING—Legislation for maintaining a balance between economic growth and the pattern of land use is contained in a number of enactments administered by various agencies.

Planning Legislation—The Physical Environment Conference in May 1970 concluded that the town and country planning legislation affords greater opportunities of control over the pattern of land use and development. In 1977 Parliament enacted a completely revised Town and Country Planning Act which is to be brought into operation during 1978. Provisions for regional planning are extensively changed and strengthened; district planning provisions have been changed only in detail, but there are new provisions for maritime planning, enabling the better integration of land and water use. The Government will administer the Act through the Minister of Works and Development, but the primary responsibility for its implementation rests with the various types of local authority concerned.

Regional Planning—Regional planning authorities established under the 1953 Act consist of representatives of the several councils whose districts are wholly or partly within the region. These authorities are now operating in the four main centres and in Northland and Hamilton. Under the Local Government Act 1977 and the Town and Country Planning Act 1977, regional or united councils will be established for all regions of New Zealand and these will all have regional planning responsibilities and powers. The combined effect of these Acts is likely to emerge as a major constitutional innovation. The regional planning process offers a means by which Central and local Government, representing the national interest and the regional communities respectively, can reach agreement on development and welfare policies and priorities for the allocation of resources for each region. Agreement can be expressed in the regional planning scheme, and changes of policy can be worked out within the process of changing the scheme.

There are two principal objectives for regional planning under the Town and Country Planning Act 1977. The first is to achieve the pattern, character, and rate of development chosen by the region as being both feasible and most desirable.

Though development problems and lack of co-ordination may be more obvious in the metropolitan or urban growth situation, the relative impact of resource development, and the opportunity to control and influence their own futures, can be even more significant in our more rural regions. The multi-purpose possibilities of the Clutha Valley and the Waitaki, the afforestation schemes of the East Coast and the King Country, the large scale developments mooted for the West Coast of the South Island, and the land use conflicts of the Marlborough Sounds, could all transform the economic and social conditions of these regions.

Whether urban or resource development issues are dominant, they demand a clear expression from, and involvement by, the regional community and a marriage of national and regional objectives.

What the new regional planning legislation aims to provide is a process that allows for the public evaluation of options and alternatives, the determination of objectives and policies, and the adoption of a programme of implementation that is related to community priorities and the resources available.

The second objective of regional planning is a concern for the regional effects of the allocation of resources for major industries or by Central Government. National policies, or changes in policy, on such matters as energy development, transportation, afforestation, or housing finance can have marked regional implications and significantly affect regional prosperity and well-being. It is important therefore that expressed regional preferences and priorities are considered as an integral part of national policy formulation, and that the regional consequences of national policies are understood before they are adopted. Two-way communication between Central Government and the regions must be a vital element in any new process.

Regional Planning Process—The key provision of the new legislation will be the requirement that once regional schemes have been agreed to by Government, all public authorities, both central and local, will be required to give effect to the provisions of a regional planning scheme.

The significance of this step lies not only in the control it places in the hands of regional planning authorities, but in the practical necessity it creates for Central and local Government agencies to take a constructive part, along with the regional community, in the formulation of the objectives, policies, programmes, and other provisions of each scheme.

The establishment of representative bodies to speak for each regional community, and to take the lead in framing regional objectives and policies within a regional planning scheme, is provided for in the Local Government Act. The time taken to create regional and united councils will determine how soon there can be an effective regional voice in national planning, and how soon the activities of national and local Government agencies in each region can be aligned with objectives stated by the region and endorsed by Central Government.

District Planning—Every district scheme under the Act is required to have as its general purpose the wise use and management of the resources, and the direction and control of the development of the district in such a way as will most effectively promote and safeguard the economic, cultural, social, and general welfare of the people, and the preservation of amenities, of every part of the district. It must also recognise and provide for matters of national importance defined in the Act. Every city, borough, and county council, or other authority responsible for the general administration of a district must provide and maintain a district scheme unless exempted by the Minister of Works and Development. Any such exemptions are likely to apply only to districts of small population where little change is expected. Almost the whole country, in terms of population or area, is covered by district schemes prepared under the previous Act of 1953, although not all such schemes have passed through all the legal stages necessary to be made operative.

National Planning—The Town and Country Planning Act Review Committee, in its report of September 1973, noted that the legislation made no reference to planning at the national level, and recommended that the revised legislation should ensure that national policies are taken into account at all levels of planning.

In November 1973, the Town and Country Planning Act was amended as follows, to give effect to this:

"2B. The following matters are declared to be of national importance and shall be recognised and provided for in the preparation, implementation and administration of regional and district schemes:

  1. The preservation of the natural character of the coastal environment and of the margins of lakes and rivers and the protection of them from unnecessary subdivision and development;

  2. The avoidance of encroachment of urban development on, and the protection of land having a high actual or potential value for the production of food; and

  3. The prevention of sporadic urban subdivision and development in rural areas."

National planning for the preservation of the natural character of the coastal environment and of the margins of lakes and rivers and the protection of them from unnecessary subdivision and development involves the Department of Lands and Survey and the Ministry of Works and Development. Since 1966 the Department of Lands and Survey has been involved in coastal reserves acquisition which has increased with development of the coastal reserves surveys. These are carried out on a county basis and classify areas on the basis of their importance into areas of national, regional, or local significance. The Coastal Review. Committee, which includes both departments, makes the final decision as to the selection and financial responsibility for particular reserves. In April 1973 the Government approved the terms of a national policy on coastal land as follows:

  1. Recognition that coastal land is a resource of national importance but of fixed quantity justifying, firstly, central as well as local government interest in how it is used; secondly, Central Government intervention when it is being misused; and thirdly, provision by Central Government of professional planning advice and funds for reserves;

  2. Provision of as wide a variety of active and passive recreational opportunity and experience as the coast is able to offer now and in the future including a wide range of types of recreational reserves and holiday accommodation;

  3. Retention in sufficient quantity of the native coastal flora and fauna in its natural state as well as the unique and the typical in coastal scenery;

  4. Establishment of a pattern of future land use which clearly defines the land needed for urban development in the next two decades and the land that should never be used for urban purposes;

  5. Ensuring that any development of coastal land for urban and holiday purposes is in sympathy with the landscape and makes the most of each site's natural characteristics;

  6. Recognition that the stability of a large proportion of coastal land depends on the efficiency of sand dune fixation and that unstable dune areas should not be subjected to a high level of recreational use.

The second matter of national importance in town planning is the avoidance of encroachment of urban development on, and the protection of, land having a high actual or potential value for the production of food. It has been estimated that about 9 percent of New Zealand's total land area, 2.4 million hectares, is suitable for arable farming and of this, 800,000 hectares comprise soils capable of sustaining a high production of a wide range of crops. In 1972 cities, boroughs, town districts, and county towns covered an area of approximately 288,000 hectares, of which 165,000 hectares were in actual urban use. As has been noted above, most of New Zealand's towns are in areas of productive soils.

The third matter is the prevention of sporadic urban subdivision and development in rural areas. This is indicative of pressures which are now leading to a need for a more sophisticated approach to rural planning. Appropriate changes will include different methods of farming operation, increasing importance of commercial forestry, increases in tourism and recreation, mineral exploitation, and demand for some form of rural living.

RECREATIONAL LAND—Existing national parks and reserves are, for the most part, close to the centres of greatest and most rapidly growing population. Until recently little was done to secure in public ownership those areas where most New Zealanders take their holidays—by the water. Along the north and north-east coasts, where the climate is best and the population densest, many of the most desirable areas of coastline have already been subdivided, notably on the North Auckland, Bay of Plenty, and Coromandel coasts. Besides limiting public access, this can destroy scenic values. Similar considerations apply in respect of lakes, rocks, and offshore islands. In recent years the Crown has purchased a number of islands or parts of islands for reserve purposes. Some of these are grouped in the Hauraki Gulf and Marlborough Sounds Maritime Parks. Moves are being made to control subdivision in coastal and lakeshore areas.

Access along rivers 3 metres wide, lakes in excess of 8 hectares, and foreshores has usually been provided: on all alienations of Crown land since 1886, on private subdivision for towns near rivers or the sea coast since 1923, and on partitions of Maori land in counties since 1967.

The Land Act has provided since 1948 that around every lake with an area of 8 hectares or more there shall be laid off a strip not less than 1 chain in width.

New Zealand has some 24 percent of its land under forest. It is important that a forest cover should be maintained wherever it constitutes the most desirable form of land use. Forests meet a wide range of basic human needs—social, recreational, and spiritual, as well as economic.

New Zealand is fortunate in that a large area of native forests was set aside in the early days in reserves of various types (State forests, climatic reserves, scenery preservation reserves, reserves for the preservation of flora and fauna, and reserves for the growth and preservation of timber). As a result New Zealand is well endowed with forested wilderness and with other native forests having scenic, recreational, and wildlife values. Per head of population New Zealand probably has a larger area of forests of this type than any other developed country. Early land administrators laid the basis for a national park, a forest park, and a protection forestry system which is widely envied.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for leisure pursuits in surroundings of great natural beauty—for the study of wildlife (plant and animal); for walking and tramping; and for shooting and fishing. Most of the attractive forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation; recreational use can be allowed in almost all such protection forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting can be of benefit through its contribution in destroying wild animal pests. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes the improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining shelter huts, assets also of use to Forest Service personnel. Entry is unrestricted except that, in the interests of safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

The older exotic forests also offer the attractions that only a sylvan setting can provide and have the advantage of accessibility. In many places, walks and picnic spots have been prepared for use by the public, and selected areas will be preserved from felling for their scenic value.

A related topic is the protection and conservation of bush and trees within urban areas. Not only do trees and areas of bush provide beauty and additional amenities in urban surroundings, but they provide habitats for birds and other wildlife, encourage the cycling of water and nutrients, and assist with erosion control. Local authorities have the power to require that, when land is subdivided, trees and bush areas shall be preserved.

PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF MAJOR PARKS AND RESERVES—Planning of and for natural areas is proceeding at a far greater pace than ever before. The New Zealand Forest Service produces working plans for all State forests including forest parks; national park boards are preparing management plans for individual parks and a number are being produced for other reserves; coastal areas and scenic and allied reserves are being reviewed by the Department of Lands and Survey; and local and regional planning authorities are producing district or regional schemes.

In order to avoid the mistakes inherent in haphazard development, the National Parks Authority has for some years been encouraging national park boards to prepare management plans for their respective parks. These plans establish concepts and guidelines for the preservation and use of national parks, and afford the means by which park use and management can be reconciled with the preservation in perpetuity of the park's scenic beauty, and natural and historic features.

The concept of management planning is not confined to national parks. The Department of Lands and Survey is also applying the concept to reserves, domains, and recreation areas of all types. Major management plans and planning reports have been completed for the Waitangi National Trust and for Mount Maunganui, while work of this type continues for the country's two maritime parks, the Far North Coastal Park at Te Paki, and major areas of public recreation such as Lake Taupo, the Wanganui River, the Waitaki Lakes, and Rotorua.

ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES—In addition to the Government departments with responsibilities for administering the diversity of legislation for the protection of the physical environment, there are several authorities with responsibilities for the physical and social environment. Some of the more prominent of these are discussed below.

The Commission for the Environment—The ministerial portfolio for the environment and the Commission for the Environment were established in 1972. The Minister's responsibility is to ensure that the Government has before it the best information available on the environmental aspects of projects and policies under consideration and on the possible effects of current trends on the future environmental well-being of the country.

The Commission functions as a small investigatory and advisory agency without executive or management responsibility. It undertakes studies for the Minister and investigates and makes recommendations on the environmental implications of proposed Government projects. It often has an initiating and co-ordinating role on environmental issues which are assuming new importance in a changing society, or for which responsibility is shared by several management agencies. The Commission's overall role is to assist in the development of policies designed to promote sound physical and social environmental management.

A major responsibility of the Commission is to audit environmental impact reports. These are written appraisals of the environmental consequences expected from new developments or policies. The Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures which have been in force since 1 March 1974 require environmental impact reports for all major projects of the Central Government and for all other projects that need Government approvals or funds. Power stations, harbour reclamations, and forestry developments have been among the projects so far reported on. More than 60 impact reports have been subject to Commission audit since the procedures came into being.

The procedures which the Commission administers provide for the critical examination of environmental effects expected from these projects or alternatives to them and include provision for public submissions to the Commission, which produces a written audit of the environmental impact report and the project. The audit is sent to the authority promoting the project and is published before a decision is taken on the proposal.

Aside from its role under the environmental impact reporting procedures, in which it is largely reacting to the proposals of others, the Commission also initiates studies aimed at drawing attention to important environmental questions facing the country. This brings it closely into contact not only with other Government departments but also with statutory bodies and citizen environmental groups. The Commission is now involved in a wide range of work of this nature. Some of the more significant examples of this are population policy guidelines for New Zealand; matters relating to the development of energy policy such as the Commission's submission to the Royal Commission on Nuclear Power Generation in New Zealand; the environmental implications of the power plan; the scope for the local development of small hydro-electric schemes and other future energy options; environmental education and information programmes in schools and the community; the role of small scale/high value industry; and the possible environmental effects of the use of new technologies and toxic chemicals.

The Commission for the Environment also services the independent guardian groups established to advise the Government on the ways in which areas of important environmental interest should be safeguarded. Three such groups have been appointed—the Guardians of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, the Guardians of the Rotorua Lakes, and the Guardians of Lake Wanaka (for the latter there is statutory authority in the Lake Wanaka Preservation Act).

The Commission's staff covers a wide range of environmental disciplines but an important feature of its operations is collaboration with other agencies with the expertise required for the evaluation of particular aspects of projects under study.

The Commission has a close working relationship with the Environmental Council and is developing a similar relationship with the newly established Commission for the Future and the New Zealand Planning Council.

The Environmental Council—The Environmental Council was established in 1970 following the Physical Environment Conference held in May of that year. The Council was originally set up as a sector council of the National Development Council; as a result of the reorganisation of the planning machinery, the council now reports to the Government through the Minister for the Environment.

The constitution of the Council provides for 16 members, including the chairman who is not a serving Government official. Five Government departments are represented—Treasury, Health, New Zealand Forest Service, Works and Development, and Lands and Survey. Three positions are drawn from those with experience in municipal and county local government, and regional planning; the remaining positions are filled by private citizens with knowledge and experience in environmental matters or appropriate qualifications.

The Council has no executive powers. Its terms of reference are:

  1. To advise the Minister for the Environment on such matters as he may refer to it and on such matters as the Council may raise itself on the state and trend of the environment and on measures to be taken to manage it.

  2. To publish from time to time such information upon environmental problems as the Council considers necessary to serve the public interest.

  3. To co-operate with other sector councils in matters of mutual interest; in particular, to provide the Planning Council with information, forecasts, and data arising from the above, and requested by the Council to enable it to carry out its functions.

The main role of the Council is to advise on general matters of policy and principle rather than to examine the environmental consequences of specific projects. It has, however, alluded to specific developments to illustrate its concerns. Examples of the policy issues in which the Council has been involved are the need for national policies on the subdivision of coastal land, the use and management of coastal waters and the seabed, and the use and preservation of wetlands. Currently, the Council is involved in questions relating to the formulation of a population policy and the environmental effects of energy production. It has produced an Urban Objectives Report which is designed to provide guidelines for use by Central and local Government in the planning and development of urban areas.

Nature Conservation Council—The Nature Conservation Council was set up by statute in 1962. It can enquire into the effects of any proposed public or private works in areas of scenic, scientific, or recreational interest, and it makes recommendations to the Government through the Minister of Lands. The Council's concerns include electric power schemes, location of power and telephone lines, roading, harbour reclamations, native forests, mining applications, air and water pollution, recommendations for reserves, and aspects of town and country planning. Although it has access to Government information, it speaks with an independent voice, and is able to make public any of its reports or recommendations.

The Council frequently advises non-Government conservation groups and co-ordinates their views. It also keeps the general public informed through its environmental publications, and through its sponsorship of the National Conservation Week each year.

CONTROL OF MINERAL EXPLOITATION—Mining has in the past left small portions of the landscape so scarred that their visual impact today suggests that mining in general produces only perpetual devastation. In fact most areas where mining has ceased need show no sign that they were ever mined.

To ensure that the land is maintained in a suitable condition, the Minister of Energy is empowered under the Mining Act 1971 to impose whatever conditions he thinks fit on a mining licence, and he may impose or vary these conditions at any time, even after the grant of the licence. Over public reserves and foreshore a condition may be attached in exchanging a prospecting licence for a mining licence that the licensee should provide a contribution towards a community asset.

Problems can occur where mineral exploitation takes place on freehold land. Local authorities have the necessary power to make regulations to control these activities, and they may use this power to maintain the long-term quality of the environment.

RE-AFFORESTATION MEASURES—In recent years Government-sponsored loans and grants have encouraged afforestation on private land, which has assisted in restoring the balance of forests on induced grasslands. In addition the Forest Service has embarked on a programme of revegetating eroded upland areas in important river catchments and also establishing dual-purpose forests where production of wood may be complementary to the protective nature of forests, for example, in East Cape – Poverty Bay where over 100,000 hectares will be planted over the next 40 years.

The New Zealand Forest Service prepares regional development plans for major timber supply regions throughout New Zealand, covering both State and private forestry. These plans set out the potential of the regions. For those forests under State control the Forest Service prepares regional management plans which describe and prescribe State forest activities in both indigenous and exotic production forests as well as protection forests in the mountains.

SCIENTIFIC STUDY—About one-fifth of the staff of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is engaged on research on physical environment matters including ecological studies of national parks, investigations into beech forest ecosystems, and identification of marine animals and plankton. The department has undertaken bathymetric studies of lakes and the ocean floor around New Zealand. Basic geological, soil, and botanic surveys provide information for the land use surveys which guide urban development. Further information is given in the Science and Scientific Services section.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION BY INDUSTRY—Statistics of expenditure on environmental protection have been obtained in the integrated economic census of manufacturing and are shown in the following table for 1975–76. The expenditure shown below is that incurred directly on processes or operations which are for the benefit or protection of the general public, such as the disposal, eradication, or cleansing of effluents, wastes, poisons, vapours, or similar obnoxious matter; protection from radiation; land stabilisation or beautification; the replacement of overburden; and similar work designed to protect or restore the environment. The total relates only to manufacturing establishments employing 10 or more persons engaged full-time, and excludes ancillary units servicing more than one manufacturing industry.

New Zealand Standard Industrial ClassificationExpenditure on Environmental ProtectionPercentage Environmental Expenditure of Value Added
 $(000)percent
Major Division 3—Manufacturing (Total manufacturing industries, excluding single-establishment enterprises employing less than 10 people, and ancillary units servicing more than one manufacturing industry)6,3810.27

PROTECTION OF WATER RESOURCES—New Zealand uses about 400,000,000 gallons of water a day but requires even more to cope with the increasing demands of population and industrial growth.

Industrial use far exceeds domestic use: about 1,400 gallons of water are required to make steel worth $1, and 200 gallons are needed to produce paper worth $1. In order to get the large quantities of water demanded by our present way of life water supplies may need to be reused. Wastes must be so treated and purified before discharge into a river that the diluted effluent conforms to the standard required by water users closer to the river mouth.

The deterioration of the natural quality and the disturbance of the natural pattern of flow of water could limit utilisation for some purposes. To ensure that the quality of natural waters is maintained as a source of supply for human and animal consumption and as wildlife habitats and recreational areas, it is necessary that sedimentation, pollution and eutrophication be minimised. These problems have been particularly noticeable in the Taupo area. Preservation of the quality of water is crucial to the Taupo fishery, and to recreational and scenic values of the lake surroundings. In recent years, large-scale land development and increased population in the Taupo basin have sharply accelerated the rate of eutrophication of the lake. In an effort to reduce the nutrient inflow to a minimum, large reservations of peripheral land in natural cover have been proposed and generally accepted. As a further means of countering erosion and the inflow of nutrients, studies are being undertaken to establish guidelines for farming, forestry, and other users.

The National Water and Soil Conservation Authority is a central policy-making body and, with the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council and the Water Resources Council, comprises the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation. The authority is responsible for formulating general policy guidelines concerning water and soil conservation and each council has certain functions delegated to it.

Representation on the authority and council includes counties and municipalities, catchment authorities, regional water boards, drainage and river boards, farming, manufacturing, and recreational interests, and appropriate Government departments.

Regional water boards and catchment authorities have been formed over much of the country. These local government bodies are responsible for putting the authority's policies into action. The allocation of water is the responsibility of the authority and the water boards. Broadly, the authority's functions involve developing and co-ordinating a national policy to ensure that the greatest local and national benefits are obtained from the use of the water.

The Water Resources Council, established in April 1972, is responsible for maintaining the quality of water at a satisfactory level. The council is classifying all rivers and coastal waters throughout New Zealand. These classifications are declarations of the minimum standards of quality at which the water is to be maintained in order to promote the conservation and best use of the water in the public interest.

The high rainfall and run-off factors in New Zealand have created drainage problems in many areas, particularly in low-lying sections of valleys, where river gradients are flat, and coastal areas. Drainage works are often carried out in conjunction with river-control schemes, in which case they must be properly co-ordinated with the river works, and may include floodgates and pumping stations. In the North Island, particularly, there are large areas of peat swamps that pose a special problem in development because of the danger of excessive shrinkage with overdrainage.

The topography and soils over most of the country generally favour high run-off as shown by both total annual river flows and peak flood discharges. There are, however, some areas in the North Island where flood peaks are greatly reduced by porous pumice soils, while on some river systems natural lake storage in headwaters helps to control flooding.

Since 1941 with the setting up of catchment authorities with their specialist staff, great progress has been made with river-control work throughout the country. Action was naturally focused first on the major river valleys where there has been a history of severe flood damage and where the property owners have been able to meet their share of the cost. Schemes are now in hand, or planned, for controlling the lower reaches of most of the major problem rivers.

There are still many rivers in New Zealand where major control schemes cannot be justified at the present time, but where a great many smaller, individual works are being carried out. Such works primarily serve to hold the river in check and prevent serious deterioration until such time as more comprehensive planning can be justified. Many schemes have been advanced or are being prepared for more comprehensive soil conservation and water management measures over whole catchments.

Most river-control works are carried out by catchment authorities or river boards, but some smaller works are also carried out by Ministry of Works and Development, counties, and drainage boards. The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council seeks to develop complete catchment control schemes where possible, to integrate river control work with water and soil conservation practice on the land area on individual river catchments.

The effective use and control of water depends on the availability of accurate long-term data on water movement. A regional system for collecting comprehensive data was initiated in 1959. The country is divided into 91 regions, based on similarity of slope, rock type, and precipitation. The data are collected and published by the representative catchment and the information is then used when applications for water rights are being considered.

The problem is one of restoring an erosion-resistant and water-absorbent combination of soil and vegetation, while ensuring that maximum permanent production is maintained or achieved under various systems of land use.

CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION—The changes in vegetation consequent on land development have been reflected in disturbed soil conditions in many parts of New Zealand. The protective, stabilising, and water-controlling combination of vigorous native vegetation, litter, and spongy soil has given way to a shallow-rooted, less protective carpet of grass on a compacted, impervious, and often exhausted soil. Soil erosion now occurs on more than 8 million hectares of hill country and mountain land, about one-third of the total area of New Zealand.

Successful techniques that have been developed to control erosion include spelling, control of burning and animal pests, oversowing, topdressing, strict grazing control, soil conservation fencing, stock-water ponds, gully control, contour ploughing, terraces, grassed waterways, and open and close tree planting. Cost-sharing rates are available to farmers carrying out these control practices.

Land classification is extensively used in New Zealand. Initially this technique involves making an inventory of the physical factors of slope, soil type, climate, vegetation, and erosion types and severity existing, either over a whole catchment or over an individual farm. This basic information then allows soil conservators to recommend the best treatment (conservation practices) and use of particular areas of land so as to ensure maximum permanent production from any one area.

Water and soil conservation farm plans are a vital means of helping landowners make the best use of their land and water resources. These plans involve the integration of conventional farm practices with those recommended under the land classification system.

A plan is formulated by a soil conservator and then discussed with the landowner concerned. The plan may then be adjusted to suit the landowner's ability to carry it out over several years.

A valuable aid in promoting water and soil conservation practices on farms has been the setting up of reserves and demonstration areas throughout the country. These areas are used to show local farmers in particular just how their problems can be overcome by the use of correct practices. Many of these areas also serve as research centres.

POLLUTION—Public concern for the preservation of the environment and for the recycling and conservation of resources has grown noticeably during recent years. Along with this the awareness of pollutants which affect the enjoyment of both the urban and rural areas has also increased. The problems of water pollution are being tackled by the Water Resources Council and the regional water boards; those of air pollution are being met by the provisions of the Clean Air Act 1972, while many local authorities have introduced bylaws to control noise problems in their areas. Within the territorial sea and harbours the Marine Pollution Act 1974 controls the discharge or dumping of oil or any other substance declared a pollutant.

Pollution of our rivers and lakes can be caused by soil erosion, farm run-off, industrial waste, or municipal sewage. The Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 provides for the control of waste discharges but other forms of pollution require different approaches such as through changing land use practices. Sewage and farm run-off add nutrients to the water which, in some lakes, slow rivers, or sheltered estuaries, has caused the excessive growth of microscopic and larger plants to the detriment of the water quality.

Waste disposal from cities, forestry, and the meat industry are the major contributors to pollution of the land. Urban waste disposal is largely by the sanitary land fill technique and most major cities are establishing tip sites planned to last up to 50 or 100 years several miles from the closest housing areas. Until recently large amounts of wood were left in the forest during logging or dumped near sawmills. Now much of this waste wood is chipped for use in pulp mills either within the country or overseas. Some effort is made to transform the waste from the 35 million livestock slaughtered each year into fertiliser but considerable quantities of it are still buried.

Organic chemical pesticides and herbicides are widely accepted as essential for efficient agriculture. Some 80 different herbicides and fungicides and 40 insecticides are in common use in New Zealand. The use of DDT on pastures has been banned and in 1973 the restrictions on the use of 2, 4, 5-T tightened in areas where there could be a danger of exposing the public to it.

Several divisions of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research are concerned with monitoring pollution. The Chemistry Division conducts surveys of mercury contamination of fish and water, arising from geothermal outflows. Nitrate concentration in ground waters, and insecticides in water are measured, and checks are kept on heavy metals in foods. The Oceanographic Institute traced the biological effects of heated water discharges from thermal power stations. The Physics and Engineering laboratory participates in the Earth's Resources Technology Satellite programme. The department also assists such organisations as the Dairy Research Institute, the Meat Industry Research Institute, the Wool Research Organisation, and the Leather and Shoe Research Association, which are industrial research groups all supporting projects to reduce pollution and increase the use of by-products from their industrial processes which have in the past been wasted.

New Zealand's geographical shape and location is favourable to the dispersal of air pollutants. Some areas, such as Christchurch, do suffer from air pollution problems. The Clean Air Act 1972, the first part of which came into effect on 1 April 1973, establishes the principle of air pollution control on industry by the best practicable means. Provision is also made for the establishment of smokeless zones.

The Clean Air Council was established under the Clean Air Act 1972 to advise the Minister of Health on all aspects of air pollution. It advises local authorities on their work under the Act and co-ordinates the work of control authorities and voluntary organisations. It can publish reports from time to time, and is undertaking research work through four committees studying respectively clean air zones and domestic heating, motor vehicles and air pollution, rural pollution, and planning co-ordination.

MARGINAL LAND DEVELOPMENT—The Marginal Lands Act 1950 assists farmers to restore, maintain, and increase production on marginal lands, by providing finance where it is not available through normal lending channels. It also provides help in amalgamation of uneconomic units either by financing farmers into additional land, or by purchase of land and allocation to adjoining holdings.

The Act is administered by the Marginal Lands Board comprising the Minister of Lands (Chairman), the Director-General of Lands (Deputy Chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, and four other persons appointed by the Minister.

To assist the board at local level, committees have been established in each land district consisting of a representative of the Department of Lands and Survey and of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and a private farmer selected from a panel of such members appointed for each district by the board.

The pattern of the board's lending during 3 recent years is shown in the following table.

Purpose of LoansYear Ended 31 March
197519761977
  $(000) 
Development (including stock, plant, and seasonal)682818990
Purchase of additional land1,0221,2771,426
Refinance371926305
 2,0753,0212,722

10 B—PUBLIC LANDS

CROWN LAND—There are 5.8 million hectares of Crown land which are held under lease or licence by individuals for farming or other purposes. Land permanently set aside for national parks, reserves, and domains comprises 2.65 million hectares. The Department of Lands and Survey is also developing 0.73 million hectares of land of which 0.51 million hectares is intended for subdivision and settlement as individual farms.

Administration—Crown land is administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948. The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands. New Zealand is divided into 12 land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands.

The central authority under the Land Act is the Land Settlement Board consisting of the Minister of Lands (chairman), the Director-General of Lands (deputy chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Valuer-General, a representative of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, and not more than four other persons appointed by the Minister.

The Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more land settlement committees for each land district, and 20 of these committees have been set up. Each committee consists of three members with the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as chairman and two private farmer members.

The Land Settlement Board, through the Department of Lands and Survey, disposes of Crown land for farming, residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. The demand for this land, particularly farm land, is considerable.

DISPOSAL OF CROWN LAND—Crown land is normally offered to the public at valuation and the successful applicant decided by ballot, although in certain circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Any land may, however, be offered for disposal by tender at a minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an upset price.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

  1. Farm land, urban land, commercial, or industrial land—(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple. Annual rent is reviewed at 11-yearly intervals.

  2. Pastoral land—(a) On pastoral lease for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding 21 years, with no right of renewal or of acquiring the fee simple.

  3. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding 5 years.

Selections—The following table shows details of selections during the year 1976–77.

TenureNumber of SelectionsTotal Area SelectedPurchase Price or Annual Charges
  hectares$(000)
Freehold3372,1661,192
Renewable leases5110,09674
Pastoral leases and licences125,575
Deferred-payment licences8696359
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)441,64613
Licences to occupy6817,943234
Leases of endowment and other lands854,67626
Total 1976–771,28553,0651,598
Total 1975–761,19239,3732,144

Leases and Licences—The following table shows the total number of leases and licences current as at 31 March 1977.

TenureLeases and LicencesAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalment*

*Including improvement loading.

  hectares$$
  (000)(000)(000)
Renewable leases7,5298041,09018
Leases in perpetuity6,1494963081
Pastoral leases and licences5263,0302024
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)75011432312
Deferred-payment licences12,5969885,693
Misc. leases and licences90124
Licences to occupy4,457157503
Leases of endowment and other lands2,9041632489
Total 1976–7735,8125,7542,6785,737
Total 1975–7636,8285,8172,4685,309

Freeholdings—The following table shows the number of leases and licences freeholded, either for cash or on deferred payments.

Method of PaymentCrown LandsEndowment and Other LandsAreaPurchase Price
 No.No.hectares$(000)
Cash25926,001630
Deferred payments483297,2646,909
       Total 1976–777424103,2657,539
       Total 1975–76608155,0875,276

Further details on leases and licences may be obtained from the annual report of the Department of Lands and Survey, parliamentary paper C.1.

Land Development—The Land Settlement Board was constituted in 1948 to administer land policy and land development through the Department of Lands and Survey.

Development of land for settlement of farms includes clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, erection of buildings, installation of water supplies and completion of essential soil conservation measures. To consolidate pastures and to control regrowth of scrub and weeds, the land is farmed as part of the development process.

The major development districts are Southland with 138,620 hectares under development at 31 March 1977, Rotorua (64,391 hectares), North Auckland (68,316 hectares), and Te Kuiti (51,104 hectares). Marlborough (186,846 hectares) includes the Molesworth Station, comprising 182,100 hectares.

An estimated 1,122 farms could eventually be made available from the 509,933 hectares on hand for development at 31 March 1977. A programme of development is undertaken annually, aimed at the preparation of individual farm units for settlement by landless farmers.

The department has a policy of heavy culling of stock to improve stock quality. Breeding programmes aimed at stocking farm settlement blocks with first-class herds and flocks have been set up and results achieved to date justify the department's involvement in this field.

The department, in association with the New Zealand Forest Service, has established a number of forestry/grazing propositions. This is a relatively new concept in New Zealand, involving grazing of stock among widely spaced trees, and indications are that it could be a profitable one.

NATIONAL PARKS AND RESERVES: History—From the founding of the colony, land has been the raw material used in the creation of a basic economic and social structure which forms part of our way of life. Royal Instructions issued to New Zealand's first governor—Captain William Hobson —who reached this country in 1840, included the concept of reserving land for public use and enjoyment. Under various pieces of general and special legislation a progressive policy of preserving and maintaining open natural and recreational areas for the people has been a facet in the land use policy and administration of the Central Government. Natural areas retained at a time when much of the country was relatively unmodified are still available today in the form of National Parks, and scenic and allied types of reserves.

National Parks—The national park system in New Zealand had its origin in 1887 when Te Heuheu Tukino and other Maori chiefs gifted to the Crown the summits of their sacred mountains of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The gifted area provided the nucleus of our first national park—Tongariro—which was formally constituted by Act of Parliament in 1894. Special legislation in 1900 established Egmont as our second national park, while Fiordland had its beginning in 1905 with the reservation of over 800,000 hectares as a public reserve for "a national park".

General legislation for national parks was incorporated in the Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act 1928, but following World War II, increased interest by a growing population in national parks and outdoor recreation generally, paved the way for one general law governing the administration of all national parks—the National Parks Act 1952.

The 1952 Act established the National Parks Authority as an independent statutory body comprising 11 people representative of both Government and private organisations. Six of them are ex-officio members—the Director-General of Lands (who is Chairman), the Deputy Director-General of Lands (who is deputy Chairman), the Secretary for Internal Affairs, the Director-General of Forests, the General Manager of the Department of Tourist and Publicity, and the General Manager of the Tourist Hotel Corporation. The other five members are appointed by the Minister of Lands for terms of 3 years on the recommendations of the Royal Society of New Zealand, the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society, and the Federated Mountain Clubs, plus two to represent the 10 National Park Boards. The Authority is serviced by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Each national park is under the control of a National Park Board, chaired by the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district most concerned. Boards comprise up to eight other members appointed by the Minister of Lands on the recommendation of the Authority, one of whom is a nominee of the Federated Mountain Clubs and the New Zealand Ski Association where the nature of the park is such that the Authority considers it desirable for mountain climbers and skiers to have representation. Egmont and Tongariro retain historical variations in Board membership. Where the Tourist Hotel Corporation administers land, or controls any tourist facility on land, in or adjacent to a park, an additional member is appointed to the Board by the Minister of Lands on the recommendation of the Minister of Tourism. Salaried rangers in the Public Service are responsible for development, protection, interpretation, and management in each park and their work (chiefly in the area of park protection) is supplemented by the voluntary help of suitable persons appointed by boards as honorary rangers.

The status of National Park land cannot be changed except by Act of Parliament.

Description—New Zealand's 10 national parks, covering 2,151,437 hectares (or one-thirteenth of the country's land area) of beautiful or unique natural features and scenery, steeped in Maori legend, offer many alternative opportunities for enjoying open air recreation and the contemplation of nature and wildlife. Mountains, glaciers, forests, lakes, rivers, fiords, and beaches offer opportunities for people to tramp, climb, ski, fish, hunt, camp, and picnic. There are pleasant drives for motorists, short nature walks, alpine gardens, visitor centres and, during holiday periods, nature programmes. Accommodation, transport, and other services in or near the parks are provided by park boards, Government agencies, private enterprise, and voluntary organisations. Although the National Parks Act provides for freedom of entry and access by the public, this is subject to conditions and restrictions "necessary for the preservation of the native flora and fauna or for the welfare in general of the Parks". Access to "special areas" constituted under the Act is (if the circumstances warrant) by permit only. The Act also requires parks to be administered and maintained so that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state; that their value as soil, water, and forest conservation areas is maintained; and that as far as possible, native flora and fauna are preserved and introduced flora and fauna exterminated.

Development permitted by the National Parks Act includes the erection of houses for rangers and park staff, the provision of camping grounds, huts, hostels, accommodation houses and other buildings, ski tows and similar facilities, parking areas, roading and tracks. In "wilderness areas", established in terms of the Act, development is restricted to foot-track access. Authority policy and park management plans provide guidelines and criteria for the extent of acceptable development in national parks.

Virtually all the finance for national parks is provided by the Government but cash donations by private individuals and organisations are encouraged: these earn a $2 for $1 subsidy from the Government.

Of the 10 national parks, the first three listed below are in the North Island and the remainder are in the South Island.

Urewera National Park (205,852 hectares, established in 1954), surrounds the beautiful Lakes Waikaremoana and Waikareiti. As the traditional home of the Tuhoe, "the Children of the Mist", it is rich in Maori history. The park protects the largest remaining area of native forest in the North Island and provides a home for many species of native birds.

Tongariro National Park (76,198 hectares, established in 1894), includes the three active volcanic cones of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. Ruapehu's snowfields are the winter playground of the North Island. Lake Rotopounamu, still free from exotic fish, and Mount Pihanga are two other focal points of the park.

Egmont National Park (33,532 hectares established in 1900), contains one of the world's most symmetrical mountains, known to the Maoris as "Taranaki", and preserves magnificent scenery and vegetation within a 9 kilometre radius of the summit. Dominating Taranaki province in the west of the North Island, the near perfect cone varies from heavily-forested lower slopes to the bare scoria, rock, snow, and ice at the upper levels.

Abel Tasman National Park (22,139 hectares, established in 1942), with a broken coastline and rich in historical significance, has numerous tidal inlets and beaches of golden sand fronting Tasman Bay. Botanically, the park is unique as its bush-clad slopes show a blending of the natural cover of both the North and South Islands, a phenomenon of nature not found elsewhere in the country.

Nelson Lakes National Park (57,470 hectares, established in 1956), is named after the chief focal points for visitors, the beautiful lakes Rotoiti and Rotoroa. These nestle in rugged mountainous country with extensive beech-forest clad lower slopes. The Mount Robert area, with its magnificent views provides visitors with winter recreational opportunities on its ski fields.

Arthur's Pass National Park (98,405 hectares, established in 1929), is a rugged and mountainous area straddling the main divide of the Southern Alps. It is an area of high peaks (at least 30 over 1800 metres), snowfields, deep-cut valleys, snow-grass clad ridges, forest-clad hillsides, high waterfalls, wide shingle riverbeds, and rushing torrents, all providing endless scope for physical endeavour or quiet appreciation.

Mount Cook National Park (69,957 hectares, established in 1953) and Westland National Park (88,608 hectares, established in 1960), share a common boundary along the main divide of the Southern Alps. Their magnificent alpine scenery containing almost all of the 27 peaks over 3,050 metres includes New Zealand's highest, the 3,764 metre Mount Cook, known to the Maoris as "Aorangi"—freely translated as "Cloud Piercer". Their attractions are as varied as their altitude, ranging from well known glaciers such as Tasman (at 29 km long one of the longest outside polar regions), Franz Josef, and Fox, to hot springs, placid lakes, and the sub-tropical luxuriance of the rain forests.

Mount Aspiring National Park (287,253 hectares, established in 1964), is a complex of impressive glaciated mountain scenery which includes the headwaters of seven major rivers. The park's distinctive character is enhanced by bush-covered mountainside and pleasant river flats and valleys. Its focal point, often referred to as the Matterhorn of New Zealand, is the 3,036 metre Mount Aspiring, a four ridged peak rising from the Bonar Therma-Volta ice shelf, and the country's highest peak outside Mount Cook National Park.

Fiordland National Park (1,212,000 hectares, established in 1952), is one of the larger national parks in the world, and is renowned for the rugged grandeur of its scenery which includes fiords, mountains, forests, waterfalls, and lakes. The better known lakes are Manapouri, backed by snow-capped, peaks, and Te Anau. The park is the only known habitat of two flightless birds, the takahe (notornis) and (except for a recently-discovered small colony on Stewart Island) the kakapo.

RESERVES—The main pieces of current legislation providing for the setting aside of land for public use, e.g., for the preservation of flora and fauna, scenery preservation, or recreation, are the Land Act 1948, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, and the Counties Act 1956. The Land Act enables land owned by the Crown, including foreshore areas, to be reserved for any purpose desirable in the public interest, while under the latter two Acts local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision is made for public reserves on subdivision of land. The Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust Act 1977, established in commemoration of the Silver Jubilee of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second, a national trust to encourage and promote the provision of open space (i.e. any land or body of water that assists in preserving a landscape of aesthetic, cultural, recreational, scenic, scientific, or social interest or value) for the benefit and enjoyment of the people of New Zealand. The Trust will also act as a co-ordinating body between the land protection and public recreational responsibilities of the various boards, departments, and authorities currently in existence.

The current legislation governing the administration, management, and control of reserves is the Reserves Act 1977. This Act consolidated and updated the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 and its amendments. The new Act was necessary because of the changes in attitudes to the preservation of open space, and the increasing pressures for the use and development of reserves.

The Reserves Act 1977 establishes seven distinct categories of reserves, each with its own management requirements. The seven categories are: recreation, historic, scenic, nature, scientific, Government purpose, and local purpose. All reserves will be classified according to their principal or primary purpose into the above categories. The classification of existing reserves will take several years to complete but details of reserves under existing designations are as follows.

Scenic Reserves—Scenic reserves, of which there are 1,076 with an overall area of 288,681 hectares, are set aside to preserve qualities of scenic interest such as native forest, limestone and glow-worm caves, thermal areas, sea coasts, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, scenic vantage points, and forested areas with considerable conservation value. Some of these reserves are mainly of local or regional significance while many of the larger ones, which are in the nature of junior or mini national parks, are of national importance. Public use of scenic reserves varies greatly, ranging from off-road parking and picnicking to camping, tramping, and hunting (subject to written permit).

Scenic reserves in excess of 2000 hectares include Lewis Pass, Wanganui River, Buller Gorge, Rakeahua, and South Cape (Stewart Island), Lake Kaniere, Gouland Downs, Glenhope, Lake Brunner, Rahu (Reefton), Mangamuku Gorge, Tangarakau, Te Tapui (Cambridge) and Waioeka Gorge.

Improved maintenance, management, and control of scenic reserves has been accomplished through the classification of their principal values and most appropriate usage. The appointment of salaried reserves rangers in the Public Service to ensure that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state "in the public interest" and for the "benefit, enjoyment, and use of the public" has also been of considerable assistance. In addition, native trees and shrubs are being propagated at the Department of Lands and Survey's Taupo Nursery to promote scenic restoration activities in reserves throughout the North Island but with particular emphasis on the Taupo basin in the wake of power scheme works.

Land with acceptable scenic interest, while remaining in private ownership, may receive the benefits of preservation and protection of the Reserves Act 1977 through being declared private protected land. Areas which have received such protection include White Island in the Bay of Plenty where petrels and gannets nest in large numbers annually, and a large area of the Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust property, near New Plymouth, and adjoining Egmont National Park, which is in native bush.

Historic Reserves—Ninety-seven areas of historic interest totalling 1,753 hectares are set aside as historic reserves and the Department of Lands and Survey co-operates closely in the administration and investigation of historic sites with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Historic reserves mark the landfall and landing places of early voyagers such as Tasman and Cook, the site of missionary Samuel Marsden's first sermon on New Zealand soil, sites of early fortifications, of engagements during the Maori wars, and buildings of historic value. (The Treaty House area at Waitangi, administered by the Waitangi National Trust, is not a historic reserve in the strict sense.) Sites of Maori rock drawings and places of significance in New Zealand's early constitutional history are also preserved.

Reserves for the Preservation of Flora and Fauna—Land is reserved for bird sanctuaries, for the preservation of flora and fauna, or some similar purpose in cases where the land provides a habitat for bird or plant life of such importance that some control on public access is desirable. In all there are 82 reserves in this category with a total area of 190,830 hectares. Some of them are mainland areas, but most are off shore and outlying islands. Major areas of particular public interest include Little Barrier Island in Hauraki Gulf, the only known habitat of the stitch bird, and now part of the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park; Cape Kidnappers gannet colony in Hawke's Bay; Kapiti Island off Wellington's west coast; the white heron colony in South Westland; and the Taiaroa Head albatross colony near Dunedin.

All of New Zealand's subantarctic islands, except for a small area surrounding the meteorological station on Campbell Island, are reserved for the preservation of flora and fauna and provide a habitat for marine mammals and millions of sea birds. As well as Campbell Island, the reserves include the Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, and Snares Islands. To the north of New Zealand, most of the land in the Kermadec Islands is similarly reserved.

Generally, access to these reserves is by permit only, a policy followed solely in the interests of preservation of the plant and animal life to ensure an absolute minimum of human interference to anything living and growing naturally there. The reserves are administered by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park—This park was established under the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act in 1967. The park may include reserves of any type on or off the east coast of the North Island from Whangamata Harbour to Home Point at the northern end of Bland Bay. It includes such well-known islands as Motuihe, Rangitoto, Browns, Motutapu, Motuora, Poor Knights, Little Barrier, and part of Kawau containing the historic Mansion House. The park is controlled by a board of 10 members.

Marlborough Sounds Maritime Park—This park was established under the provisions of the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 and is administered by a 13-member board. The park provides for co-ordinated management of existing scenic, historic, recreation, and other public reserves located within the coastal region stretching from Cape Soucis in the west to Rarangi in the south-east. Appropriate island reserves are also included.

Wildlife Refuges and Sanctuaries—The Wildlife Act 1953 provides for the constitution of wildlife sanctuaries, these being areas devoted primarily as habitat areas for wildlife where the maximum degree of protection can be afforded. Restrictions are imposed on entry into the sanctuaries and certain prohibitions dealing with killing or disturbance of wildlife are imposed. The former game sanctuaries, which serve the very important function of providing protection to native wildlife, are now termed wildlife refuges. Occupiers of any land in wildlife refuges can be authorised to carry out certain operations necessary for the normal use of land.

Public Domains—Domains, of which there are 860 covering 22,774 hectares, provide districts with land for the recreational needs of the people as a whole. Many domains are designed primarily to provide for organised sport but there are a large number which preserve for public use attractive natural areas, particularly along the coastline, and provide facilities for camping. Some outstanding examples of coastal domains are Orewa, near Auckland, Ohope Beach, near Whakatane, Queen Elizabeth Park, near Wellington, Momorangi Bay in the Marlborough Sounds, Kaiteriteri and Pohara in the Nelson district, and Waikuku Beach in Canterbury. Universally known city domains are the Auckland Domain and Hagley Park, Christchurch. Native bush is protected on domain land.

Summary of Areas Reserved—The following table records the main classes of reservations at 31 March 1977.

Type of ReservationNo.Hectares

*Includes 17 scenic and historic reserves totalling 239 hectares and 2 historic and recreation reserves of 5 hectares.

Excludes bed of Lake Waikaremoana (5,210 ha) leased from Maori owners and includes major readjustment on calculation of the area of Fiordland National Park.

National parks102,151,437
Scenic reserves (public)1,076288,681
Historic reserves (public)97*1,753*
Reserves for the preservation of flora and fauna (public)82190,830
Public domains86022,774

10 C—MAORI LANDS

USE OF MAORI LAND—The term Maori land is a technical one, denoting ancestral land that has always been owned by Maori people. All except an insignificant portion of it is owned by defined people in defined proportions. All sales and some leases of such land still require ratification by the Maori Land Court.

In 1975 it was established that the area of land in New Zealand still designated Maori land comprised some 1,323,404 hectares. In addition, many Maori people own their own homes in urban areas and others own farm land purchased from non-Maoris that is designated, for record purposes, as "General" land.

The Maori Land Board has been constituted under the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1974 to promote greater involvement in, and identification of the Maori owners with, land development activities. The board is assisted by district Maori land advisory committees.

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT—Although owners of Maori land have access to the usual lending institutions, it is not easy to borrow money for land development unless mortgage security can be given, and multiplicity of ownership often prevents this. Under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 the Maori Land Board, through the Department of Maori Affairs, may lend money for the development and settlement of Maori land. This procedure does not affect the legal ownership, but the rights of the owners are suspended and the board has the right to exclusive occupation of the land.

The Act was amended in November 1974 to allow loans to be made on the security of livestock alone.

Policy is directed towards the settlement of Maori farmers on farms which will provide an adequate standard of living. Twenty-three farmers were settled in the year ended 30 June 1976.

At 30 June 1976 there were 107,778 hectares in stations farmed by the Department, of which 66,913 hectares were in grass. In addition, the Department of Lands and Survey was developing 38,795 hectares as agent of the Maori Land Board. The total annual grassing programme is approximately 1,600 hectares.

There is a trend towards incorporation control of developed land; instead of the land being subdivided and settled, management is placed in the hands of an owners' committee and the land is farmed as one large station. The owners then receive an annual dividend payment according to the profitability of the undertaking.

Schemes for the afforestation of Maori land unsuitable for other development are also being implemented.

MAORI TRUSTEE—The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves and the administration of the estates of deceased Maoris and those under disability. The Maori Trust Office now forms part of the Department of Maori Affairs and is headed by the Maori Trustee, comparable in status and functions with the Public Trustee. The control of most Maori Trustee activities has been decentralised by the delegation of wide powers to the District Officers of the Department of Maori Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts.

The following table is a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March in the latest three years.

ItemAs at 31 March
197519761977
Assets— $(000) 
      Cash9105601,922
      Investments—   
      Government securities5,1262,2452,245
      Local authority debentures1,9293,6983,553
      Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft5,5726,4835,927
      Land, buildings, and miscellaneous336359329
Total13,87313,34513,976
Liabilities—   
      Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositors8,5728,2088,411
      Reserves and Appropriation Account4,9954,6834,913
      Sundry creditors, etc.306454652
Total13,87313,34513,976

10 D—SURVEYS

GENERAL—The Department of Lands and Survey is the national survey and mapping organisation. Its major functions include the extension of the survey control system, examination of all land title surveys, regulation of survey standards, provision of the survey, planning and aerial photography requirements of the Government, and the publication of all topographic, cadastral, and special maps of New Zealand.

SURVEYING—The New Zealand survey control system, in the form of triangulations and other geographically located stations, provides for the effective integration of surveys executed by all sectors for the purposes of land title definition, land development and utilisation, engineering project and communication constructions, mapping production, and navigational aids fixation.

Examination by the Department of all land title surveys ensures the security of tenure essential to development, and the maintenance of all survey records on a microfilm system provides for ready access and utilisation of data. The control of survey standards, maintenance of discipline and training of professional surveyors is effected through the statutorily constituted Survey Board under the chairmanship of the Surveyor-General.

Other departmental services provided to Government include surveys for land title, land development, navigational purposes, earth deformation studies, administration of justice, and land and environmental planning.

The practising surveyors in the private sector play a major role in surveys of private lands under the Land Transfer Act 1952, the planning and development of housing projects and the execution, under contract, of some government surveys.

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY—Extensive use is made of aerial photography in the production of photogrammetric mapping and in the annual provision of basic physical resource and planning data. Photography is undertaken by private aerial survey firms under contract to Department of Lands and Survey which maintains a complete library of air photos for all national purposes and general public usage.

Under agreement with the authorities in the USA the Department now receives and holds multi-spectral imagery collected by earth resources satellites, for use in studies associated with land use and management, regional planning, and scientific research in New Zealand.

MAPPING—Both the recently completed mile to an inch maps and the new basic metric topographical and cadastral maps now under production provide a reliable inventory of physical resources and an up-to-date identification of land parcels and legal situations. They are in heavy demand for housing, constructional and farm planning and development, extension of public and social services, protection of the environment, the general use and guidance of the public, and the administrations of Central and local Government.

Regularly updated street maps cover all towns.

The Department of Lands and Survey also produces and publishes a wide range of other maps for various purposes including recreational maps, maps of National Parks, and miscellaneous and general maps of New Zealand, the Pacific, and Antarctica. In addition, as the mapping agency for Government in New Zealand, the Department produces maps needed to service the activities of other Departments, particularly aeronautical charts for military and civil use, meteorological maps and charts, maps for the Ministry of Works and Development and the New Zealand Forest Service, etc.

Project and special mapping executed at larger scales provides an essential base for investigation and design of energy, irrigation, forestry and communications projects.

Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices except Wellington and at the Head Office of the Department of Lands and Survey. In addition, a large number of private selling agents have been appointed throughout New Zealand and overseas. All maps for sale are listed in the Catalogue Of Maps published by the department.

10 E—REGISTRATION OF TITLES AND TRANSFER OF LAND

REGISTRATION OF LAND OWNERS—Title to land in private ownership in New Zealand is a matter of public record. The keeping of these records is the function of the Land and Deeds Division of the Department of Justice.

Almost all privately owned land in New Zealand is held under the land transfer system, presently embodied in the Land Transfer Act 1952. The system was introduced to New Zealand by the passing of the Land Transfer Act 1870. This Act was based on legislation enacted in South Australia in 1858, largely at the instigation of Sir Robert Torrens. Today the principles enunciated by Torrens are the basis of land registration throughout Australasia. The principal features of the system are registration of title and guarantee of that title by the State.

The objects of the Land Transfer Acts since 1870 have been to provide security of title by means of state guarantee, simplicity by use of standardised forms in language readily understood by the layman, accuracy by the use of precise survey data, the reduction of costs by simplification of conveyancing procedures, expedition by streamlining and constantly revising recording procedures, and suitability to circumstances by relating our land registration system directly to our social and economic structures.

Under the land transfer system, land and interests in land do not pass by the execution of an instrument of transfer but by the registration of that instrument. A person acquires a legal interest in land not because he has entered into an agreement to purchase the land, but because he has registered the instrument of transfer and it is recorded on the register that he is the owner.

The certificate of title is the pivot on which the whole land transfer system turns. A certificate of title is issued under the hand and seal of the District Land Registrar which guarantees to the registered proprietor of the land described in that certificate his rights of use, occupation, and enjoyment, the extent and position of his boundaries, and the nature of any encumbrances or interests affecting his land, such as mortgages or rights of way. Two copies of the certificate of title are issued; one copy forms the Land Transfer register, and the duplicate is held by the owner. This duplicate must be presented to the Land Registry Office for noting whenever documents affecting the estate for which it was issued are submitted for registration. Any change in the registered proprietorship which occurs through transfer, death or other devolution, and the encumbrances to which the land is subject may be entered on the register by the registration of the appropriate documents in the manner prescribed by the Land Transfer Act.

Interests in, and charges against, land arising from many other statutes may be noted against the Land Transfer register. Successive governments have charged the Land and Deeds Division with duties of surveillance under the laws relating to the subdivision and aggregation of land, disposition of public reserves, anti-slumming requirements of local authorities, and many other aspects of land use and occupation.

Certain leases and licences of Crown land may be registered under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act, and Maori land when vested in any person for a freehold estate comes automatically under the land transfer system.

Settlement of matrimonial homes as joint family homes has been a widely used procedure since its inception over 25 years ago and since that time there has been a steady increase in the number of settlements registered (see section 18).

Certificates of Title Issued—The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the latest 6 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal
197239,270
197344,779
197445,932
197552,196
197657,008
197753,196

MAORI LANDS—Before European settlement, all the land in the country was held by the various groups and tribes of the Maori people in accordance with their traditional customs and usages, and the land so held was described as Maori customary land. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive right to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown. Practically all of the land which was formerly Maori customary land has now been converted to other forms of title by one or other of the following processes:

  1. Purchase or other acquisition by the Crown (from whom in turn the European colonists obtained land for farms, etc.).

  2. The issue of a Crown grant to a Maori owner on the recommendation of the Maori Land Court.

  3. The issue of a freehold order by the Maori Land Court in favour of the Maori or Maoris found entitled upon an investigation of title. This process was used instead of process (b) after the introduction of the land transfer system into New Zealand.

Land which was included in titles issued under processes (b) and (c) became known as Maori freehold land.

Maori freehold land becomes Crown land if all interests in it are purchased or otherwise acquired by the Crown, or becomes General land when bought by a non-Maori, or declared to be so by the Maori Land Court.

Maori Land Court—The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other judges as the Governor-General may from time to time appoint. It is a Court of Record and its general function is to deal with problems peculiar to multiple ownership of Maori lands including the partitioning and combining of titles for better utilisation, the effecting of exchanges, directing the holding of meetings of owners, and confirming or disallowing resolutions passed by such meetings, confirming sales, and making other miscellaneous orders.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the court. With certain exceptions, the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

During 1976–77 the Maori Land Court conducted 91 sittings throughout New Zealand and dealt with some 8,269 applications, from which a total of 15,088 orders were made.

ACQUISITION OF LAND—Safeguards have been made for long-term planning in the use of land, whether publicly or privately owned, in order to ensure that it and its resources are used to the best advantage of the community as a whole. Legislation introduced in 1968 and 1969 (by amendment to the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952) prevents, where there is an operative regional planning or proposed or operative district scheme, the acquisition by overseas interests of land of 4,000 sq metres or over designated or zoned as reserves for recreation or other purposes, and all islands or parts of islands within 150 kilometres of the mainland, and the Chatham Islands. The legislation covers rural and farm land of 2 hectares or over. Here a purchase may be approved if specified conditions, directed to ensuring beneficial use of the land from a national viewpoint, or permanent future residence, are met.

The court shall grant its consent where the purchaser or lessee is a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand, i.e., who has resided in New Zealand for 2½ years and the court is satisfied that he intends to continue to reside in New Zealand. Where the purchaser or lessee is not a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand or is an overseas company, the court shall not grant its consent unless it is satisfied that the land is not required for any reserve purpose and that the land is not an island or forms part of the Chatham Islands. In the case of farm land, the court must be assured that the purchaser or lessee intends to conduct experimental or research work on the land which will benefit agricultural industries in New Zealand or the community generally, or that the land will be used for purposes other than agricultural with greater advantage to the community, or in the case of an individual that he intends to reside permanently in New Zealand and farm the land exclusively for his own use and benefit and has the ability and means to do this.

Part I of the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act authorises the Minister of Lands to take in certain circumstances any farm land that is suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production.

Part II deals with the control of sales and also leases (for 3 years or more) of farm land to prevent undue aggregation. The consent of the court is required unless the purchaser or lessee owns no farm land, has no interest in any estate or trust owning farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land to any person as trustee or created any trust in respect of farm land, and has entered into the transaction solely on his own behalf.

The Act prevents the purchase of farm land, without the consent of the court, by a trustee for any person under the age of 17 years, or the purchase by a company or trustee for a company to be formed where the shareholders are fewer than 10 in number and any member of such company is under the age of 17 years (or where shares will be held in trust for any person under that age at the date of the transaction).

LAND TRANSFERS—The following table shows property transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during the latest available years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal TransfersTotal Consideration
NumberPercentage Change*AmountPercentage Change*

*On the previous year's figures.

   $(m) 
1973105,193+22.31,339.9+36.0
1974125,796+19.62,133.0+59.2
197597,334–22.62,135.1+0.1
197698,003+0.72,202.8+3.2
1977101,968+4.02,691.6+22.2

The continued rise in both the numbers of land transfers and the total consideration involved which characterised the early 1970s reached a peak in 1973–74, when there was an increase of nearly 20 percent in the number of transfers and one of nearly 60 percent in the consideration involved. The following year witnessed a sharp fall in the number of land transfers, although the consideration involved was almost the same. The latest available year, 1976–77 showed a moderate increase in the number of land transfers but a significant increase in the consideration involved.

The following table shows all land transfers by consideration group for the year ended 31 March 1977. The division into freehold and leasehold demonstrates the relatively small percentage of land transfers involving leasehold property.

Consideration GroupFreeholdLeaseholdAll Transfers
NumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage Consideration
$ $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000)
Under 2,0003,5823.81.12440.31.23,8264.11.1
2,000–2,9991,8114.22.31150.32.31,9264.52.3
3,000–3,9992,0066.73.3670.23.32,0736.93.3
4,000–9,99916,714114.16.83692.46.617,083116.56.8
10,000–19,99920,377301.914.85398.215.220,916310.114.8
20,000–49,99946,2861,347.429.11,00527.827.647,2911,375.129.1
50,000–199,9998,029658.582.027925.089.68,308683.582.3
200,000 and over529185.6350.9165.3328.6545190.9350.2
      All groups99,3342,622.226.42,63469.426.4101,9682,691.626.4

Land transfers by size groups during 1976–77 are shown in the following table for both Islands and for New Zealand as a whole.

Size Group (hectares)North IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares  hectares  hectares 
  (000)$(m) (000)$(m) (000)$(m)
Under 267,28981,599.925,4133513.692,702112,113.5
2 and under 61,965771.9711222.02,676793.9
6 and under 11691531.9309211.11,000843.0
11 and under 20498724.220337.27011031.3
20 and under 501,3824690.94041218.11,78658109.1
50 and under 755553355.02021211.27574566.2
75 and under 1003452929.91841512.75294442.6
100 and under 2005307356.53705232.190012488.5
200 and over55627365.436115337.9917425103.4
       Total73,8114802,025.828,157253665.8101,9687342,691.6

This table includes both urban and rural land transfers. The majority of the urban transfers will be in the Under 2 hectares size-group, which includes 91 percent of the total number. Besides normal residential properties, this size-group will include many business, commercial, and industrial properties and high-density residential properties (such as blocks of flats) in urban centres.

A final table shows all land transfers during the 2 latest available years by land registration districts. The urban areas of Auckland are in the North Auckland Land Registration District.

Land Registration District1975–761976–77
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares$(m) hectares$(m)
  (000)  (000) 
North Auckland30,44390.7740.931,84883.3887.1
South Auckland14,83095.8332.015,947113.5434.6
Gisborne99535.522.51.07663.929.5
Hawke's Bay3,70245.684.74,07752.8108.0
Taranaki3,17739.666.33,02749.083.8
Wellington18,964108.6433.417,336117.8482.7
Marlborough1,16021.622.11,28920.830.9
Nelson2,70023.654.62,55922.460.8
Westland6236.27.26315.38.4
Canterbury13,12086.7290.213,75578.5348.5
Otago5,18445.888.06,35866.3130.9
Southland3,10545.761.03,56560.286.2
       Total98,003645.32,202.8101,968733.72,691.6

Figures of average consideration, and indeed all land transfer data, should be used with caution owing to the great diversity of property transactions covered by the figures. These transactions include, for example, sales of residential properties, farms and farmland, all classes of commercial, industrial, and business properties, sections, and parcels of land bought for such purposes as large-scale manufacturing, forestry, recreation, reserves, and later sub-division. Movements in prices of individual types of properties are better indicated elsewhere. The Building and Construction section of this Yearbook includes an urban house property and section index, compiled by the Department of Statistics and designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for house properties and sections sold during each half-year. Recent annual figures from a farmland sale price index, compiled by the Valuation Department, are shown below. Family sales are excluded, as are sales of land having a significant potential for urbanisation or any purpose other than farming. The base is calendar year 1960 (= 1000).

Year Ended 31 DecemberIndex NumberPercentage Change from Previous Year
19732346+24.8
19743478+48.2
19753999+15.0
19764404+10.1
19774951+12.4

10 F—VALUATION OF LAND

GENERAL—Equitable land values are a basis for many of the relations of the Central Government and local authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following: (a) the levying of land tax; (b) the apportionment of rating levies over contributory local authorities; (c) the levying of rates by local authorities; (d) the advancing of money on mortgage by Government departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act; (e) the assessing of stamp, estate, and gift duties; (f) the fixing of prices payable to the Crown or by the Crown for transfers of land.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE—The Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Government department charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the Central Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1951, and in the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by district valuers and valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate (a) the value of the land; (b) the value of the buildings (if any) and other improvements (if any) upon such land; and (c) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, not to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law, the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, is incorporated in the "land value".

"Improvements" on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land. With the introduction of land value in 1970 (in place of unimproved value) the term "improvements", correctly speaking, includes only those items of work done or material used which result in structural additions to the property.

The "capital value" is, broadly speaking, the unencumbered market value of the land at date of valuation, and the "value of improvements" is the added value given by the "improvements"

THE VALUATION ROLL—A valuation roll is prepared for each district over which a territorial local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth the ownership, description, and valuation of each property, including rates postponement and special rateable values where these are required to be determined.

Revision of Rolls—District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at intervals of not more than 5 years unless for good reason he decides otherwise.

The Supplementary Roll—There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes—e.g., the granting of loans by Government departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and estate duties—form the supplementary roll.

Objections to Valuations—In the case of a revision of a district valuation roll, the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, the owner and any local authority affected by the alteration in the valuation have a right of objection. If, after the Valuer-General has reconsidered the matter, the objector is still dissatisfied he may ask for the objection to be heard by the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION OF THE SUPREME COURT—The Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948 as amended in 1968 and 1977 provides for objections under the Valuation of Land Act to be determined by the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948, the Division hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952. Land valuation tribunals for particular localities operating under the general jurisdiction of magistrates' courts exercise prime jurisdiction in all matters except those where provision is made for them to be heard in the first instance by the Administrative Division. There is a right of appeal from a tribunal's decision to the court with a further right of appeal to the Court of Appeal in certain cases.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Court's order, he may, within 14 days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Court at less than the capital value, he may, within 14 days after the sealing of the Court's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within 30 days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING—The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the land value is framed.

The third major rating system is the annual (rental) value system, where the annual values are assessed by valuers appointed by the local authorities concerned. The Valuer-General may be so appointed. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 percent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 percent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 percent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

Parts IV and V of the Rating Act 1967 provide for local authorities to grant applications for rates postponement in respect of certain residences in commercial and industrial zones and for farmlands in counties with valuations reflecting potential use for urban development. Rates postponement values are determined either under the Valuation of Land Act or the Rating Act, according to the system of rating in force. Special rateable values for non-conforming commercial or industrial land in residential or rural zones are also provided for in order that these classes of properties will not enjoy a rating advantage. Likewise special rateable values may be determined for rural or residential land or commercial or industrial areas, for single or double unit dwellinghouses in areas where values are influenced by demand for multi-unit housing, and for "existing use" properties within the meaning of Section 36 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1953.

Part VI of the Rating Act provides for rating relief for farmlands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town councils, and county councils in respect of county towns. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farmlands lower than the normal rateable values.

Equalisation of Values—The Rating Act, Part IX, provides for an equitable adjustment of rates and of levies based on rateable values as between the several constituent districts comprising the district of an ad hoc local authority where those constituent districts have been revalued by the Valuer-General at different times. Provision is also made for equalisation to be done where the several ridings of a county have been revalued at different dates.

CAPITAL VALUE AND VALUE OF LAND—The figures in the following table show valuations over a period of years for the whole of New Zealand; they are gross values and include the value not only of rateable properties but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating. Valuation figures back to 1878 were given in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

At 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*

*Included in previous column.

Includes the districts revalued after 1 March 1971 on the "land value" basis provided for by the Valuation of Land Amendment Act (No. 2) 1970, which came into effect on that date. Earlier figures are on the basis of unimproved values only.

  $(million)
19606,132.51,779.6
19616,497.41,905.7
19626,945.72,061.1
19637,373.62,212.1
19647,760.42,345.8
19658,459.22,644.5
19669,085.02,865.5
19679,836.13,184.2
196810,631.63,487.0
196911,349.73,705.2
197012,515.64,170.7
197113,305.74,489.0
197214,331.35,046.3
197315,657.25,704.1
197417,871.76,778.3
197524,383.510,433.6
197630,011.513,386.7
197735,575.215,981.5

In the following table the gross values and net values for the latest years are analysed in more detail. Net values include all rateable property and all properties on which Local Authorities recover grants in lieu of rates. In interpreting these figures it is essential to realise that substantial boundary changes take place from time to time.

As at 31 MarchGross ValuesNet Values
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Value of Land*

*Included in previous column.

  $(million)  
Counties
19757,972.64,206.97,396.94,056.1
197610,189.6x5,645.5x9,465.65,445.5
197712,264.56,896.911,465.56,659.6
Cities and Boroughs
197516,379.86,219.115,115.65,717.3
197619,784.27,731.418,307.17,096.0
197723,269.29,073.721,501.88,364.7
Independent Town Districts
197531.07.527.97.1
197637.09.533.58.8
197741.510.937.710.2
Grand Totals
197524,383.410,433.622,540.59,780.6
197630,011.513,386.727,806.312,550.4
197735,575.215,981.533,005.015,034.5

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up-to-date has the effect in the preceding tables of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes.

With the present resources at the Valuation Department's disposal, an up-to-date revaluation of all properties in New Zealand would be an impossible task but by using the principle of valuation equalisation mentioned earlier, it is possible to compile up-to-date gross values by local body districts for the whole country. The gross capital value figures shown below have been compiled on the level of values as at 31 March 1977.

Territorial AreasGross Capital Value
 $(million)
Counties17,150.0
Cities and boroughs29,460.0
Town districts65.4
 46,675.4

A comparison of these figures with the gross values shown for the year ended 31 March 1977 given previously, illustrates the point that valuation statistics tend to have the effect of delaying the appearance of current movements in the property market.

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 31 March 1977, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts, also as at 31 March 1977.

Local Authority DistrictAreaPopulationNet Property Values
Capital ValueUV/LVValue of Improvements

*Balance made up of persons on shipboard and extra-county islands.

Unimproved value or land value.

   Percentage Distribution  
Counties98.525.334.744.326.7
Cities and boroughs1.473.865.255.673.1
Town districts (independent)0.70.10.10.2
Total100.0100.0*100.0100.0100.0

Particulars of values for each county, borough, and independent town district in considerable detail are contained in the annual report, Local Authority Statistics, published by the Department of Statistics.

VALUERS' REGISTRATION BOARD—The Valuers Act 1948 provides for the registration of land valuers and for some control of their work. There is a Registration Board under the chairmanship of the Valuer-General, which issues certificates for registration to all valuers and annual practising certificates to public valuers. The main objects of the Act are to secure a high standard of valuation work throughout the country and to encourage competent valuers. Of the 1,271 valuers registered as at 31 March 1977, 435 have taken out annual practising certificates for the current year. The majority of the remaining 836 registered valuers are either employed in Government departments or do not make valuations for members of the public and thus are not required to hold annual practising certificates.

Chapter 12. Section 11 NATIONAL PLANNING

Table of Contents

DEVELOPMENT OF CONSULTATIVE PLANNING—New Zealand has now had several years of experience with a form of consultative planning, instituted as a result of the National Development Conference in 1968. The need for long-term planning in order to achieve a faster, more balanced, economic growth rate coupled with a proper consideration for environmental, social, and other non-material factors first came to the fore in the early 1950s.

During the 1950s and 1960s, "key sector" conferences were held on housing and on industrial, export, and agricultural development. These conferences reflected a changed attitude regarding the Government's role in growth and development. As a result of the work of the Agricultural Development Conference, in particular, medium- and long-term projections were accepted as the basis for planning and targets were set for agricultural production up to 10 years ahead. Another feature was the formation of continuing machinery after two of the conferences. This took the form of a Trade Promotion Council and an Agricultural Production Council.

Other sectors became interested in this approach to planning within sectors. Preparations were being made by the end of 1967 for conferences on forestry and tourism to be held in early 1969. One drawback of this type of action was that each sector tended to view its problems and future in isolation. The Government decided therefore to hold a National Development Conference, with plenary sessions in August 1968 and May 1969, to set economic planning on a national basis. The outcome of the conference was the adoption of national and sector growth targets and a large number of recommendations, many of which were later implemented.

THE NDC SYSTEM—The NDC planning structure, which succeeded the National Development Conference, consisted of a National Development Council and eventually 16 sector councils, including 7 bodies already in existence before the Conference. The National Development Council, which was chaired by the Deputy Prime Minister, was designed to oversee and co-ordinate the work of the sector councils and to provide a direct link between the NDC system and the Government. The Council was served by a Targets Advisory Group (TAG) chaired by the Governor of the Reserve Bank. A planning secretariat, located in the Treasury, served both the Council and the Targets Advisory Group.

Considerable changes were made during succeeding years (for example, the National Development Council was abolished and its functions taken over by the Cabinet Committee on Policy and Priorities, and the Targets Advisory Group was renamed the Planning Advisory Group), but by the mid-1970s there was a general feeling that momentum had been lost and a major overhaul or replacement of the central planning organisation was necessary.

During 1976 the Government established a task force on social and economic planning under the chairmanship of Sir Frank Holmes. The objectives were to review past planning activities in New Zealand, to advise on major trends and issues, and to recommend a planning mechanism that would assist in the development of New Zealand's economy and society. The task force completed the exercise in October 1976, and issued its report entitled New Zealand at the Turning Point in December (the synopsis from this report was reprinted as a special article in the 1977 Yearbook). As a result of its recommendations a New Zealand Planning Council was set up in March 1977 as a first step towards the development of a national planning system as envisaged by the task force.

THE NEW ZEALAND PLANNING COUNCIL—In selecting the Council members the Government was influenced by a Task Force recommendation that membership should reflect wide experience in many fields rather than represent particular sectional interests. Other notable departures from the NDC experience include a full-time Chairman and Secretariat, and the presence on the Council of a senior Minister of the Crown with portfolio responsibilities directly relevant to the Council's work (the Minister of National Development). Sir Frank Holmes, who had led the Task Force, was appointed the Council's first Chairman.

Although the Council had been in operation since April 1977, a Statute (the New Zealand Planning Act, 1977) was enacted in December 1977 to formally establish the Council and to set out its functions and powers. These include:

  1. To advise the Government on planning for social, economic and cultural development in New Zealand;

  2. To assist the Government to co-ordinate such planning;

  3. To comment to the Government on programmes for social, economic, and cultural development in New Zealand, and to recommend the priorities that should be accorded to them;

  4. To act as focal point for a process of consultative planning about New Zealand's medium-term development;

  5. To foster discussion among those agencies (Government and private) concerned with planning particularly in the economic, environmental, social, and cultural fields;

  6. To submit advice to the Government on links between planning at the national and regional levels;

  7. To prepare reports on any matter affecting the economic, social, or cultural development of New Zealand.

It may submit any reports prepared by it to the Minister of National Development, recommend that these be placed before Parliament and publish documents on planning topics which in its view merit wide consideration and debate.

Before the establishment of the New Zealand Planning Council, the Government was assisted in long-term economic planning and the development of natural resources by the Planning Advisory Group and a number of councils with a wide coverage of the economic, social, and cultural life of New Zealand. These councils, most of which were originally sector councils under the National Development Council, were the Agricultural Production Council, Manufacturing Development Council, Forestry Development Council, Mineral Resources Council, Tourist Development Council, Trade Promotion Council, Building Industry Advisory Council, Transport Advisory Council, Distribution Council, National Research Advisory Council, Education Development Council, Environmental Council, Social Development Council, Nature Conservation Council, Land Use Advisory Council, Vocational Training Council, the Committee on Women, and the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council. It is intended that such sector councils shall have close links with the Planning Council, but not be part of its formal structure.

As part of its desire to consult as widely as possible, the Council issued a document in August 1977, entitled A Moment of Truth. This was designed to secure a response from a wide cross-section of the community to assist it in the preparation of its first major report. This report, entitled Planning Perspectives 1978–1983, was published in March 1978.

In February 1978, the Monetary and Economic Council (See Section 29 Banking and Currency) was disbanded and its role in monitoring economic trends and policies was assigned to the Planning Council. The formation of a new independent group charged with monitoring current economic trends and policies, to be known as the Economic Monitoring Group (EMG), was announced by the chairman of the Planning Council in April 1978.

COMMISSION FOR THE FUTURE—The New Zealand Planning Act 1977 gave statutory recognition to both the New Zealand Planning Council and the Commission for the Future, which had been established in September 1976.

The principal general functions of the Commission for the Future are to study the possibilities for the long-term economic and social development of New Zealand; to report to the Minister of National Development on these possibilities; and to publish the information and stimulate further public discussion. In carrying out these general functions the Commission is required to give special attention to the long-term implications for New Zealand of new or prospective developments in science and technology, and to have regard to prospective trends, policies, and events in New Zealand or overseas which could have important consequences for the country's future. The membership of the Commission consists of not more than seven members appointed on the recommendation of the Minister of National Development, a Minister of the Crown, a Member of Parliament nominated by the Leader of the Opposition, a member of the Planning Council, and the Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

The Commission co-ordinates its activities closely with those of the Planning Council to avoid duplication of effort and to ensure the most efficient use of available resources.

This year the Commission is commencing a major study of New Zealand in the Future World in conjunction with Government departments, and overseas organisations including the East-West Centre, Hawaii, and the OECD Interfutures Project.

PRODUCTIVITY CENTRE—A more immediate aid to planning and national production is provided by the Productivity Centre established within the Department of Trade and Industry in January 1973 to promote improved productivity in New Zealand's manufacturing and servicing industry. It has developed a comprehensive programme aimed at improving the efficiency of the individual firm or organisation through the use of specific productivity techniques.

The centre's programme includes the promotion of:

Interfirm Comparisons—These survey the key business results of similar firms in an industry group and reveal those areas requiring remedial attention. The centre sponsored 20 interfirm comparisons in 1977, and provided follow-up services through its industry liaison officers.

Productivity Groups—These are self-sustaining groups of businessmen from a particular geographic area who examine and exchange productivity ideas and experience. Twenty groups, serviced by the centre's industry liaison officers, were operating in 1977.

Productivity Improvement Teams—PI teams are in-company groups set up to improve the productivity of an organisation by utilising the skills, knowledge, and experience already present.

The centre also provides:

  1. Workshop sessions and seminars on specific management topics, particularly in smaller centres where few formal management education facilities exist.

  2. An industry liaison officer service. These officers, based in the Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin offices of the Department of Trade and Industry, are available to help diagnose practical problems in individual companies, at the invitation of management, and to direct to them advice and assistance from the wide range of facilities available.

  3. A monthly newsletter and a quarterly magazine, guidesheets and booklets on specific management topics, a directory of advisory services, and information on financial management.

The centre's programme also includes general publicity to ensure widespread understanding of the concept, techniques, and benefits of productivity improvement, research into productivity measurement, and liaison with productivity organisations both in New Zealand and overseas.

The centre's work is guided broadly by a 12-member Productivity Advisory Council, whose members represent both the Government and private sectors.

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT—Regional development policies are basically concerned with creating balanced growth among the different geographical areas of a country as it develops. These policies assume that the economic and human resources of all the regions of New Zealand must be fully utilised to maximise the quality of life. They are particularly concerned to maintain the social and economic welfare of those regions with lagging growth rates, and to promote an adequate range of good employment opportunities within them.

The regional development programme introduced in 1973 initially concentrated on encouraging manufacturing growth as the fastest way of increasing employment opportunities in regional areas. However, it became increasingly apparent that a more comprehensive approach to regional problems was necessary. The scope of the regional development programme was broadened in 1977 with a new emphasis on the development of resource-based industries appropriate to the needs and potential of each region.

The Department of Trade and Industry administers a scheme of regional development financial incentives applying to development projects in regional areas. The measures in this programme I include interest-free suspensory loans for plant, machinery, and buildings, assistance with the costs of approved staff training programmes, and with the transfer costs of key employees, industry relocation grants, small project grants, a special suspensory loan scheme to assist activities which are regarded as having "pioneer status" in a region, and an investigation and establishment grant scheme to encourage new forms of resource development.

The Department of Trade and Industry works closely with other agencies such as the Development Finance Corporation and the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation which provide commercial finance for development projects.

Eleven regional development councils ensure regional participation in policy implementation and identify potential growth points. These operate in Southland, Otago, Southern Canterbury, West Coast, Marlborough, Wairarapa, Wanganui, Taranaki, King Country, East Coast, and Northland. These councils have a responsibility for making recommendations on applications from their areas for regional development assistance and for conducting research into local development potential.

The Minister of Regional Development is responsible for the regional development programme, which is aimed at a total balanced progress and which recognises that development needs and assistance techniques will vary region by region.

THE SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL—The Social Development Council is a planning and advisory body responsible to the Minister of Social Welfare. The Council has 6 members representing Government departments, and 14 private members, selected for their personal qualities and general or particular experience in the social field, but not as direct nominees of particular interest groups. The secretariat for the Council is provided by the Department of Social Welfare.

The Social Development Council had its origins in the National Development Conference which was set up in 1968 to review New Zealand's resources, and to indicate broad lines for economic development over the subsequent decade. As a result of criticism that the Conference's first session had been preoccupied with purely economic matters, the examination was broadened to include the development of a better social environment.

Among the recommendations to come from the National Development Conference was that for a permanent planning structure to be set up to continue the work of the Conference. The National Development Council was established as the central body of the planning structure. A framework of sector councils was established and among these was the Social Council, whose task was to focus on the social aspects of development including those arising from the targets and programmes of other sector councils. The Social Council met for the first time in August 1971.

In December 1972, the functions of the National Development Council were transferred to the Cabinet Committee on Policy and Priorities. The Social Council continued to function with a change of name to the Social Development Council and altered terms of reference.

Under its present terms of reference, the Council keeps under review social aspects of development and social policies needed to bring about a desirable quality of life. The Council has a brief to initiate social development proposals for submission to the Minister of Social Welfare and to advise the Minister of Social Welfare and other Ministers through him of changes required in social policies, social needs arising from economic development, and any related aspects. It co-ordinates with other planning and advisory bodies and maintains contact with organisations concerned with social research.

Social Goal—The ultimate goal of the Social Development Council is a society in which the direction of development and social change is towards providing the maximum opportunity for each person to achieve happiness, and thus a society in which:

  1. Each person is able to create and belong to family or other intimate groups where a secure and happy environment is provided for children and dependent adults;

  2. Each person is regarded as having dignity and being worthy of respect, has the maximum freedom of choice and action without encroaching upon the rights of others, and is not discriminated against by reason of sex, race, culture or other distinguishing characteristics; and in which;

  3. Each person is able to contribute towards the identification and achievement of objectives for a multicultural community and is encouraged to understand and appreciate the religious, political and cultural attitudes, beliefs and customs of other persons and groups and to act responsibly within the community.

Specific Objectives—The following more specific objectives are considered to be important at the present time for helping progress towards the ultimate goal. An advantage of these is that the extent to which they are achieved can be measured by data available or obtainable:

  1. Each person has access to employment and vocational opportunities which are satisfying and within his or her capabilities.

  2. Each person has the maximum opportunity to be as physically and emotionally healthy and fit as his or her potential allows, and has ready and adequate access to necessary health and social welfare services.

  3. Each person has equal and effective access to opportunities to learn knowledge, skills, and attitudes, which will enable the development of the person and of his or her contribution to the well-being of the community.

  4. Each person or family group is housed adequately according to their needs in keeping with currently accepted standards.

  5. No person has his or her participation and enjoyment in the community restricted by an inadequate income.

  6. The hazards of injury, accident, and crime are kept to a minimum, and each person has adequate access to processes of law and equal rights before the law, is aware of his or her obligations under the law, and does not experience any avoidable hardship through being the victim of injury, accident, or crime.

  7. Each person has the right to leisure and the opportunity to participate in leisure-time activities including social, intellectual, artistic, cultural, and physical pursuits.

  8. Each person has the opportunity to participate in community decision-making and is encouraged to accept his or her responsibilities to the community.

OTHER PHASES OF NATIONAL PLANNING—Other phases of national planning are dealt with in other sections of this Yearbook. Land development and use, and the sometimes-conflicting claims of economic growth and the preservation of the natural environment, are discussed and described in Section 10A Physical Environment and Economic Growth. Energy planning comes into Section 20 Energy Resources; industrial planning into Section 18 Manufacturing; and the scientific agricultural, and industrial research that provides the essential background information for meaningful planning is briefly described in Section 7B Science and Scientific Services. The question of finance for development comes into the Finance sections, especially Sections 29 and 30.

Chapter 13. Section 12 TRANSPORT

12 A—GENERAL

Throughout the world the social and economic significance of transport services has established a strong public interest in transport. This interest has frequently been reflected in extensive Government participation in transport operations.

New Zealand has become increasingly dependent on good communications links. Transport as a service industry is the largest single expenditure element in our economy. Since early colonial days transport has always been a major area of Government responsibility. Harbour construction and the building of roads and railways were carried out and transport services operated not only as part of the process of colonisation and development but also because there were no private agencies capable of undertaking the work. There was either inadequate finance available, or the services were likely to be unattractive to private investors due to unprofitability, although they were considered desirable for economic or social purposes.

The State then, either directly or through subordinate agencies, builds and maintains the roads, harbours, airports, and railway network which decide the nature and extent of the transport available to the people of New Zealand; it operates road, rail, and sea and air services itself; it regulates competition within and between the various modes of transport; and it imposes and enforces detailed and extensive safety regulations.

New Zealand, as a nation dependent on overseas trade and geographically remote from many of its trading partners, relies more heavily on transport than do many other countries. During recent years its transport industry has been the subject of a comprehensive examination and review by the Government. Transport has far-reaching effects on the economy, on society, and on the environment, and it was the recognition of the close link between transport and the general welfare of the community that highlighted the need to establish a transport policy as an integral part of New Zealand's broad development strategy.

Transport in New Zealand is complicated by the geographic configuration of the country, the separation into two main islands, the location of the main urban areas, the number and situation of the main ports, the seasonal nature of much of the production, and the large proportion of one-way loading in the internal transport system. In its overseas trade the country is mainly dependent on overseas shipping companies to carry its exports to distant markets and bring in imports.

TRANSPORT AND THE ECONOMY—The significant influence of transport on all sections of the economy can be shown in a number of ways.

Relationship with Economic Development—One of the key elements in the attainment of a high standard of living in this country has been the development of an efficient internal transport system. There is no doubt that the establishment of rail and road links from the interior to the coastal ports was a prerequisite to the large-scale development of New Zealand's primary industry during the last century, and that it was the growth of international sea-transport and of a fast, regular service of refrigerated cargo ships that enabled New Zealand to evolve from a subsistence economy to one of the world's major exporters of meat and dairy produce.

The priority given today by the international financial institutions to transport development in the less economically advanced countries of the world is further recognition of the importance of an adequate transport system as one of the foundations for national development.

Relationship with Industry—Transport is also an integral part of the production process. It supplies the factories with raw materials, and carries away the manufactured goods. It supplies the transport services by which the men and women who work in the factories travel to and from their homes. The efficiencies which have been achieved as a result of the greater concentration of industrial plant in recent years can to a certain extent be attributed to the development of technologically advanced and efficient transport services.

Relationship with Distribution—Transport, as a key means of the mass distribution of goods, ensures that ample supplies and a wide variety of goods are readily available within all centres of population. The standard of living enjoyed by people living in the ever-growing urban concentrations that are a feature of developed countries depends ultimately on efficient national and international transport systems. Additionally, ready transport availability from the point of production to the points of consumption reduces the need for large warehouse holdings of goods. The reaction in warehouse costs can assist in the lowering of retail prices.

Relationship with Costs—Transport costs make up a substantial part of the price of a product. The cost of transport as a portion of the total cost of a product varies from a small percentage to the major portion. Obviously, transport costs make up a greater proportion of the cost of a bulky raw material than of a sophisticated manufactured item.

Relationship with the Economy—It is estimated that the transport industry provides employment for over 9 percent of the labour force, and that the cost of moving goods and people is over $2,000 million each year. This figure provides an indication of the substantial sums spent on transport annually by private motor-vehicle owners, road carriers, bus operators, rental vehicle firms, taxi proprietors, freight forwarders, shipping companies, and aircraft operators as well as the considerable amount of expenditure on our roads, ports, airports, and railways by both central and local government. In addition, the Central Government, through its ownership of Air New Zealand Ltd. (incl. National Airways Corporation), Safe Air Ltd., the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand and the New Zealand Railways Department, has acquired assets valued at over $550 million in transport services in this country. As well as contributing to the provision of transport facilities through the payment of certain road, air, and sea user charges, the transport industry, through the payment of income tax, customs duties, sales tax, local body rates, the local authority petroleum tax and various registration and licence fees, contributes a significant amount to the annual taxation revenue of the country. Furthermore, transport is a major consumer of industrial goods. It utilises large portions of the country's rubber, lead, zinc, steel, copper, and aluminium needs for instance, and its high consumption of imported oil products has been a matter of national concern in recent years. Finally, as a major consumer of industrial products and as a means of distributing exports to our distant and diverse markets, transport has a significant effect on the country's balance of payments.

Relationship with the Physical Environment—The roads, airports, ports, railways, and pipelines of this country have an effect on the communities surrounding these facilities. They affect the location of manufacturing, retailing, and the distribution industries and influence the character of an area. On the other hand, they can divide communities and create noise and aesthetic problems as well as problems of pollution. Environmental and aesthetic considerations have received increased attention in recent years. For example, the environmental aspects of major roading schemes are carefully considered in relation to their purpose, need, design, benefits, and detractions.

TRANSPORT AND SOCIETY—Apart from the various considerations outlined in the previous paragraphs which closely affect the quality of life in this country, transport has numerous other effects on our society. For instance, the availability, type, and extent of transport can influence the character of a city or suburb. A city or town can be dominated by its port or its rail facilities just as a suburb can become, owing to its transport system, largely a "dormitory" suburb of a distant commercial area.

An efficient network of roads and other transport services both serves to knit together a community and discourages narrow parochialism by providing the means of cheap, convenient, and comfortable travel by which mental horizons are widened and the bonds of family or friendship kept strong. If the economic life of a country is heavily dependent on its transport system, so too is its social and cultural development.

The effect on a community of a change in transport policy must therefore be carefully evaluated by those responsible for running the country.

12 B—SHIPPING

PORT DEVELOPMENT—In recent years the development of the container ship, the unitised cargo ship, the roll-on roll-off ship, and barge-carrying systems such as the "lash" (lighter aboard ship) system have brought about a world-wide revolution in the handling of maritime cargoes, and a new concept of the co-ordination of transport through the substitution of capital-intensive for labour-intensive operations. In this revolution New Zealand is fully involved.

A cargo-handling co-ordination committee serviced by the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport is affiliated to an international association with a control office in the United Kingdom.

To ensure the control of harbour development a New Zealand Ports Authority has been established. Amongst its several functions is the fostering of an efficient and integrated ports system and, to that end, the preparation of a national ports plan.

Under this plan, harbour authorities must obtain the authority's approval for major capital projects, e.g., container cranes, storage sheds, tugs. Consents granted during the year ended 31 March 1977 involved developments costing $30 million.

A feature of port development in recent years has been the acquisition of container cargo handling facilities. As a result of the containerisation of New Zealand's major export trades, New Zealand's four container ports—Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Port Chalmers—have all invested substantially in container cranes, straddle carriers, storage sheds, and ancillary facilities.

To date both Auckland and Wellington have purchased two container cranes and Lyttelton and Port Chalmers one each. It is expected that Auckland and Port Chalmers will each have a further crane in operation by 1980.

Cargo Traffic—Since the introduction of a container service to the United States in August 1971, and to the United Kingdom in September 1972 container traffic has steadily increased. For the year ended 31 December 1976 cellular container ships working at container terminals made 265 ship voyages and handled 94,306 containers. This compared with 247 voyages and 73,511 containers for the previous year.

U.K./Europe Trade—Associated Container Transportation (ACT) in conjunction with the Australian National Line (ANL) operate six vessels which serve both Australia and New Zealand. Similarly ANZECS (Australia - New Zealand - Europe Container Service), a consortium comprised of 5 shipping lines, operate 13 container vessels between New Zealand, Australia and Europe. The Shipping Corporation of New Zealand (SCNZ) is a member of ANZECS and currently has a container vessel under construction for entry into the trade in August 1978.

East Coast-North America Trade—This trade is almost completely containerised. ACT and ANL have combined to form the PACE Line which operates eight vessels (six ACT and two ANL) in similar fashion to their combined U.K./Europe service. The Columbus Line operates four vessels which call at Auckland, Wellington, and Port Chalmers. Farrell Lines operate four vessels which call only at Auckland and Wellington.

West Coast-North America Trade—This trade is also served by cellular container vessels. The Columbus Line operates four vessels on the trade and they call at Auckland and Wellington. Farrell Lines operate three container/"lash" vessels. These ships call at Auckland, and occasionally a vessel calls at Lyttelton. It is also anticipated that Blueport ACT (N.Z.) Limited will enter into the West Coast-North America trade during 1978.

Japan Trade—This trade has now become almost fully containerised following the introduction of a two-vessel container service in late 1976 by the five member Lines of the New Zealand Eastern Shipping Committee. New Zealand ports of call for these vessels include Auckland, Wellington, and Port Chalmers.

Trans-Tasman—During 1975 the Union Steam Ship Company began implementing its decision to replace existing conventional vessels with roll-on roll-off and bulk carrier vessels. The changeover was completed during 1977 with the arrival of the Union Lyttelton and the Union Rotorua.

The USSC also manage and operate the Tasman Enterprise and the Tasman Venture, two purpose-built bulk carriers used to transport timber products to Australia. Both these vessels, which are owned by the Tasman Pulp and Paper Company, entered service during the latter half of 1977.

Pacific Islands—The Shipping Corporation of New Zealand has recently extended its Cook Islands/Niue service to Tahiti and has purchased two unit-load vessels, the Taire Moana and the Fetu Moana to operate the extended service. This service, which commenced operation in February 1978, was necessitated by the withdrawal of the Luhesand (which formerly traded to Tahiti) on the expiry of her charter to the Union Steam Ship Company, and also the growing need to rationalise and increase the efficiency of services in the region. The other New Zealand vessel employed in the Pacific is the USSC's roll-on roll-off vessel Marama which replaced the Union South Pacific in the Fiji-Samoa-Tonga trade in December 1977.

The Pacific Forum Line was established in June 1977 as a South Pacific regional shipping line controlled jointly by member countries of the South Pacific forum. Managerial services for the Line have been established and services commenced in May 1978, with the vessels Tauloto 2 and Toa Moana serving ports in New Zealand, Fiji, Samoa, Tonga, the Gilbert Islands, the Solomon Islands, and Papua New Guinea. New Zealand contributed one vessel to the line.

Inter-island and Coastal Services—A regular ferry service across the Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton, at the head of the Marlborough Sounds, is provided by rail ferries operated by the Railways Department. The ferries Aramoana and Aranui, which carry passengers and freight, normally make 25 round trips per week throughout the year. Two other ferries, the Arahanga and the Aratika, were designed to carry freight but, in addition, to have limited accommodation for truck drivers and others whose vehicles were being carried. The Aratika has now been converted to carry passengers and freight. The conversion has given the vessel a capacity of 800 passengers and 70 motor vehicles in addition to the normal rail freight capacity. The Aramoana was extensively refitted during 1977.

During the year ended March 1977 the four ferries in service carried 651,560 ordinary passengers, 33,730 excursion passengers, 141,646 passengers' motor vehicles, 11,330 trucks, vans, or trade cars, and 1,284,598 manifest tonnes of other goods. Gross revenue from the ferry service amounted to $23,595,337, resulting in a surplus of revenue over expenditure of $395,772.

In September 1976, the inter-island passenger service between Wellington-Lyttelton was terminated because of financial losses and a decreasing demand for the service. A freight-only service operated by the Shipping Corporation's Coastal Ranger, was introduced between the two ports but terminated early in 1978 owing to financial losses. A service is now provided by the Union Steam Ship Company's trans-Tasman vessels.

Most of the ships engaged in the coastal trade are relatively small, exceptions including the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand's Coastal Trader, and the coastal voyages of the Union Steam Ship Company's trans-Tasman vessels carrying cars, sugar, or other cargoes. Coastal shipping trade includes the shipment of coal from Westport to Portland, the movement of newsprint from Mount Maunganui to the South Island, the cartage of cement, the Onehunga-Nelson trade, and shipping bulk cargoes out of Nelson.

Additional information to that contained in this section on port, cargo, and shipping statistics may be found in the Report on Transport Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics.

SHIPPING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—In 1974 a Government-owned shipping corporation was set up to establish and operate shipping services as empowered by the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973. The Snipping Corporation of New Zealand formed a subsidiary called the New Zealand Line which (from, and in conjunction with, the Shaw Savill and Albion Company) purchased two ships of 12,227 tons, now known as N.Z. Waitangi and N.Z. Aorangi which carry 24 and 18 containers on deck respectively. These are engaged on New Zealand - United Kingdom trade.

The Corporation itself operates a number of ships engaged in the coastal and Pacific Islands trade. They include the Coastal Trader, a roll-on roll-off vessel on the Auckland-Lyttelton-Dunedin run; the Tiare Moana and the Fetu Moana, both trading with the Pacific Islands; and the Bulknes, carrying aluminium ore for the Bluff smelter. In addition, the Corporation acts as managing agents for Shaw-Savill's N.Z.-West Indies-U.S. Gulf Service.

In 1978, the Corporation introduced its 42,000 ton container vessel, built by a West German shipyard, to the United Kingdom and Continental service, giving New Zealand the capacity to lift a substantial proportion of the New Zealand - United Kingdom trade.

During 1975, a new company (Container Terminals Ltd.), in which the Shipping Corporation has a majority shareholding, was formed to operate the Wellington container terminal. The minority shareholders comprise the other shipping lines which use the terminal.

In addition to entering the U.K. trade, the Corporation has become, or is looking to become, involved in a number of other areas. It has already entered the Japanese container trade (April 1977) under slot-chartering arrangements with other ship operators, and is currently investigating the possibility of involvement in other trades between New Zealand and areas such as South East Asia, West Africa, North America, and the Arabian Gulf.

SHIPPING ON NEW ZEALAND REGISTER—At 31 December 1977 there were 1,152 ships on the New Zealand register, the total gross tonnage being 250,872 and net tonnage, 125,540. (Gross tonnage is defined by Lloyds as the capacity in cubic feet of spaces within the hull and of the enclosed spaces above the deck available for cargo, stores, passengers, and crew, With certain exceptions, divided by 100. Thus, 100 cubic feet of capacity is equivalent to 1 gross ton. Net tonnage is derived from gross tonnage by deducting spaces used for the accommodation of the master, officers, crew, navigation equipment, propelling machinery, and fuel).

Most of the vessels on the register are relatively small. Vessels not exceeding 15 net tons, employed in trade solely on the coast or inland waters, are not required to register under the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952. These small trading vessels, along with yachts and other pleasure craft, may be registered at the request of the owners.

The following table shows registered trading vessels. Ships in overseas trade are mainly engaged in trans-Tasman and Pacific Islands trading movements.

YearNumber of VesselsNet Registered Tonnage*Number of Crew

*1 ton equals 2.83 cu metres

Coastal Trade
19752215,245500
19761914,554504
19772116,330565
Overseas Trade
19751956,931641
19761764,954575
19771985,322637

PORT STATISTICS—Demands made on ports by overseas and coastal vessels are illustrated in the following table, which gives the total number and tonnage of all calls each year.

YearOverseas VesselsCoastal VesselsTotal
Number of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet Tonnage

*Provisional.

  tons(000) tons(000) tons(000)
19734,03021,0348,73610,99212,76632,027
19743,83120,5368,39011,28112,22131,817
19753,69220,0988,25711,08111,94931,179
19763,76220,8867,77811,30311,54089
1977*3,40022,3177,63911,17811,03995

All Calls of Overseas Vessels—The following table shows for 3 recent years the number of calls and net tonnage of overseas vessels arriving at New Zealand ports, either direct or coastwise.

Port197519761977
Number of CallsNet Tonnage (000) of VesselsNumber of CallsNet Tonnage (000) of VesselsNumber of CallsNet Tonnage (000) of Vessels
Bay of Islands191342218215131
Whangarei1251,5881131,5741031,486
Auckland1,0645,9531,1366,1559706,639
Onehunga301833154725
Taharoa272302520928240
Tauranga4031,8454692,1784332,444
Gisborne26122201161673
Napier2411,114215967207990
Taranaki13267310956475408
Waverley192441431115633
Wellington4992,9734603,0334233,257
Picton291762212119102
Nelson111576136553152639
Westport11129954
Greymouth321154
Lyttelton4601,9964272,0333702,013
Timaru100505142680110535
Otago2321,0692241,1642141,585
Bluff1618681851,0201931,108
       Total3,69220,0983,76220,8863,40022,317

CARGO STATISTICS—With cargo statistics it should be noted that the term "tonne" does not invariably denote a weight of 1,000 kg. It is practicable to obtain the actual weights involved for only a portion of the goods handled. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulas as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the tonne. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in measurement tonnes, 1 cubic metre of space being regarded as the equivalent of a tonne. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in measurement tonnes, direct comparisons of tonnages of imports and exports are not always valid.

The following table gives a summary of the tonnage of cargo passing through all ports for the latest 3 calendar years.

YearInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

*Excluding transhipments.

Transhipments included twice.

manifest tonnes (000)
19757,75510,2271117,1886,73332,126
19768,33110,0381497,9778,21934,863
19778,40310,1971458,0869,06836,044

With the rise of ports handling specialised cargoes and major ports mechanically handling bulk loads and goods in containers on and off cellular container ships, the pattern of cargo movements has changed rapidly. Technical developments in packaging (containers, pallets) and transport (bulk loading) has tended to concentrate mechanised handling of cargo through a few ports with the consequent displacement of the manual labour of waterside workers.

The total tonnage of cargo handled by waterside workers in the year ended 30 September 1977 amounted to 13.2 million tonnes, an increase of 1.0 million over the 12.2 million tonnes handled in the previous 12 months. This was due to an increase of 791,000 tonnes of overseas cargo, and an increase of 170,000 tonnes in coastal and trans-Tasman cargo.

In the overseas category there were increases in all fields except timber, other than logs; the largest were bulk cargoes up 208,000 tonnes, logs up 180,000 tonnes after a decrease of 702,000 tonnes the previous year, and dairy produce general up by 119,000 tonnes compared with last year's reduction of 116,000 tonnes. Conventional ships cargo unloaded decreased by 359,000 tonnes, while container ships cargo increased to 1 million tonnes, 103,000 tonnes more than during the previous year.

Within the coastal and trans-Tasman category, unloaded and loaded general cargo decreased by 134,000 tonnes, while cargo handled through roll-on roll-off terminals increased by 64,000 tonnes.

A summation of cargo movements through ports shows that total tonnage throughputs of New Zealand ports have more than doubled since 1962 largely as the result of the double handling of oil to and from the refinery, and the growth of exports of forest products. Tonnages of farm produce—butter, cheese, meat, wool, and fruit—have remained stable over the years but have dropped from 8.1 percent of total throughput in 1964 to 5.0 percent in 1977. The figures and percentages for different types of cargo are given in the following table. Transhipments have been included. It should be noted that cargo figures shown in this and other tables refer to calendar years, and that the "tonnes" are "manifest tonnes".

Item197519761977

*Mostly refrigerated, except wool.

 tonnes (000)tonnes (000)tonnes (000)
Inward cargo18,09418,51818,745
Outward cargo14,03216,34517,299
       Total throughput32,12634,86336,044
Some Principal Farm Products*   
      Butter163180165
      Cheese796789
      Meat, frozen763902894
      Wool315380365
      Fruit, fresh315329298
       Total, farm products listed1,6351,8581,811
      Percentage of throughput5.15.35.0
Forest Products   
       Total—timber only1,0481,5391,781
      Percentage of throughput3.34.44.9
Bulk Commodities   
      Cement1,4561,3571,085
      Coal and coke298257199
      Grain216407333
      Fertilisers1,5311,5981,757
      Sand, shingle, and shell2,7312,7593,232
       Total, bulk commodities6,2336,3786,606
      Percentage of throughput19.418.318.3
Oil Products   
       Total, oil products11,09412,15412,440
Percentage of throughput34.534.934.5
Other Cargo   
Total, other cargo12,11612,93413,406
      Percentage of throughput37.737.137.2

The next table shows for each port the total inward and outward cargo in 1977. Loadings of bunker fuels are not included. A large proportion of the coastal movement concerns oil tankers working from the Whangarei refinery, while the movements of cars by tourists builds up the Wellington, Picton, and Lyttelton tonnages.

PortInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

*Excluding transhipments.

Transhipments included twice.

    manifest tonnes  
Parengarenga5,45170,60976,060
Houhora4,9184,918
Awanui10,34010,340
Mangonui5,4035,403
Bay of Islands6,73358,94615,684
Whangarei917,4952,967,1603,367,97553,2657,305,895
Mangawhai1,5961,596
Auckland1,510,8782,672,8148,823211,9501,204,5745,617,862
Onehunga131,02716,1631230,22358,840236,277
Raglan33,16033,160
Taharoa1,462,5891,462,589
Tauranga718,098460,87528,1571,651,4112,858,541
Gisborne23,48028,16751,647
Napier322,036323,587516,8821,162,505
Taranaki366,048246,736930,93681,1351,624,855
Waverley1,397,3731,397,373
Wanganui51,50351,503
Wellington1,866,6351,389,032125,6081,512,005737,0215,755,909
Picton1,140,8921491,102,88629,1502,273,077
Nelson163,34481,57513,098450,770708,787
Tarakohe7,331245,473252,804
Westport5,572220,611226,183
Greymouth5,9266,25837512,559
Lyttelton570,611900,62110,529188,134316,6661,997,090
Chatham Islands8,5562,45311,009
Timaru158,92794,10842,310348,517643,862
Otago191,479379,47021,624432,4081,024,981
Bluff182,775653,17187,701289,6331,213,280
Half Moon Bay6,3122,2098,521
       Total8,403,43210,196,959144,9728,086,2139,067,72236,044,270

Inward Overseas Cargo—The following table shows the tonnage of some major items of inward overseas cargo handled in 1977. Transhipments are included.

PortIron and SteelMachineryFertilisersMotor Spirit, KeroseneOil, Other MineralMotor Vehicles and PartsGypsum, Plaster of Paris
manifest tonnes
Whangarei140,0994,1022,807,63015,308
Auckland396,858111,776284,528275,74418,270241,49670,234
Tauranga4,598214,25751,667
Napier12,597252280,5406,27119
Taranaki3,857259239,0031,507
Wellington87,69868,515929315,62763,135260,789
Nelson97578,93016,36225,73920,381
Westport5,218
Lyttelton39,81527,576143,581243,4127,74847,17626,066
Timaru1,2023,88962,7244,17917
Otago5,8761,86372,54765,4412,6188,142
Bluff2,6271,461223,64328,091
All other ports424298258
Total555,229215,8901,670,7811,010,8962,896,881579,619145,349
PortFresh FruitGrainSugarTextilesAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tonnes
Whangarei212,967,160
Auckland86,18049171,25675,934949,3122,681,637
Tauranga325190,028460,875
Napier2,3881,16120,359323,587
Taranaki32,107246,736
Wellington2,57748033,834592,2281,425,812
Nelson10,00981,575
Westport3545,572
Lyttelton36,713341328,909303,727904,770
Timaru1,788720,30294,108
Otago6658222,319379,470
Bluff397,349653,171
All other ports3,46512,6741715,49122,250
Total133,436567173,949140,5202,723,60610,246,723

Outward Overseas Cargo—In the section dealing with the export trade it is pointed out that pastoral products make up over 70 percent by value of New Zealand's exports. The following table shows how the various ports participated in the handling of the volume of the main items in the outward overseas cargo, including transhipments, during 1977.

PortButterCheeseOther Milk ProductsFrozen and Preserved MeatsHides and SkinsTallowWool
manifest tonnes
Bay of Islands2,5002,1234,307
Whangarei14,6866931,53320672465
Auckland45,30923,259270,500169,01222,65530,21346,023
Onehunga361401,3502,323
Tauranga44,6874,049182,7149207,8052,294
Gisborne6,0131391,774
Napier315,47489,51813,63321,76136,630
Taranaki24,1787,54513,90628,1464993,300832
Wellington33,58944,08690,447301,65534,0524,226162,355
Picton2,059123
Nelson1,3731,3752,6791,81856
Lyttelton1,81111,84440,2559,2567,43837,292
Timaru1,1501780,9213,28912,07518,400
Otago4956614,9012,2893,24718,810
Bluff2,55489,0414,86513,25628,977
All other ports
       Total165,34186,431611,349831,95690,677105,863353,631
PortFresh FruitBeans and PeasPaper, Newsprint, etc.Timber, SoftwoodIron-sandAll Other GoodsTotal
manifest tonnes
Bay of Islands168,946
Whangarei2265,95453,265
Auckland18,8761,0308,4585,908565,3611,206,604
Onehunga42699942,48251,17958,840
Taharoa1,462,5891,462,589
Tauranga3,646250,648889,426265,2221,651,411
Gisborne20,24128,167
Napier59,7055169,862220,217516,882
Taranaki2,72981,135
Waverley1,397,3731,397,373
Wellington2,1713,5191,2801,014147,080825,474
Picton3,9457,93415,08929,150
Nelson67,726365,9329,811450,770
Lyttelton7112,921836100,26598,796320,785
Timaru2,466180,34049,859348,517
Otago7,0082355786,288299,012432,408
Bluff466,540144,354289,633
All other ports387387
Total163,19020,337262,2751,716,0172,859,9621,895,3079,162,336

PORTS AND SHIPPING IN THE FUTURE—The effect on New Zealand of the revolution in cargo handling must be a major rationalisation of ports and shipping services. Containerisation involves major changes through the whole chain of cargo transportation and handling, and in road, rail, and port facilities and capabilities. It means fewer ships, but much bigger and faster ones carrying much greater tonnages. In the U.K. trade, about 70 percent of northbound refrigerated cargo and 10 percent of general cargo will be containerised. On current planning, the shipping lines envisage that from 1979 onwards there will be an average service frequency of one ship every five days, each calling at two or three ports.

Larger faster ships will require further expansion of ports and land-based facilities. Present indications are that Auckland and Wellington will each require two container berths and three cranes. During 1977 Port Chalmers received approval to acquire a second container crane, and this is expected to come into operation in late 1979. It has been estimated that loaded container volumes in the trade between New Zealand and U.K.-Western Europe in 1978 will total over 90,000 per annum. Total container movements, involving loading, unloading, and the restowage of containers, will greatly exceed these figures and are estimated at about 250,000 per year.

MERCHANT NAVY QUALIFICATIONS—The Marine Division conducts regular examinations for merchant service personnel who wish to obtain certificates of competency as master, mate, or engineer. There are different standards of certificates for foreign-going, home trade, and restricted limits ships. The foreign-going certificates as master, first mate, second mate, and first and second class steam and motor engineer, are valid in most Commonwealth countries. Examinations are also conducted for skippers and mates of deep sea, coastal, and inshore fishing boats. Voluntary examinations are held for yachtsmen.

NAUTICAL SCHOOLS—The Marine Division maintains nautical schools in Wellington and Auckland, Courses leading to the examinations for all grades of masters and mates certificates are available. Courses are also held for able seamen and ordinary seamen, for yachtsmen, and in radar.

SHIP SURVEY STATISTICS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport carries out the survey of ships as required by the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, and 1,175 certificates of survey were issued in 1976. The department is also required to issue certificates to vessels engaged in international voyages in accordance with the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960, to which New Zealand is a signatory. Also special surveys are made for seaworthiness after damage, for efficiency of equipment, and for tonnage measurement.

LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE—On headlands, capes, reefs, and shoals around the 6,968 kilometres of coastline there are 246 navigation aids. These aids comprise 20 manned lighthouses, 112 automatic lights, 83 day beacons, 17 navigational buoys, 1 fog signal, and 13 radio beacons, and represent a capital investment of $5 million approximately. Their provision, maintenance, and servicing is a responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport, and involves an expenditure of approximately $1¼ million annually. Lighthouse tenders, aircraft, helicopters, and road transport along with a number of workshops are used to provide the mariner with reliable navigational aids. Light dues collected from ships meet most of the running costs of the service.

The "Zenon gas" light installed on Tiritiri Matangi Island, the main coastal approach light tower to Auckland Harbour, is of 11 million candlepower, and is one of the most powerful in the Southern Hemisphere.

WRECKS—In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Transport, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, or in any river or lake, the Receiver of Wreck for that district has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

Shipping accidents reported during the year ended 31 December 1976 are shown in the following table. It should be noted that the figures list all casualties including small craft.

Type of ShipMachinery Breakdown, and MiscellaneousCapsizing and CollisionsStranding and GroundingFounderingFireTotal
Passenger1 1
Cargo4138
Fishing122124131
Dredges, tugs, etc.23218
All restricted limits and pleasure craft493611103109
       Total674325157157

Fishing boat accidents on the New Zealand coast in 1976 resulted in the loss of 4 vessels and 5 lives. Pleasure craft casualties resulted in 37 deaths.

PLEASURE CRAFT—The Census of Population and Dwellings 1971 revealed that 77,529 households (9.7 percent of all households) had one or more pleasure boats. Of such households, 50,971 were in main urban areas.

Means of propulsion of the 77,529 boats enumerated were as follows: outboard motor 35,101; inboard motor 18,651; inboard jet motor 1,494; sails and engine 1,180; sails 9,413; oars and paddles 10,645; other means and not specified 1,045.

12 C—RAILWAYS

RAILWAYS DEVELOPMENT—A network of railways extending over nearly 5,000 kilometres links almost all the principal centres of population in New Zealand and carries a large share of the passenger and freight traffic to and from the towns and cities. Almost all the railway services in the country are provided by the New Zealand Government Railways Department, using the title New Zealand Railways for trading purposes. The department also operates road services over nearly 10,000 route kilometres of highways; and a rail and road vehicle and passenger ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton. A total staff of some 21,000 people is employed by the department.

Recent years have witnessed notable progress in development of the system and a steady increase in the carrying capacity of its main lines. Extensive use is being made of the latest developments in railway-transport technology, including diesel and electric traction, transistorised equipment for centralised traffic control, mechanised equipment for freight handling and track-maintenance work, and electronic data-processing machines to assist with accounting and statistical operations. Many new types of goods wagons have been and are being introduced, and numerous station buildings, goods sheds, bridges, etc., are being replaced by up-to-date structures in a continuing programme.

The largest railway construction project in recent years was completed with the opening in January 1971 of the 30-hectare Te Rapa marshalling yard near Hamilton. This massive yard is the first in New Zealand to have a semi-automatic hump-shunting system, while the refined electronic devices incorporated in the system make it also the most advanced. Designed initially to handle some 3,000 wagons a day, it will ultimately have a capacity to sort 5,000 daily.

Another major project is the 24-kilometre Kaimai Deviation, including a 9-kilometre tunnel through the Kaimai Hills, which substantially shortens the railway distance between the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty districts.

Also under construction is the 9-kilometre Mangaweka Deviation between Mangaweka and Utiku. This deviation which includes three tall bridges with a total length of 610 metres will eliminate a difficult section of the main trunk line which is very expensive to maintain and replace it with a low-maintenance, all-weather, high-speed route.

A brief history of the first hundred years of railway development in New Zealand was included as a special article in the 1963 edition of the Yearbook.

EXTENT OF THE SYSTEM—The total route length of railways vested in the New Zealand Government Railways Department and open for traffic at 31 March 1977 was 4,688 kilometres—2,585 kilometres in the North Island and 2,103 in the South Island. In addition, the Railways Department was working traffic over a further 7 kilometres of railways owned by other Government departments. Double line was worked over a total of 254 route kilometres, of which 208 kilometres were in the North Island. A total of 100 route kilometres of railway electrified on the 1,500-volt direct current, overhead contact system was in use at 31 March 1977.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING—In most instances, Government railways in New Zealand were constructed by the Public Works Department, now the Ministry of Works and Development, and handed over to the Railways Department upon completion. Recent practice has been for the Ministry of Works and Development to construct the earthworks, bridges, tunnels, and buildings, and for the Railways Department to lay the tracks and install signals.

Track—All track is laid to a nominal gauge of 1067 mm. The major routes are laid with rails 85 or 91 lb per yard (42.2 or 45.1 kg/m) but these lines will be progressively relaid with rails weighing 50 kg per metre. Secondary and branch lines have generally been laid with rails weighing 55, 70, and 72 lb per yard (27.3, 34.7, and 35.7 kg/m) and the practice is to relay these lines with heavier rails from the main lines. Treated Pinus radiata sleepers, laid about 1,480 per kilometre, have gradually replaced Australian hardwood sleepers, and locally manufactured concrete sleepers are also being used on selected areas on the main routes. Track with fishplates and bolts at every joint is progressively replaced with rails welded at the joints on all major routes and on some secondary lines.

Bridges—To carry the railways across gorges, rivers, and streams in New Zealand, about 2,600 bridges and viaducts have been built with an aggregate length of 90 kilometres. The longest railway bridge is that over the Rakaia River, 55 kilometres south of Christchurch. Completed in 1939 to replace an original timber structure of the 1870s, it is 1743 metres in length.

The highest viaduct is the Mohaka, completed in 1937 to carry the Napier - Gisborne railway 97 m above the bed of the Mohaka River. Twenty-one New Zealand railway viaducts altogether carry the rails more than 33 m above the streams they cross.

Tunnels—There are 182 railway tunnels, with an aggregate length of 84.5 kilometres in use, 107 in the North Island and 75 in the South Island. The two longest tunnels are the Otira (8.5 kilometres) on the Midland Line in the South Island, opened in 1923; and the Rimutaka (8.8 kilometres) on the Wairarapa line in the North Island, opened in 1955. Excluding city tube railways, these stand twenty-first and sixteenth respectively in a list of the world's longest railway tunnels. The Kaimai Tunnel, under construction on the Kaimai Deviation, will be 8.8 kilometres long.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service—An air freight service across Cook Strait was commenced in February 1947. In recent years this service has been considerably affected by the alternative service offered by the rail ferries, and has operated at a loss.

Cook Strait Rail Ferry Service—Three ferries carrying rail and road vehicles and passengers are operated by the Railways Department between Wellington and Picton. Two of the vessels, Aramoana and Aranui, can carry 30 railway wagons, about 55 cars, and 800 passengers. A third vessel, Aratika, was converted from a freight vessel to a passenger vessel in 1976. Aratika can carry 50 rail wagons, about 70 cars, and 800 passengers. In 1977 Aramoana was extensively refitted. Another vessel, Arahanga, carries 50 railway wagons and 40 road freight vehicles.

ROLLING STOCK: Passenger Cars—The first diesel railcars on New Zealand railways were placed in service in 1936. At 31 March 1977 a fleet of 33 was in use on passenger services, the latest three having been placed in service in 1972.

Multiple-unit electric coaches were first introduced on the Johnsonville line in 1938. By 1956 a fleet of 49 motor coaches and 79 trailer coaches was in use on Wellington suburban train services. A typical three-coach set comprising one 450 kW motor coach and two trailer coaches weighs 98 tonnes unladen, measures 57.5 m overall, and seats 200 passengers. This stock can accelerate rapidly from stops and operates up to 80 km/hr in normal service.

Wagons—The Railways Department's fleet of goods and livestock wagons at 31 March 1977 totalled 30,379, with a total carrying capacity of 487,612 tonnes. In recent years thousands of new wagons have been introduced, including long, covered bogie wagons with wide doorways for mechanical loading of palletised freight, for use on express goods trains. Special-purpose wagons include those designed for log traffic, packaged timber, and bulk commodities such as cement, flour, plaster, heated tallow, sulphuric acid, and aluminium sulphate, and wagons for coal traffic for the Mission Bush steel mill. Many bogie flat-top wagons have also been built or modified for the ever-increasing volume of container traffic. In addition to the wagons owned by the department, another 247 privately-owned wagons are also in use, mainly for petrol and cement traffic.

PASSENGER SERVICES—In addition to the normal suburban and non-suburban services, New Zealand Railways run five prestige passenger trains. These are the Silver Star, Silver Fern, Northerner, Southerner, and Endeavour.

The Silver Star is an all-sleeper train, with roomette and twinette cabins, which runs six nights a week, between Auckland and Wellington. The train is air-conditioned, licensed, and has a dining car.

The Silver Fern express railcar runs in daylight, six days a week, between Auckland and Wellington. This service is licensed, air conditioned, and has hostesses.

The Northerner express runs nightly between Auckland and Wellington, and has both day and sleeping cars. The train, which has a licensed dining car, stops at many of the smaller towns not served by the Silver Star and Silver Fern.

The Southerner runs six days a week between Christchurch and Invercargill. This train has hostesses and a buffet car. The Endeavour, which runs daily between Wellington and Napier, is similar.

Most provincial passenger services are run by Railways' Road Services following the withdrawal of railcars. This was because many of the railcars were worn out. However, on routes where there are geographical and social considerations, refurbished railcars, with their motors removed, are being placed in service. These cars, known as "Ac" cars, are hauled by diesel-electric locomotives.

The following table sets out the numbers of rail passenger journeys and the corresponding receipts.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of JourneysPassenger Revenue
SuburbanNon-suburbanTotalSuburbanNon-suburbanTotal
 (000)(000)(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
197517,0041,89018,8942,9614,9887,949
197618,1481,88720,0353,4095,5908,999
197717,1891,28918,4784,3485,5779,925

GOODS AND LIVESTOCK TRAFFIC—The following table shows the volume of goods and livestock traffic in tonnes and tonne-kilometres, and the revenue received from goods, livestock, and parcels traffic consigned by rail.

Year ended 31 MarchGoods and Livestock Carried (excluding Parcels)Total Revenue from Goods, Livestock, and Parcels Traffic
TonnesNet Tonne-kilometresNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal

*Revenue from rail parcels traffic was $2,955.696 in 1974–75, $3,585.400 in 1975–76.

 (000)million$(000)$(000)$(000)
197512,8833,608.282,13932,050114,189*
197613,1933,649.088,63736,547125,184*
197713,6013,723.5135,96553,246189,211

MOTIVE POWER—Dieselisation of New Zealand Railways began in 1949 and was completed by 1971. Today, the only steam locomotives in service are two "Ab" class locomotives used on the Kingston Flyer tourist train.

The most powerful diesel-electric locomotives in service are the 49 American-built 2.050 kW "Dx" class.

Thirty-five of the 1,063 kW "Da" class locomotives, which first entered service in 1955, are being rebuilt. This work, being carried out in Australia, involves rebuilding about 60 percent of the locomotive, providing a new cab and a new motor with an increased rating of 1,110 kW. The rebuilt locomotives are class "Dc".

Six new diesel-electric shunting locomotives, for use in the Auckland area have been ordered. These locomotives will be class "Dh".

Ten 1,110 kW diesel-electric locomotives have been ordered for use on the Christchurch-Picton line. These will be class "Df".

At 31 March 1977 New Zealand Railways had 314 mainline diesel-electric locomotives, 191 diesel shunting locomotives, and 14 electric locomotives.

The electric locomotives are used in the Wellington suburban area and to haul trains through the 8-kilometre Otira tunnel.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Gross revenue and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue

*Deficit recovered from vote: stabilisation.

 $(thousand)
1975153,911199,171–45,260*
1976170,207233,160–62,953*
1977248,070260,073–12,003*

The chief items of expenditure for 1976–77 were: wages. $151,063,980; fuel (including electricity) for locomotives, road vehicles, and rail ferries, $17,050,155; stores and materials, $34,993,049; depreciation, $17,068,939; and miscellaneous. $28,880,346.

The revenue and expenditure for recent years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items, are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or Loss
Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.
 $(thousand)
1975124,92128,990166,65732,514–41,736–3,524
1976137,28732,920194,82838,332–57,541–5,412
1977202,41945,651214,79645,277–12,377+374

The respective Island figures of revenue and expenditure for railway operation only (i.e., omitting subsidiary services) are given below for the 1976–77 year.

Section of RailwayRevenueExpenditureOperating Deficit
 $(thousand)
North Island146,996149,6232,627
South Island55,42365,1739,750
New Zealand202,419214,79612,377

The revenue and expenditure of the various subsidiary services conducted by the Railways Department is set out in the following table. Full working costs are charged against these services, and interest which is debited to road services and rail ferries is credited to miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

ServiceRevenueExpenditure
1974–751975–761976–771974–751975–761976–77
 $(thousand)
Advertising service322362388293336371
Departmental houses1,2301,3621,6602,9443,4003,783
Road services—      
Passenger and goods11,33012,60816,44013,35415,80417,924
Cook Strait rail ferry service13,73015,61223,59515,92318,79223,199
Miscellaneous2,3782,9763,568
       Total28,99032,92045,65132,51438,33245,277

Revenue—In the following table the railway operating revenue is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassenger TrafficGoods Livestock, and ParcelsCatering ServicesTotal
 $(thousand)
19757,949114,1892,783124,921
19768,999125,1843,104137,287
19779,925189,2113,283202,419

Expenditure—The railway operating expenditure under various heads is now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Way and WorksMaintenance of Rolling StockLocomotive TransportationTraffic TransportationHead Office and General Charges*Catering ServicesTotal

*Includes superannuation subsidy.

 $(thousand)
197538,90937,10725,81751,7798,1204,925166,657
197645,31443,71930,52958,91610,6065,744194,828
197752,89346,05835,19363,31111,0276,314214,796

Expenditure has been influenced by progressively higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment, as well as higher costs of fuel and materials.

Capital Expenditure—The expenditure on capital works and new equipment is set out in the following table.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197519761977

*Includes Capital Equipment Credits.

  $(000)
Plant and equipment2,9422,8362,454
Works programme16,40019,95219,154
Rolling stock8,65746,871*22,718
Motor vehicles1,2562,4904,372
Rail ferries7,342786,857
Shares in companies30
       Total36,59772,25755,555

This capital expenditure has been met from the department's own depreciation reserves, National Development loans, and overseas credits.

The relative proportions of capital funded from these sources were as follows:

SourceYear Ended 31 March
197519761977
 $(000)percent$(000)percent$(000)percent
Railway depreciation13,0863614,1662017,35431
National Development Loan17,0114631,9754422,81141
Overseas credits6,5001826,1163615,39028
Total36,59710072,25710055,555100

RAIL FERRY TRAFFIC—Traffic statistics for the rail ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton are given in the following table.

Year ended 31 MarchNumber of Return CrossingsTotal Passenger JourneysMotor Vehicles (of all kinds)Freight in Railway Wagons
NumberManifest TonnesDeadweight TonnesManifest Tonnes
19751,872671,726139,926769,5941,021,8131,358,524
19762,008661,671141,102776,0611,033,9301,353,076
19771,955685,290152,976841,3681,004,3641,284,598

Financial statistics for the Cook Strait ferry service are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure, Total
PassengerRefreshmentPassengers Motor VehiclesGoods (Rail and Road)Total
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
19751,7694931,9249,54413,73015,923
19762,0885802,00310,94115,61218,792
19773,4866293,06716,41323,59523,200

The following diagram illustrates the traffic on the railways and road services.

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES—The average number of persons employed by the Government railways throughout the year ended 31 March 1977 was 21,183 (excluding 692 sea-going staff employed on the Cook Strait rail ferries), compared with 21,941 a year earlier.

ACCIDENTS AT LEVEL CROSSINGS—Accidents at level crossings with roads resulted in the death of 5 people and injury to 36 others in 1976–77; in the previous year 13 were killed and 53 injured. In furtherance of departmental policy, an additional 15 automatic road-crossing alarms were installed in 1976–77.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS—There are a number of short private railways in New Zealand principally lines serving collieries and other industrial undertakings. There is an 11-km line of the Ohai Railway Board, extending from Wairio (north-west of Invercargill) to coal mines at Ohai. The Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., in the North Island operates a 10-km private line from Awaken to its mill at Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty.

RAILWAY OPERATED ROAD SERVICES—There is a network of railway-operated road services the origin of which dates back to November 1926 when a bus service between Napier and Hastings was purchased. Others were acquired in the following years (notably the services within the Hutt Valley and between the Hutt Valley and Wellington in 1927 and 1928), but it was 1934 before the first long-distance coach service was taken over. The main development of the network took place between 1936 and 1951, when the route distance over which licences were held rose from 418 to 9641 km. Now the Railways Department runs more than 27 percent of the total vehicle kilometres of all licensed road passenger service operators in New Zealand (see section 12D), and maintains in its fleet almost 21 percent of all the vehicles used to provide road passenger services throughout the country. At 31 March 1977, the Railways Department's road services branch employed a staff of 1,604.

Suburban bus services at Auckland, Rotorua, Hastings, Hutt Valley, Wellington-Khandallah, Titahi Bay, Paraparaumu, and Dunedin, with a fleet of 271 vehicles at 31 March 1977, carried 12,235,000 passengers and earned a total revenue of $3,059,906. All the other road passenger services, both long and short distance, with 597 coaches, buses, and other vehicles.; carried 8,088,000 passengers and earned a revenue of $12,207,064. The routes of the services in operation at 31 March 1977 covered 9,975 km of highway.

In addition to the road passenger services, a small number of road goods services were operated. Goods traffic on these services, for which some 80 motor vehicles were maintained, produced a further $1,172,951 in 1976–77. A Rail Ancillary Goods Service is operated by the department's Traffic Branch for the carriage of goods consigned to or from wayside stations.

The following selected statistics illustrate the development of the Railways Department's road services operations.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoute Kilometres at 31 March*Number of Passenger Vehicles at 31 MarchNumber of Other Vehicles at 31 MarchTotal Passenger JourneysTotal Passenger and Goods RevenueTotal Expenditure, Including Interest Charges

*Route kilometres for which licences are held.

    (000)$(000)$(000)
1975968876036920,76811,33013,354
1976968877338221,32012,60815,804
1977997578237720,32316,44017,924

12 D—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

GENERAL—Capital investment in New Zealand's roading and road transport system exceeds that of all other forms of transport services. There are 95,000 kilometres of road and over 1.5 million motor vehicles, while the population census in 1971 revealed that there were 37,790 road transport drivers, 18,215 persons whose occupations involved carrying and cartage services, 37,277 persons occupied in the repair, servicing, and sale of motor vehicles and 8,604 persons engaged in motor-vehicle assembly and body building. It has been estimated that more than 1.7 million people hold drivers' licences.

ROADS AND BRIDGES—The cost of providing adequate roads in New Zealand as a proportion of annual investment is relatively high in comparison with many other countries, largely because of the nature of the country and the wide variety of terrain frequently encountered within relatively short distances, and of occasional rain and flood damage.

Annual loading expenditure by Central and Local Government now exceeds $180 million. Maintenance comprises about one-third of the expenditure.

Because of its many swiftly-flowing rivers and streams and its inland gorges and deep ravines, New Zealand is faced with major bridging problems, which are perhaps different in character and more complex than those generally found elsewhere. A survey of bridging in 1974–75 confirmed that many 30- to 40-year-old bridges warranted strengthening or replacement in order to meet current motor transport requirements. In view of financial stringency, the National Roads Board has set priorities for bridging work, with the replacement of emergency Bailey bridges taking first priority, followed by the elimination of bridge weight-carrying restrictions and improvements to trafficable bridge widths.

Motorways are expensive to construct and are justified only in areas of high traffic density. They require strong foundations and thick surfacings to stand up to the heavy, fast, and continuous traffic. They confer two great benefits—greatly increased traffic capacity and greater safety. The limited number of access points, designed to permit smooth and safe entrance and exit, and the complete absence of ordinary intersections, contribute substantially to safety and the uninterrupted, fast flow of traffic, which also reduces transport costs.

The Auckland motorway system is one of the largest engineering undertakings ever attempted in New Zealand and one which is changing the face of metropolitan Auckland. An indication of the size and complexity of motorway design is gained from the statement that the cost of the large dual interchange for the Auckland inner city part of the motorway system will be of the order of $20 million including land purchase. The 1,500-metre Thorndon overbridge on the Wellington motorway is the largest bridge contract in the history of the Ministry of Works and Development.

Details of formed roads and streets at 31 March 1976 are given in the following table.

Nature of SurfaceCities and BoroughsDistrict CouncilsCountiesTown DistrictsTotal
County RoadsState Highways and Motorways
   km   
Paved or sealed10,54941124,97410,0887446,096
Metal or gravel81244340,7728562042,903
Unmetalled86436,56234317,035
       Total, formed roads11,44789772,30811,2879596,034

There are 13,397 bridges of 3 metres and over with a total length of 300,889 metres.

Auckland Harbour Bridge Traffic—From May 1959, when the toll bridge opened, to March 1977, Auckland harbour bridge has carried 254 million vehicles. In the 1976–77 year the bridge had a daily average of 66,770 vehicles crossing it: the highest daily figure being a record 87,144. With traffic totals continuing to grow it is estimated that the eight-lane facility will reach its ultimate carrying capacity in the nineteen eighties.

Traffic totals for March years are shown in the following table.

Class of Vehicle1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77

*Estimated.

†Tolls on omnibuses were removed in December 1974 and these vehicles are now classified as Exempt Vehicles.

 (thousand)
Cars9,52210,34811,13911,23611,434
Motor cycles, etc.219248272270256
Buses137136
Commercial vehicles301339299290297
Exempt vehicles6360100204208
Southbound*10,24411,11911,78511,97612,176
       Total20,48522,25023,59423,97624,371

Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel—The continual increase in the volume of traffic since the 2 kilometre-long tunnel opened in 1964 has continued in 1976–77. The transport of wind-blown logs to Lyttelton was largely responsible for increases in trucks and extra axles.

Class of Vehicle1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77
Cars1,330,0971,447,3851,470,3101,475,6751,492,287
Motor cycles, etc.72,33674,58377,69682,07584,923
Buses23,28123,47721,95422,67122,698
Trucks and extra axles245,506256,612278,336266,777311,970
Non-revenue traffic37,38039,37939,99441,67841,424
Total1,708,6001,841,4361,888,2901,888,8761,953,302

ROADS ADMINISTRATION—The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, the Counties Act 1956 and the National Roads Act 1953. Administration of the country's roading system is exercised by municipalities in respect of streets, by county councils in respect of county roads, and by the National Roads Board in respect of State highways.

The National Roads Board is charged with the responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs. The Board came into being in 1954 as the result of the passing of the National Roads Act. This same Act provided for the establishment of the National Roads Fund. Under the chairmanship of the Minister of Works and Development, the National Roads Board is an organisation of 10 members, representative of the private motorists, commercial vehicle owners, counties, municipalities, the Ministry of Works and Development, and Ministry of Transport. It is of interest to note that Government members are in a minority. The representative nature of the Board ensures that the widest possible background of knowledge and experience is brought to bear on roading matters. Essentially the Board is a politically orientated policy-making body; it is required to think nationally and to act nationally. The most important functions of the Board are:

  1. to administer the National Roads Fund.

  2. to provide a roading system adequate for New Zealand's needs.

  3. to advise Government on all matters concerning roading including the provision of finance.

  4. to assist and advise local authorities on roading problems.

  5. to undertake at intervals of not more than five years a comprehensive survey of the roading position in New Zealand.

The money in the National Roads Fund is derived from road taxation paid by the users, the private motorist and the commercial vehicle operator. Through this roads fund the money is returned to the road user in the form of safer, smoother, more economical travel. It is an inviolate fund. Under the legislation by which it was brought into operation on 1 April 1954, all taxation paid into it must be immediately available and be used for roading purposes. In effect the National Roads Act provided for an independent fund at the disposal of an independent board and removed the element of uncertainty associated with annual appropriation of funds through Parliament. Nevertheless opportunity is provided for Parliament to debate the Board's activities.

The National Roads Board can be likened to a board of directors with the Minister of Works and Development as chairman and Director of Roading as chief executive officer. The Board meets regularly once a month. Most of the business is conducted in open meeting with representatives of the press in attendance.

The Board employs no staff directly but the Ministry of Works and Development provides an engineering and administrative service for which it is paid 7½ percent of total National Roads Board expenditure. The roading division of the Ministry of Works and Development carries out the executive functions of the Board and in servicing the Board calls on the specialist services of other divisions and branches of Ministry of Works and Development as required, e.g., bridge design, land purchase, accounts, legal, etc.

For State highways and motorways, the Board meets the full cost of construction and maintenance, while the maintenance and construction of county roads and municipal streets are subsidised by the Board. Some 94 percent of State highways are now sealed. The National Roads Board is the controlling authority for State highways. As the Board's agent, the Ministry of Works and Development has responsibility for financial control and technical control. In certain cases, the Board has delegated its powers of construction and/or maintenance to local authorities.

In the case of county roads and municipal streets, responsibility lies with the local authority concerned. Apart from the question of standards on major works, there are no strings and no overriding control by Central Government.

Under the National Roads Act, in December of each year the Board is required to estimate its income for the following year and to make its primary allocations of funds expected to be available. At the present time there are three sectors and funds are allocated on the following basis: for counties—not less than 23 percent of motor revenue; for municipalities—not less than 16 percent of motor revenue; for State highways—not less than 50 percent of motor revenue; this leaving 11 percent of motor revenue for allocation to any or all of the above, at the discretion of the Board.

For purposes of roading administration, New Zealand is divided geographically into 22 roads districts and funds are allocated by the Board to each sector in each district as fairly and equitably as possible having regard to particular needs.

In each roads district there is an advisory body known as a District Roads Council. These councils are representative of the same interests as the Board itself. Although they have no executive powers, their recommendations concerning relative priorities have considerable influence on board decisions. In addition to its regular meetings the Board makes visits of inspection to several roads districts each year. These visits afford an opportunity for Board members to get a better appreciation of local problems, needs, and conditions through observation and discussion, and to maintain personal contact with District Roads Councils. The Board is thus able to keep in close touch with the roading problems of New Zealand, and is better able to discharge its responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs.

Finance—A National Roads Fund has been established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Motor spirits tax of 5c per litre is paid into the National Roads Fund. An equivalent distance tax is payable for diesel-powered motor vehicles: quarterly licence fees under the Heavy Motor Vehicles Regulations range from $4.83 (not above 2½ tons) to $63 (11 tons), with $7 for each additional ton above 11. The fees for farmers' trucks range from $2.67 on a corresponding basis. Heavy traffic fees, less the cost of collection, are paid into the National Roads Fund. Tax imposed under the Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 (0.66c per litre from February 1971) is not credited to the National Roads Fund.

Following is a statement of receipts and expenditure of the National Roads Fund for the latest three March years. Receipts are less collection expenses.

Item1974–751975–761976–77
Receipts—$(000)$(000)$(000)
      Petrol tax (net)85,26580,74485,822
      Distance tax6,7877,2547,557
Fees and charges—   
      Heavy traffic fees12,07312,58813,176
Contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account1,25018,35021,000
Miscellaneous receipts—   
      Repayments of plant purchases 
      Repayments of advances to local authorities1080104
      Rents8911,0681,464
      Sales of land and buildings1,2001,433983
      Interest on advances to local bodies2
Bailey bridging hire8812889
Interest on investments1014152
Miscellaneous539209414
Total receipts108,204121,895130,663
Expenditure—$(000)$(000)$(000)
      Highways maintenance19,66225,88929,342
      Highways construction40,60241,62035,731
      Local authority reading subsidies and grants46,06349,11649,839
      Local authorities advances5054
Administration and general expenses—   
      Ministry of Works administration5,8115,7579,036
      Fees and travelling expenses374454
      Miscellaneous expenses1,1662,1732,043
Bridging expenses—   
      Bailey bridging, etc.130162358
Unauthorised expenditure482
Repayment of Advance from Loan Redemption Account2,000
       Total expenditure113,524124,823128,405
Balance in Fund at end of year2,981562,314

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on State highways construction, renewal, or maintenance during the last five years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable.

Class of Expenditure1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77

*Includes motorway structures.

 $(thousand)
Construction and improvement29,35227,03427,63826,86619,374
Bridges and other structures*8,6128,87912,96414,75416,357
Maintenance, repairs, etc.15,70516,70219,66225,88929,342
Total53,66952,61560,26467,50965,073

State Highways—The National Roads Act provides for the declaration of roads as State highways with the approval of the Minister of Works and Development. In 1969, the National Roads Board reviewed the State highway system, and re-affirmed the principle that the network must continue to be based on the pattern of national development, needs of defence, and directness of route and main travel desire lines. The most important principles in designing a State highway system are that the total length of the system must be based on routes of primary importance: that routes must be equitably distributed in relation to the pattern of national development; and that routes must be confined to those which have characteristics in keeping with the function of the system.

Although urban development with its growing industrialisation is a predominant problem, the National Roads Board is also aware of the need for continued development of a fully effective inter-regional network with adequate rural feeder roads. Balanced development of the total network is essential if primary production is to increase and production costs are to be restrained.

Highway Standards—In order to qualify for highway subsidies local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the Board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. The National Roads Board also produces complementary guides to good practice, and standard specifications for reading materials and construction methods.

Motorways—The Public Works Act makes provision for the declaration of motorways. Motorways provide efficient and economic means of communication, while the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The total length of motorways in use at 31 March 1977 was 117 kilometres.

New Sealing—During the year ended 31 March 1977, 56.9 kilometres of new sealing on highways was completed, giving an aggregate of 10,821 kilometres of sealed highway, 94 percent of the total length. New bridging totalled 1.0 kilometres.

National Roading Expenditure—Details of New Zealand public roading expenditure financed from the National Roads Fund, the Consolidated Revenue Account, and local authority funds (both from revenue and loans) are summarised as follows:

Item1975–761976–77
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
State highways expenditure 67,509 65,073
Subsidised highway, section 12A 1,618x 1,568
County roading expenditure—    
      From county funds23,659 27,810 
      From National Roads Fund23,663 27,038 
      From Consolidated Revenue Account (vote: "Roads")1,749 1,195 
  49,071 56,043
Municipal roading expenditure—    
      From municipal funds36,893 38,517 
      From National Roads Fund20,742 21,194 
  57,635 59,711
Total 175,833x 182,395

NOTE—Table above includes subsidies paid under section 12A of the National Roads Act to the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority ($1,000,000) and the Christchurch Road Tunnel Authority ($200,000).

Local Authority Roading—The National Roads Board pays a basic subsidy at the rate of $1.50 for each $2 that is spent by local authorities out of their own funds on such programmes of subsidised works as have been accepted for a financial year by the Board, and approves grants in special cases.

In recognition of the urgency and importance of the country's bridge renewal problem, the Board makes generous grants for local authority bridge replacements. Wooden bridges built 50 and 60 years ago, which have served the country well, continue to deteriorate at a greater rate than replacements can be built. In 10 years to March 1976 there have been 2,006 bridges completed, totalling 49,908 metres.

For the year ended 31 March 1977 the following amounts were paid to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading.

Local AuthoritySubsidyGrantsTotal
 $(thousand)
Municipalities13,5037,69121,194
County councils15,98111,05727,038
       Total29,48418,74848,232

Loan Assistance—To assist counties and municipalities with their planning the National Roads Board meets 30 percent of the cost of approved transportation surveys in urban areas. Plans have been completed or are in the course of preparation in all city areas with a population in excess of 30,000 people.

Needs studies have been made for county and municipal roading and the Board has carried out regional surveys to assess relative needs.

It is envisaged that more comprehensive and co-ordinated surveys will become necessary as development increases in complexity, and that the Board's criteria will need to extend further into the field of productive economics.

Development Roading—In addition to the expenditure on roading from the National Roads Fund, moneys are provided annually by the Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) for development of road construction. Under this heading subsidies are paid to local authorities for the construction of new roads giving access to farmlands being brought into production. This Vote also finances access roads to lands being prepared for farm settlement by the Lands and Survey and Maori Affairs Departments, as well as certain new roading of a national development character.

New roads constructed for farm access are handed over to the care of local authorities, while national roading normally becomes the responsibility of the National Roads Board for maintenance as part of the State highway system.

Government roading expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) for the year ended 31 March 1977 was $1,195,100, excluding Maori Land roading, Crown land roading, tracks, and departmental works totalling $817,631.

Overall Roading Expenditure—The following table shows the total expenditure on roading from all sources for the year ended 31 March 1977.

National Roads Fund—$(000)$(000)
      State highways65,073 
      Subsidies, etc. - local roading48,232113,305
Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) 1,195
Local authority funds—  
      Municipalities38,517 
      County councils27,81066,327
Total 180,827

Roading expenditure over the last 5 years is related to Gross National Product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoading Expenditure: Central and Local GovernmentTotal as Percentage of Gross National Product
MaintenanceConstructionTotal

*Provisional.

  $(million) percent
197345.7495.40141.141.88
197447.3397.90145.231.68
197555.03103.83158.861.69*
197664.57*110.26*174.831.62*
197798.31*82.51*180.821.41*

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES—The amounts for initial registration fees are: motorcars, from $20 to $100 according to age or engine capacity; motor cycles, trailers, and traction engines, $20; power cycles, $12; heavy trucks, $100; light trucks and vans, $60; farm tractors, $4; and any other motor vehicle, $40.

Annual licence fees are as follows; motor vehicles $20 (except veteran or vintage motor vehicles, $6 and $10); trailers (2 tons or less loaded), $12; motor cycles, $12; power cycles, $8; tractors, $16; traction engines, $6; trade licences for motor cycles are $12, and trade licences for other motor vehicles $20. Other fees include drivers' licences, 50c; changes of ownership, $10; and dealers' licences (motor cycles, $6; any other motor vehicles, $10). All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable to the local authorities, have been credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account since 1 July 1967. Additional to these fees are the Accident Compensation levies which replaced compulsory third-party insurance (see page 326).

The various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last five years are itemised below.

Type of Vehicle19731974197519761977
Cars1,020,7781,078,7951,129,6111,172,0001,200,003
Rental cars4,1975,0385,2795,4255,899
Private taxicabs12999132130101
Light goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight 2 tons and under)122,485129,863132,150137,184155,782
Heavy goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight over 2 tons)72,16970,26474,62673,97076,420
Contract vehicles1,1171,1091,2051,1921,250
Omnibuses2,5642,5392,6172,6602,674
Public taxicabs2,9933,0463,1133,0823,084
Service coaches536515513563594
Motor cycles47,47660,49366,81598,833104,147
Power cycles24,95026,65526,8414,2072,879
Total, motor vehicles1,299,3941,378,4161,442,9021,499,2461,552,833
Trailers, including trailers exempted from payment of annual licence fees and caravans256,281279,650304,883328,099354,224
Dealers' cars4,1314,1824,1914,4054,373
Dealers' motor cycles222262321292212
Vehicles including cycles exempted from payment of annual licence fees (farm tractors, etc.)92,930103,098105,080111,139111,979
Total, all vehicles1,652,9581,765,6081,857,3771,943,1812,023,621

Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one part of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, cranes, and logging trucks (used on private roads), etc. A feature of recent years has been the steep increase in the number of motor cycles, which increased more than three-fold between 1971 and 1976.

The following table shows the changes in relationship between the number of licensed vehicles and population as at 31 March in the latest 6 years.

As at 31 MarchNumber of Persons in Population per CarNumber of Persons in Population per Motor Vehicle (Excluding Trailers)
19723.02.2
19732.92.1
19742.82.0
19752.72.0
19762.71.9
19772.61.9

Motor spirit usage in New Zealand during the latest March years is shown in the following table by grade. The grades shown are 83 octane (regular or standard), 96 octane (super, supreme, or premium) and other, which may include some non-petroleum based racing fuels. The figures are based on returns made by oil companies to the Customs Department in connection with the assessment of motor spirit duty. However, they include motor spirit used for farming purposes and in industrial engines for which the purchaser can claim a rebate of duty.

Year Ended MarchMotor Spirit Usage
96 Octane83 OctaneOthersTotal

*3 April 1976 to 1 April 1977.

† April 1977 to 31 March 1978.

litres (000)
19741,966,044283,1202962,249,459
19752,061,566206,9903142,268,870
19762,098,487174,0934962,273,076
1977*2,137,605144,4615222,282,588
19782,140,120111,8804982,252,500

Diesel fuel is widely used by heavy trucks and buses, but actual figures of consumption are not available.

The following diagram illustrates the trend that has taken place in the number of motor vehicles licensed, and in the consumption of motor spirits by motor vehicles. Diesel-fuel consumption, which has grown substantially in recent years, is not available. This should be borne in mind when analysing petrol consumption figures.

MOTOR VEHICLES LICENSED(1) AND MOTOR SPIRITS CONSUMPTION(2)

Estimates based on survey data collected during the New Zealand Transport Study indicated that the average travel in 1972 for passenger cars and light vehicles was 13,673 kilometres; for heavy goods-service vehicles the average was 20,534 kilometres; and for passenger-service vehicles the average was 27,859 kilometres.

Registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country are as follows for the three latest years.

December YearNew Cars and Station Wagons—C.C. RatingCars Previously Registered Overseas*New Motor Cycles
Up to 13001301 to 22002201 to 40004001 and OverTotal

*Included in previous columns.

197531,62734,99710,3276,66183,6124,86320,804
197633,99528,4326,7154,38473,5263,27615,435
197726,51726,3717,9321,00461,8242,75014,028
YearNew Commercial Vehicles by Gross Weight in KilogramsOmnibuses and Service CoachesTotal Commercial Vehicles
2,500 or less2,501 to 4,5004,501 to 9,0009,001 to 14,50014,501 and Over

†Commercial vehicles classified by gross weight in pounds in following categories: 5,001 or less; 5,001 to 10,000; 10,001 to 20,000; 20,001 to 27,000; 27,001 and over.

197511,5222,4709769691,46319817,598
197611,7772,8019171,0201,48923818,242
197713,2621,5197891,35093826618,124

Not included in the previous tables are new tractors, of which 3,392 were registered in 1975, 3,129 in 1976, and 3,035 in 1977, and new power cycles, of which 3,603 were registered in 1975, 2,752 in 1976, and 2,549 in 1977.

ROAD TRANSPORT—The Transport Act 1962 is the main legislation governing road transport and the road transport operations of the Ministry of Transport; attendant regulations set out the rules of the road, the requirements as to motor vehicle equipment, and the obligations of motor drivers and owners and pedestrians.

Transport Licensing—Transport licensing is primarily an economic measure to achieve better coordination of road and rail transport and to prevent excessive competition and duplication of services within the road transport industry. Public passenger buses, taxicabs, rental vehicles, and harbour ferries can only be operated with a licence. A transport licence is also needed for the cartage of goods in the following circumstances:

  1. When they are carried for hire or reward by means of a motor vehicle.

  2. When they are carried in competition with the New Zealand Railways beyond specified distances whether for hire or reward or not, except with vehicles which together with their load, weigh 3,500 kg or less and farmers' vehicles with a payload of up to 5,000 kg.

Thus goods service licensing extends beyond the common carrier operating throughout the country and can include farmers and businesses carrying their own goods in their own vehicles, if these vehicles are over the laden weights or carrying the load prescribed above and they wish to operate them beyond certain distances.

In general, goods cannot be carried by road between places where a route is available which includes at least 150 kilometres of rail. However, for some goods such as livestock, fresh meat, fresh fruit and vegetables, poultry, and fresh fish, there is no restriction at all. In addition, this restriction ceases to apply where use of the railway would increase the journey by more than one-third of the shortest road route available. The licensing authorities (see below) may also grant exemption from the railway restriction in particular eases where this is in the public interest.

Apart from these exemptions in respect of competition with the railways, there is complete freedom from transport licensing for certain special or limited transport services.

New Zealand is divided into 17 transport licensing districts (including one harbour ferry district at Auckland) which are administered by five full-time licensing authorities appointed by the Minister of Transport for terms of up to 5 years. They adjudicate on applications for a licence to enter the industry, on transfer or renewals of licences, and on changes to or withdrawals of transport services.

In addition, there is a Regional Transport Licensing Authority for the purpose of hearing applications relating to passenger-service licences (other than taxicab-service licences) or harbour ferry service licences that are operated or intended to be operated within the Auckland Regional Authority's district.

The factors to be considered in dealing with these applications are specified in the Transport Act 1962, and emphasis is placed on consideration of the public interest and of users of public transport. There is a right of appeal from the decisions of licensing authorities to the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Charges for transport services do not come within the jurisdiction of the licensing authorities. Public bodies operating public passenger services fix their own charges; the Secretary for Transport all others. In every case there is a right of appeal to a Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Both the Minister of Transport and licensing authorities have powers in respect of public inquiries into or reviews of transport services and licences. Reviews of taxicab services must be made at least every three years in the four main centres and in other centres with a population of more than 20,000.

In general, licences may be either continuous, seasonal, or temporary (not more than 14 days). However, all rental service licences have a duration of three years after which application must be made for their renewal.

Operations of Licensed Goods and Passenger Services—The following table gives a summary of statistics of the licensed road transport industry for the year ended 31 March 1976. All the figures are estimates.

ItemTaxicabsRentalGoods
Total kilometres run (million)155162622
Kilometres per vehicle (000)562228
Total revenue ($million)2822410
Revenue per vehicle/km (cents)181466
Total capital ($million)1026264
Capital per vehicle ($)3,7413,42411,893

As at 31 December 1975 the number of vehicle authorities issued was 3,010 for taxicabs, 7,373 for rental vehicles, and 24,106 for goods vehicles.

The next table shows financial and statistical data on passenger services licensed under the Transport Act 1962 for the year ended 31 March 1976. All the figures except the numbers of vehicles are estimates.

Type of ServiceTotal Kilometres RunTotal RevenueTotal AssetsNumber of PassengersNumber of Vehicles

*379 goods vehicles, 762 coaches, omnibuses, and tour cars.

 (000)$(000)$(000)(000) 
Suburban service and service coaches45,36719,36719,643..1,198
Mixed business and school contracts10,1613,4212,317..415
Local body services43,95718,44233,213101,1501,247
NZR Road Passenger and Goods Services43,17414,6426,41021,3201,141*
       Total142,65955,87261,583.....

Fuller details on NZR road services are given in the previous section on Railways, and fuller details on local body services at the end of this section.

Transport to Work—The dependence of the labour force on road transport for getting to work was indicated at the 1971 Census of Population, when those in active employment were asked to state their usual method of travel to work. In the labour force as a whole, 44.2 percent drove to work in cars, vans, or trucks; 9.6 percent were passengers in cars, vans, or trucks; 11.8 percent travelled by bus; 2.3 percent travelled by train; and 5.8 percent rode cycles or motor cycles. The balance was made up of those who walked and of farmers and others who lived at their place of work.

Household Motorcars—A question on the availability of motorcars was included in the 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings. It was found that, out of a total of 801,686 households, 441,459 (55.1 percent) owned a car or had a business car available for use, and an additional 192,776 households (24.0 percent) had two or more cars available for use.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS—Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the Police. For the year ended 31 December 1976, 12,321 such accidents, resulting in 609 fatalities and in injuries to 17,895 other people were reported. Comparative figures for 1975 and 1974 were (1974 figures being given in parentheses): number of accidents 13,726 (14,409); fatalities 628 (676); persons injured 19,839 (20,829).

The decreases since 1973 are attributed mainly to the fuel crisis and associated measures introduced by the Government to deal with this. The reduction of the open road speed limit to 80 km/h, a marginal decrease in fuel consumption, the compulsory wearing of safety helmets by motor cyclists at all speeds, and the increased use of safety belts following the extension of fitting requirements to vehicles first registered after 1 January 1955 have all been contributing factors.

Details of the nature of road accidents for the calendar year 1976, which have been compiled by the Ministry of Transport, are set out in the following table.

Classification of AccidentsFatalInjuryTotal
Overtaking19348367
Head on (not overtaking)87863950
Lost control or ran off road on straight671,2601,327
Lost control or ran off road while cornering1511,9022,053
Collision with obstruction16775791
Rear end11628639
At intersections—
      Vehicles moving in same direction, one turning7891898
      Vehicles crossing paths, not turning221,2161,238
      Vehicles crossing paths, turning11689700
      Vehicles merging2233235
      Vehicles moving in opposite directions, one turning right19847866
Vehicles manoeuvring11545556
Pedestrian crossing road781,2431,321
Pedestrian—other23184207
Miscellaneous15151166
Unknown77
       Total53911,78212,321

The ages of persons killed and injured in motor accidents is shown in the following table.

Age Groups (Years)KilledInjured
197419751976197419751976

*Includes accidents for which complete data is not available.

†Killed immediately or died within 30 days of accident (28 days in 1974).

Under 5412224720535467
5–9372319964881758
10–142723141,3271,039983
15–191651671547,0495,9125,667
20–24113114983,6803,4243,191
25–294345431,6311,4571,435
30–34313636954864818
35–39312129807705591
40–44291822674594526
45–49172730599573518
50–54221827608582477
55–59301920503441388
60–64272627420412373
65–69131716317307306
70 and over505250507503509
Unknown age691,610*888*
       Total67662860920,82919,83917,895

A classification of road users killed and injured during the calendar year 1976 is given in the following table.

Type of CasualtyKilledInjuredTotal
Driver of—   
      Car1805,1275,307
      Rental car54550
      Taxi23537
      Van22397419
      Truck6135141
      Articulated truck42832
      Bus1717
      Other21214
      Motor cyclist802,8182,898
      Passenger1805,7465,926
      Pillion Riders12512524
      Cyclist14736750
      Pedestrian1021,4761,578
      Other2929
      Unknown782782
       Total60917,89518,504

Of particular concern is the number of school children and pre-school children killed or injured on the roads while cycling or on foot. These are shown in the following table.

Age of Child, in yearsPedestriansCyclists
197419751976197419751976
Under 5258223182212
5–9435378318200148129
10–15292232210491369357
Total985838710693518488

Total casualties and rates for the latest 5 years are shown in the following table.

Calendar YearPersons KilledKilled per 10,000 Vehicles on RoadPersons InjuredInjured per 10,000 Vehicles on RoadCasualties (Killed and Injured) per 10, 000 Vehicles

*Provisional.

19738435.8623,385160.0168.4
19746764.5020,829137.5141.9
19756284.1019,839126.0130.0
19766093.7317,895x109.7x113.4x
1977*702    

The following table shows motor accident death and injury rates in 1976 for New Zealand in comparison with other countries.

CountryPersons KilledPersons InjuredKilled per 10,000 VehiclesKilled per 100,000 PopulationInjured per 10,000 VehiclesInjured per 100,000 Population
New Zealand60917,8953.719.4109.7569.9
Australia3,58487,1775.425.6130.9623.2
Great Britain6,567322,7993.711.7181.2577.2

ROAD SAFETY: Enforcement of Traffic and other Laws—Traffic on roads in six cities and boroughs is controlled by local authorities. Elsewhere throughout the country it is controlled by the Ministry of Transport which is also responsible for traffic on motorways. In national emergencies or major disasters, all traffic control comes under the supervision of the Ministry of Transport.

In addition to regulation of traffic and standards of driving, traffic officers enforce the laws relating to heavy traffic, tyre pressures, and the allowable weights of vehicles and loads on different classes of road. They also enforce the legislation concerning the licensing of road transport services.

Traffic officers are not part of the Police and do not engage in criminal investigations. They form however, a uniformed and disciplined enforcement body and close liaison is maintained with the Police. Traffic officers have the power to arrest without warrant persons driving under the influence of drink or drugs, or being in charge of a motor vehicle while under the influence of drink or drugs and refusing to deliver ignition keys.

Persons giving a traffic or police officer good cause to suspect that they are driving after having consumed alcohol may be required to give a blood sample for analysis. An initial test with a breath-test device is used as a screening process. If a person is found to have a blood-alcohol concentration of 100 mg or more per 100 ml of blood he has committed an offence and is liable for prosecution.

Wearing of seat belts is now compulsory for drivers and front-seat passengers in most classes of light vehicles registered after January 1955. Children under 15 years of age are exempt, and there are other exemptions for certain occupational groups and on medical grounds.

From 1 December 1973 it has been compulsory for all motor cyclists and pillion riders to wear safety helmets at all speeds.

Offences—Penalties are awarded by Courts for driving and other offences under the Transport Act 1962 and attendant regulations. There is also a system in operation whereby points are automatically registered according to a fixed scale against persons convicted of driving offences.

The Secretary for Transport has authority to suspend drivers' licences for 6 months where 100 or more demerit points are received in less than 1 year, or for 3 months where this number of points are received within 2 years. Official warnings are issued and compulsory interviews take place before these levels are reached.

Breaches of certain parking, speeding, and overloading laws are dealt with under an infringement system. A motorist is able to pay an infringement fee within a certain time and thus avoid court proceedings if he so desires. In 1974 provision was made for the infringement system to be extended to certain other offences, which are not punishable by imprisonment.

Speed Limits—The maximum speed for highways generally is 80 kilometres an hour. However lower limits are prescribed for certain vehicles, e.g., 70 kilometres for heavy goods vehicles.

A general speed limit of 50 km/h is fixed in cities, boroughs, town districts, or other localities declared to be closely populated localities. Areas with a speed limit of 70 km/h may also be specified by the Minister of Transport; and limited speed zones may be established for which the maximum permitted speed may be either 80 km/h or 50 km/h depending on conditions and circumstances.

Inspection of Motor Vehicles—All vehicles using the roads must be inspected every six months to ensure that their mechanical and structural fitness is of a satisfactory standard. Most lightweight vehicles are required to have a warrant of fitness which can be issued at approved garages, or at testing stations operated by local authorities or the Ministry of Transport. All heavy vehicles, with minor exceptions, undergo a more exacting examination for a certificate of fitness, which, in respect of passenger service buses, has special regard for the safety and comfort of passengers. Taxicabs and rental vehicles also require a certificate of fitness.

The design and standard of construction of vehicles manufactured, assembled, or modified in New Zealand are also regulated to ensure safety.

Insurance—Under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 a motor vehicle scheme provides cover for everyone in respect of personal injury caused by motor accidents. There is a Motor Vehicle Fund financed by premiums paid with the annual licence fee. The legislation came into effect on 1 April 1974, replacing the compulsory third-party scheme previously operating.

Road Safety Education—Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out through the press, radio, and television and by means of posters, etc. Special road safety campaigns and traffic improvement courses are held from time to time. Great emphasis is placed on instruction in schools by uniformed road traffic instructors who visit all schools at least twice a year, and also lecture to teachers' colleges and other groups.

The New Zealand Defensive Driving Council provides a safety course for all licensed drivers.

Traffic safety advice is given to the Government by a permanent parliamentary select committee, by the Road Traffic Safety Research Council, and by a number of other bodies, including the 46 local road safety committees.

TRAFFIC OFFENCES—The following table shows the nature of the offences resulting in convictions during the latest three calendar years. The table covers only offences reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport; in addition traffic prosecutions are taken by the police, particularly for serious offences, following accidents or other police investigations. Some city councils employ their own traffic control staff and total convictions are therefore rather higher than shown.

Type of Offence197419751976

*These convictions relate only to speeds in excess of the speeding infringement range.

(a) Accident promoting offences—   
      Driving or attempting to drive, while under the influence of drink or drugs300454727
      In charge of motor vehicle while under the influence of drink or drugs922440
      Breath test blood-alcohol offences3,8954,6394,676
      Warrant of fitness offences15,07112,60215,999
      Certificate of fitness offences879507503
      Certificate of loading offences539239305
      Exceeding certificate of loading975174
      Reckless driving114113141
      Driving in a dangerous manner679795887
      Driving at a dangerous speed649616562
      Driving without reasonable consideration455283264
      Careless use of a motor vehicle5,3534,2714,876
      Overtaking offences1,596775647
      Failure to keep to the left2,8052,2222,426
      Failure to yield right of way997822930
      Failure to stop in half clear road816496397
      Exceeding 50 km/h*12,3439,1478,673
      Exceeding 70 km/h*807771501
      Exceeding 80 km/h*7,54111,74012,895
      Breaches of limited speed zone10228
      Exceeding temporary speed limits5511,1201,459
      Exceeding bylaw etc.22410616
      Failure to stop at traffic lights2,3581,4681,712
      Failure to stop at compulsory stop sign4,6792,7693,445
      Failure to give way at a give way sign794504561
      Failure to yield right of way at pedestrian crossing357264258
      Failure to stop or give way for siren292173
      Failure to comply with road signs1,135606532
      Cycling offences263368321
      Pedestrian offences126115
      Passenger offences1265757
      Horse traffic offences201
      Motor cyclist exceeding 50 km/h without safety helmet (rider or pillion)*1,855812860
      Provisional motor cyclist exceeding 50 km/h*224130100
      Exceeding 70 km/h with trailer*764857476
      Exceeding 70 km/h with heavy motor vehicle*149203210
      Exceeding 80 km/h with pillion passenger*282
      Exceeding 80 km/h (omnibus)*53
      Exceeding other limits11667198
      Defective brakes854547401
      Lighting offences4,1572,8662,681
      Failure to dip lights18393171
      Mechanically defective or unsafe vehicle9,1225,7415,979
      Trailer offences552330330
Total83,70969,53475,377
(b) Non-accident promoting offences-   
      Failure to obey officer1,2731,0511,116
      Failure to fulfil duties after accident271290336
      Owner failing to supply information2,3781,0893,131
      Failure to pay parking infringement fee310118271
      Failure to pay overloading infringement fee584542
      Failure to pay speeding infringement fee1,0501,0821,092
      Heavy traffic licence not carried or no heavy traffic licence1,498781954
      Heavy traffic licence defaced or obscured876639
      Exceeding heavy traffic licence1,289601845
      Mileage tax offences839132
      Driver's licence offences14,74010,89412,031
      Driving whilst disqualified9139361,014
      Probationary drivers offences531231219
      Vehicle licences and registration offences4,2012,7873,208
      Breaches of drivers' hours regulations987710
      Over 100 demerit points241926
      Other miscellaneous offences283176149
      Safety belt offences2,9073,1474,220
      Noisy motor vehicles2,1731,9972,025
      Emitting excessive smoke1157593
      Loading offences1,069626612
      Other nuisances1819861
      Conversion681
      Aiding and abetting1094318
      Stock offences11410
      Other bylaw offences363347
      Unlicensed goods service936699
      Breach of goods service licence567246264
      Exceeding rail restriction mileage18480112
      Unlicensed passenger service428
      Breach of passenger service licence19910
      Rental vehicle offences625246
      Taxicab offences62612
      No vehicle authority or not carried253292517
      Other transport licensing offences188119170
Total37,18827,23032,839
(c) Parking offences23,05013,92216,334
Total—all offences143,947110,686124,550
(d) Notices issued for infringements   
      Parking293,730340,437450,744
      Speeding55,26177,97171,673
      Overloading6,2484,7146,766

The new minor offence system was introduced in 1 January 1975 and, for several months after, a duplicated system was operating with Court prosecutions.

URBAN PASSENGER SERVICES OPERATED BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The data provided in this section covers the whole of the urban passenger transport services operated by local authorities, and no account is taken of the various motor-bus services operated by the New Zealand Government Railways, or by any private enterprise.

In the last 20 years motor and trolley bus services have increased and electric tramways have been superseded. The last tramway system serving a city area was in Wellington, and this was terminated in May 1964. Wellington, however, still retains the only electric cable tram service now operating in New Zealand.

From 1 November 1969 to 31 March 1971 local authorities received grants from the Ministry of Transport of twice the amount of heavy traffic fees paid in relation to urban passenger service operations. From 1 September 1972 a grant equivalent to heavy traffic fees paid on urban passenger buses was paid to all operators, municipal and private. In March 1974 the grant was increased to 200 percent of heavy traffic fees paid.

An Urban Public Passenger Transport Council has been established under the Transport Act with the function of administering Government assistance by way of loans and grants for capital expenditure to urban public passenger transport operators, both public and private; and to encourage and conduct research into urban passenger transport and associated matters. During 1976–77 the Council made loans and grants totalling $1,085,000 to local authorities operating urban transport, and loans totalling $115,000 to private operators.

Recent years have been difficult for urban passenger transport operators, with mounting losses and falling numbers of passengers. During the year ended 31 March 1977 the Local Authority urban passenger services had an aggregate loss of $12.4 million compared with $12.2 million in the previous year. Over the same period, the number of passengers carried dropped from 101.2 million to 100.0 million, so that there as a loss per passenger of 12.4 cents compared with 12.1 cents the previous year.

Details of revenue and expenditure incurred by Local Authority passenger services only are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per Km RunExpenditureExpenditure per Km Run
Passenger FaresTotalOperating ExpensesCapital ChargesTotal (incl. "Other")
 $(000)$(000)cc$(000)$(000)$(000)c
Auckland        
19769,12910,39618.8941.8213,7541,44716,81367.63
      19779,07410,33318.1240.0615,59889616,49463.95
Gisborne        
      1976959919.7038.071061712347.37
      197711412223.8448.011211813954.55
New Plymouth       
      197621922410.8131.333511937151.95
      197726426913.6237.453698645563.41
Palmerston North       
      197619320122.6325.163205137146.56
      197720120922.5425.6538243653.64
Eastbourne       
      197623725224.7238.942253827041.84
      197728029628.4246.212563529445.87
Wellington       
      19763,3883,52414.4162.186,0515796,630117.00
      19773,9344,05317.9270.936,7364457,181125.65
Christchurch        
      19762,4982,87215.5837.464,0722704,34356.64
      19772,7373,28318.0242.614,6813825,06265.69
Timaru        
      197612913913.5332.151913422852.89
      197713514716.5238.762104125166.17
Dunedin        
      19761,1711,22417.1647.371,669871,75667.96
      19771,3291,38420.1757.721,915701,98682.83
Invercargill       
      197614015212.0424.803244037661.47
      197719720917.2432.193834142465.26
Total: All Services       
      197617,20019,08117.0043.1327,0642,58431,28170.71
      197718,26420,30518.2645.0630,6502,01432,72272.61

Details of vehicles, kilometres run, and passengers carried are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVehiclesKilometres RunPassengers CarriedPassengers per km Run
Trolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley BusesMotor Buses

*Includes cable cars.

Includes cable car running (kilometres) 1975–76, 42,000; 1976–77, 47,000.

Auckland  (000)(000)(000) 
1976905503,51221,35048,3341.94
1977715821,98423,80550,0641.94
Gisborne      
1976102604831.86
1977112554781.88
New Plymouth      
1976227142,0222.83
1977227181,9352.70
Palmerston North      
1976227978531.07
1977238138911.10
Eastbourne      
1976196469601.49
1977196419861.54
Wellington      
1976111*1322,1063,56223,5214.15
1977110*1322,0993,61621,9563.84
Christchurch      
19761787,66716,0402.09
19771787,70615,1881.97
Timaru      
1976134319512.21
1977133798162.14
Dunedin      
197617674472,0366,8282.64
197717674841,9136,5862.74
Invercargill      
1976196111,1591.90
1977196491,1431.76
Total: All Services      
1976218*1,0326,06538,074101,1512.29
1977198*1,0664,56840,495100,0432.22

The length of routes covered by the services are given in the following table,

Area and ServiceAt 31 March
19731974197519761977
   kilometres  
Auckland—     
      Trolley bus93.0865.3461.4853.2723.34
      Motor bus652.04600.61604.71650.35717.53
Gisborne—     
      Motor bus28.9728.9728.9728.9728.97
New Plymouth—     
      Motor bus49.8949.8949.8953.1156.33
Palmerston North—     
      Motor bus144.84144.84144.84193.12203.20
Eastbourne—     
      Motor bus25.7525.7525.7525.7525.75
Wellington—     
      Trolley bus51.5851.5851.5851.5851.60
      Motor bus84.5684.56106.76106.76106.80
      Tram, cable0.620.620.620.620.62
Christchurch—     
      Motor bus266.73267.48279.54293.62294.73
Timaru—     
      Motor bus37.2337.2339.2739.2766.48
Dunedin—     
      Trolley bus32.4122.7522.7522.7523.23
      Motor bus56.20x56.20x56.20x56.20x56.20
Invercargill—     
      Motor bus45.0645.0645.0646.6760.87

12 E—CIVIL AVIATION

GENERAL—In terms of the use of air transport per head of population, New Zealand ranks among the leading nations of the world,

Modern aircraft provide regular flights on a network of internal air services operated mainly by the former National Airways Corporation, while New Zealand's international airline, Air New Zealand, in competition with other international airlines, provides links with various nations in the Pacific and South-east Asian regions. Late in 1977 it was announced that the two airlines were to combine, although Air New Zealand would retain the name by which it had become known internationally.

The merger came into effect on 1 April 1978, under the name, Air New Zealand.

Early days of commercial aviation in New Zealand, and the growth and development of the international service, are described briefly in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

AIR SERVICES—The National Airways Corporation (now amalgamated with Air New Zealand) wholly owns Safe Air Ltd., the air freight carrier. Mount Cook Airlines provides essentially tourist services. Safe Air Ltd., provides a Cook Strait service and a Chatham Islands service. Other regular secondary air services are provided by Air North Ltd., and at most aerodromes there are light aircraft operators licensed for air charter and air taxi services. Aero clubs and flying schools provide facilities for training and private flying. The agricultural aviation industry has continued to flourish and an increasingly significant role is being played by helicopters.

International air services are operated by Air New Zealand Ltd., and other regular international air services are provided by QANTAS, Pan American World Airways, UTA French Airlines, Singapore Airlines, British Airways, and Air Pacific.

The overseas operations of Air New Zealand earn or save an estimated $75 million in overseas funds and make an important contribution to the country's external balance of payments. Air New Zealand (now amalgamated with the National Airways Corporation) made a profit of $11.67 million in 1976–77, the company's twenty-third year of profitability. The company has seven DC10 aircraft (with one more on order) and three DC8s. The revenue ($207.8 million) of Air New Zealand was derived in the following proportions: passenger services 71.5 percent, freight and baggage 10.6 percent, charters 8.9 percent, mail 2.3 percent, contract work and sundry revenue 6.7 percent.

During 1976–77 Air New Zealand carried 856,632 passengers compared with 841,523 during the previous year.

LEGISLATION—The principal legislation affecting civil aviation in New Zealand is the Civil Aviation Act 1964. This Act established the Department of Civil Aviation which later, under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968, became a Division of the Ministry of Transport.

The Air Services Licensing Act 1951 made provision for the establishment of the Air Services Licensing Authority, a four-man independent body, with the primary function of receiving and determining applications for the grant, renewal, amendment, or transfer of air service licences. Under the Act, an air service licence is essential for any air transport or specified aerial work conducted for hire or reward. There is a right of appeal against the decisions of the Air Services Licensing Authority to the Air Services Appeal Authority. International air services are governed by intergovernmental air transport agreements and the International Air Services Licensing Act 1947.

New Zealand is a party to the Warsaw Convention of 1929 as amended at The Hague in 1955 and these conventions define the financial liabilities of international air carriers towards their passengers. New Zealand has signed but has yet to ratify the Guatemala City Protocol which although not in force raises the limits of liability from $15,000 to $100,000. Air New Zealand is also a party to the airline agreement known as the Montreal Agreement which for travel to and from the United States of America imposes a limit of $US75,000. This limit is now being extended world-wide in its application, pending the entry into force of the Guatemala City Protocol. Liabilities of domestic air carriers are governed by the Carriage by Air Act 1967.

The Airport Authorities Act 1966 empowers local authorities, with the consent of the Governor-General in Council, to establish, improve, operate, or manage airports. In pursuit of these objectives local authorities may enter into joint-venture agreements with the Crown.

Effect is given to the Tokyo Convention 1963 relating to offences committed on board aircraft, the Hague Convention 1970 relating to hijacking, and the Montreal Convention 1971 relating to aerial sabotage by the Aviation Crimes Act 1972 which came into full force by Order in Council on 12 March 1974.

In 1976 an amendment to the Civil Aviation Act 1964 established the Aviation Security Service as a branch of the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport. The Aviation Security Service was charged with the screening of passengers and baggage and, where necessary, the searching of passengers, baggage, cargo, aircraft, aerodromes, and navigation installations. It was also to carry cut security patrols, and in general review, investigate, and inquire into security techniques, systems, devices, etc., co-operating where necessary with the Police, airport officials, Government departments, and other responsible authorities.

AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES AND FACILITIES—The Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport is the responsible authority for the provision of all facilities for air navigation in New Zealand and certain associated Pacific nations, and by delegation the facilities for flying operations in Western Samoa.

Air navigation facilities include a variety of electronic aids such as non-directional medium-frequency beacons (NDB), very high-frequency beacons (VOR), instrument landing systems (ILS), surveillance radar (SRE), precision approach radar (PAR), distance measuring equipment (DME), and also visual aids to navigation including visual glide slope indicators (VASI), high and low intensity approach, runway, and taxiway lights, aerodrome identification beacons, obstruction lights, hazard beacons, runway markings, cloud height measuring devices, wind strength and direction indicators, etc.

To assist the safe, orderly, and expeditious use of the air navigation system the Division provides a comprehensive ground services organisation comprising air traffic control units, communications services, crash-fire services, a search and rescue service, and ground safety organisations. Units of the ground services organisations are located at the majority of aerodromes served by regular scheduled air transport services in New Zealand and Pacific island territories operating from control towers and associated departmental buildings. In addition, control centres and communications centres are established at Auckland and Fiji for the conduct of international operations and at Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin to provide services to en-route aircraft throughout the entire country. A search and rescue service is provided from rescue co-ordination centres established by the Division whose responsibility it is to co-ordinate the effort and resources of military and civil agencies in the planning and direction of major search and rescue operations, whether air, land, or sea.

The Division maintains a flight supervision and standards service and conducts examinations and issues licences for all categories of aircrew and ground personnel. Specially equipped aircraft and qualified aircrew are continuously engaged on the checking and calibration of all air navigation facilities.

An Aeronautical Information Service prepares and publishes New Zealand Aeronautical Information and Notices to Airmen and, in collaboration with Lands and Survey Department, produces aeronautical maps and charts, etc.

An aeronautical training college is established at Christchurch International Airport where regular courses are conducted in air traffic control, meteorology, radio engineering, communications, and crash-fire procedure.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—The following summary statement shows operating and capital costs of the Civil Aviation Division for years ended 21 March.

ItemYear Ended March
19761977
 $(000)
      Operating  
Administration and regulatory2,5652,579
Airports and airways—Internal13,76915,155
Airports and airways—South Pacific792979
       Total17,12618,713
      Capital  
Administration and regulatory  
Airports and airways—Internal7,7263,288
Airports and airways—South Pacific25681
       Total7,9823,369
      Grand total25,10822,082

Principal recoveries by the Civil Aviation Division were airways and airport dues, totalling $9,363,277 in 1975–76 and $9,992,363 in 1976–77.

NATIONAL AIRWAYS CORPORATION—The New Zealand National Airways Corporation (now-amalgamated with Air New Zealand) provides regular services to centres throughout the North and South Islands with a fleet consisting of 8 Boeing 737s, and 15 Fokker Friendships.

Statistics of operation of the National Airways Corporation for the 2 latest years are shown in the following table.

Item1975–761976–77Percentage Increase or Decrease
Revenue passengers carried—   
      Scheduled2,185,1622,163,419–1.0
      Charter9,8716,942–29.7
Passenger kilometres created (000s)—   
      Scheduled1,407,2511,458,811+3.7
      Charter4,8653,984–18.1
Revenue passenger kilometres (000s)—   
      Scheduled986,0741,003,927+1.8
      Charter3,2532,245–31.0
Revenue passenger load factor70.068.8 
Average passenger journey (kilometres)451.26464.05 
Revenue tonne-kilometres created (000s)166,468172,588+3.7
Overall tonne kilometres used (000s)—   
      (a) Passenger and baggage85,56287,519+2.3
      (b) Freight20,73224,134+16.4
      (c) Mail1,5731,408–10.5
       Total107,867113,061+4.8
Overall revenue load factor64.865.5 
 $(000)$(000) 
Operating Account   
      Revenue67,91482,656+21.7
      Expenditure65,81776,848+16.8
      Operating surplus2,0975,808+177.0

DOMESTIC SCHEDULED AIR TRANSPORT—The following table shows some data on operations of internal air services during 1976 calendar year.

ItemN.A.C.*Mount Cook and Southern Lakes Tourist Co. Ltd.*Safe Air (Charter services)Air NorthCapital Air Services*

*All figures of hours flown, passengers, and freight represent revenue numbers or tonnage.

Actual hours flown and total tonnage carried.

‡Actual hours flown.

   (000)  
Hours flown58641..
Kilometres flown19,4291,662938146..
Passengers carried1,9589544..
Freight carried, tonnes38--17--..
Mail carried, tonnes2--..--..

FLYING OPERATIONS—The following table gives the summarised result of the operations of scheduled commercial air services during recent years.

Calendar YearKilometres FlownPassengers CarriedPassenger-kilometresFreight Carried* (Tonnes)Freight (Tonne-kilometres)Mail (Tonne-kilometres)

*Includes excess baggage.

†Excluding Capital Air Services Ltd.

   (000)   
197220,7401,652726,27667.319,5091,128
197322,9892,005891,87763.621,9311,218
197425,6152,2551,004,23264.023,7311,447
197525,1712,3121,033,67861.224,5391,617
197622,1752,062 55.3  

DOMESTIC COMMERCIAL AIR SERVICES

AERIAL WORK—Aerial topdressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion was begun commercially in 1949. The industry developed rapidly and is now an established feature of the national economy. About half of the total fertiliser and lime applied to farms in New Zealand is spread by means of aircraft.

Aerial spraying (i.e., the release from the aircraft of agricultural chemicals in liquid form, such as insecticides and weedicides) has also been developed. The volume of this work has increased to more than 40 million litres a year. Since early 1974 there has been a significant change in application rates due to low-volume spraying techniques of insecticides, particularly in treatment for nodding thistle. Therefore there is a slight reduction in figures for litres sprayed, although there is growth in the area treated. A technical qualification is mandatory for pilots engaged in the application of all agricultural chemicals. The qualification is to ensure that pilots are familiar with the chemical properties and correct techniques in applying the agricultural chemicals, many of which are highly toxic.

A summary of aerial work operations follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 December
1973197419751976
Hours flown159,140141,993141,098285,039
Number of operators83838587
Material distributed—    
      Fertiliser and lime (tonnes)1,335,8231,105,375865,4431,062,153
      Seed (tonnes)2,6982,1741,9782,825
      Spray (litres)45,712,25344,127,28441,499,24943,313,162
      Animal poison (tonnes)5,3277,1528,43010,231
      Supplies (tonnes)5,0795,3983,4967,658
      Fencing (tonnes)1,2426307611,073
      Dusts (tonnes)6817103
      Prills (tonnes)1191944266
      Miscellaneous (tonnes)2,5281,9344,0497,193

INTERNATIONAL AIR SERVICES—New Zealand's own airline, Air New Zealand Ltd., provides services to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Hong Kong, Singapore, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Fiji, American Samoa, Rarotonga, Tahiti, Honolulu, and Los Angeles. Air New Zealand's fleet comprises three Douglas DC8s and seven Douglas DC10s.

Other services through New Zealand included Pan American World Airways—from the United States to Auckland via Tahiti; through Honolulu, Pago Pago and Nandi to Auckland and beyond to Sydney; British Airways—twice weekly from the United Kingdom to Melbourne and Auckland; Union de Transport Aeriens—weekly from Tahiti to Auckland and beyond to Noumea; and QANTAS —a full range of trans-Tasman services with connections available to a variety of destinations beyond Australia. Singapore Airlines commenced services to New Zealand in May 1976.

A minority financial interest is retained by Air New Zealand in the regional South Pacific operators: Polynesian Airlines Ltd. (PAL)—operating between Western Samoa, American Samoa, Tonga, Niue, and Nandi; and Air Pacific Ltd.—operating from Fiji to the British Solomons, the Gilbert Islands, the New Hebrides, Western Samoa, Tonga, Nauru, and Auckland. Cook Islands Airways is a subsidiary company of Air New Zealand.

TOTAL TRAFFIC FOR OVERSEAS AIRLINES—Total traffic figures for overseas airlines operating to and from New Zealand, showing passenger movements, are given in the following tables for calendar years.

INTERNATIONAL REVENUE AIR PASSENGER MOVEMENTS

RoutesEntering New ZealandLeaving New ZealandTotal
197519761975197619751976
Trans-Tasman—      
      Auckland-Sydney154,448151,657138,451144,800292,899296,457
      Auckland-Melbourne59,89565,56556,77163,072116,666128,637
      Auckland-Brisbane34,89438,00633,02335,38667,91773,392
      Wellington-Sydney50,12143,70049,16541,26899,28684,968
      Wellington-Melbourne15,96014,35215,87316,39531,83330,747
      Wellington-Brisbane9,0578,3419,7428,87718,79917,218
      Christchurch-Sydney69,09070,44674,25474,969143,344145,415
      Christchurch-Melbourne35,40339,34636,61841,45072,02180,796
      Christchurch-Brisbane7,83513,1778,68913,50316,52426,680
Total436,703444,590422,586439,720859,289884,310
Pacific—      
      Long Haul75,30191,64573,87098,368149,171190,013
      Short Haul83,66982,87386,58487,056170,253169,929
Total158,970174,518160,454185,424319,424359,942

Revenue air freight carried trans-Tasman during 1976 totalled 25.9 million kilogrammes, of which 10.5 million kilogrammes was entering New Zealand and 15.4 million kilogrammes leaving. The bulk of the freight (11.7 million kilogrammes out of the total of 25.9 million) was carried on flights between Auckland and Sydney.

AIR FREIGHT—Air freight involves mostly exports and imports to and from Australia, and imports from United States and United Kingdom. Exports concern mainly made-up textiles, meat, fish, and live animals, notably racehorses. Imports air-freighted are mainly machinery, scientific instruments, pharmaceutical products, and textiles.

The following table is a summary of the value of exports and imports transported by air during the two 12-month periods ended June 1976 and June 1977. Fuller details are available from the Department of Statistics.

CommodityExportsImports*
New Zealand ProduceImported Merchandise
1975–761976–771975–761976–771975–761976–77

*Cost including insurance and freight.

Includes manufactured goods classified chiefly by material.

 $(thousand)
Meat and meat preparations4,6228,0543522
Dairy products and eggs1746043129190
Fish and fish preparations2,9883,8702915417610
Fruit and vegetables3,0563,8071716502601
Other foodstuffs (Including animal)4298771529264258
Live animals10,01815,90454753,7336,227
Beverages and tobacco4414532,2212,477115157
Hides, skins, and undressed fur skins1,3533,00314139
Animal and vegetable crude materials n.e.s.1,3953,0585191,2311,495
Petroleum and petroleum products2,32718,92713,4272,34234
Medicinal and pharmaceutical products2,4332,86929951715,37422,651
Other chemicals9161,5501,1351,2058,07813,321
Textile, yarn fabric, made-up articles, etc.9,8579,44717633819,29823,259
Other manufactured goods4,9506,93159155316,91820,205
Machinery and transport equipment11,59013,07421,11231,838128,079140,740
Scientific instruments, optical goods, watches and clocks1,6011,8795,8115,56323,39827,646
Other miscellaneous manufactured articles15,58828,1414,5924,48119,52723,507
Other goods22019165482,8153,358
       Total73,957103,71345,05660,607241,261284,300

AIRPORT STATISTICS—The following table shows airport activities for the years ended 31 March 1974 and 1975.

AirportMovements of Passenger PlanesFreighter Plane MovementsPassenger Arrivals and Departures
InternationalDomestic
19741975197419751974197519741975

*Those airports serviced by N.A.C., Safe Air, Air North, and Mount Cook Airlines not separately listed.

Auckland7,2078,39822,58227,3691,6261,6071,516,2391,707,426
Blenheim4,1415,8228,4307,86772,24879,562
Christchurch1,8782,06421,05322,7084,6504,3621,019,9961,125,947
Dunedin8,6668,451582415217,501234,690
Gisborne5,9336,261270,93880,813
Hamilton5,2325,445355282109,369118,674
Invercargill5,3475,339176160109,079115,103
Napier7,3398,809104123,733140,242
Nelson9,66211,440723669171,924184,505
New Plymouth4,5345,491889,591103,041
Palmerston North6,1996,66596138113,674130,320
Rotorua7,7266,73595,91298,234
Wellington1,3311,86736,54544,17211,22011,6011,206,8071,332,428
Other*31,22541,36611617287,825381,240

AERO CLUBS AND COMMERCIAL FLIGHT TRAINING ORGANISATIONS—The next table gives a summary of the training activities of aero clubs and other flying organisations.

Calendar YearClubs* OperatingMembershipAircraft in useHours FlownAb Initio Pupils Under Training
AssociateFlyingDualSolo

*Other organisations included are given in parentheses.

197337 (21)1,5956,99028257,29995,9952,387
197438 (22)..6,990..59,28494,225..
197538 (20)1,1927,920..53,95090,3751,829

LICENCES—Between 1 April 1975 and 31 March 1976, 2,685 licences were issued to 48 airline transport pilots, 207 commercial pilots, 746 private pilots, and 1,684 student pilots. Fifty-six aerodromes held public licences, and there were 87 licensed private aerodromes, in addition to 316 authorised landing places and 22 Government civil aerodromes.

CIVIL AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS—Civil aircraft accidents are investigated by the Office of Air Accidents Investigation headed by the Chief Inspector of Air Accidents who has statutory powers of his own in respect of his investigative duties and responsibilities.

During the calendar year 1976, one hundred and fifty-three accidents were reported in New Zealand and one involving a New Zealand-registered aircraft in Pakistan. Seven fatal accidents claimed the lives of 6 pilots and 4 passengers and 1 person on the ground. Nine persons suffered serious injury, and 151 pilots and 79 passengers involved incurred only minor or no injury. Thirteen fixed-wing and 11 rotary-wing aircraft were destroyed. Thirty-two helicopter accidents included 14 aircraft engaged in agricultural aviation, 12 in venison recovery operations, and 3 in training exercises. No accidents were reported involving scheduled airline services.

Chapter 14. Section 13 COMMUNICATIONS

13 A—POST OFFICE

HISTORICAL—With the arrival of Governor Hobson in 1840 the first post office proper was set up at Kororareka (now Russell). The same year saw the establishment of offices at other settlements in the north and at Port Nicholson (Wellington), and the beginnings of overland mail routes. By 1858, 73 post offices had been opened to provide communication services for the scattered settlers. In that year a Post Office Act was passed making the Post Office an independent department of State.

The system of communication by telegraph was inaugurated in the 1860s. A separate department, the Telegraph Department, was created by Act of Parliament in 1865 to take responsibility for the erecting of telegraph lines and the opening of morse telegraph offices. The North and South Islands were linked by telegraph cable in 1866 and by telephone cable in 1926.

The telegraph and postal services were amalgamated in 1881. Under the Post Office Act 1959, the name of the department became the Post Office, and the Minister's title became Postmaster-General.

A table in the Statistical Summary towards the back of Yearbook shows the growth of postal and telecommunication activities over the last 50 years.

POSTAL BUSINESS—At 31 March 1977 there were 1,378 post offices in New Zealand. The following table shows the numbers of articles posted in the latest 3 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchLetters and PostcardsPrinted Papers, Commercial Papers, Newspapers, and MagazinesParcelsTotal
  million 
1975351.1329.618.3699.0
1976360.3x339.117.6717.0x
1977354.9291.515.5661.9

The average numbers of items posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1977 were: letters and postcards, 113.7; printed matter (printed papers, commercial papers, newspapers, and magazines), 93.4; parcels, 5.0.

Chartered air services are used to convey the bulk of surface mail between the North and South Islands.

Private boxholders as at 30 September 1976 totalled 107,403.

Rural Mail Delivery—The rural delivery system enables country residents to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence, and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near their gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which residents obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc. At 31 March 1976 the total number of boxholders was 86,370 and at 31 March 1977 it was 88,104. The cost of the rural delivery service is $4.17 million a year.

Inland Airmails—The number of letters and parcels carried by air within New Zealand during the latest 3 years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchLettersParcels
197532,053,000388,908
197635,188,000..
197732,172,000..

Overseas Airmails—The weight of airmail dispatched from New Zealand is about 28.0 percent of the total amount of mail forwarded overseas each year. In 1976–77, 291,599 kg of letters, 209,235 kg of newspapers and packets, and 234,792 kg of parcels were posted by overseas airmail.

Trans-Tasman Air Services—The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The existing service provides for flights between New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch) and Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane) with a frequency overall of at least one flight each day.

New Zealand - United Kingdom Air Service—This service is now operating daily to London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally 1 to 2 days.

New Zealand - Hong Kong and Singapore Air Services—There are direct services from Auckland to Hong Kong and from Auckland to Singapore. Airmail to countries in the Far East is dispatched to Sydney or Singapore for reforwarding.

Trans-Pacific Services—The trans-Pacific service operating between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940. Airlines now operate a daily service to the United States.

Pacific Island Services—Airmails are forwarded by New Zealand-operated air services to the Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, and American Samoa (Pago Pago). Local air services provide connections from Pago Pago or Nandi to the British Solomon Islands, Gilbert Islands, Nauru Island, New Hebrides, Niue, Tonga, and Western Samoa.

Overseas Parcel Post—Particulars of overseas parcels received and dispatched in each of the latest 3 years are contained in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchOverseas Parcels ReceivedOverseas Parcels Dispatched
NumberWeightCustoms DutyNumberWeight
  kg$(000) kg
1975733,6432,720,7112,736460,8681,232,781
1976668,2572,574,0852,441513,3891,424,915
1977577,5292,212,9142,670477,8851,339,854

Postal Mechanisation—The Wellington Postal Centre is extensively mechanised, a similar modern centre is being built at Christchurch.

Money Orders—Inland postal money orders for amounts exceeding $7 (for $7.00 and lesser amounts postal notes are generally used) and telegraphic money orders for any amount may be purchased to send money within New Zealand, the Cook Islands, and Niue Island. Postal money orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in 115 foreign administrations, and an overseas telegraphic money order service is available to Australia, Fiji, Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Irish Republic, Norfolk Island, and Western Samoa. For remittances exceeding $4 to foreign countries a permit is required.

A special rate of commission applies to money orders payable in foreign countries, except to the Cook Islands, Niue, and Western Samoa to which the inland rate applies. In addition to commission, telegraph fees are also payable for money-order telegrams.

Postal Notes—Postal Notes ranging from 10c to $2 and for $3, $4, and $5 are available for payment within New Zealand, Niue, and the Cook Islands.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post, and during the year ended 31 March 1976, 3,249,500 postal notes valued at $6,990,675 were purchased by the public.

British Postal Orders—These are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold are 10p, 12½p, 15p, 25p, 50p, 75p, £1, and £2 sterling. (In decimal currency, which has applied in the United Kingdom from 15 February 1971, five new pence equal the previous one shilling). Commission is payable. For all remittances exceeding £2 per day a permit is required. As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, especially the United Kingdom. During the year ended 31 March 1976 the Post Office sold 1,203,176 British postal orders valued at $3,774,104, and paid 166,717 orders valued at $987,008.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK—Details on the Post Office Savings Bank are given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TELEPHONE SERVICES—The following table indicates the growth of telephone installations (the figures are as at 31 March).

Item1974197519761977
Main telephones—    
      Automatic846,923896,928946,991977,177
      Manual86,96083,37972,19571,286
Extension telephones503,511544,236584,514618,898
Public telephones5,1325,2275,3285,381
Private line telephones272254241238
Toll offices1,2341,2101,1641,152
       Total telephones1,444,0321,531,2341,610,4331,674,132
Telephones (all types per 1,000 population)475493514533
Applicants awaiting installations20,90422,42927,01329,571
Number of toll calls (inland and outward international)73,905,37077,692,42080,685,52479,393,726

About one-sixth of the main telephones are business telephones (in 1977 there were 172,136 business telephones). At 31 March 1977 there were 1,048,463 subscribers and 29,571 waiting applicants, of whom about 49 percent were in the Auckland City and environs.

Nineteen new automatic exchanges were brought into service during the year ended 31 March 1977; also substantial progress was made in the extension of free calling areas, thereby eliminating toll fees between outlying exchanges and their town or city centre; 9 more exchanges were provided with this service.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1977), compiled by the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks fifth in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the United States of America (71.8), Sweden (68.9), Switzerland (63.8), Canada (60.4), and New Zealand (52.0).

A broadband toll link, comprising microwave, radio, and co-axial cable systems, connects main centres from Whangarei to Invercargill.

The introduction of subscriber toll dialing (STD) commenced at Upper Hutt during April 1976. By the end of the 1976–77 year some 357,000 subscribers in the Auckland, Hamilton, Wellington, and Christchurch areas had been provided with this service, which enables toll calls to be dialled directly by the subscriber. STD is one of the facilities which the new crossbar-type switching equipment provides, and as more of this equipment is progressively installed, STD will become more widely available.

Free local telephone calling is provided in New Zealand, as distinct from charging for each local call as followed by many overseas administrations.

TELEGRAPH SERVICES: Telegrams—The downtrend in inland telegrams has continued. In the year to 31 March 1977, 3.6 million telegrams were lodged compared with 4.3 million in the preceding year. Of these, 69 percent were lodged by telephone, 7 percent by telex, and 24 percent handed in over Post Office counters. On the other hand, 49 percent were delivered by messenger, 40 percent telephoned to the addressee, and 11 percent telexed.

The public telegraph network comprises 118 teleprinter offices. These offices interwork through gentex (automatic circuit switching) augmented by point-to-point circuits between some major cities.

Telex Service: Telex—the international abbreviation for Teleprinter Exchange Service—is a customer-to-customer service using page teleprinters. An international manual telex service for communicating with overseas subscribers commenced in New Zealand on 1 September 1960 with 16 subscribers. Service was then available with 23 overseas countries.

Automatic telex service was introduced in New Zealand on 13 May 1964 with 150 subscribers. This service absorbed the previous international connections and enabled all New Zealand telex subscribers to communicate with each other as well as with overseas telex subscribers. International service is now available with 179 countries. An important development in New Zealand's international telex service was the introduction in July 1968 of automatic subscriber-to-subscriber calling. Telex subscribers in New Zealand can now dial direct to subscribers in most countries, without the aid of the international operator. At 31 March 1977 there were 2,713 subscribers, an increase of 269 over the previous year.

The monthly rental is $112.50 for a standard machine and $150 for a teleprinter equipped with a tape reperforator and transmitter. In the year to 31 March 1977 rentals totalled $3,550,725 and call revenue was $5,137,023.

Ancillary telex services include: Public telex booths at Auckland, Palmerston North, New Plymouth, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin and a restricted public telex service (operator assistance mandatory) at 18 other large centres—approximately 2,200 calls are handled each month, mostly international; teltex, which provides for the delivery, by telephone or messenger, of telex messages sent to any public telegraph delivery office, current volume over 35,000 per month; telexograms, the delivery of telegrams by telex from any teleprinter office in the public network to any telex subscriber.

Data Service—The use of computers in the commercial sector has created a need for facilities for transferring data from one point to another. The Post Office leases circuits for data transmission, leases data modems (200 and 600/1200 bauds) for use on leased lines, and provides a datel service for the exchange of data using the switched telephone networks, both local and toll. The datel service is restricted to speeds of 200, 600, or 1200 bauds.

Data modems are charged between $186 and $360 per year depending on speed and type.

Leased data circuits ranging from normal speech grade to 240 kHz are charged for on a bandwidth distance basis.

For datel service, a telephone must be leased especially for the purpose, and the use of a post office modem is mandatory. The rental for these is as for a business telephone connection, varying between $34.70 to $54.40 per 2 months according to the class of the telephone exchange, plus the rental for the modem. Where the toll service is used for data calls the ruling toll rates apply.

INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS: Cable Links—Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, and between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva, and Fanning Island in 1902. In 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications systems were brought under Government control and, in accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphs Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the assets in New Zealand of Cable and Wireless Ltd., the private company previously controlling these services, and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

In July 1962 a new submarine cable with a capacity of 80 telephone channels was brought into operation between New Zealand and Australia as part of a Commonwealth round-the-world cable project. The cable was extended from New Zealand to Fiji in December 1962, and in December 1963 was further extended, via Hawaii, to Vancouver and across Canada by microwave to Montreal. At Montreal it links up with the trans-Atlantic telephone cables, to connect with Britain, and provide high-quality circuits for telephone, telegraph, and telex communication between New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Canada, the United States of America, and Britain. This cable system links New Zealand with most of the world's major countries, and it was supplemented by the bringing into service in March 1967 of the South-East Asia Commonwealth Telephone Cable which extended the system from Australia to New Guinea, and (via Guam) to Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Singapore.

An additional high capacity trans-Tasman submarine cable, a joint New Zealand - Australia multi-million dollar project was brought into service in early 1975. Known as "Tasman" the new cable has a total capacity of 640 telephone circuits.

International Telephone Service—Telephone communication by cable, satellite and radio is now available to almost all countries of the world, as well as to Ross Dependency (Scott Base), Raoul Island, Chatham Islands, Campbell Island, passenger ships, and H.M. New Zealand and Australian warships.

An International Gateway telephone exchange in Auckland handles all New Zealand's outgoing and incoming international telephone calls. The international operators dial direct to subscribers in other countries, and overseas operators and in some cases subscribers dial direct to subscribers on automatic telephone exchanges in New Zealand. Data transmission service is also available to some other countries through the telephone network.

International Telex Service—Telex service is available to many countries including, in most cases, the facility for subscribers to establish calls automatically.

International Telegraph Service—Telegrams are an important part of international communications and a world-wide service is available. Phototelegraph service is also available to a number of countries.

Satellite Communications—Because of the rapid increase in international telecommunication traffic, an earth station was opened in 1971 at Warkworth, near Auckland, for communicating with other countries via satellites in space.

In addition to providing additional international telecommunications facilities, the earth station makes live television relays practicable. The earth station works through a satellite over the Pacific Ocean.

International Radio Services—Telegraph and telephone services between New Zealand and places in the Pacific area not served by cable or satellite are provided by radio through a high-power transmitting station at Himatangi and a receiving station at Makara.

Direct radio circuits are operated from New Zealand to Apia, Rarotonga, Niue, Nukualofa, Ross Dependency (Scott Base), and Chatham Islands. Communication is effected with other islands in the Cook group by Rarotonga Radio through feeder stations. Stations in Tokelau communicate with Apia Radio.

Radio Services to Shipping—The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911. Other stations are located at Auckland, Awarua, and Chatham Islands. These stations provide a service for the exchange of radio telegrams with ships at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand and Australia. A free radio-medical service also operates for ships at sea and lighthouses on the New Zealand coast. The number of ships licensed to operate radio equipment is 8,498.

INLAND RADIO SERVICES—The use of radio as a means of communication continues to grow. In the Post Office very-high-frequency service 5,217 subscribers are provided with radiotelephone service to 41,092 mobile units through 84 base stations throughout the country. A further 13,164 mobile units are provided with service through 3,498 Government and private owner-operated base stations. The biggest growth is in the Citizen radio service where the number of walkie-talkie sets licensed increased from 12,356 to 17,817, an increase of some 30 percent. The amateur service provides facilities for experimental communications between persons interested in radio as a hobby, and 4,888 licensed stations are operated by qualified amateur operators. There are now 98,077 radio transmitting stations of all types licensed compared with 86,379 in 1976.

REVENUE—The revenue of the Post Office for the latest financial years is now shown.

Item1973–741974–751975–761976–77
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Postal revenue—    
      Postages34,45736,38743,01365,177
      Private box and bag rentals and rural mail delivery fees7057508031,702
      Miscellaneous1301,5456681,116
 35,29238,68244,48467,995
Telecommunications revenue—    
      Telex3,7874,7405,9348,710
      Telegraph5,2925,5476,0057,957
      Tolls56,54764,56574,43491,135
      Telephones87,62992,862100,352152,202
      Overseas telecommunications11,35615,34616,11718,731
      Radio446441533652
 165,057183,501203,375279,387
Miscellaneous revenue—    
      Fees from Government departments, etc.4,5328,2439,67814,049
      Money order and postal note commission557585670953
      Rents received325511500693
      Other revenue4936994,1624,398
 5,90710,03815,01020,093
       Total revenue206,256232,221262,869367,475

Revenue and expenditure for the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure
 $(000)$(000)
1972169,843169,495
1973186,874188,885
1974206,256212,495
 $(000)$(000)
1975232,221252,995
1976262,869301,589
1977367,475346,295

CAPITAL—Capital expansion necessary to meet demand requires substantial provisions for new telecommunications systems and the replacement of those which have become obsolete. Accommodation to house this equipment, to provide post offices in newly developed areas, and to replace old and inadequate offices is an important part of Post Office capital development.

Capital expenditure on telecommunications development and buildings is financed partly by the Post Office, and partly from National Development Loans Account on which interest is paid at the rate of 10 percent. The interest payment amounted to $28.4 million in 1976–77.

In 1976–77, $44.1 million was spent on the development of telecommunications systems and $14.7 million on land and buildings. In addition, $9.1 million was invested in other assets such as motor vehicles, tools and plant, and office equipment. This expenditure was financed from Post Office resources, National Development Loans Account, and capital equipment credit arrangements. The capital liability of the Post Office is now $486.2 million and liability under capital equipment credit arrangement is $1.1 million.

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS—Because it has numerous offices readily accessible to the public, the Post Office also undertakes agency work for other Government departments. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts—For the following departments: Education (examination fees, etc.), Health, Inland Revenue (land tax and income tax, under PAYE system), Lands and Survey, National Roads Board (special mileage tax on motor vehicles), Public Trust Office, Housing Corporation (State rents, loan and interest repayments), Electricity (some electric-power receipts), Ministry of Transport, Tourist and Publicity, Valuation, Customs (collection of Customs duty and sales tax), Treasury (Government Superannuation, National Provident Fund receipts, and motor vehicle registration and licence fees).

Payments—Departments of Social Welfare (social security benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health (refunds of medical expenses), Defence, Labour (subsidised wage payments), Public Trust Office, Police (witness warrants), Treasury (Government superannuation payments and miscellaneous payments for other departments), Ministry of Works and Development, and for Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons).

Other services performed by the Post Office are the issue of licences in respect of motor vehicles and radio apparatus, and assistance to the Marine and Civil Aviation Divisions of Ministry of Transport on radio matters. In some of the smaller centres postmasters act as registrars of births, deaths, and marriages. In each of the 87 electorates, a postmaster or senior officer is appointed electorate officer, as an agent of the Department of Justice, with responsibility for the compilation and maintenance of the electoral roll in his electorate.

Other activities include the receipt of levies under the Motor Vehicle Accident Scheme as provided for under the Accident Compensation Act 1972, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatisation societies, organising and selling health stamps, and collecting television licence fees.

STAFF—Staff numbers at 31 March are shown in the following table.

Classification19731974197519761977
Permanent staff28,51829,16930,84832,63731,815
Temporary and non-classified staff4,6475,4836,0556,2706,415
Total staff33,16534,65236,90338,90738,230

VEHICLES—The Post Office fleet as at 31 March 1977 consisted of 5,796 vehicles; 1,238 trucks, 2,837 vans, 1,713 cars, and 8 motor scooters. Of this fleet, 697 vehicles are used for hire to other departments, 3,943 for engineering work and 1,156 on postal, telegram delivery, and other general work. The fleet travelled 75.9 million kilometres in the year ended 31 March 1977.

13 B—RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING

GENERAL—Created by the Broadcasting Act 1976, the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand came into existence on 1 February 1977. It united under one central board, four independent statutory bodies—TV1. TV2, Radio New Zealand, and the Broadcasting Council of New Zealand—which had been established by the Broadcasting Act 1973. However, it calls for the three programme Services (TV1, TV2, and Radio New Zealand) to retain "the maximum practicable independence". The announced intention of the legislation was to restore direct Ministerial responsibility for the public broadcasting system, to improve administrative efficiency and financial viability, and to establish a Tribunal with powers to control some aspects of broadcasting, including the establishment of further private radio stations. At the same time, it was intended to preserve those features of the preceding system which were thought to be advantageous to listeners and viewers in general. Earlier forms of control dating back to the introduction of the first "wireless" stations in New Zealand were the Radio Broadcasting Company of New Zealand Ltd. (1925–31); the Broadcasting Board (1931–36); the National Broadcasting Service and the National Commercial Broadcasting Service (1936–45); the New Zealand Broadcasting Service (1945–62); and the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation (1962–75). Information on these organisations appears in the relevant Yearbooks.

BROADCASTING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—The Corporation consists of not less than seven and not more than nine members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Broadcasting. The Corporation must appoint from its members three standing committees, each with a particular responsibility for one of the operating Services—Radio New Zealand, Television One, and Television Two. Each Service has its own Director-General and the Secretary of the Corporation is in executive charge of all centralised functions.

In general terms the Corporation's responsibility is to carry on public broadcasting services and to develop, extend, and improve them in the public interest. In doing so, it must have regard for the general broadcasting policy of the Government. The Minister may direct the Corporation in writing but any such direction must subsequently be gazetted and laid before Parliament.

The Corporation is required to maintain standards of accuracy, impartiality, decency, and good taste; and to this effect must promulgate rules governing programmes and advertising. The Independent Broadcasters' Association is represented on the committee formulating these rules. Additionally the Corporation is charged with maintaining a New Zealand identity in its programmes, with respecting the privacy of the individual, and avoiding the co-incident presentation on the two television channels of programmes of a like nature. Formal complaints from the public on certain aspects of programming must receive proper consideration and if dissatisfied with the Corporation's decision, the complainant may refer the matter to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

The Corporation is responsible for the publication of the New Zealand Listener and for the administration of the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. Up to two-thirds of the cost of operating the Orchestra may be met by Government appropriation if necessary.

The Corporation is empowered and expected to promote and encourage artistic, cultural, and educational development in the community.

BROADCASTING TRIBUNAL—A Tribunal of three members, appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Broadcasting, is empowered to consider applications and grant warrants for additional radio stations, public or privately-owned. No warrant may be granted for any television station additional to the TV1 and TV2 Services, without the express permission of the Minister. The Tribunal has no authority over any short wave station.

It is also empowered to consider and determine complaints which in the opinion of the complainant have not been satisfactorily dealt with by the Broadcasting Corporation. The Tribunal must have regard for Government policy on broadcasting and must comply with any written direction from the Minister which does not derogate from its duty to act judicially. Any such direction must subsequently be gazetted and laid before Parliament.

RADIO—Radio New Zealand provides programmes for 54 medium wave broadcasting stations, and 2 short-wave transmitters of the External Services Division, the latter having a number of assigned frequencies. Of the 54 medium-wave stations, 35 broadcast advertising material. No advertising is broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. Twenty-one stations maintain a daily 24-hour service, apart from shutdowns once a month, between the hours of 11.15 p.m. and 5.30 a.m. The shutdowns are staggered to give the minimum loss of coverage to listeners.

Coverage of Shortwave Service—The External Services Division of Radio New Zealand broadcasts the Home Service (National) Programme to the Pacific on two frequencies from 1800 to 0730 G.M.T. daily. Then one frequency beams this programme to Australia until 10.30 p.m. The Home Service programme also continues to the Pacific on one frequency until 1030 G.M.T.

Special breakouts to take Concert and Sports Networks to the Pacific and Australia are generally to cover sporting events, e.g., the South African All Black tour, and the cricket series in Pakistan and India. Radio New Zealand's Overseas Programme Unit supplements this with weekly despatches of taped programmes; news, current affairs, talks and comment including vernacular programmes. The shortwave service also carries home service news and magazine programmes in Maori, Tongan, Samoan, Niuean, and Cook Island Maori.

Local Broadcasting—Whereas in many Commonwealth countries local broadcasting has only recently begun, in New Zealand it is in many ways the most important part of the national system. Local stations not only provide a wide range of entertainment programmes, but also play a valuable social role through new community services and participation in cultural activities. Decentralisation of administration enables local radio stations to be highly responsive to the communities they serve.

Broadcasts to Schools—Programmes are designed to aid teachers in meeting syllabus requirements particularly in the fields of science, social studies, music, language, and Maori culture. Nineteen programmes a week are broadcast to children ranging from 4 to 13 years. The most popular programmes—music, current events, and dramatised extracts from literature—are heard by audiences of between 100,000 and 150,000 children. Programmes are also broadcast by the Correspondence Schools.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Non-commercial)—One private non-commercial station operated by the Otago Radio Association Incorporated has been issued with a warrant and has been broadcasting since 1922. This station, located in Dunedin, operates from 1800 to 2230 hours on Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays and, on Sundays, from 0900 to 1200 and from 1800 to 2230 hours.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Commercial)—The first warrants for private commercial broadcasting stations were issued on 30 June 1970 to Radio Hauraki and Radio i, both located in Auckland, and transmissions commenced on 26 September 1970 and 31 October 1970 respectively. Radio Waikato was issued with a warrant on 31 July 1970 and commenced transmission on 2 November 1970, followed by Radio Whakatane with a warrant dated 24 November 1970, commencing transmission on 30 June 1971 and Radio Otago with a warrant dated 8 June 1971, coming into operation on 20 November 1971. Later warrants enabled Radio Avon in Christchurch and Radio Windy in Wellington to commence operations late in 1973. Advertisements are not permitted to be broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. If Anzac Day falls on other than a Sunday, advertisements are not permitted before 1300 hours. The Broadcasting Act 1973 prohibited the issue of any further warrants, but the 1976 Act reinstated the right to grant them to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

Independent Broadcasters Association—In 1970, holders of warrants for private commercial radio stations formed a federation which was subsequently approved by the Broadcasting Authority in August 1971. The general objects of the federation are to conserve the rights and interests of the members in broadcasting. The name was subsequently changed to the Independent Broadcasters Association (Incorporated).

Committee of Private Broadcasters—This consists of a Chairman, appointed by the Minister, and two members appointed by him on the nomination of the Independent Broadcasters Association. It investigates allegations of breaches of warrants or rules by private stations, and is responsible to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

TELEVISION—In August 1958 the Government decided that the 625-line system would be the standard for any television service in New Zealand.

In October 1958 approval was given to the then New Zealand Broadcasting Service to purchase equipment to enable technical investigations to be made. The Service began regular transmissions in Auckland in 1960, in Christchurch and Wellington in 1961, and in Dunedin in 1962.

In October 1969 the Minister of Broadcasting directed the Broadcasting Authority to carry out an inquiry into the extension of television services. Following extensive hearings in 1970, the authority recommended that the existing TV services be converted to colour transmission (using the PAL system). Colour telecasts began in a limited way in October 1973, and conversion of the remaining transmission equipment was completed by March 1975. At the end of 1976, some 25 percent of households had colour TV sets.

Extension to Coverage—Television coverage has been steadily extended to all areas of New Zealand. By the end of 1976, the first television programme (TV1), was being disseminated by six 100 kW transmitters, one 50 kW, 12 of from 1 to 10 kW, and 182 installations of less than 1 kW. These transmitters cover some 99 percent of the population.

Some 166 small units are operated by private individuals or societies, the latter receiving financial assistance from the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand. These small transmitters cover less than 1 percent of the population.

Transmission of the second television programme (TV2) began from 300 kW transmitters at Auckland and Christchurch on 30 June 1975. The 100 kW transmitter for Waikato and Bay of Plenty was commissioned in September 1975, and the 300 kW transmitter for Wellington in November. The 300 kW transmitters for Manawatu and coastal Otago and the 100 kW transmitter for Southland came into operation during the first half of 1976. By the end of 1976, 15 translators of less than 1 kW were relaying TV2 programmes.

Second programme transmitters for other areas will be provided progressively until identical coverage is achieved for both programmes.

Over 85 percent of homes in New Zealand are equipped with television sets.

Television Programmes—Television One, with headquarters at the Avalon Centre, Lower Hutt, operates a national network in colour for 80 hours per week. Five days are commercial and Mondays and Sundays are non-commercial.

The Service has production studios in Dunedin and also produces a weekly entertainment programme out of Auckland. TV1 has three colour outside broadcast units, stationed at Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin. These are deployed for live coverage of sport, and programme production from towns and cities in both islands.

Television Two (South Pacific Television) opened in Auckland and Christchurch on 30 June 1975. Unlike TV1, which took over the existing NZBC network on 1 April 1975, it is continuing its transmission development by stages. By the end of 1977 it was reaching approximately 85 percent of the population. By the 1980s TV2 should operate a full nationwide coverage.

The channel transmits in colour for approximately 63 hours each week, and the two non-commercial days are Friday and Sunday.

Production is centred in the Service's studios in Auckland, Christchurch, and, to a limited extent, Hamilton. Auckland has three studios and Christchurch two. In addition, Christchurch has the use of the converted Civic Theatre (now known as the Teletheatre) for a variety of productions. Auckland and Christchurch are each served by colour outside-broadcast vans and comprehensive film facilities.

Under the rules of the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, both Services are required to have a local content of not less than 30 percent, but each has the objective of increasing this proportion substantially as circumstances permit.

Local content includes drama, news and current affairs, light entertainment, religion, service programmes, and sport. The balance is made up of programmes purchased from overseas, mainly the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia.

The use of satellite links permits same day presentation of world news items and live telecast of significant overseas events.

NEW ZEALAND SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA—The New Zealand Symphony Orchestra was formed in 1946 as the National Orchestra and adopted its present title in 1975. It is a full symphony orchestra widely known for the high standard of its public concerts as well as its performances over the air. Distinguished guest conductors and celebrity artists from other countries along with resident soloists and New Zealand choirs appear regularly with the orchestra. As a national orchestra, its tour programme is one of the most extensive in the world, involving some 15,000 miles of internal travel annually. The playing strength is 89 players, which enables the orchestra to undertake the complete symphonic repertoire.

In 1974 the orchestra undertook its first overseas tour to three Australian cities. During 1977 a total of 78 orchestral concerts was presented, as well as many studio recordings, both radio and television. The diversity of their work means that the orchestra covers a very wide repertoire.

The New Zealand Symphony Orchestra has also made several commercial recordings.

NEW ZEALAND LISTENER—Programmes and advance information for national television channels and radio stations are published in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, first issued on 30 June 1939. The circulation of the Listener is now about 287,000. As well as containing programme information the Listener occupies a special place in New Zealand journalism as a leading periodical dealing with the current scene. It publishes interviews, articles, and reprints of broadcasts as well as fiction, poetry, and criticisms. Through its editorial and correspondence columns, the Listener provides a forum for serious public discussions on important issues.

FINANCES—There have been two principal sources of revenue: licence fees and radio and television advertising. While, under the NZBC licence, fee revenue was credited to the accounts of the non-commercial stations and sales revenue to those of the commercial stations, a common fund was in fact operated, all revenue being available for the general purpose of broadcasting. The NZBC was abolished on 1 April 1975 and was replaced by four corporations—Television Service One, Television Service Two, Radio New Zealand, and the Broadcasting Council of New Zealand. Under that structure the licence fee revenue was allocated amongst the four organisations by the Council. On 1 February 1977 the four-corporation structure was replaced by the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, composed of three operating services (one radio service and two television channels) and a Central Services Division, which assumed the functions of transmission and the provision of common services. Its financial operations are operated through a single main bank account known as the Broadcasting Account which receives all BCNZ income and from which all payments are made.

Gross revenue from licence fees and from advertising for the latest 5 financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77
 $(thousand)
TV-licence fees14,19614,90217,92725,76927,595
Radio advertising7,7169,28710,19610,97412,837
TV advertising10,22811,24114,12020,89430,352
Total32,14235,43042,24357,63770,784

LICENCES—As from 1 October 1971 the radio licence, which stood at $3 a year, was abolished and the monochrome television licence raised from $13 a year to $20. A colour television licence fee of $35 was introduced on 1 November 1973. On 1 January 1975 licence fees were increased to $27.50 (monochrome) and $45 (colour).

The following table summarises licences for television receivers issued by districts.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedinTotalNumber of Sets Covered by Hirers' Licences*

*Included in preceding figures.

†Includes 15,331 colour sets in 1974, 82,027 in 1975, 188,911 in 1976, and 302,212 in 1977.

‡Including other.

1974263,271203,267101,87662,757754,623123,452
1975272,730209,150108,82864,494790,599135,397
1976287,244230,362110,62268,590811,182124,344
1977285,067219,507116,17568,554815,798126,495

13 C—NEWSPAPERS AND CINEMAS

NEWSPAPERS—Although printing in New Zealand began peacefully enough with the production of hymns in the Maori language, the early years of the New Zealand press appear to have been stormy, acrimonious, and marked by frequent shortages of the basic necessities of newspaper production. The first newspaper to be printed in New Zealand was the New Zealand Gazette of 18 April 1840, but like most early New Zealand newspapers it was short-lived. Much of the newspaper-writing of early days was powerful, dogmatic, sometimes virulent and irresponsible, and the Government or other target of attack reacted with equal force. One way of closing down a rival or too-critical newspapers was to buy up the press on which it was printed. When this method of silencing was used against the Auckland Times in 1842 the proprietor continued publication with the aid of a job-lot of assorted old type, a load of coarse paper, and a mangle. Another paper appeared for some weeks printed on red blotting paper, and others appeared on occasion on green or blue paper or in varying paper sizes or qualities. Appeals for supplies of paper sometimes appeared in advertisements and one paper made a despairing appeal for treacle, apparently an essential ingredient in inking-rollers. One Auckland paper was made to yield to a unique form of forceful persuasion. In 1865 the New Zealander published an article which gave offence to the Navy, whereupon a large number of sailors passed a hawser through the newspaper office and back over the roof, and threatened to overturn the building unless there was a full retraction.

Since 1840 about 500 different newspapers have appeared in New Zealand, but relatively few have survived. The oldest surviving newspaper is the Taranaki Herald, started in 1842. A number of the large metropolitan dailies still in existence were started in the 1860s.

By world standards, New Zealand has had (and continues to have) a large number of newspapers for the size of population. In the past, difficulties of geography and the scattered nature of the centres of population prevented any daily newspaper achieving a national circulation. Today, aided by distribution during the dead hours before dawn, the morning papers published in Auckland and Wellington are, between them, able to cover much of the North Island, while the Christchurch morning paper covers much of the South Island. Nevertheless, the provincial press remains fairly strong. New Zealand still has a relatively large number of local papers published daily, weekly, or two, three, or four times a week which, by offering a detailed coverage of local news, are complementary to the newspapers published in the main centres rather than in competition with them. Most of the provincial dailies are evening papers.

There are eight daily newspapers in the four main metropolitan areas, with a total circulation of approximately 750,000. In the smaller cities and provincial towns there are 27 daily newspapers with a total circulation of over 250,000. Five Sunday papers have a combined circulation of over 350,000.

The total number of magazines, periodicals, and journals published and sold in 1974–75 was 19,421,000 and in 1975–76 was 14,484,000. The total number of copies of daily newspapers in 1974–75 was 331,346,000 and in 1975–76 316,784,000.

In the following table, based on the UN Statistical Yearbook, the total circulation of daily and non-daily (including Sunday) newspapers is shown per 1,000 inhabitants for selected countries. Circulation figures for non-daily papers in New Zealand include those for the weekly, fortnightly or monthly local papers distributed free in many districts.

CountryYear*Copies per 1,000 Inhabitants
DailiesNon-dailies

*Refers to figures for dailies. Figures for non-dailies sometimes refer to an earlier year.

Australia1973386..
Canada1973235289
Denmark1973364256
France1972231424
Germany, West197330129
Italy197312046
Japan1973537..
Netherlands197331182
New Zealand1972365547
USSR1973373256
United Kingdom1973438..
United States1973300166

Advertising—The advertising revenue of newspapers and periodicals is shown in the following table for the latest available years.

Type of Publication1974–751975–76
  $(000)
Newspapers, daily53,37858,561
Newspapers, other than daily5,8986,640
Magazines, journals, and periodicals3,4843,237

CINEMAS—The survey of cinemas for the year ended 31 March 1975 covered 203 theatres, compared with 208 in 1973. Cinema admissions, which had been dropping since the introduction of television in 1961, showed a recovery in the latest survey. Compared with the position 2 years earlier, total admissions during 1974–75 were up by 3.2 million and admissions per head of population, at 5.1, were above both the 1972–73 and the 1970–71 figures, although well below the wartime peak of 21.3 in 1944–45, when admissions totalled 35.4 million.

The following table gives figures of cinema attendances and takings.

YearTheatresAdmissionsGross Admission TakingsAverage Admission PriceAdmissions Per Head of Mean Population
 No.No.$(000)cNo.
1970–7121013,0877,82859.84.6
1972–7320811,8709,85583.04.0
1974–7520315,03514,12994.05.1

The following statistics refer to the three latest surveys.

Item1970–711972–731974–75

*Includes 1 circuit or itinerant operator.

Cinemas—   
      Screenings 6 days per week120134134
      Screening odd days per week897469
      Circuit1....
Total210208203
Cinemas according to seating accommodation—   
      Under 200101613
      200 and under 500766878
      500 and under 1,00010310595
      1,000 and over201917
Total210*208203
Seating accommodation (all cinemas) No.129,434126,185119,365
Average seating capacity per cinema No.616607588
Persons engaged—   
      Full time—   
      Males No.261227241
      Females No.190226244
Part time—   
      Males No.425405422
      Females No.664784886
Performances per year No.89,69094,94891,304
Average attendance per performance No.146125165

Statistics on the commercial operation of theatres are given in the following table. These statistics relate only to cinemas, and do not purport to show employees, revenue, and expenditure of the motion picture industry as a whole. In particular, the full revenue and expenditure in connection with screen advertising, and also head office expenses of controlling companies (including such items as interest on debentures and mortgage charges), unless recovered from exhibitors, are not recorded in the statistics. The item "Rent" under "Theatre expenditure" does not represent the rental value of all theatres, but only the rent paid where theatres were leased or rented.

Item1970–711972–731974–75

*Includes drawings of working proprietors.

†In 1972–73 other receipts included a large increase in revenue from sales of confectionery and beverages not recorded in previous surveys.

Revenue— $(000) 
      Admission receipts7,8289,85514,129
      Screen advertising337362413
      Other receipts5021,2942,029
Total8,66711,51116,571
Expenditure—   
      Salaries and wages*1,8882,4523,288
      Film hire2,6403,2125,193
      Advertising2,8283,6814,565
      Rent
      Repairs and maintenance
      Depreciation
      Other expenses
Total7,3569,34513,046

Classification by Statistical Areas—In the following table, cinemas have been classified by statistical areas; further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

The average attendance per performance in 1974–75 rose in all areas except Marlborough.

Statistical AreaPopulation Estimate at 1 April 1975CinemasSeating AccommodationAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions Per Head of PopulationPerformances For YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Seating Capacity per Hall
 (000)No.No. of seatscNo.No.No.No.
Northland100.494,44480.93.92,918135494
Central Auckland796.74025,995104.45.726,771170650
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty464.13718,24472.25.013,812168493
East Coast48.583,46680.76.62,163148433
Hawke's Bay144.973,82783.04.13,088193547
Taranaki104.9105,77777.84.43,157146578
Wellington591.93325,02399.14.917,612164758
Marlborough34.331,34974.12.21,03474450
Nelson72.363,89481.04.22,054149649
Westland22.541,67076.55.2984119418
Canterbury428.12514,602102.14.410,363183584
Otago185.8156,70293.54.04,706160447
Southland111.064,37280.84.02,642169729
Total3,105.4203119,36594.05.191,304165588

Classification by Urban Areas—Statistics for the principal urban areas are as follows. Further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

Urban AreaPopulation Estimate at 1 Apr 1975CinemasSeating AccommodationAdmissions per SeatAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions per Head of PopulationPerformances per YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
 (000)No.No. of seatsNo.cNo.No.No.No.percent
Northern Auckland746.43524,380183104.96.025,39517697718.0
Western Auckland
Central Auckland
Southern Auckland
Upper Hutt Valley333.71513,592134109.25.510,1881791,00317.8
Lower Hutt Valley
Porirua Basin
Wellington
Christchurch297.9149,382169106.65.38,14319578724.8
Dunedin114.463,67517197.65.53,72316964726.1
Total1,492.47051,027167105.65.747,44917992419.4

Classification of Cinemas—The following table shows further statistics of cinemas classified by the number of screening days weekly.

ScreeningCinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAverage Admission ChargeAdmission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Admission Takings
 No.No. of(000)c$(000)$(000)Percent
Six and 7 days per week134seats 95,70814,32194.713,5675,03737.1
Fewer than 6 days per week6923,65771578.656215727.9
Total.203119,36515,03594.014,1295,19336.8
ScreeningPersons EngagedPerformances for the YearAverage Number of paid Admissions per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
Full TimePart Time
MaleFemaleMaleFemale
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.Percent
Six and 7 days per week26325237485882,33817478422.2
Fewer than 6 days per week4120111668,9668040519.8
Total30427248592491,30416574722.1

Chapter 15. Section 14 FARMING

14 A—GENERAL

SOILS—Soil is a product of its environment—its composition depends on the parent ingredient, the climate, the length of time it has weathered, the topography, and the vegetation under which it has formed. The complex soil pattern of New Zealand is a result of the many different kinds of rock, and the various conditions under which the soils have formed.

New Zealand includes such extremes as the subtropical climate of North Auckland, the cold uplands of the alpine regions, and the semi-arid basins of Central Otago.

The country's topography is also varied—50 percent of the land is classifiable as steep, 20 percent is moderately hilly, and only 30 percent is rolling or flat.

The natural vegetation ranges from kauri forest to subalpine scrub, and from tussock grassland to broadleaf forest. From time to time, occurrences such as river floods on alluvial plains, sand drifts, or a volcanic ash eruption interrupt and alter the pattern of soil development.

Regional differences in New Zealand's soils result mainly from the effects of climate on topography. Soils develop more rapidly under high temperatures and a heavy rainfall. In New Zealand, distinct soil gradations are found, both from north to south and from west to east. These closely follow the isohyets (lines connecting places that receive the same amount of rain) on a climatic map.

Increased knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to soil management. Soils have been mapped and their properties and uses determined. This has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of "problem" land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency, which reflects the modern changes to farming as an up-to-date science.

Farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers, phosphatic fertilisers, lime, and trace elements. The use of aircraft for topdressing and oversowing of grass is resulting in considerable improvements to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

New Zealand soils may be classified on a regional basis as follows.

RegionSoilsVegetation and Land Use
North Auckland Peninsula and Auckland regionNorthern yellow-brown earths and podzols left by kauri forest. Loams and clays from volcanic rocks. Soft-rock uplands with volcanic outcrops.Heavily forested (high rainfall and humidity). Patches of rich dairy land on formerly swampy organic soils. Some wool and store sheep. Dairying, fat lambs near Auckland. Patchy land use.
Bay of Plenty - Waikato - Thames - Hauraki PlainsVolcanic ash covers much of area. Most soils intrazonal or azonal. Yellow-brown pumice soils in Bay of Plenty. Peaty soils with high ground water on Hauraki Plains.Intensively farmed dairying region. Land use almost entirely based on grass and clover, with great reliance on topdressing Some fat lambs. Extensive exotic forests in Bay of Plenty region.
Volcanic PlateauPumice soils, lacking in essential trace elements. Yellow-brown pumice soils from volcanic material.Largely undeveloped scrub and native forest. Extensive exotic forests. Topdressing of former manuka and scrub area for farming.
East CoastSouthern and central yellow-brown earths. Patches of recent alluvial soils along rivers. Yellow-grey earths on rolling land south of Hawke BaySemi-extensive sheep farming (wool and store sheep). Intensive fat-lamb production on flat to rolling plains. Market gardens and orchards near Napier and Hastings. Some pip fruit. Pockets of dairying close to main ranges from Norsewood south.
TaranakiRing plain consists of yellow-brown loams, with granular clay from volcanic ash. Overlay of fertile ash and sediment from Mount Egmont. Soft-rock uplands away from coast.Distinct contrast between rich, closely farmed dairying ring plain and inland country with its steep ridges mainly covered in second-growth forest or dense gorse, and severely eroded.
Manawatu - Horowhenua Coast PlainSand dunes and swampy hollows common along coast. Steepland yellow-brown earths inland. Extensive young soils from dune sands along coast.Many hollows contain native flax (Phormium tenax). Pockets of dairying and fat-lamb production.
NelsonPockets of fertile, recent alluvial soils in yellow-grey and yellow-brown earths.Orchards and market gardens. Hops and tobacco also grown on flat, rolling land.
Marlborough - Kaikoura CoastYellow-brown earths with pockets of alluvial soils.Where land is developed, mainly sheep or cash cropping.
West CoastExtensive grey podzols, with recent swamp soils on alluvial flats.Mostly undeveloped scrub and native bush. Some dairying.
Canterbury PlainsVery thick layer of gravel deposited by rivers—thickest and coarsest near mountains from which rivers flow. Soils range from stony gravel to fine silts.Deep layer of fine sediment provides fertile soil for cereals and fodder crops, and makes good sheep pasture. Cash cropping on former swamp near Christchurch.
OtagoHigh-country yellow-brown earths on ranges; yellow-grey earths, often stony, in basins.Sheep farming for wool and fat lambs plus some cattle and some orchards. Irrigation necessary in low-rainfall area.
Southland and FiordlandSouthland Plain has extensive deposits of gravel and silt. Fiordland mostly subalpine grey soils and grey podzols.Fat-lamb production in Southland. Fiordland agriculturally undeveloped and unproductive. Scenic attractions.

NATURE OF FARMING—Most of the dairy farms are in lowland areas of the North Island, where naturally fertile or improved soils make for good grass growth. Approximately 90 percent of the total dairy stock in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of Northland, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, and Wellington. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry and carrying capacity may be as high as 2.5 cows per hectare, and annual production as high as 400–450 kg of milkfat per hectare. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. In most of the dairying areas lamb raising is also undertaken, particularly in the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty.

On the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are raised.

Sheep finishing farms are generally located on land which is of high fertility, either naturally or produced by topdressing. Country of this type is usually flat to undulating in topography, and tends to be concentrated on the coastal plains and river valleys of both islands, e.g., the Waikato basin, the Poverty Bay flats, the Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, Canterbury, and Southland plains. In the North Island it is normal to rely on pasture as a sole diet, while in the drier areas of the South Island it is necessary to grow special crops, such as rape, for finishing lambs, and in colder areas to grow crops for supplementing the ewe flock feeding over the winter.

Finishing farms vary considerably in area and in the size of flock carried. A flock of 1,000–1,200 ewes is commonly regarded as a 1-man unit. The average range in carrying capacity is from 7 to 15 ewes wintered to the hectare. Lambing percentages are variable but average from 95 to 110 lambs per 100 ewes mated. The aim of the farmer is to sell a high proportion of these lambs, straight off their mothers, at carcass weights around 12–16 kg for the United Kingdom market. In the North Island, cattle are normally purchased in the spring to control excess pasture growth and are finished, if possible, by the autumn. On some properties, store wether lambs from the hill-breeding flocks may also be brought in for finishing. The amount of meat produced on finishing farms averages about 160–170 kg per hectare.

Hill country sheep farming covers extensive areas in both islands. The stock carried consists of a mixed-age flock of breeding ewes, ewe hoggets for replacements, and rams. Where part of the property is of poor quality, wethers may also be carried. Products sold are wool (which usually represents 50 percent or more of the total farm income), some wether lambs, store lambs for finishing and, of most importance, breeding ewes.

A large proportion of the beef cattle are also run on hill-country properties.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. Approximately 90 percent of New Zealand's wheat, oats, and barley areas are in these districts. On the majority of the cereal-producing farms sheep and lambs are also finished.

OCCUPIED LAND: Tenure—The tenure of occupied land at 30 June 1976 by size of holding is given in the following table.

Size of HoldingNumber of HoldingsFreeholdCrown Land, Leases and LicencesLeasehold*OtherTotal Land Occupied

*Includes land leased from private individuals (448,715 ha), land leased from companies (188,146 ha), land leased from trustees (499,180 ha), and land leased from local authorities (190,747 ha).

HectaresHectares (000)
Under 55,53516.00.20.7--16.9
5–94,71928.90.72.1--31.8
10–142,47525.01.02.9--29.0
15–191,84226.71.13.2--31.1
20–293,25466.63.37.70.277.8
30–393,16995.44.29.40.2109.2
40–494,113156.07.615.90.4179.9
50–593,291154.39.315.90.3179.8
60–795,733333.324.235.30.8393.6
80–994,502335.023.438.80.9398.1
100–1497,067719.567.177.41.3865.3
150–1994,888689.885.570.32.0847.5
200–2996,2511,201.1191.3120.72.51,515.6
300–3993,128826.0145.999.65.41,076.9
400–5992,9931,094.1196.7146.08.21,445.0
600–7991,382695.3151.596.36.3949.4
800–999809510.6142.561.62.8717.5
1,000–1,199468353.5112.045.73.3514.5
1,200–1,999964920.5406.6128.517.51,473.1
2,000–3,999581786.8676.789.737.41,590.7
4,000 and over6101,116.17,362.3259.143.48,780.8
Total67,77410,150.59,613.01,326.8133.321,223.7

Land Usage—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1976 by statistical area is given in the following table.

Statistical AreaNo. of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneCrops, Fruit, or NurseryPlantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingTotal Area of Holdings*
Established Before 30/6/75Established During Year Ended 3/6/76Area Prior to 31/3/75Planted in 1976 Season

*Including "Other".

  ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)
Northland6,034639.38.44.830.74.935.11,069.7
Central Auckland5,910285.11.88.920.92.98.8415.7
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty15,5381,725.925.632.3390.320.652.43,405.1
East Coast1,478542.43.48.518.04.328.7722.3
Hawke's Bay4,242879.113.520.533.94.253.01,310.6
Taranaki4,439418.23.83.32.90.321.8614.0
Wellington7,7921,387.222.631.632.93.9175.51,994.8
      North Island45,4335,877.179.2109.8529.541.0375.39,532.2
Marlborough1,282188.96.78.015.05.9521.81,110.8
Nelson2,240147.44.88.756.68.3107.51,449.9
Westland73989.42.80.711.50.640.9948.1
Canterbury8,599966.1102.6179.541.218.91,558.03,337.5
Otago4,603793.640.263.737.215.11,928.93,269.2
Southland4,878651.028.759.018.26.5412.41,575.9
      South Island22,3412,836.5185.8319.7179.855.44,569.611,691.4
      New Zealand67,7748,713.6265.0429.5709.396.34,944.821,223.7

Farm Type—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1976 by farm type is shown in the following table.

Farm Type**Number of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneLand In or Prepared For Fruit, Grain, Crops, Vegetables, etc.Plantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingOther Land On HoldingTotal Area of Holdings

*Seventy-five percent or more is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity, and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

||More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶The relevant percentage of income may be derived from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

**These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

Hectares (000)
Dairy farming*15,7031,105.713.93.729.4102.31,255.0
Sheep farming*14,5133,178.8116.044.63,362.2736.77,438.3
Beef farming*6,868554.05.412.0335.9237.11,144.5
Pig farming*5479.51.6--0.61.312.9
Cropping*1,43131.744.00.20.93.180.0
Dairy farming with sheep39455.81.10.35.19.571.9
Dairy farming with beef69782.30.90.94.917.4106.4
Dairy farming with other39822.72.00.10.72.027.4
Sheep farming with dairy14123.20.80.11.13.328.6
Sheep farming with beef5,7742,039.133.633.7809.9367.13,283.4
Sheep farming with crop-ping1,334202.244.31.424.28.3280.4
Sheep farming with other31853.92.94.432.716.0109.9
Beef farming with dairy16616.10.2--0.42.619.4
Beef farming with sheep1,258278.83.62.844.268.8398.3
Beef farming with other30018.32.40.71.73.226.3
Cropping with sheep75167.341.50.51.93.3114.4
Cropping with other2198.36.00.10.30.515.2
Pig farming with other1936.60.90.10.21.39.1
Mixed livestock3,746853.217.314.0210.7217.51,312.7
General mixed farming§1,384156.347.11.210.913.8229.3
Poultry farming||6496.81.0--0.31.49.5
Market gardening and flowers||1,58414.917.90.13.51.938.3
Orchards||2,1066.015.80.61.53.427.5
Tobacco growing||2355.52.10.41.43.512.9
Nurseries||3471.01.8--0.10.33.3
Plantations||5065.70.2635.34.21,204.41,849.8
Other farming1,15466.23.547.48.61,064.21,189.9
Idle land5,058108.61.81.047.01,970.72,129.1
Total, all farm types67,7748,978.6429.5805.74,944.86,065.021,223.7

FARM EMPLOYMENT SURVEY—At 30 June 1976 the total number of persons working on farms was 143,035, an increase of 6.2 percent compared with 30 June 1975. Of these, 75,722 were working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers, 55,883 of whom worked 30 hours or more a week. There were 37,578 permanent paid employees, 9,469 paid casual employees, and 20,266 unpaid family members.

Female working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers increased by 2,047 or 18.1 percent from 30 June 1975 to 30 June 1976. This emphasises the trend for women to be included in the ownership structure of partnerships and farming companies. Male working owners also increased by 18.8 percent, while the number of males employed decreased by 370 or 1 percent during the same period.

There were 67,774 productive farm holdings included in the survey. On 54,570 there were working owners, leaseholders, or sharemilkers. On 25,227 there were permanent paid employees, and on 12,658 casual labour was employed during the year.

Of the 75,722 working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers, 34 percent were engaged in dairy farming, 31.2 percent in sheep farming, 12.1 percent in beef farming, and a further 5.7 percent in mixed livestock farming.

At 30 June 1976 sheep farms accounted for 36.8 percent of paid full-time and part-time employees, dairy farms for 21 percent, mixed livestock farms for 6.9 percent, and beef farms for 4.5 percent, while the same farm types accounted for 37.2, 6.7, 4.9, and 4.1 percent respectively of all paid casual employees at the same date.

Paid casual employees at 30 June 1976 numbered 9,469 or 20.1 percent of the total paid labour force. Of these casual employees, 59.6 percent were employed on farms of under 200 hectares. Of the paid permanent full-time and part-time employees, 45.1 percent were employed on farms of less than 200 hectares.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE ON FARMS—An annual survey of capital formation in the farming industry is made by the Department of Statistics. For the year ended 30 June 1976 capital expenditure was reported by 58.4 percent (39,575) out of the 67,774 farms and plantations surveyed.

The following table shows capital expenditure by type during the latest available 5 years. For each type of expenditure the figure given is net, i.e., receipts from "trade-ins" or sales have been deducted from the gross expenditure.

YearBuilding and ConstructionTransport VehiclesTractors and Farm MachineryOther Improvements and DevelopmentTotal Capital Expenditure
   $(million)  
1971–7232.231.532.635.0131.3
1972–7342.151.739.951.8185.6
1973–7459.145.841.465.0211.3
1974–7584.433.640.543.6202.1
1975–7693.250.758.849.0251.7

NOTE—Up to 1974–75 this table excludes holdings given over wholly to plantations of timber trees, whereas these are included in the next table.

The following table shows capital expenditure, net of sales, by farm type and size group. It includes holdings given over wholly to plantations of timber trees. This table refers to the year ended 31 March 1976.

Farm TypeSize Groups (hectares)Total Expenditure
Under 2020–4950–99100–299300–799800 and Over

*Seventy-five percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

||More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

    $(000)   
Dairy farming*6168,52723,93715,1701,252549,507
Sheep farming*2,5261,5562,78622,55917,15414,64061,221
Beef farming*3,7042,2372,0612,8451,3491,50213,698
Pig farming*1,1294563882191092,301
Cropping*1,2517068702,6264085,860
Dairy farming with sheep1232236953361971,689
Dairy farming with beef65684921,67128892,592
Dairy farming with other322177615271,538
Sheep farming with dairy21310720680105512
Sheep farming with beef3701,3006207,41010,0379,38229,118
Sheep farming with cropping1382044635,2351,9463108,296
Sheep farming with other25571205953421661,306
Beef farming with dairy6127271681372418
Beef farming with sheep2641834111,2101,4471,3794,894
Beef farming with other1992421332811132969
Cropping with sheep881005433,3701,1335,235
Cropping with other1571702102722141,024
Pig farming with other1541701812518764
Stud farming||598433364575258722,301
Mixed livestock6978411,2054,7553,7573,34814,604
General mixed farming§2086681,2874,1501,6527498,714
Poultry farming||1,7784132731321642,760
Market gardening and flowers||3,3721,5371,3301,0202832487,789
Orchards||5,0351,586774171117,577
Nurseries||8901551093071,462
Plantations||191186766910,07010,428
Other farming1,1964105114271301,4304,104
Idle land8241231216521,028
Total, all farm types25,58122,44840,21677,19542,70143,566251,708

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION ACCOUNT AND THE VALUE AND VOLUME OF FARMING PRODUCTION—These series relating to the farming industry were fully described in a supplement to the January—February 1976 Monthly Abstract of Statistics, which should be consulted for details of the statistical methodology and sources used. This series replaces the old Gross Farming Income and Volume of Farm Production series.

The tables following are centred around the structure of the Agricultural Production Account. The one below is the forerunner of some 25 other industry accounts of the proposed system of New Zealand national accounts, for which the theoretical and methodological prescription can be found in the United Nations System of National Accounts (1968).

ItemYear Ended March
1973197419751976x1977*

*Provisional.

   $(million)  
Input     
      Intermediate consumption512594551655785
      Compensation of employees155178184212237
Operating surplus—     
      Interest paid90104110128158
      Proprietors' surplus from farming activity675672409608796
Consumption of fixed capital120138144174209
Indirect taxes2631333948
      Less Subsidies–13–5–8–18–22
      Gross Input1,5651,7121,4231,7982,211
Output     
      Characteristic products of industrial activity1,5611,7061,4161,7922,204
      Other products46767
      Gross Output1,5651,7121,4231,7982,211

It will be noted that figures for 1976–77 are provisional.

The following table shows details of the Agricultural Production Account item, Intermediate consumption.

ItemYear Ended March
1973197419751976x1977*

*Provisional.

   $(million)  
Animal health, weed and pest control4246496076
Shearing expenses3036353844
Fertilisers, lime and seeds851107899124
Vehicle expenses66697795116
Electricity1117152028
Feed and grazing75838591106
Agricultural services2433303642
Repairs and maintenance859883102123
Packing and containers77799
Railage and cartage2832293235
Administration and general expenses3435354244
Insurance7810810
Rent1720182328
Total512594551655785

GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION (GROSS OUTPUT)—The following table of Gross Agricultural Production shows the value of farming production for March and June years.

ItemYear Ended
31 Mar 197430 Jun 197431 Mar 197530 Jun 197531 Mar 1976x30 Jun 1976x31 Mar 1977*30 Jun 1977*

*Provisional.

    $(million)    
Income        
Sheep and lambs313305206195232291385401
Wool325315218216398398539548
Cattle336298195200277322x359354
Pigs3435363737374144
Dairy products343347364375435443483483
Crops and seeds9699109108143146x145140
Fruit394045464647x4850
Vegetables4748565655565658
Poultry and eggs6062666778788282
Agricultural services818181819191x105105
Other—farm products1717171719202425
—non-farm products66776677
Changes of stock (livestock)        
Physical change at average market prices—sheep–30–8–2–8+9+9+23+31
—cattle+46+70+26+1–28–31x–85–72
—pigs–1–1–1–2-..+..–1–1
Gross Agricultural Production (Gross Output)1,7121,7141,4231,3961,7981,9132,2112,255

The value of Gross Agricultural Production for June years prior to 1973–74 has been estimated as follows (in $ million): 1965–66, $884; 1966–67, $869; 1967–68, $862; 1968–69, $936; 1969–70, $949; 1970–71, $1,064; 1971–72, $1,247; 1972–73, $1,668.

VOLUME OF GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The index of the Volume of Gross Agricultural Production, which is a year-to-year quantum measure of commodities coming off all New Zealand farms and hence available for export or domestic consumption, is shown in the following table with two expression bases, 1965–66 (=1000) and 1971–72 (=1000).

Year Ended JuneIndex NumberChange from previous Year
Base: 1965–66 (= 1000)Base: 1971–72 (=1000)

*Provisional.

†Minus sign signifies a decrease.

 Percent
19731094966–3.4
19741064939–2.8
19751076950+1.2
1976x11501015+6.8
1977*11421008–0.7

The index of the Volume of Gross Agricultural Production for each of the latest 6 years is shown in the following table for the component product groups, as well as for the production of the whole agricultural industry. The expression base for each product group separately, and for the agriculture industry as a whole, is the year 1971–72 (=1000). The reduction in the volume index for cattle in 1977 is partly due to the drop in the number of cattle held on farms. This fell from 9 million, at the start of the year, to an estimated 8.6 million in June 1977.

ProductsYears Ended 30 June
197219731974197519761977*

*Provisional.

Volume Index Numbers
Sheep and lambs1000911834833905936
Wool100096289694710061008
Cattle10009701002909973828
Pigs1000925872836862927
Dairy products100097292498610611076
Crops and seeds100090793897611891195
Fruit100010551199113310831153
Vegetables10008948581039828896
Poultry and eggs100010501105110711921208
Other farm products10009541270135113771430
Agriculture services..................
Non-farm products of the agriculture industry..................
All agriculture industry production100096693995010151008

VOLUME OF NET AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The index of the Volume of Net Agricultural Production is arrived at by deducting intermediate consumption expressed in constant dollar terms from outputs in constant dollar terms and expressing the difference in index form.

The importance of the net volume series lies in the fact that it measures the volume of the contribution of the agriculture industry alone, after elimination of the contribution of all other industries to gross agriculture output. The net index is preferable to the gross index in analysing the contribution of agriculture to the country's real gross domestic product and the changing importance of agriculture in the economy and its productivity.

In the following table the new series is shown in index form and in annual percentage movements. The base is 1971–72 (=1000).

Year Ended MarchIndex NumberChange from previous year

*Provisional

  Percent
19721000...
1973896–10.4
1974853–4.8
1975974+14.2
1976x1034+6.2
1977*1015–1.8

Problems which are specific to farm accounting are related to the production process of the industry itself—its seasonal nature, and its dependence on biological factors and climatic conditions. All these intervene in various ways between real resource use and output. Also, operations are not necessarily restricted to an annual cycle (e.g. the application of fertiliser in one year can affect output for a number of years) but the accounts are always made up for one year. As a result, year-to-year comparisons between resource use and output and, in the final analysis, the net profit (net income, surplus) of the farming industry, can be affected by fortuitous factors.

This is the principal reason why year-to-year changes in real gross production and real net production can differ to a marked degree.

DAIRY PRODUCTION—The next table shows milk production and utilisation of milkfat during each of the last five seasons, year ending 31 May. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

 1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77

*Includes milked to stock and waste, but excludes separation loss.

Production*
Milk, litres (million)5,8815,5125,9076,3596,442
Milkfat, tonnes (000)280.5260.9273.3296.5302.9
Liquid milk, cream, and icecream, litres (million)519525558557525
Utilisation of Milkfat Processed
Butter, tonnes (000)193.1176.6197.3211.3225.8
Cheese, tonnes (000)39.835.133.940.133.3
Other wholemilk products, tonnes (000)13.716.112.716.216.0
Total, tonnes (000)246.6227.8243.9267.6275.1

Production by dairy factories during the latest five seasons is set out in the following table.

Product1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77

*Includes caseinates (9,907 tonnes in 1976–77).

tonnes(000)
Creamery butter201.8185.9205.1219.8219.1
Whey butter3.02.72.73.02.7
Anhydrous milkfat32.722.731.629.341.3
Frozen cream5.15.15.97.04.0
Cheese101.189.088.6104.881.0
Skim-milk powder189.2194.1243.7207.0205.7
Casein, acid39.930.429.544.641.4
Casein, rennet*6.45.15.08.216.6
Buttermilk powder22.419.024.224.323.5
Condensed and powdered whole milk35.050.333.946.877.9
Lactose9.18.07.59.48.7
Total645.7612.3677.8704.2721.9

The butter produced in New Zealand is of a salted type and, because the cows are fed almost entirely on grass, it has a high carotene content which makes it yellower than the butter from countries where cows are fed indoors for much of the year. Most of the cheese exported is a cheddar. Milk powders include those made from whole milk or from separated milk and buttermilk, by-products of butter making. Lactose is made from whey, a by-product of cheesemaking. At one time skim milk, buttermilk, and whey were almost entirely fed to pigs, but in recent years the bulk of it has been dried to produce powder.

The following table gives estimates, derived by the New Zealand Dairy Board, of the average milkfat production per cow "at the pail".

YearDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per Cow*

*Including an allowance for cows milked on small holdings not covered by the annual farm census.

 (000)Kg
1971–722,200132
1972–732,190129
1973–742,140123
1974–752,080133x
1975–762,092143x
1976–772,074147

Herd sizes have increased as suppliers with small herds have ceased production and as dairy farms have been amalgamated. The number of suppliers to dairy factories and milkfat production per supplier is shown in the following table. (Source: N.Z. Dairy Board.)

SeasonSuppliers* at 31 DecemberAverage size of HerdMilk fat per Supplier

*Does not include town milk suppliers (about 1,700).

†Average area of dairy farms estimated at 63 hectares.

   kg
1972–7319,87910612,926
1973–7418,55710912,875
1974–7517,69511214,350
1975–7617,42011515,722
1976–7716,78611616,613

Tanker collection of milk by the dairy factories began in 1951. By 1960 55 percent of the milkfat supplied to dairy factories was received as milk (instead of cream as previously); this increased to 79 percent by 1966 and by 1973–74 was 97 percent.

The following diagram shows the progress of the dairy industry over a long period of years.

MILKFAT PRODUCTION

The New Zealand Dairy Board of 13 members functions under the Dairy Board Act 1961. Apart from two Government representatives, all are producer members—three are appointed by the New Zealand Co-operative Dairy Company, eight are elected by other dairy companies, with voting proportionate to the quantity of milkfat received by those companies from their suppliers in six geographically-defined wards.

The Dairy Board's work is divided broadly into two sections; one concerned with the development of the dairy industry and the other with marketing of dairy produce. (This latter activity is described in Section 21A, Marketing of Farm Products.) It is a further function of the board to promote the bobby calf and pig industries.

The Dairy Board has the broad function of linking manufacturing plans and growth with export market requirements. It is responsible by statute for the purchase and sale of export dairy products and for the development, in all respects, of the dairy industry. Since the board is the sole purchaser of produce for export, this purchasing power helps to link manufacturing plans with commercial reality.

MILK PRODUCTION—The administration and organisation of the town milk supply is the responsibility of the New Zealand Milk Board (see Section 21A).

During the year ended August 1977, town milk suppliers provided 739.3 million litres of milk. Of this, 483.7 million litres went to the milk stations and eventually reached the consumer in the form of 399.4 million litres of pasteurised milk and 8.7 million litres of sweet cream. The balance of the total production went to dairy factories (243.5 million litres), to the manufacture of ice cream, yoghurt, and cottage-cheese (12 million litres), and for sale as raw milk (85,731 litres).

Season Ended 30 JuneTotal Wool Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price Per Kilogram (Greasy Basis)Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
 tonnes(000)cents$(m)
1973309143.96444.5
1974285139.19396.4
197529491.75269.8
1976312157.12489.9
1977303219.58687.3

Because of lack of information on changes in stocks of wool on farms, the above figures of production should not be taken as precise measures of actual production in each season.

WOOL PRODUCTION

Note: Total Production scale in above graph should read tonnes (000), not tonnes (million)

New Zealand Wool Board—The New Zealand Wool Board was originally set up under the Wool Industry Act 1944. It was amalgamated with the New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation by the Wool Industry Act 1977. The amalgamation took effect on 7 February 1978. The board has 6 representatives of woolgrowers, elected by an electoral committee of 26 (the members of the committee are in turn elected by sheep farmers. The same committee elects the grower representatives on the Meat Producers Board). Representatives have a 3-year term and are eligible for re-election. The Wool Board also has two members appointed by the Governor-General on the nomination of the Minister of Agriculture. The Director-General of Agriculture is automatically a member, and the tenth member, chosen for his commercial experience, is appointed by the Governor-General on the nomination of the board.

The general objective of the board is to obtain, in the interests of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. Among its functions are: to promote the use of New Zealand wool in existing or new markets; to develop and maintain a marketing system for New Zealand wool suited to the requirements of the world's textile industry; to market wool to the best possible advantage; to bring about the greatest possible efficiencies in the preparation, handling, distribution, shipping, and selling of wool; to encourage the production in New Zealand of types of wool suited to market requirements; to promote research into wool and sheep; and to set minimum prices for wool and operate a minimum price funding scheme.

Main sources of income for the board are (i) a 3 percent levy on gross wool receipts ($19.3 million in the 1976–77 season) which is used exclusively for promotion and research; (ii) interest on investments ($5.6 million for the corporation in. 1976–77, and $488,000 for the board in the same period); (iii) Government grants for research and development ($2 million in 1976–77).

The board is active in all aspects of the wool industry from production through to advertising wool products overseas. Its production section is engaged in the promotion of breeding practices suited to todays market, proper wool handling and clip preparation, and co-operation with wool and sheep research organisations throughout the country. The field service trains 1,000 shearers a year in the Wool Board shearing technique.

Perhaps the board's biggest role is in the New Zealand marketing system and the operation of its price support schemes. It values all wool offered at auction and intervenes in the market according to its commercial judgment. In doing this, it may buy wool. At the end of February 1978 the board held approximately 200,000 bales. It sells from this stockpile, normally through the established wool trade in New Zealand. The wool is also valued for the purpose of ensuring a minimum return to growers (the minimum floor price). In the 1977/78 season the floor price was set at an average of 150 cents per kilogram, greasy weight. When the sale price for a lot at auction falls below the appropriate minimum price, the board pays the difference to the grower as a supplementary payment. Supplement is also paid on privately sold wool, provided the buyer displays it under specified conditions for appraisal by the board.

The board's price support operations are funded from reserves which totalled $79 million at 30 June 1977, and which were originally derived from sales of wool accumulated during World War II. The supplementary payments are funded by a minimum price funding levy introduced on 1 July 1976. Currently, the levy is 3 percent of gross proceeds.

The Wool Industry Act also provides for a Wool Auction Sales Committee, which draws up and supervises the roster of wool auction sales. The board is also empowered to grant or revoke licences to export wool. It is involved in the development of market innovations, such as the sale of wool by sample, it is the negotiator of freight rates, and operates a number of wool stores for its own use. Board economists conduct a market intelligence service covering production, disposal, and market prices.

The board provides a technical service to wool processors and textile manufacturers, both in New Zealand and overseas, and is extensively involved in the promotion of wool textiles on its own account, and in co-operation with garment and carpet manufacturers and the retail trade throughout New Zealand. It also supports New Zealand manufactured wool products in export markets.

In the 1976–77 season the board's share of the budget of the International Wool Secretariat was more than $17 million. The IWS is a partnership with Australia, South Africa, and Uruguay. It has headquarters in London and operates in almost all countries with a substantial consumer market. It offers technical and fashion advice in menswear, womenswear, and furnishings to manufacturers; administers the Woolmark and Woolblendmark (maintaining quality control in more than 13,000 factories), and promotes wool through campaigns with manufacturers and retailers.

The board provides approximately half the annual revenue of the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand (WRONZ). In 1977–78 this was $450,000. Established in 1960 at Lincoln, Christchurch, the Wool Research Organisation has a professional staff of about 35. It conducts fundamental research on the wool fibre and applied research on scouring, processing, and performance of New Zealand wools. It is also developing the measurement of wool characteristics as an aid in marketing. The board is represented on the WRONZ executive.

The board is represented on the Wool Testing Authority. Wool testing which has been carried out in New Zealand since the 1940s, is used by buyers and processors as a basis for trading. Certificates are provided for yield, vegetable matter, fibre diameter, and moisture content.

With the Meat Producers Board, the Wool Board maintains the New Zealand Meat and Wool Boards' Economic Service, which provides economic data for both boards and outside organisations through a survey of a representative 500 pastoral farms.

One of the latest outside activities in which the board has become engaged is the administration, on behalf of Government, of the Wool Income Retention Scheme, introduced by the Wool Income Stabilisation Regulations 1976. Under this scheme, a proportion of the gross proceeds from sale of wool is retained when the adjusted weighted average sale price at auction exceeds a "trigger price" set by the Minister of Agriculture (215 cents per kilogram greasy weight in 1977–78). The proceeds so retained are credited to individual growers' accounts and are refundable to growers after 5 years, or in special circumstances as prescribed by the regulations. In February 1977, the Government authorised the repayment of funds held in these accounts (amounting to $24 million in more than 40,000 accounts).

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION COUNCIL—This council was set up following a recommendation of the Agricultural Development Conference in 1964. It comprises the Minister of Agriculture (chairman), the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries (deputy-chairman), the Dominion President, Federated Farmers of New Zealand (Inc.), the chairmen of the three producer boards (Dairy, Meat, and Wool), the Secretary to the Treasury, and the Secretary of Industries and Commerce. As a result of a review in 1973–74 the chairman of the Horticulture Committee was added to the membership of the council.

In addition to one standing committee on horticulture, the Council has 22 District Agricultural Advisory Committees which bring together at local level all the organisations which service agriculture in that region. These committees review the progress of agriculture in their district; identify factors limiting production and propose remedial measures; ensure that farmers and their advisors are fully aware of development incentives and concessions and the availability and terms of finance; and keep the council advised of local problems and circumstances.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries was formed in 1972 by grafting the fisheries management and research divisions of the former Marine Department on to the Department of Agriculture. The principal functions of the ministry are: to promote and to encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, horticultural and fishing industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; and to promote, control and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of agriculture and fisheries. Under a Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries there are Divisions of Animal Health, Meat, Dairy, Advisory Services, Agricultural Research, Fisheries Research, Fisheries Management, Economics, and Administration. Though the service is primarily advisory, the ministry administers a number of Acts and regulations.

Animal Health—The major objective of the Animal Health Division is to safeguard the health of livestock in New Zealand by preventing the introduction of serious exotic diseases and to work towards the eradication of existing endemic diseases. The division's veterinarians examine animals and certify them as suitable for export; they maintain surveillance and quarantine procedures which reduce the risk of introducing foreign diseases with import of animals and animal products. The division operates quarantine stations for imported livestock. Five regional animal health laboratories are operated by the division and provide diagnostic support to practitioners and veterinarians of other divisions of the ministry. It also operates a national reference laboratory for infectious diseases and for diagnostic tests of imported and exported animals. A central brucellosis laboratory services the national brucellosis testing scheme.

The division is associated with the Pest Destruction Council, through district pest destruction boards, in the destruction of rabbits, hares, opossums, and wallabies.

Meat—The Meat Division is responsible for the inspection of stock intended for slaughter at abattoirs and export meatworks and for the later inspection of the carcasses. It is also responsible for the standard of hygiene at these establishments as well as in meat packing houses, rural slaughterhouses, game packing houses, and export fish packing houses. Veterinary certificates for meat, game, and fish exported are given by veterinary staff of the division, and meat-inspection staff are responsible for grading meat for local consumption produced at abattoirs and supervising the grading of meat for local consumption at export meatworks.

Dairy Produce—Quality control in all aspects of dairy food production is essentially the job of the dairy industry itself. However, the Dairy Division is responsible for assuring all buyers of New Zealand dairy produce that strict quality standards are indeed being maintained.

In this role the division gives advice in, and supervises, all aspects of the manufacture of dairy produce. Supervision starts on the farm and extends through dairy food processing plants to storage facilities and to loading out for shipment.

All dairy farms are visited regularly for inspection and advice by farm dairy instructors. Milk tankers are inspected constantly and milk is graded before processing by Government tested and certified staff. All processing plants are inspected and classified; the division licenses and registers each plant and must approve its design, operation, and quality control performance.

Samples from each lot of dairy produce manufactured are tested by officers highly experienced in assessing the flavour, texture, body, and presentation of produce. They are backed by comprehensive chemical and microbiological assessments performed in laboratories at Auckland, Tauranga, New Plymouth, and Wellington. The laboratory network is itself supported by a national reference laboratory at Hamilton. Specialist advisory officers are available for problem-solving or general support on farms, or in dairy food manufacturing plants.

The Division supervises the town milk industry in the same way.

Whenever possible, a proportion of dairy produce is examined at its destination overseas. Officers are maintained in, or visit, customer countries for this purpose.

Advisory Services to Farmers—The Advisory Services Division provides advisory services to farmers and horticulturalists and undertakes the various activities such as plant diagnostic, quarantine, testing, and field inspection services needed to meet the ministry's responsibilities under the Plants Act 1970.

The graduate advisory officers, who service the districts, are backed by specialists in the fields of agricultural engineering, animal husbandry, and farm economics. Extension work operates through individual farm visits, group techniques, and the mass media.

Outside its extension work, this division is responsible for certification and testing of herbage and cereal seeds, for the Flock House Farm Training Institute at Bulls, and for the educational and training aspects of the Telford Farm Training Institute at Balclutha. The division also provides a specialist advisory service for poultry farmers and beekeepers.

The advisory service extends to commercial producers of pip, stone, citrus, and subtropical fruits, vegetables, berry fruits, cut flowers, nursery stock, grapes and wine, bees and honey, hops, and tobacco. It covers all aspects of production—soil management, disease and pest control, and crop production and handling. Advisory officers demonstrate and adapt research results in districts for all horticultural crops and beekeeping. More emphasis is being given to commercial horticultural units to assist producers to improve the profitability of their holdings.

Horticultural inspectors inspect commercial plant nurseries, market gardens, and orchards for plant pests and diseases to restrict their spread. They advise producers on dates for picking, and give instruction in grading and packing fruit for export and local markets. They also inspect fruit, vegetables, and plant material for export from New Zealand. All pip fruit delivered to the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board for local and export markets is inspected by horticultural inspectors. An orange-quality testing service is provided for the Citrus Marketing Authority and a honey-grading service for the Honey Marketing Authority. All honey for export is inspected before certificates are issued.

Information is supplied for marketing organisations in the form of seasonal forecasts of production. Periodic surveys are made of orchards, market gardens, and nurseries.

Agricultural Research—All research stations of the ministry are under control of the Director of Agricultural Research, with headquarters at Wellington. Directors of Animal Research, and Soil and Field Research are also stationed at Ruakura. Irrigation research is done at Winchmore, and other research establishments are at Whatawhata (near Hamilton), which specialises in hill-country research, and at Invermay. Research work on animal diseases is centred largely at Wallaceville. Horticultural research is centred at Levin and viticulture research at Te Kauwhata. Research activities are more fully discussed in Section 7B, Science and Scientific Services.

Economics—The Economics Division deals with all aspects of agricultural policy including international trade and trade negotiations in relation to agriculture, international quality standards, liaison with international agencies, the analysis of national production and marketing policies, and the general economic position of farmers. Other functions include the economic appraisal of projects associated with agricultural development and resource use, the economics of the fishing industry, and the economic evaluation of research proposals.

Port Agriculture Service—The Port Agriculture Service is a uniformed branch of the ministry under the control of a superintendent. Its chief responsibility is to prevent the introduction into New Zealand of serious animal and plant diseases and pests. Officers of this service are located at ports and international airports, and deal with all items of concern to agriculture from overseas.

TOPDRESSING—Topdressing with artificial fertilisers has been an important factor in the intensification of grassland farming. Most New Zealand soils need fertilisers, especially phosphates. Superphosphate has been produced in New Zealand in increasing quantities since the 1880s, using rock phosphates from Nauru and Ocean Islands; Christmas Island is now an increasingly important source of supply. Over the years there has been a marked changeover from straight superphosphate as the principal fertiliser for grassland and crops—usual variants are serpentine superphosphate or aerial superphosphate, or a mixture of superphosphate with potash, additional sulphur or a trace element. Production of chemical fertilisers in 1975–76 totalled 2,142,000 tonnes compared with 1,819,000 tonnes in 1974–75, a 17.8 percent rise. Approximately half of the sown grassland receives fertiliser annually, with about half the fertilised area covered by aerial distribution; about one-third of the quantity is distributed by aeroplanes from 8,000 airstrips. Total expenditure on topdressing of farm land comes to about $80 million annually, including fertiliser transport and application costs. New Zealand occupies less than 0.3 percent of the world's land area, yet this country uses 2 percent of the world's fertiliser production.

The use of lime to correct soil acidity and increase the availability of trace elements grew steadily from 1890 to a peak of 1.5 million tonnes in 1945. Since then the usage has dropped to less than 1 million tonnes annually; there is now a more judicious application of lime and a greater use of trace elements, such as molybdenum, according to proved soil needs.

The following table gives particulars of areas of grassland topdressed during the latest available years. From 1972 this information is being collected triennially.

 Area TopdressedQuantity of Fertiliser and Lime Spread
Year*Fertiliser Only.Lime OnlyFertiliser and Lime TogetherTotal Area TopdressedBy Ordinary MeansBy Aeroplanes

*Year ended 31 January to 1970 and 30 June thereafter.

 ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)tonnes(000)tonnes(000)
19704,853.8165.4632.95,652.12,003.8951.3
19714,758.3171.8695.75,625.82,218.9930.4
19724,758.7187.5741.75,688.02,189.61,020.2
19754,143.4226.6555.24,925.21,819.5747.1

IRRIGATION—Most of New Zealand soils have a seasonal moisture deficiency and require irrigation to reach their maximum productivity. Many soils presently farmed under dry land conditions are capable of substantially increased production under irrigation.

The area and type of land irrigated during the year ended 30 June 1976 is analysed by statistical area in the following table.

Statistical AreaNo. of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneCommercialOther CropsOther LandTotal
FruitVegetables
Hectares
Northland15554446912290221,247
Central Auckland3211,5482001,0329122,873
South Auckland—       
      Bay of Plenty1791,6222751583532,093
East Coast5020098184482
Hawke's Bay4032,5861,27292723215,018
Taranaki47672713692
Wellington2653,360169466263174,275
      North Island1,42010,5322,4832,8967244516,680
Marlborough1572,067204503741113,526
Nelson4321,7555935331,752244,657
Westland
Canterbury1,54159,4684932,30018,45224780,960
Otago87654,3891,3802261,21339557,603
Southland2590913922
      South Island3,031118,5882,6703,56222,171677147,668
      New Zealand4,451129,1205,1536,45822,895722164,348

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC.—For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry and allied organisations from public funds.

The following table shows the pattern of major payments in recent years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77x1977–78*

*Estimates.

 $(000)
Lime transport assistance4565724923793545
Fertiliser and lime transport subsidy12,48011,6498,1829,16112,72216,000
Flood and drought relief192951145263374400
Weedicide and pesticide subsidy5,4162,479
Eradication of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis—      
      Compensation for condemned animals, loss of production payments, hardship payments, and incidental costs3,6042,9852,9792,6872,3433,300
Agricultural pests control2,5352,7283,0254,0694,8356,065
Subsidies to nassella tussock boards7405887613,1451,2721,654
Subsidies to county councils under the Noxious Weeds Act
Noxious plants control scheme8,7467,100
Agricultural Engineering Institute223276327373429495
Herd Improvement Council120132147160176200
National Hydatids Council152201192
Veterinary Services Council445760606064
Fertiliser price subsidy19,0928,81435,50261,50759,33551,400
Special Assistance Fund32
Dairy diversion scheme (beef)2817081,000
Stock drench subsidy5,1523,097
Aerial application of fertiliser and lime subsidy1,104432
Grant to New Zealand Wool Board4,1634,4002,8792,0002,0002,000
Stock retention incentive11,87136
Grants to Dairy Products Development Centre75340175188180205
Pipfruit pesticides rebate391660
Fertiliser and lime bounty14,69715,51616,100
Feed storage construction subsidy21983981810
Lucerne establishment grant417655209200
Sharemilkers' Suspensory Loan Scheme145319400
Cartage grants to dairy companies264399500
Federated Farmers regional training officers2293110208

Lime Transport Assistance—Since 30 November 1959 a subsidy on lime transport has been paid to farmers applying lime to newly developed land which is lime responsive, has not previously been limed and which is cultivated and sown for the first time; or, if it cannot be cultivated, which receives its first dressing of lime. The rates of subsidy are 3.7c per tonne-kilometre for the first. 100 km and 1.2c per tonne-kilometre thereafter. A revised scheme which subsidises the transport of all lime from approved lime works at the same rates of transport subsidy as those applying to fertiliser became operative from the date of the 1976 Budget in July 1976.

Fertiliser Price Subsidy—A uniform subsidy of $5 per ton ex-works on all fertiliser was introduced on 6 July 1970. It was increased to $7.50 per tonne in June 1971. From June 1973 it applied to the first 30 tonnes only. From 1 July 1974 a subsidy has been paid on all fertiliser bought by farmers, without restriction on quantity, to keep the price of fertiliser to that applying at 30 June 1974. The rate of subsidy applying from 10 August 1975 was $35.79 per tonne, but this was reduced to $25 per tonne from midnight 29 July 1976, and to $22.50 per tonne from midnight 21 July 1977.

Fertiliser Transport Subsidy—From 1965 there has been a subsidy on the transport of fertiliser (excluding lime). From midnight 21 July 1977 the subsidy is 4.4c per tonne-kilometre for distances up to 65 km, 3.7c per tonne-kilometre between 65 and 250 km, and 2c per tonne-kilometre over 250 km. The same rates of subsidy apply to lime from approved limeworks.

Fertiliser and Lime Bounty—This bounty was introduced from 24 January 1975 to encourage the application of fertiliser and lime. A bounty of $7.50 per tonne for fertiliser and $2 per tonne for lime spread by contractors, and $5 per tonne for fertiliser and $1 per tonne for lime spread by farmers was paid for fertiliser and lime applied between 24 January and 30 June 1975. The scheme was extended to 31 December 1975, with the rates for fertiliser spread after 30 June 1975 being $4.50 per tonne for fertiliser ground-spread by a contractor, $7.50 per tonne for fertiliser air-spread by a contractor, and $3 per tonne for fertiliser spread by a farmer. From 29 July 1976 the rates for the air spread bounty, the groundspread bounty, and farmer-spreading were amended to $8.50 per tonne, $4.00 per tonne, and $2.50 per tonne respectively. Lime-spreading rates have remained unchanged.

Noxious Weeds Eradication—The Noxious Plants Control Scheme was introduced from 23 May 1975. Expenditure during 1976–77 was $8.75 million.

Contribution to the Meat and Wool Stabilisation Accounts—In January 1975 the Government announced a scheme of special assistance to farmers. Up to $15 million was made available for wool income stabilisation and up to $35 million for meat income stabilisation. The wool support was to enable a mimimum price of 93c a kilogram to apply to wool sold in the 1974–75 season; the meat support involved an extra $1 a lamb on lambs sold to export houses in the 1974–75 season and also a supplement of 60c a lamb on lambs sold by store-stock producers, and a supplementary payment on export beef.

Other Items—Most of the remaining items represent attempts to deal with specific problems, such as the eradication of bovine tuberculosis, which are of importance to the whole community but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on individuals or small groups, and the cost of the Government contribution towards running particular organisations, such as the Agricultural Engineering Institute.

FARM MACHINERY—The following table gives details of farm machinery for those items where comparison is available. The 1974 figures relate to holdings of 1 hectare and over (previous years 4 hectares and over). Machinery owned by farm contractors is not included. The next year for which data on farm machinery will be available is 1977.

Type of Machine1965197019711974
Agricultural tractors89,43195,50296,66695,289
Milking machines32,88727,93025,79321,408
Shearing stands65,91871,05572,66968,271
Pick-up balers10,24712,61812,92612,994
Side delivery rakes24,17825,37825,06422,223
Harvesters—
      Forage4,2805,4035,4515,225
      Header5,8295,7245,5914,828
Electric fence units63,97070,14074,58371,336
Field mowers..52,00551,00842,720
Ploughs..42,10141,39233,646
Disc harrows..32,97932,49930,288

NOTE: Other farm machinery at 30 June 1974 included 21,483 cultivators, 14,391 grain drills, 4,944 spray irrigation plants, 31,640 weed and crop sprayers, 19,946 lime and fertiliser spreaders, 1,174 potato planters, 1,507 potato harvesters and 16,193 grain silos or bins. Farm trucks totalled 32,967.

Milking Machines—At the end of June 1974 there were 21,408 milking machine plants in use, with a total of 181,445 sets of cups, compared with 27,930 machines and 205,268 sets of cups at 31 January 1970.

Agricultural Tractors—The classes of tractors on farm holdings outside borough boundaries at 30 June 1974 are given in the following table.

Type19701974
Diesel oil—  
      Crawler7,5977,939
      Wheel43,26052,209
Total50,85760,148
Petrol or kerosene—  
      Crawler5,9463,713
      Wheel38,69931,428
Total44,64535,141

14 B—CROPS

GENERAL—Crops grown in New Zealand are in general sufficient to meet domestic needs for agricultural products, apart from tropical and subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, etc.

Local requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones are met by New Zealand orchard production. Citrus fruits are grown in the subtropical northern portion of the North Island (although in addition substantial quantities of oranges are imported), and grapes are cultivated in certain localities. There is a substantial export trade in apples and pears.

Potato and onion production is normally adequate.

Wheat production fluctuates in relation to price incentives and imports are sometimes necessary.

Animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full 12 months of the year, but the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. Hay and silage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialise in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders other than grass and clover, hay, and silage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal and extension of pastures require the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seed. There is an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION—Grain growing is localised to a considerable extent, the Canterbury statistical area, with its fertile plains, supplying more than half of New Zealand's wheat yield, over one third of the oats threshed, and over half of the barley yield. In recent years, however, the North Island has grown higher proportions of wheat and barley crops.

Maize growing is largely confined to certain portions of the East Coast (notably Cook County) and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty areas. The growing of peas for threshing is carried out extensively in Canterbury, and to a lesser extent in Marlborough and Wellington, Canterbury alone producing three-quarters of the total yield. More than two-thirds of the area closed off for production of grass seed is in the Canterbury district.

The Canterbury statistical area also produces a large proportion of the commercial potato crop, followed by Wellington statistical area, while the growing of potatoes for the early market is of importance in a few relatively frost-free areas, particularly Pukekohe, near Auckland. The Pukekohe district also provides the Auckland area with a considerable portion of its vegetable requirements as well as being the main onion-growing area of the Island. Wellington City draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts, while Ohakune, in the centre of the North Island, with climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages and broccoli, supplies both Auckland and Wellington with these vegetables. Hastings has become a centre for the canning and processing of many vegetables.

In the South Island market gardening is carried on near cities, on the rich soils near Christchurch south of Oamaru, and on the Taieri Plains just south of Dunedin. Nelson also produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions. The Nelson and Hawke's Bay districts are notable for their apple and pear orchards, a high percentage of the crops from these districts normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. Hawke's Bay and Nelson are also noted for their peach production. In certain particularly warm areas of the North Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne.

Grape growing is of importance near Auckland and in Hawke's Bay, and to a lesser extent in South Auckland. Tobacco growing is confined to the Nelson district, hop growing also being concentrated in this area.

The following table shows the varieties of wheat, oats, barley, and peas threshed during the year ended 30 June 1976. It should be noted that some holdings grow more than one variety of a crop and that if, for example, a holding grows three varieties of wheat it appears three times in the "Number of Holdings" column. As a result, the aggregates of holdings by individual varieties may exceed the totals of holdings under particular crops.

VarietyNumber of HoldingsArea From which ThreshedTotal YieldAverage Yield Per HectarePercentage of Surveyed AreaPercentage of Total Yield
  Hectares (000)Tonnes (000)TonnesPercentPercent
Wheat—      
      Aotea2,38133.9130.53.8532.7133.62
      Hilgendorf6287.524.33.267.206.27
      Arawa3684.314.83.474.103.81
      Gamenya1661.96.43.351.841.64
      Kopara2,04130.0112.63.7628.8729.02
      Raven200.20.62.890.190.15
      Karamu2,02225.195.53.8024.2324.61
      Other1660.93.43.810.860.88
Total7,792103.7388.23.74100.00100.00
Oats—      
      Onward7593.010.43.5023.2024.84
      Mapua1,9397.725.33.2760.5860.50
      Black Supreme2350.61.82.914.934.39
      Grey Winter410.10.23.060.480.45
      Achilles810.20.52.911.381.23
      Other White2950.51.42.793.883.31
      Other2430.72.23.115.555.28
Total3,59312.841.83.27100.00100.00
Barley—      
      Carlsberg1,17111.035.23.2112.9512.34
      Kenia4305.015.23.035.905.32
      Research3624.514.63.265.315.13
      Zephyr5,11961.6211.23.4372.7473.97
      Other3582.69.33.523.103.24
Total7,44084.7285.53.37100.00100.00
Peas—      
Field Varieties      
      Maple4705.715.62.7230.1828.55
      White3312.46.82.8512.4912.39
      Blue Boiling2963.29.83.0516.9017.94
      Garden Varieties8097.722.42.9240.4341.12
Total1,90619.054.52.87100.00100.00
Maize—      
Total1,63926.0185.57.09100.00100.00

Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics and in statistical bulletins issued by the Department of Statistics. Unless otherwise stated, the statistics quoted in this subsection relate to holdings of 1 hectare and above situated outside borough boundaries or in rural areas of municipalities.

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS—Details of areas for threshing, total yields, and yields per hectare of the principal grain and seed crops during recent years are set out in the following table.

YearWheatOatsBarleyMaizePeas
Areas for threshing (hectares)
1973–7467,41421,45187,14312,51620,357
1974–7557,65619,036104,49520,55821,822
1975–76103,74212,79284,73926,02818,980
Total yields (tonnes)
1973–74x214,58263,226241,56988,29452,882
1974–75179,17450,219262,881157,59947,522
1975–76388,17841,820285,495184,46954,515
Yields per hectare (tonnes)
1973–743.182.942.777.062.59
1974–753.122.642.527.672.18
1975–763.743.273.377.092.87

The following table which gives the number of holdings and total area sown during the 1975–76 season shows cereal cropping on various types of farm. The areas include threshed, fed off, and crop abandoned during the 1975–76 season.

Farm Type**WheatOatsBarleyPeasMaize
Area ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal YieldArea ThreshedTotal Yield

*75 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

||More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

**These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

 HectaresTonnesHectaresTonnesHectaresTonnesHectaresTonnesHectaresTonnes
Dairy farming*2468431204071,9356,6221134001,77312,408
Sheep farming*19,15869,1615,49117,63414,40546,0489212,2692101,374
Beef farming*2611,1731063016521,89215439756,969
Pig farming*411388963,07516442301,488
Cropping*14,46357,8685411,73510,85639,0425,00214,8238,14658,731
Dairy farming with sheep3615216531916854938246
Dairy farming with beef19892415143315423552,452
Dairy farming with other1484397334611,41710479406,884
Sheep farming with dairy14353521189309313
Sheep farming with beef4,47916,4551,11712437,13522,3685781,7981,3839,861
Sheep farming with cropping21,64781,1781,8626,84512,77343,3102,4886,687166994
Sheep farming with other3361,180903425461,65941131757
Beef farming with dairy4223511732234
Beef farming with sheep158568441737432,515551564713,429
Beef farming with other3401,2225163791,8341394219636,934
Cropping with sheep18,79873,4831,0153,43611,46440,6984,51813,5186304,361
Cropping with other1,3845,375762521,5355,2403831,0751,48310,253
Pig farming with other1153214051,4192639148961
Stud farmingH1816141324423321,147267132178
Mixed livestock2,3258,4014251,2424,53415,1865221,6351,4209,862
General mixed farming §18,78166,1441,5895,26513,05043,5403,86510,5565,07435,993
Poultry farming||14348012354401,5921035151988
Market gardening and flowers||3121,41826661,0793,7481835608275,444
Orchards||19114592036162742,162
Other farming2058041142853941,395411273002,206
Total, all farm types103,742388,17812,79241,82084,739285,49518,98054,51526,028184,469

WHEAT—The following diagram shows the fluctuations that have occurred in the area sown in wheat, together with the total yield and the average yield per acre.

AREA AND YIELD OF WHEAT FOR THRESHING

Wheat Board—Control of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the Wheat Board, which is also responsible for the distribution of flour and associated offal. The operations of this Board, which consists of representatives of flourmillers, wheat growers, bread bakers, the poultry industry, the grain seed and produce business, the Department of Trade and Industry, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, with the Minister of Trade and Industry as chairman, and one person with no direct association with any of the above industries as deputy chairman, are governed by the Wheat Board Act 1965.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Board through the agency of grain merchants acting as brokers for the board. The board is responsible for the distribution of all imported wheat and its functions also include arrangements for the processing of wheat by flourmillers and the sale of the resultant flour and offal to merchants, bakers, pastry cooks, grocers, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand for flour and cereal foods approximates 320,000 tonnes. Wheat is also required for poultry foods and seed. Research is assisted by a levy on wheat and flour on recommendation of the Wheat Research Committee.

MAIZE—Maize is principally grown on the East of the North Island, Hawke's Bay, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty. During the last decade the area sown has greatly increased, partly as a result of the introduction of improved hybrid maize varieties. The yield of grain threshed has doubled. Maize is used principally as poultry feed, but smaller amounts are used to feed pigs and other stock.

BARLEY—Barley is used mainly in the manufacture of stock feeds, and for malting. The production of barley is increasing steadily, mainly because of the growing demand for stock feeds.

OATS—Most of the oats are grown for threshing and green feed and not for chaff. From the grain milled, rolled oats, oatmeal, and proprietary oaten foods are produced, along with feed for animals and fowls.

VEGETABLES—The following table shows vegetable production by area and total sales by variety from surveyed market gardeners for the latest two years, 1975 and 1976.

Vegetable19751976
Area hectaresTotal Sales kg(000)Area hectaresTotal Sales kg(000)
Beetroot169.32,420.6331.15,811.4
Cabbage1,002.919,713.5917.518,293.2
Carrot968.526,961.8983.028,878.4
Cauliflower841.114,403.3926.514,650.8
Celery89.83,159.1103.03,591.5
Kumara479.35,159.7494.04,973.6
Lettuce605.49,798.2561.08,776.3
Onion1,315.629,012.61,438.538,181.9
Parsnip230.33,730.9264.43,918.8
Peas5,127.818,865.86,800.724,394.7
Tomato807.134,442.1864.428,921.2
Asparagus747.11,784.3855.12,009.5
Bean (broad and green)1,196.910,457.61,043.45,383.6
Brussels sprouts101.91,031.4136.91,481.8
Cucumber42.31,253.340.9896.9
Melons (jam, rock, pie, water)134.52,412.790.11,382.8
Mushrooms4.0630.913.41,059.7
Pumpkin (including squash)862.110,288.1841.89,087.7
Silverbeet (including spinach)68.8848.165.5827.3
Swedes75.31,180.051.4795.6
Sweetcorn1,552.420,123.91,078.712,065.6
Other196.71,831.6208.82,126.3
Total, all vegetables16,619.1219,509.618,110.1217,508.7
Source: Department of Statistics.

There has been a marked increase in recent years in the quantity and variety of crops grown for processing. The quick-freezing industry has expanded rapidly as have other forms of processing; namely, canning, freeze-drying, and the manufacture of prepared foods. The major areas producing vegetables for processing are the Heretaunga Plains around Hastings, Gisborne, Christchurch, and Timaru. Peas and tomatoes are the two main crops followed by sweetcorn, beans, carrots, onions, beetroot, and asparagus.

Of the 2,673 surveyed market gardeners in 1976, 62 percent were in the North Island, while of those surveyed in the South Island 57 percent were in the Canterbury area.

POTATOES—The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet the home market.

Under the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950 a Potato Board was established consisting of 7 members, 3 of whom are representative of the growers on an elective basis, 3 nominated by the New Zealand Grain, Seed, and Produce Merchants' Federation (Incorporated), and one an officer of the Public Service acting in an advisory capacity.

The principal function of the board is to ensure that adequate supplies of main-crop potatoes are available for consumption in New Zealand, and for that purpose to enter into contracts with growers for the growing of main-crop potatoes. The Act provides that the board may impose a levy not exceeding $3 per ton on main-crop potatoes sold by growers, the proceeds of which are to be applied by the board in payment of charges, etc., for which it may become liable in the exercise of its functions.

In the past the board has undertaken to compensate contract growers for any declared unsold number one grade contract produce held by growers at the end of the season. From the 1972–73 season to the 1976–77 season the rate was $20 per tonne in the South Island and $24 per tonne in the North Island. For the 1977–78 season, because of continuing over production, no firm compensation price will be written into potato contracts. Consequently upon passing of the Potato Industry Act in December 1977, membership of the Board is to be changed to give grower dominance and the present levy and compensation scheme suspended. The new Act makes provision for the compulsory registration of potato growers.

Potato yields have risen to such an extent that a population of 3 million is now supplied from the same acreages as were 1¾ million people 20 years earlier. Most of this increased production has been achieved through new varieties and better farming practice based on research results.

Figures for area and yield of potatoes for the latest available 3 years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonnestonnes
1973–748,606206,19223.96
1974–758,854225,52225.47
1975–769,495248,32126.15

ONIONS—Areas in, and yields of, onions for the latest available 3 years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonnestonnes
1973–741,09924,66222.44
1974–751,31629,01322.05
1975–761,43938,18226.53

GLASSHOUSES—The following table shows the area of glasshouses (heated and cold) given over to the production of tomatoes, cucumbers, beans, and grapes.

Vegetable or Fruit19731974197519761977
Area in square metres (000)
Tomatoes1,080.41,038.01,011.31,335.21,448.1
Cucumbers70.076.374.497.798.9
Beans25.727.339.549.018.7
Grapes47.553.553.853.658.4

LINSEED—Most of the linseed is grown under contract for the production of linseed oil and about 3,500 hectares are sown each year. The oil is extracted mainly for use in paints, and the residue provides a valuable concentrate for stock food.

SEED CERTIFICATION—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates a seed certification scheme covering the more important herbage species, cereals, brassicas, and potatoes. Bred varieties of these species are produced by the Grasslands and the Crop Research Division of the DSIR. These are then reproduced under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries which releases them as Breeder's seed which in turn produces Basic seed. The final stages in the multiplication of certified seed are known as 1st and 2nd Generation seeds. Basic and Certified seed, 1st and 2nd Generation, are sold through the usual commercial channels.

GRASS SEED—The areas of grass, clover, and lucerne crops harvested for seed, are given in the following table.

Crop1971–721972–731973–741974–751975–76
hectares
Ryegrass21,96219,67646,18328,47211,209
Clovers15,52914,47314,86119,60721,747
Lucerne2,3551,569......
Other grasses and clovers, and mixed pasture9,3456,6347,6085,9174,804
Total49,19142,35268,65253,99637,760

Quantities (in dressed weights) of grass, clover, brassica, and other seeds treated by machine dressing plants during the latest 2 years are given below.

Type of SeedYear Ended 31 December
19751976
Ryegrass—kilograms
      Perennial11,970,0966,368,763
      Short Rotation (H1)1,668,2911,375,959
      Italian (and Western Wolths)1,171,980773,644
      Ariki1,685,722926,046
      Tama1,354,313681,903
      Nui29,985382,389
Chewings fescue42,39546,596
Brown top72,310114,368
Crested dogstail629,095362,078
Cocksfoot651,235461,726
Timothy186,889140,202
Phalaris tuberosa9,478238
Prairie grass40,64364,074
Yarrow1,8297,243
Yorkshire fog8,72912,333
White clover3,957,2854,903,880
Suckling clover127,06163,076
Cowgrass (including broad red)236,402526,262
Montgomery red clover137,632340,367
Lucerne356,848197,529
Other clovers89,34067,573
Mixtures and other grasses, clovers and herbs
Rape194,275302,164
Kale (including chou moellier)265,105295,766
Maize2,121,4261,781,680
Peas—
      garden13,535,09420,427,054
      field19,041,16221,142,831
Swede69,72895,949
Turnip128,494262,501

Large quantities of grass and clover seed have been exported during recent years, especially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 22B of this issue.

HORTICULTURAL LAND USE—An indication of the size of the horticultural industry is given by the following figures of occupied land and the number of trees, as published by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries for 1977.

 hectares
Vineyards3,060
Citrus orchards2,008
Kiwifruit (Chinese gooseberry) orchards1,516
Hop gardens187
Registered nurseries (690)1,348
Apples2.3 million trees
Pears145,000 trees

In 1977 commercial orchards contained an estimated 2,450,000 pip fruit trees, 921,000 stone fruit trees, 1,170,000 citrus fruit trees, and 941,000 trees or vines bearing sub-tropical fruit such as tamarillos, kiwifruit, passionfruit, and avocados.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY—Whereas pip and stone fruits are grown commercially throughout New Zealand, citrus and subtropical fruits are largely confined to the coastal strip from North Auckland through the Bay of Plenty to Gisborne, where the climate is suitably mild.

During 1973, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries made its fifth comprehensive survey of commercial orchards throughout New Zealand. The following table compares the areas of orchards recorded in this survey with estimated areas in 1977. Because the 1973 survey did not take into account 1973 tree plantings and removals, it in effect gave the situation as at the end of 1972. The main producing areas for the various fruits are also given.

Fruit19731977Main Districts
Pip Fruithectares 
      Apples4,9305,450Nelson, Hawke's Bay.
      Pears542478Hawke's Bay, Nelson.
Stone Fruits-
      Apricots595607Otago.
      Cherries105118Otago, Marlborough.
      Nectarines262380Otago, Hawke's Bay.
      Peaches1,3141,240Hawke's Bay, Auckland, Otago.
      Plums362398Hawke's Bay, Auckland.
Citrus—   
      Grapefruit435535Bay of Plenty.
      Lemons164154Bay of Plenty.
      Mandarins201276Bay of Plenty, Northland.
      Oranges (sweet)362519Northland, Poverty Bay.
      Tangelos223524Bay of Plenty, Northland, Poverty Bay.
Subtropicals—   
      Kiwifruit (Chinese Gooseberries)7201,516Bay of Plenty.
Passionfruit2821Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay.
Tamarillos208232Northland, Bay of Plenty.

Fruit and Crop Disposal—Estimated production and methods of disposal of the various fruit crops in 1977 are shown in the following table.

 Disposal 
FruitExport (fresh)Local Market (fresh)ProcessingTotal Production
Pip Fruit  tonnes 
      Apples66,63255,47623,431145,539
      Pears1,5325,7724,50111,805
Stone Fruit    
      Apricots3,7051,9705,675
      Cherries36227389
      Nectarines2,660602,720
      Peaches15,5906,98022,570
      Plums3,5503703,920
Citrus Fruit    
      Grapefruit3,5692,9856,554
      Lemons1,0901,2602,350
      Sweet oranges2,8845483,432
      Mandarins1,5801,580
Tangelos2,2005302,730
Subtropical Fruit    
Kiwifruit (Chinese gooseberries)6,1861,1007788,064
Tamarillos221,5403211,883
Passionfruit6247109

BERRYFRUIT GROWING—Berryfruits are grown commercially throughout New Zealand.

The following table gives the estimated areas of the various berryfruits. The main producing areas are also shown. Figures are for the fruiting seasons shown.

Fruit1974–751975–761976–77Main Districts

*Included also in bramble incl. boysenberries.

hectares
Strawberries178159174Auckland
Raspberries205172156Nelson, Canterbury
Bramble incl. boysenberries196195192Nelson, Hawke's Bay
Boysenberries*179*174*174*Nelson, Hawke's Bay
Blackcurrants167176187Canterbury, Dunedin
Redcurrants111Waikato
Blueberries244Waikato
Gooseberries171511Wairarapa, Horowhenua
Total, all kinds766722725 

Estimated production and disposal of the various berryfruits is given in the following table.

FruitMarket (Fresh)ProcessingTotal Production
1975–761976–771975–761976–771975–761976–77

*Included also in bramble incl. boysenberries.

tonnes
Strawberries2,6052,8183797362,9843,554
Raspberries6646406076281,2711,268
Bramble incl. boysenberries5615919821,0151,5431,606
Boysenberries*512*523*947*970*1,459*1,493*
Blackcurrants202149281371483520
Redcurrants7575
Blueberries4545
Gooseberries49651876772
Total, all kinds4,0924,2732,2672,7576,3597,030

The raspberry is the only berryfruit for which there is a statutory marketing scheme. A Raspberry Marketing Council and three marketing authorities, the Canterbury, Nelson, and Otago Raspberry Marketing Committees, were established by the Raspberry Marketing Regulations 1976 which consolidated existing regulations and amendments.

GRAPE GROWING AND WINE PRODUCTION—In 1977 the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries estimated the national area in vineyards at 3,060 hectares, mainly in the regions Auckland, Northland, Waikato, Poverty Bay, Hawke's Bay, and Marlborough.

There were 359 commercial vineyards, with approximately 4¼ million vines. Grape wine production in 1977 had increased to 35,111 kilolitres (1 kilolitre = 1000 litres). For the same period wine exports totalled 265,969 litres valued at $NZ 291,108. Grape juice exported amounted to 1,519,605 litres valued at $NZ 1,233,417. In 1977 8,191 kilograms of glasshouse dessert grapes were exported valued at $NZ 34,516 or $4.21 per kilogram. The estimated area in commercial glass vineries in, 1977 was some 53,600 square metres, producing about 295 tonnes of select table grapes.

APPLES AND PEARS—A summary of the activities of the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board appears in Section 21. Over 700 orchardists consistently sell apples and pears to the board. Over 75 percent of the total crop received comes from Nelson and Hawke's Bay.

The following table shows the quantities of the main varieties of fresh apples and pears received by districts by the Apple and Pear Marketing Board during the 1976–77 season.

VarietyHawke's BayNelsonOther DistrictsTotal
Apples—  cartons (000) 
      Granny Smith9825903181,890
      Sturmer Pippin149495136780
      Golden Delicious20743799743
      Delicious4318796326
      Red Delicious44118681708
      Jonathan112444169
      Dougherty12011017247
      Cox's Orange Pippin4929549393
      Others171196103470
Total apples2,1632,6209435,726
Pears—    
      Winter Cole3530772
      Winter Nelis37101865
      Packham's Triumph3247382
      Others1423744
Total pears11811035263

Exports of apples and pears in the 1976–77 season totalled 3,644,100 cartons (excluding processed goods).

HOPS—The whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea County and all the requirements of hops for New Zealand are produced. Production per hectare (approximately 2.47 acres) usually ranges between 1,400 kilograms and 1,800 kilograms.

The total crop produced in the 1977 season was 205 tonnes compared with 323 tonnes in 1976. About 98 percent of the crop is picked by machines. Hop gardens covered 183 hectares in 1977 compared with 220 hectares the previous season, and the yield averaged 1.12 tonnes per hectare.

A Hop Marketing Committee of 6 members (one Government and 5 producers) was established by the Hop Marketing Regulations 1939 to regulate and control the marketing either locally or overseas of all hops produced in New Zealand and to assist the industry generally.

TOBACCO—Tobacco is grown mainly in the Motueka district. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, burley, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. Some 3,600 tonnes of raw tobacco leaf was imported during 1974–75, 3,650 tonnes during 1975–76, and 3,500 tonnes during 1976–77.

With the following particulars relating to tobacco production, it should be noted that the figures relate to the total commercial tobacco production and not merely to holdings of 10 acres (approximately 4.05 hectares) or over situated outside borough boundaries. (Source: Tobacco Board.)

SeasonNumber of GrowersArea Planted*ProductionEstimated Value of Crop

*Contract area amended after planting operations completed.

  hectareskg(000)$(000)
1972–733531,7393,0455,819
1973–743401,7513,2387,200
1974–753061,7643,0077,485
1975–763081,7753,3499,372
1976–773151,8472,7199,044

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 98 percent and burley leaf for 2 percent of the 1976–77 crop.

Approximately half the tobacco used by New Zealand manufacturers in the production of cigarettes and cut tobacco is New Zealand grown. The actual average percentages used during recent years ended 30 June has been as follows: 1970, 49.4 percent; 1971, 49.3 percent; 1972, 49.1 percent; 1973, 49.2 percent; 1974, 48.3 percent; 1975, 47.1 percent; 1976, 45.9 percent, and 1977, 44.2 percent.

LINEN FLAX—There is a strong demand for all linen fibre produced in New Zealand from a local manufacturer of twine who uses this kind of fibre in the making of twine for closing bags and bales, for rolling meat, and for other purposes which require a twine made from a strong durable fibre.

In the spring of 1976, 352.09 hectares of flax were sown, as compared with 246.26 hectares in 1975. The February–March 1976 harvest yielded 1,663 tonnes, i.e., 6.75 tonnes per hectare as compared with the February–March 1975 harvest when the yield was 1,068.73 tonnes, i.e., 5.40 tonnes per hectare.

Production from the Government-owned Linen Flax Corporation factory at Geraldine in recent years has been as follows.

Product1973197419751976
tonnes
Straw processed8169441,2011,541
Scutched fibre97103101139
Seed88817565
Tow42312864
Linmeal55475236

Sales during 1976 totalled $261,298, of which sales of flax fibre totalled $240,673.

In December 1977 the assets of the Linen Flax Corporation were formally transferred to a newly-formed private company, Linen Textiles Ltd.

14 C — LIVESTOCK

GENERAL—Agriculture is a major industry upon which much of New Zealand's prosperity depends. It has the capacity to expand provided the circumstances are favourable for development. The lines of development are influenced by overseas prices received for farm products in the form of meat, wool, butter, cheese, milk powder, casein, etc. Although there is a time-lag associated with livestock breeding, the livestock numbers are an indication of the response of farmers to financial incentives, although weather factors, such as drought, are also involved.

Livestock numbers over a 50-year period are shown in the historical tables near the back of the book.

New Zealand has more than 20 times as many animals as people: this ratio is probably not exceeded in any country in the world. Grasslands have been developed to the extent that the best dairy farms can carry two and one half cows to the hectare, and the best sheep farms can support up to 25 sheep to the hectare throughout the year.

The first sheep stations in the 1840s were stocked with Merinos from Australia. During the 1850s and 1860s several English breeds of sheep were imported, notably Southdowns, Leicesters, Lincolns, and Romneys. In 1855 there were 761,700 sheep in the country; by 1870 there were 9,700,000. Until 1882, the year of the successful introduction of cargo refrigeration when mutton and lamb exports were sent to London, the Merino and its crosses were predominant, because the only sheep products of any importance for export were wool and a little tallow, obtained by boiling down carcasses. Then the Merino was superseded in the North Island by breeds more suited to the climate and conditions. Today the flock sheep of the North Island are nearly all predominantly of Romney blood. In the South Island, Merino blood in varying degree continued to play an important part in the flock structure but are now restricted to the foothills of the Southern Alps, while Corriedales are more profitable in the better hill country, and crossbreeds and long-woolled British breeds at lower levels.

In 1851 there were 193,000 cattle in New Zealand and by 1897 the number had reached 1,138,000. Cattle raising and fattening are usually associated with hill-country sheep farming and fat-lamb farming respectively, and beef stock are grazed chiefly in the North Island. The latest available survey of cattle by breeds show that the most popular breed of beef cattle is now the Aberdeen Angus (75 percent), with Herefords (17 percent) and Shorthorns (6 percent) next in number.

The growth of dairy herds was related to the availability of refrigeration for the export of butter from 1882, and the development of butter and cheese factories. There were 300,000 dairy cows by 1897, 185,000 of them in the North Island and 115,000 in the South Island. Now the North Island has more than 11 times as many dairy cows as the South Island. Estimates of breeds in 1971–72 were: Jersey, 58 percent; Friesian, 34 percent; Ayrshire, 3 percent; Shorthorn, 1 percent.

In the following table, livestock numbers are shown by farm-type category as at 30 June 1976.

Farm Type**Beef CattleDairy CattleSheep and Lambs ShornPigs

*75 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

||More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent.

**These farm types are defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

††Year ended 30 June 1976.

   (000) 
Dairy farming**1792,49629745
Sheep farming*1,5271235,3799
Beef farming*895184214
Pig farming*7618222
Cropping*1422081
Dairy farming with sheep24533282
Dairy farming with beef72105562
Dairy farming with other549617
Sheep farming with dairy7111891
Sheep farming with beef1,7481019,2826
Sheep farming with cropping5712,5614
Sheep farming with other3116384
Beef farming with dairy2214121
Beef farming with sheep37041,4021
Beef farming with other391222
Cropping with sheep207703
Cropping with other112302
Pig farming with other572340
Mixed livestock8491066,20751
General mixed farming§109131,62711
Poultry farming||62311
Market gardening and flowers||152961
Orchards||51371
Tobacco growing||445--
Other farming65144412
Total, all farm types6,0872,93070,126433

Figures as at 30 June 1976 gave a total of 6,087,172 for beef cattle (of which, breeding cows and heifers totalled 2,229,784 compared with 2,310,664 the previous year), and a total of 2,929,922 for dairy cattle of which 2,035,852 (compared with 2,061,591 the previous year) were dairy cows in milk.

The 1976 figures showed a 3.3 percent decrease in beef cattle, and the total of dairy cattle also decreased by 2.3 percent. The beef cattle herd has been increasingly supplemented in recent years by dairy-bred cattle reared for beef production, as indicated by the declining calf kill.

The dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island which, in 1976, had 81 percent of the total cattle and 92 percent of the dairy stock. Localising the dairying industry still further, it is found that 65 percent of the milking cows of New Zealand are in the northern half of the North Island.

Beef cattle are fairly evenly spread over the North Island, except Taranaki and areas close to Auckland.

Taking the number of beef breeding cows 2 years old and over as a guide to beef production, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty and Wellington statistical areas easily lead with 35 percent of the New Zealand total between them. Hawke's Bay is next, followed by Northland and East Coast in that order. These 5 districts together pasture 67 percent of breeding cows.

Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty statistical areas account for 39 percent of the pig population and Wellington and Taranaki for 24 percent. The number of pigs kept in the Nelson and Canterbury areas has increased considerably in recent years and 21 percent of the pig population is now in these areas. Tanker collection of whole milk from dairy farms has reduced the rearing of pigs as a sideline; major developments have taken place in the rearing of grain-fed pigs in large units.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The statistical areas of major importance are Wellington, Canterbury, South Auckland-Bay of Plenty, Hawke's Bay, Southland and Otago, in that order. These six districts accounted for 85 percent of the total sheep population in 1976.

The following table shows the distribution of livestock at 30 June 1976.

Statistical AreaDairy CattleBeef CattleAnimals Shorn*Pigs
Sheep and HoggetsLambs

*During year ended 30 June 1976.

 thousands
Northland3356561,37360914
Central Auckland22927067126342
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty1,3231,2966,9813,517111
East Coast74572,2391,1645
Hawke's Bay567686,4362,73414
Taranaki4822211,31359448
Wellington2689268,1833,60455
      North Island2,7014,59427,19512,485289
Marlborough211201,26126818
Nelson5411063422517
Westland2876149471
Canterbury625089,2191,53272
Otago323797,12691619
Southland313007,2981,77217
      South Island2291,49425,6864,760144
      New Zealand2,9306,08752,88117,245433

Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics. This publication also contains the summary tables from parliamentary paper C. 5A (formerly H. 23), which is a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns.

SHEEP—The following table analyses categories of sheep.

At 30 JuneRamsWethersBreeding EwesDry EwesHoggetsTotal
RamWetherEwe

*Includes dry ewes.

†Included with wethers.

thousand Totals
19739371,22341,0173613132,24810,58556,684
19749101,27540,3663162982,00910,71055,883
19759091,30041,1083362891,5769,80255,320
19768801,15841,2003343041,64610,86956,390
19778771,405*42,7823141,98911,73859,105
Stud Sheep (Entered in Flock Book)
19721955752102251,016

The 1972 classification of breeds shows that of the 60,882,719 sheep in New Zealand, 40,019,022 (65.73 percent) were Romneys and 8,604,020 (14.13 percent) were crossbreeds. The remainder were composed principally of Corriedale 4,405,591, half-bred 2,537,007, Merino 1,132.905, and Southdown 1,061,539.

Following three years of decreases in the average flock size the 1976 figure has increased to almost the level of 1972.

The following table shows numbers of flocks by size of flock.

Size of Flocks19721973197419751976
1–994,6295,1315,3325,4215,376
100–1991,9201,9732,0622,0731,960
200–4993,6173,8863,8073,8543,746
500–9995,2544,8954,7734,5934,391
1,000–1,4995,2745,0544,8984,7884,566
1,500–1,9995,0594,8024,7004,5564,458
2,000–2,4993,7343,3153,3283,2563,437
2,500–4,9995,7755,3315,2395,2465,458
5,000–9,9991,3011,1961,1901,2001,258
10,000 and over263257250248254
Total flocks36,82635,84035,57935,23534,904
Average flock size1,6531,5821,5711,5701,616

The following table, based on an annual survey by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, shows estimates of the number of lambs born and the percentage of lambing.

YearNumber of Breeding Ewes at 30 JuneEstimated Percentage of LambingEstimated Number of Lambs
 (000) (000)
197244,15295.5542,186
197341,01793.1538,208
197440,36693.53x37,755x
197541,10896.48x39,663x
197641,20097.8040,294

CATTLE—Numbers of cattle at 30 June of the three latest available years are now given by categories.

Category197419751976

*Heifers not yet in milk, and cows not in milk during season but intended to be used again for dairying.

†Includes bobby calves (16,155 in 1974; 6,172 in 1975 and 5,200 in 1976).

‡Includes cows culled from dairy herds (66,762 in 1974; 56,665 in 1975 and 53,341 in 1976).

Dairy stock—   
      Cows and heifers, 2 years old and over—   
      Cows in milk during season2,040,6852,061,5912,035,852
      Others*51,52145,31337,921
Heifers—   
      One and two years old470,123447,819416,498
      Under one year old423,483374,298378,127
Bulls and calves intended for dairy breeding72,02962,82856,324
Total, dairy stock3,073,9962,998,0212,929,922
Beef stock—   
      Breeding cows and heifers, two years old and over2,063,7812,114,6182,229,784
      Cows, two years old and over, not used for breeding160,295179,544198,731
Heifers—   
      One and under two years old684,380694,500502,626
      Under one year old798,562793,898788,107
      Steers and bulls of all ages2,463,5882,455,0752,314,583
Total, beef stock6,237,3686,294,3006,087,172
Total, cattle9,311,3649,292,3219,017,094

A feature of dairy farming in recent years has been the move to the amalgamation of farms to provide more economic units. The following table which shows dairy cattle by size of herd, demonstrates how the trend towards amalgamation has resulted in larger herds on individual holdings. In June 1973, 37 percent of dairy cattle were in herds of 200 or more; by June 1976 the percentage had risen to 39.

At 30 JuneDairy Cattle in HerdTotal Dairy Cattle
1–3940–7980–119120–199200–299300 and Over
(000)
1972711794981,3547774093,288
1973611614461,3187634103,159
1974531373921,2877884173,074
1975491333921,2657663932,998
1976431213901,2377483902,930

PIGS—Pig numbers fell in the late sixties as farmers began increasingly to supply whole milk to dairy factories instead of separating off the skim milk, which was frequently used to feed pigs, There is increased emphasis on grain-feeding, and a significant increase in pig numbers in the grain-producing areas of the South Island. At 30 June 1976, the total pig population recorded a 2.5 percent increase on the previous year's figure, and the 72,376 pigs in Canterbury statistical area showed a 4.8 percent rise on the previous year, and the 18,977 pigs in Otago statistical area a 11.6 percent rise.

At 30 JuneBreeding Sows One Year Old and OverOther Pigs of All Ages (Including Boars)Total Pigs
197260,319416,670476,989
197357,633418,209475,842
197456,576405,150461,726
197553,553368,838422,391
197656,429376,415432,844

DEER—A new type of livestock farming which is of growing importance is deer-farming. Venison finds a ready overseas market and almost all the meat produced is exported. (In 1975–76 venison exports totalled 2,670 tonnes valued at $8.2 million; in 1976–77 the provisional total was 2,894 tonnes valued at $11.8 million. The principal market is the German Federal Republic.) Deer farming is strictly controlled by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries because of the status of the deer in the wild as a noxious animal. Deer farms have to be licensed and registered, and permits are issued for specified numbers of animals.

The first deer-farm licence was issued in March 1970. By August 1977 there were 39 registered deer farms and a further 83 applications to start deer farming were being processed. Permits had been issued for a total of 15,440 deer to be carried on farms.

POULTRY—In 1976–77 there were 1,334 registered poultry runs forming the basic commercial units of the poultry industry. Farmlets comprising 24 birds or less are exempt from registration. The following table shows registered poultry runs in 1976–77 by flock size and the number of birds.

Flock Size (Birds)Number of RunsNumber of Birds
25–10043622,479
101–50017341,121
501–1,000253237,648
Over 1,0004723,525,908
Total1,3343,827,156

The Poultry Board Act 1976 which amends and consolidates the Poultry Runs Registration Act 1933 provides for the registration by the occupiers of poultry farms with 100 or more head of poultry as from 1 July 1977.

The commercial groups sell most of their eggs through licensed egg floors and are therefore mainly responsible for supplying eggs to retail shops in the cities and larger towns.

Commercial poultry farms are distributed over both Islands, but there are concentrations around Auckland, Tauranga, Christchurch, and Oamaru. The poultry industry does not cater for overseas markets, though limited quantities of frozen egg pulp, surplus to local requirements, are exported.

Reference to the field covered by the Egg Marketing Authority is given in Section 21 of this Yearbook.

The following table shows eggs handled by licensed distributors for years ended 30 June.

YearEggs
 doz (m)
1971–7251.1
1972–7350.9
1973–7453.5
1974–7556.7
1975–7651.1
1976–7756.1

The establishment of "take-away" chicken shops throughout New Zealand and high red meat prices has led to increased chicken-meat consumption. Production increased from 13 million to 20 million birds during the 1973–74 year and to 22 million by 1976.

Poultry meat production for June years is shown in the following table.

YearBirds
 million
197211.0
197313.5
197420.6
197518.2
197622.0
197722.0

NOTE: All figures are estimates. These have been obtained by a survey of the largest producers, and allowance has been made for other smaller producers.

BEES—The rich pasture lands of New Zealand and some bush areas are favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey, although more intensive farming methods and land development have eliminated many sources of nectar for the bees.

Production for the year ended 31 May 1977 was estimated at 6,078 tonnes of honey. Most of the honey is consumed in New Zealand. Exports during the year ended 30 June 1977 amounted to 977 tonnes.

Following is a summary of registrations under the Apiaries Act 1969 at 31 May 1977.

GroupHivesTotal
1–56–5051–250251–600601–10001000+
Beekeepers2,5298431645371493,709
Apiaries2,7561,8331,8671,4783,2935,03616,263
Hives established5,50814,10823,41722,16655,08586,953207,237

Only approximately 200 beekeepers were completely dependent on honey production and beekeeping for their livelihood.

Chapter 16. Section 15 FORESTRY

Table of Contents

GENERAL—Until the early nineteenth century extensive evergreen forests covered some two-thirds of the country, the remaining third being the low-rainfall zones in the east of the South Island (carrying only tussock grasses) and the rocky mountain tops above 1,100–1,400 metres. Because of the abundance, use of timber during the early days of European settlement was wasteful, and in clearing land for farms large areas of forest were felled and burnt, often going well beyond the limits now considered desirable by extending into steep terrain unsuited to development. Not until towards the end of the nineteenth century was the need to conserve forests of the high mountain watersheds recognised.

Today, in addition to forest set aside in national parks, about 4 million hectares of land valuable either for timber production, recreation, or forest growth vital to soil and water conservation has been constituted State forest, and there is also a large private forest estate. Resources have been built up by afforestation with introduced species, mainly conifers, which produce usable wood in 25–30 years, a much shorter time than the slow-growing indigenous species.

The following table shows the present area of forested land in relation to other categories of land

Type of LandAreaPercentage of Total Area
(million hectares)
Total forested land7.026.0
Pasture and arable land13.550.2
Other non-forested land6.022.3
Minor islands0.10.4
Lakes, rivers, etc.0.31.1
Total area26.9100.0

FORESTS TODAY—About three-quarters of the forest area is classed as unmerchantable. This is mainly Crown-owned indigenous forest which, because it covers much of the remote and mountainous high-rainfall country, has as its primary function soil protection and water regulation. The limited production possibilities it offers must be subordinated to its protective role.

Of the 6.2 million hectares of indigenous forests that remain, only about a million hectares are merchantable by today's standards. Greatly increased use of exotic timber has enabled the rate of cutting in State indigenous forests to be reduced to 1,600 hectares a year. Greater emphasis is being placed on the management of indigenous forests for sustained wood yield or as reserved natural stands. A lower cutting level is also evident in privately-owned indigenous forests.

Merchantable forests also include almost all the planted (exotic) forests, about half of which were established and are owned privately or by local authorities. There are about 740,000 hectares of productive exotic forest, over half of which is in the Bay of Plenty - Taupo region, where very large plantings were made from 1923 to 1936. The distribution of the planted forests was influenced mainly by availability of cheap undeveloped land at that time. The output of timber from the exotic forests greatly surpasses that from the indigenous forests.

The exotic conifers, particularly radiata pine, have high growth rates, ease of establishment and ease of re-establishment on cut-over areas, and they produce wood that has many uses. Plantings of such trees are being extended and developed to provide for increasing domestic and export demand.

The distribution by area of forest land is shown in the table below.

Forested LandIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll Forests
 hectares (thousand)
State forest2,9934253,418
National parks and reserves1,5501,550
Unoccupied Crown land361361
Other tenures1,3423151,657
Total6,2467406,986

BOTANICAL COMPOSITION OF FORESTS: Indigenous Forests—These can be broadly grouped into podocarp/broad-leaved forest (which includes kauri forest) and beech forest, but there are also many subgroups and transition zones.

Podocarp/broad-leaved forests are found at all latitudes in the three main islands, more particularly those of the north and of the warm wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes, and there is a general increase in luxuriance and in numbers of species from south to north. This type of forest has suffered severely by destruction in land clearing or from heavy logging. There are still some large areas on steep country, such as the Ureweras, but these are essentially protection forests. Fairly extensive areas in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island contain most of the remaining indigenous softwood supplies. Otherwise, the remaining forest of this type consists of pockets, some of which may be worked out in a few decades.

The principal podocarp is rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) and important secondary ones are totara (Podocarpus totara), matai (P. spicatus), and miro (P. ferrugineus). Important species at higher elevations are Hall's totara (P. hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii). Kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides), once common on low-lying swampy river silts now cleared for farming, is becoming scarce. The smaller podocarps of the silver pine group (Dacrydium biforme, D. colensoi, and D. intermedium) are dominant in bog forests occupying limited areas in the central North Island and scattered widely over the South Island although concentrated largely on the West Coast, where they are largely cut over for posts and sleepers.

The main broad-leaved species associated with the podocarps are kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa), rata (Metrosideros umbellata and M. robusta), and tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa) in the North Island and western Nelson.

Kauri forests are found in the north of the North Island. In them, kauri (Agathis australis) either occurs frequently or is locally dominant—otherwise they are akin to the podocarp/broad-leaved forest, though with many additional hardwoods. They have been almost destroyed by logging and fire and only limited stands now remain.

Beech forests, in which one or more of the southern beech (Nothofagus) species are dominant, are the forests of the south, of the mountains, and of the dry lowlands; but the species are absent from some localities where their presence might be expected, e.g., Mt. Egmont, the region 160 km south of the Taramakau River in Westland, and Stewart Island. In the main, these forests are protection forests, but there are large areas in accessible regions that have been cut over and are regenerating, and others that have not yet been logged and will be reserved for sustained-yield management or replacement by fast-growing exotics.

Scrub and second-growth broad-leaved species occupy much of the land now classified as forest. There were, before European settlement, limited transition areas carrying manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides) between tussock grassland and forest proper. With deliberate destruction by fire of much tussock and forest these manuka belts have extended, and manuka even occupies extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from its own original stands. In this respect it is important, for it is often a stage in succession back to forest proper.

Exotic Forests—Introduced conifers form the bulk of the large and valuable exotic-forest estate, and among these radiata pine (Pinus radiata) is the supreme multi-purpose tree. Radiata pine grows rapidly in New Zealand (reaching saw-log size in 25–30 years), produces a large volume of usable wood, and is remarkably adapted to a variety of sites. Other major species are Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Corsican pine (Pinus nigra (laricio)), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa).

The largest exotic forests are in the centre of the North Island; medium and small plantations are distributed throughout most of the country. Radiata pine constitutes about half the area of State plantations and about 90 percent of private plantations.

MANAGEMENT OF STATE FORESTS—The management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards protecting, conserving, and, where possible, perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests of the country, and creating an exotic forest estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce and to provide for large exports.

Spreading awareness among the general public of the human and physical environment has brought the management of remaining indigenous forests under critical examination. In 1975 a new policy covering State indigenous forests was approved by Government. It provides principles to guide the future use and management of these forests, giving due regard to sound forestry practices, the wishes of the public, and social and economic welfare on a regional and national basis. To manage forest land on the basis of optimum use, dominant forest values (whether they are of protection, amenity, production, or otherwise) must be identified and defined. Recognising forest zones is a sound basis for reconciling numerous objectives. The values identified first in forest zoning are soil and water conservation and biological significance. Scenic appeal, potential for recreation, and wood production values are considered subsequently.

In relation to the approximately 4 million hectares of State forest land administered by the New Zealand Forest Service, conservation embraces: the husbanding of indigenous forests yielding timber needed for special purposes, but which are difficult to perpetuate and must therefore be used as sparingly as possible; the management in selected areas of less silviculturally difficult forests, such as terrace rimu in Westland, beech in Southland and north Westland, and kauri in North Auckland, on a sustained yield basis; the creation and management of exotic forests on a sustained yield basis for the production of wood for a wide range of uses; the establishment or maintenance in a healthy state of protective vegetation on hill and mountain land to preserve soil and to control stream channel aggradation; the protection of exotic and indigenous forest against fire, disease, and noxious animals for the maintenance of a supply of exotic and indigenous wood, a vegetative cover to preserve soil and water values, a habitat for wildlife, and scenic and other amenity values in perpetuity; the legal reservation of selected forest types as forest sanctuaries and dedicated areas; the use of exotic and indigenous forest for recreational and other purposes, including spiritual enjoyment, where this is not incompatible with essential soil and water conservation.

Increasing interdependence between forests and the social and economic benefits derived from indigenous and exotic forests in regional development emphasise the necessity for planning all forest operations on a regional basis.

Indigenous Production Forests—Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve restriction of the annual cut, rigid insistence on full utilisation, and block sales of carefully measured standing timber. Substantial long-term reserves have also been set aside to ensure the continued supply of high-quality indigenous timber and to safeguard resources against the unlikely event that a major catastrophe should befall the exotic forest estate.

The ecology of the natural forest associations and the silvicultural characteristics of the individual species are being studied. Past work has shown the importance of preserving a forest climate. Carefully conducted selection logging of terrace rimu forests in south Westland provides a favourable forest environment for the regeneration and growth of rimu.

In many districts, forests of mixed podocarps and tawa have been logged for rimu, leaving tawa behind. Recently, however, tawa has been found useful as a hardwood pulp, and in the Bay of Plenty wood unsuitable for saw logs is being used for this purpose.

The kauri forests, now only remnants, are owned principally by the State. Management of them has the objective of perpetuating kauri as a species in the interests of science and public enjoyment,

in natural stands and as managed forests. Large representative areas of mature and immature kauri have been set aside as sanctuaries, programmes of research and artificial establishment intensified, and the annual cut reduced to the lowest level consistent with economic, social, and legal constraints.

The prospects of improving and perpetuating the beech forests on a sustained-yield basis are good. Both major species, red and silver beech, when given the right conditions, will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to produce saw logs in 100–130 years; and both show their best development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. Many large areas of beech forests are still intact and, in the case of red beech, there are extensive stands of young forest which have originated after fire, wind throw, or mining activities. Against these favourable circumstances must be set the presence in many localities of red deer and other feral animals, the browsing of which may check or even prevent effective regeneration.

A survey has been undertaken into the extent and distribution of beech forests in Nelson, northern Westland, and western Southland that may be suitable for production of saw logs and hardwood pulp. Care is being given to the consideration of areas that must be reserved for soil and water conservation, the presentation of flora or fauna of particular scientific interest, or scenery and recreation, and any forests utilised will be managed on a sustained-yield basis or replaced in part by fast-growing exotics. Details of the proposed management and use of these beech forests are given in the publication Utilisation of South Island Beech Forests (parliamentary paper C.4, 1971). Permanent production is envisaged from some 300,000 hectares of lower altitude beech forest in Nelson, Westland, and Southland conservancies. (There are 3.5 million hectares of beech forest in the South Island.) The Forest Service is conscious of the need to preserve major environmental values in perpetuity.

In 1974 the Government invited proposals to use beech forests for major pulp industries. In late 1975, however, consideration of schemes to use the West Coast beech was deferred until the completion of a study by consultants to discover the economic feasibility of major processing industries using combined wood resources from West Coast, Nelson, and Marlborough, and of a panel-board industry or other local small-scale processing, using wood residues from West Coast sawmills and forests. The consultants' report and all other available pertinent data were presented at a seminar on the Future of West Coast Forestry and Forest Industries, held in Hokitika in mid-1977. At the end of the seminar, public submissions on the proposals discussed were invited, and these are now with the Government for consideration.

Exotic Forests—State exotic forests date from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting began in 1898 and proceeded slowly until 1922, by which time 19,000 hectares had been established. From 1923 to 1936 there was a boom in afforestation, with no less than 150,000 hectares planted by the State and 120,000 hectares by commercial companies. After the boom period planting continued on a more modest scale, but in 1961 State planting was increased and the Government provided for financial inducements to encourage planting by private landholders and local authorities—with the aim of doubling the exotic-forest estate by the end of the century. The annual rate of State planting has increased to more than five times the rate achieved then (4,000 hectares in 1961, over 21,000 hectares in 1975). The figure of over 22,000 hectares for 1975 private plantings is about 10 times that for 1961.

Now that the stage of large-scale utilisation has been reached, there are opportunities to increase productivity by correcting the deficiencies in the distribution of age classes, replacing unthrifty plantations, and improving the quality of the trees, and, at the same time, meeting the demand for forest products and ensuring continuity of supplies. The diversity of products now marketable permits utilisation of trees of a wide range of sizes and aids the operations needed in management practice.

Present policy is to concentrate new exotic forests in areas where there is scope for building up integrated wood-based industries to supply New Zealand markets and material for export. The planted forests (both State and private) already supply nearly 90 percent of the total wood production.

Stabilisation of Sand Dunes—This aspect of the Forest Service's work has a twofold objective—the stabilisation of dunes for the protection of agricultural and pastoral land and the establishment of exotic production forests. The Forest Service plants marram grass, sows lupin, and later establishes trees on certain protective zones. Eight schemes are in operation—at Aupouri, Mangawhai, Woodhill, Waiuku, Tainui-Kawhia, Waitarere, Santoft, and Pouto—embracing around 60,000 hectares. About 25,000 hectares of trees have been planted.

A most successful co-operative venture is under way in two Northland localities, where the Crown has leased large areas of Maori-owned coastal sand dunes (adjacent to Aupouri and Woodhill forests) for stabilisation and afforestation.

Stabilisation of Eroding Farmlands—A consequence of past forest clearing for farm land on some unsuitably steep areas has been accelerated water run-off and erosion. Wide spread landslipping, aggradation of riverbeds, and subsequent flooding have been sufficiently severe to require remedial works in which reafforestation plays a major part. Extensive plantings are under way in the East Coast and Poverty Bay and on the western Kaimai Range. Carefully managed, these can fulfil a productive role for timber supply and also maintain a protective cover.

Afforestation of Maori Land—In addition to the two areas of Maori-owned coastal sand country mentioned above, the Crown has also leased nine other areas of Maori land for co-operative forestry ventures. These total 55,000 hectares, with 22,000 being already planted.

Protection Forests—The vegetation of the mountainous areas—forest, scrub, and alpine grassland—is of the highest importance to the welfare of New Zealand. Many rivers that bring water to low-lying farmlands or provide the domestic water supply of cities and towns have their headwaters in the mountainous back country. The mountains receive frequent heavy rain and are mostly formed of rock that erodes easily when exposed to rain, wind, and frost. The blanket of montane vegetation protects the thin soil layer and stabilises rocky slopes. This prevents soil and rock from reaching streams and altering their flow characteristics. Settled flood plains can be protected by a combination of river-training works and a good cover of vegetation on catchments to ensure the most stable stream flow possible.

Browsing animals that were introduced into the forest and mountain lands many years ago and, in the absence of natural enemies and limiting climate, multiplied excessively are the major threat to the continued protective function of the vegetation of these areas. Consequently the first step in the effective management of these areas is control of the numbers of these animals to a level that will allow an adequate vegetative cover to grow and persist.

Techniques to assess the condition and trends of vegetation, alpine climate, rates of erosion, the possibility of introducing new forest and scrub species into badly depleted areas, and changes in animal populations and methods of control are undertaken by the Forest Service and other agencies in support of management of protective forest lands.

Recreation in State Forests—Over one million hectares of State forest is set aside as forest parks which, although mainly protection forests, provide scope for recreation. In addition, a further 100,000 hectares of State-forest land has been set apart as recreation areas.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for recreation in surroundings of great natural beauty—for study of plant and animal life; for challenging tramping; and for shooting and fishing. Most of the forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation and recreational use can be allowed in almost all such forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting, for instance, can be of benefit in destroying wild animal pests. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining huts. Entry on foot is unrestricted except that, in the interests of public safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

The older exotic forests, two of which are forest parks, also offer attractions and have the advantage of accessibility. In many there are walks and picnic spots for the public, and selected areas are reserved from felling for their scenic value.

Safeguarding Forests and Timber: Fire Prevention—Fire is the greatest single menace to forests; within a few hours it can destroy a valuable timber crop or undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance. Indigenous forests are fairly fire resistant but can become fire-risks in drought conditions. Without doubt, however, the major risk occurs in the plantations of exotic conifers.

The fire-protection organisation of the Forest Service operates over the entire country, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, national parks, and all other State areas. A fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the department has fire-fighting responsibilities and well equipped fire-fighting crews can be brought into action at short notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial fire-detection patrols operate when and where required, and aerial fire fighting in the form of helicopters fitted with special buckets, has been adapted to deal with fire outbreaks. When weather or other conditions may lead to the start of forest or rural fires and endanger life and property, the Forest Service may issue a warning of fire hazard conditions, impose a total ban on lighting fires in the open, and take charge of an area so endangered by declaring a regional fire emergency.

A new Forest and Rural Fires Act, which became law in 1978, provides for a nationwide fire control system (involving all fire authorities), affords private forest owners the opportunity for protection identical with State areas, and sets up a mediator to deal immediately with any controversy.

Noxious Animal Control—Under the Noxious Animals Act 1956 the Forest Service is responsible for the control of deer, goats, chamois, pigs, and other introduced wild animals on all lands where the damage they cause is detrimental to the welfare of the country. On State forest and unoccupied Crown land the Forest Service also deals with opossum and wallaby control; but on pastoral land control of these two animals comes under the Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

The widespread populations of many of these animals have a serious effect on the growth of trees and ground cover in production as well as in protection forests. The forest floor of ferns, mosses, and shrubs has been extensively damaged by deer and goats, while the upper storey is adversely affected by the canopy-feeding opossum.

Control of Insects and Disease—In conjunction with private enterprise the Forest Service has organised joint spraying operations to control the pine needle blight Dothistroma pini. Aerial spraying of a copper fungicide is an effective means of dealing with the disease. Increasing research is being directed towards the debilitating effect of Swiss needle cast (Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii) on the growth of Douglas fir.

Pathologists and entomologists of the Forest Research Institute maintain a constant watch on forests, woodlots, and shelter belts to detect incipient epidemics in time for effective control measures to be taken. Much information is accumulated to elucidate the relationships between the organisms and the forests.

Timber Inspection and Quarantine—Forest Service timber inspection and quarantine cover all sawn, hewn, and natural round timber, wooden manufactured items, wooden packing, and ship's dunnage entering or leaving the country.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES—More money is spent on establishing and tending State forests than is obtained in revenue. Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry is met in full from taxation, as distinct from the development of State forests, which is financed from national development loans.

Sources of finance are shown in the following table.

Source1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77
 $(000)
Consolidated Revenue Account expenditure4,9465,7466,7858,4598,839
      Less receipts128687585120
      Required from Consolidated Revenue Account4,8185,6786,7108,3748,719
Works and Trading Account expenditure43,82952,01661,52478,70494,552
      Less receipts30,00740,79539,90837,64759,687
      Loan moneys required13,82211,22121,61641,05734,865
Net finance required from Government funds18,64016,89928,32649,43143,584

PRIVATE FORESTRY: Private Forest Estate—Exotic forest holdings other than State forests (New Zealand Forest Service) or those on Crown lands amount to 315,000 hectares.

Forestry Incentive—In 1976 7,760 hectares of new private planting was carried out under the Government's forestry encouragement loans scheme (for local authorities) or forestry encouragement grants scheme (for individuals, including trusts and partnerships, and small companies). There is added incentive in the fact that the value of standing trees does not increase any assessment for land tax, death duties, or local body rates; as well, there are concessions with regard to income tax.

Extension Services—Advice and help in all plantation matters are available from the Forest Service, which administers the forestry encouragement schemes. Because of the high degree of interest in private forestry, increasing emphasis is being given to information and training services. Printed booklets are available; a correspondence course is offered through the Technical Correspondence Institute; and short residential courses are held periodically.

Farm forestry associations also are involved in promoting the advantages and advising on the management of woodlots.

FOREST UTILISATION: Removals of Roundwood—By the 1930s the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, whereas some of the exotic forests had reached the stage where harvesting could begin. By 1939, of the 1,700,000 cubic metres per annum of roundwood for industrial use, some 280,000 cubic metres came from the exotic forests. By 1948 the total annual removals of roundwood had gone up to 2,300,000 cubic metres with 820,000 cubic metres from the exotic forests. The exotic forests are now by far the more important source of wood and in 1977 they supplied 8,893,000 cubic metres, or 91 percent of the total supply from exotic and indigenous forests.

The table below shows the quantities of timber produced by the forests of New Zealand to supply the forest industries, which comprise 400 sawmills, 9 plywood and veneer plants, 3 particle board mills, 6 pulp and paper mills, and 2 fibreboard mills. This roundwood production does not include firewood.

Year Ended 31 MarchIndigenous WoodExotic WoodTotal
cubic metres (thousand)
1973889.17,353.88,242.9
1974917.27,659.98,577.1
19751,002.77,397.58,400.2
1976959.67,344.38,303.9
1977861.18,892.89,753.9

Sawn-timber Production—Radiata pine and other pines account for about 89 percent of the total cut of exotics; Douglas fir provides most of the remainder. Less than a quarter of the country's timber requirement comes from the indigenous forests, and this proportion must inevitably fall as cutting is gradually reduced to the point where a small sustained yield of indigenous timber can be maintained.

The table below gives the production of rough-sawn timber in recent years.

Total sawn-timber production by years over a 50-year period is included in the Statistical Summary at the back of the Yearbook.

Year Ended 31 MarchSoftwoodsHardwoodsGrand Total
IndigenousExoticTotalIndigenousExoticTotal
cubic metres (thousand)
19733401,4021,742403451,785
19743411,6682,009405452,054
19753281,7162,044393422,086
19763261,6181,9444811592,003
19772961,8672,163472492,212

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past 5 years.

SpeciesYear Ended 31 March
19731974197519761977
cubic metres (thousand)
Rimu and miro281288272266242
Matai1817172016
Totara97864
Kahikatea2826293232
Tawa151182117
Beech2427272629
Other indigenous45533
Total, indigenous380381366374343
Exotic pines1,2341,4701,5421,4271,662
Douglas fir157177147153161
Eucalypts453102
Other exotic1021283944
Total, exotic1,4051,6731,7201,6291,869
Total (all species)1,7852,0542,0862,0032,212

Wood-chip Industry—Two wood-chip mills in the Nelson region produce wood chips solely for Japan. They use trees unsuitable for sawn-timber production in order to allow replanting with more productive species and to provide a market for forest and sawmill residues.

In 1972 export of wood chips from Mt. Maunganui began. At Christchurch a chip mill started production in 1974 and exports chips through Lyttelton, which has specially installed loading machinery. The production of wood chips for export, using sawmill wastes, has begun in Otago, and the first shipments left Port Chalmers in 1977.

Pulp and Paper Industry—The total value of output of the pulp and paper industry reached $149 million in 1973–74. Over the last 10 years total production of pulp (the basic commodity) has risen at an average annual rate of almost 10 percent, and production of paper at almost 6 percent. Production rose from 239,000 tonnes in 1958–59 to 953,000 tonnes in 1975–76. During the same period total wood consumption in the pulp and paper industry (which includes sawmills of integrated plants) increased from 1,100,000 cubic metres to 3,800,000 cubic metres. The industry is mainly concentrated near the big exotic forests on the volcanic plateau of the North Island. There are 6 pulp and paper plants in New Zealand, 5 of which are in the North Island. Of these 5, 4 are integrated with sawmills to utilise fully the total input of wood. The 6 companies are:

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.—This company was formed in 1952 to utilise wood from Kaingaroa State Forest. Practical assistance and financial backing were given by the Government, which is represented on the board of directors. The company's plant is at Kawerau, Bay of Plenty. The pulp and paper mill began operation late in 1955 and the sawmill early in 1956. The annual rated capacity of the sawmill is 200,000 cubic metres of sawn timber on the baste of one shift a day, while the capacity of the pulp and paper plant is 330,000 tonnes of newsprint and wallpaper base, 245,000 tonnes of chemical pulp, and 295,000 tonnes of mechanical pulp.

N.Z. Forest Products Ltd.—This public company utilises about 2,200,000 cubic metres of timber a year from its own pine forests and also small quantities of hardwood (tawa) from State forests. Annual plant capacity is 247,000 tonnes of kraft, packaging, printing, and writing paper, 386,000 tonnes of kraft pulp, 45,000 tonnes of refiner groundwood pulp for fibreboard production, and 115,000 cubic metres of sawn timber a year, the last on a one-shift basis. The company uses 8,000 cubic metres of timber to make wooden cases and produces 30,000 cubic metres of veneer (on a three-shift basis), 11 million square metres of wallboard, and 100 million multi-wall paper bags annually. The integrated pulp mill, paper mill, sawmill and veneer lathe is at Kinleith near Tokoroa: the fibreboard, multi-wall paper bag, and wooden case mills and plants are in Auckland. The company is also a joint owner, with Australian Paper Mills Ltd. of Australia and U.E.B. Industries Ltd., of Fibre Products N.Z. Ltd., a firm which makes a range of moulded pulp products, including 28 million moulded fruit trays a year.

Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., a subsidiary of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., has an annual production capacity of 127,000 tonnes. The company manufactures mechanical and semi-chemical pulp; it also uses considerable quantities of waste paper. The company owns its own radiata pine forest at Matahina and hauls the logs 42 kilometres to the mill by road. It also operates a sawmill near the board mill to take the larger logs from the forest.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. makes tissue and various lightweight papers adjacent to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.'s plant at Kawerau.

New Zealand Paper Mills Ltd. at Mataura, now a subsidiary of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., has been in operation for more than 100 years. It has 2 machines producing a range of papers from kraft wrapping grades to specialty printing and writing papers. The company uses New Zealand-made sulphate-pulp and supplements this with wastepaper and small quantities of imported specialty pulp. Annual production capacity is 17,000 tonnes of paper. Adjacent to the paper mill is a small bagmaking factory, producing a range of single-ply bags.

Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd.—In 1969 the Government invited tenders for the processing of 9 million cubic metres of wood from Kaingaroa State Forest. After examining the proposals received, the Government awarded the sale of roughly two-thirds of the volume to Carter Consolidated Ltd. This led to the formation of the company, which has built an integrated sawmill and refiner groundwood mill at Whirinaki in the Napier district. This project, which is geared to the Japanese market began producing wood pulp in March 1973. Present productive capacity is about 200,000 tonnes of refiner groundwood pulp and 70,000 cubic metres of sawn timber annually. Expansion announced will increase pulp production to about 245,000 tonnes a year. Production of newsprint is also planned from about 1980.

Winstone Samsung Industries Ltd.—A seventh pulp plant is under construction. In the latter part of 1976 the Government accepted a proposal from Winstone Samsung Industries Ltd. for the establishment of a thermo-mechanical pulpmill at Tangiwai based on an offering of exotic wood from Karioi State Forest. Construction of the plant has begun and pulp production is expected to start in 1979. Annual capacity of the plant is estimated at 70,000 tonnes, of which about 70 percent will be exported to South Korea, with the rest to be offered on world markets.

The basic products of the pulp and paper industry are mechanical and chemical pulp, which are converted into such products as newsprint, kraft, and other paper, paperboard, and fibreboard.

The following table gives the production of wood pulp in New Zealand in recent years.

Year Ended 31 MarchWood Pulp
Chemical*Mechanical

* Chemical pulp includes semi-chemical pulp.

†Mechanical pulp includes ground-wood pulp and defibrated pulp.

tonnes
1972317,998262,627
1973339,502260,543
1974465,300351,057
1975521,161371,618
1976565,376387,736
1977581,453521,203

Production figures for paper in New Zealand in recent years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchNewsprintOther Printing and Writing PaperOther Paper and PaperboardTotal Paper and Paperboard
tonnes
1973213,22123,629216,585453,435
1974217,83131,175285,129534,135
1975208,52333,852304,459546,834
1976219,13434,213301,607554,954
1977275,36938,773320,450634,592

The rise of production of pulp and pulp products is clearly shown in the following graphs.

Wood-based Panel Products Industries: Plywood—Five factories manufacture plywood, and the total output for the year ended 31 March 1977 was 26,000 cubic metres. Total production of veneer in the industry in 1976–77 was 41,100 cubic metres.

New Zealand Forest Products plywood plant at Kinleith began production of industrial and structural grades of plywood for both the domestic and export markets in 1976. The plant has a capacity of 3.7 million cubic metres (twice that of any other plywood plant in New Zealand or Australia) and uses radiata pine from Kaingaroa State Forest together with wood from the company's own pine forests.

Radiata pine has become increasingly important as a species for peeler log supply because of the demand for industrial plywood and now constitutes about 60 percent of total peeler log production. Now that the indigenous forests have become depleted, the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence, in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers logging State indigenous forests to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Fibreboard—Although fibreboard is manufactured from wood pulp, it is by end use a panel product. Production started in 1943 and has increased steadily. A new mill in Canterbury began producing medium-density fibreboard by a dry process in 1976. This product is now successfully establishing itself on the domestic market.

Particle Board—Particle board is manufactured from roundwood and sawmill residues. There has over recent years been a rapid expansion in the domestic market for this product for interior panelling and flooring as well as furniture manufacture.

Production of plywood, veneer, fibreboard, and particle board is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVeneerPlywoodParticle BoardFibreboard
 cubic metrestonnes
197331,80027,10072,20044,700
197437,80030,100118,800x45,500
197535,40027,000112,900x43,900
197632,20019,300128,484x44,000
197741,10026,000159,56656,100

Production of Round and Split Produce—Considerable quantities of native timbers have been used in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, and firewood, and for a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge-timber requirements, but as with forest products in general, most post and pole requirements are now met from exotic resources. A massive increase in the volume of posts and poles treated (from 5,000 cubic metres in 1955 to 254,000 cubic metres in 1975) indicates the switch from indigenous roundwood to exotic roundwood.

Wood Preservation—In the year ended 31 March 1977, 46.2 percent of all sawn timber produced was preservative treated: by world standards the proportion treated is very high, partly because of the relative ease with which otherwise non-durable exotic softwoods such as radiata pine can be treated.

Features of the preservation industry are: the very wide use in house building of timber treated by diffusion or vacuum-pressure methods with water-borne preservative at low retentions to prevent insect borer attack; the wide dispersal of small treating plants specialising in such treatment; and the quality-control function exercised by the Timber Preservation Authority.

Timber Preservation Authority specifications prescribe the preservative treatments for different service conditions. For treatment of exterior timbers against decay multi-salt preservatives (essentially solutions of copper, chromium, and arsenic compounds) at high loadings are widely used, but oil-type preservatives (e.g., creosote) are also acceptable. The usual method of application of multi-salt preservatives is by vacuum pressure, but such variations as the oscillating-pressure method (OPM), the Lowry process, and the alternating-pressure method (APM) have been introduced. Oil-based preservatives are applied by pressure, hot and cold bath, and cold soak and are used for poles, posts, and sleepers. For timber out of contact with the ground and protected from the weather lighter treatment with water-soluble preservatives is acceptable.

The following table shows the quantities of sawn timber treated.

YearOpen TankDiffusion Impregnation*Pressure ImpregnationTotal

*Mainly boron.

 cubic metres
1972–737291,654476,798768,459
1973–745403,488536,036939,529
1974–7537396,370561,971958,378
1975–769x359,238570,849930,096
1976–7764371,034650,3371,021,435

In addition, 278,805 cubic metres of other timber, such as sleepers, poles and fence posts, were treated by one of the preservation methods in 1976–77.

OVERSEAS TRADE—Forest products are important earners of overseas funds. For the year ended June 1977 exports of forest products were valued at about $220 million; Australia was the largest customer, taking 45 percent, mainly in the form of pulp and paper, and Japan was the next largest, taking 35 percent, mainly pulp and paper. For the same period, imports of forest products into New Zealand were valued at $56 million.

Timber Exports—There is an established market in Australia for sawn radiata pine and Douglas fir. Japan takes large volumes of logs, and the market there for sawn radiata pine is now as important as the Australian market. Korea and the People's Republic of China are also taking logs, and the Middle East is taking sawn timber. Only special categories of indigenous timbers are permitted for export, and these are strictly regulated.

Timber Imports—Durable Australian hardwoods are still imported for use as large poles, cross-arms, wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc. The demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses, exterior joinery, and weatherboards continues. Other imports are normally limited to tropical hardwoods for the furniture trade and specialty purposes.

Pulp and Paper Exports—These are now established exports of great value to New Zealand. Australia takes significant volumes of pulp and paper, and Japan takes large volumes of pulp. Both chemical and mechanical pulp are exported. Newsprint accounts for 65 percent of all paper exports.

Pulp and Paper Imports—Short-fibred pulp and special papers are imported and constitute about half of the value of our total forest products imports.

VALUE OF EXTERNAL TRADE IN FOREST PRODUCTS
Year Ended 30 JuneWood ProductsPulpPaper and Paper ProductsAll Forest Products
 Imports $(000) c.d.v.
1973x8,0061,85317,42827,287
1974x17,4941,78424,13443,412
1975x16,7491,20035,41353,362
197611,7271,75921,56535,051
197717,3321,58536,81855,735
 Exports $(000) f.o.b.
197351,06714,09924,55989,725
197453,950x25,57328,654108,177x
197536,08543,58739,306118,978
197641,95658,78066,624167,360
197764,50570,02785,924220,456

The following tables give New Zealand's imports and exports of timber for the latest 5 years.

TIMBER IMPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneSawn TimberSleepersLogs and Poles
HardwoodsNorth American Softwoods*OakOtherTotal

*Douglas fir, redwood, and cedar.

cubic metres (thousand)
197319191.9408
197431300.33.26411
197532210.11.7535
19761580.91.1268
197721132.0367
TIMBER EXPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneIndigenous TimberRadiata PineDouglas FirOther ExoticsTotal ExoticsTotal, All Sawn TimberLogs and Poles
SawnCases
cubic metres (thousand)
19737.01636712.02422531,954
19745.01745315.02422441,449
19754.01221356.0164169695
19764.0143458.0196199714
19775.020514215.02632681,136

NOTE—Small quantities of roundwood are included in the experts.

The following table gives New Zealand's external trade in pulp and paper for the latest 5 years.

Year Ended 30 JuneWood PulpFibreboard*Paper and Paperboard
NewsprintOther Paper and PaperboardTotal

*In 1,000 square metres.

†Excludes manufactures of paper and paperboard; excludes minor items for which no quantities are given.

Imports (tonnes)
197313,8532.954732,77033,337
197411,52025.57,54638,55746,103
19754,102557.67,86150,63058,491
19765,6407.020619,76919,975
19774,01256.18,66431,10439,768
Exports (tonnes)
1973141,5212,495.7122,97225,044148,009
1974243,218744.2103,09941,363144,457
1975312,169383.4120,58752,147172,729
1976359,919890.2132,11784,306216,423
1977420,398926.5175,99980,208256,135

RESEARCH—The Forest Service co-ordinates its forestry and forest-products research through the Forest Research Institute, with two divisions at Rotorua and a third at Christchurch, employing 130 scientists, 200 technicians, and a large servicing staff.

Production Forestry—This division's investigations include growing trees, and the factors affecting growth, cover forest establishment, genetics and tree improvement, silviculture and the economics of silviculture, mensuration, entomology, pathology, soils and site productivity, tree physiology, and forest biology survey.

Forest Products—In carrying out its work, this division must maintain close contacts with the timber and building industries and is therefore represented on numerous agencies associated with building standards and timber use and preservation. Its research extends to adhesives and composite products, pulp and paper, timber drying, timber engineering, wood chemistry, wood preservation, wood quality, and wood structure and formation.

Protection Forestry—Based at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, this division studies and investigates the role of trees and other vegetation as protective cover to high-country terrain and river catchments, and also the problems of maintaining or restoring such cover in the face of arduous climate and overbrowsing by animals. In relation to this, studies of the biology and control of introduced animals are important, together with knowledge of the associated geohydrology of the areas concerned.

Industry, the universities, and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research also carry out research into many aspects of forestry and forest products.

TRAINING IN FORESTRY—The Forest Service recruits school leavers up to 20 years of age as forestry trainees. They work and train for a year on a forest and then go on either to ranger training, with a further 3 years part-time study and practical forestry training, to obtain the New Zealand Certificate in Forestry, or else they may go on as forester trainees and attend university on a full-time study bursary to complete a 4-year degree course in forestry, doing practical forestry work during the vacations. The Forest Research Institute recruits young people for training as research technicians.

To build up a permanent skilled-labour force, the Forest Service recruits each year about 70 youths 16 to 18 years of age. These junior woodsmen receive a 2-year course of basic training in the practical skills of forestry at one of the woodsman schools at Kaingaroa, Golden Downs, Berwick, Ashley, or Aupouri, followed by a third year of advanced training given in small groups in selected forests.

Through the Forestry Training Centre at Rotorua courses are regularly offered in timber grading, seasoning and treatment of timber, and other forestry operations. The Timber Industry Training Centre at Rotorua provides courses for the industry in saw doctoring, sawmilling, and timber machining. Short grading courses for representatives from local industry are also held in other centres.

The University of Canterbury offers the Bachelor of Forestry Science degree, for which study involves 2 intermediate years of pure science followed by 2 years of professional classes, and also courses leading to M.For.Sc. and Ph.D. in forestry.

EMPLOYMENT—In 1977 the people employed in the forestry sector comprised 3.6 percent of the total labour force. Because the major manufacturing units are logically located near their raw material supplies, there is a concentration of employment near the largest forest areas. This is seen in the central North Island, where over half the country's exotic forests are located and where one-quarter of the regional labour force is engaged in forest industries. In fact the forest industries have had a very marked effect on regional development. The current prosperity and the fast growth of population in the Rotorua - Bay of Plenty area is due in no small measure to the expansion of the forest industries. Apart from the expansion of the established towns such as Rotorua, the industrial development of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., and Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. led to the establishment of a completely new town—Kawerau—and the rapid growth of another—Tokoroa. The development of these industrial complexes has also stimulated other industries, especially transport, vehicle repair, and building and construction. Similarly the expansion of exports of forest products was partly responsible for the increased tonnages that have passed through the ports of Tauranga and Napier over the last decade.

The following table shows the number of employees and working proprietors in the forest industries at 15 April 1977.

At 15 AprilForestry*LoggingSawmillingTimber MerchantingPulp, Paper, and PaperboardOther§Total

*Includes silviculture, nurseries, etc.

†Includes felling, cutting, and haulage.

‡Includes planing mills and plywood and veneer mills.

§Includes other wood industries, manufacture of furniture and fittings, wooden and cane containers, and wood and cork products.

19773,9633,2657,5003,6215,49820,57144,418

THE OUTLOOK—The State owns 75 percent of the remaining indigenous timber and about half of the 0.7 million hectares of exotic forest. It makes sales, of either standing timber or logs, from both types of forest. The contribution of the indigenous forests to timber supply has diminished considerably but it is hoped that these forests will in the future supply small volumes of special purpose timbers. The exotic forests are readily renewable and are managed for sustained yield. Their full possibilities have not yet been reached but owing to the irregularity of past planting programmes their composition is far from ideal and there are problems over maintaining a steady rate of expansion of output.

The large area of exotic forest in private ownership has arisen for the most part from speculative planting in the 1920s and 1930s. Most of the forests then established have since come under the control of industrial companies, which are utilising them and managing them, in several cases, to ensure regular and permanent supplies for their major wood-using factories. The other privately-owned indigenous forests are subject to uncontrolled exploitation and are expected to be exhausted at no distant date.

Increased production up to the end of the century will be based for the most part on existing forest resources and will be sustained thereafter by additional new planting. It is expected that the current new planting rate of about 45,000 hectares a year will continue for some time.

New Zealand's forest industries are favourably placed in regard to the basic requirement for expansion—wood supplies from exotic forests, which will increase over the next 30 years. Efficient processing is well established, providing a good basis for further expansion; projections indicate that demand for forest products will grow both at home and abroad, particularly for paper. In many countries wood supplies are inadequate for their needs, hence these countries must import timber.

Chapter 17. Section 16 FISHERIES

Table of Contents

General—Food from the sea figured prominently in the diet of the Polynesian inhabitants of New Zealand for over a thousand years. And although fish was also important to white settlers, it is only within the last decade that fishing has attained status as a significant industry.

Whalers and sealers were the first Europeans to tap the potential of New Zealand waters and in 1844 whale oil and other products were fetching more than £50,000 on London markets.

Fishing existed as a way of life for more than a century until 1945, when the Government of the day introduced a system of restrictive licensing of fishing vessels which provided for the vessels to land catches only at the port of registration. Surplus was exported, but never steadily, and in 1962 a Parliamentary Select Committee was appointed to examine the prevailing restrictive licensing system and review practices. It recommended the abolition of the system, which had restricted the expansion and diversification of the industry.

At this time there was a mounting world-wide demand for protein foods. Russian and Japanese fishing boats were penetrating into the hitherto unexploited south-west Pacific, including New Zealand waters, where of the 42 food fishes known to be caught locally, only 7 were being marketed regularly.

Restrictive licensing was abolished in 1964 and the Fishing Industry Board was established to help promote the industry. Since then fisheries have expanded at an accelerating rate.

The establishment of new industrial plant principally for export of quality wet fish, regular supplies, development of attractive packaging, and the introduction of Government quality standards and control are now resulting in expanding export markets.

Stimulated by the impetus of the 1962 Select Committee, which had recommended freeing the industry from restriction, and with Government assistance, the industry has not only expanded, but has also diversified into rock oyster and mussel cultivation and begun to employ different catching methods to land tuna and other pelagic species, which represent a large untapped resource in New Zealand waters.

With the advent of the 200-mile fishing management zone in 1978, the New Zealand fishing industry will require further investment in large off-shore vessels such as mid-water and deep-water trawlers and purseseiners. Shore facilities, including processing establishments, will also need to be expanded to cope with the anticipated increase in landings.

Resources and Fishing Methods—Trawling and Danish seining are the principal methods of taking demersal or bottom-dwelling fish, which form the basis of New Zealand's fishing industry. These two methods accounted for 65 percent and just under 6 percent respectively of the total wet fish catch in 1974. Lines and set nets accounted for another 18 percent. Other methods used are purse seining and trolling, employed in fishing for pelagic or surface-dwelling fish, which form an increasing proportion of the total wet fish catch.

Between 1964 and 1976 production of fin fish increased from 29,924 tonnes to 52,757 tonnes and the value of all fish exports increased from $4.1 million to over $20 million.

The biggest stimulus to the export industry has been the development of the rock lobster fishery, exports of which have flourished after a demand for frozen tails arose in the United States from 1948 onwards. In 1962 rock lobster landings totalled 4,501 tonnes. Five years later landings had risen to 8,078 tonnes and in 1968 jumped to 10,909 tonnes valued at $7,433,006. This was the peak year of a fishery in the Chatham Islands, where prolific rock lobster grounds had been discovered. Total landings began to taper off in 1971, and declined to 3,702 tonnes in 1976.

Fishing Grounds—The continental shelf, which extends out to a depth of approximately 200 metres, is fairly narrow. Though in some areas, such as the Taranaki Bight, it extends for a considerable distance offshore and in others, such as the south-west of the South Island, it is almost contiguous with the coast line, its average width is approximately 19 kilometres. There are 36 trawl fishing ports, including 16 of major importance. These are located fairly evenly around the coastline, with trawlers having access to the whole continental shelf. The boundary of the shelf occurs at about the 200 metres isobath which, until recently, was the maximum depth.

Boats work throughout the year, with no marked fluctuations except for seasonal changes to fish particular species. A full-time trawler averages between 100 and 160 days at sea a year, but there are regional variations due to climatic differences.

Trawling is more intensive along eastern coasts, but the fishery on western coasts is increasing, especially in the South Island.

Vessels—Since 1945 the average size of trawlers has increased from 12 to 16 metres and from 16 to 26 gross tonnes. Engine power has risen from an average of 40 bhp to 150 bhp.

North Island boats are generally larger than those of the South Island. At Auckland and Gisborne average size approaches 20 metres and 200 bhp, and at Lyttelton and Timaru boats average 14 metres.

Crews number between one and three, with the national average about 2.5.

In 1968 pelagic fish amounted to only 15 percent of the total fishing catch here, whereas they comprise 60 percent of the world catch. By 1971 the percentage of pelagic species in the total New Zealand catch was 21 percent. However, most of these were still trawl caught.

Species landed have been barracouta, trevally, tuna, kingfish, kahawai, mackerel, and pilchard. Of these, barracouta, trevally, and tuna have been exported. Tuna landings in 1968 were 18 tonnes; these rose to 1,807 tonnes in 1975, and about 8,000 tonnes in 1976 with the advent of chartered super-seiners fishing for skipjack tuna on the north-east coast of the North Island. Locally-based purseseiners are also adding to the catch and diversifying into other pelagic species such as trevally, mackerel, and kahawai.

New Zealand landing figures offer no real indication of the total potential harvest of the seas in the south-west Pacific, but the build up of Japanese and Russian fleets suggests that there are substantial virgin stocks which are now being subjected to heavy exploitation. The extent to which the New Zealand industry will participate in fishing this area depends upon the economic outlets for the fish and the availability of capital for investment in large all-weather vessels capable of fishing down to 500 fathoms (914 metres).

Fisheries Development—Responsibility for the optimum development of fishery resources rests with two divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Fisheries Research and Fisheries Management Divisions. Promotion of industrial development is a responsibility of the Fishing Industry Board.

The research programme is headquartered in Wellington, with freshwater centres also in Christ-church and Rotorua. The 42-metre, deep sea research vessel James Cook is used extensively all around New Zealand, and the 19-metre Ikatere mainly for inshore studies in north eastern waters. Virtually all the major New Zealand demersal and pelagic fish species are being studied by the Research Division. In a number of cases the work has progressed to the establishment of safe biological yields for coastal species and the work is now being expanded to include assessment of the deeper water resources within the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ). Shell fish teams are also studying biology and behaviour, and fisheries for rock lobsters and dredge oysters. Biology and methods of cultivation of rock oysters and mussels are also under investigation.

Study began during 1976–77 on demersal fish resources in trawlable waters deeper than 200 metres and within 200 miles of New Zealand. First objectives are to establish basic biological parameters, such as growth and mortality rates, spawning areas and seasons, fecundity, and movements. A number of species are being investigated. Information from previous Japanese exploratory expeditions is being examined, and the James Cook is being used to collect complementary data.

The 27-metre technological vessel, W. J. Scott, based at Nelson, undertakes various gear tests and exploratory fishing. Among long-standing programmes are management of the Foveaux Strait dredge oyster fishery, rock lobster investigations in Otago, Southland, and Fiordland, elephant fish studies in the Canterbury Bight, toheroa surveys and a study of the shellfish industry in Golden and Tasman Bays.

Development until recent years has in the main been influenced by a traditionally small and highly selective domestic market which has not encouraged diversification in processing methods for fish which did not meet the normal domestic demand for a white fleshed, bland, non-oily, relatively bone-free type of fish.

Generally, fisheries development involves two important factors. The first is where a demand develops for a particular type of fish and this stimulates a search for this fish. The second factor is new treatment and packaging of a resource which has not previously found favour in the traditional fresh fish market in New Zealand (e.g., mackerel).

There are changes in the world-wide demand for fish as the more popular species reach the point of over-exploitation. Thus fish species which in the past had little or no value on either the domestic or the export market are now acquiring a new value internationally. The time is very appropriate for the expansion and development of certain types of fisheries but a great deal will depend upon the economics of these operations.

The governing legislation for the fishing industry is the Fisheries Act 1908, which is administered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977 redefined the territorial sea and established a 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone.

Fishing Industry Board—This board was established in 1964 under the Fishing Industry Board Act. Since then there have been great improvements in the quality of fish products and their presentation and in the wider use of less popular fish species. There have been new developments in fishing vessel design and construction; fishing gear and catching methods; in the catching of under-utilised species; in fish farming; in processing, packaging, and marketing; in food technological research; in technical education; and in co-operation within the industry.

A levy of approximately 1 percent of the landed value of fish came into force on 1 January 1965 and provides finance for the board's activities. The board through its committees investigates local supply and marketing, export development, technical education, tuna development, and fishing demonstrations.

Assistance to the Fishing Industry—During 1976–77 the administration of the State Loan and Mortgage Guarantee Scheme for assistance to the fishing industry was transferred from the Fishing Industry Finance Committee to the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation. Some 45 loans for $3.57 million were made to the fishing industry in 1976–77, compared with 128 loans for $1.46 million the previous year. The 1976 figures include the seasonal deficiency and refinance advances introduced in the 1975 Budget to help the industry's liquidity and trading problems. These measures no longer operate.

Loan authorisations to the fishing industry during the 2 latest available years are shown in the following table.

 1975–761976–77
NumberValueNumberValue
  $(m) $(m)
Loans to fishermen1261.40363.30
Loans for processing facilities20.0670.25
Rural export suspensory loans20.03
Total1281.46453.57

Section 30B "State Finance for Farms and other Primary Industry" should also be consulted.

The 1976 Budget raised loan limits for the purchase of vessels and equipment from $150,000 to $250,000. Maximum loans for re-engining, vessel improvements, and fishing gear and equipment were also increased from $10,000 to $20,000. Lending for ice-plants and cool stores was extended to cover all areas. Previously these had been restricted to areas where these facilities were not available. Loans were also made available for the development of mussel farms on much the same basis as those currently available for the development of rock oyster farms. In addition the Rural Bank assisted with the financing of the larger off-shore vessels available to the industry as a result of the Government's interim policy relating to the importation of a limited number of duty free vessels.

The 1977 Budget included further assistance to the fishing industry including increased loans to assist young well-qualified fishermen to purchase their own fishing vessels; a fishing vessel ownership savings scheme similar to the farm ownership savings scheme; the establishment of a development grant fund; lower interest rates; and an extension to the incentives for training scheme.

SPECIES OF FISH—Of the many kinds of excellent edible fish, the most important is the snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which is the principal species in the catch (mainly by trawl) in the north-western part of the South Island, the west coast of the North Island, and the east coast of the North Island to just south of East Cape; next in importance are tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropterus)and trevally (Caranx georgianus) which are taken mainly by trawlers and purseseiners working off the east coast of the North Island and in smaller quantities off the coasts of the South Island. The groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) is caught on lines in the deeper water from North Cape to Stewart Island, but principally in Cook Strait and on the rocky parts of the east coast of the South Island, while the blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the staple line-caught product of the southern line fisheries, particularly about Foveaux Strait, Stewart Island, and at Chatham Islands. The flounder and sole (Pleuronectidae) occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters. Rock lobster (crayfish) are fished mainly at the Chatham Islands and around the south-west of the South Island.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow waters, and most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 145 metres. Depths of over 180 metres occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, kingfish, and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounders, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, John Dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets and drag nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet.

Pelagic Fisheries—Blue mackerel, Scomber japonicus (Cuvier and Valenciennes), and jack or horse mackerel, Trachurur declivis, are taken by purse seining. The smaller pelagic species include the pilchard, Sardinops neopilchardus (Steindachner), sprat, Sprattus antipodum Hector, and the anchovy, Engraulis australis (White).

Arripis trutta, the New Zealand kahawai, which forms the basis of a commercial fishery in Australia, schools at the surface in substantial numbers in our waters and is being caught in increasing quantities.

Of the larger, oceanic-pelagic species, the southern bluefin tuna, Thunnus maccovii, is found from the far north of New Zealand to the south of the South Island in summer. Though hardly exploited commercially by local fishermen, it is fished off-shore by Japanese long-line vessels, particularly to the east and west of the North Island. The skipjack tuna (Katsuwonus pelanis) appear in substantial numbers during summer and it is believed that an annual catch of the order of 10,000 tonnes would be available for harvest mostly on the north and east coast of the North Island. Albacore (Thunnus adalunga) occurs more on the West Coast of New Zealand extending as far as Jacksons Head. It is believed that the fishery for this species, which is currently based on trolling, could be substantially increased by live bait fishing. Both species are under detailed investigation.

CATCH—The amount of fish landed annually by the fleet has increased from 6,488 tonnes in 1936 to 52,800 tonnes in 1976.

Composition of the catches is extremely varied and most species are landed whole. About 40 species are landed, but many only in small quantities. In 1976, 3 strongly dominant species contributed 47 percent of the total landings. These were snapper (27 percent), trevally (11 percent), and skipjack (9 percent).

In some individual fishing areas one or two species predominate. The trawl fishery in Hauraki Gulf is largely a snapper fishery, tarakihi is the chief species in the East Cape and eastern Cook Strait areas, and sole, red cod, and elephant fish predominate on the east coast of the South Island.

The catch in landed weight and value is shown in the following table.

Class1973197419751976
tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)

*Includes other minor items.

Snapper14.12,66113.93,42911.63,09214.44,856
Trevally4.94285.15953.54755.7950
Tarakihi3.86833.87193.48033.51,112
Gurnard3.74303.03802.02762.9542
Barracouta2.81823.42602.52333.7355
Hapuku1.35881.34411.14151.1491
Elephant fish1.03730.93200.62750.8191
Flounder0.74770.96010.96801.2996
Mackerel0.7361.5630.3171.184
Sole0.94741.15630.73221.2647
Shark1.65182.68542.46833.6674
Red cod0.7961.91940.7640.9131
Albacore0.51690.93390.61623
Skipjack0.1200.71481.22094.51,087
Other7.81,4117.81,3636.51,4278.22,296
Total, wet fish44.88,54648.610,26938.09,13352.814,416
Rock lobster4.89,4883.67,0533.35,8503.79,304
Oysters (dredge and rock)10.62,10110.12,4509.93,37810.03,801
Mussels2.42102.12151.6962.2247
Paua0.82410.41460.52010.6270
Scallops2.55423.48049.52,2836.12,114
Southern spider crab410.3502..
Squid0.4890.1260.1210.134
Other0.4440.4740.37180.3497
Total, all fish66.721,544*69.121,837*63.221,68075.830,682

The value of fisheries products is shown in the following diagram.

MAIN FISHING PORTS—Auckland and neighbouring Manukau continue their leadership of New Zealand fishing ports. These two centres registered 13,003 tonnes of wetfish in 1974 out of a record total wetfish catch for New Zealand of 48,606 tonnes. Nelson, in third place, is the fastest growing fishing centre, with a 1974 catch of 5,290 tonnes. Twenty ports reported catches of over 500 tonnes, an indication of the wide dispersion of the industry.

EXPORTS—The total value of all exports of fisheries products during the 1976 calendar year increased by $12.1 million (47 percent) compared with 1975.

The total record value of $37.8 million was due to the higher price obtained for rock lobster, the big increase in the quantity of wetfish exported (up 59 percent from 1975) and the value obtained for wet fish (up 69 percent from 1975).

The value of rock lobster exports increased to $19 million (up 57 percent from 1975) representing over half of all fisheries produce export value. A table showing quantities and values of the principal classes of fishery products exported during each of 3 recent June years is set out below. Rock lobsters, or crayfish, are exported mainly to the United States; for other fish the main markets are Australia and Japan. New Zealand's exports of fish and fish products now go to over 25 countries.

CommodityQuantityValue
1975x197619771975x19761977
 tonnes(000)$(million) f.o.b.
Fish (fresh, chilled, and frozen)10.417.122.38.314.521.2
Rock lobsters (whole, tails, and processed)1.51.81.811.618.122.6
Shellfish (fresh and processed)1.10.91.13.02.22.5
Total13.019.825.222.934.846.3

FOREIGN FISHING ACTIVITY—The types of fishing being practised by foreigners before the establishment of the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone were, as far as the Fishing Industry Board was aware:

  1. Long lining for tuna, mainly by Japanese vessels, but quite possibly by other nations such as South Korea.

  2. Trawling by large vessels, mainly Japanese, South Korean, and Russian.

  3. Squid fishing by Japanese vessels.

Since the Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act came into effect on 1 April 1978, foreign trawling activity is being strictly controlled and catch limits are being enforced. A 200-mile wide economic zone has been established in which Russian and South Korean fishing vessels continue to operate by treaty. Although Japan has recognised this economic zone, at the time of going to press the Japanese Government had not reached an agreement with New Zealand regarding fishing rights therein.

CONSUMPTION—The following table shows the annual per head consumption of fish products and the permissible mercury levels in selected countries. A study on mercury levels in snapper in New Zealand waters was recently made by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Results showed that, despite some variation in mercury levels with size of fish and location, the average level was well within acceptable limits.

Country and PeriodPer Head Consumption (Edible Weight)Permissible Mercury Level

*This is one-tenth of the lowest level likely to cause ill-effects.

 lbppm
Japan (1969)67.61.0
Denmark (1966–68)45.91.0
Sweden (1969–70)45.91.0
Norway (1968–69)45.11.2
United Kingdom (1968–69)20.91.0
New Zealand (1969)15.30.5*
Australia (1968–69)14.50.5
Italy (1968–69)12.90.7
Netherlands (1968–69)12.11.0
United States (1971)11.20.5

DREDGE OYSTERS—The principal oyster beds around the coasts of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South Island and Stewart Island. During 1975 a total of 114,706 sacks of oysters, valued at $2,855,707, were dredged from these beds. Tasman Bay, in Nelson, yielded a further 8,652 sacks, valued at $116,802. The total 1975 dredge-oyster catch of 123,358 sacks, valued at $2,972,509, represented an increase of 1.7 percent in landings and a rise of 28.5 percent in value on the previous years figures.

Dredge oyster catches during the latest available five seasons are shown in the table below.

SeasonFoveaux StraitTasman BayTotal
Sacks (000)Value $(000)Sacks (000)Value $(000)Sacks (000)Value $(000)
1973125.91,8264.763130.61,889
1974119.52,1011.82412132,125
1975114.72,8568.7117123.42,973
1976115.03,10710.8179125.83,286

ROCK OYSTERS—In addition to the 2 Government experimental rock-oyster farms, many private farms are in production in Northland and the Hauraki Gulf. The industry is in the process of changing from tray to stick cultivation.

During 1975 farms produced 13,514 bags valued at $405,420. Of these, 6,842 bags were exported and 6,672 bags sold locally. Total production in 1977 was valued at over $1 million. A high proportion was exported to Singapore, Hong Kong, and the Pacific Islands.

OTHER MARINE FARMING—Green tipped mussels are farmed in the Marlborough Sounds area. Production is growing, and markets in New Zealand and overseas are proving profitable.

Other species being farmed include dredge oysters (in the far South and Marlborough), scallops (in Marlborough), paua, and kina (sea eggs).

ROCK LOBSTERS—Rock lobsters, or marine crayfish, occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Part of the catch of rock lobster is sold in local markets for domestic consumption and part is exported as frozen rock lobster tails and whole crays.

With the development of the export of frozen rock lobster tails to the United States of America and the productive fishing in the Chatham Islands, the catch of rock lobster increased until 1968. The boom period, however, has now passed and the aim of all concerned is to ensure that this valuable fishery stabilises to provide regular supplies for overseas and local markets.

YearProduction (Whole)Exports*
QuantityValueQuantityValue

*Years ended June.

 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
19734,7719,4881,74610,669
19743,5727,0531,74410,677
19753,3185,8501,503x11,642x
19763,7009,3041,75418,134
1977  1,81022,615

FISH MEAL AND FISH OIL—In 1977 three companies produced commercial quantities of fish meal and fish oil from whole fish offals and frames. Fish meal production totalled 782 tonnes, valued at $335,516. Fish oil production totalled 35 tonnes, valued at $15,570.

BIG-GAME FISHING—Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District, and attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), Whakatane and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The record black marlin swordfish (976 lb) was caught off the Bay of Islands.

To preserve this very important fishery the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950 prohibit the taking of swordfish by other than rod and line, and stipulate that the line be not heavier than No. 39 linen thread line. In addition, a limit bag of not more than 4 fish per boat per day has been imposed.

In the 1975 season (from 1 November to June), big-game fish caught included 18 black marlin, 249 striped marlin, 17 blue marlin, 557 mako sharks, and 112 hammerhead sharks.

PAUA—Relatively few years ago paua was, strictly speaking, a non-commercial shellfish. Maoris have traditionally taken paua as a regular item of diet, but it was largely neglected as food by the pakeha until very recent years. Even now it is only a small item in the retail sales of fish in New Zealand. The recent change in the demand for paua has come about in the context of the ban on the export of unprocessed meat, which would have been processed overseas, since some New Zealand canners have solved the problems of bleaching and canning the meat to produce an article acceptable at substantial prices in, primarily, South-east Asian markets.

A close season for paua from 1 February to 31 May each year was introduced in 1972. Stocks are believed to have increased slightly in recent years.

WHITEBAIT—This fishing is based on Galaxias species which, so far as is known, are not taken on a commercial scale in the other countries where they occur. Whitebait fishery is carried on in the tidal reaches of many rivers, from August to November in the North Island and from September to November in the South Island. The most productive fishing grounds are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally the whitebait fishery gives employment to over 300 regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishers. With improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aeroplanes have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island. The 1975 season for the West Coast of the South Island showed a total of about 104 tonnes. It is becoming harder to collect catch data because of the large number of itinerant buyers, and the 1975 catch figure should be regarded as conservative.

FRESHWATER FISHERIES: Acclimatised Species—These include quinnat or chinook salmon, brown and rainbow trout, and perch. The local administration and management of these species is delegated to acclimatisation societies and to the Department of Internal Affairs for the Rotorua and Taupo fishing districts and for the Southern Lakes Acclimatisation District, where it acts as an acclimatisation society. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries assists with management investigations, and provides technical advice. It also conducts research on behalf of acclimatisation societies.

A fishing licence is required for the taking of acclimatised fish. The estimated revenue from angling licences in a season is $300,000. (Total revenue for the 1976 and 1977 seasons was $595,000.)

Indigenous Species—Eels are the only indigenous species of which a significant commercial harvest is taken from New Zealand's freshwaters. The catch of "wild" eels increased in 1975 to 1,231 tonnes compared with 830 tonnes in 1974.

Research—The research programme includes provision for continued limnological studies of the Rotorua lakes. Sources of nutrients, the principal causes of eutrophication, are still under study as is the bottom fauna. Studies of the correlation between trophic status of lakes and the population density and condition of sport fish is being undertaken. Work on whitebait fisheries and stream faunas is continuing in order to determine productivity levels and fish behaviour.

Studies on adult quinnat salmon are to be published and work on fry and smolts is being initiated. In addition work on trout and their inter-relationship to salmon in South Island rivers is being commenced.

Additional work is to be done on the occurrence of trace elements, particularly mercury, lead, zinc, cadmium, and copper, in shellfish from a variety of sea areas, in order to determine the naturally-occuring levels of these elements. The diagnosis service on parasites and diseases of freshwater fish has received submissions from throughout New Zealand.

Chapter 18. Section 17 MINERALS

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The mineral industry in New Zealand began with the discoveries of the gold prospectors of the 1850s and 1860s. Gold production reached a peak in 1873 when it earned 75 percent of all export earnings. Coal mining also began about 1850, and early this century the value of coal produced exceeded that of gold for the first time. In 1961 coal in turn was replaced by building aggregate, sand, and gravel as the most valuable mineral product. From 1969–72 the world-wide mining boom resulted in a great upsurge in mineral exploration in New Zealand. At its peak in 1971 estimated annual expenditure reached $1.7 million. No major metalliferous mineral deposits were discovered, but the impetus given to the mining industry has continued.

The existence of extensive ironsand deposits on the west coast of the North Island has been known for more than a century. Numerous attempts had been made to smelt the ironsand but, as none had been successful, the State-owned New Zealand Steel Investigating Co. was set up to investigate the feasibility of steel-making from the ironsands. In 1963 the company reported that an industry was economically and technically feasible, using ironsand from near Waikato Heads and Waikato coal. Construction of the steel mill at Glenbrook was completed in 1970 and the mill now provides a significant proportion of the country's steel requirements.

In addition ironsand is mined for export at two localities (Waverley and Taharoa) on the west coast of the North Island. The value of ironsand concentrates exported in 1976 exceeded $15 million.

Ilmenite, which is a source of titanium oxide for the paint and other industries, occurs extensively in the beaches of the west coast of the South Island in association with monazite, gold, and zircon. A reconnaissance survey by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research indicated reserves of over 50 million tonnes of ilmenite-bearing sands, and subsequent work by New Zealand and Australian companies has indicated considerable reserves in the Westport and Barrytown areas. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has carried out extensive laboratory work aimed at producing a synthetic rutile from these rather low-grade (46 percent TiO2) ilmenites. The companies concerned have also carried out both concentration and beneficiation studies with encouraging results. The main obstacle to the development of this mineral is now in marketing rather than in treatment.

Coal production over the last 40 years has varied between 2 and 3 million tonnes per annum. However recent steep rises in the cost of imported fuels, and increasing demand for electricity has led to renewed interest in the country's coal resources, mainly for electricity generation. A large thermal power station at Huntly should begin operating in 1979, and three new mines now being developed at Huntly will produce over 2 million tonnes per annum when fully operating.

After a long period with little activity, serious exploration for oil and gas resumed about 20 years ago, resulting in the discovery of two natural gas fields. The Kapuni Field was discovered in 1959 and started production in 1970 with gas being supplied to nine North Island centres and to a number of industrial consumers. The much larger Maui offshore gas field was discovered in 1969 and is at present being developed. The gas produced will be used for electricity generation, and as a premium fuel. Exploration for oil has continued with the drilling of several wells both on-shore and off-shore, so far without success.

The existence of high-melting-point waxes in peat deposits on the Chatham Islands has been known for more than 30 years. Comparable waxes have also been discovered in the lignites of Otago and Southland.

The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is carrying out research in processing methods that might produce saleable products from these minerals. Laboratory-scale work has investigated a range of solvent systems, and different extraction techniques. Larger-scale work is also being done on the production of bulk samples of wax for further analysis and evaluation. Thus successful commercial development will involve co-operation between industry and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

The Mineral Resources Council, originally established as a sector council on minerals for the National Development Council, keeps all aspects of mineral development under review.

MINERAL PRODUCTION—In New Zealand non-metallic minerals such as coal, clay, limestone, and dolomite are both economically and industrially as important as metallic ores. Until recently over 90 percent of the value of all mineral production was represented by coal and limestone, together with sand, rock, and gravel for roads, ballast, building, and construction. This figure fell to about 78 percent in 1976 as a result of the increased production of ironsand for export and the increasing output of gas and condensate from the Kapuni field. The value of aggregate and sand production still exceeds that of coal, and remains the highest of any mineral in New Zealand. The quarrying industry, which produces about 20 million tonnes of aggregate and sand and 3 million tonnes of limestone annually, is of prime importance.

The following table shows the production of metals and minerals from mines and quarries. The values are assessed at pit mouth or quarry.

Mineral19751976
QuantityValue*QuantityValue*

*Based on selling price ex mine (or equivalent).

†Based on overall price at State coal mines (74 percent of total production).

‡Includes a high percentage of CO.

§Thousand litres.

||Estimated value.

¶Tonnes (000) unless otherwise stated.

Fuelstonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)
Coal2,412.417,2562,486.928,500
Petroleum condensate—Kapuni226,299m3600,328m3
Natural gas524.90 × 106 m31,420.69 × 106 m3
LPG—Kapuni4,743.8×8,309.4×
Natural gasolene664.5×5,344.1×
      Metals 
Gold85.45kg369101.91kg425
Silver61.95kg415.51kg1
Iron ore0.350.22
Ironsand export2,127.611,6382,290.615,131
Ironsand local169.5946182.91,048
Tungsten ore (scheelite)---112||
      Non-Metallics 
Bentonite5.2571.042
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc.211.4754260.8772
Clay for pottery27.031558.8543
Diatomite3.11181.454
Dimension stone23.131826.3341
Dolomite13.625223.1405
Greenstone5,840kg126,018kg60
Limestone, agricultural1,502.54,5571,686.55,520
Limestone for roads241.6487273.8683
Limestone industrial125.3848164.5876
Limestone and marl for cement1,838.32,3691,673.62,552
Magnesite0.8180.831
Perlite5.541.54
Pumice37.96650.2130
Rock3,296.03,0213,737.52,574
Salt40.046441.0516
Sand, rock, gravel, etc. for building aggregate6,523.315,4996,068.616,564
Sand, rock, gravel, etc. for roads and ballast16,092.324,28214,716.527,766
Sand for industry12.85188.7225
Serpentine60.140271.8538
Silica sand147.7614143.0484
Sulphur0.6180.850
Total...84,745...105,949

The following summary figures are the mineral industry export targets in actual values for 1970–71 and 1973–74 and 1974 values for following years, as set by the Mineral Resources Council.

Item1970–711973–741975–761978–791981–82
All minerals and metal ores—  $(million)  
      Assured0.97.511.012.012.0
      Probable5.511.022.0

The 1973–74 figure comprised predominantly ironsand export. The 1975–76 and later figures show increases over previous targets based largely on the prospects for coal, iron, and further ironsand export contracts.

The corresponding additional figures for import savings (i.e., for selected minerals which would otherwise need to be imported) and for total production (i.e., Mines Statement totals plus geo-thermal steam including exports and domestic production of aggregate, limestone, coal, etc.) are as follows.

Item1970–711973–741975–761978–791981–82
Import saving—  $(million)  
      Assured2.46.433.134.054.9
      Probable1.4
Round total2.56333456
Total mineral production55.480.5120142207

LEGISLATION—Legislative control of mineral production is contained in the Ministry of Energy Act 1977, the Atomic Energy Act 1945, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959, the Mining Act 1971, the Quarries Act 1944, the Petroleum Act 1937, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. The administrative agency is the Ministry of Energy.

COAL—Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, outside which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are—

Bituminous Coal (Coking): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfields), Reefton (Garvey Creek).

Sub-bituminous Coal (Non-coking): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai), Reefton.

Lignite (Non-coking Low Grade): Southland (Mataura).

Coal Utilisation and Research—Coal utilisation and research is being fostered by the New Zealand Coal Research Association. Finance for the Association's activities is raised by a levy of 10.0 cents a tonne made by coal wholesalers, including State coal mines, and a Government grant.

Fuel Technology Service—The Ministry of Energy and the Coal Research Association have established a fuel technology service in Auckland, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin to advise industrial and domestic consumers on the efficient use of coal.

Survey of Coal Resources—The Mines Department (now incorporated in the Ministry of Energy) in association with the N.Z. Geological Survey, has in recent years accelerated its coal exploration programme. As well as undertaking exploration to locate and evaluate deposits for specific demands, e.g., as at Huntly to supply coal for thermal power generation, there is in progress a broad programme to evaluate all New Zealand's coal resources regardless of immediate demand, in order to facilitate long-term planning and efficient resource management.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable coal reserves of New Zealand. Recoverable coal is coal which it is estimated could be recovered by mining techniques that are established in New Zealand with coal at the present selling price. The reserves are expressed according to the following criteria:

  1. "Measured coal" is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established.

  2. "Indicated coal" is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. "Inferred coal" is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples or measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

There are areas where the presence of coal in mineable quantities is undoubtedly possible but there is insufficient geological knowledge to include these in the table. As exploration proceeds more will be learned of this coal as well as about the coal in the categories, Measured, Indicated, and Inferred.

Detailed information concerning geology, coal type, rank, and extent of the coalfields is given in the Geological Survey Bulletins and for an overall picture a suitable reference is Williams G. J., Economic Geology of New Zealand, Monograph Series No. 4, published by the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy.

The major coal exploration effort has been in the Waikato Coal Region where nearly 40 percent of all New Zealand's recoverable, Measured, Indicated, and Inferred coal reserves are located. Less than 10 percent of the Waikato coal in the ground is considered opencastable at today's price of coal.

A major exploration programme was commenced in 1977 to evaluate the extensive lignite resource of Eastern Southland where substantial tonnages of opencastable lignite are thought to exist. Other smaller programmes were underway on the West Coast of the South Island.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable reserves, which total 1,179 million tonnes.

LocalityMeasuredIndicatedInferred

*Does not include results of exploration in progress during 1977.

Bituminous tonnes(000) 
Buller31,5006,20012,100
Murchison3001,400
Garvey Creek3343,7102,600
Reefton5541,2206,800
Greymouth2,45018,30056,000
Pike River15,000
Shag Point20800
 34,83829,75094,700
Sub-bituminous   
Waikato—
      Maramarua8,97932,50032,200
      Huntly111,800120,200122,000
      Rotowaro12,7808,9301,800
      Glen Massey1,8001,400
      Whatawhata480370700
Kawhia2,34031019,000
Mangapehi7,170
Taranaki (includes Ohura)—
      Waitewhena, Aria, Mokau, Tangarakau15050046,000
Retaruke4,300
Collingwood100100100
Heaphy River1,000
Charleston11,700
Punakaiki90702,000
Buller Gorge, Inangahua, Fletchers Creek739705,600
Kaitangata2701,230200
Ohai2,2485,30045,700
 139,310179,450293,700
             Lignite
Canterbury36022,000
Otago, includes—
      Green Island4703,7802,300
      Kaitangata23,85067,00032,000
      Pomahaka8,75016,200
      North Otago11,9306,350700
      Central Otago24015,000
Southland*, includes—
      Mataura Valley47,90094,000
      Maitland4,10050,000
 36,850137,880232,200
Total210,998347,080620,600
Grand total 1,178,700 

One of the biggest potential uses for coal is for electricity generation.

There is likely to be a smaller number of larger, mechanised underground mines. Coal mining will become less labour-intensive.

There are three coal areas of major future significance—Waikato, Buller and Southland.

Waikato has measured and indicated resources of low/moderate-ash low-sulphur sub-bituminous coal of 298 million tonnes—one-eighth of it opencast. Inferred resources are an additional 158 million tonnes. Production costs range from $6 to $20 per tonne. Sufficient reserves are known to supply a 1,000 MW power station, plus the steel industry's projected requirements. Further work to increase measured and indicated reserves is currently being undertaken for proposed additional thermal station capacity. The Waikato coalfield is well placed to serve Auckland industrial development, and coal is railed to the Bay of Plenty for the pulp and paper industry. New Zealand Steel's development programme anticipated an increased demand of over 500,000 tonnes a year by the late 1980s.

Main markets for Waikato coal are electric power generation, dairy factories, paper mills, freezing works, carbonisation, central heating, brick and tile manufacturing, cement and lime works, general industries, and domestic heating.

Buller has measured and indicated resources of low/moderate-ash, low/high-sulphur bituminous coal amounting to 38 million tonnes, three-quarters of it opencast, but only 7 million tonnes of it low-ash and low-sulphur. Inferred reserves amount to 12 million tonnes. The significant fact is the high proportion (about 30 million tonnes) of opencast, and therefore low-cost ($12 per tonne) coal.

Southland essentially comprises the Ohai and Mataura Valley coalfields. Ohai contains 53 million tonnes of Waikato-type coal, mostly inferred, but has little significance because the principally domestic market is likely to decrease. Mataura is important because of its proximity or ready access to the Bluff industrial area, and because the reserves of moderate-ash, low-sulphur coal are large, potentially cheap and opencastable. Because the flat-lying seams seldom outcrop, and there are relatively few drillholes, there is potential for a very large speculative tonnage of coal to be present in addition to the inferred recoverable reserves. Future potential uses include power generation.

Coal Consumption—Coal has always been important in New Zealand's mineral industry, and had a higher production value than any other mineral between the First and Second World Wars, but usage has slumped in recent years.

The approximate distribution of coal consumption during recent years is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports.

User19751976
 tonnes(000)
Factories1,0771,149
Shipping
Railways
Gasworks8980
Households234288
Public hospitals and central heating, etc.244240
Electricity generation844730
Total2,4882,487

Summary of Operations—The following table summarises coal-mining operations during recent years.

YearOutputPersons Ordinarily Employed
UndergroundOpencastTotalUnderground MinesOpencast MinesTotal
SurfaceUnderground
  tonnes(000)  Number  
19748061,7592,5644307633881,581
19757171,6952,4124157714141,600
19767231,7642,4874267133891,528

The total output of underground and opencast mines up to and including 1976 is estimated at 192.2 million tonnes.

In 1976 the State operated 13 of the 37 underground mines in operation, and these produced 614,550 tonnes of coal; 13 of the 33 opencast mines were operated by the State and they produced 1,339,987 tonnes of coal. The profit on operations of State coal mines for the year ended 30 September 1976 was $3,638,797, after payment of interest on loan capital.

Derived Products—Low temperature carbonisation works at Rotowaro (100 km south of Auckland) use the Lurgi process to produce a range of products derived from coal which forms part of the output of local State mines. During the year ended 30 September 1976 the works produced 10,800 tonnes of carbonettes, 1,511,030 litres of tar and oil, 17,339 tonnes of char, 965 litres of pitch and 968,748 litres of creosote. This company is at present engaged on investigations into the building of a replacement plant of modern design and similar capacity.

Mercer Power Station—This station, of 210,000 kW capacity, if working at full capacity, can burn up to 780,000 tonnes of coal a year. Two-thirds of the coal is provided from the Kopuku opencast coalfield about 11 km distant from the station, and the remainder from the Huntly coalfield.

Huntly Power Station—Following delays in coming to an agreement on the price of natural gas, it has been decided to build a 1,000 MW coal-fired station at Huntly, the first unit (250 MW) of which is scheduled to be commissioned in April 1979. Investigations have confirmed the existence of a large underground coalfield sufficient to provide fuel for the station.

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS—Prospecting and mining for petroleum in New Zealand is governed by the Petroleum Act 1937, the Petroleum Regulations 1939 and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. These give the Minister of Energy the authority to grant petroleum prospecting and mining licences over land and marine areas including the New Zealand continental shelf. An amendment to the Petroleum Act 1937 was passed in 1975 which has the effect of giving the Minister a much better control of petroleum prospecting and mining. As at 31 December 1976 there were 23 petroleum prospecting licences covering 503,619.22 km2 of New Zealand land, territorial sea and continental shelf. Three petroleum mining licences covered 202 km2 of the Kapuni field in Taranaki, 782 km2 of the Maui field in the continental shelf off-shore Taranaki, and 4,046 km2 in Hawke's Bay.

Activity in the search for petroleum is being maintained with two off-shore and two on-shore prospective wells.

The construction of the Maui A Platform was completed in Japan and arrived on site for erection in late December 1975. During 1976 work proceeded on this platform and the laying of pipelines from it to on-shore. The Maui field discovered in 1969 some 30 km off the Taranaki coast has an area of 765 square kilometres and recoverable reserves estimated at 140 million metres of high quality natural gas with, in addition, a condensate content likely to supply 10 to 15 percent of the refinery feedstock requirements in New Zealand.

Gas from the Kapuni field is used mainly as a premium fuel and is supplied to the Natural Gas Corporation for distribution to Auckland and Wellington and other centres en route. Condensate separated from this gas before it is supplied to the Corporation is delivered as feedstock to the petroleum refinery at Whangarei.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MAUI FIELD—The Maui field is being developed in two stages: Stage One consists of the installation of Maui Platform A, drilling of production wells, the installation of separate submarine pipelines for gas and condensate, and the on-shore processing facilities for the Maui production station at Oaonui. Treated gas will be distributed by transmission pipelines to the New Plymouth, Huntly, and Auckland power stations. Maui gas will also be available for direct use by domestic and industrial consumers.

Commissioning of Stage One is planned to be completed by April 1979.

Stage Two of the development provides for a second platform, Maui Platform B, additional and independent submarine pipelines, and an expansion of the on-shore processing facilities. Work is scheduled for completion by the end of 1983.

Stage One Development—The first drilling and production platform, Maui Platform A, is being installed some 37 km from the Taranaki coast, close to the Maui 3 exploration well, in a water depth of some 110 metres. Twelve production wells will be drilled from the platform. The tower base of the platform, which was fabricated in Japan, arrived on schedule and was upended on location in early January 1976. Difficulties arose during the 1975–76 construction season as a consequence of severe weather and installation work was suspended in June 1976. Installation work recommenced with a larger construction vessel in December 1976.

The piling of the tower to the sea bed and the installation of the modules, living quarters, and helideck were completed late in 1977 and drilling operations were scheduled to commence early in 1978. A 254 mm condensate pipeline and a 610 mm gas pipeline will carry the condensate and the gas to the on-shore processing facilities at the Maui Production Station at Oaonui. The laying of these submarine pipelines also commenced in January 1976 but was suspended in June 1976, again as a consequence of the very severe weather. Work recommenced in December 1976 and was completed in 1977.

At Oaonui two gas refrigerator trains, each with a capacity of approximately 7 million cu metres a day, will process the gas stream to meet the gas delivery specifications, and two stabiliser trains, each with a capacity of 1,500 tonnes per day, will stabilise the condensate to enable subsequent sea shipment to the Whangarei refinery. The construction programme for the on-shore processing facilities is nearing completion.

As a result of the difficulties experienced in the installation of the tower, it was necessary to put back the planned commissioning date for Stage One, from October 1978 to April 1979.

Stage Two Development—Maui Platform B will be located some 16 km further from the coast than the first platform, close to the Maui 1 exploration well, in similar water depth to Maui Platform A. At least 14 production wells will be drilled from the platform and similar processing equipment will be installed as on the first platform. In addition, consideration is being given to the installation of facilities to produce a limited amount of light crude oil and to increase and accelerate condensate recovery by gas recycling. Separate 254 mm condensate and 580 mm diameter gas pipelines will be laid to the on-shore processing facilities. A third gas refrigeration train, also with approximately 7 million cu metres a day capacity, and a third condensate train of 1,500 tonnes per day capacity, will be constructed at the on-shore plant.

Costs—The estimated cost of the Stage One development, excluding the on-shore gas and condensate transmission pipelines, is $391 million in 1978 values. The estimated cost of Stage Two (also excluding on-shore transmission pipelines) in 1978 values is $328 million. These figures compare with $318 million and $223 million respectively in 1977 values in the 1977 Yearbook. The increases are a consequence of continuing inflation, and the increased time now seen to be necessary for the installation of platforms and submarine pipelines.

On-shore Pipelines—The total length of the on-shore gas pipeline will be approximately 386 km. The diameter of the pipeline is 864 mm as far as the New Plymouth interchange station where it reduces to 762 mm. The diameter will be further reduced in the vicinity of Auckland. New Plymouth and Huntly power stations will be served by 508 mm and 406 mm lateral pipelines respectively. The condensate pipeline from Oaonui to New Plymouth is 203 mm diameter and approximately 47 km long.

The estimated cost of the on-shore transmission system and the condensate pipeline is $193 million in 1978 values. This investment will be spread over the period 1974 to 1988. The costs to be incurred in the 1980s consist largely of expenditure on the construction of gas pipeline compressor stations.

Construction of the Oaonui to Huntly section of the gas pipeline was approximately 85 percent complete at the end of 1977 and the condensate line was completed. Investigations for the remaining section of the gas pipeline from Huntly to Auckland are proceeding.

IRON RESOURCES—New Zealand's largest resources of potential iron ore are contained in the black sands of the western beaches—from Westport southwards in the South Island and from Wanganui to Muriwai in the North Island. Titanomagnetite sands make up most of the black sands in the North Island, but from Waikato Heads northwards the beach deposits also contain ilmenite in varying proportions. In the South Island beach sands, ilmenite is the chief iron-bearing material. These beach sands have been estimated to contain some 800 million tonnes of titanomagnetite, with a further 8.6 million tonnes of ilmenite in the North Island and 43 million tonnes in the South Island.

A process has been developed whereby the titanomagnetite sands can be smelted on a large scale economically to produce a good grade of steel. A steelworks has been constructed at Glenbrook, 58 km south of Auckland, by New Zealand Steel Ltd., and the plant began production late in 1969 using ironsand deposits from the North Head of the Waikato River, 19 km away. Production of steel billets from ironsand commenced in November 1969.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district, for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the brickmaking industry.

Near Waverley, 32 km north of Wanganui, an ironsands mining unit produces titanomagnetite concentrates for direct export to Japan through off-shore bulk-loading facilities and in 1976 some 1,097,973 tonnes were exported. New Zealand Steel Ltd. has developed a similar undertaking at Taharoa near Kawhia, and 1,192,650 tonnes were exported in 1976.

URANIUM—In 1955 uranium-bearing minerals were discovered in the Buller Gorge. These deposits occur in steep, broken country which is heavily covered with bush. The area is subject to heavy rainfall and access is difficult. Prospecting work, however, has been disappointing and, so far, ore has not been found rich and extensive enough to be worked economically at present price levels. Interest is being maintained in the investigation of these areas.

The Atomic Energy Amendment Act 1957 amended the Atomic Energy Act 1945 by adding several new provisions designed to encourage the search for and production of uranium or other substances which may be used for the production of atomic energy.

GOLD—The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, declined in importance with the exhaustion of the more accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment. Annual production is now mainly confined to one dredge at Taramakau on the west coast of the South Island.

SILVER—A small quantity of silver is won by the West Coast gold dredge, the remainder of the silver comes from Waihi.

TUNGSTEN—The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

The scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, and the scheelite is erratically distributed in the veins. Access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high. Although the price of tungsten ores has improved, scheelite mining continues to be on a small scale, being confined to the Glenorchy and Macrae's Flats field in Otago.

COPPER—Production of copper has ceased since the Tui mine, near Te Aroha, closed in 1973. Small mines have been worked in Northland in the past, at Parakao (where the carbona and oxide ore was used as a fertiliser additive) and Pupuke. Prospecting has been carried out at a number of localities, but no significant deposits have been discovered. Exploration for economic deposits of copper in a number of geological environments continues.

MANGANESE—Manganese ores are found in many localities, chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. Prior to 1960 there was some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore.

MERCURY—Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury is widely distributed in New Zealand. No mining is at present being carried out. Past production has been limited, the main bulk came from the cinter deposits in Northland, at Puhipuhi and Ngawha Springs. Recently there has been interest in the disseminated mercury in Northland.

LEAD AND ZINC—An ore-bearing reef of lead and zinc was mined near Te Aroha, producing lead-copper sulphide and zinc sulphide concentrates for export to Japan, but the mine closed in 1973.

MOLYBDENUM—Some promising geological environments exist for economic molybdenum mineralisation in north-west Nelson but, to date, exploration has failed to locate an economic deposit.

TIN—Cassiterite in the form of "stream tin" occurs in small deposits near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, and these have been worked to some extent.

PLATINUM—Platinum occurs in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel, but quantities produced have been insignificant.

SILICA—At Parengarenga, in northern Northland, there are large deposits of pure quartz (silica) sand. Over 90,000 tonnes from here and 20,000 tonnes from Mt. Somers in Canterbury are used each year, mainly for glass manufacture.

There are lump silica deposits in Southland of a high quality suitable for the production of ferro-silicon and probably silicon metal.

DIATOMITE—Diatomite is a light powdery material used as a source of silica and as a filtering agent. It is worked in the Rotorua-Taupo volcanic zone and at Middlemarch, Otago.

BENTONITE—Production of bentonite continued at Coalgate in Canterbury and at Porangahau in Hawke's Bay for applications such as foundries and pelletising stock food. A new drilling grade meeting A.P.I, specifications is being used on oil rigs in the Taranaki area. Export shipments were sent for iron ore pelletising in Tasmania, as well as to Japan and Taiwan.

HALLOYSITE—Halloysite is a clay used as a filler in the paper industry, and for ceramics. It has been mined in Northland since the Second World War. Though nearly all production is for local consumption, possible expansion of the small existing export market is being investigated.

SULPHUR—Prospecting proved a 6 million tonne deposit of sulphur at Rotokawa in the Taupo area in 1968. The deposit is mixed with pumice and work on the development of a separation process is continuing. A pilot plant operation recently started producing some sulphur for commercial use.

PERLITE—Perlite is a volcanic glass expanded by heating; it is used as an insulator and in lightweight concrete. There are deposits in the Rotorua-Taupo area, and others are being prospected on Great Barrier Island.

ASBESTOS—Chrysotile asbestos mainly associated with serpentines in ultramafic occurrences, occurs at a number of localities in the South Island. A deposit in the Takaka Valley was mined between 1941 and 1963. The most significant deposits are those of the North West Otago (Pyke River) which are thought to be extensive, although recent exploration has not yet established an economic deposit.

PHOSPHATE—The only deposit of phosphate ever to have been worked in New Zealand is that at Clarendon. Mining ceased in this area in 1944. The most promising source of phosphate is thought to be the nodules occurring on the sea floor on the eastern half of the Chatham Rise (west of Chatham Island). Evaluation is still continuing. Exploration for phosphate in other geological environments has not revealed any economic deposits as yet.

SERPENTINE—Serpentine is a magnesium-rich rock used as a fertiliser additive. Deposits are being mined at Piopio, near Te Kuiti, and North Cape, in the North Island, and Lee Valley, Collins Valley and Mossburn, in the South Island. To the end of 1976, 3,059,913 tonnes had been mined, including 71,752 in 1976.

GREENSTONE—The mineral nephrite, the "pounamu" of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of "greenstone", occurs as rounded aggregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. At the present time the main source of supply is from a deposit of greenstone boulders in Olderog Creek, a tributary of the Arahura River. The boulders are reduced in size by a portable diamond trepan saw and airlifted by helicopter. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations this mineral has been in short supply. The best-known occurrences of bowenite, the serpentine variety of greenstone, are in Fiordland, but are not systematically or commercially exploited.

KAURI GUM—Production of kauri gum has been at a comparatively low level in recent years. The quantity exported annually is now less than 100 tonnes. Prospecting north of Kaitaia has given encouraging results, however.

PEAT WAX—There are an estimated 4,000 hectares of moorland peat on the Chatham Islands with an average thickness of 4 metres. This peat contains peat wax derived from a particular plant which grew in the area. The peat wax is being investigated for commercial application in carbon paper, polishes, varnishes, cosmetics, and explosives. Similar investigations are taking place with deposits in Central Otago.

SALT—At Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt was first harvested in 1952.

Production of salt in the latest 6 years is shown in the following table.

YearSalt ProducedValue
 tonnes$(000)
197143,261393
197259,436385
1973101,500447
197454,864454
197540,000464
197641,000516

STATE AID TO MINING—State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz (a) geological survey and bulletins; (b) detailed investigation of the occurrence and development of economic minerals; (c) schools of mines; (d) financial aid to prospecting and for access roads to mining fields; (e) research by Chemistry Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—An understanding of the country's geology is imperative for long-term assessments of New Zealand's mineral resources. In New Zealand almost all Government geological work is carried out by the New Zealand Geological Survey, a scientific institution founded in 1865, which since 1926 has been a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Ministry of Energy, the Ministry of Works and Development, and other Government departments consult the Geological Survey on geological problems. Only that part of the work of the Geological Survey that concerns the discovery and development of mineral resources is discussed here. Other aspects of applied geology include engineering geology, the study of earthquakes and volcanoes, and effects of engineering works and other developments on the physical environment.

The survey's principal work is to prepare geological maps of New Zealand and to determine the country's geological structure and geological history. Along with this, the survey studies and helps to assess the country's mineral deposits, geothermal steam, and underground water resources, and gives advice on geological problems encountered in State and private civil engineering projects, such as the construction of hydro-electric dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, and building foundations.

The Geological Survey has issued regional geological maps on a scale of 1 mile to the inch, covering about one-third of the country. Maps (scale 1:250,000), informally known as the "Four mile" series, are available for the whole country. One-mile (1:63,360 or 1:50,000) maps and bulletins will continue to be issued at intervals for areas of special economic or scientific importance. Most new maps will in future, however, be published on metric scales— 1:10,000, 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000 etc. In 1972 a new 1:1,000,000 geological map was published (in two sheets) of each of the North and South Islands; and in 1973 maps on the same scale of the Quaternary geology (Pleistocene and recent deposits, together with the location of active faults, recent and active volcanoes, and changes in shore lines, etc.). Several sheets of a series of detailed urban geological maps, at a scale of 1:25,000, have been issued. They cover to date most of the Auckland area and the city of Hamilton.

Geological mapping has also been carried out in New Zealand's island territories and in the Ross Dependency, Antarctica.

Prospectors and mining companies may seek advice and assistance from any of the district offices of the Geological Survey as well as from the head office in Lower Hutt, which houses the administrative and specialist research sections.

Mineral Resources Surveys—The Economic Geology Section of Geological Survey is responsible for the investigation of potentially valuable deposits, coupled with closer study of the changing overseas economic emphasis. The work is largely concerned with the implementation of the Mineral Resources Council's recommended programme. A new inventory of New Zealand's minerals is now available, and a publication Industrial Minerals and Rocks, containing articles of interest to engineers, mining companies, and local bodies, is produced from time to time. In earlier years, when gold was of major importance, the survey reported on all major goldfields. Deposits of ores of iron, copper, tungsten, manganese, chrome, uranium, aluminium, and other metals have also been investigated over the years, and the Survey took complete responsibility for the raw material geological investigations for the new steel industry. Field studies are made by the geologists, and laboratory examination of ores by the petrology specialists. Chemical analysis is usually done by the Chemistry Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Petrology Section makes free identification of rocks and minerals forwarded by the Ministry of Energy, prospectors, and others.

Coal—Coal is still New Zealand's most important mineral, apart from constructional materials, and mapping the coal fields in detail has been one of the survey's major undertakings in economic geology. Work has proceeded in co-operation with the Ministry of Energy and with the Coal Research Association. Detailed maps and bulletins on Greymouth, Reefton, Kaitangata, Ohai, and Waikato coalfields have been published. Although the mapping of the coalfields is largely complete, Survey geologists continue to help with the large number of day-to-day problems in the coalfields and undertake constant revision. A major revision of coal estimates is currently being made. Geological work is being undertaken for the Ministry of Energy in connection with the present extensive drilling in the Huntly and Southland areas.

Oil and Gas—Oil companies draw on survey maps and bulletins for basic information about the country's stratigraphy and geological structure which enables them to narrow down areas deserving more detailed examination. Close and mutually beneficial co-operation has usually developed between survey geologists and paleontologists and those of oil companies. Copies of oil company reports and maps continue to be deposited with the Government in terms of the Petroleum Act. The Geological Survey is the national repository of collections of rocks, fossils, and drill cores collected by the oil companies, and has recently expanded its Petroleum Section, partly in response to increased Government participation in exploration.

Paleontological and stratigraphic information by the Survey helped the search for oil in Taranaki which was rewarded by the discovery and development of large reservoirs of natural gas at Kapuni, and off shore in the Maui field. The collections of fossils and drill cores held from earlier Taranaki oil-exploration bores greatly helped prediction of the type, age, and thickness of strata the drills would penetrate. Geological Survey micro-paleontologists are assisting oil companies in interpreting the stratigraphic progress of off-shore oil wells and provide a complete service for many recent drill-holes, both on shore and off-shore.

Constructional Materials and Other Non-metallic Minerals—As far as it is possible with the staff available, the survey advises the Ministry of Works and Development and local authority engineers, contractors, and other users on where rock materials for road metal, aggregate, building stone, sand, etc., can be obtained. Marl, limestone, and pozzolana for cement manufacture, perlite, bentonite, clays, talc, mica, and magnesite are other non-metallic minerals in the utilisation of which the survey has played a part. Current aid to industry given by the survey, includes detailed projects on northwest Nelson deposits of wollastonite, asbestos, dolomite, and talc magnesite; the limestone resources of Auckland and Otago have been assessed in detail; and North Auckland sands and halloysite clays have been the subject of New Zealand Geological Survey publications.

CENSUS OF MINING, QUARRYING, AND PROSPECTING—The third 5-yearly census of mining, quarrying, and prospecting was taken for the production year 1973–74. At earlier censuses, only operators of mines and quarries registered with the Mines Department (now part of the Ministry of Energy) were surveyed, but the 1973–74 census included for the first time holders of licences issued by other Government departments.

Production—The value of all output from mines and quarries registered with the Mines Department was $73.1 million, and, in addition, there was a value of output of $2.6 million from firms holding licences issued by other Government departments. This gave a total output value of $75.7 million for the production year 1973–74.

The main products were shingle, sand, and gravel with a total value of production of $18.2 million, quarried rock, sand, etc., $19.9 million, coal $14.5 million, limestone $6.2 million, and clay for manufacturing $1.1 million. The remaining $15.8 million consisted mainly of ironsand concentrate, gold, silica sand, bentonite, serpentine, salt, marble, and scoria.

The statistics in the following table refer only to operators of mines and quarries registered with the Mines Department. An analysis of returns received from firms operating under licences issued by other departments is given separately later in the section.

ItemOperating Full TimeAll Types Operating Part TimeGrand Total
Predominant Type of Mining or Quarrying
Shingle, Sand, Gravel, Quarried Rock, etc.LimestoneClayCoalOther Incl. GoldTotal

*Valuation of production was at the point at which the minerals were washed, graded, crushed, screened, powdered, or otherwise crudely treated and were ready for sale or transfer for further use.

†Included in salaries and wages, other expenses, and capital expenditure.

Type of organisation—
      Registered private company1744412112126256318
      Registered public company181783349857
      Co-operative471111
      Individual ownership15332235477
      Partnership6292191938
      Government101112921
      Local authority622643498
Total28572203429440180620
Nature of business—
      Underground mines operated34236642
      Surface mines or quarries operated794904123369843031,287
      Productive bores333
Total794904157411,0233091,332
Average number of persons employed during the year (excludes working proprietors)1,976344731,3244154,132674,199
Salaries and wages paid for year (including bonuses, overtime, etc.) to above persons $(000)9,2241,7632676,0712,42319,74713519,882
Number of working proprietors2755859579174
Production during the year(*)—
      Shingle, sand, and gravel cu yds (000)11,800282611,83558712,422
       $(000)15,5825411615,65239416,046
Quarried rock, sand, etc. cu yds (000)10,31015014310,46829110,760
       $(000)19,21013839319,36315119,514
      Limestone tons (000)1083,304--243,436263,463
       $(000)3265,6742786,081466,128
      Clay for bricks, tiles, pottery, and other manufacturing tons (000)538156520434238
       $(000)12331,022141,081421,123
      Coal tons (000)2,4022,40232,405
       $(000)14,46114,4611914,480
      Other $(000)1467611115,48615,71910515,824
Total value of production $(000)35,2765,9741,03914,48515,58372,35875873,116
Less salaries and wages $(000)9,2241,7632676,0712,42319,74713519,882
Less other expenses $(000)22,7583,5636779,6418,33044,96942545,395
      Surplus $(000)3,29564895–1,2274,8317,6411987,839
Net output (net value added) $(000)12,9122,4823764,8707,63128,27034128,611
Expenditure on capital assets—
      Land—excluding purchases for resale $(000)26617 21303--304
      Buildings—
      Residential $(000)221821812231224
      Non-residential $(000)891104214538710397
      Other construction $(000)2739361,0782,5403,98933,992
      Motor cars and station wagons $(000)22335934613623365
      Other transport vehicles (road, air, or sea) $(000)730184982241,237301,267
      Plant, machinery, and equipment $(000)4,506837492682415,901605,961
Total $(000)6,1091,294651,5233,41212,40310712,510
Sales of assets at realised value $(000)8493407442711,709221,731
Expenditure on exploration surveying, and prospecting $(000)583122744688164820
Environmental protection expenditure $(000)30818192712049215507

The statistics in the following table were compiled from returns received from firms operating under licences issued by the following:

  1. Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport who issue licences under the Harbour Act 1950.

  2. Lands and Survey Department who issue licences under section 165 of the Land Act 1948.

  3. Ministry of Works and Development who hold licences which are sub-issued to Catchment Boards.

No. of units—213QuantityValue
Production during year— (000)$(000)
      Shingle, sand and gravelcu yds1,5512,114
      Quarried rock, sand, etc.cu yds308380
      Limestonetons2759
      Clay for bricks, tiles, pottery, and other manufacturingtons66
      Coaltons 2
      Other --26
Total value of production ...2,587
Exploration—
      Expenditure on exploration, surveying, and prospecting (including purchase during the year of vehicles and other fixed assets)—  $(000)
      Salaries and wages  116
      Other expenses  236
Total  351

Prospecting—Returns received from holders of licences issued by the Mines Department showed 53 units engaged full time in mineral exploration and prospecting. The following table shows details. Expenditure by these units is in addition to that by mining and quarrying units in production and by units holding licences from other than the Mines Department, as shown in the previous tables.

Units Engaged in Prospecting During 1973–74
Type of organisation—
      Registered private company 31
      Registered public company 11
      Individual ownership 4
      Partnership 7
Total 53
Nature of business—
      Exploring for oil or gas 11
      Exploring for mineral ores 41
      Other exploring 3
Total 55
Average number of persons employed during year on mineral exploration 82
Salaries and wages paid for year (including bonuses, overtime, etc.) to above persons$(000)462
Number of working proprietors 19
Operating costs other than salaries and wages during the year$(000)2,318
Sales of services during the year—
      Fees or other receipts derived from mineral exploration services rendered$(000)85
Expenditure on capital assets$(000)228
Sale of assets at realised value$(000)20

Chapter 19. Section 18 MANUFACTURING

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—The function of the early manufacturing industries in New Zealand was to supply locally the immediate needs of the small scattered communities for food, clothing, building materials, and home furnishings and to provide shipping with ropes, spars, and repairs. These handicraft activities grew into factories as the settlements expanded and as there developed more opportunities for the organisation and specialisation of labour, and for the more complex processing of domestic or imported raw materials. Flour mills, flax mills, ropewalks, and sawmills appeared in the early eighteen forties followed by breweries, brick kilns, cooperages in the mid forties and, later in that decade, lime kilns, ship and boat yards, soap and candle works, and tanneries.

By 1867, the first year in which statistics of factory production were collected in conjunction with the population census, manufacturing establishments included grain mills, breweries, biscuit factories, a bone-manure works, brick and tile yards and potteries, candle and soap works, coachbuilding workshops, fellmongeries, tanneries, wool-scouring works, flax works, aerated water and cordial factories, iron and brass foundries, lime kilns, malt kilns, engineering workshops, a patent slip, a petroleum works, rope and cordage works, sawmills, sash and door factories, ship and boat yards, and a woollen mill. The factories of this period were still primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the needs of the limited local markets.

The development boom of the eighteen seventies, the rapid rise in population, and the better communications between internal markets encouraged further factory expansion. There was to some extent a natural protection from overseas competition in the high freight rates on imports. Other factors which assisted in this expansion were the admission of certain raw materials free of duty, the imposition of a tariff on some finished goods, and the granting of bounties for new factories by central and provincial governments. These were followed by protection by way of tariff in 1888 when the home market was shrinking and capital and labour were beginning to leave the colony. Footwear and clothing factories, machinery, and metal industries were protected by this tariff. A wider protective Customs tariff was imposed in 1895. During the depressed years of the eighteen eighties low wage costs enabled some New Zealand manufacturers to export their products, but this was partly attributable also to the special suitability of some New Zealand products, such as farm implements, to the needs of other developing communities overseas.

The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 opened the way for the establishment and growth of the meat-freezing and butter and cheese industries. Ten years after this first shipment, 21 meat-freezing works and 104 butter and cheese factories had been established.

The recovery from the long depression, the resumption of large-scale immigration at the beginning of the present century, the spectacular development of meat-freezing and dairy factories, and the breaking in of new land, especially in the North Island, all contributed to the revival of a strong internal demand which stimulated manufacturing growth.

Auckland early established itself as the predominant manufacturing province in New Zealand, but in the general prosperity following the gold boom of the sixties, there was a spectacular increase in manufacturing activity in Otago, which led Auckland until the nineties. Canterbury was the next most important manufacturing province. Today, however, Auckland has clearly re-established its predominance and is followed by Canterbury and Wellington.

With the rising population and increased export income during the first decade of this century, manufacturing continued to expand at a steady rate. The growth continued to be concentrated on industries processing farm products for export and those supplying the more simple goods, housing materials and equipment, repairs, and supplies for farmers. In this period the electrical, wire-work, sheet-metal, and motor-vehicle industries had their beginnings.

Developments in the nineteen twenties included the expansion of the vehicle industry (particularly motor and cycle assembly), sawmilling, and the metalworking, furnishings, and apparel industries. These developments carried forward the tendency for industries processing farm products to be less dominating in value of production and employment compared with other types of industry.

During the depression of the nineteen thirties the total volume of factory output declined with the contraction of New Zealand's export income and the drop in internal demand. While prices fell the output of factories processing farm products rose, but not sufficiently to offset the loss in volume from other manufacturing industries. The rapid fall in purchasing power caused the farmer to produce more, but the impact of the depression on the factories processing "non-farm" materials meant a heavy reduction in the output of consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural and dairy machinery and implements. By 1934–35, however, the volume of factory production had been restored to the 1929–30 level.

Apart from metalworking and vehicle factories, which had improved their position significantly, industry emerged from the depression in much the same pattern as before.

The recovery of manufacturing after the depression was primarily the result of better export prices, more public development, and an expansionist monetary policy, all of which resulted in the re-engagement of most of the unemployed.

There had been little time for any protective effect of exchange control and import selection to stimulate industrial expansion between the date these measures were introduced (December 1938) and the outbreak of war in September 1939. It was the war and its shortages which changed the manufacturing pattern and gave great encouragement to industrial development. The engineering and apparel industries, which contributed so much to war needs, made the greatest progress.

Production expanded in response to the need to replace imports that the United Kingdom and other countries could no longer supply and to provide uniforms, weapons, equipment, and provisions for New Zealand and allied armed forces.

One protective effect of the war and post-war periods and their restricted supply of imports was that domestic industry was often enabled to attain its optimum (New Zealand) output quickly without a difficult competitive struggle with imports.

Post-war Development—The pattern of New Zealand industry changed again from 1949–50 with the exemption from import control of many items. Factory expansion was sustained by a high level of internal demand, by a widening of the range of products, and to some extent by the restriction of imports for a short period of exchange control. In this period the volume of production in the food, footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods groups increased slowly in response to population growth, while leather industry production fell as a result of competition from imports and synthetics. Spectacular increases in production came from new developments in the pulp and paper and the rubber industries. However, as in past years it was the engineering factories that contributed most to the growth of manufacturing after 1949–50. The expansion in this field was stimulated especially by increasing mechanisation on farms, the high level of investment in New Zealand, the rising demand for consumer durables, and the increased imports of motor vehicle components.

Small factories continue to be typical of manufacturing in New Zealand. Some 44 percent employ less than 10 persons full time, a reflection on the fact that, partly as a result of the geographical configuration of the country, many factories supply small local markets. At the other end of the scale, only 1.8 percent of factories employ 200 people or more. Many of the smaller manufacturing units are involved in the production of transport equipment, machinery, and wood products, while the largest plants are engaged in the manufacture of food and paper. The trend is towards larger manufacturing units.

Some of the major industries are mentioned later in this section. Others include wire drawing and galvanising; the production of copper tube, wire rope, aluminium cable, and telephone and underground power cable; 11 kV switchgear, electric hoists, electric motor starters, and fractional horsepower electric motors, as well as telecommunications equipment and electronic controls for a variety of equipment. The manufacture of transport equipment and machinery has expanded to cover turboprop topdressing aircraft, bicycles, pneumatic and steel-tyred road rollers, self-propelled hydraulic-ally operated excavators, post-hole diggers, hydraulic equipment and attachments, and cargo containers. Further items now made in New Zealand include oil-fired kilns, control valves, thermostats, press brakes, disc brake pads, high-speed twist drills and numerous others. In the chemical and allied industries, New Zealand factories process PVC compounds and dry blends, besides producing such PVC products as sheeting, flooring, roofing, and rainwater goods; a range of formaldehyde resins used in the manufacture of adhesives and related products; acrylic emulsions and compounds; many industrial and domestic chemical materials including synthetic detergents; various weed killers and insecticides; and a range of drugs and cosmetics. The packaging industry makes moulded pulp products as well as several types of plastic film, the most recent projects involving cast polypropylene and the manufacture of irradiated polyethylene ("shrink film"). Textured synthetic yarns, warp-knitted, transfer-printed, and foambacked fabrics have been added to the products of the textile industry in recent years. An oil refinery and sheet glassworks have been in operation for some years. Gin and whisky distilleries have been established.

RECENT MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS—Major industrial developments in recent years or now under way are summarised in the following paragraphs.

Pulp and Paper—New Zealand Forest Products Ltd. opened a new kraft pulp mill at Kinleith early in February 1973. This mill, operating 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, has doubled pulp output from 213,360 tonnes to 426,720 tonnes. The company's No. 6 paper machine began operating about the end of the first quarter of 1973. The company's No. 3 paperboard machine at Whakatane came into production in mid 1976. This doubled the capacity of the Whakatane paperboard mill and enabled the company to produce fully-coated paperboard. A new multi-wall paper bag plant at Penrose also commenced production in mid-1976, producing a new type of totally sealed bag for foodstuffs such as milk powder. The major increases in pulp and paper production are part of a 5-year expansion project which is the largest undertaken by an individual company in New Zealand's industrial history.

The expansion programme undertaken by Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., Kawerau, is also well advanced. The kraft pulp mill expansion has raised output from 106,700 tonnes a year to 233,700 tonnes, of which 100,000 tonnes will be exported. The company's third newsprint machine, which commenced production early in 1975, has increased newsprint production to 350,000 tonnes a year.

The pulp mill constructed by Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd., at Whirinaki, near Napier, commenced production in March 1973. The capacity has now been raised to 240,000 tonnes per annum. The entire output is exported.

A 70,000 tonnes a year thermo-mechanical pulp mill based on the Karioi III State Forest and adjacent mill residues is to be established at Tangiwai by a Korean - New Zealand joint venture company, Winstone Samsung Ltd. Construction of the plant has begun and exports of pulp from the mill will commence in 1979.

Particle Board—New Zealand Particle Board Ltd. commenced production in October 1972. With an annual output of 56,000 cubic metres at the Kumeu plant, the company is in the process of installing plant which will more than double its capacity.

The Fletcher Timber Company Ltd's Taupo particle-board plant has also recently more than doubled capacity. In addition the company has introduced a new product to the market—Bison-board—which is a type of particle board. At present, the company is constructing a second Bison-board plant at Kopu, near Thames.

Canterbury Timber Products Ltd. commenced production of a new product—a medium density fibreboard—in Rangiora in late 1975.

Plywood—New Zealand Forest Products Limited has established a new plywood plant at Kinleith. This plant, the largest of its kind in Australia or New Zealand, uses 56,500 cubic metres a year of radiata pine from the Kaingaroa forest.

Steel—New Zealand Steel Ltd. was formed in July 1965 and began production at Glenbrook, south of Auckland, of a range of galvanised coil and sheet from imported black coil in November 1968. The company is meeting the full domestic demand for galvanised products and primary steel (billet). The company has announced that it is now making plans for long-term development and expansion which will entail the establishment of hot and cold rolling facilities and an increase in iron and steel production capacity to a minimum of 450,000 tonnes a year. Formal Government approval for the cold-rolling stage was given in June 1977. The total development is expected to take 10–15 years at a possible cost, in current terms, of $400 million.

Hunter Douglas completed the installation of a new wide paint line during 1975–76. Prepainted steel and aluminium coil are now available to the market with the initial impact being expected within the building industry particularly.

The GKN wire mill suffered serious production problems early in 1976 which caused temporary shortages.

Aluminium—New Zealand Aluminium Smelters Ltd. was formed following the signing of an agreement by the New Zealand Government, Comalco Industries Pty. Ltd., of Australia, Showa Denko KK, and Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd., of Japan. The 25 percent shareholding of Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd. has now been transferred to Sumitomo Aluminium Smelting Co. Ltd. of Japan. Construction of the primary aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point, near Bluff, was completed early in 1971. The first furnace was commissioned in April 1971. Production is now 150,000 tonnes a year, with two full pot-lines in operation. Approximately four fifths of the primary aluminium produced at the smelter is exported.

An aluminium semi-fabricating industry is well established, making a wide range of extrusions, rolling mill products and fabricated items.

Aircraft Manufacture—In March 1973 rationalisation of the aviation manufacturing industry took effect with the amalgamation of separate industry units into a single company, Aerospace Industries Ltd. The National Airways Corporation and Air New Zealand provide substantial financial and technical assistance. Up to 1976 the company produced about 100 military training aircraft; it is currently concentrating on agricultural aircraft to serve both local and overseas markets.

Electronics Manufacture—The New Zealand electronics industry has a well-developed consumer sector, principally orientated towards the colour television market. As at October 1977, there were 847,181 sets licensed in New Zealand, of which 368,356 were colour television sets. Some exports have been achieved, mainly to the Asian market. The professional and industrial electronics sector which covers a wide range of industrial, medical, and scientific applications, has shown increasing maturity and sustained growth.

Motor Vehicles—During 1973, two new vehicle assembly plants were commissioned in the Auckland area by the Ford Motor Co. (N.Z.) Ltd. and Nissan Motor Distributors Ltd. Todd Motors Ltd's new plant at Porirua, currently the largest single vehicle assembly plant in New Zealand, was officially opened in October 1975.

The new transmission and chassis component plant of the Ford Motor Co. (N.Z.) Ltd. at Wiri was officially opened in November 1973. Assisted by provisions of the New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement, this facility is intended to supply total New Zealand and Australian needs for several components used in Ford's production of light and medium passenger cars.

In mid-1976 Government approval was given to General Motors (N.Z.) Ltd. to manufacture rear axle assembly units principally for export to Australia. The annual value of exports is expected to total approximately $1.2 million.

Carpets and Carpet Yarns—An increasing proportion of the carpet industry's production is being exported. Woven and tufted carpets have found a ready market in a variety of overseas countries. Increased carpet-making capacity has been installed in Auckland, Foxton, and Wellington. Total carpet production for 1976 was 11 million square metres, up from about 9 million square metres for 1975. In 1976 2.1 million square metres of tufted carpet were exported to Australia under NAFTA.

During the year the Government, mainly for reasons of competition, approved the installation at Foxton of an overseas-built carpet-printing machine. The two main advantages of this machine for New Zealand are that, with the installation, there would be an overall reduction in stocks of carpet yarn and overall carpet production would be cheaper.

TRENDS IN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: Export Market Orientation—A considerable number of manufacturers are now exporting a substantial proportion of their production. This is a comparatively recent development. A decade ago few manufacturers would have exported more than 5 percent of their output but exports of 20 to 40 percent or more are not uncommon now. This development reflects both increasing efficiency and competitiveness, and a greater awareness by manufacturers of the opportunities in overseas markets.

Overseas Investment—The major objectives in supervising overseas investment are to ensure that New Zealand's natural and human resources are developed to the benefit of New Zealand and also that overseas investment contributes to the maintenance of a satisfactory rate of economic growth in New Zealand. Investment of overseas capital is usually accompanied by specialised skills and technical advances and these are strongly associated with New Zealand's industrial expansion and rationalisation.

Resources Conservation—The Department of Trade and Industry provides support for existing reclamation industries and encouragement for the establishment of new resource conservation ventures. Progress has been made towards setting up recovery systems to retrieve metal cans from domestic and manufacturer's waste for steel reclamation and tin recovery. An extensive system for recovery of a range of re-usable materials from municipal domestic waste collections is under examination.

A nationwide collection is being established for the recovery of kraft waste for repulping at New Zealand Forest Products Limited's new waste pulp mill scheduled to come into operation in mid-1978. Further ventures are proposed to deal with vehicle hulks, contaminated solvents and oils.

During 1977 the New Zealand Waste Materials Exchange was set up to facilitate the circulation of information about re-usable industrial wastes between potential users. The exchange has already attracted support from industry and local authorities.

In 1975 a Conservation Award was introduced to provide recognition of achievements by industry in the conservation, including recycling, of raw materials and of energy. By the end of 1977 eight companies had received the Award.

The Department of Trade and Industry is also associated with other departments in surveys and measures to increase economic use of resources. As well as those related to waste reclamation, the department was recently involved in an investigation into the use of one-trip bottles in the soft drink industry. This has led to discussions with interested organisations on the wider aspects of beverage containers and packaging in general in our industrial and consumer infrastructure.

Indigenous Resources—The continuing trend towards the development and expansion of resource-based industries is of considerable significance. Traditionally, the only substantial resource-based New Zealand industries have been those engaged in processing farm products, meat, milk, and wool. Apart from these industries, in the period of almost 20 years following the end of the Second World War, the growth of manufacturing industry was, in the main, dependent on imported materials and components. The radio and television industry is a good example of growth of this type, and others are to be found in the domestic appliance, petroleum products, and engineering industries.

The turning point in the use of indigenous resources came with the developments in the forest industry where expansion has reached almost boom proportions during recent years. The industry is now a major earner of overseas exchange, the principal exports being pulp, paperboard, newsprint, and other papers. Logs, sawn timber, chips, and processed building boards are also sold overseas in substantial quantities. Research into possible industries based on South Island beech forests is currently being carried out.

Export-directed expansion of the domestic fishing industry has been intensified by the 1 October 1977 declaration of a 200 mile Exclusive Economic Zone.

It is possible that further increases in catching, processing and marketing of what have traditionally been lower-value species, coupled with continued strong demand for higher-value species may eventually bring returns from fish product exporting equal to the current value of New Zealand's exports of the manufacturing sector.

Industries based on New Zealand's mineral resources are developing. Indigenous ironsands are being smelted in an iron and steel manufacturing plant.

The offshore Maui natural gas field is expected to come into production in early 1979. Apart from direct reticulation and electric power generation two major gas based developments are under study The Government has approved, in principle, plans to extract liquid petroleum gas for use as a premium fuel. It is also considering proposals to manufacture nitrogenous fertilisers and/or methanol from natural gas.

Future prospects include the establishment of industries based on ilmenite beachsands occurring or the west coast of the South Island, the exploitation of Southland silica deposits, a mineral wax industry based on Otago lignite deposits, and the manufacture of activated carbon from West Coast coal. Developments based on farm produce continue to take place, one example being the manufacture of dried lucerne pellets for export.

EXPORT EARNINGS—Goods manufactured in New Zealand are finding more outlets in overseas markets. Export receipts for all manufactured goods (excluding forestry and dairy products) during the year ended June 1977 totalled $491 million compared with $343.6 million the previous year and $70 million in 1970. A substantial part of this increase can be attributed to increased exports of aluminium ingot, machinery, carpets, and clothing.

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT—Increasing attention has been paid in recent years to the regional aspects of the development of New Zealand and especially to the differing rates of growth of population, employment, and industry between regions.

Recognising this, the Government has given regional development an important place in its planning. Initially, emphasis is being given to the development of industry in a number of priority regions in order to provide employment opportunities and restrain the outflow of population from these regions. By the end of 1975 there were 11 regional development councils working in the declared priority regions—Otago, West Coast, Wanganui, Southland, Northland, Wairarapa, Taranaki, East Coast, King Country, Southern Canterbury, and Marlborough. Assistance to industry may include small business grants, suspensory loans, bank guarantees, freight subsidies, relocation grants, and assistance with housing and labour training. (See Section 11.)

AIDS TO DEVELOPMENT—Described very briefly below are some of the bodies which provide assistance of various types to manufacturing industry.

Development Finance Corporation—A description of the Development Finance Corporation which was established as an independent body in 1964, is included in the Banking and Currency section of this Yearbook. In the 1976 Budget the Government announced that, in order to rationalise the various programmes of assistance in the development of new industrial products and processes, there was to be an amalgamation of the Inventions Development Authority, the Industrial Research and Development Grants Scheme, and the National Research and Development Scheme, the whole to be administered by the Development Finance Corporation. The resulting Applied Technology Programme came into effect on 1 November 1976. Under this programme total inquiries received from 1 November 1976 to 30 June 1977 totalled 230. The value of approvals was $598,000.

Industries Development Commission—The Industries Development Commission operates under the Industries Development Commission Act 1961, and on 19 September 1975 superseded the Tariff and Development Board.

The Commission's functions are to inquire into and report on matters relating to industrial development and to protection at the frontier when requested by the Minister of Customs or the Minister of Trade and Industry or the Minister of Overseas Trade.

At present the emphasis is on the Commission's developmental function. Its current commitments are a General Textile Industry Reference which calls for a study in depth of the whole of New Zealand textile industry and two small development studies, one on book production and the other on galvanised steel sheet and strip.

The Commission reported on book production during 1977.

Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme—The Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme (PIIDS) introduced on 30 November 1976, provides financial assistance and incentives for New Zealand companies developing approved manufacturing operations in Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, and Niue with the objective of fostering economic development opportunities in those countries and furthering the growth of employment.

Standards Association of New Zealand—The Standards Association of New Zealand (SANZ), the New Zealand authority responsible for producing national standards, was established by the Standards Act 1965 to take over and expand the activities of the New Zealand Standards Institute, a division of the former Department of Industries and Commerce (now Trade and Industry). This move was strongly supported by industrial, commercial, and professional organisations.

SANZ represents New Zealand in the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), and on the Asian Standards Advisory Committee (ASAC) of the United Nations.

Manufacturing Development Council—The Manufacturing Development Council was established as a sector council of the National Development Council in 1969.

One of the MDC's most important functions has been to act as a link between the industrial private sector and the Government. A recent major task of the MDC has been to develop an economic growth strategy for the manufacturing sector. A recommendation, supported by the Government, has recently called for the functions of the MDC to be widened as far as practicable to include the whole industrial sector and for it to act as a planning body.

Productivity Centre—A Productivity Centre was established within the Department of Trade and Industry in January 1973 to promote improved productivity in New Zealand's manufacturing and servicing industry. It is pursuing an active nationwide programme in close co-operation with interested organisations to help firms make better use of their resources by using specific productivity techniques.

The programme of the centre is guided broadly by a 10-member Productivity Advisory Council. Members represent both Government and private sectors, providing the council with a wide range of practical experience and close links with other bodies concerned with productivity improvement.

The centre offers a variety of services to industry:

  1. Interfirm comparisons, which highlight areas within individual firms requiring remedial attention, are sponsored and costs subsidised in selected cases. Twenty industry and local government groups, involving more than 700 participants, took part in the centres' interfirm comparison programme during 1976.

  2. The establishment of self-sustaining productivity groups is promoted by the centre. Some 23 groups, which enable representatives of diversified local industries to examine and exchange productivity ideas and experience that will benefit their individual enterprises, were operating at the end of 1976.

  3. Companies and organisations are assisted with setting up productivity improvement teams. These teams harness the ideas, knowledge, and ability already existing in an organisation to improve productivity.

  4. The centre organises workshop sessions and seminars on specific management topics, particularly in centres where few formal management education facilities exist.

  5. Extension services to industry are provided by industry liaison officers based at the Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin offices of the Department of Trade and Industry. These officers are available to help diagnose the existence and extent of practical problems in individual companies at the invitation of management, and to channel to them advice and assistance from the wide range of financial, technological, managerial, and other facilities available in the public and private sectors.

  6. Literature is distributed by the centre including general information material, a newsletter, a technical series, a directory of advisory services, and information on financial management In addition the centre's programme includes general publicity to ensure widespread understanding of the benefits of productivity, research, and investigation into productivity measurement and incentives, and liaison with productivity organisations overseas.

New Zealand Export/Import Corporation—Established early in 1974, the corporation has a responsibility for co-ordinating and expanding overseas trading opportunities. By providing assistance to small and medium companies to go into the export field, the corporation aims at increasing and diversifying New Zealand's range of exports.

Other Bodies—A number of liaison committees have been established to promote development in particular fields of industry: these include the Advisory Committee on the Heavy Engineering Industry, the New Zealand Metal Casting Industry Association (previously the Foundry Industry Advisory Committee), and the Electronics Advisory Committee (in abeyance), with industry Government liaison being maintained through the National Electronics Development Association (NEDA). Several bodies exist principally to promote exports: the Engineering Export Association of New Zealand Inc. continues to be prominent in this field, while the Export Guarantee Office facilitates the export of manufactured goods by removing some of the financial uncertainties involved in export trade. The Industrial Design Council exists to promote and encourage good design. There are also several bodies providing technical and advisory services for industry. Further details of these organisations are to be found under Section 7, Education, Science, and the Arts.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT—Engagement in research and development by manufacturing enterprises is shown in the following table.

Details published in all but the last column exclude single-establishment enterprises employing less than 10 persons and ancillary units servicing more than one industry.

Manufacturing Census (Year)Persons Engaged on Research and DevelopmentPercentage of Total Number Engaged in ManufacturingExpenditure on Research and DevelopmentPercentage to Total Value Added in Manufacturing
 No.%$(000)%
1974–751,4490.5013,9490.65
1975–761,4080.4715,4450.66

SCOPE OF STATISTICS—Results of the first integrated economic census of manufacturing introduced by the Department of Statistics applied to the 1974–75 year. The census covers establishments (factories, workshops, etc.) in New Zealand, the predominant activity of which is manufacturing, processing, assembly, or repair, plus the activities of ancillary units (head offices, etc.) which service or predominantly service those establishments. Single establishment firms having an average of less than two persons engaged full time are, however, not included in the census.

All activities of the manufacturing operations, from the purchase of material and supplies to the point at which the products are sold, are within the scope of the census, which is for the year ended 31 March, or the last accounting year prior to the 31 March.

This new integrated economic census classifies all the manufacturing industries according to the revised New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (NZSIC), which is based on the 1968 United Nations International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities.

Because of the major changes introduced, there is an unavoidable break in the continuity of manufacturing statistics. To provide some link with the previous census series, a limited number of main aggregates were collected for the 1973–74 year on the same basis as those collected for 1974–75. This link information has been published in a series of industry bulletins in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

In the statistical tables which follow, the results of the 1974–75 and 1975–76 manufacturing censuses are published. The provisional results of the 1976–77 manufacturing census are given in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook. This 1976–77 manufacturing census will be the last of the annual series. Commencing with the 1977–78 year, the Department of Statistics will introduce a series of five-yearly integrated economic censuses covering the nine major divisions of NZSIC.

A series of quarterly sample surveys linked to each five-yearly census has commenced.

GENERAL SUMMARY—As already stated, changes introduced in the 1974–75 Integrated Economic Census of Manufacturing made comparisons between 1974–75 and 1975–76 data and those from earlier manufacturing censuses difficult. The principal changes may be summarised as follows:

  • • industries were reclassified to conform to the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification;

  • • ancillary units, such as servicing units, laboratories, etc., were included in the census;

  • • the basis of valuation was changed from cost of materials used and factory door value of production to purchase and sale prices;

  • • the census year was changed from a year centred on 31 March to a year ended 31 March or the nearest prior balance date;

  • • a number of new or changed definitions were introduced. A table of definitions is given below:

Definitions

Establishments—Productive units, usually factories, engaged predominantly in manufacturing operations.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, laboratories, workshops, etc., engaged in predominantly servicing manufacturing establishments.

Persons Engaged—Numbers of people employed in the establishments and ancillary units at, or on the nearest pay day to, 15 April.

Salaries and Wages—Gross earnings during the accounting year, before taxation and other deductions, of all employees in the establishments or ancillary units included in the census. Included are such items as sick and holiday pay, bonuses, benefit allowances, payments under piece rate schemes and capitalised salaries and wages. Excluded are contributions to superannuation funds by employer, reimbursement allowances, payments from superannuation funds, and drawings by working proprietors.

Depreciation—As charged in the books of account on fixed tangible assets owned by the establishments or, ancillary units included in the census.

Purchases and Other Expenses—The sum of all operating expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations, and including value of capital work done by own employees but excluding salaries and wages and depreciation.

Turnover—The total of all sales and other income except interest, dividends, royalties, patent fees and insurance claims received, plus the value of capital work done by own employees.

Value Added—The industry and sector contribution to Gross Domestic Product comprising the sum of salaries and wages paid, employer contributions to superannuation schemes, operating surplus, depreciation, and indirect taxes less subsidies.

Capital Expenditure Less Disposals—The sum of the amount spent by establishments and ancillary units in the census on the purchase, less the proceeds received from the sale, of the following types of fixed asset: land; buildings and other construction; road vehicles, ships and aircraft; plant, machinery and equipment; other, such as artefacts.

General Statistics

A general statistical summary of the results of the 1974–75 and 1975–76 Integrated Economic Censuses of Manufacturing is given in the following table.

Turnover of manufacturing establishments, including ancillary units, covered in the 1975–76 Census of Manufacturing totalled $7,264 million, a 12.9 percent increase on the total of $6,433 million recorded in 1974–75.

ItemUnitCensus of ManufacturingPercentage Change
1974–751975–76

*Increase due to reclassifications of many ancillary units in some of the existing manufacturing multiple enterprises in the 1975–76 Census.

EstablishmentsNo.8,3488,532+2.2
Ancillary unitsNo.535680+27.1*
Persons engaged at mid-April:
      MalesNo.210,297215,810+2.6
      FemalesNo.82,15182,882+0.9
TotalNo.292,448298,692+2.1
Capital expenditure, less disposals$(million)364349–4.1
Salaries and wages paid:    
      Males$(million)1,1381,277+12.2
      Females$(million)251299+19.1
Total$(million)1,3891,576+13.5
Purchases and other expenses$(million)4,6644,993+7.1
Turnover$(million)6,4337,264+12.9
Value added$(million)2,1442,351+9.7

The three following tables give a more detailed comparison of the results of the 1974–75 and 1975–76 Censuses of Manufacturing. This is at industry division and major group level.

The first table shows numbers of establishments and ancillary units, and persons engaged.

Division and Major GroupEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsPersons Engaged
1974–751975–761974–751975–761974–751975–76
Number
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
      Food1,0201,04610111462,59766,238
      Beverages12111818254,5474,359
      Tobacco5681,1821,346
Total1,1461,17011914768,32671,943
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather
      Textiles357391132418,68419,116
      Clothing (except footwear)738739233221,54920,766
      Leather121137453,0133,284
      Footwear107102785,2054,795
Total1,3231,369476948,45147,961
Wood and Wood Products
      Wood and cork products850842161916,24216,451
      Furniture43944513166,6987,232
Total1,2891,287293522,94023,683
Paper and Paper Products, Printing and Publishing
      Paper and paper products9897899,6709,889
      Printing and publishing521540385118,06817,968
Total619637466027,73827,857
Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
      Industrial chemicals108120995,2525,696
      Other chemical products15916728457,1806,949
      Petroleum1213324352
      Petroleum and coal products221955369397
      Rubber products838125364,8704,611
      Plastic products1861696185,0144,992
Total5705697311323,00922,997
Non-metallic Mineral Products n.e.c.
      Pottery, china, and earthenware13179041,100
      Glass and glass products46672,2292,478
      Other non-metallic mineral products42440814137,6667,564
Total483492141310,79911,142
Basic Metal Industries
      Iron and steel4641123,1273,115
      Non-ferrous metals7769223,0483,146
Total123110346,1756,261
Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery, and Equipment
      Metal products1,0871,152374122,97722,970
      Machinery (except electrical)794780162214,21113,498
      Electrical machinery279277283517,98518,469
      Transport equipment3443823319,51320,574
      Professional and scientific equipment424338441,044
Total2,5462,6348410475,53076,555
Other Manufacturing2492646104,2234,473
      Ancillary units servicing more than one major group......1141255,2575,820
Total manufacturing8,3488,532535680292,448298,692

The following tables give financial statistics derived from the 1974–75 and 1975–76 Censuses of Manufacturing. The first shows salaries and wages, purchases and other expenses, and total turnover.

Division and Major GroupSalaries and WagesPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnover
1974–751975–761974–751975–761974–751975–76
Food, Beverages and Tobacco   $(million)  
      Food294.5351.31,374.41,417.61,746.31,934.0
      Beverages22.924.681.1103.7115.5152.7
      Tobacco5.37.329.441.140.551.1
Total322.7383.21,484.91,562.41,902.32,137.8
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather
      Textiles79.092.2247.3230.9348.1351.5
      Clothing (except footwear)67.674.1120.5122.0199.8213.9
      Leather11.713.234.438.847.055.2
      Footwear20.120.836.435.259.261.0
Total178.4200.3438.6426.9654.0681.6
Wood and Wood Products
      Wood and cork products79.287.1232.2250.5347.0377.6
      Furniture29.533.171.579.0111.0121.8
Total108.7120.2303.7329.4458.0499.4
Paper and Paper Products Printing and Publishing
      Paper and paper products60.669.6244.0302.2358.9444.1
      Printing and publishing86.295.9124.9138.6236.6276.0
Total146.8165.4368.9440.8595.5720.1
Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
      Industrial chemicals29.735.9199.8178.3240.3242.4
      Other chemical products32.537.7142.3158.5186.9214.7
      Petroleum2.02.524.232.631.338.1
      Petroleum and coal products1.92.48.910.012.114.5
      Rubber products26.428.359.362.487.7106.7
      Plastic products26.125.781.263.1110.7104.3
Total118.5132.5515.7505.0669.0721.0
Non-metallic Mineral Products, n.e.c.
      Pottery, china, arid earthenware3.34.54.15.18.110.6
      Glass and glass products15.116.024.531.044.455.0
      Other non-metallic mineral products39.843.7134.8160.4198.7239.8
Total58.364.2163.5196.5251.2305.5
Basic Metal Industries
      Iron and steel20.821.4121.492.5148.3135.4
      Non-ferrous metals18.620.285.178.1116.9107.3
Total39.541.7206.6170.6265.2242.7
Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery and Equipment
      Metal products112.1122.6323.9377.2463.1562.9
      Machinery (except electrical)71.171.9200.2220.8288.1322.0
      Electrical machinery81.793.7255.1292.3340.9422.0
      Transport equipment97.8115.1298.9323.3403.8468.4
      Professional and scientific equipment3.34.79.313.013.618.8
Total365.9408.11,087.41,226.51,509.51,794.2
Other Manufacturing16.818.538.243,259.769.5
      Ancillary units servicing more than one major group33.842.256.791.168.192.8
Total manufacturing1,389.41,576.34,664.14,992.56,432.77,264.4

The final table of comparative data from the 1974–75 and 1975–76 Censuses of Manufacturing shows Value Added and Net Capital Expenditure. Value Added, as shown in the table of definitions, comprises salaries and wages paid, any employer contributions to superannuation schemes, the operating surplus, depreciation, and indirect taxes less subsidies.

Capital expenditure less disposals comprises gross capital expenditure less the proceeds of "trade-ins" and sales of second-hand capital goods.

Division and Major GroupValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
1974–751975–761974–751975–76
 $(million)
Food, Beverages, and Tobacco
      Food387.9497.493.2104.7
      Beverages41.758.213.69.1
      Tobacco13.815.11.24.0
Total443.5570.6108.0117.8
Textiles, Wearing Apparel, and Leather
      Textiles113.4130.214.218.1
      Clothing (except footwear)88.194.05.35.1
      Leather15.418.23.11.7
      Footwear26.725.81.61.8
Total243.7268.224.226.7
Wood and Wood Products
      Wood and cork products129.9138.220.727.0
      Furniture43.446.03.83.3
Total173.4184.224.530.3
Paper and Paper Products, Printing and Publishing
      Paper and paper products118.4135.167.129.9
      Printing and publishing124.1139.313.813.8
Total242.5274.480.943.7
Chemicals and Chemical, Petroleum, Coal, Rubber, and Plastic Products
      Industrial chemicals61.453.911.215.9
      Other chemical products60.957.17.54.9
      Petroleum10.69.10.51.1
      Petroleum and coal products3.84.20.40.5
      Rubber products35.443.23.56.6
      Plastic products40.739.56.16.0
Total212.8207.029.235.0
Non-metallic Mineral Products, n.e.c.
      Pottery, china, and earthenware4.45.90.30.5
      Glass and glass products23.424.74.53.1
      Other non-metallic mineral products69.980.815.214.8
Total97.8111.420.118.3
Basic Metal Industries
      Iron and steel46.544.83.63.5
      Non-ferrous metals40.531.84.75.7
Total87.076.68.39.2
Fabricated Metal Products, Machinery, and Equipment
      Metal products176.4187.520.015.8
      Machinery (except electrical)108.3108.77.68.7
      Electrical machinery126.7138.510.313.4
      Transport equipment139.3143.919.217.5
      Professional and scientific equipment5.26.90.71.0
Total556.1585.557.856.6
Other Manufacturing25.527.52.50.6
      Ancillary units servicing more than one major group61.945.28.210.9
Total manufacturing2,144.02,350.7363.7349.0

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1975–76—Statistics from the 1975–76 Census of Manufacturing have been given along with data from the 1974–75 Census in the previous tables at industry division and major group level. The following tables, which refer only to the 1975–76 Census of Manufacturing, show statistical data by industry major group and sub-group.

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1975–76
Industry Major Group and Sub-groupEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

*Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential data.

†Establishments and single-industry ancillary units.

‡Ancillary units servicing only this major group.

§Data included in Transport equipment, n.e.c.

Food ManufacturingNo.No.No.$(000)
      Meat export works (incl. export-licensed abattoirs)43931,4751,781172,3607,593
      Other abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses291,040226,71463
      Meat packers and canners2124911612,750687
      Ham, bacon, and smallgoods53101,2185187,0621,960
      Poultry slaughterhouses212583981,3861,367
      Game packers91781854669
      Meat pies and puddings1913932232,249882
      Casings of animal origin312963
      Co-operative dairy factories116195,69578341,5223,606
      Milk processing plants4539931486,900617
      Ice cream factories1724093162,4241,145
      Factories manufacturing dairy products including processed cheese (excluding co-operative dairy factories)44350139**
      Canning and preserving fruit arid vegetables4152,8701,85813,0815,885
      Land-based fish, etc., factories5096763743,3311,433
      Vegetable and animal oils and fats19551763,743318
      Grain milling23411932,270282
      Prepared grain breakfast foods5190121**
      Bread bakeries76171,79757911,6061,674
      Cake, pastry, and pie (not meat) factories4633923851,8591,099
      Cake and pastry kitchens242106711,0372,2102,393
      Biscuit factories94638112,9932,425
      Macaroni, vermicelli, spaghetti, and noodles3711**
      Sugar factories and refineries1230136**
      Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery3731,1071,2695,0754,886
      Food products, n.e.c.56101,4349368,2623,403
      Prepared animal foods5836791043,872336
Total, food manufacturing1,04611453,97812,260307,95943,315
Beverages
      Distilling, rectifying, and blending spirits48748**
      Wine6111576400**
      Breweries1031,62111512,511545
      Malting141038
      Soft drinks and cordials4279334685,4941,755
Total, beverages118253,3201,03921,0313,560
Tobacco Manufactures686936534,5392,753
Textiles
      Wool scouring30939705,757190
      Woollen fibres, spinning and weaving3052,7911,79816,7887,865
      Linen flax mills136*
      Man-made fibres, spinning and weaving82353168*676
      Dyeing, printing, and finishing yarns and textiles9190661,056188
      Canvas goods and similar articles of other fabrics714854822,0341,322
      Other made-up textile goods (except clothing)7913131,0141,5893,386
      Knitting mills11242,2804,42112,33117,643
      Carpets and rugs2271,83298610,5863,707
      Cordage, rope and twine6445128**
      Textiles, n.e.c.235222971,358362
Total, textiles391249,8869,23056,27835,932
Wearing Apparel
      Leather gloves and clothing27183307379980
      Fur clothing13195033126
      Clothing other than leather or fur699312,93117,37616,61655,961
Total, wearing apparel739323,03317,73317,02857,067
Fur and Leather
      Tanneries and leather finishing1429533584,8401,259
      Fellmongery5701417*
      Fur dressing and dyeing, fur and skin articles, n.e.c.232136211636*
      Leather and leather substitute products (except footwear and clothing)9515759802,5432,813
Total, fur and leather13751,7341,5508,4364,757
Footwear (except rubber, plastic, or wooden)10281,9542,84111,2549,577
Wood and Cork Products (except furniture)
      Sawmills24045,72823631,243733
      Planing, preserving, and seasoning timber6911,99913711,103514
      Builders' carpentry and joinery33243,52634118,231843
      Prefabricated and precut buildings511722774,614266
      Plywood, veneer, and board311,71521410,424912
      Wooden containers271427211,95153
      Basket and cane wear5301695*
      Cork products and wood products, n.e.c.876612673,083738
      Other ancillary units..8270641,976*
Total, wood and cork products8421915,0781,37382,7204,357
Furniture
      Wooden furniture and upholstery409115,0911,15125,0673,651
      Mattress making173833022,238910
      Window blinds (incl. Venetian and roller)195168137853426
Total, furniture445165,6421,59028,1584,987
Paper and Paper Products
      Pulp, paper, and paperboard104,54327239,6471,358
      Corrugated board, paper board and corrugated board boxes, cases, and cartons5031,98060314,2703,401
      Paper bags and sacks6299163
      Wallpaper factories333181**
      Pulp, paper, and paperboard articles, n.e.c.2858667125,7183,061
      Other ancillary units..12613**
Total, pulp and paper products9798,0451,84461,4428,130
Printing and Publishing
      Printing and publishing newspapers, periodicals, and books95366,2212,87639,27811,468
      Job and general printing377155,4332,59030,8129,902
      Service industries for the printing trade686262223,674741
Total, printing and publishing5405112,2805,68873,76422,111
Industrial Chemicals
      Basic industrial chemicals (except fertilisers)2717441565,424682
      Chemical fertilisers2021,278698,535286
      Pesticides114321592,911695
      Synthetic resins, plastic materials, and man-made fibres (except glass)6262,36849015,3102,051
Total, industrial chemicals12094,82287432,1803,714
Other Chemical Products
      Paints, varnishes, and lacquers35231,2313487,7401,244
      Drugs and medicines2138047345,2783,013
      Soap and detergents1125352733,5061,041
      Toilet and cosmetic goods3064987803,7182,980
      Cleaning preparations, n.e.c.122902231,755828
      Ink114350792,291325
      Chemical products, n.e.c.4775402643,106894
Total, other chemical products167454,2482,70127,39410,325
Petroleum Refineries13320322,397*
Petroleum and Coal Products
      Bituminous mixtures and products175283262,237*
      Petroleum and coal products, n.e.c.26820
Total, petrol and coal products195351462,237*
Rubber Products
      Tyres and tubes10331,72123912,178640
      Tyre retreading and vulcanising35419232,08560
      Rubber products, n.e.c.3631,54276710,4802,854
Total, rubber products81363,68292924,7433,554
Plastic Products, n.e.c.169183,1251,86718,8276,850
Pottery, China, and Earthenware175395612,6601,809
Glass and Glass Products672,05042814,3511,655
Other Non-metallic Mineral Products
      Structural clay products303959485,131171
      Cement works5802266,04683
      Lime kilns (not agricultural lime)3331**
      Cement, lime, and plaster, n.e.c.2362**
      Precast concrete12541,93811810,491360
      Concrete masonry6611,044675,081215
      Ready-mixed concrete884913635,884250
      Plaster and fibrous plaster products34413272,41070
      Monumental masonry and stone masonry4011882274644
      Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.c.15767975,177362
Total, non-metallic mineral products408137,09347142,1121,566
Iron and Steel
      Iron and steel basic products51,59210812,695*
      Iron and steel forgings and castings3621,2951207,772*
Total, iron and steel4122,88722820,467971
Non-ferrous Metal
      Non-ferrous basic metal products1722,12526915,368949
      Non-ferrous forgings, castings, extrusions, etc.526351173,472428
Total, non-ferrous metal6922,76038618,8401,377
Metal Products (except Machinery and Equipment)
      Cutlery and handtools243821042,184356
      Builders' and joiners' etc., hardware408644364,0911,447
      Furniture and fixtures (primarily of metal)6139633065,3251,096
      Architectural metal structures and fixtures20032,52939513,7591,334
      Sheet metal roofing and related products13832,05821211,374808
      Structural steel fabricating, and plate metal and boiler-shop products212104,21226926,690825
      Wireworking7321,3271847,242561
      Nails and fasteners824939**
      Household and kitchen utensils1923051381,329480
      Servicing industries to the metal trades1149801975,052584
      Fabricated metal products, n.e.c.263165,3311,44430,5695,497
      Other ancillary units..23412**
Total, metal products1,1524119,2343,736109,48713,164
Machinery (except Electrical)
      Manufacture and conditioning of engines and turbines811733833,493247
      Agricultural machinery and equipment19032,35533811,8911,009
      Tool, die, and jig making5626881383,779352
      Metal and woodworking machinery, n.e.c.30610863,769260
      Specialised industrial machinery and equipment10822,46818815,014635
      Office, computing, and accounting machinery281200321,163116
      Machinery and equipment, n.e.c.287134,99158828,1961,989
Total, machinery7802212,0451,45367,3054,608
Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies
      Electrical industrial machinery and apparatus8771,85866011,2962,421
      Radio, television, and communications equipment and apparatus7592,3512,79313,4529,937
      Household electrical durables and ranges33104,3621,38724,1756,555
      Other electrical appliances and housewares, n.e.c.2757766133,8702,347
      Electrical cables and wires68551695,259560
      Other electrical apparatus and supplies, n.e.c.4941,69794810,2913,547
Total, electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies2773511,8996,57068,34325,367
Transport Equipment
      Ship building and repairing15312,17017112,124518
      Railroad equipment93,78150××
      Motor vehicle assembly plants1915,8801,45533,8046,654
      Motor vehicle body building, caravans, and trailers982,13628310,5101,009
      Motor vehicle parts, n.e.c.5211,2764366,9761,748
      Motor cycles and bicycles129×
      Aircraft (incl. repairs)332,6548919,875356
      Transport equipment, n.e.c.171194521,144378
Total, transport equipment382318,0452,529104,43310,663
Measuring and Controlling Equipment, etc.
      Medical and surgical equipment and supplies, n.e.c.9160199979810
      Laboratory and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c.152179120927376
      Photographic and optical goods1912041821,027605
Total, measuring and controlling equipment4335435012,9331,791
Other Manufacturing Industries
      Jewellery and related articles8015122322,419647
      Musical instruments416112278*
      Sporting and athletic goods403631861,494*
      Brushes and brooms104142852,136857
      Toys and games2623703901,9671,452
      Manufacturing industries, n.e.c.10466999493,5493,082
Total, other manufacturing industries264102,4192,05411,8436,637
Total, all manufacturing establishments and ancillary units servicing single industries or major groups8,532555211,70581,1671,243,161290,904
      Ancillary units servicing only manufacturing...592,54184820,6043,939
      Ancillary units predominantly servicing manufacturing...661,56486713,5404,102
      Grand total8,532680215,81082,8821,277,305298,945

The following table shows additional financial statistics.

CENSUS OF MANUFACTURING 1975–76
Industry Major Group and Sub-groupDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals

*Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

†Establishments and single-industry ancillary units.

‡Ancillary units servicing only this major group.

§Data included in Transport equipment, n.e.c.

$(thousand)
Food Manufacturing
      Meat export works (incl. export-licensed abattoirs)19,023290,605544,005249,99038,750
      Other abattoirs and rural slaughterhouses3438,26716,3496,541734
      Meat packers and canners26229,43537,1556,096605
      Ham, bacon, and small-goods87345,59256,72912,4591,086
      Poultry slaughterhouses56925,67530,0255,0931,744
      Game packers3247,2518,9911,914398
      Meat pies and puddings28213,16816,9975,169245
      Casings of animal origin
      Co-operative dairy factories13,411468,790529,15659,78031,767
      Milk processing plants1,32554,95066,642–8,8813,439
      Ice cream factories61720,33226,1396,009967
Factories manufacturing dairy products including processed cheese (excluding co-operative dairy factories)*****
      Canning and preserving fruit and vegetables3,22962,62993,24133,8215,137
      Land-based fish, etc., factories1,34322,91431,9859,4872,660
      Vegetable and animal oils and fats91021,77929,6427,5721,733
      Grain milling57235,33939,3665,4791,339
      Prepared grain breakfast foods*****
      Bread bakeries1,90439,37458,91515,8932,732
      Cake, pastry, and pie (not meat) factories2016,67510,5593,892481
      Cake and pastry kitchens40610,02217,6877,755948
      Biscuit factories62519,53132,4759,267932
      Macaroni, vermicelli, spaghetti, and noodles*****
      Sugar factories and refineries*****
      Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery80131,53651,58519,4011,766
      Food products, n.e.c.1,70072,83389,63220,5824,741
      Prepared animal foods1,39954,93864,2489,3691,998
Total, food manufacturing50,8121,417,5981,934,005497,350104,712
Beverages
      Distilling, rectifying, and blending spirits1385,5087,3651,682*
      Wine1,11815,72520,5077,494*
      Breweries2,17960,12591,88235,3225,758
      Malting     
      Soft drinks and cordials1,00322,35232,96513,6761,250
Total, beverages4,438103,710152,71958,1749,062
Tobacco Manufactures1,35241,12651,08315,0694,028
Textiles
      Wool scouring67913,92321,8708,7443,454
      Woollen fibres, spinning and weaving2,36549,76178,68932,6045,704
      Linen flax mills*****
      Man-made fibres, spinning and weaving3905,9619,5493,786372
      Dyeing, printing, and finishing yarns and textiles2192,5744,4561,887310
      Canvas goods and similar articles of other fabrics2259,14114,3465,412400
      Other made-up textile goods (except clothing)43616,49123,4246,7741,268
      Knitting mills2,70162,253101,74542,9293,560
      Carpets and rugs1,29150,13169,14220,6382,401
      Cordage, rope, and twine*****
      Textiles, n.e.c.1606,5829,4482,572180
Total, textiles8,706230,879351,532130,22418,150
Wearing Apparel
      Leather gloves and clothing893,4064,9141,892*
      Fur clothing4444731314*
      Clothing other than leather or fur3,027118,190208,25791,8065,003
Total, wearing apparel3,120122,040213,90294,0125,136
Fur and Leather
      Tanneries and leather finishing84721,47328,1508,1001,214
      Fellmongery841,2011,843649*
      Fur dressing and dyeing, fur and skin articles, n.e.c.664,0495,5321,754*
      Leather and leather substitute products (except footwear and clothing)29812,03119,6667,749308
Total, fur and leather1,29538,75455,19118,2521,667
Footwear (except rubber, plastic or wooden)1,05835,24560,97125,7591,758
Wood and Cork Products (except furniture)
      Sawmills5,28477,599126,01151,2848,875
      Planing, preserving, and seasoning timber1,62042,21159,18519,1302,907
      Builders' carpentry and joinery1,56853,35180,70729,3952,421
      Prefabricated and precut buildings44722,93130,2097,773863
      Plywood, veneer, and board1,76337,09853,84317,46610,943
      Wooden containers1557,86910,7242,806267
      Basket and cane ware6201322127*
      Cork products and wood products, n.e.c.4068,59914,6196,365433
      Other ancillary units6286141,9983,879*
Total, wood and cork products11,877250,473377,618138,22527,017
Furniture
      Wooden furniture and upholstery1,86563,227101,11239,7783,012
      Mattress making14611,74514,7004,268194
      Window, blinds (incl. Venetian and roller)803,9815,9491,96488
Total, furniture2,09178,953121,76146,0103,294
Paper and Paper Products
      Pulp, paper, and paperboard16,538183,214270,15888,06421,504
      Corrugated board, paperboard and corrugated board boxes, cases, and cartons1,75172,391109,36327,7435,064
      Paper bags and sacks
      Wallpaper factories*****
      Pulp, paper, and paper-board articles, n.e.c.1,33440,204*15,9411,962
      Other ancillary units****
Total, pulp and paper products19,937302,241444,055135,08529,904
Printing and Publishing
      Printing and publishing newspapers, periodicals and books4,21662,265131,85370,9746,079
      Job and general printing3,93671,587133,46362,2516,804
      Service industries for the printing trade5384,75710,7036,105884
Total, printing and publishing8,690138,609276,019139,33013,767
Industrial Chemicals
      Basic industrial chemicals (except fertilisers)1,31015,94827,50611,7591,835
      Chemical fertilisers2,79260,72680,28112,1986,237
      Pesticides54126,11931,7685,681864
      Synthetic resins, plastic materials, and man-made fibres (except glass)2,90675,465102,87624,2936,939
Total, industrial chemicals7,549178,258242,43153,93115,875
Other Chemical Products
      Paints, varnishes, and lacquers86341,16455,00813,1041,070
      Drugs and medicines1,02631,66941,18611,3842,050
      Soap and detergents66825,37134,3847,322736
      Toilet and cosmetic goods48722,69532,4219,862*
      Cleaning preparations, n.e.c.19311,34014,8583,257289
      Ink1736,97610,5143,649*
      Chemical products, n.e.c.58119,30526,2918,499790
Total, other chemical products3,991158,520214,66257,0774,864
Petroleum Refineries1,19932,60238,1039,0691,150
Petroleum and Coal Products
      Bituminous mixtures and products3559,98614,5454,152544
      Petroleum and coal products, n.e.c.
Total, petroleum and coal products3559,98614,5454,152544
Rubber Products
      Tyres and tubes1,72227,68548,10420,4014,086
      Tyre retreading and vulcanising3617,74813,5213,4601,220
      Rubber products, n.e.c.69027,01645,06419,3761,289
Total, rubber products2,77362,449106,68943,2376,595
Plastic Products, n.e.c.3,76063,141104,53039,4935,965
Pottery, China, and Earthenware3255,10410,6485,889464
Glass and Glass Products2,17931,02854,96324,7123,058
Other Non-metallic Mineral Products
      Structural clay products4369,45816,7097,712790
      Cement works2,81618,45132,41113,8636,954
      Lime kilns (not agricultural lime)*****
      Cement, lime, and plaster, n.c.c.*****
      Precast concrete1,55926,83644,93917,8662,289
      Concrete masonry1,32325,17535,1158,9371,464
      Readymixed concrete2,06042,85055,53512,8701,842
      Plaster and fibrous plaster products36211,89915,7793,911343
      Monumental masonry and stone masonry731,6793,0711,58052
      Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.c.71119,92830,90512,730899
Total, non-metallic mineral products9,672160,403239,84180,81714,782
Iron and Steel
      Iron and steel basic products3,85575,315103,30530,241*
      Iron and steel forgings and castings83517,18832,05714,580*
Total, iron and steel4,69092,503135,36244,8213,527
Non-ferrous Metal
      Non-ferrous basic metal products4,79167,11090,16325,2824,671
      Non-ferrous forgings, castings, extrusions, etc.52510,96317,1626,4751,011
Total, non-ferrous metal5,31678,073107,32531,7575,682
Metal Products (except Machinery and Equipment)
      Cutlery and handtools2607,48511,0353,923211
      Builders' and joiners' etc., hardware58212,17921,3359,0641,280
      Furniture and fixtures (primarily of metal)41615,56424,9419,174558
      Architectural metal structures and fixtures1,05848,85169,79123,9301,584
      Sheet metal roofing and related products1,24453,82877,29120,5332,767
      Structural steel fabricating, and plate metal and boiler-shop products1,85263,623100,87836,0542,145
      Wireworking82441,40054,83411,8851,091
      Nails and fasteners*****
      Household and kitchen utensils1274,0556,7802,823399
      Servicing industries to the metal trades75725,15633,3058,7391,037
      Fabricated metal products, n.e.c.3,63195,591149,79858,0624,426
      Other ancillary units*****
Total, metal products10,924377,204562,935187,48815,845
Machinery (except Electrical)
      Manufacture and conditioning of engines and turbines3108,97814,6555,358414
      Agricultural machinery and equipment1,18048,50566,87220,5381,942
      Tool, die, and jig making5636,13312,4636,419814
      Metal and woodworking machinery, n.e.c.*9,44914,8845,788335
      Specialised industrial machinery and equipment93351,73075,05922,0241,476
      Office, computing, and accounting machinery*3,4854,7192,274369
      Machinery and equipment, n.e.c.2,17092,497133,35946,2513,376
Total, machinery5,564220,777322,011108,6528,726
Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies
      Electrical industrial machinery and apparatus83532,57352,35722,4951,999
      Radio, television, and communications equipment and apparatus1,17387,262117,23935,5012,772
      Household electrical durables and ranges2,21198,294141,30942,6401,744
      Other electrical appliances and houseware, n.e.c.40014,91822,7137,478*
      Electrical cables and wires85326,88835,6149,280*
      Other electrical apparatus and supplies, n.e.c.1,04432,32752,73521,0602,583
Total, electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies6,516292,262421,967138,45413,442
Transport Equipment
      Ship building and repairing76125,67942,05916,9401,193
      Railroad equipment×××××
      Motor vehicle assembly plants4,707214,051271,00148,4835,472
      Motor vehicle body building, caravans, and trailers55830,10745,02516,809862
      Motor vehicle parts, n.e.c.1,52015,90529,06114,7291,944
      Motor cycles and bicycles×××××
      Aircraft (incl. repairs)1,28019,63340,96724,3106,555
      Transport equipment, n.e.c.52917,90140,33322,6731,497
Total, transport equipment9,355323,276468,446143,94417,523
Measuring and Controlling Equipment, etc.
      Medical and surgical equipment and supplies, n.e.c.1575,6647,7502,490434
      Laboratory and scientific equipment, measuring and controlling equipment, n.e.c.1492,3433,8841,942331
      Photographic and optical goods1085,0027,1872,508273
Total, measuring and controlling equipment41413,00918,8216,9401,038
Other Manufacturing Industries
      Jewellery and related articles1727,80412,8465,165279
      Musical instruments*6861,082414*
      Sporting and athletic goods*7,51810,3293,854*
      Brushes and brooms2225,5359,3424,099–424
      Toys and games2708,46412,3504,184429
      Manufacturing industries, n.e.c.51013,20323,5809,794–22
Total, other manufacturing industries1,37743,21069,52927,510616
Total, all manufacturing establishments and ancillary units servicing single industries or major groups189,3354,901,4337,171,6652,305,433338,191
      Ancillary units servicing only manufacturing2,51453,47057,49831,4556,316
      Ancillary units predominantly servicing manufacturing1,99137,61335,27113,7664,542
      Grand total193,8404,992,5167,264,4342,350,654349,049

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY—The two following tables show for both 1974–75 and 1975–76 the distribution of the manufacturing industry by statistical area. The tables illustrate the high degree of concentration of industry in the four main centres and very noticeably in the Central Auckland and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty Statistical Areas.

Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemales
 No.No. No.$(m)
 1974–75
Northland17494,24189225.1
Central Auckland2,82017969,83133,029500.3
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1,0426024,0596,633156.3
East Coast6351,83670210.7
Hawke's Bay296129,2512,88754.8
Taranaki22176,2581,56739.3
Wellington1,52313437,18016,029253.6
Total, North Island6,139406152,65661,7391,040.1
Marlborough8231,0774416.2
Nelson17743,3571,07619.0
Westland6821,1872896.6
Canterbury1,2588132,32212,868203.0
Otago4013311,6564,77169.7
Southland22368,04296744.9
Total, South Island2,20912957,64120,412349.3
Total, New Zealand8,348535210,29782,1511,389.4
 1975–76
Northland172154,61578528.7
Central Auckland2,93221870,78833,190564.7
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty1,0607025,1837,128180.1
East Coast6761,96671012.2
Hawke's Bay3022510,2823,35665.4
Taranaki22896,5281,70443.5
Wellington1,53217037,74615,918281.7
Total, North Island6,293513157,10862,7911,176.4
Statistical AreaOperating UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid
EstablishmentsAncillariesMalesFemales
 No.No. No.$(m)
Marlborough7541,1674167.5
Nelson18083,3591,15522.1
Westland7121,2513027.7
Canterbury1,27010631,94212,407224.7
Otago4174012,1714,73682.2
Southland22678,8121,07555.6
Total, South Island2,23916758,70220,091399.9
Total, New Zealand8,532680215,81082,8821,576.2

Additional financial statistics of manufacturing by statistical area are shown for both years in the following table.

Statistical AreaDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(million) 1974–75
Northland4.992.8134.541.713.2
Central Auckland50.81,683.72,302.0786.2103.2
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty28.6603.2838.6263.186.8
East Coast1.326.838.916.92.3
Hawke's Bay8.7194.1276.191.819.0
Taranaki6.2228.7272.551.912.3
Wellington25.5909.11,203.8374.762.8
Total, North Island126.03,738.35,066.51,626.3299.5
Marlborough0.620.027.88.80.8
Nelson3.363.884.728.47.0
Westland0.918.226.69.41.9
Canterbury16.1530.1779.4294.934.8
Otago6.5180.7269.0103.311.7
Southland7.8112.8178.772.97.9
Total, South Island35.2925.81,366.3517.764.2
Total, New Zealand161.34,664.16,432.72,144.0363.7
1975–76
Northland5.7104.9150.946.49.9
Central Auckland58.31,815.52,618.3834.795.1
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty35.5705.3988.8292.759.0
East Coast1.929.847.319.62.4
Hawke's Bay11.0228.0315.6111.830.7
Taranaki7.9214.8276.761.316.9
Wellington30.2903.11,299.5408.650.1
Total, North Island150.44,001.35,697.11,775.1264.0
Marlborough0.922.232.911.61.7
Nelson4.869.3102.933.810.7
Westland1.022.133.911.62.1
Canterbury20.1549.9870.3319.741.8
Otago7.8190.4311.0122.912.4
Southland8.9137.3216.575.916.4
Total, South Island43.5991.21,567.3575.685.0
Total, New Zealand193.84,992.57,264.42,350.7349.0

PRODUCTION OF SELECTED GOODS—The following table shows the volume of production of selected goods. It should be noted that the figures, many of which were compiled by the Department of Trade and Industry, refer to the calendar years (except where otherwise stated) and not to production years as in most tables in this section. This table is not based on the censuses of manufacturing from which the data in other tables in this section are derived.

Commodity 197519761977

*Other than rubber or plastic.

†See also section 14A Farming (General) and section 24 Consumption of Food.

‡Year ended May.

§Provisional.

||Year ended June.

¶Figures relate only to operations of superphosphate manufacturing works.

**Gross production, including wastage.

Refrigerators and deep freezersNo. (000)262.4242.7177.9
Washing machinesNo. (000)91.783.165.7
Tumbler clothes dryersNo. (000)133.2137.0116.4
Electric ranges and rangettesNo. (000)76.675.374.6
Lawn mowersNo. (000)99.196.987.1
Radios and radiogramsNo. (000)163.6157.9168.5
Television setsNo. (000)146.7154.0119.1
RecordsNo. (000)5,1986,0635,606
Textiles and Clothing
Woollen and worsted yarntonnes18,13821,58618,776
Piece goodssq metres (000)3,1622,8092,655
Blanketsprs (000)306215200
Carpelssq metres (000)9,27611,31510,042
Women's—
      Overcoats(000)238.3214.2220.1
      Skirts(000)646.1695.3699.9
      Slacks and jeans(000)1,081.11,596.31,343.8
      Dresses(000)856.51,111.91,151.2
      Blouses and shirts(000)1,408.01,782.71,964.1
Men's—    
      Suits(000)205.6206.1217.9
      Trousers (working)(000)840.9933.9929.2
      Trousers (other)(000)1,589.01,500.51,571.8
      Shirts (men's and boys)(000)5,9206,3744,969
Footwear
Men's footwear*prs (000)1,620.01,761.71,570.1
Women's footwear*prs (000)2,266.32,169.52,037.1
Children's footwear*prs (000)1,061.6940.6955.5
Slippersprs (000)1,199.51,180.41,098.5
Rubber and plastic boots and shoesprs (000)1,227.31,138.71,091.4
Gym or tennis footwearprs (000)869.41,075.61,028.3
Foodstuffs
Liquid milklitres (million)5,9076,3596,442
Creamery buttertonnes (000)243.7255.6277.1
Cheesetonnes (000)88.6104.881.0
Skim-milk powdertonnes (000)243.7207.0205.7
Condensed and powdered whole milktonnes (000)33.946.877.9
Caseintonnes (000)34.552.757.0
Flourtonnes (000)219.3211.1220.1
Wheatmeal and wholemealtonnes (000)4.95.05.4
Refined sugartonnes (000)148.1154.1159.9
Breakfast foodstonnes (000)15.617.117.7
Biscuitstonnes (000)25.729.125.2
Ice creamlitres (million)52.151.954.5
Beer and stout**litres (million)421.0409.6418.0
Canned vegetables||tonnes (000)21.619.120.6
Quick frozen vegetables||tonnes (000)45.040.344.5
Canned fruit||tonnes (000)18.220.015.7
Transport
Passenger carsNo (000)67.569.562.9
Trucks, vans, and busesNo (000)12.911.512.6
TyresNo (000)1,5631,6731,805
Miscellaneous
Papertonnes (000)550608646
Wood pulptonnes (000)9511,054x1,108
Chemical fertiliserstonnes (000)1,8012,2512,268
Cigarettesmillion6,4886,5356,512

Chapter 20. Section 19 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND HOUSING

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The building and construction industry makes an important contribution to growth and development since most of its work represents investment in the future. Because of its size and the demands it makes on a wide range of industries supplying building materials and services, and because not only commerce and industry but also the housing of the people depend on it, the well-being or otherwise of the industry is a matter of concern to all informed New Zealanders.

The industry employs 7 to 8 percent of the total labour force on. "on-site" works, and its position as a large market for goods from other sectors also strongly influences employment in these sectors.

The "off-site" supply services provide about 65 percent of the value of the work put in place.

The characteristic of the industry with its relatively high proportion of short-term construction (mainly dwellings) is reflected in the structure of firms. Over 80 percent of "on-site" building firms employ fewer than six persons, are usually under-capitalised, and tend to rely on extended credit from suppliers. Hence effective planning of the housing sector on a longer-term basis is important to the stability of the industry.

The downturn of the economy in 1974 and the difficult economic climate in succeeding years have been reflected in conditions in the building and construction industry. The labour force in the industry declined significantly during 1976 and 1977 following a general slowdown in the annual rate of labour force growth that had been in evidence since late in 1974. This slowdown followed by actual decline came after a period of accelerating growth in the post-1971 period when the expansion was assisted by an improved liquidity situation and increased expenditure by the Government on capital works, including civil engineering projects, schools, and multi-rise buildings.

The building and construction industry has always been sensitive to fluctuations in the economy as a whole. In recent years the Government has endeavoured to cushion the effects of such fluctuations in-order to provide more stability in the industry while, at the same time, allowing it to adjust to a level related to the resources available. Both the 1977 Budget and the policy changes announced on 28 October 1977 and on 13 February 1978, included financial measures aimed at assisting the building and construction industry to maintain a reasonable level of activity.

During 1976–77 the demand for housing eased from the high levels of recent years. This reflected the changes in the migration pattern, tightening economic conditions, the pressure of inflation on living standards, and the increasing inability of prospective homeowners to undertake the necessary financial commitments. The annual total of completed dwellings declined from 34,300 in the peak year 1974–75, to 32,900 in 1975–76, and 28,400 in 1976–77. However, in comparison with the 10-year average of 26,650 completions, this was still high.

Within the residential field the trend away from houses to flats continues. Whereas new flat units comprised 5.5 percent of all residential units built in 1960–61, the percentage in 1976–77 was 32.4. The greatest demand for flats has been in the main urban centres, Auckland and Wellington. Many flats are merely two or more one-storey units on the one section, thus making greater use of serviced sections and achieving a saving in costs. This construction is popular with builders and finds a ready market, particularly with people of retiring age.

The modern tendency is for people to buy, rather than rent, flats. Another development in residential accommodation is the growing popularity of town houses, a type of construction which combines some of the advantages of both houses and flats and makes more economical use of space than does the traditional house on the ¼ acre section.

BUILDING INDUSTRY ADVISORY COUNCIL—The functions of the Building Industry Advisory Council are: (a) to give advice to Government through the Minister of Works and Development on matters affecting the building and construction industries; (b) to maintain an overall and continuing review of the industries and (c) to give advice to the industries on the likely effects of building trends. The membership of the council consists of nine representatives from sectors of the industries, namely contractors, architects, professional engineers, workers, and suppliers, plus one representative each from Treasury and Ministry of Works and Development. Members have been appointed by the Minister of Works and Development on the recommendation of organisations within the building industry.

BUILDING PERFORMANCE GUARANTEE CORPORATION—The Building Performance Guarantee Corporation was established early in 1978 to offer an insurance scheme designed to protect the buyers of new homes against the consequences of poor workmanship, the use of inferior building materials, the bankruptcy of the builder, or other failures to complete a house in accordance with the contract.

NATIONAL HOUSING COMMISSION—The National Housing Commission, established in 1974, is a body whose principal functions are to advise the Minister of Housing on all matters relating to housing in New Zealand and to inquire into and keep under review the housing needs of the population. In addition it is charged with assisting in the co-ordination of all persons, bodies, and agencies, both public and private, concerned with housing in New Zealand and to promote co-operation between them.

Currently there are four appointed members, comprising the chairman (general manager of a lending institution), a barrister and solicitor with local body housing background, an architect, and a builder.

TRENDS IN AVERAGE COSTS—The following table illustrates trends in the cost of building activity over a period. (Sources: Ministry of Works and Development, and Housing Corporation.)

Type of BuildingCost at End of Year
1950196019701974197519761977
*Area 102 sq. metres. Cost comparability is affected by design changes from year to year.
 $$$$$$$
State rental house (976 sq ft)4,3445,5287,45015,960*17,735*19,690*21,965*
Buildings (reinforced concrete) of similar size and type50,20064,20096,000157,700179,778199,553229,984

CENSUS OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION—The third 5-yearly census of the activities of the building and construction industry shows that the total value of work done in the production year 1973–74 was $1,716 million compared with $814 million in 1968–69. If subcontracts and other identifiable transactions between firms within the industry are deducted, the value of work done becomes $1,405 million for 1973–74 and $697 million for 1968–69. The net values are a relatively large proportion of the gross national product of the 2 years at 16.3 percent and 16.0 percent respectively.

In 1973–74 expenditure by the industry on capital goods for its own use such as plant and machinery, motor vehicles, and land and buildings was $96 million compared with $43 million in 1968–69 representing 4.6 percent and 4.5 percent of the estimated gross capital formation (excluding stock changes) in the two respective years.

Of the total gross value of production for the year 1973–74 of $1,716 million, $1,308 million or 76 percent was represented by work on buildings (involving construction, alteration, repair, maintenance, or demolition); $140 million was for work on roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, wharves, aerodromes, and airstrips; $56 million was for land drainage, sewerage, river protection, irrigation schemes, water supply, and well drilling; $62 million was for earthmoving, reclamation, and land development; $6 million was for the removal of overburden for mines or quarries; $82 million was for power, telephone, and telegraph-line erection, cable laying, radio and television masts, and power development; $46 million was for other construction; and $16 million was for plant hire.

One of the main purposes of the 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction is to examine the structure of the industry. Of the total gross output of $1,716 million in 1973–74, private firms were responsible for output to the value of $1,364 million both as main and subcontractors, Government departments used their own staff for a value output of $147 million, while local authorities did work to the value of $104 million with their own staff. Private owner-builders not normally engaged in building and construction undertook $101 million of their own building work. In 1973–74 Government and local authorities gave more work to private firms, and correspondingly reduced their own activities.

Private Contractors—The business of private contractors in building and construction in 1973–74 is summarised in the following table.

Nature of BusinessUnitsPersons EngagedSalaries and WagesWorking ProprietorsMaterialsValue of Work Done
As Main ContractorAs Sub-ContractorTotal*
*Includes value of work done as labour-only contractors.
 No.No.$(m)No.$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)
Building contracting5,67427,672124.04,070302.3761.047.9816.2
Civil engineering contracting3246,06933.86940.7112.221.6134.9
Shop and office fitting403671.7182.95.22.57.8
Electrical contracting9913,76316.545834.322.940.765.0
Plumbing and drainlaying1,3654,38018.679144.033.948.883.3
Painting and paperhanging1,2313,40514.51,0769.219.618.638.5
Plastering2137473.21342.02.05.98.0
Roofing contracting766553.72213.24.3.18.923.2
Bricklaying and/or blocklaying3851,0254.42978.14.413.818.5
Glazing895212.1235.32.57.29.7
Flooring contracting843061.3403.42.73.36.7
Earthmoving2871,5267.81153.132.35.037.5
Road sealing386193.085.612.31.313.8
Concrete contracting1156082.8604.15.44.410.0
Heating and air conditioning contracting891,4546.81716.719.511.130.6
Demolition contracting221250.59--1.00.51.5
Scaffolding contracting111870.84--0.31.61.9
Other3913,49216.613319.625.031.656.9
Total11,42556,921262.27,344514.81,066.6285.01,364.0

HOUSING—Over 511,000 of an estimated 1,034,000 dwellings (that is, nearly half of the total housing stock) have been built since the National Housing Conference in 1953. The standard house is about 100.3 square metres in area, is single-storeyed, and normally built of timber; fittings are of a reasonably high standard, especially in the kitchen. It costs about $20,000 to build, and stands on a section costing, on average, about $7,500.

Approximately 90 percent of the dwellings completed annually are built for private home ownership, with most of the balance being erected by Government agencies for rental purposes. Since the war there has been no significant housing built for private rental, but some rental flats are created by conversion of existing dwellings. Accelerated property cost increases have made it difficult for persons on modest incomes to finance their way into home ownership.

Since 1937 the State, using the services of private contractors, has been building rental dwellings. At March 1977, 82,486 of these houses and flats had been built and since 1950, 27,774 of them had been sold to the occupiers. Rental dwellings are let to applicants in difficult housing circumstances.

Under the Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act 1945 local authorities can take action to rebuild decadent central city areas. Urban renewal schemes are in progress at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin, assisted with Government finance. Loans are available to private houseowners to renovate old houses.

The Unit Titles Act 1972 made provision for a new type of ownership of units in a multi-unit development. Individual owners are entitled to a legal estate in their respective units and can sell or transfer a unit without requiring the consent of other owners as is the case where a block of shares in a flat-owning company provides the right to a flat.

GOVERNMENT CAPITAL ASSISTANCE ON NEW HOUSING—The following table shows the bulk of the Government's capital expenditure on new housing during the latest 3 years available. It does not include expenditure on residential properties by the Departments of Maori Affairs or Lands and Survey, expenditure by the Housing Corporation for other departments, or advances under the scheme for the capitalisation of family benefits.

Expenditure1974–751975–761976–77
 $(000)
Land purchase and development, State house construction, etc.71,475152,53368,339
Advances for new urban houses119,090175,635140,900
Advances for new rural houses1,8861,159884
Loans to local authorities for rural housing, pensioners' housing, etc.16,39113,63717,101
Subsidies paid to local authorities, religious, and welfare organisations for housing of elderly4,8497,0388,383

HOUSES AND FLATS COMPLETED—Statistics of completions are given in the following table; they include flats created by conversion of existing dwellings. The statistics are dependent on the supply of information by local authorities and indications are that they have been understated.

Year Ended 31 MarchGovernmentPrivate and Local AuthorityTotal New Houses and FlatsFlats Created by ConversionTotal Housing Units
State RentalGovt. Tenancies*

*Includes Education and Hospital Boards.

†City, borough and county councils, etc., comprising pensioner units, staff housing, etc.

‡Additional dwelling units created by conversion of existing buildings, e.g., one house converted into two flats.

§Provisional.

197465044130,90032,00065032,700
19751,05640533,00034,30036034,600
19761,88057030,50032,90025033,200
19771,91359826,10028,60029028,900
1978×1,42748322,30024,20020024,400

DEMOLITIONS—According to notifications received, the totals of dwellings demolished in recent years have been: 1973–74, 3,137; 1974–75, 2,145; 1975–76, 2,056; 1976–77, 2,097; and 1977–78, 1,808.

BUILDING STATISTICS—The principal official building statistics are the Department of Statistics monthly analyses of building permits and its quarterly analyses of the value of work put in place. Estimates of construction other than buildings (mostly in the Government sector) are derived from Government accounts and form part of gross domestic capital formation in the national income statistics. Other building information is available from the 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction, the 5-yearly Census of Population and Dwellings, and inter-industry statistics.

The prime source of the following statistics is building permits issued by local authorities. To enable a complete picture of building activity to be shown, construction commenced by Government departments, hospitals, education and harbour boards are included, even though permits may not actually be taken out.

The value shown represents in the majority of instances the total contract price or estimated cost of the building. A permit for a large building may involve work spread over several years whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown entirely for the year or month in which the permit is issued. This qualification applies more particularly to large buildings.

The value placed on a building for the purposes of the permit is usually less than the actual cost. This applies particularly to large new buildings which take a considerable time to complete. In these cases the final cost, owing to wage increases, rising costs of materials, etc., may be considerably greater than originally estimated. These rises are not apparent in building permit figures.

The values of building permits for the latest 5 years are analysed by types of building in the following table. Permits cover alterations and additions as well as new buildings. Government and other buildings not requiring building permits are included.

Type of BuildingYear Ended 31 March
19731974197519761977

*Includes ancillary buildings.

† Includes alterations and additions.

Dwellings  $(million)  
Houses259.6378.6400.3432.5453.3
Flats106.1166.1146.3160.9179.5
Alterations and additions49.467.675.891.8115.3
Other Buildings
Hostels, boardinghouses23.45.33.94.64.2
Hotels, motels, etc.*19.216.916.118.0
Hospitals and nursing homes*21.216.132.291.515.9
Education buildings*64.953.975.777.646.1
Shops, restaurants, taverns108.537.528.818.034.2
Office and administrative78.1110.284.286.4
Warehouses40.338.538.854.2
Factories, powerhouses, etc.51.187.897.186.8113.8
Social, cultural, and recreational61.615.424.724.226.1
Farm16.816.619.730.2
Miscellaneous buildings14.414.411.76.2
      All buildings745.9997.31,081.31,158.51,183.4

The following table shows a percentage analysis of the value of building permits and authorisations during 1976–77 by type of building and sector of ownership. The high percentage of the total value of building permits represented by houses and flats built by the private sector highlights the importance of private investment in residential building as a key to stability in the building industry.

Type of BuildingCentral GovernmentPublic CorporationsLocal GovernmentPrivate SectorTotal
   Percent  
Houses and flats3.41.158.763.2
Hostels and boardinghouses0.1--0.20.4
Hotels, motels, etc.----1.51.5
Hospitals and nursing homes0.70.71.4
Education buildings3.0--0.93.9
Warehouses----0.44.24.6
Factories, powerhouses, etc.0.8--0.48.49.6
Social, cultural, recreational0.22.02.2
Shops, restaurants, taverns0.10.12.82.9
Office and administrative1.7--0.35.37.3
Farm buildings----2.52.5
Miscellaneous0.10.30.20.5
      All buildings9.9--2.887.3100.0

Compared with the previous year, in 1976–77 the value of permits and authorisations for houses and flats made up a higher percentage of the aggregate total (63.2 percent as compared with 58.3 percent). Permits and authorisations for hospitals and nursing homes made up a significantly lower percentage of the total (1.4 percent compared with an exceptionally high 7.8 percent in 1975–76), while permits for factories, powerhouses, etc., were up from 7.4 percent to 9.6 percent.

Some categories of buildings used in this and other building-permit tables require additional explanation. Hostels and boardinghouses, for example, include barracks, orphanages, nurses' homes, and boarding school accommodations; hotels and motels include private and licensed hotels, but exclude taverns; education buildings include primary and secondary schools, teachers colleges, technical institutes, university buildings, kindergartens, and play centres; and the broad category—social, cultural, recreational—include churches, halls, theatres, cinemas, clubrooms, community centres, and grandstands.

In the following table the numbers of permits for new houses and flats over a period of 5 years are shown along with permit values. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

Year Ended 31 MarchNew HousesNew FlatsTotal Dwelling Permits*Total Permits, All Buildings*
Dwelling UnitsValueAreaDwelling UnitsValueNo. of Blocks
*Includes the value of permits for alterations and additions.
  $(m)sq metres (000) $(m) $(m)$(m)
197319,916259.62,427.412,857106.14,491415.2745.9
197423,582378.63,018.416,152166.15,622612.3997.3
197521,436400.32,602.411,665146.34,336622.41,081.3
197620,932432.42,546.711,257160.94,192685.11,158.5
197719,127453.32,435.510,966179.54,185748.11,183.4

The average permit value for houses and flats in 1976–77 was $21,004, compared with $18,434 in 1975–76, $16,508 in 1974–75, $13,708 in 1973–74, $11,160 in 1972–73, and $10,126 in 1971–72.

The following diagram illustrates building-permit figures for new houses and flats.

Sector of Ownership—Permit values for the main groupings of building activity during 1976–77 are analysed below according to sector of ownership. The 1976–77 total of 30,093 permits and authorisations for new dwellings to a total value of $632.8 million includes authorisations by the Central Government for 1,624 new houses (value $35.8 million) and 224 new flats (value $4.0 million). The figure of $748.1 million for houses and flats in the following table includes $115.3 million for alterations and additions to existing dwellings.

Type of BuildingCentral GovernmentPublic CorporationsLocal GovernmentPrivate SectorTotal
   Value $(million)  
Houses and flats40.213.4694.4748.1
Hostels and boardinghouses1.6--2.64.2
Hotels, motels, etc.0.20.517.418.0
Hospitals and nursing homes8.07.915.9
Education buildings35.3--10.846.1
Shops, restaurants, taverns0.80.832.634.2
Office and administrative19.90.14.162.386.4
Warehouses0.3--4.249.754.2
Factories, powerhouses, etc.9.4--4.799.7113.8
Social, cultural, and recreational buildings0.12.623.426.1
Farm buildings0.3----29.830.2
Miscellaneous0.83.02.56.2
      All buildings117.10.233.31,032.81,183.4

The values of permits for alterations and additions are included for all types of buildings.

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS—The following table shows for urban areas and statistical divisions, building permit values and dwelling completions for the March year 1976–77. Where applicable the urban areas are included in the relevant statistical division.

AreaNew Houses and FlatsTotal (All Permits) ValueDwelling Completions*
NumberValue
*Figures for completions of dwellings are rounded to indicate that exact numbers are not always available and are dependent on notifications from local authorities.
  $(m)$(m) 
Whangarei U.A.4919.816.9550
Northern Auckland U.A.2,06547.067.21,960
Western Auckland U.A.1,52828.746.31,480
Central Auckland U.A.1,19825.991.81,150
Southern Auckland U.A.3,06163.7105.92,940
Auckland S. Div.8,479179.2334.98,000
Hamilton U.A.1,05419.843.2980
Hamilton S. Div.1,60131.161.91,520
Tauranga U.A.85517.928.6620
Rotorua U.A.4519.016.6400
Gisborne U.A.1883.97.8140
Napier U.A.4509.114.5470
Hastings U. A.4889.518.8370
Napier-Hastings S. Div.98619.836.1880
New Plymouth U.A.52812.020.6580
Palmerston North U.A.65213.226.3630
Palmerston North S. Div.92919.035.8940
Lower Hutt U.A.61413.326.4680
Upper Hutt U.A.3908.212.8480
Porirua Basin U.A.49712.816.9440
Wellington U.A.75617.253.4800
Wellington S. Div.2,62961.3125.32,710
Wanganui U.A.3947.914.4370
Masterton U.A.1803.77.5190
Nelson U.A.3827.814.1360
Christchurch U.A.3,07853.6110.63,030
Christchurch S. Div.3,38460.3122.63,370
Timaru U.A.2635.911.4220
Dunedin U.A.70415.537.2630
Dunedin S. Div.76516.939.2690
Invercargill U.A.3517.919.2390
Total, New Zealand30,060632.11,182.728,400

WORK PUT IN PLACE—The Department of Statistics makes a quarterly survey of building work put in place. In contrast to the statistics based on building permits, these figures show the gross value of actual work done. It should be noted that there are varying time lags between the issue of the building permit and the commencement of building. The actual work for which a permit is issued can be extended over a number of time periods. Also, the total value of this work may differ considerably from the value estimated on the building permit, especially in times of relatively rapid inflation.

Year Ended 31 MarchDwellings
New Houses and FlatsAlterations and AdditionsTotal
GovernmentOtherTotal
$(million)
197311.4311.8323.248.3371.5
197414.5428.4442.960.2503.1
197533.1509.7542.875.6618.4
197661.7536.5598.294.7692.9
197749.5599.7649.1126.7775.9
Year Ended 31 MarchOther Buildings*Grand Total
Hotels, Boarding-housesHospitalsFactoriesCommercial BuildingsSchoolsMiscellaneousTotal

*Includes alterations and additions.

†And ancillary buildings.

‡Includes churches and sports entertainment buildings.

$(million)
197321.526.852.581.044.862.7289.3660.8
197425.019.174.4122.145.450.2336.1839.2
197523.423.099.1172.954.155.2427.71,046.1
197621.439.298.9165.175.667.6467.81,160.6
197722.251.2119.6189.963.075.1521.01,296.9

EMPLOYMENT—The following table of employment in the building and construction industry at 15 October 1977 by occupation and type of work covers all units in the industry which are surveyed by the Department of Labour and which employ two or more persons including working proprietors.

OccupationWorking Proprietors*Houses and Flats Government and Local Authority Buildings Commercial and Industrial Premises ×Civil and Electrical Engineering ||Other Total *

*Working proprietors not included in total by occupation.

†Includes private, state, and local authority housing.

‡Includes hospitals, schools, administrative buildings, etc., but not houses or flats.

§Not for Government or local authorities.

||Includes both Government and other work.

¶Principally maintenance and small jobbing work.

Carpenters and joiners3,8075,4893,2464,4809351,67915,829
Plumbers and drainlayers1,0931,2026125751548493,392
Bricklayers and plasterers480553206354301161,259
Painters and paperhangers7171,1737165901185113,108
Electricians8077334748083199753,309
Roof tilers and fixers6013655101536333
Welders, riveters, etc.59341494206422811,526
Concrete workers94101345829261546
Lorry and other machine drivers2683492172973,4371,8476,147
Other skilled workers2704033762562,2911,2464,572
Other semi-skilled workers963092512771,5167993,152
Labourers436238511,1042,5681,9657,111
      Sub-total7,79411,1057,1879,32012,30710,36550,284
Surveyors and other professional86..........4,481
Clerical, executive, etc.1,497..........7,157
Total9,37711,1057,1879,32012,30710,36561,922

In recent years the size of the "on-site" labour force in the building and construction industry has been affected by the tendency for a greater proportion of the work to be done by "off-site" supply industries in the form of prefabricated, preformed, or pre-assembled sections and units.

BUILDING MATERIALS—Production of some principal building materials during the three latest calendar years is shown in the following table.

ItemCalendar Year
197519761977
Ready-mixed concretecu metres (000)1,5331,4301,250
Paint and varnish—
      Paints (not water) and enamels in liquid formlitres (000)13,21113,34212,745
      Water paints, emulsion typelitres (000)7,8317,8557,841
      Lacquers (clear), undercoats, and colourslitres (000)2,3822,5762,497
Structural clay—
      Glazed pipesmetres (000)2,3872,2291,774
      Field tilesmetres (000)2,7512,8562,965
      Bricks and hollow blocksNo. (000)27,53227,48227,940
Fibrous plaster sheetssq metres (000)880842763
Fibre boardtonnes (000)45.750.259.5
Sawn timbercu metres (000)1,9732,1872,265
Particle boardcu metres129,102156,489121,024
Plywoodcu metres17,86425,66032,114
Cementtonnes (000)1,074999910

HOUSING FINANCE—The chief agency providing finance for housing in New Zealand is the Housing Corporation, a wholly Government-owned institution described in detail in Section 30C. For the year ended 31 March 1977 the Housing Corporation authorised 8,421 loans valued at $134 million for new urban dwellings. Of the total 11,743 housing loans authorised, 2,199 were authorised for the purchase of existing houses. Other important sources of housing finance are building societies, life insurance offices, trustee savings banks, and solicitors trust funds.

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 provides for payment in a lump sum of the social security family benefit, the capitalised benefit to be applied towards the provision of a family home, for essential alterations, or for repayment of encumbrances on a family home. The scheme became operative on 1 April 1959. Benefits in respect of any number of children may be capitalised provided the aggregate advance does not exceed $2,000. Family benefit advances totalling $3.03 million were authorised during 1976–77 by the Housing Corporation to applicants holding elegibility certificates issued by the Department of Social Welfare.

The Housing Corporation operates a Housing Mortgage Guarantee Scheme in respect of housing loans on first or subsequent mortgage granted by approved lenders, including trustee lenders, where the amount advanced does not exceed 90 percent of value. Under the present scheme, amended in April 1977, the corporation guarantees the full amount of the loan advanced. The loans must be for the purpose of building, buying, altering, or refinancing a house or flat. There is no charge for this service.

Home lay-by accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank and trustee and private savings banks qualify for subsidy, and Home Ownership accounts qualify for subsidy and preferential loan finance (see Section 29).

COST OF HOUSES AND SECTIONS—Freehold section and house costs in building proposals financed by the Corporation in the four areas of greatest housing demand in March 1976 and March 1977 are set out below. Section prices are likely to be conservative as some sections would have been purchased well in advance of offering as securities.

CentreMarchSectionsHouses
NumberAverage CostNumberAverage Contract Price
   $ $
Auckland19761057,24910618,068
 19771448,59814119,284
Hamilton1976116,045717,557
 1977257,7782118,429
Wellington1976307,4123021,372
 1977677,6875721,448
Christchurch197699,0751617,317
 197778,620719,440
New Zealand19763056,41429418,207
 19774137,45938519,560

Statistics compiled by the Valuation Department illustrate the trend in residential prices in 38 urban areas throughout New Zealand. The following figures of average sale prices for sections, houses, and owner-occupier flats exclude family sales and sales of leasehold property.

ItemCalendar Years
197219731974197519761977
Average sale price of—  $   
      Sections3,8354,9627,1798,94110,19510,842
      Houses13,23017,12623,29925,47127,47629,239
      Owner-occupier flats13,95216,50622,78723,65725,05026,995

URBAN RESIDENTIAL PROPERTY AND SECTION PRICE INDEX—This index is designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for residential properties and urban sections sold during each half-year. Variations in the average age of properties transferred, as an indicator of the average quality of such properties, are eliminated in the index methodology in order to arrive at a valid index of price level changes.

The following table shows index numbers for individual centres (Base: Each centre separately 1973 = 1000).

CentreResidential PropertiesSections
January-June 1977July-December 1977January-June 1977July -December 1977
Whangarei1911193528062813
Auckland1626166820082267
Hamilton1762177423522466
Tauranga1685171820542061
Rotorua1891185524872559
Gisborne1972194228372697
Napier-Hastings1706171822112000
New Plymouth1756168018232038
Wanganui2272227327902909
Palmerston North1664170823412745
Masterton1846182230472950
Wellington-Hutt1575153018621881
Nelson1882193124692570
Christchurch1577156720602067
Timaru2015206729193054
Dunedin1871184025582603
Invercargill1892187025042560
All 17 centres combined1681168921102245

The following series is obtained by linking the current urban residential property price index (on base: weighted average 17 centres combined, 1973 = 1000) to the index which it superseded.

Six Months EndedResidential PropertiesSections
1970–Jun596597
Dec626626
1971–Jun665647
Dec695688
1972–Jun750729
Dec806782
1973–Jun918905
Dec10821095
1974–Jun13221456
Dec14431642
1975–Jun14521800
Dec15031939
1976–Jun15651981
Dec16082069
1977–Jun16812110
Dec16892245

HOUSE MORTGAGES—Most of the housing advances made by institutions are in the form of table mortgages, being made initially for terms of usually over 20 years at the Housing Corporation, about 15 years at building societies and about 10 years at the private savings banks. The general experience of these institutions is that most house mortgages are redeemed in 7 to 12 years, seldom running the full term. Interest rates and the methods of calculating them vary from one institution to another. Some institutions prefer to lend on new houses, others cater for the purchase of older dwellings. Information on mortgages is given in Section 30A—Mortgages and Section 30C—State Finance for Housing.

ROLE OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities through the Housing Corporation for pensioner, rural, and community housing, including urban renewal.

Housing of the Elderly—Since 1951 Government has encouraged local authorities to meet the housing needs of elderly persons rather than provide such accommodation itself. To this end a scheme of subsidies was introduced, the balance of the cost being found by way of a loan to the local body with interest at 3½ percent reviewable 3-yearly and a term up to 30 years on a table basis. The combination of subsidy and low interest rate is directed at keeping rents within reasonable levels—at present, one-sixth of the income from National Superannuation.

The policy is administered by the Housing Corporation, which establishes the need for pensioner accommodation in a particular locality, provides technical services, and administers the loan and subsidy. The subsidy offered is up to 100 percent of the total cost of the units, including land and land development, less the amount of loan of $3,500 per unit.

The amount of subsidy approved in 1976–77 was $8,383,111 to provide housing for 894 persons. Since the inception of the policy in 1951, subsidy assistance has totalled $43,801,678 for the accommodation of 10,696 persons.

A new policy to assist the rehousing of elderly home owners in owner-occupier flats is proving popular with local authorities and religious and welfare organisations. A particular feature of this policy is the bridging finance which is made available, so that elderly home owners can sell their existing home before contributing towards the cost of the new flat unit.

Rural Housing—The Rural Housing Act 1939 has as its object the provision of more houses on farm properties. Loans are made to county councils (and other local bodies within whose boundaries farmlands are situated) for readvancing to farmers for the erection of, or additions or alterations to, dwellings. The Housing Corporation is responsible for the supervision and general administration of the Act. Persons receiving loans (687 in 1976–77) are principally owners of economic farms.

Community Housing—The Housing Corporation has authority to grant loans for general housing purposes, i.e., for the benefit of the community in general. Proposals must involve a definite scheme for the erection of not less than three houses. The substantial proportion of assistance provided has been in the metropolitan areas (e.g., in Wellington a significant part of the city council's building programme has been financed from this source). The emphasis is on moderate-cost accommodation.

Urban renewal is also financed by the Housing Corporation. The area concerned must first be declared a reclamation area or a comprehensive urban renewal area; any loss on land purchase and demolition is eligible for a Government subsidy. The Freeman's Bay scheme in Auckland and the Nairn Street project in Wellington are examples.

Since 1970 over $42 million has been authorised for community housing and urban renewal schemes.

Provision has been made by the Government for an annual amount of $7 million for urban renewal and allied works (including community housing undertaken by local authorities). This recognises the need to curb urban sprawl and to bring more people into inner city areas, close to employment, health services, and other amenities.

Borough councils are authorised under the Municipal Corporations Act to provide loans for housing purposes, to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Authorities Loans Board for blanket authorities for the purchase of land for subdivision for housing purposes. Local authorities are encouraged to play a prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

MAORI HOUSING—In addition to the facilities of the Housing Corporation, financial assistance towards the building of houses, including the purchase of building sites, additions, repairs to existing dwellings, and for the purchase of houses, is available to Maoris and other Polynesians under the Maori Housing Act 1935.

The Maori Affairs Department also arranges for the construction of the houses in many cases and provides a free plan service. Finance through the department up to set loan limits, rebated interest rate, and capitalisation of family benefits, is similar to loans granted by the Housing Corporation. Where the applicant does not qualify for special interest concessions the finance is made available at an interest rate of 8⅝ percent.

All applications for State tenancies are dealt with by the Housing Corporation, although assistance with applications is often given by the department's staff.

From the inception of the scheme to 31 March 1977, the department has provided finance to enable 19,342 families to build new houses and 1,281 to purchase existing houses. Also, 11,926 advances have been made for additions and repairs to houses and other buildings.

The Government has also provided accommodation for single young Maori people in urban areas. It has built rental flats for girls in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Whangarei. It has provided hostels for boys at Auckland and Christchurch and by the provision of subsidy has encouraged church organisations to establish hostels in a number of cities. Through the agency of the Maori Trustee, hostel and flat accommodation for both boys and girls has been provided in many of the main centres. In these ways the accommodation needs of over 1,000 young Maori people are now being met, many of whom are enrolled on the department's vocational training courses operated in conjunction with the technical institutes.

Flats for elderly Maoris have also been provided in semi-rural areas in close association with local marae.

WELFARE ORGANISATIONS: Hostels for Young People—Since 1951, religious and welfare organisations have been assisted to establish hostels for young people by subsidies of establishment costs. As from November 1973, the subsidy has been 80 percent, with a limit of $5,000 per young person accommodated. The purpose is to assist young men and women who are living away from their homes in order to study or undertake employment and find it difficult to obtain suitable living accommodation. Subsidies of 50 percent may also be granted for authorised improvements to existing hostels, and 75 percent for fire protection work as required by the local authority.

Since the policy commenced, subsidies totalling $1,964,095 had been approved up to 31 March 1975, to assist in providing hostel accommodation for 1,484 young people, and for upgrading purposes.

Government also helps with substantial subsidies for university halls of residence established by religious and welfare agencies. Administration is handled by the University Grants Committee.

CORPORATION RENTAL HOUSE CONSTRUCTION—State rental houses and flats (now known as Corporation rental houses and flats) have been built since March 1937. These are allocated to tenants on the basis of need. The Housing Corporation acquires and develops land to provide sites for houses and flats and arranges contracts for their construction. The "design-and-build" scheme, whereby the Housing Corporation arranges contracts with private builders or organisations for the construction of houses on land owned by the builders or organisations, was introduced during 1974–75. The scheme provides for the construction of the houses and the purchase of the land within the one contract, and has proved a successful means of achieving integration of rental accommodation in privately-owned and developed subdivisions.

The totals of rental units completed and handed over for occupation in the latest 6 years are shown in the following table. Up to 31 March 1977 there were 82,486 units completed.

YearRental units
1971–72661
1972–73765
1973–74650
1974–751,463
1975–763,017
1976–772,238

Planning of New Urban Areas—The level of demand for rental accommodation has fallen significantly from a peak in 1974–75, and while the larger schemes that were promoted to cater for this demand are still proceeding the rate of section production has fallen slightly. A reasonably high level of demand still exists for sections for sale, however, and an annual programme of around 3,000 sites is now meeting both rental and sales demands.

The Corporation is also directing an increasing proportion of its rental programme into renewal and redevelopment, particularly in the main centres, in order to encourage better utilisation of the existing housing stock and provide greater diversity in the type of accommodation offered. The emphasis on this and other developments remains with smaller schemes where the social and economic impact on the existing urban pattern is less marked.

Recognising the need for social diversification in Corporation-developed areas, it is now the Corporation's policy to make 50 percent of the sections available for sale to the public for private housing.

State Services Housing—State Services houses are houses for Government departments and the armed forces. The total number of such houses erected by the Housing Corporation to 31 March 1977 was 15,077. This includes houses built at the sites of major construction jobs, such as electric power schemes.

Finance—The cost of the Corporation housing programme, including the acquisition and development of land, is financed from the Housing Corporation vote, i.e., out of national development loan moneys.

The following table shows the annual expenditure from the Housing Construction (later, Housing Corporation) vote.

Year Ended 31 MarchCorporation HousingLand Purchase and DevelopmentAdministration and GeneralTotal
 $(000)
19737,9032,5272,49512,925
19748,9999,0282,68320,710
197543,38023,2544,84171,475
197665,81530,6807,276103,771
197741,63616,89110,22868,755

The next table shows the annual total expenditure by the Housing Corporation on house construction in the latest 5 years.

YearVote: Construction Land Purchase and Development, AdministrationOn Behalf of Other DepartmentsTotal
 $(000)
1972–7312,9254,25617,181
1973–7420,7104,72425,434
1974–7571,4757,22278,697
1975–76103,77110,670114,441
1976–7768,75510,88279,637

Land Acquisition and Development—During 1976–77 a total of 590 developed unit sites were purchased, together with 156 hectares of undeveloped land estimated ultimately to yield 1,175 unit sites. In the same period, 2,031 fully-serviced house unit sites were developed on land already held.

Corporation Rental Housing Tender Prices—The following table shows typical tender prices being accepted in the 4 main centres at the ends of a series of years for similar types of 3-bedroom corporation rental houses. In each case the house is a typical single unit on a flat section, built in weatherboards with a tiled roof. The price includes drainage, fencing, paths, toolshed, revolving clothes line, and letterbox. There is no strict comparability year to year as new designs have modified floor areas and fittings. Examples of major changes in specifications are the inclusion of carports in 1973–74 and of insulation in 1974–75. The cost of the section is not included. The figures in parentheses represent the cost per square metre (1 square metre = 10.764 square ft).

YearAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 $$$$$$$$
1964–656,726(69.00)6,888(70.61)6,104(62.54)6,632(68.03)
1969–707,184(74.63)7,675(78.58)6,759(69.21)7,661(78.47)
1974–7517,987(184.32)19,081(195.51)17,415(178.40)18,658(191.21)
1975–7619,823(193.98)21,484(210.23)18,244(178.53)21,139(206.85)
1976–7722,099(216.23)24,385(238.60)19,193(187.80)24,056(235.40)

JOINT FAMILY HOMES—The Joint Family Homes Act 1964 is designed to encourage the stability of marriage and family life. It provides for a form of ownership in which a husband and wife enjoy equal rights of use, possession, and enjoyment of the family home. While a settlement subsists, neither party may deal separately with his or her interest in the property, but on the death of one of them the home becomes wholly the property of the survivor. There are considerable benefits arising from settlement under the Act. Settlements are exempt from gift and stamp duty, and on the death of one spouse an exemption from estate duty may be claimed. In the event of claims by creditors, or the Official Assignee in bankruptcy, the property is protected to the extent of $10,000. Own-your-own flats may be settled under the Act, and an amendment passed in 1974 enables the benefits of settlement to be transferred from one family home to another purchased for the same purpose.

Joint family homes under the Joint Family Homes Act registered during the latest 5 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHomes Settled
197215,232
197316,925
197420,710
197525,402
197631,415

CENSUS INFORMATION: Nature of Dwelling—The following table shows the nature of dwellings at the censuses of 1971 and 1976.

Nature of DwellingNumberPercentage of Total Inhabited Dwellings
1971197619711976
Occupied dwellings—
      Permanent private dwellings—
      Private house682,003792,08384.284.9
      Private house, partly sublet5,2340.6
      Flat105,459117,97013.012.6
      Dwelling combined with shop, rooms attached to offices, etc.4,7368,2780.60.9
      Bach4,1734,9260.50.5
      Other81--
Total801,686923,25799.098.9
      Mobile and temporary dwellings—
      Mobile residence (including caravans)9943,2270.10.3
      Other (including tents)75--
Total1,0693,2270.10.3
      Non-private dwellings—
      Hotel, boardinghouse, apartment house, hostel3,9766,7760.50.7
      Public or private hospital7400.1
      Educational institution384--
      Other1,9820.2
Total7,0826,7760.90.7
      Grand total, occupied dwellings809,837933,260100.0100.0
      Unoccupied dwellings—
      Occupants temporarily away18,11623,945......
      Untenanted dwelling26,18427,518......
      Holiday residence32,44633,143......
Total76,74684,606......
      Building—
      Dwellings in course of erection9,18214,284......

Between the 1971 and 1976 Censuses of Population and Dwellings the total number of dwellings occupied on the night of the Census increased from 809,837 in 1971 to 933,260 in 1976, a rise of 123,423, or 15.2 percent. This rate of increase was considerably in excess of that for population. In addition, unoccupied dwellings increased from 76,746 to 84,606.

In 1976 the average number of occupants per permanent private dwelling was 3.19, compared with 3.38, 5 years earlier.

Unoccupied dwellings are restricted to buildings intended for human habitation, e.g., houses, flats, cottages, etc., and the category omits unoccupied caravans, tents, etc.; it also excludes unoccupied dwellings which are both deserted and dilapidated.

Tenure of Dwelling—The following table classifies the occupied permanent private dwellings according to tenure.

Tenure19711976
Permanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total SpecifiedPermanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total Specified
Owned without mortgage212,37426.7253,56727.6
Owned with mortgage329,73341.4387,07842.0
Rented or leased206,46525.9248,35627.0
Free with job34,6834.422,6782.5
Free not with job13,1711.78,6490.9
Not specified5,260...2,929...
Total801,686100.0923,257100.0

Amenities of Dwellings—The following tables present the various amenities, as at the 1976 Census, which were used by the occupants of permanent private dwellings.

AmenitiesHouseholdsPercent
Caravan48,7725.3
Deep freeze647,68770.2
Electric clothes dryer351,04238.0
Fully automatic washing machine354,71538.4
Garage or carport668,94372.5
Telephone829,78689.9
Television set (black and white)665,72572.1
Television set (colour)199,92321.7
Means of CookingHouseholdsPercent
Electricity829,94089.9
Gas, including rock gas61,7376.7
Wood, coke, coal23,5622.6
Other (including combination)1,2400.1
No means162
Not specified6,6160.7
Total923,257100.0
Means of HeatingHouseholdsPercent
Electricity only288,47531.2
Electricity and coal, coke or wood334,94736.3
Electricity and gas17,9901.9
Electricity and oil and/or kerosene46,7665.1
Electricity and other combinations61,4286.7
Gas only, including rock gas14,5201.6
Oil or kerosene only24,8872.7
Wood, coke, coal only100,16710.8
Other21,4732.3
Not specified and no means12,6041.4
Total923,257100.0
Hot Water ServiceHouseholdsPercent
Electric848,94492.0
Gas25,8622.8
Other40,5504.4
No hot water service1,7200.2
Not specified6,1810.7
Total923,257100.0

New questions asked at the 1976 Population Census revealed that 73 percent of households (668,943) had a garage or carport, while over 5 percent (48,772) owned a caravan. Colour television was present in 22 percent of households.

Materials of Outer Walls—The following table gives an analysis showing the materials of which the outer walls of inhabited permanent private dwellings were constructed. Flats are included individually and not as blocks. Therefore part of the increase, for instance, in brick and concrete construction, is accounted for by a lesser number of buildings than indicated by the increase in number of dwelling units.

Material of Outer WallsNumber of Dwellings
1956196119661971
Wood411,370431,318455,213454,266
Stone1,1212,4568,9101,540
Concrete, including concrete blocks17,86922,51028,34732,832
Concrete and wood1,0872,0393,0937,621
Brick, including hollow brick47,42065,17194,100123,766
Brick and wood3,3326,1578,81815,438
Brick and other material3,4557,0656,29716,670
Wood and iron3,7213,3142,5076,651
Iron3,8623,0832,5542,711
Proprietary wallboards of asbestos type28,86250,95556,02547,976
Roughcast28,44525,95837,28366,784
Other materials5,13512,90311,17224,553
Not specified7,3737781,785878
Total563,052633,707716,104801,686

Houses and flats with outer walls constructed of concrete, brick, and roughcast increased both in number and as a percentage of the total between 1966 and 1971, thus continuing the post-war trend.

Materials for Roofs—Most dwellings (70.8 percent) in 1971 were roofed with sheet or corrugated iron.

Tiles of clay, concrete, or asbestos roofed 23.0 percent of dwellings, and an additional 1.5 percent had roofs of metal-based, bituminous-coated tiles. Asbestos sheet, flat or corrugated, roofed 2.6 percent, and flat or corrugated aluminium sheet roofed just under 1 percent.

Easily the most popular type of house construction in New Zealand featured wooden walls and a roof covered with galvanised iron. This description applied to 355,061 (45.4 percent) of the 801,686 inhabited permanent private dwellings enumerated at the 1971 Census of Population.

Numbers of Rooms and Occupants—The following table classifies inhabited permanent private dwellings in 1971 according to the number of rooms and the number of occupants.

Number of RoomsNumber of Occupants
12345678 and OverTotal DwellingsAverage Per Dwelling
15,08075617980288826,1411.26
213,4479,0442,141922331147614926,1421.72
320,41025,06810,1125,9232,8701,58086199167,8152.41
431,29456,64627,23620,48510,2824,8202,2232,519155,5052.75
525,94772,66254,50368,44248,14123,8379,2527,256310,0403.62
69,82129,80323,68828,73923,14314,0937,0286,686143,0013.95
72,5208,4047,6199,6358,7425,6472,7472,45347,7674.18
87792,8172,6233,4563,2552,2511,0991,03517,3154.32
92729279651,1751,1537914744156,1724.42
101364333954754353581951862,6134.39
11 and over963162923003072281361401,8154.40
Not specified3,4874,6782,5152,3241,7671,09264685117,3603.30
Total113,289211,554132,268141,956100,45454,85224,73022,583801,6863.38

Of the total number of dwellings (where number of rooms was specified) 608,546, or 77.6 percent had either 4, 5 or 6 rooms and of these 382,204 were occupied by either 2, 3 or 4 persons.

The number of dwellings with only 1 occupant increased from 89,384 in 1966 to 113,289 in 1971 a rise of 267 percent; those living alone in dwellings of 3 rooms rose from 14,828 to 20,410; those in 4 rooms from 24,996 to 31,294; and those in 5 rooms from 21,399 to 25,947.

TENANCY—Under the Rent Appeal Act 1973 formerly administered by the Department of Labour, but now administered by the Housing Corporation, rent appeal boards have been appointed to determine on application by either a landlord or tenant the equitable rent for dwellinghouses. The amounts to be paid for rent in advance and as a bond are limited by the Act. The Tenancy Act 1955 governs rents and conditions of possession of certain private tenancies in existence before 18 November 1961. All private tenancies since that date and all business premises without exception are no longer governed by the Act. Where the Act applies, a landlord or tenant may apply to a rents officer or the Magistrate's Court to fix a fair rent, effect certain repairs, prevent oppressive conduct, or have the tenancy freed from controls under the Act. It is estimated that 8,800 tenancies are protected by this Act.

Chapter 21. Section 20 ENERGY

20 A—ENERGY DEMAND AND SUPPLY

DEMAND AND SUPPLY TODAY—The demand for energy in New Zealand has grown on average by 4 percent annually since World War II. This is a result of the expansion and diversification of the economy, rising living standards, increasing population, and the falling price of energy in real terms. Until recent years, energy policies were aimed principally at providing reliable and cheap supplies to keep up with demand.

The table below illustrates the trends in the consumption of primary energy since 1924. The term "primary energy" refers to energy as it is first obtained from natural resources. Broadly, this means that coal is accounted for as it is mined, oil products as they are imported in various degrees of refinement, and natural gas as it is taken from the wells at Kapuni. About 10 percent of our primary oil requirements were derived from Kapuni condensate in 1976.

Primary electricity is electricity generated from hydro and geothermal sources. For these, generation efficiencies are ignored, and the measure of the primary energy is the electricity generated. This is justifiable in the case of hydro-electricity, where the generation efficiency is high, but a large quantity of energy is wasted in producing electricity from geothermal heat. However, the wasted energy is low grade, and for the sake of simplicity is not shown in the table.

In a number of tables in this section, energy is measured in petajoules. The joule is the metric unit of energy and makes comparisons among the different forms of energy possible. For convenience, the petajoule (PJ) or 1015 joules is often used.

Calendar YearCoalOilNatural GasPrimary ElectricityTotalImported Oil as Percentage of Total
ImportedIndigenous

*Provisional

†Because of rounding, totals may differ slightly from sums of individual figures.

 Petajoules
192475100.58611
1934561937824
19447230710928
195466591413942
1964661033420351
1973602017135533560
1974621938145533258
1975561878156433157
19765918422406036550
1977*5216831645737245

This table shows that New Zealand's dependence on imported oil increased up to the time of the large oil price increases in 1973–74 and has subsequently declined. Imports of petroleum and petroleum products have continued to fall from 1974 levels (the highest level recorded, 4,344,437 tonnes) to 3,850,000 tonnes in 1976. In fact, present information indicates that, in 1977, New Zealand's indigenous primary energy production exceeded imports of energy for the first time in more than a decade. The principal reasons for this were virtually static demand and increased production of natural gas and condensate at Kapuni.

In 1976 some 14 percent of primary energy was converted into other forms of energy (mainly electricity), while smaller amounts were lost in processing (oil refining, gas treatment, etc.) or supplied to international transport.

The following table illustrates the trends in consumer energy consumption over the same period as in the previous table. Consumer energy is accounted for in the form and quantity in which it is distributed to the consumer. "Electricity" includes the electricity which is generated in thermal stations burning coal, oil, or natural gas, and "gas" includes the small quantity of gas manufactured from coal, naphtha, and natural gasolene.

Calendar YearCoalOilGasElectricityTotal
*Provisional.
Petajoules
19245952166
193449192373
1944623028102
19545559216132
19644890230170
197441151758257
1975401531062264
1976411531267273
1977*381531268271

As this table shows, in 1976 and 1977 there was virtually no growth in the consumption of oil by final consumers. Only in transport was consumption above 1975 levels. The increase in oil used in internal transport was no greater than the increase in population, so that consumer energy for transport remained constant at 32.7 gigajoules (109joules)/capita. The use of oil for industrial, commercial, and domestic heating has continued to decline since 1974

In 1976 consumer energy (272,720 terajoules) was used in the proportions: industry 36 percent; transport 38 percent (nearly all oil); household 16 percent; and commerce 10 percent.

The supply and demand of energy in 1976 is shown in detail in the following table:

Supply and Demand of EnergySource of EnergyTotal
Solid FuelOilGasElectricity

*Decreases in stock levels appear as negative stock changes. Such decreases in stocks have to be added to indigenous production (+ imports—exports) in order to obtain figures of energy consumed.

   Petajoules  
Indigenous production59.5821.5940.2259.68181.07
Plus Imports0.09178.90178.99
Less Exports0.650.65
Stock changes*–0.06–5.11–5.17
      Primary energy consumed59.08205.6040.2259.68364.58
Less used in electricity generation16.3614.3021.6052.26
Less used in synthetic fuel production3.030.581.144.75
Plus secondary production1.850.382.0214.9519.20
Total energy available41.54191.1019.5074.63326.77
Less
      Used by international transport22.7922.79
      Consumption by energy sector and losses0.109.698.018.1125.91
      Non-energy use4.554.55
      Statistical discrepancies1.29–0.490.80
Total consumer energy41.44152.7811.9866.52272.72
Energy demand—
      Industry26.8536.428.7725.9397.97
      Transport102.810.13102.94
      Domestic7.992.581.6030.2742.44
      Commercial and other uses6.6010.971.6110.1929.37
Total energy demand41.44152.7811.9866.52272.72

Market shares of the various energy resources for 1976 are shown on a percentage basis in the following table.

SourceIndustry and CommerceTransport (Incl. International Transport)HouseholdsThermal Electricity Generation
 Percent
Oil37100627.3
Coal261931.3
Gas (natural and manufactured)8441.3
Electricity2871
Total100100100100

OIL USAGE—Until the "oil crisis" in 1973 and the four-fold increase in the price of oil, there had been a rapid growth in the use of oil in New Zealand. This resulted from its declining cost in real terms, its versatility, its convenience, and the increasing affluence of the population.

Petrol accounts for about 43 percent of New Zealand's total consumption of petroleum products. In the year ended 31 December 1976, New Zealand used a total of 3,783,000 tonnes of petroleum products. This figure for the internal consumption of petroleum products in 1976 is broken down in the following table.

 TonnesPercent
 (000) 
Light flash distillate naphtha120.3
Premium gasoline1,53840.7
Regular gasoline1022.7
Aviation gasoline260.7
Aviation turbine kerosene1092.9
Kerosene421.1
Light diesel oil86522.9
Marine diesel200.5
Fuel oils (all types)89023.5
Bitumen972.6
Lubricants621.6
White spirits200.5
Total3,783100.0

In previous Yearbooks incorrect figures were shown for the internal consumption of petroleum products during 1974 and 1975. Corrected figures are shown in the following table.

Product19741975
 litres (million)
Light flash distillate naphtha18.424.5
Motor gasoline2,240.32,274.5
Aviation gasoline39.334.2
Aviation turbine kerosene120.3127.0
Kerosene58.452.9
Automotive gas oil1,037.51,004.1
Marine diesel oil26.934.4
Fuel oils (all types)1,174.1843.5
White spirits27.128.6
Lubricants85.071.2
 tonnes
 (000)
Bitumen122.279.4

In 1977, 85 percent of our oil was imported—seven-tenths came in as crude and partly refined feedstocks for refining at the Marsden Point refinery while the remainder was imported as refined products because of a lack of refining capacity. Most of the aviation fuel comes from Australia while lubricants and kerosenes are imported mainly from Australia, Singapore, the Middle East, and Europe.

New Zealand exported 33,703 tonnes of residual fuel oil to Japan and Singapore in 1977. This oil was too waxy to be used in New Zealand except in power stations. This occurred because of the increased proportion of Kapuni condensate refined at Marsden Point refinery, and reduced requirements for power station fuel oil.

In 1977, 40 percent of the Marsden Point refinery's annual output was petrol, 20 percent was diesel, 31 percent light and heavy fuel oils, and 3 percent was bitumen.

ENERGY PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE—Until late 1973 there seemed to be little difficulty in meeting the expanding demand for energy from a combination of indigenous resources and imported petroleum, although New Zealand had been steadily moving into a position of increased dependence on imported fuel. The oil supply embargo announced in October 1973 by the Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries sounded a clear warning of the danger this entailed. As well as dramatically illustrating that oil was no longer a reliable form of energy in terms of supply, the fourfold price increases that followed the lifting of the embargo meant that oil was no longer a cheap resource.

New Zealand's oil import bill rose from $114 million for the December year of 1973 to $306 million for 1974; $374 million for 1975; $483 million for 1976; and an estimated $513 million for 1977.

The rising cost of imported petroleum, coupled with uncertainty about the reliability of future supplies, has made it imperative for New Zealand to adopt policies aimed at reducing petroleum consumption and decreasing its dependence on imported energy. This is being achieved on two broad fronts; by accelerating the development of all indigenous energy resources, especially those that can substitute for petroleum, and by developing and promoting energy conservation programmes. Supporting these strategies is a research and development effort, which was spearheaded by the establishment of the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee in 1974. In the international sphere, New Zealand has taken action to ensure the reliability of oil supplies through its membership on the International Energy Agency (IEA).

Even before the outbreak of the oil crisis, concern had been felt about the lack of co-ordination in New Zealand's energy policy making. This concern was the rationale for the formation of the Ministry of Energy Resources in 1972, and later, for the decision to give the three energy portfolios—of Energy Resources, Electricity, and Mines—to one Minister.

Ministry of Energy—A further development in the co-ordination of energy policy-making was the announcement in May 1977 of the Government's decision to merge the Ministry of Energy Resources, the New Zealand Electricity Department, and the Mines Department into a single department responsible for all energy planning and operations. The new Ministry of Energy came into being on 1 April 1978.

The Ministry's principal function is the formulation, implementation, co-ordination, and continuing review of effective and efficient energy policies for New Zealand. It will achieve this through an organisation consisting of a central planning/policy group supported by two operating divisions for electricity and coal production and supply.

Development of Resources—The decline in New Zealand's dependence on imported petroleum since 1973 has largely been as a result of the Kapuni acceleration, which provided a supply of untreated gas to the New Plymouth power station and increased the flow of condensate for local refining. To a much smaller extent, greater use of treated gas and coal by industry has also contributed. With the present constraints on coal and gas production, the potential for further reducing our reliance on imported oil by interfuel substitutions is limited until Maui natural gas comes ashore in 1979, and new coal production facilities are in operation.

In May 1977 the Government announced the formation of a State-owned petroleum company—Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand Ltd. (Petrocorp). Petrocorp, which was formed on 31 March 1978, is a holding company with three subsidiaries: the Natural Gas Corporation Ltd., Offshore Mining Co. Ltd., and Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand (Exploration) Ltd. The Natural Gas Corporation and Offshore Mining, which operated before the formation of Petrocorp, will continue with their former functions—the treatment and supply of natural gas in New Zealand, and the Government's participation in the development of the Maui gas/condensate field respectively. Petrocorp (Exploration) will assume the responsibility for the Government's joint-venture interests in off-shore exploration and carry out the work of the Government's onshore petroleum exploration programme which was announced in the 1977 Budget. This programme started in November 1977 with a well on the West Coast of the South Island.

In May 1978 Goals and Guidelines: An Energy Strategy for New Zealand—Public Discussion Draft was published by Hon. G. F. Gair, Minister of Energy Resources. This paper sets out for public comment the goals and guidelines for an energy policy for New Zealand and suggests methods for achieving these goals.

The following table sets out New Zealand's estimated recoverable fossil fuel resources including the re-determination by Shell, BP and Todd Oil Services Ltd. in December 1977 of the reserves of the Kapuni gas/condensate field. As can be seen, the major resource deficiency is in liquid petroleum fuels, and it is likely the country will continue to be a net petroleum importer. It will, however, become relatively less dependent on imports for a decade or so as natural gas is brought into greater use.

FuelProductionReserves
19761977
Coal59.58 PJ53.8 PJMeasured5,052 PJ (211 million tonnes)
   Indicated7,593 PJ (347 million tonnes)
   Inferred13,579 PJ (621 million tonnes)
    26,224 PJ (1,179 million tonnes)
Oil21.59 PJ (0.477 m tonnes)30.52 PJ (0.674 m tonnes)Proven and probable reserves with a 65% probability level: 606 PJ (12.9 million tonnes)
Gas40.22 PJ (1624 m cubic metres)64.35 PJ (2347 m cubic metres)Proven and probable reserves with a 65% probability level: 6023 PJ (170,700 million m3)

In 1977 New Zealand's hydro-electric power stations provided 52.46 PJ (14,571 GWh) of electricity or approximately 68 percent of the total electricity generated. There is still a substantial potential for further hydro development in the South Island (perhaps 115,200 TJ (32,000 GWh) per annum), and a smaller potential in the North Island—perhaps 28,800 TJ (8,000 GWh). Environmental considerations may, however, limit development of some of these schemes.

In 1977 geothermal steam at Wairakei power station generated 4.19 PJ (1,164 GWh), or 5.5 percent of our total electricity. Geothermal energy (steam and hot water) also provides some heat for homes and industry. A rough estimate of the total electrical energy available from New Zealand's geothermal resources is 54,000 TJ (15,000 GWh) per annum, given the present state of technology. Geothermal energy if used directly has the potential to provide a greater amount of New Zealand's low grade heat requirements than foreseeable demands.

The 1977 report of the Power Planning Committee deleted the introduction of energy from nuclear power stations from its 15-year plan. The Royal Commission on Nuclear Power Generation, which was established in September 1976, completed its hearings and reported to the Governor-General early in 1978.

Energy Conservation—The initial impetus for a major effort on energy conservation in New Zealand came from the 1973 oil crisis. Since the lifting of emergency restrictions, except for the 80 km/h speed limit, efforts have still concentrated mainly on reducing the use of imported petroleum, although increasing attention has been paid to the conservation of indigenous energy resources as well. In the context of the country as a whole, fuels can to a large extent replace one another and a reduction in the consumption of gas or coal releases these fuels to other consumers until, at the margin, oil is replaced. Various measures have been introduced to encourage appropriate inter-fuel substitution.

Pricing and tax measures introduced during 1974 and 1975 included a graduated sales tax on cars, a $6,000 depreciation limit on company cars, petrol price and tax increases, minimisation of petrol tax rebates, and a tax on fuel for private flying. Other measures included the introduction of daylight saving, electricity allocations, a publicity campaign, and an interest-free loan scheme for home insulation. A programme for the insulation of existing state rental and departmental houses was introduced with the scheme and the Housing Corporation has laid down a specification for the insulation of all new State houses. As far as larger buildings are concerned, the Government has taken a lead by issuing a set of instructions requiring a critical analysis of the design of public buildings (schools, hospitals, post offices, State office buildings, etc.) having regard to energy conservation.

A major development during 1976 was the announcement in October of the Government's energy pricing policy. The policy recognises that because certain energy prices had been held artificially at low levels there was little incentive for the conservation and efficient use of indigenous energy resources.

A feature of the new policy was the introduction from 1 January 1977 of an energy resources levy on coal and natural gas. The pricing policy had the effect of increasing the average industrial price of coal by 20 percent, that of natural gas by 75 percent, and that of electricity by 37 percent. Three non-price measures intended to promote the wiser use of energy in the business sector were announced with the pricing policy:

  1. A system of approved energy audits to aid firms to use energy more efficiently.

  2. An energy advisory service to be established within the Ministry of Works and Development.

  3. An immediate write-off for tax purposes of approved expenditure on effective controls on existing energy-using plants, industrial insulation, and similar approved measures.

The 1977 Budget announced an important package of measures of energy conservation:

  1. The 1976 tax incentive scheme for industrial and commercial energy conservation has been considerably extended in a number of ways, particularly for new energy-using plant and the conversion of existing energy-using plant where indigenous energy other than oil or electricity is to be used in commercial or industrial premises, but including also a wider range of energy conservation activities.

    The plant and equipment to be covered by the existing and extended scheme are as follows:

    1. New process control equipment.

    2. Equipment used in the evaluation of energy use.

    3. New plant, machinery, or equipment used in the production of an energy form from waste materials.

    4. New heat-exchange equipment other than heat pumps for comfort cooling.

    5. New plant, machinery, or equipment for the recovery of waste heat.

    6. Insulation of industrial and commercial buildings.

    7. Sealing of sources or means of energy leakage.

    8. New energy-using plant which uses indigenous energy resources (including solar and wind energy) but not oil or electricity.

    9. Conversions of existing energy-using plant from oil or electricity to indigenous resources.

    10. Plant and ancillary equipment which, in association with approved energy-using plant and equipment, mitigates pollution effects.

  2. Provision has also been made for a refund of the 10 percent sales tax on plant and machinery where the machinery qualifies for immediate write-off under the taxation incentive.

  3. The Development Finance Corporation has available, subject to its normal lending criteria, finance for plant and equipment which qualifies for the immediate write-off.

  4. The major features of schemes to encourage the use of natural gas in the home are grants to the supplying authority of $200 for each new mains connection to new and existing houses where at least two of the three major gas uses (cooking, water heating, and space heating) are involved; a temporary reduction in the tariff on imported gas cookers for household use; and interest-free loans of up to $400, repayment over 4 years, available to assist in the purchase of gas appliances for cooking, water heating and space heating.

  5. Mandatory home insulation for new houses is, in general, taking effect with new building permits being issued after 1 April 1978. Interest-free loans are available for up to $400 over a four-year repayment period.

  6. From 22 July 1977 a sales tax of 1.5 cents a litre has been payable on a range of products including fuel and heating oil, marine diesel, and kerosene.

  7. New sales tax rates have been introduced on energy-intensive appliances as follows:

Household, industrial, and commercial air conditioners which incorporate refrigerating units30 percent
Household tumbler and cabinet clothes driers20 percent
  1. (8) The Government has decided to support financially to the extent of $70,000 in 1977–78, a car-pooling scheme now being developed by the local authorities for commuting between the North Shore and Auckland.

Various other developments are also significant to the energy conservation effort. These include the establishment of an advisory committee on energy conservation and use within the Standards Association of New Zealand, the revitalisation of energy conservation efforts in Government departments, budgetary measures to upgrade public passenger transport, and the successful establishment of an Energy Advisory Service.

As from 1 April 1978 the bulk electricity supply tariff was increased by 5 percent.

Research and Development—New Zealand is able to obtain the results of much overseas energy research work through its international scientific contacts (such as through the International Energy Agency). Many of this country's energy problems are, however, unique and can only be solved by our own efforts.

In order to promote energy research and development in Government departments, universities and the private sector, the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee (NZERDC) was set up in April 1974. Since its establishment it has received funds amounting to $500,000 a year,

On 1 April 1977 the committee stopped funding research projects in government departments. These are now funded through the science budget in the normal way, and the committee lets contracts only to universities, research associations, and the private sector.

As well as letting energy research contracts, the NZERDC advises the National Research Advisory Council and the Minister of Energy Resources on overall energy research policy and is the administering body in New Zealand for energy research under the joint United States - New Zealand Agreement for Scientific and Technological Co-operation.

The total grant to the NZERDC for the 1977–78 financial year was $470,000. From 1 April 1977 to the end of November, 19 new or continuing contracts had been let. These contracts include work on biomass conversion, wind energy, small hydro schemes, and heat pumps, and on opportunities of energy conservation and co-generation of energy in industry, the utilisation of municipal refuse for electricity generation, etc. The committee is now reconsidering its priorities for assessing research proposals, but emphasis will continue to be placed on work that can be earned out only in New Zealand.

The DSIR and a number of other Government departments are undertaking increased energy research and development programmes. It is estimated that about $3.2 million will be spent on energy research and development by the government in 1977–78. In addition $38.5 million will be spent on exploration to increase our knowledge of our indigenous energy resources (coal, oil, and geothermal).

New Zealand has signed four IEA agreements to undertake co-operative research and exchange information on aspects of energy research with other IEA members. These agreements cover solar heating and cooling, signed in 1976 for the DSIR; wind energy conversion systems, signed in October 1977 for the New Zealand Meteorological Service; and the mining technology clearing house and coal technology information exchange, signed in November 1977 for the Mines Department. New Zealand also exchanges energy research and development information with other nations through bilateral agreements such as the United States - New Zealand agreement or through other multilateral organisations such as the NATO Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS) and the United Nations.

An important area of research and development is the work being conducted here and overseas on non-conventional energy sources with the aim of bringing them to the stage where they can be fully exploited. This involves developing and providing the technology and in appropriate cases, establishing the size of the resource. Research and development also needs to be directed towards reducing the costs of utilising new sources of energy. Of the various possibilities the most promising appear to be solar energy, wind power, biomass conversion, and energy from waste.

The main potential contribution of solar energy in New Zealand, at least in the medium term, is in domestic water heating. Research being carried out by the DSIR, universities, and private firms is directed mainly at improving the efficiency of solar water heaters and at reducing their cost. Overseas research into the use of solar radiation for space heating, electricity generation, and industrial applications is being kept under review.

The potential for utilising wind power in New Zealand appears to be good and in time a significant, proportion (according to some estimates up to eight percent) of our electricity could come from this source.

As regards biomass conversion, there are two main areas of interest:

  1. the conversion of cellulose both from forest industry waste and specifically-grown trees and crops to alcohols for admixture with, or as a substitute for, petrol;

  2. the generation of gas from biological waste from sewage plants, cow sheds, etc., and directly from plant material.

Also being investigated is the feasibility of burning city refuse to produce electricity and to supply direct heat for district heating schemes.

International—At the end of 1976 New Zealand notified its consent to be bound by the Agreement on an International Energy Programme, under which the International Energy Agency (IEA) was established. This nineteen-country organisation was set up as an autonomous body within the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, in response to the 1974 oil crisis. New Zealand had provisionally joined in March 1975, but before it could ratify its membership the Government required legislative authority to enable it to fulfil the various IEA commitments. This authority is given by the IEA Agreement Act, passed in 1976.

All IEA members are co-operating in an emergency oil-sharing scheme which is intended to provide protection against further embargoes in oil supplies. During an emergency the arrangement calls for the sharing of any oil available to the group on an equitable basis. Countries have agreed to introduce oil demand restraint measures in an emergency and to hold oil stocks at specified levels at all times.

The IEA is attaching considerable importance to co-operation in energy conservation and the accelerated production of alternative sources of energy. A Long-term Co-operation Agreement negotiated amongst the member countries is directed towards these purposes and sets a framework for co-operation in a number of fields. In October 1977, the IEA ministerial meeting passed the Draft Decision on Group Objectives and Principles for Energy Policy. This policy sets a target for the IEA members collectively to hold their oil imports to not more than 26 million barrels a day in 1985. Member countries believe the Principles make this a reasonable goal. Another important feature of the effort to reduce dependence on imported oil has centred on an extensive programme of research in which member countries collaborate on energy research in fields of mutual interest. Areas of particular interest to New Zealand include research into solar heating and cooling, heat pumps, geothermal power, wind power, and coal technology.

Comparative statistics of per-head consumption of energy in selected countries and geographical areas in 1975 are given in the following table. The figures, taken from the UN World Energy Supplies 1971–1975 are expressed in kilogrammes of coal equivalent per head and are provisional.

 Kg per Head

*Except Middle East.

†Includes that part of Russia in Asia.

Africa393
      Congo209
      Egypt405
      Ethiopia29
      Ghana182
      Nigeria90
      South Africa2,953
America, North10,888
      Canada9,880
      United States10,999
Asia*545
      Bangladesh28
      Burma51
      India221
      Japan3,622
      Pakistan183
      Singapore2,151
Europe4,023
      Denmark5,268
      France3,944
      Germany, West5,343
America, South813
      Argentina1,754
      Brazil670
      Chile765
Middle East1,055
      Bahrain12,079
Iran1,353
      Israel2,806
      Turkey630
      Netherlands5,784
      Sweden6,178
      United Kingdom5,265
      USSR5,346
Oceania4,728
      Australia6,845
      New Zealand3,111
World2,028

20 B—ELECTRIC POWER

GENERAL—New Zealand's natural resources of lakes and fast-flowing rivers have been systematically harnessed for hydro-electric development, providing a relatively cheap source of energy which is continually replenished by nature. Hydro energy provides over 70 percent of the national electricity supply with 6 percent coming from geothermal energy and the balance from fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas.

At Wairakei, in New Zealand's thermal region, natural steam is being used to drive the turbines. Meremere, the steam station south of Auckland, uses coal as fuel, while at Marsden, near Whangarei, heavy oils are used. A large dual-fuel steam station at New Plymouth uses both natural gas and oil. A second dual-fuel steam station is currently under construction at Huntly, this station to use natural gas and coal as fuels. Gas turbines operate at Otahuhu (oil) and Stratford (natural gas) with a new station nearing completion at Whirinaki (oil).

The question of nuclear power generation has been deferred although a Royal Commission looking into some aspects of nuclear power has yet to report.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—Electricity supply in New Zealand was pioneered by local bodies and private enterprise. Reefton had hydro-electric supply as early as 1888, and Wellington in the following year opened a water-powered plant, using water from the city mains, but later switched to steam generation. Auckland and Christchurch, using steam-generating stations, and Dunedin, using hydro plant, all had supplies extensively developed before the advent of Government supply. Many smaller communities also had local supply, mostly produced from local steam stations, although in some cases hydro plant was installed to take advantage of local water resources.

The first Government station was opened at Lake Coleridge in 1914, and its capacity was increased in four stages up to 1930. In the North Island the Government purchased the Waihi Goldmining Company's station at Horahora on the Waikato River. This station was enlarged and by 1927 was supplying power as far north as Henderson and Takapuna. Mangahao station near Shannon was completed in 1925; one of the Waikaremoana stations (Tuai) and Arapuni both began operating in 1927. Between 1920 and 1930 the capacity of the State generating system grew by 135,590 kW and the number of consumers in New Zealand increased from 58,449 to 284,235. In the early 1920s steam stations were still producing up to 60 percent of the total electricity but by the 1930s they produced as little as 1 percent in some years, as they were gradually relegated to standby stations.

In the 1930s the Waitaki hydro station was commissioned and the Government acquired two small hydro stations—Arnold from the Grey Electric Power Board and Monowai from the Southland Power Board. With the latter the Government also took over the responsibility for distribution in Southland.

Despite the difficulties, capacity was increased during the war years. Some existing stations were extended, and new ones opened at Piripaua (the second Waikaremoana station), at Cobb in north-west Nelson and, towards the end of the war, at Highbank in Canterbury. Gates were built in 1941 to control the outflow from Lake Taupo.

After the war plans were pushed ahead for the development of the potential of the principal power source in the North Island, the Waikato River. Work had proceeded on Karapiro, the second Waikato station, during the war and its first power was produced in 1947 (the old Horahora station was submerged in the lake formed behind the dam). In 1952 Maraetai, the largest station on the Waikato, began producing electricity, and in 1956 Whakamaru was completed, followed by Atiamuri in 1958. Both Ohakuri and Waipapa stations began operating in 1961 and Aratiatia station in 1964.

Development in other areas included the commissioning of Kaitawa, the third Waikaremoana station, in 1948, and the installation of further machines at Waitaki. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo to ensure an adequate water supply to the Waitaki station in the winter. Incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo is a single machine power station which was commissioned in 1951. The largest station built up to that time in New Zealand began operating at Roxburgh on the Clutha River in 1956. Meanwhile work proceeded on the Benmore station which was completed in 1966. Another station on the Waitaki, at Aviemore, located between the Waitaki and Benmore stations, began operating in July 1968.

Matahina on the Rangitaiki River in the Bay of Plenty produced its first electricity in January 1967.

The Manapouri scheme uses the waters of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, taking advantage of the 183 m head between Manapouri and the sea. Intakes at the West Arm of Manapouri lead the water into vertical penstocks to the turbines 213 m underground and it is discharged into Deep Cove at Doubtful Sound through a tunnel almost 10 kilometres in length.

A large proportion of Manapouri's output supplies the Bluff aluminium smelter and the remainder is fed into the national grid. Four generators began operating in 1969 and the remaining three in 1971 to give a total installed capacity of 700MW.

The Manapouri scheme was the subject of an agreement between the Government and Comalco in 1960 but subsequent agreements were negotiated in 1963, 1966, 1969, and 1977. As the land concerned lies within Fiordland National Park the agreement required statutory authority which was conferred in the Te Anau - Manapouri Development Act 1963. Under the 1969 agreement the Government built the power station and the lake control works at Te Anau and Manapouri.

The actual formula devised for Comalco to pay for the electricity varied between agreements. The latest of these was a major re-negotiation in late 1977 to reflect the changed circumstances in energy supply.

The 1966 agreement provided that Lake Manapouri be raised from its natural level of 178 m above sea level to an operating level of 185–190 m while the minimum lake level was set at 175.4 m. Consequent on a campaign by conservationists opposed to the raising of the lake level the Government appointed a commission in 1970 to inquire into the proposal. The dam at Mararoa to control Lake Manapouri has been built on a narrow base to control the lake within a normal range of levels. Lake Te Anau which feeds Lake Manapouri through the Upper Waiau River is controlled at natural levels between 199 m and 202 m by a dam near its outlet.

The purpose, planning, and the development of the Manapouri project were fully described in parliamentary paper D.7, 1967, as well as the Report of the Commission to Inquire into the Proposal to Raise the Level of Lake Manapouri for the Purpose of Generating Electricity (parliamentary paper D.8, 1970) and a report by the Institute of Economic Research on the Manapouri-Bluff Project commissioned by Comalco and published in October 1971.

The installed capacity of Maraetai power station on the Waikato River was doubled by the building of a second powerhouse for five additional machines which were commissioned in 1970–71. The yearly output from Maraetai has not been increased although useful peak-time capacity has been added.

Thermal Generation—The first thermal station built by the New Zealand Electricity Department came into operation in 1958 at Meremere beside the Waikato River, 64 km south of Auckland. This station burns coal which is transported from the Maramarua opencast mines by aerial cableway, and from the Huntly mines by road and rail.

At Wairakei, a few kilometres north of Taupo, geothermal steam has been harnessed for the generation of electricity. The first machine began producing electricity in 1958 and the last machine (the thirteenth) was installed in 1963. Bores which are 102, 152, and 203 mm in diameter have been drilled to depths varying between 174 m and 1220 m.

Marsden power station was commissioned in 1967 using oil from the nearby refinery, and oil-burning gas turbines went into service in 1968 at Otahuhu. In 1975 a gas turbine station using natural gas was completed at Stratford.

The 600 MW thermal station at New Plymouth produced its first electricity in 1974 and the last machine was commissioned early in 1977. Until the Maui natural gas wells off the coast of Taranaki begin production in 1978, the energy source will be Kapuni natural gas, supplemented by some oil-firing, A chimney 198 m high has been built to disperse the hot exhaust gases.

Construction Projects: Hydro—A catchment area of nearly 260,000 hectares in the central volcanic uplands of the North Island is being tapped for hydro electric power development. Known as the Tongariro Scheme, this complex development involves drawing upon the headwaters of certain rivers and their tributaries and diverting part of their flow from one watershed to another.

The Western Diversions collect water from the headwaters of the Wanganui River and several of its tributaries and divert it into Lake Rotoaira. As part of this project, control equipment has been installed to close gates at the Whakapapa tunnel intake in the event of the passage of a lahar (volcanic mud flow) down the Whakapapa River. Water from Lake Rotoaira passes through a 6100 metre tunnel to the power station at Tokaanu, then into Lake Taupo. Tokaanu Power Station, which has four 50 MW generators, was completed in early 1974.

The Eastern Diversions will collect water from the Moawhango River and the eastern slopes of Mount Ruapehu. The waters will then feed through the Moawhango tunnel (due for commissioning in 1978) to join water from the Tongariro River before passing through Rangipo station into Lake Rotoaira. Rangipo Power Station, now under construction, is a 120 MW underground station scheduled for commissioning in 1982.

Much restorative planting and landscaping work is being carried out through the whole development as well as special measures to protect and preserve fishing and fish spawning grounds in the area.

In July 1968 Government approved in principle the total development of the Upper Waitaki Valley for hydro-electric use. The scheme involves controlling the outflows of Lakes Tekapo and Pukaki and to a limited extent Lake Ohau, and directing the stored waters through canals to four power stations named Tekapo B, Ohau A, Ohau B, and Ohau C; the diverted waters will eventually reach the Waitaki River at Lake Benmore. The total capacity of the new stations will be about 850 megawatts; also the extra storage provided by the scheme will allow the output from existing Waitaki stations to be increased. Work began with the construction of a township at Twizel, and on the Tekapo B project, which was completed early in 1977. Work is underway on the Ohau A power station, which is scheduled for completion in 1979. The Government has also given approval for Ohau B and C stations, and work has started on both these.

Thermal—Agreement was reached late in 1973 between the oil consortium and the Government on the development of the Maui off-shore natural gas field. The first stage to be completed in 1978 involves the installation of a platform structure at the Maui 3 location and the laying off-shore of a 610-mm diameter gas pipeline and a 254-mm diameter condensate pipeline. Part of the natural gas delivery of 17 million cubic metres a day will be used to feed four thermal power stations, one of them being the New Plymouth station.

One natural-gas-fired power station of 1,400 MW was earlier proposed in the Auckland area, but investigations are now proceeding into the alternative of providing this capacity in smaller combined cycle stations rather than one large conventional steam station. A 1,000 MW station is being built at Huntly, the first unit (250 MW) of which is scheduled to be commissioned in April 1979. Investigations by the Mines Department over the years have confirmed the existence of a large underground coal-field sufficient to provide fuel for such a station, but natural gas from the Maui field is to be used for one or more of the generating units, at least in the initial years of operation.

A 220 MW gas turbine station, which burns oil, came into operation at Whirinaki, near Napier, in mid-1977 although some work, including the installation of an oil pipeline, is still to be completed. Approval was given in November 1972 for a further 2 generating units of 50 MW to be added to Otahuhu gas turbine station. These are designed to run on distillate oil and came into operation in 1976. Construction of an oil-fired intermediate load station, Marsden B, was approved on 30 July 1974 and is expected to be completed by November 1979.

The guaranteed market for gas for electricity generation has made the development of the Maui field, with the recovery of the associated valuable condensate, an economically viable proposition. This guaranteed gas demand involves a progressive increase in annual consumption until a maximum level is reached in the mid 1980s. At this level, about 17,600 GWh of electricity could be produced annually from gas-fired power station plant of 3,300 MW capacity. This capacity would, of course, be reduced by the extent to which gas is diverted for other uses, but the annual consumption rates set out in the Maui Gas Purchase Contract are expected to be maintained. Some idea of the magnitude of this output can be gauged from the fact that these figures are roughly equivalent to electrical energy consumption and peak demand for the whole of New Zealand for the 1972–73 year.

Upper Clutha Hydro-electric Development—In December 1976 the Government announced that scheme F had been chosen from a number of alternatives which had been drawn up. This scheme comprises five power stations estimated to cost $621 million (1977) with a potential plant capacity of 1,300 MW, which may later be extended to 1,500 MW. For comparison, Benmore produces 540 MW and Huntly will produce 1,000 MW. Construction of the scheme will extend over 18 years and will comprise three power stations on the Clutha River (Clyde, Luggate, and Queensberry) and two on the Kawarau River (Gibbston and Kawarau). The maximum lake levels (height above sea level), generating capacity, and approximate commissioning dates of the power stations are as follows: Clyde—195 m, 400 MW, 1985; Luggate—273 m, 265 MW, 1987; Queensberry—232 m, 220 MW, 1990; Gibbston—307 m, 180 MW, 1992; Kawarau—256 m, 240 MW, 1995.

INTER-ISLAND TRANSMISSION—In 1965, at the same time as Benmore power station was commissioned, the transmission systems of the North and South Islands were linked by a high-voltage direct-current transmission line and undersea cables. This new system enabled electricity to be transmitted from the South Island to the North Island where there is a greater demand for power.

This scheme not only involved the laying of submarine cables for 40 km in Cook Strait, but also the construction of a 570 km, 500 kV direct-current transmission line from Benmore to Fighting Bay on the southern side of Cook Strait, and from Oteranga Bay on the northern side to Haywards substation. Complex converting equipment had also to be installed at each end of the system. Considerable world-wide interest has been shown in this scheme, which was the largest of its type outside the USSR. The World Bank made a loan of $23.2 million to meet the overseas costs of this project.

Following modification to the HVDC link it has been possible to transmit power in both directions between the North and South Islands since April 1976.

PLANNING FOR ELECTRIC POWER—Forward planning is continually under review by a series of specialised committees. The Committee to Review Power Requirements considers estimates for 5 years ahead from the Electrical Supply Authorities Association and projects demand for a further 10 years. Peak power forecasts are also derived from the basic energy forecasts.

The personnel of this committee, representing the generating and distributing portions of the electrical industry, together with the Department of Statistics, Treasury, and (from 1976) the Ministry of Energy Resources, apply a wider judgment on long-term considerations to frame forecasts for the 15-year period. The independent forecast prepared by the Department of Statistics provides a valuable comparison with the work done in the industry.

Forecasting electricity demand is one of the longest-term planning processes in New Zealand. It is of critical importance to the electrical industry and the economy of the country. The long sequences of events in providing generating plants, spanning about 7 years, is today lengthening because of a more critical appraisal of their environmental impact. If demand estimates are low, or plant is not ready on time, a difficult supply situation could result. On the other hand, if estimates are high, a premature commitment of resources and capital can materially affect what is available for other national development and social programmes.

The Planning Committee on Electrical Power Development in New Zealand, which consists of members of the New Zealand Electricity Department, Ministry of Works and Development, Ministry of Energy Resources, Treasury, and supply authority representatives, considers the findings of the Review Committee in relation to the construction of stations to meet power requirements. The planning period was increased, in 1974, from 10 to 15 years to provide for the extra time necessary for the careful environmental impact planning and generally lengthening construction times of major projects.

The Planning Committee recommends what projects it considers should be proceeded with, and when in order to meet the estimated needs. The review and planning reports are submitted to the Minister of Electricity who tables them in the House of Representatives.

Estimates made in 1977 by the Committee to Review Power Requirements were as follows (in million kWh): 1977–78, 22,080; 1978–79, 23,277; 1979–80, 24,850; 1980–81, 27,021; 1981–82, 28,617; 1982–83, 30,083; 1983–84, 32,069; 1984–85, 33,713; 1985–86, 35,454; 1986–87, 37,298; 1987–88, 39,218; 1988–89, 41,214; 1989–90, 43,287; 1990–91, 45,437; 1991–92, 47,664.

There has been sustained growth of electricity consumption in New Zealand with increased use of electricity in households, growth of the services sector, and increases in industrial production. Electricity generated to meet this rising demand increased by 85 percent between 1967 and 1977 to reach 20,914 million kilowatt-hours. In the same period generating capacity of power plants doubled, to reach 5.37 million kilowatts.

Government and the electrical industry has put considerable emphasis on conservation, an example of this being the home insulation loan assistance scheme that allows householders and those building new homes to finance thermal insulation over a two-year period with an interest-free loan, repayments being with their electricity accounts. Many electric supply authorises operate advisory services and these, with the Electrical Development Association, provide advice to consumers on economic and efficient consumption of electricity.

FINANCE FOR ELECTRICITY—Up to 1967 some $1,031 million had been expended in generation transmission, and distribution, of which Government share was $761 million. By 1977 the capital invested by the Government had risen to $1,958 million and with the further expenditure by the electrical supply authorities on distribution, the total capital outlay had increased to $2,464 million. Continuing capital expenditure will be necessary for the strengthening and expansion of both the New Zealand Electricity Department's generating and transmission network and electrical supply authorities distribution systems. Until recently this capital investment programme was partly financed from a surplus of current revenue but with the stabilisation of electricity tariffs a greater portion has had to come from loan funds.

LEGISLATION—Under the Electricity Act 1968 the New Zealand Electricity Department is responsible for preparing plans to meet the expected demand for electric power and for controlling the State generating and transmission systems. The department also has certain responsibilities for promoting the conservation and efficient utilisation of electricity. In general, hydraulic investigation and civil engineering are carried out by the Ministry of Works and Development to the requirements of the New Zealand Electricity Department. The department is also responsible for the overall functional design of each station, detailed design and installation of all turbines, generators, and associated electrical and mechanical equipment, for the design and installation of equipment at substations, for the survey, design, and construction of transmission lines, and for the operation and maintenance of the network which supplies electricity in bulk to the distributing authorities.

ELECTRIC POWER BOARDS AND SUPPLY AUTHORITIES—Under the Electric Power Boards Act 1925, boards control constituted electric power districts. Of the 37 electric power boards actually functioning at 31 March 1977, 14 had generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 52,460 kW. There were also 22 municipal electric supply authorities, 8 of them having generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 103,822 kW, and 2 county councils. New Zealand Electricity Department acts as the distributing authority for Southland Electric Power Supply, while Rotorua is controlled by an area electric authority. The licensed areas under the control of the boards and other authorities cover almost all the inhabited parts of the country. More than 99 percent of New Zealand's population enjoy the benefits of electricity in the home; only a few thousand people in the more isolated and less accessible parts of the country lack this amenity.

The supply of electricity to the remote areas presents difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in relation to the revenue from power sold. A rural reticulation council can make a levy of up to ½ percent of the gross revenue of all supply authorities and Government owned electrical undertakings to subsidise the annual cost of supply in remote areas. The Rural Reticulation Council was set up under the Electricity Act 1945, and up to 31 March 1977, had approved subsidies on 16,232 route kilometres of line to supply some 15,588 consumers. At this date, 15,774 route kilometres of line were completed and 15,507 consumers connected. The total capital expenditure on lines with approved subsidies was estimated at $18.47 million, and the subsidy paid for the year amounted to $1,282,023.

PUBLIC SUPPLY STATIONS—The following table covers all stations whose output is fully or partially available to the public supply system as at 31 March 1977, their installed capacity, static head where applicable, and annual energy generation. Stations are State-owned unless otherwise indicated.

StationInstalled capacity at 31 March 1977Static HeadAnnual Energy Generation Year Ended 31 March 1977Annual Load Factor
Number of UnitsMW

*Owned by Dunedin City Council.

†Owned by other supply authorities and industries.

†Excludes capacity of generating plant owned and operated by industries.

§No. 2 station being dismantled.

  Hydrometresmillion kWhpercent
Arapuni8157.853884.263.60
Aratiatia390.034362.549.26
Atiamuri484.025312.143.94
Karapiro390.030573.269.84
Mangahao519.227399.654.42
Maraetai10360.061888.830.29
Matahina272.061297.844.15
Ohakuri4112.035418.342.00
Tokaanu4200.0208624.731.95
Waikaremoana—
      Kaitawa232.0135138.350.27
      Piripaua240.0113178.2
      Tuai352.0206278.4
Waipapa351.016275.853.53
Whakamaru4100.038539.356.84
Arnold23.11327.795.83
Aviemore4220.037723.435.02
Benmore6540.0921,737.535.11
Cobb632.0594208.970.18
Coleridge934.5149172.654.87
Highbank125.210162.228.53
Manapouri7700.01773,716.772.13
Monowai36.04729.760.44
Roxburgh8320.0461,455.450.72
Tekapo×125.230113.146.09
Waipori*1190.6360154.245.43
Waitaki7105.021378.641.56
Auxiliary6155.3276.2
      Sub-total..3,616.9..14,927.4..
  Thermal  
Marsden2240.0 746.836.14
Meremere7210.0 1,103.770.31
New Plymouth5600.0 1,866.544.67
Otahuhu4180.0 39.43.68
Stratford4208.0 976.154.46
Wairakei13192.4 1,232.592.02
Whirinaki2108.0 2.9
Auxiliary1010.3 18.9
      Sub-total..1,748.7 5,986.8..
Total..5,365.6..20,914.2..

GENERAL STATISTICS—A summary of all supply authorities and New Zealand Electricity Department in 1976–77 is shown in the following table.

ItemUnit1976–77

*New Zealand Electricity Department only.

†Excluding stocks and materials.

Generating stationsNo.79
Capacity of generatorskW(000)5,366
Fuel used*
      Coaltonnes750,518
      Light oiltonnes4,781
      Heavy oiltonnes309,670
      Natural gasGigajoules27,745,530
Staff employedNo.14,276
Capital expenditure
      During year (net outlay)$(m)285.1
      To date$(m)2,464.0
Generation and sales—
      Generation per head of mean populationkWh6,702
      Retail sales per head of mean populationkWh5,996
      Domestic consumption per domestic consumerkWh7,912
      Income from total retail sales of electricity per kWh sold to consumerscents1.711

INCOME AND EXPENDITURE—Financial operations are summarised in the following table.

Item1976–77

*These figures represent transfers within the electrical supply industry and therefore do not represent additional income or expenditure to the industry.

†Deficit.

 $(000)
Gross Income (including bulk sales and standby charges, excluding rates)542,164
Income from bulk sales to supply authorities195,665
Net Income (excluding rates, bulk sales, and standby charges)346,499
Expenditure—
      Operating (including cost of energy purchased in bulk)320,215
      Cost of energy purchased in bulk*195,665
      Operating (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)124,550
      Trading, administration and general63,642
      Capital charges168,623
Total annual expenditure (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)356,815
Surplus–10,316

GENERATION—Means of generation of electrical energy for public supply is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated by Means of
HydroSteamOil and GasTotal
 million kWh
197314,109.42,922.1222.017,253.5
197414,150.93,534.0429.518,114.4
197514,197.23,992.4162.118,351.7
197616,873.23,084.9113.120,071.2
197714,927.44,968.21,018.620,914.2

The following table sets out generation and disposal by type of authority. The excess generation of certain local organisations, which is brought for public supply, is given in the column "other sources".

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated for Public SupplySold RetailNon-productive
N.Z. Electricity DepartmentSupply AuthoritiesOther SourcesTotal
 million kWh
197316,8383922317,25315,0312,223
197417,7363532518,11415,9472,167
197517,9533811818,35216,2722,079
197619,6474071720,07117,6502,421
197720,4654301920,91418,7122,202

SALES—The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. "Domestic" includes domestic water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 MarchDomesticIndustrialCommercialFarmingStreet LightingRail and Bus TractionTotalNumber of Consumers
 million kWh
19737,3894,8612,2603741064115,0311,154,271
19747,4405,6422,3603621043915,9471,182,469
19757,5545,8042,4033701043716,2721,214,922
19768,4036,1232,5783941133917,6501,248,909
19778,3986,9992,7534101163618,7121,280,166

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power, and shows also the principal purposes for which the power was employed.

The distribution of the expenditure per kWh sold retail during 1976–77 was as follows: operating expenses, 0.468 cents; miscellaneous expenses, 0.327 cents; and capital charges, 0.723 cents giving a total expenditure of 1.907 cents per kWh sold retail.

The income per kWh sold in 1976–77 was, by categories: domestic 1.679 cents; commercial 2.995 cents; industrial 1.170 cents; farming 2.867 cents; public lighting 1.904 cents; railway traction 2.219 cents; urban traction 1.724 cents.

20 C—GAS

GENERAL—Gas was produced from coal as an early source of light and heating in New Zealand and by 1916 there were 56 establishments engaged in the marketing of gas to the public. From that date the numbers of gas undertakings steadily declined because of the growth of electricity usage. In recent years there has been an increased demand from the industrial sector but the loss of domestic consumers was viewed with concern in relation to satisfaction of the energy demand, and a Gas Council was established in 1958 to arrest the decline. Since 1970 the gas industry has been rejuvenated by the reticulation of natural gas. There is, however, a major difference between that part of the industry distributing natural gas and the remainder which is still manufacturing gas from coal and oil. The manufactured gas industry has, for many years, not been able to operate without financial assistance, and its problems intensified during 1974–75, largely because of the massive increases in the price of oil from which the lowest-cost gas had previously been produced.

The oil consortium, Shell B.P. and Todd Oil Services Ltd., discovered natural gas at Kapuni in 1959. In 1967, when further investigations had confirmed that the field was sufficiently large to justify exploitation, the Natural Gas Corporation was set up by the Government to develop this new energy resource. It is now operating the gas purification equipment and the pipeline to supply and sell gas along the pipeline routes to undertakings previously producing coal gas, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Hawera, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Levin, Hutt Valley, and Wellington. Natural gas supply to these centres took place in 1970 and 1971. The Corporation also supplies gas to a limited number of industrial consumers adjacent to the pipeline route. A pipeline to supply untreated natural gas to the Stratford and New Plymouth electricity generating stations was completed in 1975. The Corporation produces natural gasoline which is used by the Gisborne, Napier, and Hastings undertakings as a base feedstock for their gas supplies. An additional by-product extracted at Kapuni is commercial propane, which is purchased and distributed by the oil consortium. The gas treatment plant at Kapuni cost over $5 million and the pipelines and compressors over $16 million. Gross trading profits of the Natural Gas Corporation were $62,144 in 1971–72, $719,966 in 1972–73, $1,826,000 in 1973–74, $1,894,000 in 1974–75, and $2,511,359 in 1975–76, but interest and depreciation charges resulted in net losses of $2.8 million, $2.2 million, $1.3 million, $1.3 million and $982,885 in the respective years. In 1976–77, however, a gross trading profit of $8,957,545 was achieved and the net profit amounted to $1.86 million.

Those gasworks not receiving natural gas continue to receive financial incentives provided by the Government; in 1975–76 subsidies on coal prices and gas sales totalled $2,056,146 compared with $1,460,021 the previous year.

Restrictions on electricity usage in the winters of 1973 and 1974 led to an unprecedented increase in demand but this could not be met until the Natural Gas Corporation completed extensions to its gas treatment plant at Kapuni. During 1976–77 gas processed amounted to 129,278,000 Mj × 100. A further 286,482,000 Mj × 100 of untreated gas was supplied for electricity generation.

GAS INDUSTRY—In 1975–76 the gas industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

  1. The manufacture and distribution of gas by gas works.

  2. The distribution of natural gas by gas undertakings.

This reclassification also introduced an integrated economic census of the industry, based on the year ended 31 March or the last accounting year prior to that date.

The census of the gas industry covered the activities of 12 gasworks manufacturing coal, oil, and water gas, and 9 gas undertakings distributing natural gas. Of the 12 gasworks, 4 are situated in the North Island and 8 in the South Island, whilst all the 9 gas undertakings are in the North Island.

Gas distributed by gasworks increased only marginally (+0.4 percent) in 1976–77 to 1,294.2 million megajoules, whereas there was a substantial increase of 15.0 percent to 11,869.6 million megajoules in natural gas distributed by gas undertakings with the biggest percentage increase being shown in domestic sales (24.1 percent).

This was the second year in which the census was carried out on an integrated basis similar to that of Manufacturing. Total turnover of gasworks and gas undertakings in 1976–77 was $32,703,000 representing an increase of 32.3 percent over 1975–76. Value added (the approximate contribution to Gross Domestic Product) for the whole industry was $11,240,000 in 1976–77. .2 percent higher than in 1975–76.

The following table gives general statistics of the gas industry for the 2 years for which these are available on a comparable basis. Definitions of the terms used are similar to those for the Manufacturing Census (see section 18).

 Unit1975–761976–77
EstablishmentsNo.2121
Ancillary unitsNo.88
Persons engaged at mid-April:
      MalesNo.918916
      FemalesNo.140145
Capital expenditure, less disposals$(000)3,4583,056
Depreciation$(000)8131,375
Salaries and wages paid:
      Males$(000)5,6966,423
      Females$(000)591706
Purchases and other expenses$(000)15,09820,725
Turnover$(000)24,72132,703
Value Added$(000)9,35011,240

In the three tables which follow, the general statistics table has been extended to show the separate details of the two sub-groups of the gas industry which forms part of N.Z.S.I.C.—Major Division 4—"Fuel and Power". viz:

Sub-group 41021—The manufacture and distribution of gas by 12 gasworks, covering 4 in the North Island and 8 in the South Island.

Sub-group 41022—The distribution of natural gas by 9 gas undertakings in the North Island.

The first table gives operating statistics.

ItemUnitGas WorksGas Undertakings
1975–761976–771975–761976–77
Enterprise units—
      EstablishmentsNo.121299
      Ancillary unitsNo.6622
Paid employees at mid-April—
      Administration, sales, professional, office and related employees 
      — MaleNo.7979166156
      — FemaleNo.39399399
Production and all other employees
      — MaleNo.287272386409
      — FemaleNo.87
Total – MaleNo.366351552565
      — FemaleNo.47469399
Part-time paid employees (included above)—
Total – MaleNo.81123
      — FemaleNo.10924
Hours worked by paid employees—
      Ordinary time –Malehrs (000)6666341,0391,070
      — Femalehrs (000)7582171173
      Paid overtime – Malehrs (000)64709458
      — Femalehrs (000)12
Paid employees, full-time equivalent—
      — MaleNo.409394634631
      — FemaleNo.42469798
Salaries and wages paid—
      Administration, etc. – Male$(000)5225831,2691,450
      — Female$(000)145166415510
      Production, etc. – Male$(000)1,7121,9102,1932,481
      — Female$(000)3130
Total – Male$(000)2,2342,4933,4613,931
— Female$(000)177196415510
Capital expenditure, less sales of fixed assets—
      Land and buildings$(000)6114–2013
      Other construction$(000)24622,2791,865
      Vehicles, all types$(000)4053178176
      Plant, machinery and equipment$(000)664410288364
Total$(000)7346392,7242,418
Capital work done by own employees—
      Salaries and wages$(000)2630280388
      Other costs$(000)331,251801
Total (included in capital expenditure)$(000)29341,5311,188

The second table gives financial statistics.

ItemGas WorksGas Undertakings
1975–761976–771975–761976–77
Stocks of materials, etc., and finished goods— $(000)  
      Value at start of year1,1341,4272,8473,033
      Value at end of year1,4271,5013,0333,034
      Increase+293+74+186+1
Purchase of materials—
      Fuel and power—Electricity771082933
      Fuel oil323
      Gas—natural1643443
      —manufactured49 
      Materials—Natural gas for distribution4,3266,665
      Coal1,2101,598
      Oil1,7502,311
      Other materials and amount paid for contract services324714450
      Goods for resale3735342,0302,734
Total purchases of materials3,5234,7656,5639,525
Operating expenses, other—
      Contributions to superannuation, etc.5252124125
      Rent—Land and buildings21291412
      —plant, equipment, vehicles39137
      Insurance6675105125
      Land tax, rates and licence fees7387121135
      Additional expenses1,0991,3972,0433,457
      Other costs of capital work done by own employees331,251801
      Sub-total1,3141,6443,6974,791
Total purchases and other expenses4,8376,40910,26014,316
      Depreciation351664461711
      Salaries and wages (including those capitalised)2,4112,6883,8764,441
Total operating expenses7,6009,76214,59719,468
Sales—
      Gas and by-products—
      Natural gas—Industrial users9,06613,002
      Domestic users3,1333,931
      Manufactured gas—Industrial users3,1674,787
      Domestic users1,6872,128
      Coke492794
      Tars139192
      Other manufactured goods and services169236218
      Goods for resale6687502,8163,520
Total sales6,3228,88615,23320,453
Other 
      Rent2931130183
      Subsidies1,1221,19715
      Other income11650207667
      Capital work done by own employees29341,5311,188
Total other1,2961,3111,8682,053
Total turnover7,61910,19817,10122,506

The third table shows the approximate contribution made by the gas industry as a whole to the Gross Domestic Product.

ItemGas WorksGas Undertakings
1975–761976–771975–761976–77
 $(000)
Total turnover7,61910,19817,10122,506
      Stocks at end of year1,4271,5013,0333,034
Total9,04611,69920,13425,540
      Less stocks at start of year1,1341,4272,8473,033
      Less total operating expenses7,6009,76214,59719,468
Operating surplus3125102,6903,039
Salaries and wages2,4112,6893,8764,441
Superannuation, etc.5252124125
Land tax, rates, etc.7387121135
Depreciation351664461711
Total3,2004,0027,2728,450
      Less Government grants and subsidies1,1221,19715
      Equals value added totals for the two industries2,0782,8057,2728,435

PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL STATISTICS—The following two tables compare production and disposal of manufactured and natural gas by the 21 enterprises in the two industries.

Item1975–761976–77*
*Includes "natural gas" reformed by one gas works operating in the North Island.
 Megajoules(million)
Production—
      Quantity manufactured by gas works1,294.51,298.3
      Less
      Internal consumption4.94.1
         Quantity available for distribution1,289.61,294.2
Distribution—
      Losses211.9210.9
      Sales—Domestic.354.3338.8
      —Industrial and commercial723.4744.5
Total distribution by gas works1,289.61,294.2
Item1975–761976–77
*Includes "natural gas" reformed by one gas undertaking in the North Island.
 Megajoules(million)
Purchases—
      Quantity purchased by gas undertakings10,398.8*11,944.5
      Less
      Internal consumption79.5*74.9
      Quantity available for distribution10,319.3*11,869.6
Distribution—
      Losses1,342.8*1,572.8
      Sales—Domestic.1,124.9*1,396.1
      —Industrial and commercial7,851.6*8,900.7
Total distribution by gas undertakings10,319.3*11,869.6

Chapter 22. Section 21 MARKETING

21 A—MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

DEPENDENCE ON AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL EXPORTS—Despite the rise in the last decade in exports of timber, wood pulp, and paper and of manufactured products in general, products of animal origin still average annually over 65 percent of the total value of New Zealand exports, and agricultural exports of grass seed and fruit can be added to raise even higher the value of exports of farm produce. New Zealand remains one of the largest exporters in the world of butter and also (in some years) of meat, and is also one of the leading exporters of wool and cheese.

The following table of exports by value indicates the relative importance of farm products.

Year Ended 30 JuneDairy ProduceMeatWoolHides, Pelts, and SkinsTotal Exports*
ButterCheeseMilk and CreamCaseinTotal
*Of New Zealand produce.
$(million)
1971113.948.036.730.2228.9390.8187.850.61,108.1
1972183.966.379.625.4355.2399.0228.662.21,346.6
1973137.179.289.922.0328.3540.9424.095.91,758.7
1974109.561.8x133.228.6333.1534.1361.667.01,746.2
1975122.148.4106.014.7291.2442.2261.762.71,558.0
1976204.278.088.527.1397.8593.8456.477.42,255.6
1977253.984.9111.159.7509.6765.6648.2128.63,096.7

The countries of destination for some of the main exports for 1976–77 are shown in the following table on a percentage basis. (Percentages are based on value of exports.)

Country of DestinationButterCheeseLambBeef and VealMuttonWool
United Kingdom67.633.967.44.07.618.0
Japan2.921.64.32.720.87.0
United States0.823.54.245.4--4.0
U.S.S.R.1.3--12.756.79.1
Germany Fed. Rep.0.10.51.30.30.19.5
Netherlands0.20.50.10.29.5
France--0.30.20.27.0
Italy--0.40.10.13.3
Others27.320.321.634.514.332.6
Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The United Kingdom has always been New Zealand's main export market for farm products. Until Britain joined the European Economic Community the British consumer had virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand supplies of butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of the mutually advantageous trading arrangements made between Britain and New Zealand over a long period, which reflected close political and economic connections between their people and governments.

GENERAL MARKETING SITUATION: Meat—Most meat produced in the world is supplied to domestic markets, and only about 8 percent of world output enters into international trade. Among the few countries with significant levels of exports are Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, the Netherlands, Denmark, and the Irish Republic. The principal importers are the countries of Western Europe (in particular, the United Kingdom), the United States, Canada, and Japan. It is significant, however, that although the Common Market countries are substantial meat importers, much of the current trade now takes place between member countries of the Community as governed by the Common Agricultural Policy regulations.

The United Kingdom continues to be by far the largest market for lamb and New Zealand lamb exports are heavily dependent on this market.

Currently, over 100 countries import New Zealand meat; of these, three may be regarded as major markets: they are the United Kingdom, which accounts for about 65 percent of New Zealand's lamb; Japan, which takes about 50 percent of New Zealand's export mutton production; and North America (United States and Canada) which purchases about 65 percent of the country's beef and veal exports.

New Zealand's beef trade with North America developed in the late 50s, as a result of a decline in the American dairy herd and a subsequent drop in output of manufacturing-type beef. The American beef herd is grain-fed and produces carcases with a greater amount of external fat than the consumer requires. This fat is trimmed when the carcases are being dressed. The trimmings which are used in the manufacture of processed meat products need to be supplemented with the lean type of beef that New Zealand (and Australia among others) can provide. Imports of beef into the United States are subject to "voluntary restraint" agreements under the meat import quota law. Under this system New Zealand, along with other suppliers, agrees to restrict the quantity of quota meat shipped for arrival in the U.S. during the calendar year to a negotiated tonnage. Under the terms of the agreement New Zealand was entitled to ship 122,200 tonnes of quota meat to the U.S. during 1977.

Following the reimposition of quotas on beef and veal imports into Canada in the last quarter of 1976, New Zealand's quota allocation for calendar year 1977 was 26,830 tonnes.

Imports of beef and sheepmeats into the United States are shown in the following table.

Country of ExportImports Subject to Meat Import Law*Lamb
19731974197519761973197419751976
*Includes beef, veal, mutton, and goat meat.
 tonnes (000) product weight
New Zealand132118125118106912
Australia3212333082873223
Canada25171036
Mexico31181324
Nicaragua25152222
Costa Rica22272724
Other countries596243481
Total imports6154905485591281116
United States production9,81310,71611,271..223211186..

Shipments of beef and veal to Canada totalled 24,300 tonnes in the year ended September 1977 while lamb shipments made up 7,100 tonnes.

In Japan, imported mutton is used mainly for processing into sausage-type foods. Shipments of New Zealand mutton in the year ended September 1977, including those to South Korea where the meat is processed and reshipped to Japan, totalled 38,200 tonnes, compared with 31,900 tonnes in 1976 and 59,700 tonnes in 1975. The other major mutton market for New Zealand recently has been the Soviet Union, which has imported 72,600 tonnes during the past 2 years. The Soviet Union has also imported substantial quantities of beef, amounting to 36,300 tonnes in the year ended September 1977.

It has been the policy of the Meat Board to diversify exports of lamb. The original initiative for this was the likelihood of Britain joining the EEC and, with that, the possibility of more comprehensive regulations covering imports of sheepmeats from outside the Community than the present Common Customs Tariff of 20 percent. It was also considered that there was a need to reduce the continued dependence on one market.

In 1960 the Meat Export Development Company was established, an organisation charged with the responsibility of the orderly development of New Zealand lamb marketing in the United States and Canada. All New Zealand lamb sales to these countries are controlled by this company, the directorate of which is composed of nominees of the New Zealand Meat Producers Board and representatives of the freezing companies. The head office of the company is in Wellington, while the North American operations are controlled from Toronto.

There is a Market Development Committee which consists of representatives of the Meat Board and the meat export trade. Each year, the committee sets a percentage of lamb exports to be sold in markets other than the United Kingdom. It also establishes a levy payable per kilogram on any short fall in sales below the target figure. When the scheme was instituted in the 1966–67 season, the development target was 10 percent. This gradually increased to 32 percent in 1977–78.

During the past 3 years a major development in New Zealand's lamb trade has been sales to the Middle East. In 1976–77, shipments included 27,400 tonnes to Iran and 9,000 tonnes to Iraq. Other principal markets for lamb were Japan, which took 14,300 tonnes; U.S.A. (7,300 tonnes); Canada (7,100 tonnes); Greece (4,400 tonnes); and Germany (3,700 tonnes).

Wool—New Zealand is one of the world's leading producers and exporters of wool. It holds third place as a producer; only Australia and the Soviet Union grow more. It is second to Australia as an exporter, and is the world's largest supplier of medium-to-coarse crossbred for use in soft woollen clothing, upholstery, and carpets. About 90 percent of the total clip is exported. During the 1976–77 season, wool earned New Zealand $634 million overseas.

The most common way of selling wool is by open auction in New Zealand. About two-thirds of the clip is sold this way. The auction season runs from August to the following June. Sales are held at eight centres around the country and they attract buyers representing all the main wool importing countries. Growers can also sell their wool to merchants privately in New Zealand, and the New Zealand Wool Board buys certain types of wool direct under its Extra Choice scheme. Small quantities of wool are also shipped to Britain for sale at auction.

Prices fluctuate from season to season. The Wool Board operates a floor price scheme which assures growers of a minimum income each season. The board's market intervention and strata price control policies help to steady the market in times of uncertainty.

After a period of relative price stability dating back to the early 1950s, demand slackened in late 1966 and prices remained low for the next 5 years. Following a recovery which reached a peak toward the end of 1973, the market declined sharply although not to the levels of the late 1960s. After the devaluation of the New Zealand dollar in August 1975, the downward trend was reversed. The market strengthened throughout 1975–76 and 1976–77. The average sale price increased from 157.12 cents per kg greasy to 219.58 cents in 1976–77, it then dropped back to about 192 cents by the end of January 1978. Having bought 114,000 bales in support of the market during the early part of the 1977–78 season, the Wool Marketing Corporation lowered its intervention prices in early December. After an initial drop, wool began moving freely and prices recovered.

World wool production increased steadily until 1968–69, particularly in Australia, New Zealand, and the Soviet Union. This growth reflected improvements both in carrying capacity per acre (number of sheep) and in wool production per sheep. Of the increase, probably over two-thirds stemmed from the upward trend in sheep population and the remainder from improved output per head of sheep. After reaching a record level in 1968–69, world wool production showed a downward trend until 1973–74. Production increased next season, but dropped again in 1975–76 and 1976–77. Since World War II there has been no significant change in the broad geographical distribution of production which remains concentrated in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa, and Uruguay—all of which export on a large scale—and in the United States and the Soviet Union. These countries account for 72 percent of world production; of the world total, Australia produces 27 percent, New Zealand 13 percent, Argentina 7½ percent, and South Africa 4½ percent.

Wool production does not, of course, coincide exactly with the distribution of the sheep population, since the production of wool or yield per sheep varies considerably according to differences in pastoral conditions and objectives in farming.

The International Wool Secretariat, founded by the woolgrowers of Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa in 1937 and now a partnership of the grower organisations of these countries plus Uruguay, is engaged in research, product innovation, and marketing, and the general promotion of wool. In recent years, wool has had to meet strong competition from synthetics, but the secretariat's campaign, and particularly the use of the Woolmark identification, has contributed to establishing a clear price premium for wool.

Sheep numbers and wool production for selected countries are shown in the following table. (Sources: International Wool Textile Organisation, Commonwealth Secretariat, International Wool Study Group, I. W.S.)

CountryWoolled SheepWool Production
1973–741974–751975–76*1974–751975–761976–771977–78*
*Provisional.
 (millions)Greasy (million kilograms)
Argentina39.038.037.5184188190194
Australia145.2151.7148.6794754717683
New Zealand55.955.356.4294312313320
South Africa28.128.728.7115114114115
Soviet Union142.6145.3141.4462467431455
United Kingdom28.528.328.250494748
United States16.414.513.465595351
Uruguay15.415.815.963686870
World total926.1936.5932.52,6412,6342,5602,560

The major importing countries of virgin wool are shown in the following table. (Source: International Wool Textile Organisation.)

Country of Import197119721973197419751976
 (million kilograms)
Belgium75.669.353.043.145.363.0
France171.1164.6121.5125.5120.1165.2
Italy104.3121.490.467.079.8107.4
Japan307.8348.1315.7163.1229.8269.8
Soviet Union86.183.096.0100.3108.8111.5
United Kingdom160.5207.0150.8121.0132.5162.0
United States72.855.234.515.319.433.8
West Germany111.3115.758.947.174.399.3

The following table shows wool entered for export from New Zealand to major wool-consuming countries. (Sources: New Zealand Wool Board, Department of Statistics.)

Country1971–721972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77
*An average bale of greasy wool contains 154 kg.
 bales(000)*
Japan165.8257.8109.5125.7203.0124.7
Netherlands93.0115.5143.6157.9167.5174.1
Soviet Union197.2126.0152.7152.2181.7159.8
United Kingdom436.0358.8253.1280.2270.8306.7
United States201.6156.472.945.260.467.8
West Germany159.2165.2105.4133.5166.3164.9
Total exports2,148.81,993.31,485.61,527.51,904.61,754.2

The following table shows the number of bales purchased by New Zealand mills during the past 6 seasons. (Sources: New Zealand Wool Board, Manufacturers' Monthly Levy Returns.)

 1971–721972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77
Wool purchased93,912144,870175,76191,896175,354156,207

Dairy Produce—There are now four main dairy exporters, namely EEC, New Zealand, Australia, and Canada, in that order of magnitude, who provide about four-fifths of all exports. Poland, the Soviet Union, and a number of other countries export relatively smaller quantities.

The Dairy Board exports annually over 500,000 tonnes of manufactured dairy products, of which just under half go to the affluent countries in Europe, North America, and Japan and the remainder to the rest of the world, with a heavy emphasis on South-east Asia and Latin America.

Nevertheless international dairy trade remains marginal in character and it is still vulnerable to fluctuations from external causes whether these be climatic, commercial, or political. New Zealand now relies on the United Kingdom for just over one-third of the value of its dairy export exchange earnings, although the United Kingdom remains the principal market for butter.

Industrial countries have a tendency to express social and political policies towards their farmers through price support mechanisms; high prices which are fixed with little regard to commercial reality encourage production but discourage consumption, thus creating surpluses. Disposal of these surpluses at cut rates, with Government support, in such free markets as have existed, has further limited the opportunities for profitable diversification.

New Zealand has had minimal success in GATT or in other international organisations in its attempts to negotiate improved conditions of access for agricultural products in developed countries apart from Britain. New Zealand has maintained strong and consistent pressure in international councils to achieve a stable balance between supply and demand in international trade, particularly in agricultural products. A significant step was made in 1971 when the EEC undertook in the Luxembourg Agreement "to make every effort to promote the conclusion of an international agreement on dairy produce; and to pursue a trade policy which will not frustrate New Zealand's efforts to diversify". In 1970, the GATT minimum international selling price for skim-milk powders of US $180 a tonne was established and since then has been progressively raised to a level of US $350 a tonne. In 1971 negotiations for the establishment of minimum prices for butter and anhydrous milkfat continued until, in 1973, agreement was reached to establish a minimum price for anhydrous milkfat of US $680 per tonne.

New Zealand remains optimistic that further improvements in international dairy trading conditions could be effected in the current round of GATT Multi-lateral Trade Negotiations (MTN) under way in Tokyo. To this end, New Zealand and the EEC have tabled essentially similar proposals for a comprehensive international dairy agreement in the Dairy Products Sub-group of the MTN. These are aimed principally at extending the product coverage of the existing minimum price arrangements, and at augmenting the consultative procedures. Significantly both New Zealand and EEC proposals envisage the results of negotiations on dairy produce access being incorporated into commitments covered by the proposed arrangement. The intention is to work towards a satisfactory outcome by 1979.

In 1976 butter output (including anhydrous milkfat) in the major producing countries, totalled around 5.5 million tonnes. In the same year total exports amounted to around 900,000 tonnes. However, since trade between the member states of the EEC does not enter international trade as such, international trade in butter amounts to no more than 250,000 tonnes which is small in relation to total world production, and thus a relatively small surplus in large producing countries when exported via subsidies can have a disproportionate effect on world trade.

The following tables compare production and exports of butter, cheese, and skim-milk powder by selected countries. (Source: United States Department of Agriculture.)

PRODUCTION
CountryButterCheeseSkim-milk Powder
197319741975197619731974197519761973197419751976

*Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

†Twelve months ended 31 May of following year.

‡Provisional.

 tonnes(000)
Australia*175161148118969911310314415814696
Canada115105128113113130120126155137187158
Denmark14713813914012414515215652536964
France550543556548885916941967724685759744
Ireland, Republic of8776839942606048103102135163
Netherlands169172204202333430372375128140186167
New Zealand218243259273888910581194244207206
United Kingdom96524789182215235203156101105120
United States4174364454441,2181,3291,2751,514416463451425
West Germany513511519544558595618647460495523535
EXPORTS
CountryButterCheeseSkim-milk Powder
1973197419751976*1973197419751976*1973197419751976*

*Provisional.

†Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

‡Including butter equivalent of butter-oil.

 tonnes(000)
Australia6338843438343252966795110
Canada65423121593698
Denmark100101989184959911539361130
Finland121911162323222612--
France189957980161163154175237235118179
Ireland, Republic of494057683947575612582127142
Netherlands188186182198207231225248487455150
New Zealand1651702102227065817921611497159
United Kingdom1333166127111145060115
United States23344845745
West Germany12315414311082101105129201179140116

An increase of 18 percent in the price of New Zealand butter supplied to the United Kingdom was granted towards the end of 1975, applicable from 1 January 1976, to compensate for cost increases incurred throughout 1975. New Zealand's application for an increase, to offset cost escalation in 1976, was not actioned by the community until late 1977 when a further 10 percent was granted with effect from 1 October 1977. The provisions of the Protocol terminated on 31 December 1977. However, back in June 1976 the EEC Commission agreed that for the years 1978, 1979, and 1980, access for New Zealand butter to the United Kingdom should continue at 125,000 tonnes, 120,000 tonnes, and 115,000 tonnes respectively with, the proviso that where New Zealand's share of the total United Kingdom butter consumer market exceeded 25 percent, diversions to the butter manufacturing sector may take place for all of our access above this level in the succeeding year. The future of New Zealand's cheese exports to the United Kingdom after 1977 has still to be settled.

Skim-milk Powder—The world production of skim-milk powder has rapidly expanded over recent years: Production in the leading dairy countries of Western Europe, North America, Australasia, and Japan reached around 3.1 million tonnes in 1976, a slight drop on 1975s level of 3.2 million tonnes. Up to 1975, international demand has been buoyant, stimulated by a growing number of milk recombining plants in Asia, South America, Africa, and the Caribbean. Economic recession and high support prices in certain producing countries dampened demand during 1975. There was a corresponding decline in international market prices in the face of surplus powder stocks, largely in the hands of the EEC. New Zealand's level of surplus stocks was removed during 1976 and 1977 by stockfood sales, and of the main exporters only the EEC continues to hold excessive levels. There has been a gradual lift in market prices, but returns are not likely to show marked improvement until the solution of the persistent EEC stock problem.

Casein—Lactic casein, which is produced from skim milk, is being put to an increasing range of uses. It is used as high-grade protein in sausage and other food fillings, as the bulk material for various types of pharmaceutical drugs, and in the manufacture of coatings for high quality paper. New Zealand is the largest exporter of casein, with much of the production going to the United States, Japan, and EEC countries.

The chief countries exporting and importing casein are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat and National Statistics.)

Country of Export1973197419751976
*Year ended 30 June of following year.
New Zealand*39.917.124.366.5
Australia*9.26.116.0..
France19.025.212.312.4
Argentina8.64.46.1..
Poland..16.210.314.5
West Germany6.57.56.04.1
Country of Import1973197419751976
United States47.046.823.050.9
Japan19.621.89.619.5
West Germany11.212.88.52.7
United Kingdom5.44.73.93.9
Italy10.08.06.210.2
France4.24.24.48.5

From 1970 to 1975 there was a world decline in the availability of liquid skim milk for casein manufacture, due to the higher return available from the alternative manufacture of skim-milk powder. With the weakening of returns from skim-milk powder since 1975, New Zealand has attempted, as much as possible, to divert skim milk to casein production.

Diversification of Markets—The value of New Zealand's dairy exports to markets outside the United Kingdom have, up until recently, steadily increased. In 1955, only 13 percent of the value of New Zealand's total dairy exports went to countries outside the United Kingdom. By 1970 this had risen to 27 percent and in 1972, for the first time, more than half of the exchange earned from dairy exports came from markets outside the United Kingdom.

The proportion of dairy exchange earnings from the United Kingdom now appears to be stabilising at round one-third of the total. In 1976–77 this proportion was around 38 percent, a slight increase on the 1975–76 level of 35 percent. This check in the rate of diversification away from the United Kingdom in exchange earning terms, is largely attributable to the relatively higher returns for the milkfat export sector as opposed to the solid-not-fat sector, and underlines the United Kingdom's continuing importance as a bulk outlet for New Zealand's milkfat products. Recent diversification successes include sales of butter to the Soviet Union, and expanded sales of butter and cheese to the Middle East. The growth in cheese exports to Japan has slowed, but cheese exports to the United States continue to grow.

The following table shows the changing direction of New Zealand's dairy exports for June years over a 5-year period.

Product1972–731974–751976–77Percentage to United Kingdom
United KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll Markets1972–731974–751976–77
 tonnes(000)percent
Butter, milkfat124.1172.2115.1164.2135.5212.972.170.163.6
Cheese60.095.424.964.627.678.862.938.535.0
Milk powder3.7196.7153.9238.51.9
Casein2.028.00.417.61.667.87.12.32.4
      All products189.8492.3140.4400.3164.7598.038.535.127.5

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY—The Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) came into force on 1 January 1958. The member countries were Belgium, France, West Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands. These countries entered into negotiations which resulted in the abolition of customs duties within the Common Market on 1 July 1968. On the same date the separate customs tariff of the six countries gave way to a single tariff—the common customs tariff of the Community. By that date also much of the common agricultural policy was in operation, although some final negotiations had still to take place. The Common Agricultural Policy, with its high internal prices supported at the Community frontier by variable levies, and its export subsidies, has encouraged the production of surpluses, most notably of dairy products, while reducing consumption.

The danger facing New Zealand was that should Britain, in joining the EEC, accept the common agricultural policy without special arrangements to protect the major items of New Zealand's agricultural trade with Britain, the pastoral industries in particular and the economy in general would be severely damaged.

Before the formal negotiations between Britain and the EEC commenced, the New Zealand Government engaged in discussions with the British Government and listed the requirements which were regarded as necessary to safeguard New Zealand's vital interests. These requirements were as follows:

  1. That New Zealand should be able to continue to sell at remunerative prices the quantities of butter and cheese for which it currently received assured access to the British market.

  2. That guarantees of access should not terminate with the transitional period, but that there should be a continuing arrangement subject to periodic review.

  3. That, in the event of the Community adopting a common regulation for sheepmeats, New Zealand should continue to have access for lamb sales on a satisfactory basis.

When the formal negotiations opened in June 1970, the British Government accepted this "statement of claim" for dairy products as the basis for their submission to the Community. In respect of lamb, no negotiations with the EEC were scheduled because of the absence of a common Community regulation. The New Zealand Government accordingly sought from the United Kingdom an understanding that they would not agree to the introduction of a sheepmeats policy which would damage New Zealand's interests.

Negotiations between Britain and the Community formally opened on 21 July 1970. However it was not until a decisive negotiating session held in Luxembourg from 21–23 June 1971 that Britain succeeded in negotiating a special arrangement for New Zealand butter and cheese.

The special arrangement was subsequently incorporated in Protocol 18 to the Treaty of Accession of the applicant countries (United Kingdom, Denmark, and Ireland) to the EEC. It provided access to the British market for specified quantities of butter and cheese at fixed prices for an initial period of 5 years ending on 31 December 1977. Access for butter was to be continued after 1977 but no special provision was made for cheese.

New Zealand butter and cheese entered under Protocol 18 from 1 February 1973 onwards, was guaranteed a c.i.f. price of £361 per ton for butter, and £312 per ton for cheese. In 1973, monetary compensatory amounts became applicable to New Zealand's butter and cheese exported to the United Kingdom, and these went some way towards compensating for the decline in the sterling value of the c.i.f. prices. In November 1974 the EEC agreed to increase New Zealand's guaranteed c.i.f. prices for butter and cheese by 18 percent in recognition of New Zealand's claim that inflation and rising freight and production costs had severely eroded returns to our farmers.

A further increase of 18 percent was granted towards the end of 1975 applicable from 1 January 1976 and a third increase of 10 percent was granted with effect from 10 October 1977.

In March 1975, in the context of Britain's renegotiation of its terms of entry to the community, the Common Market Heads of Government set guidelines for the quantities of butter for which New Zealand would have access to the British market for the first 3 years after 1977. They also agreed to periodic adjustments to the Protocol 18 prices taking into account, among other things, prices paid to EEC farmers, production costs in New Zealand and trends in freight charges. In addition they left the way open for Britain to negotiate special arrangements for New Zealand cheese after 1977.

In June 1976 the Community's Council of Agriculture Ministers agreed on the arrangements for the import of New Zealand butter into Britain in the years 1978–80. The quantities agreed for these years are 125,000, 120,000, and 115,000 tonnes respectively.

The EEC has not yet introduced a common policy for sheepmeats. The question of the possible form of a regulation for the sheepmeats sector was discussed during 1977 but no progress was made in reconciling the widely differing interests of those member states with an interest in this product.

New Zealand has consistently held to the position that if a regulation must be adopted, it should not adversely effect consumption or exports from third countries.

Assurances have been given at the highest level that New Zealand will be consulted fully during the preparation of a community sheepmeats regulation and our vital trade interests in this product will be safeguarded.

UNITED KINGDOM MARKET: Dairy Produce—New Zealand's important position in the supply of butter and (to a lesser extent) cheese to the United Kingdom market is illustrated in the following table showing imports into the United Kingdom, by country of export. Domestic production of butter in the United Kingdom, although relatively high during 197b, remains small in comparison with total supplies. Domestic cheese supplies, on the other hand are comparatively large. (Source: Overseas Trade Statistics of the United Kingdom.)

Country of ExportButterCheese
1975197619751976
 tonnes(thousand)
New Zealand1221233031
Denmark83711719
West Germany584334
Netherlands117872622
Belgium and Luxembourg10411
France37201413
Irish Republic54505553
Other Countries----44
Total imports481398150147
United Kingdom production4789231204

The following table shows the comparative figures for consumption of butter and margarine in the United Kingdom. (Source: Commonwealth Secretarial.)

Product19691970197119721973197419751976
 kilogram per head
Butter8.78.57.97.27.68.5x9.37.6
Margarine5.45.45.96.55.85.05.04.5

Meat—The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom from the principal countries, by country of export. (Source: Meat and Livestock Commission.)

Country of ExportMutton and LambBeef and Veal
197419751976197419751976
 tonnes(000)
New Zealand2042342137610
Australia8812221010
Argentina2828
Denmark271520
Ireland, Republic of111059680
Botswana31117
France102023
West Germany221416
Other countries111252230
Total Imports213244226249196214
United Kingdom production251259 1,0731,222 

The Meat and Livestock Commission estimated that in 1976 the inhabitants of the United Kingdom consumed per head 22 kilograms of beef and veal, 8 kilograms of mutton and lamb, 10 kilograms of pork, 4 kilograms of offal, 12 kilograms of poultry, and 9 kilograms of bacon and ham.

THE ORGANISATION OF MARKETING—In a country such as New Zealand which is very dependent upon overseas trade, the efficient organisation of marketing of primary produce takes on a special importance.

Marketing Authorities—Since about 1950 the principle has been accepted that producers should be predominantly responsible for the marketing of their products. The major statutes under which specific marketing authorities operate are the Dairy Board Act 1961, the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 and the Amendment Acts 1956 and 1971 (for the Meat Producers Board), and the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, the Wool Industry Act 1977, the Milk Act 1967, the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953 (safeguards citrus fruit, honey, and eggs).

Dairy Produce—The New Zealand Dairy Board acquires and markets all dairy products intended for export, and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. The New Zealand Dairy Board is a statutory authority operating under the Dairy Board Act 1961 and acts as the administrative body for the industry and as its export marketing agency. Of the board's members 11 are elected by the co-operative companies and 2 are appointed by the Government. The board acquires all export dairy products from the manufacturing companies, sells the goods overseas, and returns the proceeds, less marketing costs, to the companies.

The board sells its products throughout the world, and is currently exporting to over 100 countries. Sales are made in the United Kingdom through the board's own sales organisations. In other markets, the board sells through its own local company, or through local agents, or in the case of some buyers it sells direct, on a contract basis. Increasingly the board is posting its own personnel overseas in key markets as liaison representatives and where warranted, subsidiary trading companies have been established.

Meat—The New Zealand Meat Producers Board was constituted in 1922 under the provisions of the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 to protect the national and producers' interests. The board obtains funds by the imposition of a levy on all meat exported (except canned meats and offals). The current levy is 0.77c per kilogram.

Funds from the levy totalled $5.0 million in the year ended September 1976. Expenditure exceeded income by $240,000, the balance being drawn from the industry reserve account.

The board's main responsibilities are:

  1. Meal export licensing;

  2. The grading, storage, and shipment of meat;

  3. Market research;

  4. The promotion of New Zealand meat;

  5. Improvement in the quality of New Zealand meat.

The board has engaged in most activities in the export trade in the interests of the producer.

The board has had a major influence on meat marketing policy through the regulation of shipments, control over quality, and the development of markets through promotion in which it is investing some $3 million a year.

In its market support activities the board is the only organisation in the world promoting the sale of meat on a genuinely international scale. To this end it has established in its major markets a network of market consultants assisting the board through its overseas offices which are in London, New York, Tokyo, Brussels, and Tehran.

Prior to 1971 the board's power to participate in the purchase and sale of meat in any country outside New Zealand was limited under the terms of the Act to the establishment of markets in those countries where no substantial market for New Zealand meat previously existed and to the expansion and maintenance of those markets. An amendment to the Act passed in October 1971 extended the board's power to enable it to buy any meat derived from sheep and sell in or export to any country. These powers were further extended in 1974 by an Order in Council which enables the board to buy and sell beef. In the 1971–72 season, the board purchased a sizeable proportion of lambs slaughtered for export, while, at one stage in the 1974–75 season, it was purchasing mutton, beef and lamb. During the 1975–76 season the board again intervened and purchased a significant proportion of the export mutton product.

While the trade has retained the role of direct marketing, the administrative and promotional work of the board has served to ensure that the long-term interests of the industry are not ignored. This function embraces all activities in moving meat from producer to consumer in the quickest and most efficient manner with due regard to the stability of prices and markets.

A Pork Industry Council functions under the Pork Industry Act 1974. Its principal functions are to promote and organise the orderly development of the pork industry; to assist in the marketing of pigs; to maintain and improve quality; to increase production; to promote efficiency; and to ensure a supply of foodstuffs for pigs.

Wool—The New Zealand Wool Board—an amalgamation of the old Wool Board and the Wool Marketing Corporation—was established on 7 February 1978, by the Wool Industry Act, 1977. The board is a grower-controlled authority which has as its object to obtain, in the interest of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. Currently the board is involved in a number of activities associated with the marketing of wool including the operation of a minimum prices scheme and a market intervention scheme aimed at reducing fluctuations in prices and cushioning declines in the market. It is also deeply involved in the research and promotion of New Zealand wool and is a partner in the International Wool Secretariat.

Apples and Pears—Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This board was set up in 1948, in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971, to acquire and market the apple and pear crop. Under the Apple and Pear Marketing Amendment Act 1967 there has been set up an Apple and Pear Prices Authority whose function it is to determine each season the average price to be paid for apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average, and within it prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. Most apples and pears of standard grade are purchased by the board with private sales by growers limited by regulations. Growers may sell direct to consumers in lots of not more than two cases, or with permission of the board, to retailers in specified localities. Manufacturers may be licensed by the board to purchase their requirements direct from growers (although in some cases the board itself purchases fruit and resells it to the factory). Growers may also be permitted by the board to sell at municipal markets established under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954.

The board decides what proportion of the fruit is to remain in New Zealand and what proportion is to be exported, and arranges for the storage and release of varieties according to their condition and keeping capacity, in order to make fruit available for as long a period as possible during the year. The board determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold in New Zealand by authorised wholesalers to retailers. If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the board exceed the amount which the board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the board, is apportioned between a reserve fund and the growers. The board may distribute up to 50 percent of the surplus among growers, or such greater proportions as the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries approves. The balance is added to the reserve fund. If sales in any season realise less than the amount the board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund. The reserve fund, which has been built up from profits derived almost solely from exports, has been invested in a chain of modern cool stores and mechanical equipment designed for the improved handling of fruit.

Financial results for recent seasons are shown in the following table.

SeasonProfit or LossBoard's ShareGrowers' ShareReserve Fund at End of Season
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1972–732,6522,410242906
1973–74–4,103–4,103–3,197
1974–751,0181,018–2,179
1975–76–2,228–2,228–4,407
1976–7713,15610,2232,9335,816

Potatoes—The Potato Board, with equal representation of growers and merchants and an officer of the Public Service as an advisory member, was established by the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950. Its principal function is to ensure that an adequate supply of main-crop potatoes shall be available for consumption. Its powers include the making of contracts between growers and the board for main-crop potatoes, and the appointment of wholesalers authorised to purchase from growers and to sell potatoes in respect of which contracts have been made with the board.

Milk—The New Zealand Milk Board was set up in 1953. It operates the national milk scheme and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient distribution of milk. The legislation is contained in the Milk Act 1967.

The board may make a levy on milk to finance its operations but while a subsidy on milk is payable from the Consolidated Revenue Account the rate of levy requires the approval of the Minister of Agriculture.

Retail prices are fixed by Order in Council. The price for the milk to the producer is fixed by the Minister of Agriculture after consultation with the Milk Board. Intermediate margins, such as those for pasteurising and bottling milk and to vendors for its delivery, are fixed by the Milk Prices Authority. The total cost at the present time exceeds the amount paid by the consumers, the balance being met by subsidy. It is the function of the Milk Board to administer the whole town milk scheme on behalf of the Government which, however, retains a direct interest by virtue of the substantial sum paid in subsidy.

Eggs—The Egg Marketing Authority, which was established in 1953, consists of eight members— five producer members of the New Zealand Poultry Board and three Government representatives. The principal function of the authority is to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in New Zealand and elsewhere in accordance with the regulations, to ensure as far as possible sufficient supplies of eggs and their equitable distribution in the general interests of producers and consumers.

The New Zealand Egg Marketing Authority operates principally through licensed distributors in the various districts who, on commission, receive and resell eggs or, as directed by the authority, manufacture egg pulp for the use of bakers and pastrycooks. Eggs are subject to price control.

Imported Citrus Fruits, Bananas, Pineapples and Grapes—The importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, pineapples and grapes are the responsibility of a registered company, Fruit Distributors Ltd., representing trade interests. The operations of the company are defined and restricted by an agreement between it and the Government. There are two Government members on the company's board of directors.

New Zealand Lemons and Oranges—The Citrus Marketing Authority was established in 1953 to market fresh lemons, either directly or through agents, throughout New Zealand and to process unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products, such as fruit juice and lemon peel. The authority has a membership of six, five of whom are nominees of the New Zealand Citrus Council and represent the producers, and one appointed by the Minister of Agriculture as the Government member, who also protects the interests of consumers.

The Citrus Marketing Authority controls the assembly and distribution of New Zealand lemons, and also New Zealand grown sweet oranges. The entire output of fruit, which comes under the jurisdiction of the authority, is sold at agreed prices to Fruit Distributors Ltd. The authority operates processing and packing facilities at Kerikeri, Tauranga and Gisborne.

Honey—The Honey Marketing Authority, set up in 1953, undertakes the packing and marketing, within New Zealand and for export, of all honey supplied to it. Beekeepers have the option of supplying the authority, selling to private packers, or packing and marketing their own honey.

A hive levy payable by all producers owning 50 or more hives is administered by the Authority for the benefit of the honey producing industry generally.

The rate of hive levy is determined annually and is currently set at 15c per hive.

The authority comprises four members elected by beekeepers, and one member appointed as Government representative. One of the functions of the Government representative is to watch the interests of the consumer.

Prices and sales of honey are set out in the following table.

Item1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77
Payment to producerscents per kg44.5854.9854.8261.3475.02
Average selling price—
      New Zealandcents per kg64.0384.4293.01101.20111.71
      Overseascents per kg76.1487.7874.2380.98116.88
Sales—
      New Zealandtonnes549780988889938
      Overseastonnes1,8263986872,061701

TRANSPORT AND OVERSEAS MARKETS—Farm products form the bulk of New Zealand's exports. They come to hand for shipment in seasonal cycles. These are most pronounced for lamb, and apples and pears, but apply also to a marked extent to mutton, beef, wool, and related produce. Butter, cheese, and other dairy produce become available throughout the year but production is considerably higher in the 6 months October to March than in the remainder of the year. The peak season for all the animal products is much the same, being roughly November to May, while there is a shorter concentrated season for fruit in March and April.

This seasonality presents shipping problems in the marketing process. In addition, the bulk of the commodities are perishable and require continuous refrigeration throughout the period of at least 2 to 3 months between production and consumption. The demand for shipping space lags a little behind the season, generally building up in January and declining in June. A realisation of the demands that increased production was making on transport, storage, handling, and shipping services led in 1964 to the setting up of an Exports and Shipping Council, an independent body whose main purpose is to improve the efficiency and economy of New Zealand export trade as it relates to transport services. Shipping receives special attention as shipping costs absorb a substantial portion of market realisations.

The council is representative of producer boards, freezing companies, transport interests, harbour boards, the New Zealand Chambers of Commerce, the Federation of Labour, and the Manufacturers' Federation. It has been successful in bringing into effect many of the recommendations of the streamlining report on ports, shipping, transport, and other services, produced as a result of consultations between the producer boards and the main shipping lines, and it continues its efforts to improve the efficiency and economy of transporting New Zealand produce to its markets.

PRICES FOR FARM PRODUCTS: Wool—The New Zealand Wool Board and the Wool Marketing Corporation were amalgamated under the Wool Industry Act on 7 February 1978. One of the main activities of the new board is the continuance of the corporation's minimum or floor price plan, and its market intervention and strata price control schemes.

The floor price plan was introduced in 1952 by the corporation's predecessor, the New Zealand Wool Commission. It guarantees wool growers a minimum income from the wool they sell. The board prepares a table of minimum prices for all types of wool (there are almost 2000) before the start of a new selling season. The prices are fixed in agreement with the Minister of Agriculture, and are not altered during the season. If wool is sold either to commercial buyers or to the board, at a price below the appropriate minimum, the board makes a supplementary payment to the grower up to the floor level. Supplementary payments are made from the board's Wool Income Stabilisation Account. The account is funded by a three percent levy on the returns for wool sold for the first time at above minimum prices.

The average minimum price per kilogram greasy weight for the 1977–78 season was 150 cents.

The floor price plan applies to all grower-owned scoured and greasy wool sold for the first time at auction in New Zealand and Britain. There are also procedures to protect greasy wool sold privately in New Zealand.

The board can buy wool at any price under its market intervention policy. It will do this to prevent lots being sold significantly below the market, and to cushion declines in the price. Intervention levels can be set above, at, or below floor prices. Levels can be changed at any time by the board's directors, although their aim is to set levels which can be held for some time. The board will bid at auction if prices drop to intervention levels. If the commercial benches do not raise the price, the board buys. During the 1976–77 season the corporation purchased 75,000 bales and in the first 6 months of the 1977–78 season 95,000 bales.

When prices are above intervention levels, the board operates its "strata price control". It bids when necessary to prevent prices falling more than a set percentage on the previous day's levels.

The following table shows weight, sale value and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction. The last column shows the average minimum price to growers set by the Wool Marketing Corporation, or its predecessor, the Wool Commission.

Season Ended JuneGreasy Wool Sold at AuctionTotal Sale ValueSale Value per KilogramAverage Minimum Price per Kilogram
 Tonnes (000)$ (million)cc
1972209.02139.066.4646.00
1973196.21282.5143.9650.00
1974195.13271.6139.1970.00
1975210.25192.991.7593.00
1976212.52333.9157.12124.00
1977200.93441.2219.58136.00

The next table shows index numbers based on prices of new clip greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand adjusted to a clean f.o.b. New Zealand port basis. The All Wool and each group index is on its own base: average over all sales of 1974–75 season (=1000).

SeasonAll WoolFine Wools*Medium WoolsCoarse Wools

*28 microns and finer.

†29 to 34 microns.

‡35 microns and higher.

1972–731528164816621444
1973–741511165915801451
1974–751000100010001000
1975–761669145616481716
1976–772363201923552379

Dairy Produce—Basic prices (then known as guaranteed prices) were introduced in 1936 for butter and cheese. The present legislative authority for the fixing of purchase prices for all dairy produce which the Dairy Board acquires for export is the Dairy Board Act 1961, as amended by the Dairy Board Amendment Acts of 1972 and 1975.

The Dairy Board Amendment Act of 1975 extended the basic purchase price to cover the solid non-fat (snf) portion of the milk and changed the basis of payment for dairy products.

Commencing in the 1975–76 season, the Dairy Product Prices Authority established values for milkfat and also establishes the value for the solid non-fat content of the milk.

The Dairy Board uses the milkfat value to calculate the purchase price for butter and other fat products and uses the snf value to calculate the purchase price for snf products.

Cheese and wholemilk powder purchase prices are based on both milkfat and snf values.

The movements in snf and milkfat values from one year to the next is limited to 10 percent upwards and 5 percent downwards for both components.

The farmers, therefore, receive a stabilised return for milk solids. Because the Prices Authority establishes milkfat and snf values rather than purchase prices, the producers are cushioned from processing cost increases and receive the full effect of movements in milkfat and snf values.

As from the beginning of the 1975–76 season the Dairy Board declared the values of milkfat and snf on a "at farm" rather than factory door basis.

The new legislation provides for two trading accounts—the milkfat trading account, and the snf trading account. Any annual surplus or deficit in the trading accounts at the end of any trading period is transferred to the Dairy Industry Reserve Account and the provisions for distribution of surpluses are unaltered by the 1975 amendment.

The following table gives the prices in cents per kilogram of product paid by the Dairy Board to companies for the main products acquired for export. Prior to 1975–76, these were f.o.b. realisations to companies. From the 1975–76 season they are based on milkfat in milk at farm (N.Z. average).

Season Ended 31 MayCreamery Butter (Finest Grade 93 pt)Cheese (First Grade 6 pt)
*Estimated.
 cents per kilogram
1973–7463.3268.71
1974–7566.4969.78
1975–76x69.4072.77
1976–77x78.1277.88
1977–78*85.2183.73

The prices quoted in the preceding table for butter and cheese were designed to enable dairy companies to pay to suppliers the following amounts in cents per kilogram of milkfat used for butter or cheese manufacture.

Season Ended 31 MayButter-makingCheese-making

NOTE(1) The basic price for buttermaking is on a farm gate fat in cream basis up to and including 1971–72. 1972–73 to 1974–75 figures are on a factory stage basis (i.e., milk and cream collection costs must be paid out from these amounts). From 1975–76 figures are on an at farm basis.

(2) Columns (1) and (2) do not include surplus payments These are price structure calculations

(3) From 1972–73 buttermaking basic prices include revenue items.

 cents per kilogram of milk fat
1973–7470.83132.84
1974–7572.15127.43
1975–7674.42133.68
1976–7781.86134.63
1977–7890.05142.94

Most milk fat is now collected by tankers. Only 7 percent of suppliers supply cream and they make up an even smaller proportion of total milk fat supply, i.e., 2 percent.

The main product mixes obtained from whole milk are:

Cheese

Whey butter

Separated whey

Butter

Buttermilk powder

Skim-milk powder or casein (acid or rennet)

Whole milk powder

Anhydrous milk fat

Buttermilk powder

Skim-milk powder or casein

Production of dairy factories is shown in Section 14A—Farming.

Town Milk Supply—The objects of the New Zealand Milk Board are the provision of an adequate supply of milk of good quality for human consumption and the organisation of the town milk industry on an economic basis. The board arranges supply contracts with milk producer companies for all districts, reports to Government on the adequacy of the town milk producer price, makes recommendations to Government or reports to the Milk Prices Authority, as the case may be, as to national margins for pasteurising, bottling, distribution, and other aspects of price fixation, fixes local allowances for cartage and such special distribution allowances as may be necessary, makes financial adjustments with all those in the industry to see that they get the prices or allowances to which they are entitled, and in doing so pays out subsidy on behalf of Government.

The total Government subsidy on town milk paid during recent twelve-month periods ended 31 August has been as follows: 1972–73, $36,476,950; 1973–74, $43,941,904; 1974–75, $49,196,949; 1975–76, $44,582,480; and 1976–77, $38,304,813. These figures include deferred payments.

The following table shows production and sales of town milk under the control of the New Zealand Milk Board.

Year Ended 31 AugustProductionQuantity on Which Town Milk Price PaidVolume of Town SalesxPrice per Litre Paid to ProducersxGovernment Subsidy Per Litre
  litres(m) cc
1974640.6503.9410.28.98110.7115
1975671.7517.1422.69.20911.5413
1976725.5536.8414.310.03710.758x
1977739.3534.7399.510.6789.589

The town milk industry has converted to the metric system and bottles of 600 ml, 300 ml, and 150 ml have been progressively introduced.

Meat—The Imported Meat Trade Association in the United Kingdom compiles weekly London wholesale meat prices, the basis of quotation being "ex-hooks to retailers at Smithfield market". The next table gives prices for New Zealand lamb and beef at the end of the last week in March. Approximately 35 percent of the value of all New Zealand exports of frozen and chilled meat is generally accounted for by lamb, and the 8–12.5 kg and 13–16 kg P grades quoted in the table usually account for approximately 20 percent and 35 to 40 percent respectively of all lamb carcasses exported.

End of. Last Week in MarchLambBeef
Prime GradeY GradeBoneless Cartoned Ox Rumps
8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg16.5 to 25.5 kg8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg
*At end of last week in February. No March quotations.
New pence per kilogram equivalent
197460.4–61.959.5–61.358.4–59.559.5–60.659.5–60.697.0–98.1
197566.1–67.263.9–65.059.5–60.663.9–66.162.8–63.9143.3–145.5
197678.3–79.470.5–71.765.0–66.178.3–78.970.5–71.7134.5–138.9
197790.4–93.789.3–91.588.2–89.388.2–90.488.2–89.3163.1–167.6*
197899.2–100.397.0–98.194.8–95.598.8–99.997.0–98.1..

Schedule Prices—A schedule of buying prices is issued each week by the meat operators in New Zealand. The producers have a choice on how to sell their export meat. They can sell on schedule, on owner's account, on a pool account system, on the basis of prices received from a nominated ship, on the hoof, or they can sell through a producer co-operative.

At the beginning of the 1971–72 season the N.Z. Meat Producers Board considered that exporters were unduly pessimistic in their assessment of future overseas market prices and that the opening schedule prices for lamb were not high enough. After obtaining an amendment to the Meat Export Control Act to permit it to purchase and market sheepmeats, the Board issued its own schedule of prices. During the season the Board purchased 12.5 million lambs and, as overseas prices improved later in the year, it made a profit on sales of $8 million. The Board again used its statutory powers to set its own lamb, mutton, and beef schedules in the 1974–75 season. However, on this occasion, the Board's view of market prospects was not too different from that of the exporters. Low market prices and substantial increases in charges between the farm gate and export markets had caused producer returns to drop, so the Board's announced prices were really guaranteed minimum payments for each class of stock. As a result of these prices the Board purchased virtually the entire export mutton kill and some 2.6 million lambs.

After a short period of buying beef the Board, in conjunction with the N.Z. Meat Exporters Council, implemented a scheme whereby the trade resumed the responsibility of marketing all export beef while the Board supplemented the exporters' prices to producers to ensure that they received the guaranteed minimum payments.

The depressed prices for mutton and beef continued into the 1975–76 season and the Board again supported producers' returns. This involved the purchase of much of the export mutton at the announced minimum prices and the supplementation of returns on beef in the early and latter parts of the season when prices fell below the minima. At the start of the 1976–77 season producer prices for beef were again supplemented by the board but, following slight rises in overseas prices schedule price rose above minimum levels. On the other hand schedule prices for lamb exceeded trigger levels at the beginning of the season while those for mutton exceeded trigger levels for the full season. The opening schedules for the latest 5 seasons are given below. The prices quoted are for dressed weights "on the hooks" at freezing works. The prices for lamb and mutton are for bare meat only with an additional payment being made for the wool and pelt.

OPENING NORTH ISLAND SCHEDULE PRICES
Class of Meat1973–741974–751975–761976–771977–78

*Schedule issued by New Zealand Meat Producers Board.

†New Zealand Meat Producers Board Minimum Price.

cents per kg
Lamb—
      PL, 8.0–12.5 kg71.444.459.772.974.5
      PM, 13.0–16.0 kg69.742.456.268.468.5
      YL, 8.0–12.5 kg67.944.452.759.570.5
Mutton—
      EL, 22 kg and under44.114.0*24.021.542.0
      EM, 22.5–26.0 kg41.912.0*22.019.540.0
Beef—
      Pl—Steer, 220.5–270 kg78.039.055.055.058.5
      Ll—Steer, 220.5–270 kg70.037.048.050.554.0
      M—Cow, 140.5 kg and over66.026.042.042.545.0
      Bull, 160.5–260 kg79.038.050.050.053.0

Minimum Prices for Export Meat—The scheme which had operated since 1955 has been replaced by a more comprehensive system with two principal aims: first, to establish floor prices at a more realistic level and, second, to provide a mechanism which will allow for the replenishment of the funds paid out during the periods of low prices by levying farmers' receipts when prices exceed certain "trigger" levels.

Minimum prices are based on the average of the actual price for the preceding season, the estimated price for the current season (towards the end of which the determinations are made) and a forecast for the following season during which the prices will operate. The Meat Export Prices Committee will have discretion to set the minima up to 10 percent above or below the average of the three seasons. The committee also determines the trigger prices for each of the four benchmark grades of meat. A meat income stabilisation levy is imposed when schedule prices exceed the appropriate trigger price the proceeds going into individual buffer accounts (sheep meats and beef) established at the Reserve Bank within the Meat Industry Stabilisation Account.

In general, the scheme aims at placing a floor under the prices the producers receive, financed by funds accumulated when returns are at higher levels. It is, in short, a price-smoothing scheme which at the same time, pays necessary regard to changes in market demand. Because of the importance of meat in the national economy, it will also have the effect of softening the impact of any sharp movements in overseas prices.

The minimum and "trigger" prices for the 1977–78 meat season are shown in the following table.

Class of MeatMinimum PricesTrigger Prices
Lamb—Cents per kilogram
      PM, 13.0 to 16.0 kg5978
Mutton—  
      EL, 22 kg and under3040
Beef—  
      PI Steer, 220.5 to 270 kg5783
      M Cow. 140.5 kg and over4163

These are known as the "benchmark" prices. They are the key grades for each category of meat. Other grades will be priced as appropriate differentials.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES—Farm industry reserves were built up during the Second World War when, in furtherance of the Government's stabilisation policy, farmers agreed that increases in overseas realisations for meat and dairy produce be paid into special funds for later use for the benefit of the industry concerned. The wool reserve account (later the capital funds of the Wool Marketing Corporation) arose in the main from the profits derived from the sale of wartime surplus stocks, and in part from a contributory charge levied on wool sold at that time, much of it was used to buy in wool in 1966–67 but this was all resold by 1972. About half of the meat industry reserve was used to purchase lambs in 1971–72 to provide a higher price schedule, but was recovered from the ensuing marketing of the meat. The meat industry and wool reserve accounts were both drawn on again in 1974–75. Under a new stabilisation scheme for the wool industry, from the start of the 1976–77 selling season, wool growers paid a 3 percent levy on gross wool proceeds into a stabilisation fund. Where necessary, supplementary payments back from the fund will assure them of a minimum price.

The following table shows the balances in the various farm industry reserve and stabilisation accounts at given dates.

YearWool Marketing Corporation Capital and Reserves at 30 JuneWool Income Stabilisation Accountat 30 JuneMeat Income Stabilisation Account* at 30 SepMeat Industry Reserve Account at 30 SepDairy Produce Account at 31 May

*The Meat Income Stabilisation Account is included in the Meat Industry Reserve Account.

†The 1975 Government grant of $15 million was paid into the Wool Income Stabilisation Account in stages ($2.5 million in 1974–75, $5.5 million in 1975–76, and $7.0 million in 1976–77).

‡At 30 June 1977 the Wool Marketing Corporation had borrowings (for trading purposes) outstanding of $13,705 million.

§Although the Dairy Produce Account had a deficit of almost $26 million, there was a total credit of $23 million in the General Reserve, the Export Credit Reserve, and the Diversification Reserve.

$(thousand)
197354,74588,59218,418
197455,92693,55811,776
197557,760200–3,20877,83417,785
197672,025450–14,41690,924–25,978×
197778,93324,354–7,76695,888 

The Wool Income Retention Account (see Section 14A Farming—General), opened in August 1976, had a credit balance of $26,562 million in June 1976. In early February 1978 the Government decided that the money should be refunded to the growers.

21 B—DOMESTIC TRADE

GENERAL—Domestic trade embraces retail and wholesale trade and part of the services field. The trend of retail trade is one of the most perceptive barometers of economic activity as it constitutes a large proportion of personal expenditures on consumer goods and services.

The fifth of New Zealand's 5-yearly Censuses of Distribution, which provide the basis for the monthly and quarterly surveys of retail and wholesale trade, was for the year ended 31 March 1973. It covered wholesale trade; retail trade; selected service trades; the hotels, motels, taverns, and restaurant group; motor vehicle trades including repairs and servicing; laundries and drycleaners; and cinemas. This section contains a summary of the results.

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1973—The Census of Distribution for 1972–73 revealed aggregate retail sales of $4,314 million, or average turnover of $128,100 by each of the 33,700 retail stores included in the Census.

At 31 March 1973 there was one retail shop to every 88 persons, over 40 percent of them dealing in food and drink. A large proportion of the goods sold had earlier passed through wholesale stores, of which 5,215 with an aggregate turnover of $3,632.9 million were included in the Census.

Retail Trade—In the following table the main retail trade figures from the latest two censuses are set out. To allow for comparisions, a number of store types surveyed only in the 1973 Census have been omitted.

Item19681973Percentage Increase
Number of retail stores29,33130,5864.3
Sales ($ million)2,099.73,968.789.0
Average sales per store ($)71,600129,80081.3
Labour force—
      Paid employees103,254147,62843.0
Total137,251188,32137.2
Salaries and wages paid ($ million)181.1376.3107.8

Some comparisons between the results of the 1968 and 1973 Censuses are shown by store-type group in the following table. As in previous table, store types surveyed for the first time in 1973 have been omitted.

Store-type GroupAverage Labour Force per StoreTurnover per unit of Labour ForceTurnover per Head of PopulationAverage Population per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid
Food and drink— No.$$No.$(m)
      Packaged19734.220,322253.033546.6
 19683.414,988181.427830.4
      Consumed19738.710,131122.672066.8
 19684.910,02172.067523.6
Apparel19733.915,33491.965227.4
 19683.411,84361.166816.1
Furniture19735.622,75971.61,79323.5
 19684.815,42942.91,74413.0
Automotive sales19739.342,500354.61,41172.8
 19685.638,530106.22,04813.7
Hardware19737.726,47865.72,72218.6
 19686.518,17843.42,73111.7
Chemists19734.717,25332.62,34310.0
 19683.912,81121.22,3596.4
Miscellaneous19737,220,238342.1428110.6
 19687.114,818236.145066.3
Total19736.121,0741,334.291376.3
 19684.715,298762.894181.1

In the previous table the store-type group "Food and drink—consumed" includes restaurants, licensed hotels, taverns, chartered clubs, cafeterias, coffee bars, fish and chip shops, and similar eating establishments.

In the 1968 Census of Distribution, licensed hotels were asked to supply only the value of sales of beer, wine, spirits, tobacco and cigarettes, with the appropriate related employment and wage data for that area. In the 1973 Census of Distribution, sales or turnover, labour force, and salaries and wages for licensed hotels also included accommodation services and a la carte dining rooms where meals were charged for separately to guests (that is, not included in tariff) and the general public. Also included in the 1972–73 figures were 22 licensed hotels (with total sales of $4.9 million) for which the provision of accommodation services was the predominant activity and which were therefore classified as service establishments, although a large proportion of their turnover (slightly less than 50 percent) was attributable to retail sales. The breakdown of sales for licensed hotels only was as follows: retail sales, $187.8 million; accommodation services, $37 million; wholesale sales, $0.3 million; and hiring and leasing services, $0.3 million.

The store-type group "automotive sales" includes the store-type "sales of motor vehicles (including motor cycles)". It should be noted that, in the 1968 Census of Distribution, only licensed motor vehicle dealers, wholly concentrated in the sale of motor vehicles, were included. In the 1973 Census, the store-type content for the automotive sales group was extended to include service stations and motor vehicle repair shops, taking in the sales of petrol, oil, parts, and accessories, and also repair and maintenance work. In many cases, where service stations or repair shops had car sale yards attached, and the sale of cars was predominant (that is 50 percent or more of total value of sales), such establishments would be store-typed as "motor vehicle dealers." The 1973 Census figures are, therefore, not a true comparison with those of 1968. The breakdown of sales and paid employee occupation content for the store-type "sales of motor vehicles (including motor cycles)" in 1973 was as follows:

  1. Sales—retail sales (including petrol, oil, parts and accessories) $895.9 million; wholesale sales $21.9 million; services (maintenance, repairs, etc.) $66.9 million; and hiring and leasing services $0.7 million.

  2. Paid employee occupation—managerial, clerical, etc., 4,380; selling and distribution (including petrol, oil, parts and accessories) 5,007; motor mechanics, auto electricians etc., 8,766; and other paid employees 1,338.

The following table deals only with those store-types first surveyed in the 1973 Census which were omitted in the previous tables.

Newly-surveyed Store TypesNumber of StoresTotal SalesAverage Sales per StoreLabour Force at 15 April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid
Paid EmployeesTotal
  $(m)$(000)  $(m)
Food and drink (packaged)— 
      Milk vendors1,07925.023.22,2003,7521.2
Food and drink (consumed)— 
      Caterers1809.653.21,6161,9312.1
      Licensed motels205.6279.76706901.5
Total20015.276.02,2862,6213.6
Automotive— 
      Service stations1,545220.5142.77,2679,71521.6
      Caravan and trailer dealers5510.3186.61292060.4
      Powered boats and accessories dealers9016.0177.34185301.3
Total1,690246.7146.07,81410,45123.2
Hardware— 
      Timber merchants10245.2443.11,5431,6335.3
      Concrete and cement products5317.7334.05856391.9
Total15562.9405.82,1282,2727.1
Miscellaneous— 
      Other miscellaneous120.541.729410.1
Total newly-surveyed store types3,136350.3111.714,45719,13735.2

It may be noted that the tables giving comparisons between the 1968 and 1973 Census of Distribution show total retail sales in 1973 as $3,968.7 million. The above table dealing with store-types omitted in the tables of comparisons show total sales of $350.3 million. This gives a grand total of retail sales or turnover recorded at the 1973 Census of Distribution of $4,319.0 million whereas the following tables show a figure of $4,314.0 million. The explanation of this discrepancy lies in the 22 hotels mentioned previously, of which the predominant activity was the provision of accommodation services. These hotels were accordingly classified as service establishments. However, in the tables of comparisons only, these 22 hotels were included with the bulk of the licensed hotels classified as retail establishments, and the total retail sales were accordingly inflated by $4.9 million.

In the following table retail sales are shown by method of purchase as recorded at the 1973 Census. Figures given in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total sales. A survey of hire purchase is carried out at quarterly intervals, and some results from this are given later in this section.

Store-type GroupCashCharge AccountHire PurchaseLaybyInstalments, Budgets, Store Credit, etc.OtherTotal Turnover (1972–73)
Not Assigned to Finance CompaniesAssigned to Finance Companies
*Receipts by chemists for dispensing charges claimed from the Department of Health were included under "cash" in 1968 and under "Other" in 1973.
Food and drink—   $(million)    
      Packaged667.3109.9------0.2777.5
 (85.8)(14.1)----------(100.0)
Consumed339.832.92.4375.0
 (90.6)(8.8)    (0.6)(100.0)
Apparel222.234.30.30.310.34.61.4273.4
 (81.3)(12.5)(0.1)(0.1)(3.8)(1.7)(0.5)(100.0)
Furniture64.2101.034.811.11.00.9213.0
 (30.1)(47.4)(16.3)(5.2)(0.5)(0.4)(100.0)
Automotive639.3420.566.8169.60.20.74.41,301.6
 (49.1)(32.3)(5.1)(13.0)----(0.3)(100.0)
Hardware47.5201.90.40.60.67.1--258.2
 (18.4)(78.2)(0.1)(0.2)(0.2)(2.8)--(100.0)
Chemists, etc.52.77.0--------37.3*97.1
 (54.3)(7.2)--------(38.4)(100.0)
Miscellaneous449.6474.342.38.27.326.69.81,018.1
 (44.2)(46.6)(4.2)(0.8)(0.7)(2.6)(1.0)(100.0)
Total, all groups2,482.71,381.9144.6189.819.540.255.44,314.0
 (57.6)(32.0)(3.4)(4.4)(0.5)(0.9)(1.3)(100.0)

The following table shows details of all industries surveyed in the 1973 Census of Distribution by turnover-size groups.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1973Total Labour Force on 15 April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid During 1972–73Turnover During 1972–73Stocks at Close of Year (March 1973)
MalesFemales
$    $(m)$(m)$(m)
Under 4,000467361077550.11.10.4
4,000–9,9991,3283135952,6581.09.52.2
10,000–19,9993,6769992,4988,6734.456.29.5
20,000–39,9997,7314,0407,79423,39117.4227.231.9
40,000–59,9995,3864,1587,21419,41921.8265.736.0
60,000–99,9996,2318,12711,40728,70943.0480.360.8
100,000–199,9994,76213,62512,09531,75965.1652.981.9
200,000–499,9992,62118,62111,86332,61185.8800.496.9
500,000–999,99990914,3039,31824,15867.0634.878.5
1,000,000–1,999,99940310,4485,76216,40948.2554.562.8
2,000,000 and over18610,7587,32418,20055.9631.380.1
Total, All Retail Stores33,70085,42875,977206,742409.74,314.0541.1

Of the 33,700 stores surveyed in the 1973 Census, 18,377 (54.5 percent) were owned by private registered companies, 7,843 (23.3 percent) by individuals, 4,675 (13.9 percent) by partnerships, and 1,960 (5.8 percent) by public registered companies. The remaining 845 (2.5 percent) were owned by a variety of organisations, including co-operative associations, licensing trusts, Government departments, and local authorities.

Geographical Distribution of Retail Trade—In 1973 the principal centres of population (urban areas) included 68 percent of New Zealand's population, and contained 69 percent of all retail stores, with almost 74 percent of total retail turnover.

Urban AreasEstimated Population at 31 March 1973Number of Retail StoresTotal SalesAverage SalesPurchases
Per StorePer Head of Population
 (000) $(m)$(000)$$(m)
Whangarei35.445566.51461,87950.8
Northern Auckland123.91,225130.01061,05098.8
Western Auckland99.172982.911483763.3
Central Auckland289.74,155585.61412,022429.3
Southern Auckland185.41,473204.11391,101156.9
Hamilton87.81,073176.21642,007132.9
Tauranga44.465673.91131,66556.7
Rotorua43.453089.11682,05566.2
Gisborne31.236454.91511,76142.0
Napier46.455066.21201,42749.7
Hastings48.258681.41391,68862.0
New Plymouth40.751974.91441,84055.9
Palmerston North59.8729108.11481,80981.1
Upper Hutt Valley33.026834.51291,04526.2
Lower Hutt Valley94.9957126.41321,33395.8
Porirua Basin52.029739.513375829.8
Wellington139.41,792281.31572,018202.2
Wanganui38.050861.31211,61246.2
Masterton20.628239.61401,92130.2
Nelson39.851264.61261,62148.3
Christchurch285.93,153404.11281,413303.8
Timaru29.539757.01431,92945.3
Dunedin112.41,334161.91211,440121.1
Invercargill52.3702112.81612,15884.6
Total2,033.223,2463,176.71371,5622,379.2

The next table gives the number of stores and value of sales or turnover for boroughs with over 4,000 population not included in the 24 main urban areas of the preceding table.

BoroughsEstimated Population at 31 March 1973Number of Retail StoresTotal SalesAverage SalesPurchasesTotal Labour Force
Per StorePer Head of Population
   $(m)$(000)$$(m) 
Dargaville4,1609913.81393,31911.0623
Pukekohe8,04016425.61563,18119.91,058
Huntly5,2909513.31402,51810.6517
Cambridge6,68012214.41182,15711.2733
Ngaruawahia4,080573.7659102.7241
Te Awamutu7,06016622.81373,22817.61,019
Morrinsville4,44012721.61704,87617.6797
Te Kuiti4,85010812.81182,6309.6547
Taumarunui6,71011817.21462,56413.4731
Thames5,87012915.11172,56711.9653
Matamata4,19011814.41223,44311.4604
Putaruru4,62010013.31332,87110.4515
Taupo11,90019825.31282,12919.61,044
Whakatane10,25018729.11562,83822.61,217
Kawerau7,670568.01421,0376.2352
Wairoa5,54010514.51382,61611.2702
Dannevirke5,60012815.01172,68111.5763
Waitara5,320686.6981,2475.2346
Stratford5,38010515.71502,92112.4652
Hawera8,21017528.71643,49722.61,153
Feilding9,98015620.51322,05615.7962
Marton4,6709013.51502,88310.5573
Levin13,85022128.51292,05522.01,238
Blenheim15,60023632.41372,08024.71,593
Westport4,880969.0941,8526.6536
Greymouth7,75017118.81102,42714.4958
Rangiora5,1509113.21452,55610.2586
Ashburton13,70018832.51732,37426.01,405
Oamaru13,05021928.61312,19222.01,366
Balclutha4,7108214.61783,09711.5643
Gore8,88016427.51683,09721.41,045

Types of Retail Stores—In 1972–73, approximately 42 out of every 100 retail establishments dealt in food and drink, either for home preparation and consumption (for example, the bulk of the commodities sold by butchers, bakers, grocers, milk vendors, and so forth) or for consumption on the premises when the establishment was a restaurant, hotel, cafeteria, milk bar, or similar. Total sales of food and drink amounted to $1,152.5 million, almost 27 percent of total retail turnover.

In the following table, leading results of the 1973 Census of Distribution are given by both store-type groups and store-types. Unlike the store-type tables given earlier in this section, the following table includes store-types surveyed for the first time in 1973.

Store TypeNumber of StoresSales or TurnoverAverage Turnover per StoreTotal Trading IncomePurchasesTotal Trading ExpenditureCost of Goods Sold as Percentage of Turnover*

*Cost of goods sold is equivalent to purchases during the year plus stocks at start less stocks at close.

†Builders' hardware stores, excluding stores selling timber and constructional materials.

  $(m)$(000)$(m)$(m)$(m)Percent
Food and drink (packaged)—
      Baker and pastry-cook, cake shop57020.235.420.410.918.153.8
      Butcher, delicatessen, poulterer1,778125.670.7126.190.4116.771.7
      Grocer and dairy4,983507.4101.8508.8426.7484.983.5
      Confectioner1223.326.83.31.82.955.7
      Fish shop (wet fish)2107.837.17.84.96.762.8
      Fruiterer, greengrocer89838.542.938.628.333.973.5
      Milk vendor1,07925.023.225.415.219.560.6
      Wine shop, independent bottle store27139.0144.039.327.134.168.1
      Other food and drink (packaged)4910.7218.610.98.910.282.6
Total9,960777.578.1780.4614.2727.178.5
Food and drink (consumed)—
      Licensed restaurant12915.3119.015.66.914.744.5
      Hotel, tavern, chartered club1,392255.9183.8259.7140.3240.354.6
      Unlicensed restaurant, tea-room, coffee house, cafeteria1,20442.735.442.822.738.153.0
      Takeaway food bar, milk bar, fish and chip shop1,38745.933.146.028.840.062.3
      Other food and drink (consumed)20015.275.815.36.513.842.3
Total4,312375.087.0379.4205.2346.854.4
Apparel—
      Footwear74448.665.348.833.944.768.9
      Draper91161.467.461.743.757.968.9
      Hosiery, lingerie, children's clothing, wool, corsets, millinery, and haberdashery73822.330.222.415.821.068.6
      Dress and coat shop1,35869.551.269.849.765.669.3
      Men's and boys' clothier74269.493.569.748.463.768.4
      Other apparel722.230.72.31.21.952.4
Total4,565273.459.9274.6192.8254.968.7
Furniture—
      Furniture store48281.2168.584.658.176.569.1
      Floor coverings and soft furnishings34841.2118.541.531.940.672.0
      Household appliance store.59974.6124.578.952.174.068.4
      Radios, television, etc.23015.969.316.410.915.464.6
Total1,659213.0128.4221.3153.1206.469.1
Automotive—
      Service station (oil, petrol, accessories sales predominant)1,545220.5142.7221.8175.6212.879.2
      Motor vehicles (including motor cycles)1,436985.4686.2992.0832.2955.583.8
      Parts and accessories (including tyres and batteries)53665.0121.365.344.261.866.4
      Other automotive28130.7109.331.323.929.475.9
Total3,7981,301.6342.71,310.41,075.91,259.582.0
Hardware—
      Domestic hardware, crockery, glass and china33220.461.420.614.819.470.0
      Paint, varnish, and wallpaper23825.7108.126.418.824.971.5
      Builders hardware ()21462.4291.663.446.857.774.1
      Timber and building materials294137.9468.9145.2101.6130.872.8
      Other hardware17011.969.812.37.811.363.7
Total1,248258.2206.9268.0189.8244.272.4
Chemicals —
      Chemist1,16093.380.593.764.485.767.3
      Other chemicals333.8115.44.43.04.178.0
Total1,19397.181.498.267.389.867.7
Miscellaneous—
      General store687129.5188.5131.6108.4126.283.1
      Department and Variety store379292.6772.0302.2210.5284.970.6
      Toys, novelties, etc.37016.544.716.710.714.864.9
      Bookseller, newsagent, and stationer1,26483.866.386.360.079.670.2
      Electrical goods10413.5130.113.98.813.165.0
      Florist2735.720.85.72.94.950.6
      Jeweller53723.844.323.915.321.760.6
      Pawnbroker and secondhand dealer34421.763.021.916.621.274.0
      Seedsman and nurseryman26211.343.211.46.310.254.7
      Tobacconist50513.727.214.010.212.273.7
      Leather goods and harness1446.041.86.04.05.764.7
      Music and record store13312.190.812.58.311.866.3
      Office supplies store11127.0243.227.213.423.752.3
      Sports goods dealer27618.868.318.913.717.869.7
      Agricultural machinery and farm equipment17753.6302.654.738.551.267.9
      Photographic dealer1317.255.37.35.06.967.9
      Sewing machine dealer1178.270.38.45.17.661.3
      Other miscellaneous1,151272.9237.1290.2220.7272.079.5
Total6,9651,018.1146.21,052.9758.5985.573.2
      Grand Total33,7004,314.0128.04,385.33,256.74,114.274.5

The following table shows the number of retail stores handling particular commodity groups and the total sales of each commodity group during the year ended 31 March 1973.

Commodity GroupStores Handling CommoditiesTotal Sales of Commodity
 No.$(m)
Groceries (excluding processed meat, fish, smallgoods, etc.)6,546367.3
Fresh and frozen fish (including molluscs, etc.)2,23612.3
Fresh fruit and vegetables5,10674.3
Fresh and frozen meat5,202154.3
Processed (other than tinned) meat, fish, bacon, ham, smallgoods, etc.4,69031.6
Bread, cakes, and pastries5,98348.7
Milk, cream, yoghurt5,56236.2
Cooked take-away food, fish and chips, hamburgers, etc.1,99934.8
Beer, wine, and spirits1,985254.2
Confectionery, ice cream, soft drinks, snack foodstuffs, etc.8,69290.4
Meals consumed on premises and separately charged1,75064.1
Cigarettes, tobacco, and tobacconists' sundries10,29294.3
Drapery, millinery, haberdashery, soft furnishings, bedding, household textiles2,93998.5
Women's, girls', and infants' clothing and accessories3,343160.6
Furniture (including mattresses, blinds, etc.)1,21678.3
Floor coverings (including carpets, lino, floor tiles, etc.)85656.1
Footwear—men's and boys'1,91125.1
Footwear—women's, girls', and infants'1,74439.8
Men's and boys' clothing and accessories2,362109.4
TV sets, parts, and accessories (excluding rental sets)1,21914.5
Radios, record players, tape recorders, etc.1,31922.4
Musical instruments, records, sheet music, etc.77316.0
Domestic refrigerators and freezers1,18126.2
Washing machines, stoves, household heating and ventilation appliances, etc.1,28529.6
Sewing and knitting machines, parts, etc.56610.0
Other household appliances and accessories (including vacuum cleaners, motor mowers, toasters, food mixers, electric blankets, etc.)2,06732.5
Domestic hardware (including kitchenware, china, glassware, cutlery, garden tools, etc.)2,62152.8
Wallpaper and glass58915.0
Timber (including joinery and fencing)69891.2
Wood-based panel products (e.g., hardboard, softboard, plywood)34121.6
Cement, clay, plaster, and concrete products, sand and gravel, bricks, tiles, pipes, etc.57936.9
Paints and varnishes1,35424.9
Plumbing supplies4356.0
Electrical supplies (builders)46712.9
Hand tools (including electrical)1,00011.5
Other builders' hardware and materials (including structural steel, metal joinery, etc.)83455.3
Motorcars and station wagons—new775323.6
Motorcars and station wagons—used1,520335.9
Trucks, vans, buses, and other vehicles except motor cycles —new51167.4
Trucks, vans, buses, and other vehicles except motor cycles —used62031.8
Motor cycles and motor scooters—new26616.7
Tyres and tubes (including stock retreads and recaps)2,66543.7
Motor vehicle parts and accessories (including batteries)3,067136.4
Motor spirit (not including diesel fuel)3,095170.1
Diesel fuel1,4906.8
Lubrication oil2,47212.1
Caravans and trailers (including fixtures and fittings)21012.2
Boats, outboard and inboard motors, parts, etc.36619.3
Agricultural machinery and implements (including tractors, parts, and accessories)81567.6
Industrial machinery and equipment (including fork lifts, machine tools, parts, etc.)26836.3
Office and business machines and equipment, parts and accessories18622.5
Fertilisers and manures77548.1
Grain, bulk seed, feed, and fodder62769.4
Medical and pharmaceutical goods1,29925.0
Stock remedies54311.6
Agricultural chemicals58613.7
Toiletries, cosmetics, perfumes, etc.3,06639.3
Prescription medicines (including dispensing and payments from Department of Health)1,16239.4
Photographic equipment, accessories, and supplies (including projectors, enlargers, chemicals, and film)1,14410.5
Souvenirs and novelties1,34012.7
Travel goods, briefcases, handbags, etc., of leather or plastic7128.3
Sports goods and requisites, camping equipment, toys, games etc.1,85136.2
Watches, clocks, jewellery, precious stones1,39324.8
Seeds, plants, and other garden supplies (excluding garden tools)1,22415.8
Books, stationery, newspapers, magazines, greeting cards, etc.4,24792.0
Secondhand goods, antiques, etc.61532.1

The following table shows average turnover and average labour force per establishment, turnover per unit of labour force and per head of population, and the approximate number of times stock was turned over each year as recorded by store-type group at the 1973 Census.

Store-type GroupAverage Turnover per EstablishmentAverage Labour Force per EstablishmentAverage Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceTurnover per Head of PopulationNumber of Times Stock Turned Over per Annum
Full TimePart Time
 $  $$ 
Food and drink—
      Packaged78,0592.51.620,322253.021.2
      Consumed86,9715.13.710,131122.629.8
Apparel59,8842.71.215,33491.93.8
Furniture128,3814.80.822,75971.65.8
Automotive342,7088.11.242,500354.611.8
Hardware206,9306.80.926,47865.76.4
Chemists, etc.81,4273.31.417,25332.66.7
Miscellaneous146,1805.81.420,238342.15.8
      All retail stores128,0114.51.621,0741,334.28.7

Shopping Malls—Unlike the 1968 Census of Distribution, in 1973 no comparable statistics were obtained for multiple stores engaged in retail trading. Statistics have, however, been compiled for shopping malls.

The following table gives the total of all retail establishments confined to shopping malls, excluding service establishments such as hairdressing salons.

LocationNumber of Stores in Shopping MallsSalesStocks at End of Year(March) 1973Total Labour Force on 15 April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid 1972–73
Full timePart time
Main Urban Areas—No.($m)($m)No.No.($m)
      Northern Auckland496.31.02091640.6
      Western Auckland416.51.02341110.6
      Central Auckland8810.02.14852291.3
      Southern Auckland14221.72.76544571.9
Total, Greater Auckland U.A.32044.56.81,5829614.4
      Wellington8714.62.05631841.5
      Lower Hutt Valley242.80.499650.3
Total, Greater Wellington U.A.11117.42.46622491.8
      Christchurch11616.32.15383041.5
Secondary Urban Areas573.40.4143860.3
Smaller Centres717.71.12721950.8
Other Urban Areas201.70.383230.2
Total69590.913.13,2801,8189.0

The following table shows the number of shopping malls by turnover-size groups, together with the number of stores (including, in this case, service establishments), aggregate sales, and average sales per store for each turnover-size group.

Turnover-Size Groups of Shopping MallsShopping MallsStores in Shopping MallsTotal SalesAverage Sales per Shopping Mall
$No.No.($m)($m)
Under 250,0007420.80.1
250,000–499,9998772.80.4
500,000–999,99911948.20.7
1,000,000–1,999,9993383.91.3
2,000,000–2,999,9993667.82.6
3,000,000–3,999,99937810.83.6
4,000,000–4,999,999515222.44.5
5,000,000–8,999,999312119.26.4
9,000,000 and over29418.79.3
Total4576294.62.1

Self-Service Stores—With the advent of equal pay for female shop assistants, shortages of staff, and the introduction of more varieties of goods, combined with larger selling areas, the numbers of self-service stores operating have grown considerably over the past few years.

The following table gives statistics for the units which were mainly self-service in 1972–73, followed by those which were mainly counter-service units.

LocationNumber of StoresSalesStock at End of Year (31 Mar 1973)Paid Employees as at 15 April 1973
Full TimePart Time
  $(m)$(m)  
Main Urban Areas—Mainly Self-ServiceNo.
      Northern Auckland17226.22.1470491
      Western Auckland10720.11.1371325
      Central Auckland52366.46.71,424898
      Southern Auckland21642.53.1892749
Total, Greater Auckland U.A.1,018155.213.03,1572,463
      Wellington21631.03.3884406
      Lower Hutt Valley11118.32.3376197
      Upper Hutt Valley416.80.514983
      Porirua Basin489.40.617897
Total, Greater Wellington U.A.41665.56.71,587783
      Hamilton14118.51.8429214
      Christchurch35149.43.81,107516
      Dunedin15618.42.1430184
Secondary Urban Areas729106.19.72,5391,029
Smaller centres45369.16.61,729693
Other Urban Areas30634.73.7705318
Rural32224.52.9346207
Total, mainly self-service3,892541.450.112,0296,407
Main Urban Areas—  Mainly Counter-Service  
      Northern Auckland1,053103.811.02,2831,551
      Western Auckland62262.87.01,432711
      Central Auckland3,632519.268.315,9985,039
      Southern Auckland1,257161.618.83,8561,848
Total, Greater Auckland U.A.6,564847.4105.223,5699,149
      Wellington1,576250.332.96,6852,851
      Lower Hutt Valley846108.212.72,1661,322
      Upper Hutt Valley22727.73.6574388
      Porirua Basin24930.13.5681358
Total, Greater Wellington U.A.2,898416.252.610,1064,919
      Hamilton932157.721.54,0671,239
      Christchurch2,802354.750.510,3644,738
      Dunedin1,178143.519.44,3711,532
Secondary Urban Areas6,061843.8115.024,6518,893
Smaller centres4,054548.572.614,4424,548
Other Urban Areas2,660265.634.97,1952,535
      Rural2,659194.819.34,6382,013
Total mainly counter-service29,8083,772.6490.9103,40339,566
Total all retail stores33,7004,314.0541.1115,43245,973

Wholesale Trade—The total of 5,215 wholesale establishments included in the 1973 Census of Distribution had an aggregate turnover of $3,632.9 million, an average turnover of $696,627 per store (Oil companies, with 119 outlets and a turnover of $318.8 million, are not included in these figures. A separate summary is given later in this section.)

Auckland and Wellington (including the Hutt Valley and Porirua Basin) Urban Areas, together accounted for 46.2 percent of wholesale stores and 55.6 percent of turnover.

The following table shows details of wholesale establishments by store-type groups in 1973.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1973Total Labour Force on 15 April 1973
MalesFemales
Food and drink96910,7554,42615,898
Apparel and textiles4963,2222,2505,921
Furniture3122,2519463,423
Automotive3734,1231,1405,501
Timber and hardware8908,8641,96511,405
Chemicals2182,5161,2073,784
Miscellaneous1,95715,1386,62323,329
Total, all wholesale stores5,21546,86918,55769,261
Store-type GroupAverage Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1972–73Sales or Turnover During 1972–73Average Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1973)
 No.$(m)$(m)$$(m)
Food and drink16.448.8880.062,05476.8
Apparel and textiles12.017.9289.055,11348.4
Furniture10.911.4202.163,84825.5
Automotive14.717.7407.075,10155.0
Timber and hardware12.838.1479.944,17186.8
Chemicals17.313.4209.459,14841.2
Miscellaneous12.073.41,165.654,797180.7
Total, all wholesale stores13.3220.73,632.957,014514.4

A classification by size of turnover shows that stores with a turnover of under $100,000 numbered 1,641 (31.5 percent) but accounted for only $68,195,000 or 1.9 percent of the total turnover. At the other end of the scale, a total turnover of $2,522,193,000 (69.4 percent) was accounted for by only 789 stores (15.1 percent) which had turnovers of $1,000,000 or more.

TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1973Total Labour Force April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid During 1973Turnover During 1972–73Stocks at Close of Year March 1973x
MalesFemales
$    $(000)$(m)$(m)
Under 6,0002314913041,0562,1520.30.2
6,000–9,999662421126790.50.1
10,000–19,9991841691335626512.70.5
20,000–39,9993794803751,3252,08111.31.7
40,000–59,9992835953311,2782,46614.02.7
60,000–99,9994981,4246672,5855,97639.37.0
100,000–199,9998283,3611,4115,33815,073120.821.8
200,000–299,9995202,8221,0634,26512,277127.522.8
300,000–399,9994022,9561,0624,20513,247139.726.7
400,000–499,9993012,6949223,77412,107134.625.6
500,000–599,9992042,0427552,8999,650111.790.4
600,000–799,9993243,9501,4605,57618,344224.7
800,000–999,9992062,7989873,90513,018183.6
1,000,000–1,499,9993035,5541,9767,64426,278365.5314.9
1,500,000 and over48617,5097,09024,72387,2892,156.7
Total, all wholesale stores5,21546,86918,55769,261220,6853,632.9514.4

The following table shows a commodity analysis of wholesale trade, repair work, hiring, leasing and renting.

Commodity GroupNumber of Stores Handling CommodityTurnover During 1972–73
AmountPercentage of Total
 No.$(000) 
Groceries, other food, drink, and tobacco459395,43710.9
Fresh and frozen meat, poultry, game, etc.191192,7895.3
Fresh and frozen fish, etc.14622,8620.6
Processed meat, fish, bacon, ham, smallgoods, etc., other than canned12238,7701.1
Fresh fruit and vegetables12465,5361.8
Bread, cakes, and pastries18341,0281.1
Milk, cream and yoghurt (wholesaler), confectionery, ice cream, soft drinks, etc.29671,5002.0
Other foods14750,8351.4
Beer, wine, and spirits167109,4823.0
Cigarettes, tobacco, and tobacconists sundries210111,5893.1
Fabrics, drapery, piecegoods, millinery, haberdashery, woollen goods, soft furnishings, etc.406138,3573.8
Footwear26831,8170.9
Men's and boys' wear27176,2052.1
Women's, girls', and infants' wear31892,1272.5
Furniture and floor coverings32792,2632.5
Television sets and parts (excluding rentals)8912,0990.3
Radios, radiograms, record players, and tape recorders17722,0460.6
Musical instruments (including records)4610,6610.3
Domestic and commercial refrigerators and freezers13831,7370.9
Washing machines, stoves, heating and ventilation equipment21235,1751.0
Other household appliances, motor mowers, electrical goods, and accessories37635,0611.0
Domestic hardware, cutlery, china, and glassware43861,9571.7
Building materials and supplies (excluding timber, bricks and concrete products)19133,9950.9
Wallpaper and glass13113,8920.4
Timber only, including joinery and fencing materials21966,9581.8
Panel products (wood based) hardboard, soft board, and plywoods12119,6480.5
Cement, clay, pipes, bricks, and concrete products, sand and gravel, etc.14445,3671.2
Plumbing supplies25960,5051.7
Electrical supplies28763,0391.7
Hand tools (including electrical)24212,9134.0
Other builders supplies, structural steel, metal joinery, etc.515184,9985.1
New and used motor vehicles62247,2846.8
Automotive parts and accessories, fuel, and lubricants522145,7644.0
Caravans, trailers, boats, bicycles, etc.16220,4450.6
Agricultural machinery, implements, tractors, parts, and accessories16232,5200.9
Industrial machinery and equipment464118,7113.3
Construction, earthmoving, mining, and quarrying machinery, etc.9627,8340.8
Other machinery, including office18923,6820.7
Florists goods, plants, seeds, and garden supplies24729,4490.8
Agricultural chemicals10421,8550.6
Fertilisers and manures10440,9041.1
Grain, seed, feed, and fodder9440,8361.1
Medical and pharmaceutical goods (including payments received from Department of Health)23170,3791.9
Toiletries, cosmetics, perfumes, etc.18733,2260.9
Industrial chemicals and allied products14471,3292.0
Books, stationery, newspapers, etc.21254,1601.5
Paper in bulk (not stationery)7838,1981.1
Photographic equipment and supplies6513,2570.4
Printers supplies, paper, and ink369,7400.3
Professional and scientific equipment, including medical, optical, and dental equipment13014,9320.4
Sports goods (including toys and games)21429,7830.8
Travel goods, leather goods, etc.14016,8310.5
Watches, clocks, jewellery, silverware, etc.27518,6310.5
Wrapping and packaging materials15624,1010.7
Wool, hides, and skins, and sheepskin products90205,2205.6
Other34531,0100.9
Total, wholesale commodities 3,620,72999.7
Total, wholesale repairs and services 10,9800.3
Total, wholesale hiring, leasing, and renting 1,201--
  3,632,910100.0

Wholesale Distribution of Petroleum and Petroleum Products 1972–73—Petrol wholesalers were not included in the previous tables on wholesale trade as the 7 oil companies surveyed under the Census of Distribution supplied aggregated figures for their respective installations. In all, 119 depots with aggregate sales valued at $318.8 million were covered by the survey. Details of sales of petroleum and petroleum products during 1972–73 are given in the following table.

Wholesale Sales of GoodsVolumeValue
*Included in these figures are the following over/under recoveries from the Petroleum Pool Account.
 litres (million)$(million)
Motor gasoline2,184.8209.9*
Aviation gasoline35.82.4
Lighting and power kerosene35.21.8
Jet kerosene201.18.2
Light fuel oil251.75.9*
Heavy fuel oil743.414.3*
Diesel1,074.140.4*
Other petroleum products...35.9
Total...318.8
 $ (million) 
Motor gasoline9.2(over)
Diesel1.3(under)
Light fuel oil0.1(under)
Heavy fuel oil0.3(under)

The following table gives a summary of the income and expenditure of the 119 oil company installations in New Zealand and also includes Head Office expenses such as sales promotions.

ItemValue
Trading income—$(million)
      Sales of goods (see above)318.8
      Sales of services (mainly to other companies in this group)6.4
      Other trading income (interest, rent, etc.)2.6
Total trading income327.8
Value of stocks 
      Beginning of year40.9
      End of year42.1
Trading expenses 
      Purchases of petroleum and petroleum products (includes refinery fees and coastal shipping charges)144.5
      Commodity duties and taxes100.3
      Salaries and wages (includes overtime)14.7
      Rent and leasing of land, buildings, plant, vehicles, etc.2.9
      Advertising and sales promotion2.6
      Gross interest paid1.9
      Transport costs —operating costs of own vehicles4.3
      —Contract freight and cartage7.7
      Depreciation on fixed tangible assets (as charged in books of account)8.4
      Other trading expenses24.3
Total trading expenses311.6

All figures in these tables dealing with the wholesale trading activities of oil companies include inter-company sales but exclude manufacturing activities which mainly involve the blending and packaging of lubricating oils.

Total paid employees of the 7 companies surveyed numbered 3,211. The table below shows the fixed tangible assets of the oil companies.

Fixed Tangible AssetsPurchases During Trading YearSales During Trading YearBook Value at End of Trading Year
  $(million) 
Land0.50.610.6
Buildings0.10.15.7
Road transport vehicles1.70.77.1
Other assets4.90.442.3
Total7.21.865.7

Service Establishments—Service establishments surveyed in the 1973 Census of Distribution fell into 5 main groups as follows: renting, hiring, and leasing; accommodation; motor vehicle repair, maintenance, and servicing; other miscellaneous repair and maintenance servicing; and personal services.

Of the 7,416 service establishments, 5,516 or 74 percent provided services only, and in the remainder some secondary trading was also carried on. Services establishments covered by the Census comprised 5,350 (or 72 percent of the total) in the North Island and 2,066, or 28 percent, in the South Island.

The principal centres of population (Urban Areas) contained 70 percent of service establishments with 79 percent of the total turnover of such establishments.

The following table gives details of numbers and location of those services covered by the census in 1973.

ItemRenting, Hiring, and Leasing ServicesAccommodation ServicesMotor Vehicle, Repair, Maintenance, and ServicingOther Miscellaneous Repair and Maintenance ServicesPersonal ServicesTotal
Number of establishments2971,5762,1718592,5137,416
Sales or turnover during 1972–73 $(000)44,95336,72499,59729,80764,773275,854
Location of establishments— 
      Main urban areas1763691,0594781,4073,489
      Secondary urban areas754045061945241,703
      Smaller centres22160298100336916
      Other urban1623315267181649
      Rural84101562065659
Paid employees on 15 April 1973 
      Males1,6328706,0441,6784,26414,488
      Females1,1483,36681042911,25317,006
Total2,7804,2366,8542,10715,51731,494
Total labour force on 15 April 19733,0257,0759,9673,17418,38541,626
Salaries and wages paid during 1972–73 $(m)10.56.521.37.127.172.4

Service establishments are further analysed in the following table.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1973Total Labour Force 15 April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid During 1972–73Turnover During 1972–73
MalesFemales
$    $(000)$(000)
Under 2,000223202729525.5277.9
2,000–3,99946549117741165.71,412.4
4,000–5,99956037236988341.82,814.8
6,000–9,9991,1751458322,5061,357.49,303.2
10,000–19,9991,7506451,9485,0934,405.925,031.4
20,000–29,9991,0121,1821,4034,1115,244.024,899.4
30,000–39,9995469788892,6884,189.018,848.9
40,000–59,9996501,7991,2443,9887,773.731,960.2
60,000–99,9995552,5911,7805,15510,848.542,620.7
100,000–199,9993132,5111,8484,74911,602.542,486.4
200,000–499,9991322,5613,7106,36513,817.639,390.2
500,000 and over351,9702,9724,94712,620.536,809.1
Total7,41614,48817,00641,62672,392.2275,854.4

The nature of the service establishments covered in the Census of Distribution 1973 is shown in the following table. It should be recognised that there are many other types of services.

Nature of ServiceNumber of Stores or Agencies
Personal services— 
      Laundry, drycleaner, carpet cleaner, dyer383
      Cleaner (office, window, shop)166
      Men's hairdresser143
      Ladies' hairdresser, beauty salon1,417
      Photographer (portrait and commercial)223
      Funeral director and undertaker78
      Health centres, saunas, etc., gymnasiums54
      Other49
Total, personal services2,513
Renting, hiring, and leasing services– 
      Cars and other motor vehicles101
      Television46
      Towels and linen20
      Apparel13
      Excavation, construction, building, and agricultural machinery59
      Office machinery and equipment13
      Other45
Total, renting, etc.297
Motor vehicle repair— 
      Service stations226
      Panelbeater714
      Spray painter218
      Car washer25
      Car trimmer85
      Engine reconditioners and engineers655
      Auto electrician170
      Other78
Total, motor vehicle repairs2,171
Accommodation— 
      Unlicensed motels973
      Motor camps and cabins275
      Unlicensed hotels, guest houses, hostels, boardinghouses285
      Licensed hotels/motels (accommodation predominant)43
Total, accommodation1,576
Other miscellaneous repair and maintenance services— 
      Boot and shoe repairer102
      Electrical goods repairer322
      Watchmaker88
      Carpet sewer and fitter44
      Agricultural machinery and equipment repairer39
      Gunsmith and locksmith15
      Tool repairer and sharpener35
      Other214
Total, other services859
      Grand total, all service establishments7,416

Turnover figures for the 14 main types of service establishments covered were as follows: Panel-beating, $33.6 million; engineers and engine reconditioners, $28.5 million; service stations, $18.5 million; laundry, dry-cleaning, dyeing, $17.1 million; electrical repairs, $16.3 million; hairdressing and beauty salons, $16.2 million; office and shop cleaning, $15.4 million; renting, hiring or leasing office machine equipment, $14.5 million; car hire, etc., $8.0 million; auto electrician, $7.7 million; towel and linen hire, $7.9 million; licensed hotels (accommodation predominant) $7.4 million; unlicensed motels, $5.9 million; and renting, hiring television, etc., $5.2 million.

The following table shows details of numbers and turnover of establishments for the above groupings, divided into those providing services only, and those providing mainly services but with secondary retail or wholesale activity.

Type of ServiceNumber of Establishments Handling Service SpecifiedTurnover During 1972–73
Personal services—No.$(000)
      Services only1,97955,528
      Services plus retail and wholesale5349,245
Total, personal services2,51364,773
Renting, hiring, and leasing—
      Services only20218,135
      Services plus retail and wholesale9526,818
Total, renting, hiring, and leasing29744,953
Accommodation—
      Services only1,26320,424
      Services plus retail and wholesale31316,300
Total, accommodation1,57636,724
Motor vehicle repair—
      Services only1,59860,280
      Services plus retail and wholesale57339,317
Total, motor vehicle repair2,17199,597
Other miscellaneous repair and maintenance services—
      Services only4749,648
      Services plus retail and wholesale38520,160
Total, other miscellaneous repair and maintenance services85929,808
      Grand total, all services7,416275,854

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADE—A quarterly sample survey of retail trade was made by the Department of Statistics until the December quarter 1969, but was replaced by a monthly sample survey in January 1970 and the results of this sample are aggregated to obtain quarterly figures.

The present sample survey was revised in January 1976, based on store-type groupings from the 1972–73 Census of Distribution. Some store types (hotels, chartered clubs, wine and spirit merchants, and the automotive group), are still excluded from the published figures. The collection of statistics for these store types commenced in April 1976 and the results are at present being used to establish a seasonal correction pattern for future surveys.

The following table gives quarterly sales and also stocks at 31 March for store-type groups. Figures prior to March 1976 have been linked to the new series to give a comparable long-term series.

Quarter EndedButcher, Poulterer, etc.Grocer and DairyOther Food and DrinkFootwearApparelFurniture and Soft FurnishingsHousehold Appliances, Electrical Goods, Radios. T.V., etc.Hardware, Builders' Hardware, Paints, etc.ChemistGeneral, Department, and VarietyOtherAll Store Types
$(million) Retail Sales
1973—
      Mar34.2152.950.411.053.534.227.249.923.680.9148.5666.4
      Jun37.8155.050.514.767.739.132.351.323.297.9147.1716.5
      Sep39.9159.153.012.365.746.235.155.324.697.2159.6748.1
      Dec42.6181.760.416.678.955.243.367.531.9132.8200.7911.7
1974—
      Mar37.1170.357.412.965.544.539.157.826.599.5180.2790.9
      Jun39.3173.858.316.279.554.547.256.827.7118.8178.4850.5
      Sep37.6186.260.414.475.858.953.664.330.5115.5182.9880.2
      Dec.38.0214.265.918.987.958.961.374.038.3145.2222.71,025.5
1975—
      Mar32.3198.060.814.066.643.951.659.332.0102.9181.2842.7
      Jun34.6199.861.119.888.952.967.161.433.7132.4187.7939.6
      Sep35.7208.864.416.180.761.674.365.636.2132.2206.9982.6
      Dec40.6243.372.221.299.369.983.877.843.5171.9275.11,198.6
1976—
      Mar37.4228.667.916.578.854.965.970.637.9123.1227.71,009.3
      Jun39.9239.669.823.099.663.877.674.339.1148.9225.81,101.4
      Sep41.0258.573.418.188.468.285.476.742.3140.2234.91,127.1
      Dec46.4298.086.322.9102.975.790.091.752.8190.0309.51,366.1
1977—
      Mar39.4273.076.318.781.063.571.481.543.1130.5269.31,147.9
      Jun43.9284.878.226.0108.871.380.984.044.6162.9260.71,246.0
      Sep45.5298.682.520.499.880.082.484.849.8150.0262.51,256.1
      Dec49.1328.889.624.7112.579.483.595.662.0190.3323.11,438.5
Retail Stocks at 31 March
19731.438.84.517.373.122.222.838.216.170.0104.3408.6
19741.744.85.118.584.029.725.939.118.487.3133.3487.7
19751.752.35.523.7101.647.537.647.721.2105.7150.9595.4
19762.063.36.626.8109.559.047.751.826.1110.0178.2680.9
19772.970.48.532.6124.078.761.362.629.8129.8217.3817.9

Retail Trade Statistics Adjusted for Seasonal Fluctuations and for Price and Population Changes—To facilitate direct comparisons between quarterly figures, seasonally adjusted values of retail trade turnover have been prepared. To do this, seasonal adjustment factors were calculated representing, for each quarter, an average over several years of the ratio of sales in this quarter to the trend value for the quarter (the trend values being calculated as appropriately-centred moving averages).

A special price index has been prepared for the purpose of deflating the retail sales figures to give a series in dollars of constant purchasing power—i.e., the adjusted series shows the changes in the real volume of retail sales. The principal source of the prices used for this index are the commodity prices used in the Consumers Price Index. The prices have been appropriately weighted and the whole index expressed on the base: December quarter, 1974 (=1000), so that application of the index to the original figures, both before and after seasonal correction, gives series in constant December quarter, 1974 dollars.

The results of these calculations and adjustments are shown in the following table for all store types.

Quarter EndedIn Current $In Constant Dec qtr. 1974 $
As RecordedSeasonally CorrectedBefore Seasonal CorrectionSeasonally Corrected
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*

*Base: Value December quarter 1974 = (1000).

†All data on turnover per head of population have been revised in the light of the 1976 Census of Population figures, revised intercensal estimates, and revised population figures from March 1976 onward.

 Total Sales
 $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) 
1973—Mar666.4709.2775786.5837.2914
      Jun716.5734.5802827.2848.0926
      Sep748.1775.8847837.4868.4949
      Dec911.7816.58921,009.7904.3988
1974—Mar790.9849.4928860.3924.01009
      Jun850.5873.4954906.3930.71017
      Sep880.2903.8987911.0935.41022
      Dec1,025.5915.610001,025.5915.61000
1975—Mar842.7916.01000813.3884.0966
      Jun939.6957.01045869.9886.0968
      Sep982.61,007.71101872.1894.4977
      Dec1,198.61,065.411641,019.9906.8990
1976—Mar1,009.31,070.61169822.2872.2953
      Jun1,101.41,134.71239857.6883.5965
      Sep1,127.11,153.31260828.9848.2926
      Dec1,366.11,201.41312977.4859.5939
1977—Mar1,147.91,245.21360795.1862.6942
      Jun1,246.01,278.11396828.5849.8928
      Sep1,256.11,281.21399798.1814.1889
      Dec1,438.51,282.51401882.6786.9859
 Sales per Head of Population x
 $$ $$ 
1973—Mar225.07239.55800265.66282.76944
      Jun241.92248.02828279.29286.34956
      Sep252.28261.62873282.38292.84978
      Dec304.36272.58910337.10301.891008
1974—Mar261.61280.97938284.58305.641020
      Jun281.35288.93965299.83307.901028
      Sep291.01298.81998301.19309.261032
      Dec335.49299.531000335.49299.531000
1975—Mar273.24297.02992263.71286.64957
      Jun305.06310.711037282.44287.67960
      Sep319.25327.411093283.34290.61970
      Dec385.88343.001145328.37291.94975
1976—Mar322.84342.451143263.00278.98931
      Jun354.19364.891218275.78284.10948
      Sep363.46371.901242267.29273.50913
      Dec436.77384.091282312.50274.79917
1977—Mar365.06396.031322252.88274.33916
      Jun398.99409.271366265.30272.13909
      Sep403.87411.941375256.61261.74874
      Dec459.07409.311367281.68251.14838

Information on quarterly sales is presented graphically in the following diagrams.

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF WHOLESALE TRADE—In this survey stores are classified by store-type group according to the predominant type of commodity sold. The store-type figures therefore do not cover only sales of goods normally associated with the type of store listed, as there are many wholesale stores which handle a wide variety of commodities.

It should be noted that this survey has altered coverage of wholesale store types as compared with the coverage of the Censuses of Distribution. For this reason, and because of the lack of uniformity in the trading year for which firms supplied census returns, care should be exercised when comparing the survey statistics with the censuses.

Certain stores (about a third of the food and drink group) which by nature of their business have a low ratio of stock to total turnover, have been omitted to facilitate collection and compilation of data.

The following table shows, by store-type group, the values of sales during the quarter.

QuarterFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicalsGeneral MerchantsMachinery (Agricultural, Heavy Electrical and Industrial)
$(million)
Wholesale Turnover
1975—Mar198.975.353.2151.1113.148.546.177.9
      Jun197.579.969.7185.3125.052.843.873.2
      Sep211.886.078.5203.9137.357.848.181.5
      Dec255.184.185.2187.5139.971.055.784.3
1976—Mar234.795.169.8174.8134.962.946.391.8
      Jun236.694.281.8195.3152.675.652.391.0
      Sep258.7101.495.0200.5166.973.261.198.8
      Dec293.6103.789.3224.9164.384.965.9101.1
1977—Mar272.394.781.5187.5169.182.961.596.6
      Jun290.3104.686.8211.6177.692.360.6100.1
      Sep302.6113.589.0215.1174.790.466.6115.8
      Dec345.988.475.1190.0163.591.966.997.2
Wholesale Stocks at 31 March
197595.675.447.8126.9111.255.435.087.4
1976123.576.451.6144.4104.952.130.9102.8
1977143.581.264.7146.2126.357.536.0107.6
QuarterElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryGrain and SeedsRubber, Leather, and Canvas GoodsOffice, Printers' and Photographic SuppliesOtherAll Groups
$(million)
Wholesale Turnover
1975—Mar36.831.111.210.518.475.5947.4
      Jun43.531.111.812.519.187.01,032.2
      Sep51.134.013.114.120.799.11,137.1
      Dec48.333.813.613.726.5105.51,204.0
1976—Mar45.535.611.913.522.790.91,130.5
      Jun53.336.713.616.026.2107.21,232.2
      Sep57.940.118.018.322.0109.71,321.7
      Dec50.739.017.017.528.7124.61,405.2
1977—Mar43.340.716.619.225.5110.81,302.3
      Jun57.242.816.220.526.7109.81,397.1
      Sep53.347.618.919.820.2112.61,440.1
      Dec43.352.217.416.921.9130.61,401.3
Wholesale Stocks at 31 March
197546.824.87.718.724.545.7802.9
197646.228.49.421.829.251.6873.3
197753.932.78.124.127.665.9975.1

For firms excluded from the continuing survey, the value of sales recorded in the Census of Distribution 1968 was $218.6 million, or 13.7 percent of total wholesale turnover and the value of closing stocks, $14.3 million, or 6 percent of total stocks. Early results of a revised survey of wholesale trade based on the 1973 Census of Distribution are shown in the Latest Statistical Information section of this Yearbook.

INSTALMENT CREDIT TRADING—Instalment credit trading in New Zealand has been growing steadily in recent years in common with other developed countries. This growth generally is explained by common causes, including an increasing social acceptance and the development of borrowing facilities. There is an increasing tendency for consumer durables to be purchased on credit. Instalment credit allows high-priced goods to be acquired as opportunity or desire dictates, with less reference to the immediate cash position. Some people welcome the discipline of monthly credit repayments as a means of saving. Consumer credit is provided either by retailers or finance companies. A major activity of the finance companies is the financing of motor vehicles on hire-purchase; the Reserve Bank collects statistics in this field. A report by the Tariff and Development Board on instalment credit trading, published as parliamentary paper H.49, 1968, is a useful reference.

The Hire Purchase Act 1971 is the governing legislation in New Zealand.

Regulations to control hire-purchase trade have existed since 22 July 1955. Goods coming into the category '"Other consumer goods" were exempted from hire purchase restrictions from 29 October 1977, and, from 3 February 1978, new regulations covering hire-purchase sales of new cars were introduced. These allowed for a minimum deposit of 60 percent, with a maximum repayment period of 12 months. For used cars the repayment was extended once more to 18 months. With effect from 19 April 1978 hire purchase sales and credit sales of colour television sets, together with the conditions applying to the hire of television sets, were no longer regulated. The maximum period of credit on new motor cycles was extended to 18 months, and on secondhand motorcycles to 24 months, while the minimum deposit for the latter was reduced to 33⅓ percent. Earlier regulations made in recent years are summarised below.

CommodityDate EffectiveMinimum Deposit (Percent)Maximum Repayment Period (Months)
New motorcars and light trucks4 Sep 19746012
 3 Mar 1976 Hire purchase and credit sales prohibited.
Secondhand cars and light trucks4 Sep 19746018
 3 Mar 19766012
Motor cycles4 Sep 19746012
 3 Mar 19766012
Colour TV Sets4 Sep 19741030
 3 Mar 19766018
Other consumer goods3 Mar 19761030

A limited quarterly survey of hire-purchase trade is made by the Department of Statistics. It includes selected merchandising firms and finance corporations and for the 1967–68 March year surveyed business was estimated to cover 72 percent of hire-purchase sales recorded in the 1968 Census of Distribution. Only sales covered by the regulations governing hire-purchase are intended to be included in the survey but some types of lending by way of lease, and instrument by Way of security are also included. Credit sales, charge accounts, laybys, and other forms of instalment or credit selling covered by the Census of Distribution, and shown in an earlier table in this section are not included in the quarterly figures. The following table shows the value of goods sold on hire-purchase as recorded by the businesses in the survey.

New Zealand from the air

A colour supplement to the New Zealand Official Yearbook with photographs by Electricity Division Ministry of Energy, National Publicity Studios, New Zealand Aerial Mapping, New Zealand Forest Service and the Ministry of Works and Development.

QuarterMotor VehiclesPlant and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal Sold on H.P.Total Owing Under H.P. Agreements*Percentage of Payments Overdue*
Sold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. FinancedSold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. FinancedSold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. FinancedSold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. Financed
*As at end of quarter.
$(million)
1975—
      Mar42.124.317.810.43.47.01.80.41.412.42.410.066.7192.53.3
      Jun53.629.324.312.25.07.22.90.82.116.03.013.084.7185.53.3
      Sep57.429.627.714.54.510.04.11.13.016.83.013.892.7200.24.6
      Dec62.433.229.215.34.610.84.11.13.018.93.315.6100.7220.13.9
1976—
      Mar58.431.826.516.04.711.32.90.92.014.42.811.691.7224.03.8
      Jun51.626.125.613.33.89.42.71.21.520.03.816.287.6226.62.8
      Sep56.027.328.721.65.216.32.91.31.619.23.815.499.7234.33.3
      Dec69.132.137.022.15.216.92.51.01.522.74.218.5116.4297.53.0
1977—
      Mar63.830.533.321.67.014.61.90.81.117.33.114.3104.6284.22.8
      Jun71.833.038.819.35.214.12.10.91.219.03.115.9112.2302.62.5
      Sep69.432.536.816.74.012.81.60.61.019.93.216.7107.6320.12.5
      Dec83.737.446.317.34.512.81.40.41.022.03.618.4124.4333.52.7

The average amount covered by hire-purchase agreements in the quarter ended 31 December 1977 was: motor vehicles, $3,199; machinery, $9,397; television sets, $468; other household and personal goods, $140.

Chapter 23. Section 22 EXTERNAL TRADE

22 A—GENERAL

GENERAL—New Zealand has always been heavily dependent on overseas trade for its development and progress. Today the value of New Zealand's overseas trade as a proportion of gross national product is among the highest in the world. In the early days of colonisation the infant farming industry found a ready market in Australia for basic foodstuffs such as potatoes, grain, butter, and cheese. Timber and gold temporarily constituted a sizeable proportion of exports, but the most consistent export was wool, which made up 22 percent of the value of exports in 1853, when statistics were first compiled. In the 1870s it accounted for over half the value; from 1880 to 1898 its share was from 40 percent to 50 percent. From 1899 to 1964 wool consistently earned one-third of New Zealand's export receipts; since then the proportion has declined, and in 1975 wool made up only 16 percent of exports by value, although in 1977 this figure had increased to 21 percent.

Real and lasting diversification of the exports of farm products was made possible by the introduction of refrigerated ships in 1882. This accentuated the development of New Zealand's economy as a complement to the British economy, to the benefit of both. The proportion of New Zealand's total exports going to Britain grew from 70 percent in 1860 to 77 percent in 1900, and reached 88 percent in 1940. At first, exports of frozen meat increased more rapidly than those of butter and cheese; the early emphasis was on frozen mutton and lamb, with beef and veal becoming more significant later. The great expansion of exports of dairy produce occurred after 1900, and was encouraged by the centralised factory production of butter. From 1913 onwards, meat, dairy products, and wool have accounted for over 60 percent of total exports of New Zealand goods. The proportion in the year ended June 1977 was 61 percent.

New Zealand's heavy dependence on the British market continued into the post-Second World War era. From about the beginning of the 1960s the increasing emphasis on diversification away from this dependence has been reflected in the growth of beef exports to the United States, of mutton and forest products exports to Japan, of lamb exports to Greece, the United States and Canada; the establishment of a rapidly growing trade in meat and dairy produce with the developing countries of South-east Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America; the expansion of trade with Australia under NAFTA and with other South Pacific countries; and the growth of manufacturing industries within New Zealand to supplement agriculture as a source of export earnings as well as to supply the domestic market.

Britain's entry into the European Economic Community has in recent years lent special importance to New Zealand's efforts in the field of economic diplomacy. The terms of the special arrangement concerning the importation of New Zealand butter and cheese into Britain for the 5 years up to 31 December 1977 were decided at Luxembourg in June 1971. This was preceded by an intensive programme of official contacts and representations both in Britain and in the countries of the Common Market. New Zealand's diplomatic and trade posts in Europe were strengthened to handle this work and, over the years, a programme of visits to New Zealand was organised for Ministers, senior officials, and journalists directly concerned with developments in the Common Market.

An important development affecting New Zealand's future trading relations with Britain and Europe arose in March 1974 when a new Labour Government was elected in Britain on the pledge to renegotiate the terms of Britain's terms of entry into the EEC. Of particular significance to New Zealand was the British Government's objective of seeking improved conditions of access for certain foodstuffs, including dairy products and meat from the Commonwealth. Following discussions with New Zealand, Britain submitted renegotiation proposals to a meeting of EEC Heads of Government in Dublin on 10 March 1975 making specific reference to New Zealand dairy products, and the EEC Commission was invited to submit a proposal for continuation of the special arrangement for dairy products beyond 1977 with suitable adjustment of prices. In June 1975, the British public voted by a large majority in favour of Britain remaining in the EEC.

Access into the North American market is vitally important. New Zealand's trade with the United States is circumscribed by various quantitative restrictions imposed on beef, mutton, veal, and dairy products. The quantitative restrictions on beef, veal, and mutton apply from time to time, although the situation is reviewed every quarter, as provided by law, but New Zealand's exports of dairy products are subject to a formidable array of quota controls. Dairy products exported to Canada are also subject to quantitative restrictions, and quotas were applied to beef entering Canada in 1975, and between October and December 1976.

New Zealand's economic and trade relations with Japan have become closer. Bilateral trade has increased, both in volume and value, and consultations between the two Governments, at Ministerial and official level, have been extended. Continued efforts have been made to improve access for New Zealand agricultural exports, particularly dairy products and beef. Beef sales recommenced on a limited scale in the latter half of 1975, following the establishment of several small quotas, and have progressed slowly under the 6-monthly import allocation system adopted by Japan in April 1976.

The newly-independent nations of the Pacific have attracted particular attention since the formation in 1971 of the South Pacific Forum. There is now much more awareness of the scope for closer trade relations with and between the Islands, and New Zealand has taken several initiatives in this direction.

At the same time our diplomatic and trading links across the Pacific, with the countries of Latin America, have been extended and a significant volume of trade has developed. Credits have been made available to Peru to assist it to finance purchases of meat and dairy products from New Zealand.

New Zealand's trade relations with Australia, dealt with in more detail later in this section, have always been close, but in recent years, and especially since the New Zealand – Australia Free Trade Agreement came into effect in 1966, two-way trade has grown at an unprecedented rate.

New Zealand's trade with the U.S.S.R. and the Socialist countries of Europe has continued to grow. The value of New Zealand's exports to these countries has grown from $39.2 million for the year ended June 1972 to $209.8 million for the year ended June 1977.

The large rises in world oil prices have greatly increased the revenues of Middle East oil exporting countries and this has been reflected in the expansion of New Zealand exports to the region in recent years. New Zealand exports of meat to the Middle East rose from less than NZ$1 million in the year ended 30 June 1973-to more than NZ$40 million in the year ended 30 June 1977; wool from approximately NZ$6 million to over NZ$12 million; and dairy products from less than NZ$1 million to more than NZ$29 million. New Zealand's exports of frozen lamb to Iran have continued to grow rapidly.

The main markets for these commodities in the year to 30 June 1977 were Iran (meat, wool, and dairy products), Iraq (meat and dairy products), and the Arab Republic of Egypt (dairy products and wool).

The scope of New Zealand exports to this region has expanded to include not only significant quantities of commodities such as timber but also manufactured goods ranging from paper to aircraft and fishing vessels. Algeria, Bahrain, Kuwait, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates have all provided small but rapidly expanding markets for New Zealand products over the last 2 years.

The pattern of New Zealand's export commodities is changing. Whereas, in the year ended June 1970, meat, dairy products, and wool earned 76 percent of New Zealand's export income (Reserve Bank figures), in the year ended June 1977 they earned only 64 percent of the total export income, Over this 7-year period earnings from exports of manufactured goods, including forest products, rose from percent to 23 percent of total export income.

The following table shows the changing pattern of external trade by countries of destination and origin. The percentages are based on value data, exports f.o.b. and imports c.d.v.

YearBritainAustraliaJapanUnited StatesOther Countries
Exports percent
1920745..165
1930803..512
1940883..45
1950663..1021
1960534..1330
June
Year
1970368101630
1975x2212121242
1976x1913141242
1977x2012131144
Imports percent
19204817..1817
1930478..1827
19404716..1225
19506012..721
19604318..1029
June
Year
1970302181328
1975x1920141334
1976x1819151434
1977x1722151333

TRADE RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED KINGDOM—The preceding table shows that the United Kingdom has remained the predominant market for New Zealand's exports and the second biggest supplier of her imported goods. The British consumer for a long time enjoyed virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of trading arrangements reflecting traditional economic, political, and cultural bonds between the people and governments of the two countries.

In return for providing an assured market for this New Zealand produce, Britain obtained an assured source of reasonably priced food in war and peace, valuable preferences in the sale of manufactured goods in the New Zealand market, and considerable earnings from the provision of shipping, insurance, and other services related to the two-way trade between the countries.

In recent years the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's export trade has gradually declined. This decline was given impetus by New Zealand's increased efforts to diversify her export products and markets in view of British moves towards joining the EEC. Thus in 1950 the United Kingdom took 66 percent of New Zealand's exports, but by the year ended June 1977 its share had fallen to 20 percent. However, the United Kingdom is still New Zealand's main export market, taking the bulk of our lamb and butter exports (67 percent and 64 percent respectively in the 1976–77 year), and about one-sixth of our wool and a substantial part of our cheese.

Entry into the EEC, involving assumption of obligations under the community's common agricultural policy, required Britain to terminate the 1959 and 1966 trade agreements with New Zealand on 31 January 1973, and to begin to phase in the common customs tariff and other EEC policies affecting the import of goods from those countries. In consequence, New Zealand phased out by 1 July 1977 the tariff preferences previously given to imports from Britain.

DIVERSIFICATION—Britain's prospective entry into the EEC also caused an intensification of New Zealand's efforts to develop new markets for its exports and to broaden the range of its export commodities. Progress in diversification by the dairy industry is reflected in the fact that the volume of dairy exports to markets outside Britain rose to 63 percent of the total in the June year 1975, 68 percent in 1976, and 73 percent in 1977 compared with 60 percent in 1973. An important factor in the diversification effort is the greater exchange of views and co-operation between the principal dairy exporters.

Reference has been made earlier to the important structural changes taking place in New Zealand's export trade and, in particular, the growing importance of manufactured exports and of new markets, especially in the Pacific basin region.

North America—The United States is one of New Zealand's largest markets outside Britain, and the major market for beef taking 42.3 percent of our total exports of this commodity in the year ended June 1977. This trade is, however, circumscribed by United States import restrictions, introduced in 1964. These were suspended in mid 1972 but have been reimposed since 1975. Dairy exports are subject to a formidable array of quota controls. Not since 1973 and 1974 has New Zealand been able to take advantage of emergency import quotas for cheese, milk powder, and butter.

New Zealand's exports to Canada have increased from $10.6 million in the year ended June 1967 to $65.3 million in the year ended June 1977. Beef is our main export to Canada, followed by sausage casings, lamb, wool, sheepskins, milk powder, apples, and textile yarns. In July 1973 New Zealand and Canada agreed in an exchange of letters to continue tariff preferences on the same general basis as those derived from their trade agreements with Britain prior to the termination of these agreements on 1 February 1973 because of Britain's entry into the European Economic Community. The July 1973 agreement included undertakings against increasing duties against each other, and for maintenance of margins of preference. In August 1974 Canada introduced import quotas on beef. These were removed in January 1976 but reimposed in October 1976, thereby limiting New Zealand's ability to expand sales to this market. New Zealand's main objectives in the trade policy field are to have the quotas removed and to obtain permanent access for dairy products.

South Pacific—The Pacific Islands have attracted particular attention in recent years and in 1971 New Zealand and Australia, with the Cook Islands, Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, and Western Samoa formed the South Pacific Forum. Since then Papua New Guinea and the Gilbert Islands have become full members. The Forum has initiated a regional shipping line, and studies into market expansion for Island products, and the rationalisation of agricultural production.

Japan—Exports to Japan have shown a marked increase from $6.2 million in 1953 to $403 million in the year ended June 1977. The largest export item is un-wrought aluminium, which represented 25 percent of our total exports to Japan in that period. Meat (mainly mutton and lamb), forest products, and wool form 37 percent of the total. The other main commodities exported are dairy products (particularly cheese and non-fat dairy mixes), animal feedstuffs, and ironsands. Imports of beef, butter, and skim-milk powder are subject to global quotas.

ASEAN countries—New Zealand is becoming increasingly aware of the long-term potential of the ASEAN countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand) as major export markets for agricultural and manufactured products. Over the six years 1972–77 New Zealand's exports to the ASEAN countries have increased from $52 million to $129 million and further substantial gains are foreseen as the region develops further, particularly for the export of manufactured goods. In August 1977 the Prime Minister attended meetings in Kuala Lumpur with the Heads of Government of the five ASEAN nations and the Prime Ministers of Japan and Australia. New Zealand's attendance was an important recognition of ASEAN's growing status and demonstrated New Zealand interest in ASEAN both from a trade and political viewpoint. While ASEAN continues to develop as a regional entity, the trading emphasis is on bilateral relations with each of the individual member countries.

China—In recent years the People's Republic of China has become a useful market for New Zealand, increasing its purchases from $0.8 million in 1970 to $25.1 million in 1977. Most of this increase has taken place since the establishment of diplomatic relations in December 1972, and the signing of the Trade Agreement in October 1973. Wool and tallow are the main exports, but contracts have been signed for a number of new products, including pulp and linerboard, logs, boilers, hides and skins, newsprint, casein, and butter. The third meeting of New Zealand - People's Republic of China Joint Trade Committee took place in Wellington in May 1977. The committee which has the task of overseeing the development of trade between the two countries meets annually.

Korea—Exports to the Republic of Korea have increased substantially from $1.6 million in 1971 to $28.0 million in the year ended June 1977. The Minister of Overseas Trade and officials discussed the development of two-way trade at the Eighth Annual Ministerial Trade Talks in Seoul in October 1977. Korea has now begun to import mutton for the domestic market (imported mutton was previously processed for re-export to Japan) and beef.

Latin America—Peru, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Mexico have become useful markets for New Zealand dairy products. Peru is our largest market in the area, purchasing not only substantial quantities of milk powder and anhydrous milk fat, but also some sheepmeats. The development of this trade was assisted by the extension of credit/supply agreements revived in 1969 for dairy products and 1974 for meats.

Socialist Countries of Europe—Efforts have continued to be made to increase and diversify trade with the socialist countries of Europe whose purchases from New Zealand have traditionally been mainly wool, hides, and skins. Sales of butter, barley, and stockfeed have been made, but largely as a result of shortfalls in Eastern European production. A sale of breeding ewes to Romania was a notable achievement during 1977.

The New Zealand Embassies in Moscow and Vienna have been effective in increasing both Government and private sector contacts with the U.S.S.R. and the socialist countries in Eastern Europe. New Zealand's exports to this area have increased from $39.2 million in the year ended June 1972 to $209.8 million in the year ended June 1977. Similarly, imports from the region have increased from $3.8 million to $18 million in the same period.

The U.S.S.R. was the fifth largest export market for New Zealand in the year ended June 1977 and the major purchaser of our mutton. Exports to the U.S.S.R. have risen from $25.4 million in 1972 to $144 million in 1977 while imports rose from $1.1 million to $5.1 million in the same period. In September 1977 the Government granted permission for a limited number of Soviet cars to be imported into New Zealand. The second session of the N.Z. - U.S.S.R. Joint Trade Commission was held in Moscow in October 1976. The third session was held in Wellington in March-April 1978. The Prime Minister visited Yugoslavia in June 1977, in the course of a European tour and held discussions on N.Z. - Yugoslavia relations.

The Middle East—Ministerial, official, and business contacts with the Middle East have continued at a high level. The Prime Minister, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, visited Egypt and Bahrain in March-April 1977. In Cairo the Prime Minister signed a New Zealand - Egypt Trade Agreement and in Bahrain he concluded a Memorandum of Understanding relating to the formation of a Bahrain - New Zealand joint venture for the establishment of a port facility in Bahrain. In November 1977 the New Zealand - Egypt Trade Agreement was ratified during the visit to New Zealand of the Egyptian Minister of Trade and Supply, H. E. Mr Abdel Fattah, and senior Egyptian officials. Mr Abdel Fattah and the Minister of Overseas Trade, the Rt. Hon. B. E. Talboys, also convened the inaugural session of the New Zealand - Egypt Joint Trade Commission which is provided for in the Trade Agreement.

Australia—New Zealand's trade relations with Australia have always been close, but recent years have witnessed unprecedented growth in two-way trade, particularly in manufactured goods. The 1965 New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has been an important factor in this expansion. A number of projects for co-operation in industrial development, including the motor vehicle industry, have been developed and there has been increased co-operation in implementing the Memorandum of Understanding on Defence Supply signed in 1970.

The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement was signed on 31 August 1965 and came into effect on 1 January 1966. The main aim of the agreement, which ran for an initial period of 10 years, and was extended for a further 10 years, is "to further the development of the area and the use of the resources of the area by promoting a sustained and mutually beneficial expansion of trade".

The central element of the agreement is its list of goods (Schedule A) on which duties are progressively reduced and bound at free in the tariffs of both countries. The agreement also contains general provisions governing the conduct of trade between Australia and New Zealand covering such matters as dumping, the maintenance of import restrictions, the encouragement of industrial rationalisation between the two countries, and the holding of consultations on a regular basis and for specific purposes.

The original Schedule A contained some 990 items. Since then further items have been added to give a total of 1,795. On inclusion in Schedule A, goods free of duty are bound at free; goods with duties not exceeding 5 percent become free; duties of between 5 and 10 percent are halved and eliminated 2 years later; and duties of more than 10 percent are reduced by one-fifth on inclusion and by a further fifth every 2 years. There is provision for either quicker or slower reduction of duties where agreed to by both countries. Schedule A trade represents about 54 percent of total trans-Tasman trade.

There has been some reluctance on the part of manufacturers in both countries to accept inclusion of their products in Schedule A because of the resulting exposure to unrestricted competition. Accordingly, in November 1973 it was agreed to establish a series of new arrangements (Schedules B, C, and D), which provide for partial participation in the free trade provisions of the agreement, for example, by way of duty free quotas or partial elimination of duties. A number of joint panels have been set up by New Zealand and Australian industries to study the possibility of using the new partial free trade arrangements as a basis for developing industries on a complementary basis through reciprocal trade.

Complementary development of trade has been encouraged since 1967 by reciprocal concessions under trading arrangements between firms in New Zealand and Australia under Article 3:7 of NAFTA. Approvals for such inter-firm arrangements totalled about $19 million in the June year 1977. Special arrangements have also been negotiated under article 3:7 to facilitate continuing trade where both countries maintain quantitative restrictions against imports. The new partial free trade arrangements, while not replacing the old arrangements, will offer wider opportunities, will not be limited to specific firms, and should encourage co-operation on an industry wide basis as well as co-operation between individual firms. The advantages of co-operation accompanied by the complementary development of industries are obvious; they include specialisation and longer production runs to supply the whole NAFTA area as one market. The reciprocal advantages available under the new schedules will encourage such complementary developments; in addition, in agreed circumstances, the two governments have decided to protect each other's production against competition from other sources.

Continued development of the concept of reducing tariffs within the NAFTA area as a preferential free trade area was the aim of an agreement on tariff rates and preferences, which came into effect on 1 December 1977. This replaced an interim agreement which had operated since 1973. This agreement preserves to the fullest possible extent for each country the benefits of the British preferential tariff system which formerly derived from the trade agreements both countries had with the United Kingdom prior to British entry into the EEC on 1 February 1973. The basic features are undertakings not to increase tariffs against each other, while maintaining agreed minimum margins of tariff preference over imports from non-preferential countries. In addition, the agreement makes clear the intention of both Australia and New Zealand to set tariffs against each other on manufactured goods at the lowest possible level consistent with protection of domestic production, while permitting reasonable competition from the NAFTA partner.

A number of special industry bodies have been established within the NAFTA framework to promote trade in particular products. Among these is the Joint Consultative Council on Forest Industries, the Joint Committee on Dairy Products, the Joint Pea and Bean Industry Panel, and the Joint Industry Panel on Sawmilling Products.

Trans-Tasman trade statistics are given in the following table.

June YearN.Z. Imports* from Australia (NZ$Million)N.Z. Exportsto Australia (NZ$Million)Visible Balance of Trade with Australia (NZ$Million)Ratio of Imbalance in Australia's Favour

*Cost including insurance and freight value.

†Including re-exports.

1973319.8131.8–188.01:2.43
1974x461.1171.9–289.11:2.68
1975x535.8188.4–347.41:2.84
1976x541.3292.3–249.01:1.85
1977731.7382.3–349.41:1.91

TRADE PER HEAD—Trade per head of population is affected, not only by the volume of trade but also by the value, i.e., the prices received for exports and the cost of imports.

The following table shows the value, per head of mean population, of New Zealand's trade over the last 5 years.

Year Ended JuneExports (f.o.b.)Imports (c.i.f.)Total Trade
 $$$
1973609.33467.251,076.58
1974595.53678.661,274.19
1975529.71902.621,432.33
1976x768.74953.851,722.58
19771,033.511,132.522,166.03

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE—In the following table the c.i.f. valuation of imports has been used to establish the visible balance of trade. Gold and specie totals are excluded.

June YearVisible Excess of Exports
NOTE: Minus signs indicate an excess of imports.
 $(000)
1971–72135,973
1972–73417,842
1973–74–249,472
1974–75–1,141,556
1975–76x–556,086
1976–77–378,240

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries (see Section 25B). A statement of New Zealand's overseas exchange transactions is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TRADE STATISTICS—Provisional trade data are published in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics fairly soon after the period to which they relate. A quarterly publication entitled New Zealand Country Analyses of External Trade is also published.

Annual volumes containing comprehensive surveys of final data are also published by the Department of Statistics.

New Zealand has used the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) as from 1 July 1962, for classifying external trade for statistical purposes; from the same date this classification was put into effect for recording the external trade of the Cook Islands and Niue. The SITC order was also adopted on 1 July 1962 as the Customs Tariff classification, but a move to the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature was made on 1 July 1967.

Provisional values of imports and exports are set out in the following table.

Period1974–751975–761976–77
Exports (including Reexports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Reexports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Reexports) f.o.b.Imports
c.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Value
$(million)
Month of July124.7205.5227.9140.9182.2198.9175.6252.8277.2
2 months ended August276.9414.2462.5282.3353.6388.0435.1474.0518.7
3 months ended September391.7634.4706.2432.6554.4604.2663.8757.2824.6
4 months ended October518.4858.1957.8611.5785.1860.0882.9986.11,079.2
5 months ended November636.41,096.01,224.0783.21,018.21,111.41,132.21,315.91,432.1
6 months ended December779.71,334.01,485.4963.61,248.81,361.41,407.51,566.61,704.4
7 months ended January895.11,527.41,701.01,120.81,459.21,590.71,691.41,791.91,951.2
8 months ended February1,025.41,740.31,938.71,319.51,641.31,788.21,977.32,057.72,244.1
9 months ended March1,139.81,912.92,128.81,544.21,993.62,164.02,243.42,346.02,563.6
10 months ended April1,303.82,101.52,334.31,765.32,230.82,423.42,562.12,592.72,832.0
11 months ended May1,458.92,273.12,522.71,993.02,458.12,670.42,869.82,871.93,135.4
12 months ended June1,612.62,470.42,737.52,371.62,693.72,927.73,216.33,168.33,459.8

Valuation of Exports—It has always been the practice to record exports at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, except during the Second World War when wool exports were valued at appraisal prices. Most meat and dairy produce exports are consigned for sale on overseas markets, and necessarily valued, on export, at the f.o.b. equivalent of the prices ruling at that time in the markets to which they are consigned. Price changes may occur in these markets before the actual sale of the produce.

The exports recorded relate to goods on vessels which have cleared their final port of call in New Zealand during the period.

Valuation of Imports—From July 1962. with the introduction of the Standard International Trade Classification, Revised, statistics on the c.i.f. basis (cost including freight and insurance) became available at item level.

The proportional difference between the two figures of valuation now made available—viz, c.d.v. and c.i.f.—varies from period to period depending on: (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods, (2) differential charges in import prices and in freight rates, (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchases and of shipping. In all the tables imports are now shown at c.d.v., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the imports entries passed by the Customs Department. Generally the imports entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf.

Annual Statistics—For trade statistics a June year has been adopted since 1 July 1962 and this accords fairly well with the farm production year.

The statistics of external trade given in this section (comprising the three subsections) do not include the trade of the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau; statistics for these territories are given separately.

The following table shows for the June year 1977 the values of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the countries trading with New Zealand.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDED JUNE 1977
CountryExports f.o.b.Imports c.d.v.
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of Origin
O.E.C.D. Countries $(000) 
E.E.C. Countries   
      Belgium39,22439,31222,484
      Denmark5,9215,9849,457
      Faeroe Islands--2
      France78,14478,21132,107
      Germany, Federal Republic of95,44395,996131,573
      Ireland8,4673,4882,003
      Italy61,43161,45536,193
      Luxembourg----111
      Netherlands83,75784,11463,835
      United Kingdom639,208642,288542,923
      Vatican City State1
Total, E.E.C. Countries1,011,5951,015,850840,688
Other O.E.C.D. Countries
      Australia367,251382,342711,250
      Austria1,1421,1424,188
      Canada65,28265,88382,177
      Finland1,5251,5363,132
      Greece42,34042,340811
      Iceland1
      Japan402,803403,514473,989
      Liechtenstein27
      New Zealand (Re-imports)......6,778
      Norway3,0663,0688,005
      Portugal10,07710,0771,887
      Spain22,63222,6387,610
      Sweden7,91615,40025,427
      Switzerland2,9283,06227,395
      Turkey3,0373,037320
      United States of America339,877353,228425,961
Total, O.E.C.D. Countries2,281,4732,323,1162,619,645
China
      People's Republic of China25,10925,10917,230
      Province of Taiwan29,77429,81212,471
Asia
      Afghanistan1161
      Bangladesh5465823,708
      Bhutan44
      Brunei129153
      Burma536213
      Hong Kong41,95044,47556,443
      India2,1182,21619,385
      Indonesia17,71817,8603,969
      Korea, Republic of27,95027,95412,845
      Laos1212
      Macao1551555
      Malaysia29,69431,48818,448
      Maldives----
      Mongolia13
      Nepal40140162
      Pakistan4,6204,9221,277
      Philippines38,20338,2523,206
      Singapore27,92461,29256,429
      Sri Lanka2,3962,4035,989
      Thailand15,20215,2562,582
      Vietnam, Socialist Republic of991,152
Oceania
      British Solomon Islands1,2381,380164
      Fiji34,15439,94617,204
      French Polynesia10,94211,50831
      Gilbert Islands6777507,033
      Nauru48249114,550
      New Caledonia7,6957,873100
      New Hebrides1,8992,0512
      Papua New Guinea10,59711,0692,120
      Pitcairn Island3235
      Tonga6,0476,8091,661
      Tuvalu9112
      Wallis and Futuna Islands129129
      Western Samoa8,7699,5533,514
Latin America—Caribbean
      Argentina8383334
      Associated States in Eastern Caribbean5,9765,97719
      Bahamas8073073
      Belize5757
      Bermuda2,7482,748168
      Bolivia1919--
      Brazil65897,702
      British Virgin Islands1818
      Cayman Islands3939
      Chile3434102
      Colombia1,2521,255159
      Costa Rica3,6183,6185
      Cuba3,509
      Dominican Republic1,4711,471
      Ecuador1,8371,8374,310
      El Salvador2,6132,61311
      Falkland Islands----
      French Guiana7777
      Guatemala2712715
      Guyana921921100
      Haiti51514
      Honduras55
      Jamaica12,19312,1991,120
      Mexico8,7468,7541,547
      Montserrat66
      Netherlands Antilles2,6642,6641,266
      Nicaragua74741
      Panama1,6057,8336
      Paraguay115
      Peru19,46819,468122
      Surinam19194
      Trinidad and Tobago12,07012,0714,165
      Uruguay443
      Venezuela10,88110,881--
Middle East
      Bahrain3,1713,29433,157
      Egypt8,9068,90715
      Iran43,15743,157138,715
      Iraq22,62222,682795
      Israel64841,861
      Jordan2,2062,2105
      Kuwait3,7333,73439,144
      Lebanon3232
      Libya4747
      Oman608609
      Qatar182182
      Saudi Arabia4,2084,23176,326
      Syria2,2482,248
      United Arab Emirates5,4485,455--
      Yemen, Arab Republic456456
      Yemen, Democratic People's Republic807
Eastern Europe
      Albania1
      Bulgaria1,4381,43899
      Czechoslovakia12,61012,6195,733
      German Democratic Republic3,4433,443531
      Hungary1,5331,534278
      Poland31,56231,5621,762
      Romania4,7854,790286
U.S.S.R.144,057144,0735,078
      Yugoslavia10,41710,4184,237
Africa
      Algeria1,9281,9284
      Botswana1218
      Cameroon46746739
      Central African Republic70
      Chad----
      Ethiopia474797
      Gambia1010
      Ghana1,6791,67910,745
      Guinea--
      Guinea-Bissau21
      Ivory Coast26226223
      Kenya1,4251,4322,978
      Lesotho111
      Liberia1212
      Madagascar5656116
      Malawi496502371
      Mauritius5,3765,3816
      Morocco22422431
      Mozambique2,6972,788193
      Namibia11--
      Nigeria2,8128,7669
      Reunion2942941
      Rhodesia22
      St. Helena--
      Senegal99
      Seychelles8787--
      Sierra Leone716
      South Africa5,1835,2778,737
      Sudan2213
      Swaziland3434--
      Tanzania1961992,477
      Tunisia83831
      Uganda112,769
      Zaire724
      Zambia5835843
Other Countries
      Antarctic Stations (British)-1
      Antarctic Stations (U.S.A.)22
      Cyprus4,8514,87544
      Gibraltar9797
      Malta4,3154,31554
Total, All Countries3,057,9773,159,7423,244,356
      Passengers' goods60313,428
      Ships' stores38,13855,522
      Grand Total3,096,7193,228,6923,244,356

VOLUME INDEX OF EXTERNAL TRADE—For the index of the volume of external trade, both the import and the export series are linked chain series with changing (price) weighting patterns, each year being calculated on base previous year and then linked on. This revised series was described in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics May 1972.

Exports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (=1000)

June YearButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy Produce
19711000100010001000100010001000
197391810311011108799410471046
19748537541023912732842889
1975853697811985764898881
19761079881937110795110511033
1977*11198701070117789210921100
June YearFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods Other Than FoodCrude Materials Other Than FuelsAll Groups
*Provisional.
19711000100010001000
19731029167510351074
19749371918820953
19758911893827929
1976104223349731094
1977*120629649671223

Imports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (=1000)

June YearPetroleum and ProductsTextile Yarn, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery Other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport Equipment
1971100010001000100010001000
197311021090970102610561254
1974133315701298145814541576
1975128912801538177620141458
1976x12001021926138416491429
1977*116412521141138015911452
June YearFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods Other Than FoodCrude Materials Other Than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
*Provisional.
197110001000100010001000
197310131086115511051086
197412471474139313271431
197514151524121712851468
1976x1143121297711991193
1977*11061293110511581250

IMPORT AND EXPORT CONTROL AND EXCHANGE ALLOCATION—To ensure that overseas debt services would be met and sufficient funds be available for essential imports, there have been import control and export licence regulations since December 1938.

The Import Control Regulations 1938 prohibited the import of goods except under a licence or an exemption. The Export Licences Regulations 1938 provided (with minor exceptions) that an export licence had to be obtained before goods could be exported. In addition, the requirement of an export permit was introduced by the Export Prohibition Emergency Regulations 1939, which have since been replaced by the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953. The Import Control Regulations 1973 require that, except for exempted goods (which comprise over two-thirds of private imports), a written licence, or a written permit granted by the Minister of Trade and Industry is necessary for all imports.

Export Control—Three classes of export licences are provided for, viz, particular, general, and purchaser's. The particular licence applies to an occasional shipment, the general licence is issued to exporters who make regular or frequent shipments, while the purchaser's licence applies to those cases where goods have been purchased in New Zealand for export and credits have been established from overseas funds (e.g., wool purchases). A condition of the issue of any export licence is that the overseas exchange earned must be sold to a New Zealand bank for New Zealand currency.

Whereas the purpose of the Export Licences Regulations 1966 is to ensure that all foreign exchange earned is sold to the New Zealand banking system, the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953 control the export of essential goods in short supply, of goods on which subsidies have been granted, and of goods shipped to strategic destinations.

The Export Incentive Scheme introduced in 1962 enabled import licences to be made available to all manufacturers who manufacture for export or who undertake to do so. Import licences issued under the scheme are either replacement, assistance, or bonus licences. A manufacturer already holding a licence, or entitlement to a licence for raw materials or components may obtain a replacement licence to the value of the licensed imported content of the goods exported, produced for export, or in the course of manufacture against confirmed overseas orders. Assistance licences will be granted either in the case of confirmed overseas orders where production has not been commenced, or when a manufacturer not holding overseas orders makes a declaration of intention to export and shows that active steps to open up an export market have been taken. Bonus licences are available to manufacturers who have actually exported; they may obtain licences for raw materials or components either of the same kind and value as those used in the manufacture of the exported goods, or of a different kind provided that the latter have a basic allocation and that the grant is not likely to affect adversely the efficient operation of an existing New Zealand industry. Bonus licences are in addition to licences issued as replacement or assistance licences. Once a bonus licence has been granted the materials or components may be used to manufacture goods for sale either overseas or in New Zealand as the manufacturer decides.

Import Selection—Before 1973 administration of import licensing policy was the joint responsibility of the Customs Department and the Department of Trade and Industry. On 2 April 1973 the Department of Trade and Industry assumed sole responsibility for licensing administration in terms of the Trade and Industry Amendment Act 1973.

Import provisions are published in an annual Import Licensing Schedule. Summaries of changes in the schedules and import policies in general up to the period 1974–75 are contained in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Since then the Import Licensing Schedule has provided generally for a level of licensed imports at 100 percent of the previous year's allocation. Devaluation of the New Zealand dollar and increases in the prices of imports has meant that the volume of imports has been progressively reduced. Where domestic demand has fallen, or because of a developing capacity to produce the goods in New Zealand a reduced allocation of licence has been made.

The objectives of the import licensing policies are to ensure a stable market for industry, to utilise domestic resources to the fullest extent, to maintain full employment, and to encourage investment and greater productivity.

A downturn in New Zealand's terms of trade has prompted tight control of the 30 percent of imports subject to licence, and the Minister of Trade and Industry has stated that "importation will not be approved of any goods for which a reasonable alternative is manufactured in New Zealand".

The 1977–78 Import Licensing Schedule again made provision for most basic allocations on the basis of 100 percent of the previous year's figure, but again import price rises meant a reduction in the volume of imports.

Some changes in the licensing system were introduced in the 1978–79 Import Licensing Schedule.

The new schedule was drawn up with three broad objectives in mind:

  • • maintaining a brake on spending on imports;

  • • fueling as high a level of business activity as the country can afford;

  • • achieving greater flexibility in the administration of import licensing.

The basic allocation was set at 107½ percent of the 1977 qualifying licences for consumer goods and 112½ percent for other goods with a basic entitlement.

Industries Development Commission—The Industries Development Commission operates under the Industries Development Commission Act 1961. This Act was assented to on 19 September 1975 and on that date the Industries Development Commission superseded the Tariff and Development Board. The Industries Development Commission Act 1961 differs only in minor respects from the Tariff and Development Board Act.

The Commission's functions are as set out in section 7 of the Act and are to inquire into and report on matters relating to industrial development and protection at the frontier when requested by the Minister of Customs or the Minister of Trade and Industry or the Minister of Overseas Trade.

At present the emphasis is on the Commission's development function. Its current commitments are a General Textile Industry Reference which calls for a study in depth of the whole of the New Zealand textile industry and two small development studies, one on book production and the other on galvanised steel sheet and strip. A special study is being made for Treasury on the contribution made by certain manufactured exports to the balance of payments.

Emergency Protection Authority—The Emergency Protection Authority operates under section 10A to 10E of the Industries Development Commission Act 1961. It was set up under an amendment to the Tariff Development Board Act 1961 of 22 November 1967. Its function is to advise, when requested by the Minister of Customs or the Minister of Trade and Industry or the Minister of Overseas Trade, whether urgent action is necessary to protect New Zealand industry in relation to the importation of any goods and if so the nature of such action.

From 1968 to the end of 1977 the Authority had undertaken 174 inquiries.

TRADE COMMISSIONER SERVICE—Facilities for the promotion of overseas trade are provided by the Department of Trade and Industry through the service of 37 Trade Commissioner posts-Athens, Baghdad, Bahrain, Bangkok, Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Djakarta, The Hague, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New York, Noumea, Paris, Peking, Perth, Port Moresby, Rome, San Francisco, Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Toronto, Trinidad, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington. This representation reflects New Zealand's interest in expanding and diversifying export markets. In addition, the Air New Zealand overseas managers in Tahiti, American Samoa, and Honolulu act as Trade Correspondents of the Department of Trade and Industry. Trade Commissioners have appropriate diplomatic or consular status in the countries to which they are accredited.

Trade Commissioners can be of considerable help to New Zealand exporters by reporting on market prospects for particular products. They can supply information on access conditions (customs duty, quotas, sales tax, etc.) and on other market requirements such as packaging, labelling, or testing requirements. Trade Commissioner market reports can describe the market situation, recommend marketing methods, and identify imports. The Trade Commissioner may also assist New Zealand importers to locate new sources of supply of essential commodities. New Zealand businessmen travelling overseas may be saved much time and trouble by enlisting in advance the services of the Trade Commissioner, whose knowledge of local conditions and whose connections with businessmen and Government officials in his territory enable him to give valuable advice. His task is made easier if he is given adequate notice of the visit.

The Trade Commissioner keeps a careful watch on the pattern of New Zealand trade with his territory and reports on significant changes. Where imports from New Zealand are affected, for example, by a new interpretation of an agricultural inspection regulation, or by the imposition of import restrictions, the Trade Commissioner is often called upon to make official representations to the government concerned.

Trade Commissioners are also engaged in numerous other activities, some of which are representing New Zealand at international conferences, reporting on economic and industrial developments in their territories, acting on behalf of Government departments in the procurement of stores, payment of accounts, etc.

Businessmen may write for information direct to the New Zealand Trade Commissioner in the country concerned but, where convenient, it is preferred that requests be made through the Department of Trade and Industry in New Zealand, which is often able to give preliminary advice and assistance.

The addresses of overseas representatives are listed in Section 39, Official.

Trade Promotion—A Trade Promotion Council has existed since March 1962 to advise the Minister of Overseas Trade and the Government on issues affecting the further development of New Zealand's export trade. Members are drawn from leaders of industry and commerce. The Council, which meets quarterly, offers advice and comment on the operation and development of government services for exporters and potential exporters; promotes the provision of export incentives and export finance facilities; assists in placing before the Government views and problems of industry in the field of overseas trade; recommends ways to foster a better knowledge within the business community of how to go about exporting and make full use of the assistance available; and suggests ways of achieving nationwide appreciation of the importance of New Zealand's trading situation for living standards.

The Council co-operates with other sector councils on matters of mutual national interest. The Council's Export Award affords recognition to individuals, companies, and organisations who have made significant contributions to the expansion of New Zealand's export trade. There is also The Governor-General's Award for exceptional export performance, which is open only to winners of the Export Award who have had at least a further 5 years' exporting with exceptional sustained export performance.

The Export Guarantee Office operates under the Export Guarantee Act 1964. As an offshoot of the State Insurance Office it insures exports, including contracts insured under the national interest provisions of the Act. In 1976 it insured exports valued at $272 million compared with $159 million in 1975.

New Zealand Export-Import Corporation—The New Zealand Export-Import Corporation was established under the New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Act 1973 to engage in overseas trade and act on behalf of any manufacturers, producers, exporters, and importers who request it to do so, including the Government. The Corporation offers a range of services varying from documentation and costing to complete marketing overseas. Its main activity has been concerned with assisting small and medium size firms producing goods with export potential. The Corporation operates the Sydney Trade Centre which assists member New Zealand exporters selling to Australia, and it is contemplated that further Trade Centres will be established in, for example, South East. Asia and North America. The Corporation holds shares in the Bahrain - New Zealand Trading and Storage Company (BANZ) which has been established to operate a port and storage facility in a free-trade zone in Bahrain. Shares in BANZ will be offered to New Zealand exporters once the Corporation's holding has been established.

22 B-EXPORTS

GENERAL—The growth and diversification of the New Zealand economy are heavily dependent on increasing exports to pay for rising imports of goods needed by industry and a growing population, as well as to provide for large payments for "invisibles" in the form of services. Overseas trade is the lifeblood of the economy. New Zealand's export trade has become more diversified in recent years, as regards both products and markets. While the traditional export commodities, dairy products, meat, and wool, remain the backbone of the export trade, new commodities such as wood pulp, paper, and other products of our forest industries, and manufactured goods, are of growing importance.

In New Zealand copies of export entries are forwarded to the Department of Statistics for processing and analysis and the regular publication of export statistics. Exports are valued in New Zealand currency "free on board at the port of shipment". Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy-produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realisation, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. A distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

Since 1 July 1962, the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) has been used in classifying export trade.

MAIN EXPORTS—The following table gives total exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports (excluding gold and current coin) for the latest 5 June years by the main commodity groups.

Year Ended JuneMeat and Meat PreparationsDairy ProductsHides, Skins, and PeltsWool
Milk, CreamButterCheeseCasein
f.o.b. value $(million)
1973540.989.9137.179.222.095.9424.0
1974534.1133.2109.561.828.667.0361.6
1975442.2106.0122.148.414.762.7261.7
1976x593.888.5204.278.027.177.4456.4
1977765.6111.1253.984.959.7128.6648.2
Year Ended JuneSausage CasingsTallowFruit and VegetablesPulp, Paper, and Paper-boardTotal*Re-exportsTotal Exports
*Including commodities not listed.
f.o.b. value $(million)
197314.29.730.836.41,758.733.31,792.0
197417,213.836.051.81,746.241.11,787.3
197518.816.441.280.21,558.063.51,621.5
1976x23.525.850.5120.92,255.6131.22,386.9
197725.833.064.8150.53,096.7132.03,228.7

The commodity groups shown above account for more than 70 percent of the total value of merchandise exports. In recent years, however, manufactured goods have come to play an increasingly important part in New Zealand's export trade.

The relative importance of dairy produce, meat, and wool as the main individual constituents of New Zealand's export trade have varied considerably, as is seen from the figures in the preceding table. The preceding subsection includes a table of volume index numbers for these commodities and for manufactured goods and other commodities. A table showing the export price index numbers and terms of trade is given in Section 23, Prices.

For many years, exports of wool, meat and dairy produce averaged over 70 percent (by value) of New Zealand's export trade. Despite the growing importance of manufactured goods, they still make up about three-fifths. During the June years 1976 and 1977, exports of these products made up 64 percent and 61 percent respectively of the total value of exports.

Other principal exports of economic significance for the June years 1976 and 1977 were: Unwrought aluminium ($67.7 m and $113.0 m), wood pulp ($58.8 m and $70.0 m), lamb and sheep pelts ($40.6 m and $69.1 m), newsprint paper ($34.3 m and $51.8 m), inedible tallow ($25.6 m and $32.3 m), fresh, chilled, or frozen fish, including crayfish ($25.2 m and $41.5 m), and cattle hides ($23.0 m and $36.3 m).

Quantity figures of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce are next given for the 3 latest years, while the Statistical Summary, towards the end of the book, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities for the last 50 years.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)UnitYear Ended June
197519761977
Racing horsesno.1,6952,0402,129
Meat, fresh, chilled or frozen—
      Beef—
      Bone intonne120,214132,53117,842
      Bonelesstonne61,30885,217234,339
      Vealtonne10,92310,3638,458
      Lamb—
      Carcasses(000)18,90720,01318,472
      Bonelesstonne35,25951,60850,126
      Muttontonne108,99579,996105,353
      Other meat and edible offalstonne38,83749,34753,563
Milk and cream—
      Condensed and evaporatedtonne1,0491,2941,790
      Skimmed milk powdertonne117,96497,096158,547
      Other driedtonne40,85649,43680,086
      Other kindslitre (000)5,5227,6064,718
Buttertonne164,171206,788x212,929
Cheesetonne64,76380,640x79,046
Fish, fresh, chilled or frozentonne10,57711,02823,967
Crayfish, fresh and simply preservedtonne1,6331,7251,788
Barley, unmilledtonne--59,26452,610
Maize, unmilledtonne14877,11446,303
Fruit and vegetables—
      Apples, fresh, whole fruittonne79,57176,49459,467
      Chinese gooseberries (kiwi fruit)tonne3,0663,5196,107
      Potatoes, freshtonne8,19814,554x24,131
      Peas—
      Dry, including splittonne21,63819,06327,321
      For sowingtonne10,1458,668x10,953
      Frozentonne4,6345,2189,366
      Onions, freshtonne9,57519,68341,119
      Vegetables, frozen, excluding peastonne6,1324,4204,390
Chocolate and preparationstonne6,2366,9535,691
Feeding stuff for animals—
      Lucerne meal and pelletstonne20,73129,75628,549
      Meals of meat, fish, etc.tonne52,11962,24069,083
      Poultry mash and pelletstonne24,00919,84821,663
      Other kindstonne6,03829,638162,651
Margarine and shorteningtonne7443,0916,263
Hides, skins and furskins, undressed—
      Cattle hides(000)1,5672,055x1,862
      Calf and kip skins(000)1,041977x1,029
      Sheep and lamb skins in fleece(000)2,4141,7532,661
      Lamb pelts(000)19,84220,26819,399
      Sheep pelts(000)8,0405,6537,198
      Opossum skins(000)1,7881,590x1,659
Sawlogs and veneer logs, conifercu metre631,984707,8031,081,589
Timber, sawn, sliced or peeled—
      Douglas fircu metre30,69332,22330,065
      Pinus radiatecu metre117,007134,184193,155
Wood pulp—
      Mechanicaltonne123,641137,579208,665
      Sulphate, not dissolving gradestonne180,356222,340211,731
Wool—
      Greasytonne102,871142,605124,625
      Slipetonne28,32924,33026,269
      Scouredtonne86,997105,432103,005
Iron ore and concentratestonne (000)2,3522,2362,223
Sausage casings, naturalhank (000)6,3307,1216,527
Clover and grass seedstonne11,4116,07112,396
Petroleum products—
      Distillate fuellitre (000)173,082167,626157,846
      Residual fuel oillitre (000)186,831185,503227,986
Tallow, inedibletonne71,57395,667x93,486
Caseintonne17,11924,26362,384
Caseinatestonne4692,3954,150
Newsprinttonne120,587132,117x175,999
Kraft paper and kraft cardboardtonne47,46877,88172,398
Yarn of wool or hairtonne1,0252,4213,809
Carpets, carpeting and rugsSq m (000)1,8182,7683,015
Iron or steel—
      Bars, rods, angles, etc.tonne4,53410,78116,141
      Universals, plates and sheetstonne40,52019,01227,587
Aluminium, unwroughttonne74,24598,009127,486
Finished structural parts and structures, n.e.s. of metaltonne1,7901,6981,567
Domestic electric refrigeratorsno.92,907114,99086,853

The values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)Year Ended June
197519761977
*Includes parts.
$(thousand)
Racing horses7,96711,35314,701
Meat, fresh, chilled or frozen—
      Beef—
      Bone in93,088131,09418,682
      Boneless58,31497,794279,011
      Veal10,40212,56014,444
      Lamb—
      Carcasses158,987213,392259,699
      Boneless33,32750,16660,041
      Mutton46,34933,79467,771
      Other meat and edible offals37,48847,42756,804
Milk and cream—
      Condensed and evaporated439624912
      Skimmed milk powder74,76850,19556,738
      Other dried27,84933,68250,897
      Other kinds2,9184,0242,565
Butter122,097204,196x253,890
Cheese48,44077,970x84,881
Fish, fresh, chilled or frozen7,20710,89019,898
Crayfish, fresh and simply preserved10,74314,32721,582
Barley, unmilled--7,3176,946
Maize, unmilled208,7085,471
Fruit and vegetables—
      Apples, fresh, whole fruit19,30520,76316,203
      Chinese gooseberries (kiwi fruit) fresh2,8624,3889,960
      Potatoes, fresh1,0902,1103,275
      Peas—
      Dry, including split5,5385,9798,001
      For sowing2,2412,5853,392
      Frozen1,4702,0064,169
      Onions, fresh1,1973,6928,634
      Vegetables, frozen, excluding peas2,2122,0302,305
Chocolate and preparations4,4546,9026,143
Feeding stuff for animals—
      Lucerne meal and pellets1,6822,4783,283
      Meals of meat, fish, etc.6,2546,65415,892
      Poultry mash and pellets2,3602,0722,993
      Other kinds2,21710,32629,943
Margarine and shortening7053,6847,981
Hides, skins and furskins, undressed—
      Cattle hides13,10723,01636,331
      Calf and kip skins3,2124,3017,913
      Sheep and lamb skins in fleece4,3984,1837,627
      Lamb pelts25,89429,45245,532
      Sheep pelts10,58811,19123,523
      Opossum skins4,6384,3846,632
Sawlogs and veneer logs, conifer16,41619,06230,461
Timber, sawn, sliced or peeled—
      Douglas fir2,2162,4072,683
      Pinus radiata6,3327,16611,390
Wood pulp—
      Mechanical11,70613,84122,645
      Sulphate, not dissolving grades31,03244,94047,382
Wool—
      Greasy107,715220,119283,296
      Slipe28,49338,60960,251
      Scoured125,449197,679304,605
Iron ore and concentrates11,51512,78014,384
Sausage casings, natural18,84623,48725,844
Clover and grass seeds10,0044,51910,835
Petroleum products—
      Distillate fuel8,74215,76318,110
      Residual fuel oil6,46012,68219,095
Tallow, inedible16,41325,61632,299
Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins2,0662,1304,250
Casein14,65227,08659,718
Caseinates6132,8354,919
Leather—
      Bovine and equine, including calf5653,1068,208
      Lamb skin6,2516,54514,318
Furs, dressed or dressed and dyed2,0292,6773,505
Wood chips, softwood4,7416,3167,909
Newsprint paper20,84934,30551,796
Kraft paper and kraft cardboard11,94022,47221,663
Articles of pulp, paper or paperboard3,1824,7875,932
Yarn of wool or hair3,6139,01518,277
Carpets, carpeting and rugs11,56820,63428,521
Iron or steel—
      Bars, rods, angles, etc.1,1772,0583,536
      Universals, plates and sheets9,0655,2609,380
Aluminium, unwrought36,51567,667112,976
Finished structural parts and structures, n.e.s., of metal1,8202,2252,457
Tools for use in the hand or in machines2,0832,0993,148
Agricultural machinery and implements*5,7825,92610,081
Textile and leather machinery5,0406,1817,349
Electric power machinery and switchgear2,2103,5014,882
Domestic electric equipment—
      Refrigerators13,52818,96316,391
      Other*2,9693,8134,962
Road motor vehicles*5,9729,06310,323
Aircraft*2,2532,4151,554
Ships and boats*1,8282,3842,167
Clothing, excluding fur clothing3,79612,79425,807
Printed matter2,4583,1905,204
Prams, toys, games, sporting goods1,2192,1633,838

In the following table exports (excluding re-exports) are summarised according to the Sections and Divisions of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised).

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE
Section and DivisionYear Ended June
1976x1977
0 Food and Live Animals$(thousand)
00 Live animals13,56218,641
01 Meat and meat preparations593,825765,601
02 Dairy products and eggs371,796452,424
03 Fish and fish preparations30,70148,413
04 Cereals and cereal preparations20,79320,103
05 Fruit and vegetables50,50264,768
06 Sugar and sugar preparations4,1155,100
07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof8,8757,955
08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)21,52952,111
09 Miscellaneous food preparations6,59912,179
Total, Section 01,122,2961,447,296
1 Beverages and Tobacco
11 Beverages1,7982,277
12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures2,1232,553
Total, Section 13,9214,830
2 Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels
21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed77,393128,648
22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and kernels481,584
23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed
24 Wood and cork31,95550,405
25 Pulp and waste paper59,11170,481
26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and waste457,475649,663
27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones625549
28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap15,23117,558
29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.s.39,06051,553
Total, Section 2680,897970,442
3 Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials
32 Coal, coke, and briquettes5551,122
33 Petroleum and petroleum products28,89937,750
34 Gas1--
Total, Section 329,45538,872
4 Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats
41 Animal oils and fats27,00235,227
42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed1110
43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin576711
Total, Section 427,58835,949
5 Chemicals
51 Chemical elements and compounds1,9853,383
52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas218
53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials1,3752,037
54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products4,3175,040
55 Essential oils and perfume materials, toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations3,2934,969
56 Fertilisers manufactured387362
57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products6137
58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins2,1304,250
59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products36,87071,785
Total, Section 550,43991,870
6 Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material
61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.i., and dressed furs12,99626,817
62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.1,8392,110
63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)9,67113,679
64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof66,62485,976
65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products37,91556,944
66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.s.5,2259,714
67 Iron and steel9,09615,932
68 Non-ferrous metals69,847116,855
69 Manufactures of metal17,50025,667
Total, Section 6230,713353,695
7 Machinery and Transport Equipment
71 Machinery other than electric24,91836,741
72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances31,64935,449
73 Transport equipment14,13014,494
Total, Section 770,69786,685
8 Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles
81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures, and fittings1,0081,378
82 Furniture and fixtures4,6468,470
83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles1,8051,529
84 Clothing13,36827,285
85 Footwear1,3252,449
86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods, watches and clocks2,7913,268
89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.s.14,31822,583
Total, Section 839,26166,961
9 Commodities and Transactions Not Classified According to Kind
Goods under $50 in value25932
Other10288
Total, Section 9361120
Total New Zealand produce exports2,255,6283,096,718
Re-exports131,226131,974
Grand total, merchandise exports2,386,8543,228,692
      Exports of gold (excluded from above)188

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) are given in the table below. It should be noted that Australia includes Cocos and Norfolk Islands, and the United States includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Islands Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

CountryYear Ended June
19721973197419751976.V1977
*Including ships' stores, passengers' duty free purchases, and destination optional.
$(million)
Australia113.3131.8171.9188.4292.3382.3
Canada40.142.452.445.159.865.9
France41.861.737.743.366.078.2
Germany, Fed. Rep. of34.651.242.342.362.596.0
Japan130.7231.5248.7187.1325.9403.5
Netherlands20.139.846.936.556.584.1
United Kingdom419.6480.2368.7351.7450.8642.3
United States216.6283.0300.2190.9278.2353.2
U.S.S.R.25.430.237.945.462.1144.1
Other Countries*332.8440.1480.6490.9732.7979.0
Total merchandise exports1,375.01,792.01,787.31,621.52,386.93,228.7

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded on the Customs documents. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and in normal times subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export, the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported on an "optional" basis—United Kingdom, option Continent. In these cases, however, subsequent information is received as to the actual destination of the goods, and the entries are amended.

It will be realised, therefore, that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

Eastern Europe—Continued efforts are being made to increase and diversify trade with the Socialist countries of Europe whose purchases from New Zealand have traditionally been mainly wool, hides and skins. Trade with these countries has grown to such an extent that the U.S.S.R. has become New Zealand's fifth largest export market by value in 1977. In the year ended June 1977 New Zealand's exports to the U.S.S.R. increased to $144.1 million, compared with $62.1 million in 1976 and $45.4 million in 1975. Exports to other Eastern European countries have increased. Poland from $23.5 million in 1976 to $31.6 million in 1977, and Czechoslovakia from $4.4 million in 1976 to $12.6 million in 1977.

In the following table, figures are given for the main export commodities to Eastern Europe in 1977.

CountryMeatButterWoolHides and SkinsLeatherTotal Exports*

*Of New Zealand produce. Re-exports not included.

$(thousand)
Bulgaria1,1093291,438
Czechoslovakia12,5961412,610
German Democratic Republic3,4293,443
Hungary--1,23331,533
Poland9,59535618,2093,21818231,562
Romania3,651764,785
U.S.S.R.77,9183,31658,913144,057
Yugoslavia1,9393355,4711,38618510,417

Oceania—Exports to the countries of Oceania have increased in the past years. In 1973 the total was $40.2 million compared with $91.6 million in 1977. Fiji is the principal importer of New Zealand's exports to Oceania, taking over 40 percent of the total each year.

The following table shows the increase in value of total exports over the past 5 years.

CountryYear Ended June
19731974197519761977
*Included with Gilbert Islands before 1977.
$(thousand)
British Solomon Islands3655576531,1561,380
Canton and Enderbury Islands
Fiji17,78920,21623,38930,92239,946
French Polynesia5,9756,0886,7808,27911,508
Gilbert Islands232270340705750
Nauru258159241294491
New Caledonia4,2063,9174,1475,6767,873
New Hebrides1,7561,7231,6631,3222,051
Papua New Guinea1,7872,2303,9006,13311,069
Pitcairn Island1923162235
Tonga2,3083,0514,8494,9616,809
Tuvalu*11
Wake Island
Wallis and Futuna Islands27120284178129
Western Samoa5,2635,5757,9607,4519,553
Total40,23044,01154,02267,09991,604

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS—The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the latest available June years. Note: Australia includes Cocos and Norfolk Islands; United States includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Islands Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

Country to Which ExportedJune Year 1975June Year 1976xJune Year 1977
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

*Excludes Province of Taiwan.

†Excludes oysters.

Wool (Greasy, Slipe, and Scoured)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia4,9347,69310,18919,8257,69123,023
Belgium7,6028,9738,61014,23110,50225,922
Canada1,2121,7501,5222,5991,8425,456
China*8,16012,4022,8997,333
Czechoslovakia4,2324,0572,8774,3615,36812,596
France17,69918,54925,98141,24619,73945,074
German Democratic Republic2,2622,2691,9653,0911,4543,429
Germany, Federal Republic of18,55623,86822,92141,19322,82961,277
Greece13,36821,58612,69925,03810,72133,252
Hong Kong1,4552,2493,4146,7823,88011,548
Iran8,45912,0869,38116,2927,59022,369
Ireland, Republic of1,6861,9872,2584,0292,4256,580
Italy7,4868,5229,66016,2967,88321,589
Japan16,45521,12826,99644,34717,29645,593
Netherlands24,33025,30925,34740,53826,43361,588
Poland7,4807,9858,38913,3428,21518,209
Portugal4915041,4512,4382,0544,938
South Africa6709845791,032305841
Spain1,2911,3111,7352,4991,8394,232
U.S.S.R.21,72025,48627,66445,70524,19958,913
United Kingdom41,91146,65539,88564,28147,106116,596
United States of America6,6928,0448,97415,38710,16425,910
Yugoslavia1,4271,4845,8748,6632,1965,471
Other countries6,7819,1765,83710,7899,26726,414
Total218,198261,657272,367456,406253,899648,152
Beef and Veal (Fresh, Chilled or Frozen)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean1,8361,4422,4871,9861,9332,007
Belgium742683614837451612
Bermuda8971,0566919599731,542
Canada22,25518,37638,75736,61825,66630,304
China, Province of Taiwan4865351,6551,466206698
Cyprus7277351,4441,4173,0163,071
Fiji426436830704597592
France101102606877315473
French Polynesia1,7392,6322,2583,7162,5164,647
Germany, Federal Republic of239364547687572817
Greece1,0948573,5653,5494,4783,275
Hong Kong1,6692,5802,4274,0252,9886,223
Iraq4222991,6281,3434,8225,578
Jamaica1,3651,0421,8731,488790753
Japan3,1223,7415,2297,2175,1958,515
Malaysia4997156339825151,093
Malta1,7581,4893,1563,5942,3052,922
Netherlands282282393409173193
Netherlands Antilles4825181,0651,3251,4381,970
New Caledonia8298181329265614
Philippines4527668271,2211,1312,219
Singapore1,9032,9162,7314,5771,9554,690
Sweden2403906041,0464021,331
Trinidad and Tobago1,5351,3694,2204,0604,3964,798
U.S.S.R.9,7426,49146,47439,510
United Kingdom5,7606,4216,6807,28411,85912,521
United States of America139,379108,758127,839137,536111,433141,774
Other countries2,9523,2035,4285,70523,77629,395
Total192,445161,804228,111241,448260,639312,137
Lamb (Fresh, Chilled, or Frozen)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean1,1738161,0178271,3781,461
Belgium8006821,1731,1321,1861,387
Canada4,9565,9238,2788,7978,82211,626
Cyprus6004739617741,2501,252
Denmark3873311,0851,1561,7772,614
Fiji2,0271,0703,1641,7622,9472,066
France5374969801,0717631,009
French Polynesia380406368451432665
Germany, Federal Republic of5,1533,6244,7054,2703,6434,174
Greece8,0735,74214,74413,7503,4193,547
Hong Kong468352701573631664
Iran6,6214,28212,30310,52018,11618,239
Iraq6,8164,96511,4239,85612,20511,940
Italy2,0811,5454,4344,1941,1061,155
Japan6,2045,09110,4208,73912,91313,787
Jordan3,0883,71574661,3521,789
Netherlands1,9981,6341,9981,8141,2651,558
Singapore821640770655920946
Switzerland9889609581,1071,2561,835
Trinidad and Tobago296232612512238293
United Kingdom208,476137,348214,776170,351201,847215,482
United States of America5,2525,86413,38113,8649,94013,533
Other countries9,0746,1239,0887,3139,7408,720
Total276,269192,314317,413263,558297,148319,740
Mutton (Fresh, Chilled, or Frozen)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean150643615157104
Belgium10255189141144143
Cyprus1648869356440
Fiji285135290128268153
France335239288194152141
Germany, Federal Republic of1657718610311365
Greece1,044720136115
Iran31412392671523
Jamaica2,6211,0231,2986271,415865
Japan34,48513,69039,26316,31321,59814,097
Korea, Republic of11,3264,07610,9663,66510,7636,527
Papua New Guinea356123483126471166
Peru4,0001,8811,6977931,085604
Singapore295181123871513
Trinidad and Tobago1477095688760
United Kingdom5,5972,24610,5194,9968,8445,147
U.S.S.R.44,09319,80210,3764,31558,88938,409
Other countries3,7971,8403,7411,8071,2721,214
Total108,99546,34979,99633,794105,35367,771
Other Frozen Meat
Belgium218245165222172260
Canada1511201,1658571,6411,491
France3,5914,7833,7365,9343,9706,644
Germany, Federal Republic of2,7384,9722,5367,2982,5919,971
Greece501243----
Italy7557403497367414
Jamaica737322896455341203
Japan1,6221,0143,1322,6204,7115,338
Netherlands8021,1658951,2259251,792
Sweden279241538305268643
Trinidad and Tobago299164800540576419
United Kingdom25,34522,23427,81022,65429,88122,408
United States of America3053671,9691,9763,6803,535
Other countries2,1721,5615,3042,8424,4403,685
Total38,83737,48849,34747,42753,56356,804
Butter
Algeria4,1654,2021,8871,912
China, Province of Taiwan158150172199571619
Fiji1,3131,1801,5591,6411,8992,095
French Polynesia5145536077778491,173
Hong Kong1,0829538888181,5711,510
Indonesia3623702,4242,5903,4543,889
Iraq7005373,0022,7644,4533,761
Jamaica4,2823,7143,8984,4392,9513,678
Japan1,4981,5124,1395,5036,8077,477
Malaysia8778834,5995,0065,3296,046
Mexico3,3473,5481,8592,0475,1945,407
Mozambique650657837991760902
Panama Republic559011,067427495
Peru10,1048,9167,4148,6908,94110,401
Philippines1,4921,5492,3412,5374,5635,167
Portugal5,3004,0345,7144,458
Singapore1,2971,1232,9773,1213,1533,496
Thailand7478559691,0461,2641,360
Trinidad and Tobago1,0679091,0461,029987904
U.S.S.R.3,0003,316
United Kingdom115,06575,970110,305105,678135,535171,576
United States of America1,4571,2972,9644,7401,3511,975
Venezuela4894281,2401,2152,6602,433
Other countries17,67416,98543,17940,0639,6089,839
Total164,171122,097206,788204,196212,929253,890
Cheese
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean955780702690723663
Australia1,6561,7691,9762,3862,8713,638
Bermuda195166102115140173
Cyprus161133120127141121
Fiji736264726986
French Polynesia120151115167153217
Germany, Federal Republic of11082622414
Guyana210246432438724801
Hong Kong161122144143173147
Iraq3,3322,5313,9133,860908831
Jamaica2,8532,2822,8823,0902,3442,872
Japan16,84313,91518,35918,41418,14318,341
Malta336295394377329266
Philippines1,5061,2601,2481,2212,0431,919
Singapore141119165178167195
South Africa3,0502,670752673
Trinidad and Tobago1,9931,5161,7931,8052,1952,044
United Kingdom25,11015,39832,75426,45227,65828,786
United States of America4,1303,52412,79815,87715,22119,986
Other countries1,9391,5021,8171,8054,4243,381
Total64,76348,44080,64077,97079,04684,881
Milk (Dried, Condensed, etc.)
Bangladesh1,7159462,5311,5711,186504
China (Province of Taiwan)2,8031,9455,2124,3509,8436,758
Costa Rica1,6429073001534,0732,722
El Salvador1,0849451,0741,0822,3042,594
Fiji1,1666591,2418551,7961,231
Ghana5,1063,2812,0461,0432,109801
Hong Kong8976619236391,101653
Indonesia5,8433,85610,2545,54816,0236,163
Iraq1,8611,257854633219142
Jamaica2,8701,7313,9801,9649,0583,384
Japan13,2758,57719,2509,16518,8927,399
Malaysia23,80615,84428,05115,88031,46514,342
Mauritius1,2479794754032,5221,689
Mozambique2,4461,4882,0641,0572,108750
Nigeria7054674,0961,9284,1921,528
Panama Republic5533681,5481,5451,991883
Peru26,96516,95410,6526,54420,9508,120
Philippines22,51115,12820,89710,89036,68113,739
Singapore5,2933,5269,1435,17011,0074,993
Sri Lanka2,4641,2681,8461,0684,5202,367
Thailand7,3574,6447,3444,0019,9914,637
Trinidad and Tobago2,4682,0872,1291,7444,8012,987
United States of America2,6771,8331,253928991447
Venezuela92581988910,3426,069
Other countries23,02313,64710,4646,25032,25813,645
Total159,869103,055147,82684,501240,423108,548
Casein
Canada102122234242193188
France170189197245380373
Germany, Federal Republic of2,9092,2601,1901,2576,6486,472
Italy998745471,2981,268
Japan7,4546,2277,5998,86912,28612,189
Netherlands8881,0271,1331,2522,4432,401
Spain35464044185180
United Kingdom3544047098541,3581,391
United States of America4,9324,06212,11713,14534,21531,792
Other countries1752299991,1323,3783,462
Total17,11914,65224,26327,08662,38459,718
Inedible Tallow
China*21,7365,35120,6645,91930,84411,112
China, Province of Taiwan9,0481,75015,9504,06915,7465,240
Fiji1,5494951,6644511,659521
France8,0721,5382,702579351100
Germany, Federal Republic of48961412856616
Japan7,2121,50131,1298,39911,3223,555
Kenya291625371712,9771,194
Malaysia73820124170827293
Mauritius3297141168884239
Mozambique1,8264957981862,635916
Netherlands3,2165944,3851,1382,371735
Philippines800217754215504166
South Africa1,3823351,5794421,302394
United Kingdom4,7971,0107,7822,1054,2371,456
Other countries10,0872,7336,6591,71917,7616,362
Total71,57216,41395,66725,61693,48632,299
Cattle Hides (Undressed)
China*1,362651622573
France7722041,9851,057844681
Greece1,1504191,7271,0431,1961,095
Italy11,7705,05611,5976,41715,38615,232
Japan3,6822,01212,1967,3287,1107,157
Korea, Republic of4511971,6861,1532,3852,186
Netherlands6912491,147686500427
Poland4,7762,4131,6309923,2313,213
Spain1,3123741,144389692566
Sweden19988285123766687
Yugoslavia1,6206932,5321,4561,5541,298
Other countries3,4051,4033,4341,7213,4903,215
Total29,82913,10740,72623,01637,77736,331
Sheep and Lamb Pelts
Belgium1893,1681713,9521857,500
France67210,7783816,78638910,765
Italy1051,5932063,6562306,361
Netherlands1141,9261253,3372158,583
Spain2763,6642182,8452024,806
United Kingdom3064,7803526,39438411,406
United States of America5298,72265212,80358618,958
Other countries1311,8515587125675
Total2,32436,4822,16040,6422,21669,055
Sausage Casings
 hanks hanks hanks 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Canada1,4424,3811,4065,0021,2345,426
Germany, Federal Republic of4901,6934711,9255172,411
Japan1253753911,2106222,228
Netherlands3086147590159774
United Kingdom1,9515,5002,0515,8221,8106,330
United States of America1,8125,5342,1937,2851,8097,210
Other countries4811,2774621,6533751,464
Total6,33018,8467,12123,4876,52725,844
Apples (Fresh Whole Fruit)
Belgium9,2542,2238,1082,1441,501360
Canada5,3871,3363,3579196,2591,725
Germany, Federal Republic of1,0902681,849504
Hong Kong4,1218945,2211,4122,477682
Netherlands1,2733163,9251,010
Singapore4,2239324,2621,1272,512689
Sweden7,2811,80612,4383,3769,7762,694
United Kingdom36,0968,82425,0886,75825,9006,819
United States of America4,9061,2176,7551,8594,5901,278
Other countries5,9411,4905,4911,6536,4521,956
Total79,57119,30576,49420,76359,46716,203
Kraft Paper and Cardboard
Australia21,3915,14223,59310,11724,51410,178
China*11,9893,0748,9341,9948,5711,939
Hong Kong2,4656177,9731,8829,0152,072
Indonesia2,2377795,7041,2365,1471,177
Pakistan1,69850410,8842,8777,3992,015
Philippines3,5537091,9264184,235967
Other countries4,1351,11418,8663,94913,5163,315
Total47,46811,94077,88122,47272,39821,663
Feeding Stuff for Animals
China, Province of Taiwan14,4161,37823,3413,00025,1145,468
Japan39,8063,72562,0647,673128,47321,536
Malaysia1,7632491,6714573,8081,180
Philippines29,4933,34523,0792,54720,4414,724
Singapore4,9601,3035,1171,6114,9421,510
Spain4881442,79872666,33410,410
United States of America1,7206132,7171,2032,0581,141
Other countries10,2501,75620,6954,31330,7766,142
Total102,89712,513141,48221,529281,94652,111
Wood Pulp
Australia127,01619,296136,34624,424145,09129,558
China*7,8551,87413,8453,10011,8862,460
Japan141,76614,858152,64918,099218,57926,286
Korea, Republic of1,15227126,7835,80811,4342,873
Philippines20,8734,48512,5903,16720,3065,428
Thailand2,0005648,2031,9374,6451,113
Other countries11,5072,1509,5032,2458,4572,309
Total312,16943,498359,91958,781420,39870,027
Timber (Sawn Conifer)
Australia594,081826,754969,188
Japan824,040984,2771487,320
New Caledonia858053449736
Tonga430622204328
Other countries141,08597468782
Total16610,09219612,34226418,355
Sawlogs and Veneer Logs (Conifer)
China*25695371,020
Japan63216,41367017,99294626,652
Korea, Republic of13372982,728
Other countries--3--3261
Total63216,41670819,0621,08230,461
Fish(Other than Canned)
Australia3,7694,0804,0895,3855,4487,514
France1953003831,049113185
Japan1,8821,0243,6094,2304,4886,545
Netherlands9489927901,154642822
United States3,04710,7081,65513,08711,85524,343
Other countries2,8631,9123,1353,1293,9803,993
Total12,70419,01713,66128,03526,52643,403
Newsprint
Australia111,84019,267110,44829,310146,26145,379
Hong Kong3,3996243,2548033,8771,088
Indonesia2,21841513,0682,89311,6592,458
Singapore1,3362041,0642391,999333
Other countries1,7933404,2831,06012,2042,537
Total120,58720,849132,11734,305175,99951,796

EXPORTS BY PORTS—The following table shows for the latest available June years the value of total exports, including re-exports, according to the ports at which goods were loaded for export.

PortYear Ended June
19721973197419751976x1977
 $(million)
Whangarei48.245.235.830.538.256.0
Auckland375.9476.3487.3451.5634.1874.5
Hamilton0.22.59.77.27.48.8
Tauranga177.6175.4187.9187.8284.1355.6
Gisborne9.512.613.910.314.613.7
Napier128.5182.4176.7161.1202.9269.2
New Plymouth99.0105.184.577.8125.9133.0
Wanganui2.63.33.44.45.86.7
Palmerston North------------
Wellington180.2266.3262.7228.1367.3537.7
Blenheim3.64.65.65.25.96.6
Nelson18.718.417.718.836.027.7
Greymouth----0.10.2----
Christchurch83.9133.4138.0116.4191.4257.8
Timaru68.6101.388.993.4134.0186.0
Dunedin62.399.898.974.5130.3178.2
Invercargill116.1165.3176.1154.4208.9317.1
Total1,375.01,792.01,787.31,621.52,386.93,228.7

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, since over a quarter of all exports are dispatched from that port. Wellington occupies second place, with approximately one-sixth of the trade. As will be seen from the above table, the order of the other ports varies from year to year. The general rise in the value of exports through Tauranga is attributed to the pulp, paper, and timber industries of the district.

RE-EXPORTS—Until recent years the forwarding trade of New Zealand has never been of great significance. In recent years, passengers duty-free purchases, ships' and international aircraft stores, have made up between one-fifth and one-third of the total re-exports. The balance is made up principally of miscellaneous stores sent to the Pacific Islands and goods returned or re-sold to the United Kingdom and Australia.

Particulars of re-exports are contained in the next table. Specie is not included in the figures.

Year Ended JuneRe-exports
 $(000)
197228,342
197333,281
197441,086
197563,522
1976x131,226
1977131,974

The destinations of this re-export trade for the latest available June years are shown in the following table.

CountryJune Year
197419751976x1977
 $(thousand)
Australia11,47919,27924,00415,091
Canada295241170601
Fiji3,0243,2274,1125,792
French Polynesia229473429566
Germany, Federal Republic of299871754553
Hong Kong6344075192,525
Indonesia14286281142
Japan49983317,592710
Malaysia601941071,794
Netherlands127575418357
Papua New Guinea74226169472
Philippines59489,61249
Singapore6483,08326,24133,368
Sweden2078907,483
Tonga205360475762
United Kingdom1,3282,9363,3533,080
United States of America3,6764,9509,12713,351
Western Samoa468645712784
Other countries1,5694,6265,00314,285
Ships' stores7,29810,53813,99417,384
Passengers' goods8,9559,84714,06112,825
Total (excluding gold and current coin)41,08663,522131,226131,974

EXPORTS TO COOK ISLANDS, NIUE, AND TOKELAU—Trade with the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau is not included in external trade statistics. The values of exports (including re-exports) to the islands are summarised below.

Year Ended JuneExports
 $(000)
19725,923
19735,476
19746,800
19757,885
1976x10,898
197712,126

22 C—IMPORTS

GENERAL—Statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed to the Customs and are usually quoted on the valuation basis c.d.v. (current domestic value in the country of export at the time of shipment). However, in certain tables the value c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) is also given. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and import totals do not include gold and current coin, except where expressly stated.

Reference should be made to Section 22A for details of the systems of valuation of imports as now used in these tables. Section 22A also gives a summary of import totals for recent years and index numbers of the volume of import trade, and also includes a sub-section on Import Control.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS—The following table classifies imports by Sections of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised).

Year Ended JuneImports (c.d.v.)
Food and Live AnimalsBeverages and TobaccoCrude Materials, Inedible, Except FuelsMineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related MaterialsAnimal and Vegetable Oils and FatsChemicals
$(thousand)
197367,12015,42453,72376,8762,789167,907
197493,62219,71476,578169,7547,868246,967
1975125,49721,58794,797317,67810,855288,275
1976x140,54025,146100,305396,6319,470307,254
1977148,76328,629122,816468,97013,707423,861
Year Ended JuneImports (c.d v.)
Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by MaterialMachinery and TransportMiscellaneous Manufactured ArticlesCommodities and Transactions not Classified According to KindTotal Merchandise Imports 
$(thousand)
1973316,042466,621100,61415,0691,282,185
1974491,684611,047131,72312,8551,861,812
1975618,412821,590171,87421,4032,491,967
1976x558,355993,772177,23621,3712,730,080
1977723,1431,091,036203,49819,9343,244,356

The next table gives fuller details of imports according to sections and divisions for the latest available June years.

Section and DivisionJune Year 1976xJune Year 1977
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
0. Food and Live Animals$(thousand)
00 Live animals5,4525,9105,8066,505
01 Meat and meat preparations3,5894,0101,4841,651
02 Dairy products and eggs665728644741
03 Fish and fish preparations7,5028,29910,89711,979
04 Cereals and cereal preparations17,87622,4123,7924,790
05 Fruits and vegetables26,38431,87135,61945,658
06 Sugar and sugar preparations56,87757,27145,67752,414
07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof20,09724,45442,48246,721
08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)644777577705
09 Miscellaneous food preparations1,4541,6791,7862,174
Total, Section 0140,540157,412148,763173,337
1. Beverages and Tobacco
11 Beverages13,75215,34815,82719,053
12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures11,39412,60412,80214,275
Total, Section 125,14627,95328,62933,327
2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels
21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed1,1241,2538661,084
22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and oil kernels3,5524,2855,8426,617
23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed14,62216,95822,07525,499
24 Wood and cork5,3377,2538,93412,171
25 Pulp and waste paper1,7592,1821,5851,821
26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and waste10,20011,75914,50617,183
27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum and precious stones54,37976,70156,10988,029
28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap2,5752,6602,3622,989
29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.s.6,7587,31710,53911,404
Total, Section 2100,305130,369122,816166,797
3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials
32 Coal, coke, and briquettes1,6832,220497842
33 Petroleum and petroleum products394,916434,127468,432513,229
34 Gas33494264
Total, Section 3396,631436,397468,970514,134
4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats
41 Animal oils and fats96114130161
42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed8,3479,60710,84711,781
43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin1,0261,1062,7303,129
Total, Section 49,47010,82713,70715,070
5. Chemicals
      51 Chemical elements and compounds112,683128,073145,519165,900
52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas1,1671,3311,4461,642
53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials15,24716,46821,51823,479
54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products52,32945,22872,48661,732
55 Essential oils and perfume materials; toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations9,3769,71813,52413,729
56 Fertilisers, manufactured17,87221,99524,73932,207
57 Explosives2,8512,7124,0713,673
58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins68,66374,272105,412113,397
59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products27,06730,88935,14639,953
Total, Section 5307,254330,687423,861455,713
6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material
61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.s., and dressed furs2,8443,0954,2124,484
62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.18,05718,78025,06226,779
63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)6,1827,3557,9909,422
64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof21,35023,98836,69541,390
65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles and related products161,539177,231226,804250,380
66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.i.31,84337,69437,21543,897
67 Iron and steel160,462179,988228,466244,208
68 Non-ferrous metals44,80547,14470,02772,997
69 Manufactures of metals111,273117,65686,67390,632
Total Section 6558,355612,931723,143784,189
7. Machinery and Transport Equipment
71 Machinery other than electric389,244406,718461,404492,883
72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances198,859206,566203,082211,262
73 Transport equipment405,669437,960426,551460,394
Total, Section 7993,7721,051,2441,091,0361,164,539
8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles
81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, lighting fittings, and fixtures2,3492,7313,3373,937
82 Furniture and fixtures1,1771,4191,7202,022
83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles550586769797
84 Clothing6,1086,7456,9017,636
85 Footwear4,1524,6094,7825,347
86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments: photographic and optical goods, watches, and clocks69,37667,85883,78482,897
89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.s.93,52597,745102,204107,552
Total, Section 8177,236181,694203,498210,190
9. Commodities and Transactions Not Classified According to Kind21,37122,08519,93420,686
      Grand total, merchandise imports2,730,0802,961,5983,244,3563,537,982

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE—From the eighties of the last century until the early seventies of this century, the chief source of supply of New Zealand's imports was the United Kingdom. Prior to that the main source of supply was Australia and, in the latest years, as the United Kingdom has become more involved in Europe, Australia has once more moved into first place. During the year ended June 1977, imports from the United Kingdom were valued at $542.9 million and imports from Australia at $711.2 million.

In the years following the Second World War, the proportion of the import trade received from the United Kingdom rose from 47.8 percent in 1946 to a maximum of 60.1 percent in 1950. Since 1950 there has been an overall decline, and for the June years 1976 and 1977 only 17.6 and 16.7 percent of imports came from that source. The trade with Australia from 1950 to 1956 was between 10 and 15 percent of the total. In 1957 and 1958, however, it rose to 17 percent, and in 1959 and 1960 to 18 percent. In the years ended June 1976 and 1977, 19.0 percent and 21.9 percent, respectively, of imports came from Australia. Japan is becoming an important trading partner: in the years ended June 1976 and 1977, 14.7 percent and 14.6 percent, respectively, of imports came from that source.

The principal changes in the direction of the import trade are illustrated in the table in Section 22A giving the percentage received from the various geographic areas.

The table which follows shows imports (valuation c.d.v.) during the latest 5 years from the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, and Japan. It should be noted that, from 1975, Australia includes Cocos and Norfolk Islands, and that the U.S.A. includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Island Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

Year Ended JuneCountry Where PurchasedCountry of OriginTotal Merchandise Imports
United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.JapanUnited KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.Japan
$(million)
19733223601471613043231461671,282
19744095032462403534532252481,862
19755755743693314795053333372,492
1976x5935674453994815193944022,730
19776267735134625437114264743,244

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS—The table which follows shows details of principal commodity imports by country of origin for years ended June 1976 and 1977. C.d.v. basis of valuation is used.

Commodity and Countries of OriginValue of Imports
1975–761976–77
*Docs not include statistics for the Province of Taiwan.
 $(000) 
Wheat, unmilled
      Australia14,358
      All countries14,358
Sugar (not refined) —
      Australia3,34525,355
      Fiji12,51515,926
      Philippines4,539
      All countries56,07344,779
Coffee, raw
      Brazil1,2894,278
      Indonesia5522,907
      Kenya7442,385
      Uganda2,1672,769
      All countries7,28718,496
Rubber (Crude and Synthetic) —
      Australia1,6451,819
      Japan2,8035,548
      Malaysia4,7087,493
      Singapore1,3051,615
      U.S.A.1,4122,175
      All countries14,62222,075
Crude Petroleum
      Iran63,149128,011
      Kuwait45,43025,524
      Saudi Arabia14,92139,950
      All countries139,490193,485
Partly Refined Petroleum
      Australia22,02213,654
      Bahrain7,05616,307
      Saudi Arabia17,35932,761
      Singapore13,37922,174
      All countries91,103103,301
Alcoholic Beverages
      Australia1,3161,254
      France1,5652,404
      Germany, Fed. Rep.544660
      Italy668635
      Jamaica8361,041
      United Kingdom5,2675,111
      All countries13,71015,776
Tobacco (Unmanufactured)—
      Korea, Rep. of639775
      U.S.A.7,2318,768
      All countries10,15311,803
Natural Calcium Phosphate
      Australia16,96217,960
      Nauru17,04114,549
      All countries37,72439,541
Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Products
      Australia16,44721,961
      Germany, Fed. Rep5,1047,736
      Switzerland5,2437,689
      United Kingdom15,70719,509
      U.S.A.3,6984,523
      All countries52,32972,486
Manufactured Fertilisers
      Japan1,2314,280
      U.S.S.R.453,034
      U.S.A.13,93713,631
      All countries17,87224,739
Motor Spirit
      Australia20,05924,984
      Bahrain15,1049,219
      Iran17,5924,959
      All countries69,51354,718
Kerosene and White Spirit
      Australia21,82431,462
      Iran2,069878
      Singapore8,6087,737
      All countries34,27441,688
Distillate Fuels
      Australia12,95623,145
      Bahrain10,7666,647
      Singapore6,4626,021
      All countries33,59942,367
Organic Chemicals
      Australia8,29613,226
      Germany, Fed. Rep.3,2224,662
      Japan6,17610,822
      United Kingdom8,05211,083
      U.S.A.10,79617,590
      All countries42,06167,444
Inorganic Chemicals
      Australia46,41447,869
      Germany, Fed. Rep.1,6162,203
      Japan6,4446,404
      United Kingdom6,3988,334
      U.S.A.4,8826,299
      All countries70,20177,676
Woven Fabrics of Synthetic Fibres
      Australia2,2852,396
      Hong Kong2,6233,236
      Japan13,10320,527
      U.S.A.3,5865,463
      All countries30,00447,488
Other Woven Textile Fabrics
      Hong Kong3,2714,981
      India3,1564,607
      United Kingdom7,1229,205
      U.S.A.3,1303,296
      All countries28,51937,631
Glass and Glassware
      Japan1,4072,631
      United Kingdom4,0764,474
      U.S.A.1,4862,485
      All countries12,25216,878
Plastic Materials, Regenerated Cellulose and Artificial Resins
      Australia15,94821,479
      Germany, Fed. Rep.4,9307,254
      Japan15,05221,227
      United Kingdom11,50514,884
      U.S.A.15,71227,238
      All countries68,663105,412
Articles of Rubber
      Japan2,3653,888
      United Kingdom3,4943,682
      U.S.A.3,2644,834
      All countries12,87518,851
Paper and Paperboard
      Australia3,6705,781
      Japan4,0938,169
      United Kingdom3,9635,612
      U.S.A.1,9463,444
      All countries17,39831,988
Textile Yarn and Thread
      Australia4,8056,422
      Hong Kong6,3047,505
      Japan3,2976,712
      United Kingdom6,1556,072
      All countries27,13738,738
Cotton Fabrics Suitable for Manufacture of Apparel
      China*2,3543,416
      Hong Kong13,71311,924
      Japan2,8374,439
      Malaysia2,2532,103
      United Kingdom8791,035
      U.S.A.1,3252,647
      All countries26,43530,677
Copper and Copper Alloys
      Australia14,90422,138
      Japan1,1151,785
      United Kingdom2,9784,745
      All countries19,98729,933
Unwrought Zinc
      Australia11,14918,042
      Canada149528
      All countries11,30818,615
Bars and Rods of Iron or Steel—
      Australia3,2375,488
      Japan2,5366,454
      United Kingdom1,5231,612
      All countries8,08915,459
Angles Shapes and Sections of Iron or Steel
      Australia4,0158,688
      Japan4,1576,831
      United Kingdom1,1721,606
      All countries9,66017,874
Universals, Plates and Sheets of Iron or Steel
      Australia8,68220,244
      Japan50,38544,886
      United Kingdom3,4166,071
      All countries67,89781,108
Iron and Steel Wire
      Australia2,7649,827
      Japan1,8154,057
      United Kingdom1,8322,975
      All countries6,82717,440
Tubes, Pipes and Fittings of Iron or Steel
      Australia4,6735,401
      Japan33,2524,444
      U.S.A.4,3227,107
      All countries48,89122,633
Automatic Data Processing Machines and Accessories
      Italy1,3072,359
      United Kingdom8,9944,172
      U.S.A.16,35318,579
      All countries36,74130,924
Metalworking Machinery
      Australia1,1031,017
      Germany, Fed. Rep1,3273,910
      Japan8502,200
      United Kingdom4,0243,389
      U.S.A.9642,054
      All countries11,20918,100
Textile and Leather Machinery
      Germany, Fed. Rep.3,1534,081
      Japan3,8574,744
      United Kingdom6,0354,690
      All countries24,25324,184
Tools for Hand Use or in Machines
      Australia4,7225,949
      Japan2,0502,959
      United Kingdom6,1156,776
      U.S.A.4,2014,659
      All countries21,89526,859
Miscellaneous Manufactures of Metal
      Australia6,4548,236
      United Kingdom6,3596,427
      U.S.A.2,0942,666
      All countries20,42624,250
Internal Combustion Engines (Not Aircraft)—
      Australia3,2273,638
      Japan1,7451,513
      United Kingdom8,1555,485
      U.S.A.12,57811,150
      All countries29,03324,706
Other Non-electric Power Generating Machinery
      Canada3,76418,839
      United Kingdom6,85315,566
      U.S.A.14,56617,667
      All countries32,25674,966
Tractors
      Germany, Fed. Rep.1,3743,448
      Italy1,8263,809
      United Kingdom16,93620,243
      U.S.A.4,4885,089
      All countries28,39040,528
Agricultural Machinery and Implements (excl. Tractors)—
      Germany, Fed. Rep.1,6293,537
      United Kingdom2,4634,330
      U.S.A.2,8303,257
      All countries11,41520,341
Electric Power Machinery
      Australia7,0017,244
      United Kingdom16,3779,135
      U.S.A.20,0516,524
      All countries51,41238,631
Electric Switchgear, etc.—
      Australia3,4644,763
      United Kingdom9,6818,080
      U.S.A.2,9683,859
      All countries26,36030,561
Excavating, Levelling, Boring, etc., Machinery
      Japan2,8254,565
      U.S.A.11,7968,636
      All countries21,66418,999
Other Machinery for Special Industries
      Australia3,3103,111
      Germany, Fed. Rep.4,7183,987
      United Kingdom4,9915,444
      U.S.A.6,5428,106
      All countries27,24326,258
Pumps and Centrifuges
      Australia9,2637,652
      United Kingdom7,0256,118
      U.S.A.6,0526,772
      All countries31,90735,932
Mechanical Handling Equipment
      Australia4,5206,386
      United Kingdom6,7514,508
      U.S.A.8,1048,805
      All countries25,16425,173
Other Non-electric Machinery and Appliances
      Australia14,55916,972
      United Kingdom22,42821,544
      U.S.A.25,15126,311
      All countries98,832103,276
Parts, Accessories of, Tractors and Motor Vehicles (not Motor Cycles)—
      Australia7,74010,072
      Germany, Fed. Rep.2,3993,691
      United Kingdom14,99514,468
      U.S.A.4,4595,370
      All countries33,33138,000
Telecommunications Equipment$(000)
      Japan14,00516,842
      Netherlands2,0873,543
      United Kingdom7,7233,462
      All countries33,66132,736
Thermionic, etc., Valves and Tubes
      France2,8433,906
      Japan6,7339,787
      Netherlands4,0784,984
      U.S.A.2,5893,274
      All countries20,97026,657
Other Electrical Machinery and Apparatus
      Australia5,5457,386
      Japan6,1819,745
      United Kingdom13,96513,959
      U.S.A.9,86811,216
      All countries42,31751,426
Railway Vehicles
      Australia4,4302,128
      Japan9,4439,068
      United Kingdom2,0743,072
      U.S.A.15,830638
      All countries45,51715,048
Motor Cars
      Australia20,33627,091
      Germany, Fed. Rep.2,8742,229
      Japan37,67445,932
      United Kingdom56,86149,720
      All countries121,713128,295
Buses, Trucks and Vans
      Australia10,54114,078
      Japan12,25215,118
      United Kingdom24,80222,803
      All countries52,66259,283
Scientific, Medical, Optical, etc., Instruments and Apparatus
      Australia4,8306,285
      Japan6,4268,437
      United Kingdom8,8788,325
      U.S.A.10,97412,996
      All countries42,81749,603
Aircraft
      United Kingdom5836,346
      U.S.A.23,9708,769
      All countries26,51922,149
Ships and Boats
      Australia3,18055,077
      United Kingdom24052,516
      All countries105,513134,095
Photographic and Cinematographic Supplies$(000)
      Australia7,1466,538
      Germany, Fed. Rep.2,2064,469
      United Kingdom1,7482,160
      U.S.A.4,6095,359
      All countries18,44224,074
Printed Books and Pamphlets
      Australia6,2666,178
      United Kingdom14,47415,036
      U.S.A.5,8056,441
      All countries31,21932,525

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the quantities imported during June years of a number of principal items.

ItemUnit of QuantityYear Ended 30 June
1974197519761977

*Excludes hardboards, softboards, wallpaper, lincrusta, and window transparencies.

Wheat, unmilledTonne49,837134,422112,126
Sugar, not refinedtonne153,007191,538173,510184,490
Coffee, rawtonne5,1317,1475,8395,507
Wine of fresh grapeslitre(000)2,7392,6262,0241,763
Spirits, liqueurs and other spirituous beverages over 40 percent proofp. litre(000)6,6187,2535,5536,476
Tobacco, unmanufactured.tonne4,0873,6133,6543,509
Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimedtonne30,44122,70524,38928,769
Natural calcium phosphatetonne(000)1,0711,2109361,050
Sulphur, other than sublimed, precipitatedtonne(000)238251196230
Crude petroleumtonne(000)2,4732,5361,8632,166
Partly refined petroleumtonne(000)804902899844
Motor spiritlitre (000)766,093486,337694,053434,550
Kerosene and white spiritlitre (000)334,029385,889376,718371,619
Distillate fuelslitre (000)510,802378,625408,987375,990
Aluminium oxidetonne291,115145,609294,125250,846
Potassium chloride (fertiliser)tonne299,284233,448194,988226,088
Polymerisation, copolymerisation products in bulk formstonne21,30059,19456,09477,652
Other plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins, excl. floor coveringstonne26,64025,06916,83923,156
Rubber tyres and tubes excl. bicycletonne8,8757,2602,8801,565
Paper and paperboard*tonne46,09159,62718,86839,118
Textile yarn and threadtonne10,91010,3358,1229,997
Cotton fabrics, woven—
   Suitable for manufacture of apparelm 2(000)52,48033,81531,67031,734
   For furnishing and household usem 2(000)30,29223,32911,11816,500
Woven textile fabrics of synthetic fibres excl. tyrecordm 2(000)58,38740,35232,20446,930
Iron and steel—
   Bars and rods excl. wire rodtonne36,12082,80319,08732,784
   Angles, shapes and sectionstonne80,54480,21339,81863,727
   Universals, plates and sheetstonne397,433393,037256,637198,634
   Wiretonne33,76130,99812,64132,675
   Tubes, pipes and fittingstonne40,63980,90262,64723,330
Copper and copper alloys excl. foil, powders and flakestonne15,33013,01512,35714,796
Unwrought zinctonne19,76021,48515,49823,345
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)no.149,287160,580118,911131,621
Tractorsno.5,8705,2554,7185,554
Metal working machinerytonne5,7645,3123,9514,677
Excavating, levelling and tamping machineryno.1,2021,477369667
Lifting, handling, loading machinery, telphers and conveyorstonne5,4819,1256,1153,860
Electric motorsno.437,699678,472519,064543,083
Thermionic, cold cathode, photocathode valves and tubes(000)2,1232,1161,0251,036
Railway vehicles excl. containers and partsno.743151,809332
Motorcars—assembledno.30,76413,2894,3554,138
      —unassembledno.76,52470,11169,92964,954
Buses, trucks, vans—assembledno.2,2211,9811,088801
      —unassembledno.13,72016,08917,39515,940
Aircraft, excl. parts, balloons, airshipsno.24916483123
Ships and boats excl. those for breaking upno.1,3301,0861,3591,068

VALUE OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the values imported during June years of a number of the principal items.

ItemYear Ended June
197419751976x1977
 $(000) c.d.v.
Wheat, unmilled7,20217,86714,358
Sugar, not refined22,82535,13656,07344,779
Coffee, raw4,2096,0747,28718,496
Alcoholic beverages11,70213,56513,71015,776
Tobacco, unmanufactured6,8366,71910,15311,803
Crude rubber, including synthetic, reclaimed12,73411,17914,62222,075
Natural calcium phosphate11,57433,71437,72439,541
Sulphur, other than sublimed, precipitated3,6385,0398,5799,898
Crude petroleum61,191137,543139,490193,485
Partly refined petroleum35,69671,70891,103103,301
Motor Spirit31,04436,88169,51354,718
Kerosene and white spirit13,65326,78534,27441,688
Distillate fuels16,45623,22433,59942,367
Organic chemicals43,50046,62342,06167,444
Aluminium oxide15,10613,11135,33739,530
Inorganic chemicals (excl. aluminium oxide)19,74730,73034,86438,145
Medicaments, including veterinary33,50342,80243,76260,704
Potassium chloride (fertiliser)7,3818,94911,79812,831
Polymerisation, copolymerisation products in bulk forms11,44136,12036,47655,949
Other plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins28,53234,20732,18749,463
Articles of rubber n.e.s.16,96018,60712,87518,851
Paper and paperboard19,57231,37217,39831,988
Textile yarn and thread27,04728,13727,13738,738
Cotton fabrics, woven—
      Suitable for manufacture of apparel28,13520,57326,43530,677
      For furnishing and household use16,06513,6297,65313,925
Woven textile fabrics of synthetic fibres41,33030,89130,00447,488
Other woven textile fabrics27,68629,36928,51937,631
Special textile fabrics and related products13,16915,89215,13919,254
Glass and glassware10,12012,50612,25216,878
Iron and steel—
      Bars and rods8,38222,2478,08915,459
      Angles, shapes and sections12,70716,8809,66017,874
      Universal, plates and sheets70,35492,25967,89781,108
      Wire9,09411,8396,82717,440
      Tubes, pipes and fittings15,35846,82148,89122,633
Copper and copper alloys28,67423,22419,98729,933
Unwrought zinc8,93112,73711,30818,615
Tools for hand use or in machines15,50021,89721,89526,859
Manufactures of metal, n.e.s.14,53221,92720,42624,250
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)14,77717,95021,16324,706
Other non-electric power generating machinery17,16426,93032,25674,966
Tractors18,94123,66728,39040,528
Agricultural machinery and implements (not tractors)8,82112,10711,41520,341
Automatic data processing machines and accessories15,37426,81436,74130,924
Metal working machinery9,37012,60911,20918,100
Textile and leather machinery15,74924,97524,25324,184
Excavating, levelling, boring, extracting machinery, etc.20,75622,10021,66418,999
Other machines for special industries22,76835,54027,24326,258
Pumps and centrifuges, filtering, etc., machinery, incl. parts19,27231,13831,90735,932
Mechanical handling equipment13,49027,97125,16425,173
Other non-electric machinery and appliances, incl. parts59,20993,32198,831103,276
Electric power machinery17,68434,76451,41238,631
Electric switchgear, etc.13,74020,75326,36030,561
Telecommunications apparatus19,41235,66v33,66132,736
Thermionic, etc., valves and tubes, etc.10,08214,20120,97026,657
Other electric machinery and apparatus, n.e.s.29,47043,46742,31751,426
Railway vehicles2,57610,02545,51715,048
Motor cars—unassembled95,86590,669110,397113,081
      —assembled53,28028,89111,31615,214
Buses, trucks and vans—unassembled26,82938,58047,15859,283
      —assembled5,6004,7345,5043,797
Parts, accessories of tractors and motor vehicles (not motor cycles)21,32029,67233,33138,000
Aircraft16,32710,68626,51922,149
Ships and boats15,97544,370105,513134,095
Scientific, medical, optical, etc., instruments and apparatus30,41143,62242,81749,603
Photographic and cinematographic supplies13,39616,05818,44224,074
Printed books and pamphlets (including maps, etc.)22,97428,56831,21932,525

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS BY END-USE—In the following table imports are classified by end-use in the form of economic categories. The classification involves some arbitrary decisions but it is adapted to practical purposes and the comparability of the time series has useful economic applications. Basis of valuation is c.i.f.

Class of Goods Imported*Year Ended 30 June
1973197419751976x:1977

*For more detailed list of items included under each heading see relevant table in Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

   $(million)  
Finished Capital Goods205.6272.9435.2454.4524.3
      Agricultural machinery and plant23.327.236.941.060.5
      Industrial machinery and plant69.382.3131.0127.5158.5
      Construction machinery and plant11.120.317.715.214.2
      Transport and communications items27.342.683.9111.3114.1
      Other complete items74.6100.5165.8159.4177.0
Components and Materials for Capital Goods138.9187.7320.2395.3371.4
      For agricultural machinery and plant6.88.812.311.216.4
      For industrial machinery and plant16.423.441.442.865.6
      For construction machinery and plant1.82.23.93.63.9
      For transport and communications items46.556.489.7109.9122.3
      For building, construction, roads9.013.722.467.824.3
      For other capital items58.583.2150.5159.9138.8
Finished Goods and Components (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)219.7293.2324.8412.1434.2
      Complete transport items49.983.158.7118.2100.7
      Parts for transport items114.5140.2158.9180.3202.3
      Other complete items22.428.643.740.648.8
      Parts for other items32.841.363.472.982.5
Consumer-Goods351.2524.4631.6658.9812.8
      Finished consumer goods178.0257.2311.0319.8391.4
      Components for consumer goods173.2267.2320.7339.0421.5
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere443.8747.21,030.71,021.91,373.0
Stores Used Only for Defence14.911.420.519.022.2
       Total1,374.12,036.72,763.12,961.63,538.0
   percent  
Finished Capital Goods14.913.415.715.314.8
      Agricultural machinery and plant1.71.31.31.41.7
      Industrial machinery and plant5.04.04.74.34.5
      Construction machinery and plant0.81.00.70.50.4
      Transport and communications items2.02.13.03.83.2
      Other complete items5.44.96.05.45.0
Class of Goods Imported*Year Ended 30 June
1973197419751976x1977

*For more detailed list of items included under each heading see relevant table in Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

   Percent  
Components and Materials for Capital Goods10.29.211.613.410.5
      For agricultural machinery and plant0.50.40.40.40.5
      For industrial machinery and plant1.21.11.51.41.8
      For construction machinery and plant0.10.10.20.10.1
      For transport and communications items3.42.83.23.73.5
      For building, construction, roads0.70.70.82.30.7
      For other capital items4.34.15.55.43.9
Finished Goods and Components (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)15.914.411.813.912.3
      Complete transport items3.64.12.14.02.9
      Parts for transport items8.36.95.86.15.7
      Other complete items1.61.41.61.41.4
      Parts for other items2.42.02.32.52.3
Consumer Goods25.625.722.922.323.0
      Finished consumer goods13.012.611.310.811.1
      Components for consumer goods12.613.111.611.411.9
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere32.336.737.334.538.8
Stores Used Only for Defence1.10.60.70.60.6
       Total100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

IMPORTS BY PORTS—In 1976 New Zealand had 17 ports of entry for Customs purposes—ten in the North Island and seven in the South Island. The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry. The value of overseas cargo landed at other ports is included with the appropriate port of entry. Basis of valuation is c.d.v.

PortYear Ended June
1973197419751976x1977*

*Provisional.

   $(thousand)  
Whangarei52,227102,724252,025259,111328,742
Auckland594,308895,2001,097,6261,120,3551,484,454
Hamilton8,6689,38315,72925,78824,900
Tauranga13,81616,83636,08429,73243,209
Gisborne7001,7544,2592,8122,271
Napier26,40928,61746,72762,12454,668
New Plymouth25,89339,33873,477198,331124,860
Wanganui1,7092,3693,0962,9685,107
Palmerston North8,36410,50813,60416,99526,196
Wellington345,211453,718546,380562,025636,519
Blenheim5021,1633,5567951,037
Nelson6,9789,42825,84315,44524,208
Greymouth2,2214663,4751,0501,048
Christchurch138,264213,237262,027284,449325,122
Timaru2,7715,1375,1136,9264,702
Dunedin34,04442,06159,98959,22979,468
Invercargill20,10029,87242,95781,94577,846
       Total1,282,1851,861,8122,491,9672,730,0803,244,356

Over 60 percent of the total imports usually come in by way of Auckland or Wellington. Christchurch occupies fourth place. With the advent of the oil refinery plant at Whangarei this port has now reached third place in importance.

Imports by air have been credited to the port in whose district the overseas airport is located. Thus goods which came in through Mangere Airport were included in the Auckland figures, imports through Wellington Airport and Ohakea in the Wellington figures, and through Christchurch Airport in the Christchurch figures. The value of imports by air, the commodities and their countries of origin are listed in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Some figures of imports and exports by air are given by main commodity groups in section 12E of this Yearbook.

GOODS SHIPPED FROM COOK ISLANDS, NIUE, AND TOKELAU—Trade with the Cook Islands, Tokelau, and Niue is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand. The following table shows the movement of goods from these islands to New Zealand.

June YearValue of Goods
 $(000)
19733,132
19743,322
19753,897
19762,918
19773,464

The c.i.f. values of principal goods brought to New Zealand from the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau during the latest available June year were as follows:

ItemYear Ended June 1977
Cook IslandsNiueTokelau
 $$$
Tangerines, mandarins and similar17,854
Other citrus fruit7,0384,684
Bananas and plantains56,785
Coconuts11,120
Other fresh whole fruit120,042
Fruit juices969,60547,353
Fruit preserved by freezing51,483
Fruit prepared or preserved353,0135,597
Vegetables (fresh, frozen or preserved)227,202
Natural honey5,458
Copra199,79425,80015,873
Wood manufactures, n.e.s.25,20925
Pearls50,000
Clothing of textile fabric810,814821
Footwear81,084
Postage, revenue and similar stamps27,716300
Manufactured articles, n.e.s.2739,752
Other miscellaneous items330,2807,7751,500
       Total3,287,829159,04817,373

22 D—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

THE TARIFF—The objects of the Customs Tariff are as follows:

  1. The collection of revenue.

  2. The development of New Zealand industries.

  3. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand's exports.

  4. The implementation of New Zealand's tariff commitments in multilateral and bilateral trade agreements.

  5. Harmonisation with New Zealand's external political objectives including the provision of assistance to developing countries.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND—New Zealand's first Customs Ordinance was proclaimed in 1841 with the objective of raising revenue and to some extent giving preference to goods of British origin. The prevailing economic philosophy in the latter half of the nineteenth century was directed at free trade but a tariff revision in 1895 was aimed at protecting a small range of industries.

The Ottawa Agreement of 1932 stemmed from a recognition that policies had tended to become protective. In return for concessions from the United Kingdom including duty-free entry for practically all New Zealand products (see Section 21A—Marketing of Farm Produce) New Zealand agreed to restrict the use of the tariff for purely protective purposes and to give further preference to British goods. In 1934 a Tariff Commission submitted a report which conformed broadly to the principles of the Ottawa Agreement and reduced the protection for New Zealand industries in some cases. Thus, the acceptance of the Tariff Commission's recommendations reflected the fact that New Zealand placed its economic emphasis on primary production, the market for which was mainly in the United Kingdom.

In November 1957 the Board of Trade completed a comprehensive review of the structure of the tariff and reported to Government. The board's recommendations were taken into account when a revised tariff was introduced on 1 July 1962 based on the Standard International Trade Classification. A new tariff based on the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature was introduced on 1 July 1967.

Consequent to the United Kingdom's entry into the European Economic Community a further revised tariff was introduced on 1 July 1974 to phase out the preferences on goods of United Kingdom origin. The phasing out was complete on 1 July 1977 with the exception of certain automotive products. This tariff provided separate rates for British preferential countries (the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands, and the Republic of Ireland), other preferential rates of duty in favour of Australia, Canada, Malaysia, other Commonwealth countries, and developing countries, and a normal tariff rate.

The rates of Customs and excise duty enforced in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled The Customs Tariff of New Zealand available from the Government Printer, Wellington.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)—New Zealand was one of the original members of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade reached in Geneva in 1947 and has since taken an active part in the work of the GATT in attaining its general objective of reducing barriers to trade and providing a forum for the discussion and settlement of international trade problems and disputes.

The majority of the world's trading nations have now become contracting parties to the GATT and entitled to most-favoured-nation treatment. The non-discriminatory provisions within the GATT assist New Zealand to at least some degree in promoting its objective in seeking the right to trade on a multilateral basis.

The results of the tariff negotiations which took place in 1947 and on subsequent occasions are embodied in schedules to the General Agreement and are applied multilaterally so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants and, conversely, accords reciprocal concessions to all other contracting parties. These concessions are of two kinds—actual reductions in duty rates and bindings on duties against increase.

Developments have, however, tended to whittle away most of the trading advantages which countries relying heavily on agricultural exports might reasonably expect to get from GATT membership. There has been a growing disparity between the benefits accruing under GATT to the industrialised nations and the far less tangible advantages it provides for primary producing countries such as New Zealand. This has been due principally to the maintenance of quantitative restrictions on agricultural products by most of the large industrialised countries as an aspect of their policies of agricultural protectionism.

The Kennedy Round of negotiations which was concluded in June 1967 did not correct this imbalance although New Zealand did obtain improved access and some tariff concessions on a limited range of products exported to some GATT countries in compensation for a reduction in rates of duty of up to 50 percent on a number of items. A new round of multilateral trade negotiations was initiated in Tokyo in September 1973. Although progress towards obtaining its objective of further reducing trade barriers has been slow, New Zealand has taken an active part in restating its interest in promoting liberalised trade in agricultural products.

PREFERENCES AND OTHER BILATERAL TRADE AGREEMENTS: United Kingdom—A radical change in New Zealand's trade and tariff policy was necessitated by the United Kingdom's decision to enter into the European Economic Community on 1 January 1973 and the effect of this action on New Zealand's exports to that country. Consequently the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade agreement was abrogated on 31 January 1973. The tariff preferences accorded to British goods in the New Zealand market were accordingly phased out in four steps which began on 1 July 1974 and were completed by 30 June 1977, except in the case of a range of automotive products.

Australia—The New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement which came into force on 1 January 1966 provides for periodic reduction and ultimate elimination of duties on the goods listed in a schedule to the agreement when such goods qualify for admission into either country as the produce or manufacture of the other country. This agreement modifies or supersedes some of the provisions of the earlier trade agreement between New Zealand and Australia in 1933, and, in particular, 1933 agreement rates which were higher than the equivalent British preferential rates were to be reduced to the British preferential level not later than 1 January 1974.

The goods listed in Schedule A to the agreement cover some two-thirds of the imports from Australia and include forest products (timber, pulp, packaging materials, plywood and veneers), petroleum products, meat, fish, cheese, lead, zinc, and other metals, copper rods and bars, wool, and some machinery and chemicals. As a result of subsequent reviews a limited number of other items have been added to Schedule A each year.

The agreement provides for reviews of trade between the two countries with a view to progressive inclusion of additional items within the agreement. The original agreement was for 10 years and thereafter would remain in force unless terminated on 180 days' notice being given. However, in September 1976, the two countries agreed to extend the agreement for a further period of 10 years on the same terms and conditions.

New rules of origin applying to goods traded under preference between the two countries came into force on 1 October 1975. The main change in the rules is that United Kingdom content no longer counts towards meeting the preference requirements for goods which are partly manufactured in Australia or New Zealand. Instead, these goods are required to meet a 50 percent New Zealand - Australia area content criterion.

Provision is made within the agreement for variations to the above rule to allow for a lower or higher area content in exceptional circumstances.

On 1 December 1977 an exchange of letters took place between the New Zealand and Australian Governments. These replaced an interim agreement made in 1973 and provided a general undertaking, subject to certain qualifications and consultative provisions, to avoid increases in rates of duty other than in exceptional circumstances and to maintain margins of preferences on trade between the two countries. It was also provided that when changes were being made to the respective tariffs each country would, subject to certain conditions, endeavour to preserve a minimum margin of preference of 15 percent on goods in the protected area or a lesser margin if operative at 31 January 1973 or 30 November 1973. The agreement is for an initial period of 3 years.

Canada—Reciprocal trade arrangements between Canada and New Zealand are governed by an agreement negotiated in 1932, and this agreement remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the terms of the agreement sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri gum, and phormium fibre are amongst the New Zealand products admitted free of duty. Certain other items such as butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb are admitted at preferential rates of duty.

On 26 July 1973 an exchange of letters took place between the New Zealand and Canadian Governments. Among the mutual agreements reached was a general undertaking, subject to certain qualifications and consultative provisions, not to increase the duties and to maintain margins of preference on each others goods based on the position existing at 31 January 1973.

Malaysia—A trade agreement between Malaysia and New Zealand was signed in February 1961 by which each country accords preferential rates of duty to the other. Both countries agreed to guarantee minimum margins of tariff preference which apply to certain important items in each other's trade.

Other Commonwealth Countries—Although there were no contractual obligations to do so, New Zealand has maintained tariff preferences to other Commonwealth countries, effective from 1 July 1974. With the introduction of a new tariff on I July 1978 such preferences will be withdrawn. Since the recipients of these preferences are developing countries, they stand to benefit in lieu from the Developing Countries scheme mentioned below.

Developing Countries—New Zealand responded to the recommendation of the United Nations Committee on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) that developed countries introduce Generalised Systems of Preference in favour of developing nations, and special developing country rates were incorporated in the Customs tariff as from 1 January 1972.

When New Zealand introduced a revised Generalised System of Preference (GSP) on 1 July 1976 the new scheme was based on the negative-list concept and significantly increased the GSP coverage granted previously. Every effort was made to keep the list of exceptions to the minimum to give the greatest possible coverage to the scheme. Based on figures for the year ended 30 June 1977, the total value of imports from GSP beneficiaries was $593 million. Of this trade only $155 million was subject to duty with $145 million thereof being admitted at Developing Country preferential rates of duty.

The revised GSP was based on an intention to maintain, in terms of GSP criteria, specified margins of preference for developing countries up to a level of 20 percent. For the year ended June 1977 less than 2 percent of trade from developing countries was excluded from duty free and/or preferential treatment. Since 17 December 1976 special provisions have been made for the duty-free importation of specified handicraft products.

Although no concurrent changes were made in rules of origin, New Zealand had already adopted, on 1 October 1975, the "cumulative" principle whereby content from any developing country could be aggregated to comply with the minimum requirement. At the same time, provision was made for the goods of one beneficiary country to enter the commerce of other beneficiary countries without interfering with their right to enter New Zealand under preference.

OTHER TRADE OBLIGATIONS—New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions and arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth resulting from direct negotiations with the countries concerned. In practice, some of the earlier arrangements (which generally provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment) became superseded by New Zealand's accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Trade agreements which are still operative include those with Switzerland (1938 and since extended to Liechtenstein in 1956); the Federal Republic of Germany (1959); Japan (1958, amended 1962); the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1963); the Polish People's Republic (1965); Republic of Korea (1967 and amended in 1976) People's Republic of Bulgaria (1968); Republic of the Philippines (1968); Socialist Republic of Romania (1969); Hungarian People's Republic (1970); the People's Republic of China (1973); Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1975); Empire of Iran (1974); and the Arab Republic of Eygpt (1977).

ELIGIBILITY OF GOODS FOR TARIFF PREFERENTIAL RATES—In order to qualify for entry at preferential rates imported goods must meet certain origin requirements before they can be deemed to be the produce or manufacture of the countries entitled to the preferences. The provisions are contained in the Customs Regulations 1968 as amended. In general, with minor variations, they include the following:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries.

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw materials and/or (in some instances) from one or more of the imported partly-manufactured materials which are enumerated in the regulations.

  3. Goods partly manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or other items of factory or works cost incurred in such countries in respect of each article is not less than half of the factory or works cost of the article in its finished state.

TARIFF REVIEW—During 1977 a Bill was presented to Parliament which incorporated a new Customs Tariff to become effective on 1 July 1978. This stemmed from a comprehensive review of the Customs Tariff, and was the first such review undertaken since 1957. The work of reviewing the tariff was undertaken initially by the former Tariff and Development Board and since 1975 by an interdepartmental Tariff Review Committee, comprising officers from the Customs and Trade and Industry Departments. During the course of the review an opportunity was given to interested parties to make submissions.

The proposed Customs Tariff which is still based on the Customs Co-operation Council's Nomenclature (CCCN) is conceived as a revised and restructured document compatible with modern trading conditions and industrial requirements and takes into account trade policy considerations. It incorporates tariff rates necessary to accord domestic industry a reasonable level of protection against competing imports, although in certain areas the Committee recommended that rates adopted should be subject to further study or investigation, particularly as they affect ten nominated industries. Whereas there have been some individual increases in rates of duty in order to afford protection to industrial development there is, overall, a reduction in tariff levels. Although the number of tariff items has been considerably reduced, provision has been made for the collection of more detailed trade statistics by incorporating additional columns for the collection of statistical data. This concept will enable the present problem of having to provide specific tariff items for statistical purposes only to be eliminated.

CUSTOMS DUTIES—The 1978 Tariff (effective from 1 July 1978) has only two duty columns, viz: normal and preferential.

EXCISE DUTIES—Excise duty is a tax on certain commodities manufactured in New Zealand. Duties on major commodities are as follows.

Beer—From 22 July 1977, the excise duty on beer became $18.20 per 100 litres where the specific gravity does not exceed 1036, increasing by 50.55 cents per 100 litres for every unit of specific gravity above 1036. (The specific gravity of distilled water at 15.6°C is taken as 1000 and the specific gravity of the wort is determined in relation thereto.) The Beer Duty Act 1977 takes into account modern brewing techniques and practice and will change the method of assessing duty on beer with effect from 1 April 1978.

Rates of Beer Duty from 1 April 1978 are as follows:

DescriptionRate of Duty
Not exceeding 4.35 percent alcohol by volume15.94 cents per litre
Exceeding 4.35 percent, but not exceeding 5.00 percent alcohol by volume19.93 cents per litre
Exceeding 5.00 percent alcohol by volume25.10 cents per litre

Tobacco—Rates of excise duty on tobacco products, which became effective on 22 July 1977, are as follows:

DescriptionRate of Duty
Cigarettes—$
      Exceeding in weight 1.134 kg per 1,00013.70 per kg
      Not exceeding in weight 1.134 kg per 1,00015.54 per 1,000
Cigars and Snuff8.58 per kg
Other manufactured tobacco10.26 per kg

Alcohol—Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures, the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has been provided since 1921 on alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. During 1977, however, Government approved a range of denatured alcohol for duty-free use in the manufacture of perfumed spirits and toilet preparations.

Rates of duty on alcohol used in preparations manufactured in licensed manufacturing warehouses are as follows:

DescriptionRate of Duty
Culinary and flavouring essences$0.44c per proof litre
Medicinal preparations containing more than 50 percent of proof spirit$0.10c per proof litre
Medicinal preparations containing less than 50 percent proof spiritFree

Distilleries—Excise duty on gin, geneva, schnapps, vodka, and other spirituous mixtures approved by the Minister of Customs, which are produced by two rectifying and compounding distilleries, is at the rate of $3.85 per proof litre.

The excise duty on whisky distilled or made in New Zealand is $3,786 per proof litre.

CUSTOMS REVENUE—Revenue from Customs and Excise Duties is shown in the following table

Year Ended 31 MarchExcise DutiesOther DutiesTotal Duties
BeerSpiritsTobaccoSugar
$(000)
197546,23311,20375,197142,685275,318
197648,37412,12980,265124,630265,398
197746,45714,28491,201147,406299,343

Motor spirits duty paid into the National Roads Fund has been excluded from Customs duties.

Customs revenue as a proportion of taxation is discussed in the section on Central Government finance.

INTERNATIONAL COMMODITY AGREEMENTS: Sugar—New Zealand's annual requirement for sugar is approximately 170,000 tons. The bulk of this is currently imported from Australia and Fiji under long-term contracts. In recent years any additional cargoes have been bought from Cuba and the Philippines.

In an effort to exert a greater control over market forces, producers and consumers have repeatedly made efforts over the past 20 years to encourage market stability through the implementation of a number of International Sugar Agreements. These agreements incorporate mechanisms that regulate the supply and price of sugar on world markets. Under the agreements exporters undertake to regulate their sales on the free market according to agreed quotas, while importers are to restrict their purchases from non-members during times when sugar prices remained within the range specified in the agreement. New Zealand has been a member of the International Sugar Agreements of 1958 and 1968.

The 1968 agreement terminated in 1973. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) convened a conference to negotiate a new agreement. Against a background of record free market sugar prices (moving from around £75 per ton at the end of 1972 to over £200 per ton at the beginning of 1974), agreement on an appropriate price range proved impossible to find and the conference settled for a consultative form of agreement without control measures of any kind. This was intended as an interim measure and resulted in the 1973 Agreement being extended on an annual basis. Since then two negotiating conferences to establish an agreement incorporating economic clauses have been forced along a tentative and wearying path but finally, in late 1977, members were able to agree to a framework around which an acceptable agreement could be drawn up. This new International Sugar Agreement is to take effect from early 1978 and will remain in force until December 1982.

Coffee—New Zealand is a party to the International Coffee Agreement 1976, which came into force in October 1976, for a period of 6 years. New Zealand was previously a party to the International Coffee Agreement of 1968 which finally expired in 1976, having been extended from 1973 as a purely administrative agreement.

Under the 1976 agreement, provisions have been incorporated for adjusting basic quotas, regulating imports whenever quotas are in effect, and recording international coffee trade. New Zealand has joined this agreement as part of a wider support for commodity agreements.

Cocoa—New Zealand has recently joined the International Cocoa Agreement 1975, which came into force in October 1976, for a period of 3 years. New Zealand was a member of the 1973 agreement which expired in 1976. Quotas are more flexible under the new agreement, and further processing of cocoa in developing countries is advocated.

The International Cocoa Agreement incorporates features common to other commodity agreements, but depends largely for the stabilising of prices on the operation of a buffer stock. Cocoa beans would be bought into the buffer stock at times of low prices and sold when prices pass an agreed maximum level. To date the buffer stock has not come into operation as cocoa prices are still rising. It is hoped the 1975 agreement will be more effective in stabilising the international cocoa trade.

Chapter 24. Section 23 PRICES AND HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE

Table of Contents

CONTROL OF PRICES—The principal enactments affecting the control of prices of goods and services are the Commerce Act 1975 and the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948.

Under the former statute a Positive List of Controlled Goods and Services is published by the Minister of Trade and Industry. This specifies goods and services, increases in the prices of which are subject to the direct supervision of the Secretary of Trade and Industry. Regulations (notably the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974) have been made under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948 for the purpose of restraining increases in the prices of most other goods and services which are not subject to the direct supervision of a statutory pricing authority. Such authorities are the Secretary of Trade and Industry in the case of goods and services subject to control under the Commerce Act, the Secretary of Transport in the case of many domestic transport services subject to price control under the Transport Act 1962, and the Air Services Licensing Authority with respect to air transport charges determined in accordance with the Air Services Licensing Act 1951. The prices of some other goods and services such as motor spirits, automotive and diesel oil, and milk and cream prices are fixed by Order in Council.

Goods and services subject to the direct supervision of a statutory pricing authority or Order in Council are generally referred to as Category A goods and services, while other goods and services subject to price restraint under the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974 are termed Category B goods and services.

The Commerce Act 1975—Part IV of the Commerce Act replaces the provisions of the Control of Prices Act 1947. While many of the provisions of this Part closely follow provisions of the earlier Act there are a number of important differences. Besides providing for goods and services to be placed under price control, provision is also made for regulations to be made placing goods and services under price restraint. Decisions take the form of price orders or special approvals as previously. The Secretary of Trade and Industry is required on request to give his reasons for a decision to the applicant or to interested parties. The Commerce Commission, which replaces the former Price Tribunal, sits as a judicial authority for the determination of appeals from decisions of the Secretary of Trade and Industry.

Decisions of the Secretary of Trade and Industry are made following investigations by him, upon receipt of an application in accordance with procedures set out in the Act. Provision is also made, for the Secretary to review prices on his own motion with the consent of the Minister of Trade and Industry. Before making a determination in respect of an application or following a review on his own motion, the Secretary is required to fulfil certain duties which accord applicants the benefit of the rules of natural justice which applied under the previous judicial jurisdiction.

Criteria considered by the Secretary of Trade and Industry or the Commerce Commission in dealing with pricing matters include the cost of production and distribution of the goods concerned; the ability of the applicant to absorb costs; profit margins and return on capital; stable internal prices; improvements in productivity and efficiency; market competition; and subsidies or import protection given.

Price increases may be made on Category B items, but only to the extent provided in the Regulations. In general, this may be stated in respect of manufacturers and suppliers of services as the recovery of costs, plus the established percentage margin of profits. In the case of wholesalers and retailers, prices are determined by applying the lawfully established margin of profit to into-store cost.

Unless approval has been obtained from the Secretary of Trade and Industry for a more frequent increase, there must be a minimum interval of 6 months between price increases by manufacturers and suppliers of services. All manufacturers and packers and suppliers of Category B goods and services must maintain a record of their price increase calculations. Any such manufacturer with an annual turnover of $1.6 million is required to send a copy of that record to the department.

Manufacturers with a turnover of $5 million or more and suppliers of services with a turnover of $500,000 or more are required to give 28 days notice of their intention to increase prices. If the Secretary of Trade and Industry does not object to the increase within the 28 days the increase may be implemented. If an objection is made, the trader must await clearance from the Secretary of Trade and Industry before increasing prices.

The maximum profit ceiling provisions of the Regulations require all traders to ensure they do not exceed their maximum profit ceiling in any year. The maximum profit ceiling is the average percentage of profit to sales achieved during the last four years immediately preceding July 1974. If a trader does obtain any excess profit he is required to liquidate it either through reducing prices or charges or absorbing cost increases.

Provision exists in the Regulations for the Secretary of Trade and Industry to grant approval to traders to retain excess profits or to reassess a maximum profit ceiling. In considering such applications the Secretary has regard to the following:

  1. The need for a profit ceiling higher than the enterprise's maximum profit ceiling in order to sustain a programme of capital expansion approved by the Secretary, to effect improvements in productivity, or to provide for investment in the interests of national, regional, or export development.

  2. Demonstrable improvements in productivity that have been achieved in the business of the enterprise.

  3. Whether full compliance with the maximum profit ceiling is affecting or will affect prejudicially the financial stability and viability of the business of the enterprise.

  4. Significant changes in the activities or structure of the business of the enterprise which render its maximum profit ceiling unreasonable.

  5. Any other matters which the Secretary considers relevant, including the need to protect consumers and to maintain the stability of prices

Except for building services the price freeze implemented on 14 November 1973 on the labour and overhead elements of specified services has been discontinued following the approval of charge-out rates.

The Price Freeze Regulations 1976 came into force on 18 August 1976 and expired on 14 May 1977. During this period other legislative controls on prices were limited in their operation to the extent permitted by the Price Freeze Regulations. With certain exceptions, the normal prices being charged on 17 August 1976 could not be increased on or before 31 December 1976. The exceptions were:

  1. Specified exempted goods and services.

  2. Price increases which were lawful at 17 August but which had not been implemented.

  3. The prices of certain manufacturers of Category B goods and suppliers of Category B services could not be increased until varying dates up to 15 May 1977.

Provision was made for the unit amount of the increased cost of finished imported goods to be passed on in price. Provision was also made for relief to be granted from the Regulations in the case of hardship.

Trade Practices—Part II of the Commerce Act incorporates, with substantial amendments, most of the provisions of the Trade Practices Act 1958.

The Commerce Commission may make orders if it finds certain practices to be contrary to the public interest. Other trade practices are prohibited unless approved by the Commission. Certain prohibited practices are offences.

A trade practice is contrary to the public interest, if in the opinion of the Commission, it has the effect of maintaining certain costs, prices, or profits at an unreasonably high level. Collective pricing agreements need to be approved.

Monopolies, Mergers and Takeovers—Part III of the Commerce Act represents the first comprehensive attempt to exercise surveillance over aggregations of economic power in New Zealand. The legislation empowers the Examiner to investigate any monopoly, oligopoly, merger, and takeover situations and to report his findings to the Commerce Commission as to whether they are contrary to the public interest. The Commission may then take appropriate corrective action—including, in extreme cases, the dismantling of a business—where it has decided that a particular situation is contrary to the public interest.

In terms of Part III, certain types of mergers and takeovers must be notified to the Examiner of Commercial Practices before being implemented. The Examiner investigates the proposal and either gives his consent or, if he considers it is likely to be contrary to the public interest, notifies" in the New Zealand Gazette his intention of reporting the matter to the Commerce Commission. Should he choose the latter course, a full investigation is undertaken followed by conciliation proceedings and referral to the Commission. The Commission would then hold a public hearing and decide in terms of public interest whether or not to allow the merger or takeover to proceed.

Consumer Information—The basic aims of the Consumer Information Act 1969 are for informative labelling and marking of goods, and for the prevention of deceptive or misleading packaging, labelling and advertising. The Act has general application to goods, including services, but the majority of the sections exclude foods, drugs, and medical devices as these are dealt with by the Department of Health under the food and drug legislation. There are provisions dealing with misleading advertising, misleading packaging, and false representations as to prices, and all goods packaged in New Zealand must show the name and address of the packager on the label. Provision is made for other specific packaging and labelling requirements, including the declaration on the label of the quantitative contents of the package—to be stipulated from time to time by the publication of notices in the Gazette or by regulations made by Order in Council.

CONSUMER COUNCIL—The Consumer Council's functions are to protect and promote the interests of consumers of goods and services and by so doing to encourage the improvement and development of industry and commerce. The Council was established in 1959 and reconstituted an independent body under the Consumer Council Act 1966 The Council consists of 12 members appointed solely on the basis of personal qualifications by a representative Appointments Committee. The Secretary of Trade and Industry, the Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Director-General of Health are also members.

The Council has appointed District Consumer Committees in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and sponsors the formation of local consumer associations. The Council lays down the policies to be followed by the staff of Consumers' Institute. The Institute's work includes comparative tests and surveys of consumer goods and services; research into and advice on legislative, financial, and welfare matters; representations to parliamentary committees and public inquiries; consumer education; complaints advisory service; assistance to Polynesians; and liaison with business, trade, and safety associations.

Citizens are encouraged to become members of Consumers' Institute at an annual subscription of $6. At the end of 1977, around 119,000 members received the monthly magazine Consumer. Members are entitled to receive the quarterly Consumer Money Review at an annual subscription of $3, and to purchase other Institute publications. Teaching notes are made available to schools, and radio, television, and newspaper reports are made.

Membership subscriptions and sales of publications provide about 70 percent of the Institute's finance. The remainder comes from Government grants. While the Institute liaises and co-operates with others, it maintains complete independence and impartiality.

The Consumer Council is a council member of the International Organisation of Consumers Unions, and co-operates with and assists other consumer organisations throughout the world.

PRICE STATISTICS—Actual prices of many goods and services at various levels are collected periodically by the Department of Statistics. The fields covered are retail prices, wholesale prices, farm input prices, export prices, import prices, share prices, and wool prices. In the case of retail, wholesale, and farm input prices, direct inquiry is made; export and import prices (or strictly, unit values) are mainly derived from trade statistics, share prices from records of the stock exchanges, and wool prices from the New Zealand Wool Board. In addition, average prices of many materials and products of manufacture are available from the statistics of industrial production. Some retail prices are shown later in this Section, and a wider coverage is published in the annual Report on Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics the chief use made of the prices collected is in the compilation of price index numbers. These are, fundamentally, weighted averages of price ratios, the weighting being so arranged that the index numbers give a general indication of price movements in the field covered. The usual technique employs fixed weights with, however, provision for revision of the weighting pattern at suitable intervals.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—The Consumers Price Index (CPI) measures changes in the general level of the prices of the goods and services which households purchase; it thus provides the best available measure of the effect of changes in retail prices on the average household budget. Index series of retail prices have a long history in New Zealand, starting with a food and rent index for the 4 chief centres back to 1891, and increasing in comprehensiveness both as to commodity and geographical coverage over successive series since that time. The most recent revisions to the Consumers Price Index were made in 1949, 1955, 1965, 1974 (the 1974 revision was the subject of a special article in the 1975 Yearbook), and 1977.

The 1977 revision of the Index was a limited one. It was concerned with updating the expenditure pattern on which the Index is based, incorporating up-to-date population weights to be assigned to the market centres from which prices are collected, and in reviewing the items which are priced and the pricing outlets from which such prices are obtained. No changes were made to the concepts of, and definitions used in, the Consumers Price Index nor to the areas of expenditure, market centres, or households covered by the Index. The reference period or base period in the case of this revision is the year ended 31 March 1977, adjusted to reflect December quarter 1977 price levels. The main basis for establishing the expenditure pattern for the Index was the Household Expenditure Survey conducted throughout the year ended 31 March 1977.

The salient features of this index may be summarised as follows:

  1. The basic formula used is that of Laspeyres in its aggregative form.

  2. The index relates to the expenditures of all New Zealand residents living in private households.

  3. The number of items regularly priced is 565.

  4. The base expenditures are quantities for 12 months ended 31 March 1977 at prices for the quarter ended December 1977.

  5. The sources of group and commodity weights are the average expenditure per household from the Household Expenditure Survey of the year ended March 1977 supplemented by crosschecks from other statistical sources. Where considered appropriate, the base weight assigned to selected items represent expenditure on kindred items not selected for pricing.

  6. Prices for most items are collected by field officers in 25 centres, including 3 combined areas. A few are obtained by mail.

  7. Rent movements are determined by means of a quarterly survey of a sample of rented houses and flats.

  8. Special techniques are employed for costs of owner-occupiers, for prices of seasonal fruits and vegetables, and for transport charges.

  9. Index numbers are compiled for all food and its sub-groups at monthly intervals, and for all other groups and sub-groups at quarterly intervals.

  10. Index numbers are published for 7 chief market centres and 10 larger market centres individually. Combined index numbers are also published for each of these two groupings and for all centres combined. Each centre and groupings of centres is shown on its own base and on a common, all-centres, base.

  11. To provide continuous series, the pre-revision all-groups index and food index series were converted to a base of December quarter 1977.

  12. Expenditures on the following items are, for various reasons, excluded: direct taxation; purchases of shares, bonds or debentures; payments to superannuation funds and the like; savings; collectors' items; gifts; gambling; court fines; legal expenses for traffic cases, criminal and civil cases, estates, family settlements, divorces, adoptions, etc; charitable and church donations; wages of domestic servants, home aids, home nurses, jobbing gardeners, etc; catering and other service charges for private receptions; training, racing and stabling fees for race or trotting horses; purchase, boarding and breeding charges for animals; pet requisites (other than pet food); and grazing fees and fees for pony clubs.

The basic objective of the Consumers Price Index is to provide a multi-purpose indicator of retail price changes of those goods and services which are purchased by New Zealand residents living in New Zealand.

The weights in the Consumers Price Index are based on the pattern of expenditure of the population covered by the index rather than on what is consumed by them.

Data to revise and update the Consumers Price Index are obtained mainly from continuing household expenditure surveys. These are to be supplemented and tested by additional data on housing, national consumption, production, and expenditure.

The selection of goods and services to be priced—inevitably only a small percentage of goods and services can be priced—has been widened to include more fields of expenditure and more pricing outlets. This reflects more adequately both the expenditure patterns of all New Zealand residents living in New Zealand and the movement in prices of consumer goods and services.

Consumers Price Index (1977 Revision)—The tables which follow relate to the Consumers Price Index (1977 Revision) only.

The first table supplies all-groups index numbers and index numbers of individual groups and subgroups for 25 centres combined. The group and subgroup weights are also shown as percentages of the base expenditure.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—(ALL GROUPS)—

TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED

Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)

PeriodFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Groups—
      Percentages of base expenditure19.1223.5317.047.9513.8418.52100.00
Calendar year—
      1975683780663692691692708
      1976810861796793856821828
      1977948956934928956948947
Quarter ended—
      1976–31 Dec853895839847883865867
      1977–31 Mar892915857860900886890
      30 Jun924942923915948932933
      30 Sep974965957936978971966
      31 Dec1000100010001000100010001000
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold Operation
Fruit and VegetablesMeat, Fish, and PoultryOther FoodsRentalsHome OwnershipFuel and LightHousehold FurnishingsHousehold Supplies and Services
Subgroups—
      Percentage of base expenditure2.955.1211.054.0219.502.779.334.94
Calendar year—
      1975729742646729788522696687
      1976831857783833866685819819
      1977942966942954956936948909
Quarter ended—
      1976–31 Dec874909823860901748862850
      1977–31 Mar910932871910917767887857
      30 Jun887948924940943977932874
      30 Sep969982972964965998973903
      31 Dec10001000100010001000100010001000
PeriodApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
ClothingFootwearPublic TransportPrivate TransportTobacco and AlcoholOther SuppliesOther Services
Subgroups—
      Percentage of base expenditure6.441.521.2212.627.885.944.70100.00
Calendar year—
      1975699663674693711689671708
      1976797777846856824843791828
      1977929921957956950954937947
Quarter ended—
      1976–31 Dec846848863884886884819867
      1977–31 Mar861856900899896901859890
      30 Jun917902938948934939921933
      30 Sep938925990977971975967966
      31 Dec10001000100010001000100010001000

The average level of consumer prices rose by 14.3 percent in 1977, compared with a rise of 16.9 percent during the preceding year. Although price increases were recorded in all main groups of the index the major contributions to the overall result came from the home ownership, other foods, private transport, household furnishings, clothing, and miscellaneous services subgroups.

The following diagram shows the movement in consumers price index numbers.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX NUMBERS

The following tables distinguish individual centres and groupings of centres, but the subgroup indexes are omitted. Attention is called, however, to the two-fold method of presentation: in the first table current prices in each centre are compared with prices in the same centre during the base period; in the second, current prices in each centre are compared with average prices over all the 25 centres in the base period.

Where the base is the individual centre, the index numbers are specially designed to show price movements in each centre. Vertical comparisons can also be made but they will show the relative amount of price movements in respective centres, not relative current price levels. In the second method, where the base is average prices over the 25 centres, horizontal or vertical comparisons may be made to compare relative price levels. However, these index numbers do not indicate how much dearer or cheaper it is to live in one centre or another, but only how much higher or lower retail price levels are in one centre than another. The construction of the index assumes the same consumption habits in all centres, regardless of size, climate, etc.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—ANNUAL GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES

Base: Weighted average each centre and grouping, separately. December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)

CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Fourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar Year
19761977197619771976197719761977
Auckland1000821953100088396310007949381000788928
Hamilton1000823946100082493110007869291000789925
Napier-Hastings1000800940100085295310008069371000811939
Palmerston North1000806946100088297110008009331000788927
Wellington-Hutt1000807947100087395910008008901000802927
Christchurch1000799942100087696510007969381000792931
Dunedin1000819957100083895710007899361000785919
Seven chief market centres1000813948100087095910007959351000792928
Whangarei1000816952100085895210007939291000783923
Tauranga1000801950100085894710007869321000797933
Rotorua1000814948100086795410007959321000799931
Gisborne1000801935100085095510007909341000792927
New Plymouth1000808950100087096110007869261000775905
Wanganui1000816947100082694910007969311000779906
Masterton1000786936100084196210007919321000799937
Nelson1000795946100086996110008009361000802933
Timaru1000810950100079893310008109361000812940
Invercargill1000784939100080293610008169351000799933
Ten larger market centres1000803946100084294910007979321000794927
Twenty-five market centres combined*1000810948100086195610007969341000793928
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Fourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar Year
19769771976197719761977

*Includes eight smaller market centres, viz Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, and Gore.

Auckland100086596110008229511000837952
Hamilton100084294610008189451000817938
Napier-Hastings100086796610008229441000829948
Palmerston North100085795710008169461000832950
Wellington-Hutt100085295810008269501000833948
Christchurch100084695210008179461000827948
Dunedin100086195910008159451000821949
Seven chief market centres100085795810008209481000831948
Whangarei100086696110008129411000827946
Tauranga100084294510008199471000823944
Rotorua100084494910008299481000830945
Gisborne100086796410008049401000822945
New Plymouth100085495510008219481000826945
Wanganui100085895810008129431000818942
Masterton100085095410008299501000818946
Nelson100084695310008299521000830949
Timaru100084595010008339491000817943
Invercargill100086195810008209411000813941
Ten larger market centres100085395510008219461000822945
Twenty-five market centres combined*100085595610008219481000828947

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—ANNUAL GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES

Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres combined. December Quarter 1977 (=1000)

CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Fourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar Year
19761977197619771976197719761977
Auckland976802931105393010151001796939984775913
Hamilton101183395710068299371004789933941743871
Napier-Hastings99979893893579689010128169481012821950
Palmerston North101081395496785293710258219571033814957
Wellington-Hutt1010815956106192610179997999281027824952
Christchurch10088059489748539409847839231050831978
Dunedin100982696691076387210388209711031809947
Seven chief market centres996810945101488297210047989381006797934
Whangarei1000816952981841935997790926877686809
Tauranga1001802952105890810021009793941967771901
Rotorua1001815949967838922983782917959766893
Gisborne1036830968907771865996788931980776908
New Plymouth100881495794782390910178009431005779909
Wanganui10118269589077498619607658941025798928
Masterton1029809964939789903999791931970775908
Nelson100880295310238899831014812949980785914
Timaru9837969349377478749817959171051854989
Invercargill10157969549257428669637869011057844985
Ten larger market centres1007809953964812915991790924986783914
Twenty-five market centres combined*1000810948100086195610007969341000793928
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Fourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1977Calendar Year
197619771976197719761977

*Includes eight smaller market centres, viz. Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, and Gore.

Auckland102088298010348499831017852968
Hamilton976822923989809934994811931
Napier-Hastings1027890992991814935988819936
Palmerston North969830928977798924991824941
Wellington-Hutt9878419459958229441016846963
Christchurch100685295810208339651001828949
Dunedin1000861959982800929984808933
Seven chief market centres100486096110118299581006836955
Whangarei1004870965983798925981812928
Tauranga9758219219848059311006828950
Rotorua974822924979811928978812925
Gisborne1026889990977785919981805925
New Plymouth993847948975801924985814931
Wanganui9768379351013822955973796917
Masterton979832934975809927979802927
Nelson10018479549617979151001830950
Timaru997843948954795905974795918
Invercargill1008867966986809929982798924
Ten larger market centres994848949979804925984809930
Twenty-five market centres combined*100085595610008219481000828947

AVERAGE RETAIL PRICES—New Zealand retail prices (weighted average prices over 25 centres) at 15 November 1977 of a number of the commodities which enter into the Consumers Price Index are shown hereunder.

CommodityUnitPrice
  Cents
Apples, eatingkg104.28
Grangeskg83.93
Cabbagekg44.88
Carrotskg74.58
Onionskg63.88
Potatoeskg26.90
Peaches, canned425 g tin46.99
Peas, green, frozen1 kg pkt91.23
Beef, blade steakkg213.00
Beef, corned silversidekg220.28
Beef, porterhouse steakkg314.32
Beef, prime rib, rolledkg195.82
Beef, rump steakkg281.62
Hogget, chops, middle loinkg211.88
Hogget, cut leg, knuckle endkg210.42
Hogget, forequarterkg135.29
Lamb, leg, wholekg221.56
Pork, cut leg, knuckle endkg274.98
Pork, loin chopskg280.43
Bacon, side rasherskg424.17
Ham, cooked, pressed, slicedkg580.58
Mince, beefkg150.60
Sausages, beefkg121.84
Sole or flounder, wetkg237.38
Fish, fresh, filleted—e.g. tarakihi or groperkg327.31
Salmon, canned220 g114.03
Chicken, deep frozenMedium268.11
Eggs, min. 636g/dozenDozen100.26
Milk, delivered600 ml9.01
Butter300 g49.62
Cheese, tastykg196.95
Milk powder, full cream1 kg tin175.36
Bread, sliced, wrapped750 g34.40
Biscuits, chocolate wheaten225 g66.54
Cake, block, light fruit500 g119.12
Breakfast flake biscuits750 g67.08
Flour, white1.5 kg49.14
Oatmeal, packaged1.4 kg93.33
Rice, short grain500 g50.05
Honey500 g tin78.50
Jam, apricot400 g tin62.17
Coffee, instant100 g273.91
Coffee, ground, packaged250 g299.42
Tea250 g112.75
Margarine, table500 g88.18
Salt, iodised2 kg bag43.37
Soup, tomato450 g tin42.29
Spaghetti in tomato sauce450 g tin42.45
Sugar, white3 kg pkt133.58
Vegetable cooking oil500 ml101.89
Aerated waters740 ml bot30.43
Ice cream, vanilla2 litre99.98
Chocolate, block250 g129.97
Meals, coffee and 2 sandwichesEach70.62
Meals, grill, steak and eggsEach347.10
Takeaways, chicken, hotEach306.42
Takeaways, hamburger, hotEach58.05
Timber, dressed, 150 mm × 25 mm finishing tanalised radiata pinePer 100 lineal metres$ 84–81
Concrete blocks, 400 mm × 200 mm × 150 mm waterproofPer 10052.79
Paint, house, waterbased, high gloss4 litre tin17.00
Wallpaper, N.Z. plain, sunproofPer roll5.28
Local body ratesAnn. Demand208.94
Coal, delivered255 kg19.25
Electricity with water heating1400 units per 2 months32.61
Gas10 therms per month7.13
Electric blanket, single, thermostat controlEach25.34
Clothes drier, tumblerEach241.26
Home-freezer, 0.26 cu mEach317.12
Electric radiator, 2500w 4 elementsEach73.65
Radio, transistorised, 8 transistors 6VEach62.79
Electric range, 4 elementEach377.05
Electric razor, double header (in travel case)Each39.39
Refrigerator 0.32 cu m dual temperature, freezer-fridgeEach425.14
Modular stereo, turntable, 3 speed, single playEach566.56
Television set, black and whiteEach376.65
Television set, colour. 66 cmEach1,033.38
Vacuum cleanerEach114.75
Washing machine, spin dry, fully automaticEach483.48
Bedroom suite, 135 cm. including dressing table, tallboyEach496.53
Motor mower, rotaryEach260.62
Tallboy, 4 drawer, rimuEach80.86
Dining room suiteEach267.05
Lounge suite, 3 pieceEach607.66
Mattress, foam rubber, 135 cm.Each144.56
Blinds, Venetian, 175 cm wide, 130 cm dropEach75.46
Cot, wooden, painted, dropsideEach65.70
Piano, upright, iron frameEach1,682.33
Carpet, embossed, broadloomPer metre69.78
Carpet, 80/20 broadloomPer metre76.84
Blankets, all wool, singlePair43.87
Sheets, singlePair14.13
Towel, turkish, 61 cm × 122 cm.Each3.25
Casserole dish, 1.7 l pyrexEach8.03
Clock, alarmEach18.12
Mixing bowl, stainless steel 20 cm.Each4.47
Saucepan, 20 cm. aluminiumEach15.91
Cup, saucer, plateSet6.95
Forks, table, stainless steel½ dozen3.69
Hammer, 568 gEach12.16
PlaneEach18.43
Spade, gardenEach16.52
Bulb, electric light, 100WEach0.69
Cat food, tinned425 g0.40
Detergent, liquid, plastic container900 ml0.82
Disinfectant560 ml0.74
Flyspray, aerosol310g1.52
Soap powder1.10kg0.90
Washing powder900 g1.16
Postage, surface letters, 10 gEach0.10
Telegrams, 15 wordsEach1.10
Telephone rental, privatePer year120.00
Dry cleaning, mens 2 piece suitEach2.86
Television licence, black and whitePer year27.50
Television licence, colourPer year45.00
Man's cardigan, all wool, fully fashionedEach33.82
      HandkerchiefEach0.74
      Jeans, navyPair18.68
      Raincoat fabricEach62.93
      Shirt, businessEach17.13
      Singlet, athleticEach3.26
      Socks, half-hose, wool/nylonPair2.91
      Suit, ready-made two-pieceEach137.83
      Swimming trunks, bri-nylonPair7.18
      Trousers, sports, terylene or woolPair37.04
Woman's brassiereEach6.43
      Cardigan, lightweightEach18.47
      Coat, winterweightEach88.81
      Frock, lightweightEach20.31
      Nightdress, nylonEach11.15
      Nightdress, dacron/cottonEach10.46
Woman's Panties, nylonPair1.65
      Panty hosePair1.57
      Slacks, lightweightPair18.59
      Skirt, winterweightEach28.21
      Suit, two-piece, heavyweightEach79.08
      Swimsuit, nylonEach22.25
      Underslip, nylonEach7.10
      Vest, at least 50 percent woolEach4.77
Boy's shortsPair6.28
Girl's panties, interlockPair2.01
      Pyjamas, heavyweightPair6.67
      Socks, ankle, nylonPair1.60
Infant's nursery squares, 76 cm × 76 cm.Dozen12.47
Infant's vest, eyelet meshEach1.56
Fabric, sailcloth, cotton 90 cmPer metre1.71
      Synthetic, dress, lightweight, 115 cmPer metre2.73
      Woollen/cotton mixture, 90 cmPer metre5.28
Paper pattern, dressmakingEach1.30
Knitting wool 4 plyPer 25 g ball0.60
      double knitPer 50 g ball1.14
Men's boots, heavyweight, commando solePair31.91
      Sand shoesPair5.85
      Shoes, lightweightPair32.59
Women's fashion shoes (summer)Pair28.34
      Fashion shoes (winter)Pair29.83
      SlippersPair7.88
Boy's shoes, schoolPair15.74
Girl's shoes, schoolPair14.43
Car, new, basic without extras 1051–1350ccEach7,270.00
Bicycle, 52 cm frameEach143.65
Petrol. 96 octanePer 10 litres2.96
Car repairs, overhaul of brakes, overhaul of gearbox, (new seals, bearings, and gaskets only)Per job69.20
 Per job125.02
Cigarettes, filter tippedPkt 200.62
Cigarette tobacco50 g pkt1.02
Beer, in a public bar200 ml glass0.17
Wine, N.Z. sherry, medium dryPer 750 ml bot1.87
Aspirinpkt of 250.61
Make-up, foundation (tinted)32 g2.77
Lipstick, 12 mm, popular colourEach2.92
Baby talc110 g0.71
Razor blades, stainless steelpkt of 51.01
Toilet paperPer 3 rolls0.82
Toilet soap, bath size tabletEach0.23
Toothpaste, family sizePer tube0.63
Ring, diamond, engagementEach520.85
Watch, wrist, man'sEach94.17
Pad, writing, 23 cm. × 18 cm. 40 leaves ruledEach0.39
Long playing recordEach8.02
Construction set, child's toyEach11.61
Teddy bear, 33 cm.Each15.00
Tricycle, child'sEach61.16
Bowls, outdoorSet of 486.84
Golf club, no. 5 ironEach25.80
Rifle, 243 calibreEach339.58
Tennis ballsPer pair1.75
Tennis racquet, juniorEach22.54
Newspaper, dailyEach0.10
Library subscription, 14 days1 book0.24
Optician's fee, full examination and spectacles with caseEach41.19
Dental fillingsEach6.20
DenturesPer set204.45
Medical, general practitioner's fee (in excess of G.M.S. benefit)Per service3.56
Specialist consultation, (in excess of specialist benefit)Per service8.81
Private general hospital, medical wardPer day23.82
Cinema admission, adult, eveningEach1.74
Rugby admissionEach0.64
Golf club subscription, adult, male, netPer annum122.79
Rugby club subscriptionPer annum12.47
Tennis club subscriptionPer annum23.84
Motel tariff, 3 star, 2 personsPer night17.11
Funeral, burialEach584.23
Funeral, cremationEach515.10
Haircut, man'sEach1.73
Haircut, woman'sEach2.78
Hairset, woman'sEach4.50

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS—The table overleaf provides a comparison of retail prices between New Zealand and certain other countries. All the prices have been converted into New Zealand currency and the metric liquid and dry measures have been adopted as the basis for common units of quantity.

Comparisons in annual movement of Consumer Price Indexes of selected countries are given in the following table. (The base is December Quarter 1.974 = 1000.)

YearNew ZealandAustraliaCanadaFrance (Paris)JapanUnited KingdomUnited States
1972793746803782678745813
1973858817864839758812863
1974953941958954941942958
19751093108210611065105411711045
19761278122811411171115513651106
19771461138012321281125115811177

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL PRICES OF BASIC FOODSTUFFS

(At December 1977 in New Zealand currency)

ItemUnitNew Zealand (Average 25 Centres)Australia(Sydney)Great Britain* (London)South Africa(Cape Town)United States (Average 56 Cities)

*September 1977.

†October 1977.

‡July 1977.

§Cake flour.

||Processed cheese.

¶Sirloin.

Sources: Australia: Commonwealth Statistician. Great Britain: New Zealand High Commissioner. South Africa: Bureau of Census and Statistics. U.S.A.: Bureau of Labour.

  centscentscentscentscents
Bread750 g31.744.741.719.760.6
Flour1.5 kg49.175.159.255.6§58.2
Tea500 g223.6250.8231.9272.8..
Coffee (instant)100g263.0247.0197.1..199.9
SugarKg44.535.147.831.049.3
Milk (fresh)600 ml9.029.121.918.422.7
Butter500 g49.6102.799.991.4153.0
CheeseKg198.1232.7259.5||233.3391.1||
BaconKg427.3488.3340.2280.2358.8
Beef, rib roastKg194.0203.7563.5258.9419.2
Lamb, legKg216.6249.0389.0238.1..
Pork—
      LegKg277.7347.6284.1196.1..
      ChopsKg280.8323.0..197.6424.2
Margarine500 g88.499.163.160.767.6

Prices shown for the United States of America do not include sales tax. A similar table of wholesale prices is shown later. Currency conversion basis: Australia, A$1 = NZ$1.1409; Great Britain, £1 = NZ$1.8025 September, NZ$1.8288 November, South Africa, 1 Rand = NZ$1.1811, United States, US$1 = NZ$1.0300 July, NZ$1.0316 September; France, 1 Franc = NZ21.0699c.

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX—This index is not a single wholesale prices index, but a series of price index numbers related to broad groupings of the inter-industry transactions distinguished in the department's input-output tables for the New Zealand economy. Thus each of the index numbers relates to a group of commodity transactions occurring at certain price levels between defined sectors in the economy. Capital goods as well as goods for current consumption or usage are represented in the various commodity flows.

Wholesale Prices Index Numbers—The table which follows is divided into two parts; the first covers "input" prices and the second "output" prices. Within the first part of the table there is a breakup into goods for industrial use (analysed by sector destinations), for consumption, and for export. In each flow imported goods are distinguished from locally produced goods. In this part of the table all prices are inclusive of sales tax and excise duties and net of subsidies; the prices for exports marketed overseas are the prices in these markets brought to an f.o.b. basis, i.e., their "input" prices to other countries.

In the second part of the table the broad producing sectors are distinguished. Here the prices of their outputs are used. They are taken before the addition of sales and excise duties or the deduction of subsidies. The prices for export meat and dairy products are those payable to producers under the different stabilisation and minimum export-meat-prices schemes.

The primary produce processing industries group comprises the two major industries, meat export works and dairy factories, processing farm products mainly for export.

The expression base for the index is the calendar year 1958.

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX

Base: 1958 (= 1000)

Index Numbers of Commodity Prices by Sectors of Destination*

Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used byAll Users
Domestic IndustryConsumersDomestic Industry and ConsumersOther Country (Exported)
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
19581000100010001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
19731700180717721652174517231689178617572324168919031849
19742012132718881945192019261996186519001939199618761906
19752554189221102397219922452515199621522056251520092136
19763079235225912949265827273047245626342926304725582681
1977||3510276030113332314531893466289530663177346629563085
Calender YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Primary IndustriesPrimary Produces Processing IndustriesAll Other Industries
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
FarmingAll Other Industries
19581000100010001000100010001000100010001000
19731545200415521746164718261820171618031764
19741877208316941896188416821688202718781945
19752436144319921836243215201547256721502338
19763022185224422294306319471980308426372839
1977||3471242329002798350222422280351330803275
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Manufacturing IndustriesBuilding and Construction
ImportedHome ProducedTotal
Other Manufacturing IndustriesAll Other IndustriesImportedHome ProducedTotal
19581000100010001000100010001000
19731704172221201806584517921812
19742039190219041972207119902020
19752531225219052311285124292583
19763021272424482809331528923046
1977||3446320127183211380334183559
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Transport and CommunicationOther Industries§
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal

*The prices used in this table are those payable by the using or consuming sectors, i.e., including indirect taxation and net after subsidies; the export prices are NZ f.o.b. equivalent of overseas market prices.

†This consists of manufacturing industries (excluding primary produce processing industries), building and construction, transport and communication, wholesale and retail trade, banking and finance, and public utilities and services.

‡Other than Primary Produce Processing Industries.

§Includes wholesale and retail trade, banking and finance, and public utilities and services.

||Provisional.

1958100010001000100010001000
1973172014831655157116451625
1974208015941947183117561777
1975256520532425231520022089
1576327426253097286724622574
1977||365830283486326929573043

Index Numbers of Commodity Prices by Sector of Origin*

Calendar YearPrices Received for Commodities Produced in New Zealand
Output ofUsed by
FarmingOther Primary IndustriesPrimary Produce Processing IndustriesOther Manufacturing IndustriesPublic UtilitiesAll Domestic IndustryIndustry and ConsumersOther Countries (Exported)

*The prices used in this part of the table are those receivable by producers, i.e., before addition of indirect taxation or deduction of consumer or user subsidies; prices for dairy produce and meat are those payable to producers under the schemes to stabilise returns from year to year.

†Comprises the outputs of the five sectors mentioned in this part of the table.

‡Provisional.

195810001000100010001000100010001000
197320001875191717721427186217862112
197417932039180119221467184618611797
197516172423133423021541197620131855
197621872964234727792033249124532617
197724423601254032642779286428912773

COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES

(At November 1977 in New Zealand currency)

For currency conversion basis see page 611

ItemUnitNew Zealand*FranceGreat BritainUnited States§

*Fourth quarter.

†August 1977.

‡November 1977.

§September 1977.

  $$$$
Wheattonne110.000193.295139.300108.408
Oatstonne105.000..121.52479.600
Flourtonne184.100301.300..159.769
Sugar50 kg21.898....18.762
Butter500g0.4431.7691.0411.194
Cheesekg1.1402.1202.0672.740
Motor spiritlitre0.2660.4440.303..

FARMING COSTS PRICE INDEXES—Three farming costs price indexes are calculated. These cover sheep farming, dairy farming, and all farming. There is also a farming capital expenditure price index. These indexes are designed to measure price movements only as they would affect a fixed quantity and pattern of materials and services used by the farmers in each category.

It is emphasised that these indexes are not cost of production indexes, i.e., they do not purport to measure the actual total costs of running a farm, but only measure the movements in prices paid for commodities and services used by farmers.

Full descriptions of these indexes were published in supplements to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics the sheep farming index in the September 1973 issue; the dairy farming index in the October 1973 issue; and the all farming index in the March 1974 issue. All these indexes are published regularly in the Monthly Abstract.

The index values for the all-farming index for the latest available 4 years are set out below. The base is the year ended June 1971 (=1000).

ItemPercentage of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
19711974197519761977

*Excludes depreciation 9.63 percent.

Wages and rations13.7110001412162318402080
Sharemilkers5.4310001657140714481611
Animal health and breeding expenses3.2110001245137615271778
Electricity1.3210001061107613092074
Feed8.5710001371158016661919
Freight2.8810001223151517031917
Fertiliser and lime11.1910001264133913201809
Seeds1.3210001533135313871845
Shearing expenses3.6310001269153117141962
Weed and pest control1.2810001320166319432186
Other farm working expenses2.8110001221150918372219
Repairs and maintenance8.7310001257148417792076
Vehicle expenses7.5710001256153017942087
Administrative expenses2.8710001262142416561868
Insurance1.0710001065107010771095
Rates3.0810001375154418062235
Interest10.0110001091114412061257
Rent1.6910001025105911371243
All Groups90.37*10001295143915931865

The table below shows a capital expenditure price index for farming. Some expenditure on topdressing comes into both indexes. Capital expenditure on land development includes topdressing and it is also included as a normal part of farm maintenance in the all-farming cost price index.

ItemPercentage of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
19711974197519761977
Farm buildings17.5210001355156718312145
Transport vehicles19.7610001249150719792360
Tractors and farm machinery24.6910001178145219482536
Land development38.0310001289150416351957
       Total100.0010001266150318152212

PRICE AND VOLUME INDEXES OF EXTERNAL TRADE—The aims of these index series are to analyse the changes in the values of imports and exports from period to period (annually and moving 3-monthly) in order to isolate the relative price, or more correctly "unit value", and volume components.

All these index series are of the Fisher Ideal type, which involves the calculation of two indexes (for both price and volume) for each current period on the previous year as base, one index using the weighting pattern of the base year and the other using the weighting pattern of the current period. The averaging method known as the "geometric mean" applied to these two indexes produces the index for the current period on the previous year's base which is then linked on to the index for the earlier year to provide a continuous series. The 3-monthly moving indexes (as published in the Monthly Abstract) are provisional until the calculation of the annual definitive index for the year in which they fall. The indexes for calendar quarters are then aligned to the annual indexes. Revision is also necessary on occasions as a result of corrections made by the Customs Department to provisional external trade data on which the indexes are based. The annual indexes for years ended 31 December and 31 March are calculated from the figures for component quarters.

The indexes use the whole range of data available on external trade and involves imputing trends in prices and quantities of some items to other items where it is impracticable to obtain meaningful quantity and price series. The items for which quantity data are not available and those unsuitable for pricing have imputed to them the average price and volume movements of the remainder of the division in which they are classified, or, in some cases the price and volume movement at the next, higher, level of index aggregation. This means that the weighting system takes account of the value of unpriced items even though these items cannot be used as explicit price or volume indicators. The imputation of movements to the unpriced items is done primarily at the S.I.T.C. (Revised) division level. However, in some cases the values of a whole division are adjusted by imputing to them the price and volume movements obtained by amalgamating the movements of several divisions.

The methodology of the indexes makes the import and export indexes consistent in approach and content with each other, and the adopted internal classifications of commodity groupings of exports facilitates the construction of export index series for industry groupings. The classification is also consistent with the United Nations recommended classification groupings for both exports and imports.

The year ended 30 June 1971 is the standard expression base for price and volume indexes for exports and imports and the tables in which they are published have been standardised in content and constituent components in line with the standardisation of the index methodology.

Although the price and volume indexes are produced as complementary series, only the price indicators are published here. The volume indexes are presented in the section on External Trade.

Export Indexes—The export items explicitly dealt with in the index represent, approximately, 95 percent of the total value of exports. The proportion of manufactured exports so treated is higher than this overall average. To qualify for inclusion as an explicit indicator of price or volume movement in the index a commodity must have an aggregate value of at least $20,000 in the base year and a minimum of $16,000 in the current 3-monthly period. This represents some 525 different items as well as subdivisions of these items. The 5 percent by value of exports that do not have a statistical unit are included in the index by imputation.

The annual indexes on the previous year as base are chain-linked to give longer-term valid comparisons. Provision is made for alignment of individual quarters in both price and volume series once annual indexes are constructed. Because of the varying quantities of particular commodities sold each quarter, the mean price or unit-value, and consequently the index number of any year, is not necessarily equal to the arithmetic mean of the quarterly figures.

Re-exports are not included in the export indexes. The items covered are defined as goods and materials grown or produced in New Zealand, and articles manufactured in New Zealand from imported materials (but not including imported goods which are exported in an essentially unchanged condition).

The following table gives export prices index numbers for years ended 30 June.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX

Base: Year ended June 1971 (=1000)

Year Ended 30 JuneButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsAll Groups

*Provisional.

197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
197313331601153612732260159315551363106318581477
197411461708150814972613182217291503117621331653
197512771448173011471808138314711378139017261512
197616881843200313702533173717981625173622181857
1977*19852018210916633837231222601836200731742271

The next table shows export prices index numbers for all pastoral and dairy produce groups and for all groups combined on a long time series. Separate series are prepared for calendar years and years ended June, the latter relating more closely to the farming year.

Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)

EXPORT PRICES INDEX

YearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll Groups

*Provisional.

Calender Year
1927335331
1928374367
1929358353
1930278277
1931210213
1932191194
1933189194
1934236239
1935228233
1936264266
1937311311
1938286288
1939279282
1940324325
1941331334
1942341342
1943356357
1927334331
1928369362
1929373367
1930308305
1931227229
1932202204
1933183188
1934235237
1935217221
1936254257
1937303304
1938296297
1939281282
1940317320
1941327330
1942342342
1943351352
1944374376
1945405406
1946443444
1947561557
1948624619
1949605599
1950860846
19511009992
1952806798
1953900888
1954915905
1955939929
1956917906
1957906893
1958767761
1959879868
1960851843
June Year
1944366368
1945398399
1946416417
1947517513
1948623618
1949599594
1950694685
195110841062
1952809803
1953871859
1954921909
1955912903
1956934922
1957934923
1958781773
1959814805
1960900889
1961802797
1962818813
1963903890
1964987970
1965950937
1966942927
1967854846
1968914911
1969972966
1970974971
197110711052
197212941266
197317151623
197416271596
19751507x1582x
1976*2029x2072x
1977*23512360
1961813807
1962797791
1963859850
1964976960
1965957944
1966952938
1967897887
1968867862
1969957953
1970974973
197110001000
197211721160
197315551477
19741729x1653
197514711512
197617981857
1977*22602271

IMPORT INDEXES—The import prices index has, since 1959, reflected changes in the c.i.f valuation of imports. Price changes at item level are measured at the current domestic valuation in the country of origin and are adjusted by the c.d.v.: c.i.f. valuation ratio at division level.

The reason for the difference between the fluctuation in import prices and in wholesale prices of imported commodities is that, while the Import Prices Index shows the variation in the price-induced cost of imports to the New Zealand economy as a whole before the addition of customs duties and other landing charges, all imports in the Wholesale Price Index are on a duty-paid landed cost basis. Also the import price index numbers series is based on a greater range of commodities than the index numbers of wholesale prices of imported commodities.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX

Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)

Year Ended JunePetroleum and ProductsTextile Yarn, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery Other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport EquipmentFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsFuelsAll Groups

*Provisional.

197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
197310521102100211671056110911601100100910531095
1974x18341245120210811054112713001175117418401230
1975x32391442171513571252135915181496171932481627
197643371742212017721790197119891967219743492143
1977*52822007233421551897203822892215250053012445

The following table shows a longer time series of all groups import prices index numbers on the same expression base for years ended March, June, and December.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX

Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)

YearYear Ended
31 March30 June31 Dec (Calendar Year)

*Provisional.

1952709730741
1953732716698
1954698694689
1955690692703
1956706715721
1957729735745
1958746743742
1959740734724
1960725732734
1961734732738
1962735733721
1963716718721
1964724727732
1965734730732
1966733734734
1967734733745
1968776808878
1969887898912
1970920935967
197198310001027
1972103310441068
1973108410951125
1974115412301428
19751542x16271881
19762000x21432318x
1977*239824452562

TERMS OF TRADED—The terms of trade is the expression of the ratio of export prices to import prices, i.e., an index of the purchasing power (in units of imports) of a fixed quantity of exports. In the table that follows terms of trade are expressed on base 1957 (=100). However, an index above or below 100 means only that terms of trade are more or less favourable than in 1957. The choice of base year was arbitrarily made and is not intended to indicate that 1957 was a normal or standard year. For the purposes of this table both import prices and export prices indexes have necessarily been converted to a 1957 base.

The table below shows index numbers of import prices, export prices, and terms of trade.

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE—ALL COUNTRIES

Base: Calendar Year 1957 (=100)

Year Ended JuneImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of Trade

*Provisional.

†Calendar year (base).

‡All quarterly figures from September 1972 published previously have been revised.

1957100100100
19679899101
19681089789
196912110788
197012610987
197113411283
197214013093
1973147165113
1974x165185112
1975x21816978
197628820872
1977*33625476
PeriodImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of Trade
Quarter
1974–30 Sep19917487
      31 Dec21217382
1975–31 Mar23616570
      30 Jun23416671
      30 Sep25117770
      31 Dec28919969
1976–31 Mar29721773
      30 Jun31123074
      30 Sep*316x234x72x
      31 Dec*320x245x75
1977–31 Mar*34027079
      30 Jun*33726478
      30 Sep*34626175
      31 Dec*35326274

SHARE PRICES INDEX—This index is designed to reflect changes in the aggregate value of holdings of parcels of ordinary shares in representative selections of companies listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges and trading in New Zealand. In selecting the companies, the frequency with which shares are traded was used as a criterion as well as the value of the New Zealand shareholding. The weights of the different companies are determined by the New Zealand shareholding, and appropriate methods take account of capital changes in the companies concerned.

The weights used are fixed and are based on the aggregate value in 1960 of the total New Zealand shareholdings in all the exchange-listed companies which qualified for representation in the index.

SHARE PRICES AND DIVIDEND YIELDS—ALL GROUPS INDEX NUMBERS

Base: 1960 (= 1000)

Calendar YearShare PricesDividend Yields
197317701183
197414401663
197513281876
197614431736
197713152034

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY—The Household Survey arose from the acceptance of the Consumers Price Index Revision Advisory Committee's recommendation in 1971 that an essential feature of the revision of the Consumers Price Index should be the establishment of average expenditures of private households and that this information should be a major source for determining the relative importance (or weights, in the statistical sense) of the many items of goods and services to be included in the new index. The first year of collection of the Household Survey designed to provide this basic information ran from 1 July 1973 to 30 June 1974. In 1975–76 the collection year was changed from July-June to April-March.

The tables below refer to the year ended 31 March 1977, unless otherwise stated.

Sample surveys are an internationally accepted activity when the collection of information from the total population is either administratively impracticable or would be prohibitive in cost. To meet the needs of the Consumer Price Index revision, the Household Survey was designed to produce data on a national basis, representative of the average New Zealand private household.

A fuller description of the Survey, together with the concepts, definitions, and collection methods involved, was given in a special article in the 1975 Yearbook, and a full description in a separate report, New Zealand Household Survey, is available from the Government Printer.

The number of responding households in the 1976–77 survey was 4,602, containing a total of 14,764 persons, an average of 3.2 persons per household. Persons aged 15 or over and earning $20 or more per week totalled 7,972, an average of 1.7 earners per household. The following table shows households by income of household.

Weekly Income of Responding HouseholdsNumber of Responding Households
$ 
Under 38206
38–76559
77–114535
115–153820
154–172365
173–191346
192–239701
240–287450
288–384391
385 and over229
       Total4,602

The system used was similar to that in use in many similar surveys overseas. This involved collecting data on the more frequently purchased items by asking respondents to keep a daily record of their spending for a short period (in the New Zealand survey a fortnight of diary-keeping was sought) and at an interview conducted in the household asking respondents to recall their expenditure on major items in the preceding 12 months. The recall action usually concerned expenses of $50 or more, and therefore related to the acquisition of such things as housing units, major household appliances, motor vehicles, etc. Again for practical reasons, the diary-keeping requirement was restricted to those household members aged 15 years and over, expenditures by younger members being recorded in the diaries of adult members.

For the purpose of the Consumers Price Index revision private household expenditure was processed in considerable detail, as is shown in the full report of the Household Survey available from the Government Printer. However, for summary purposes, average expenditure was treated under eight main headings.

Expenditure group coverage—

  • Food—Purchases, including meals away from home where separately recorded by respondents.

  • Housing—Rent, mortgage repayments, repairs and maintenance, and net capital costs of house sale and purchase.

  • Household Operation—Fuel, light, and power; household equipment and appliances; furniture; domestic supplies and services.

  • Apparel—Clothing and footwear.

  • Transportation—Public transport; net cost of vehicle sale and purchase; repairs and maintenance; vehicle insurance, registration fees, etc.

  • Tobacco and Alcohol—Purchases.

  • Other Supplies—Medical, health, and personal goods; recreational, educational, and cultural goods.

  • Other Services—Medical and health services; entertainment charges; education fees; accommodation charges; personal services; licence fees; life insurance premiums.

In each group the expenditures comprised the total cost of particular goods or services, including credit costs, hire and repair charges.

Percentages of the total weekly expenditure of households under each of the eight major expenditure groups as recorded at the latest two Household Surveys are shown below.

 1975–761976–77
Food17.818.1
Housing18.019.4
Household Operation17.216.6
Apparel8.58.0
Transportation18.517.7
Tobacco and Alcohol4.24.6
Other Supplies6.16.3
Other Services9.79.4

All expenditures were expressed (either as percentages or in money values) as average weekly expenditure per household in the particular category. Households were categorised according to their total income, number of occupants, the family types of the members (census definition), and the age of the head of the household.

In all cases information as reported by households was given without adjustment. Overseas experience has shown that expenditure on tobacco and alcohol, meals away from home, and food items such as ice cream and confectionery tend to be understated in household surveys. There is reason to believe that this Household Survey collection contained similar features.

Income, as defined in the Household Survey, related to current gross income from all sources (including Social Welfare and other benefits) for each income recipient in the household, the one exception to this being interest from deposits in savings banks. (Unless such interest was $200 or more a year).

No endeavour was made to obtain precise income details from respondents, the method of collection used being on similar lines to that used in the Census of Population, where respondents have a broad-banded range of income categories and mark the category pertaining to themselves.

For statistical purposes, the mid-point in this range was selected to represent the income of the individual responding. The total weekly income of the household was obtained by summing the values attributed to each income earner in the household. In some cases average expenditure appeared to exceed average weekly income. This was caused by the purchase of major items, mainly houses, within the period covered.

A selection of summary tables from the 1976–77 Survey is reproduced here.

PERCENTAGE OF WEEKLY EXPENDITURE BY AGE OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

Expenditure GroupAge Group (Years) of Head of Household
Under 2020–2425–2930–3940–4950–5960–6465 and OverAll

*Low expenditure due to house sales exceeding house purchases.

NOTE: Owing to rounding, individual items will not necessarily add to total figures.

 Percentage of Weekly Expenditure
Food17.415.216.418.619.318.016.121.118.1
Housing20.324.226.623.215.015.121.210.5*19.4
Household operation12.914.516.216.214.816.518.623.116.6
Apparel7.76.46.67.210.08.57.98.58.0
Transportation15.618.616.414.618.520.618.219.417.7
Tobacco and alcohol9.86.04.44.34.55.04.03.64.6
Other goods8.96.65.56.47.16.45.65.46.3
Other services7.38.58.19.610.89.98.48.49.4
      All groups percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
       Total expenditure $134.20155.15157.26161.44178.22156.66126.6474.86144.59
       Total households463835819637647353308004,602

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 1976–77

PERCENTAGE OF AVERAGE WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE BY FAMILY TYPES

Expenditure GroupCoupleCouple 1 ChildCouple 2 ChildrenCouple 3 ChildrenCouple 4 or More ChildrenOne Adult* With ChildrenExtended FamiliesNon-Family Household

*Single, separated, divorced, widowed man or woman with children.

†The category "I Adult with children with spouse temporarily absent" has been omitted as the figures relate to 8 only of the 4,602 households surveyed and cannot be regarded as representative.

NOTE: Owing to rounding, individual items will not necessarily and to total figures.

 Percentage of Weekly Expenditure
Food16.017.818.219.322.720.220.915.7
Housing21.020.019.717.816.617.714.522.1
Household operation19.217.015.714.815.816.816.116.1
Apparel6.77.97.99.88.79.28.96.7
Transportation18.817.517.516.415.317.118.618.6
Tobacco and alcohol4.34.74.44.03.54.75.95.9
Other goods5.15.76.67.46.67.16.76.1
Other services8.99.410.010.310.97.28.38.8
      All groups percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
       Total expenditure $130.80151.96171.09194.41157.63116.28177.7899.83
       Total households1,041534762559242297251908

PERCENTAGE OF AVERAGE WEEKLY EXPENDITURE BY OCCUPATION GROUPS OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLDS

Expenditure GroupProfessional and TechnicalAdministrative and ManagerialClericalSales WorkersService WorkersAgricultural*ProductionMembers of Armed ForcesNot Actively Engaged

*Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters.

†Production workers, transport equipment operators and labourers n.e.s.

‡One category containing 8 households "workers not classified by occupation" omitted as too small to be representative.

NOTE: Owing to rounding, individual items will not necessarily add to total figures.

 Percentage of Average Weekly Expenditure
Food14.816.217.019.317.118.619.117.120.3
Housing25.221.724.715.022.37.819.124.517.4
Household operation14.716.316.216.116.019.015.815.420.0
Apparel6.99.08.19.27.89.77.75.38.1
Transportation18.316.317.016.817.420.218.115.116.7
Tobacco and alcohol*3.63.84.75.04.94.25.45.53.9
Other goods6.96.45.86.95.66.66.27.56.0
Other services9.710.29.411.78.813.98.69.67.5
All groups percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Total expenditure $197.95199.42152.28154.08160.02137.46156.33168.6284.52
Total households5062814192501703391,496291,104

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 1976–77

PERCENTAGE OF AVERAGE WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE BY TOTAL WEEKLY INCOME

Expenditure GroupTotal Weekly Income of Households ($)All
Under $38$38-$76$77-$114$115-$153$154-$172$173-$191$192-$239$240-$287$288-$384$385 and Over

NOTE: Owing to rounding individual items will not necessarily add to total figures.

 Percentage of Weekly Expenditure
Food22.821.520.420.218.818.617.217.116.414.418.1
Housing18.821.515.817.523.220.221.818.617.120.019.4
Household operation25.020.518.917.315.316.416.115.915.214.616.6
Apparel8.47.88.08.27.77.57.88.19.07.38.0
Transportation10.213.117.217.015.617.816.719.320.021.017.7
Tobacco and alcohol2.33.54.84.54.54.64.54.75.15.04.6
Other goods5.65.56.56.66.05.86.26.37.06.26.3
Other services6.86.68.58.79.09.19.69.910.211.69.4
All groups percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Total expenditure $45.4570.8396.18123.54142.56154.39169.02187.94224.28294.70144.59
Total households2065595358203653467014503912294,602

Chapter 25. Section 24 CONSUMPTION OF FOOD

Table of Contents

FOOD AVAILABLE FOR CONSUMPTION—Each year the Department of Statistics prepares statistics of the amount of food available for consumption in New Zealand, from data supplied by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and from other sources. These statistics are estimates of the total amounts of basic foodstuffs available in New Zealand for human consumption during the calendar year, making allowances for estimated quantities which are produced by households for their own consumption, including the households of commercial producers. The estimates are not of the amounts actually consumed, nor of the actual average intake of nourishment. Nor can these figures be reconciled with the figures for the average per household expenditure on food for the year recorded by the Household Survey, as the latter figures are of the expenditure on food in the form it is actually bought, perhaps in a much more highly processed form.

Dairy Products—New Zealanders are the world's largest consumers of butter per head, but are fairly moderate consumers of cheese. The annual amounts available of the main items of dairy produce, eggs, and ice cream, estimated per head of mean population, are shown in the following table.

Food CommodityUnit1938197319741975x1976

*Includes condensed milk, evaporated milk and cream, milk powders, and sugar of milk.

†Provisional.

Fresh milklitre125142142142140
Creamlitre43333
Processed milk*kg297x5x7
Cheesekg24555
Ice creamlitre217181716
Butterkg19171515x14
EggsNo.240314320273x301

Meat, Poultry, and Fish—Gradual changes are taking place in consumption patterns for meat, poultry, and fish, of which the most notable is the increase in the consumption of poultry. New Zealanders remain among the world's largest consumers of meat, judging from the amount available per head.

Estimates of the amounts of meat available per head are expressed on a bone-in dressed carcass basis.

Allowances have been made for non-commercial catches of fish, and for home production of poultry.

Food CommodityUnit193819731974x1975x1976*

*Provisional.

†Years ended 30 September for 1938 to 1974 figures. Later figures refer to December years.

Beefkg5257574854
Vealkg44444
Mutton and lambkg3143383733
Pigmeatskg1212111211
Edible offalkg46566
Poultrykg2710910
Fish—
      Fresh, frozen, smokedkg52323
      Shellfishkg11111
      Cannedkg11211

Vegetables and Fruits—The estimates in the following table are based on commercial production plus allowances for production in home gardens and orchards. The estimates include, at fresh weights, the fruits and vegetables grown in New Zealand and either quick-frozen or canned for local consumption.

There are considerable variations from year to year for many of the commodities and these are often a reflection of a poor growing season or a bountiful one, consumer resistance to higher prices, fluctuations in the supply of imported fruit, or a change in consumption pattern.

Availability per head of mean population for individual items is estimated as follows.

Food CommodityUnit1938197319741975x1976§

*Includes asparagus, beans, brussel sprouts, cucumber, leeks, parsnips, pumpkin, spinach, swedes, sweetcorn, etc.

†Includes grapefruit, lemons, mandarins, tangelos, etc.

‡Includes apricots, nectarines, plums, grapes, pineapples, tamarilloes, kiwi fruit, passionfruit, etc. §Provisional.

Fresh vegetables
      Potatoeskg546354x52x57
      Kumaraskg43322
      Cabbagekg148787
      Carrotskg510101510
      Cauliflowerkg..5465
      Lettucekg..4555
      Onionskg..1091411
      Tomatoeskg9991111
      Other vegetables*kg..4410x9
Canned and other processed vegetableskg122162114
Quick-frozen and dried vegetableskg..10151613
Fresh fruit
      Orangeskg74676
      Other citrus fruitkg33555
      Bananaskg991412x10
      Appleskg20233027x27
      Pears and quinceskg35454
      Berry fruitskg..2221
      Apricotskg..2321
      Peacheskg..81077
Other fruitkg..1911108
Dried fruitkg..3333

Other Foodstuffs—Most of the foodstuffs in the following table show relatively slight fluctuations in the amounts available per head in different years. It is obvious, however, that the consumption per head of wheat has fallen substantially since before the Second World War.

Food CommodityUnit19381973197419751976§

*Includes treacle and golden syrup.

†Includes dried peas, beans, and lentils.

‡Includes barley, and corn used for cornflour and maize used for corn flakes only.

§Provisional.

Refined sugarkg44394140x35
Syrups, etc.*kg..2311
Honeykg..122x1
Pulseskg11111
Nutskg..2322
Cocoakg11213
Cereals—
      Wheatkg8172727474
      Oatskg42222
      Ricekg2..212
      Otherkg..1111
Lard, tallow, animal fatskg..334x4
Vegetable oils and other fatskg..3445

Non-alcoholic Beverages and Tobacco—

 Unit1938195119611971197419751976
TeaKg3333222
CoffeeKg....12222
TobaccoKg222223x3

Alcoholic Beverages—The following table shows the estimated consumption of alcoholic beverages over a long period of years. From 1960 onwards, figures for spirits are expressed in proof litres, a fact to be borne in mind when making comparisons with earlier figures.

Year Ended 31 DecemberTotal ConsumptionConsumption Per Head of Mean Population
BeerWineSpiritsBeerWineSpirits

*Years ended June.

†From 1959 onwards, all figures for spirits are expressed in proof litres.

 litres (million)litres
192068.71.14.355.30.93.5
193056.00.92.537.50.61.7
194083.31.52.050.90.91.2
1950161.94.14.384.82.12.2
1960237.45.04.399.92.11.8
1970329.215.95.4116.85.61.9
1971347.419.65.8121.36.82.0
1972353.222.1*6.3121.17.6*2.2
1973372.925.6*7.7125.28.7*2.6
1974384.027.5*9.0126.19.1*2.9
1975413.226.3*9.6133.98.6*3.1
1976402.330.1*10.9129.19.7*3.5
1977410.832.1*10.9131.310.3*3.5

PROPORTION OF FOODSTUFFS EXPORTED—New Zealand is a major exporter of dairy produce and meat, and has a growing export trade in fruit and vegetables. The following table shows for these commodities the percentage of the New Zealand production that is exported.

Product1968197319741975x1976*

*Provisional.

Percentages
Dairy products
      Processed milk7399755165
      Cheese8492947987
      Butter8083847377
Meat, poultry, fish
      Beef6160x657071
      Veal5844576561
      Pig meat32x21
      Mutton6157565457
      Lamb9289898890
      Offal7671736371
      Other meat2322121110
      Poultry........1
      Fresh, smoked, or frozen fish2556465965
      Shellfish5252564341
Fruit and vegetables
      Apples4048354446
      Pears1719141011
      Berryfruits527212131
      Potatoes24454
      Onions3532331737
      Canned vegetables93434
      Quick-frozen vegetables303621919
Other foodstuffs
      Barley29----25
      Honey43462727
      Pulses5578835963
      Eggs23585
      Tallow and animal fats7774697881

FOOD AVAILABLE PER DAY—The following table shows by commodity group the food available for consumption in New Zealand per day per head of mean population.

Food CommodityGrams Per DayCalories Per DayProtein Per Day (Grams)Fat Per Day (Grams)
19751976*19751976*19751976*19751976*

*Provisional.

Cereals214213776774232322
Potatoes and other starchy foods150x161108x11523----
Sugar and syrups (incl. Honey)118x103446387
Pulses and nuts13x1750712223
Vegetables293x22975x5722----
Fruits218x198116x111--------
Meat (incl. poultry)316x321664x66838x395555
Eggs42x4761x67554x5
Fish9x1310x1412----
Milk and cheese593x543547x52626253028
Oils and fats (incl. butter)62x64482x504----43x42
       Total2,028x1,9093,335x3,29499x101136x135

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS—The table which follows, which is taken from the FAO report, The State of Food and Agriculture 1975, shows for selected groups of developed and developing countries the annual rates of growth of population and food production, and the dietary energy supplies per head. In terms of food availability, New Zealand is among the most-favoured nations.

CountryAnnual Rates of GrowthPer Head Daily
PopulationFood Production*Domestic Demand for FoodDietary Energy SupplyProtein Supply
Kilo-caloriesRequirement

*Food component of crop and livestock production only (i.e., excluding fish production).

†Supply as percentage of physiological requirements plus 10 percent for waste at household level.

‡Total food, including fish.

  percent  percentgrams
Developed Countries
      Australia1.83.32.43,280123108
      Canada1.61.62.53,180129101
      Denmark0.70.01.33,24012093
      France1.02.32.03,210127105
      Germany (West)0.81.91.93,22012189
      Japan1.02.13.72,51010779
      Netherlands1.23.41.73,32012387
      New Zealand1.72.22.03,200121109
      Sweden0.61.01.02,81010486
      U.S.S.R.1.13.13.03,280131101
      United Kingdom0.52.30.73,19012692
      United States1.12.31.63,330126106
Developing Countries
      Afghanistan2.41.52.21,9708158
      Bangladesh3.51.8..1,8408040
      Ethiopia2.11.73.02,1609372
      Ghana3.13.43.22,32010149
      India2.22.23.02,0709452
      Indonesia2.83.22.61,7908338
      Nigeria2.60.63.12,2709663
      Pakistan3.14.64.22,1609356
      Rwanda2.93.61.91,9608458
      Somalia2.33.31.51,8307956

SUBSIDIES—Government subsidies on food items and on services have been sharply reduced in recent years. The following table shows the total cost of subsidies paid under the Stabilisation vote. Other subsidies, involving farm incentives, etc., are included in other government expenditure. The total amount of all subsidies will be found in the section on National Income and Expenditure.

Subsidy ItemsYear Ended 31 March
19741975197619771978
 $(thousand)
Bread3,5455,2645,60372
Eggs1,6891,7921,696227
Meat10,6471,189
Milk42,25650,36250,31136,21541,535
Sugar11,600
Wool21,7611,953
Coal gas1,4521,4602,0562,7761,999
Subsidy on shipping services2,8592,9203,038
Industrial coal (rail transport)535493458111
Subsidy to meet losses on—
      Post Office operations7,00021,00038,000
      Railways operations11,70046,10068,50016,00058,500
      Electric supply18,53913,070
             Total112,185148,152182,55358,321105,072

Higher postal charges, rail fares, and electricity charges from early 1976 resulted in sharp cuts in the level of subsidies designed to meet losses in these areas. Milk and bread prices were increased at the same time, and at the end of March 1976 the subsidy on bread and flour was abolished. The egg subsidy was abolished at the end of April 1976. The average subsidy on milk for the year ended 31 August 1977 was 9.589c per litre.

Chapter 26. Section 25 ECONOMIC AGGREGATES

25 A—NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

GENERAL—The national accounts record the value of goods and services produced by a country and the way in which these are used. Within the accounts the flow of production and disposal of goods and incomes are analysed in various ways to provide information on the inter-relationship between industrial and institutional sectors of the economy and between the economy and the rest of the world. The accounts are used as the statistical framework within which economic policy and planning is formulated and applied, the values of the various items in the accounts providing a quantitative measure of the country's economic performance and a benchmark against which to compare other measures of economic and social well-being.

Change to a New System—This edition of the Yearbook records the national accounts up to the 1976–77 March year in the standard form which has been used for all years since 1939–40, except for certain years in World War II when the data was not produced.

This system of calculating and analysing national income and expenditure and other economic aggregates has become increasingly inadequate for modern needs in the analysis and management of the economy. Some years ago the decision was taken to change to a new system based on the system advocated by the United Nations' Statistical Office in its publication, A System of National Accounts—1968. This work is nearing finality and as from the 1977–78 year, New Zealand's national accounts will be presented in the new form.

By the time this Yearbook is available, revised figures calculated in the new way should already have been released for the last six years for the whole of the Central Government sector. In using the figures in this Yearbook, therefore, the impending changeover needs to be borne in mind, especially if they are used in conjunction with recently-released national accounts data.

National Income—The principal aggregate of the accounts published in this Yearbook is that of national income, which, in general terms, measures the total value of all incomes (before deduction of direct taxation) earned by the residents of New Zealand in producing the current output of goods and services.

Income can be earned in a variety of ways, and accrues to individuals according to the manner in which they participate in current production. Salary and wage payments and pay and allowances of armed forces represent the return to labour for services rendered, and included in this concept is supplementary income in kind such as board and lodging provided by the employer.

Rental value of owner-occupied houses is a non-monetary item representing the imputed net rent (before payment of rates, but after deductions for depreciation, mortgage interest, insurance, and repairs and maintenance) of all owner-occupied houses (except farmhouses).

Other personal income (excluding company dividends) represents the aggregate income of professional persons, farmers, and individual traders, as well as income other than salary and wages received by salary and wage earners—e.g., rent and interest. Surplus of producer boards and of primary produce stabilisation accounts represent the increase (or, if negative, the decrease) in the revenue balances of producer boards, and the credits relating to primary production stabilisation schemes held by producer boards.

Company income represents the total income (distributed and undistributed) of companies. This means that dividends distributed to individuals are included under this heading, and not as personal income.

Apart from these incomes, which result from current productive activities on the part of individuals receiving them, there are other incomes of a "non-productive" nature in the form of social welfare benefits, pensions, and interest on public debt. These transfer incomes, as they are called, do not arise from the current production of goods and services and must therefore be excluded from the national income. They do, however, form part of the intermediate concept of private income, which represents the aggregate of earned incomes and unearned transfer incomes received by or accruing to persons. The deduction of direct taxation gives the concept of private disposable income. Capital receipts—e.g., from deceased persons' estates, repayment of debt, etc.—are, however, excluded both from private income and national income.

The addition to private income of Government and local authority trading profits and the deduction of transfer incomes, as already detailed, gives the concept of net national income at factor cost or, more briefly, national income. This may be defined as the income (before tax) earned by or accruing to the factors of production, in or only temporarily absent from New Zealand, in producing the current output of goods and services of all kinds. The further addition of indirect taxes (net of subsidies) is necessary to bring the national income to market price valuation.

Gross National Product—Gross national product is obtained by adding depreciation allowances to national income at market prices, and represents the value of output before deduction of allowances for depreciation and obsolescence attributable to the factors of production supplied by New Zealand residents during the year.

Gross Domestic Expenditure—This represents the total final expenditure of New Zealand residents during the year, irrespective of where the expenditure was incurred. It is the sum of personal expenditure on consumer goods and services, public authority current expenditure on goods and services, gross capital formation in New Zealand, and changes in stocks. These four components are described in more detail in the following paragraphs.

Personal Expenditure of Consumer Goods and Services represents the value of the purchases by households and non-profit-making organisations. Besides the day-to-day expenditure on food, clothing, rent, travel and other services, etc., it includes expenditure on such items as motorcars for private use and household durables. The notable exception is expenditure on the purchase of houses; this is recorded under private capital formation.

Public Authority Current Expenditure on Goods and Services shows the current expenditure of the non-trading organs of the Central Government and local authorities. It does not include payment of pensions, monetary social welfare benefits or subsidies which are transfers and do not, in themselves, represent an expenditure on production. A more detailed analysis of public authority current expenditure is given later.

Gross Capital Formation represents the expenditure in New Zealand on new assets such as buildings, roads and other construction, plant, machinery and motor vehicles for business use. It does not include the value of land and secondhand assets purchased during the year since these transactions represent the transfer of existing assets. Nor does it include expenditure on financial assets such as company shares; such transactions do not result in direct expenditure but transfer claims from one person or organisation to another.

Changes in Stocks represent changes in the value of stocks which may be the result of changes in volume, changes in unit values, or a combination of the two.

By adding the value of exported goods and services to gross domestic expenditure and deducting the value of imports, an estimate of the expenditure on gross domestic product is arrived at. This represents the value of goods and services produced in New Zealand during the year. The deduction of payments for the use of overseas-owned factors (capital and labour) completes the reconciliation of expenditure with the value of gross national product.

The following table shows for March years some of the more important aggregates.

PRINCIPAL AGGREGATES OF INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

Item1969–701970–711971–721972–731973–741974–751975–76x1976–77*

*Provisional.

National income$m4,0974,6845,5406,4817,514x8,1849,54111,149
Gross national product$m4,8095,5346,4527,4988,682x9,45210,91412,786
Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services$m2,8333,3363,7624,5655,159x5,7936,6847,700
      As percentage of gross national product 5960586159616160
Gross capital formation in New Zealand$m1,0911,2631,4291,6391,9602,3442,8913,153
      As percentage of gross national product 2323222223252625
Public authority current expenditure on goods and services$m7218611,0371,1401,3561,6772,031x2,299
      As percentage of gross national product 1516161516181918
Private income$m4,3414,9995,8786,9388,0778,93410,49412,137
Private savings$m614584x8499591,1188461,3201,353
As percentage of private income 141214141491311

The estimates of national expenditure should be used with some caution, owing to the fact that not all of the items of expenditure can be estimated directly. Whatever inherent error may exist in the absolute values of individual expenditure items, year-to-year changes are likely to be reliable because the method of estimation remains the same.

Full details of the methods used and a description of the items in the tables are given in National Income and Expenditure 1976–77, obtainable from Government bookshops.

CONSTANT PRICE ESTIMATES OF THE MAIN AGGREGATES—National accounting aggregates are, by their nature, summations of the values of all goods and services produced or consumed in a particular year. If the values of goods and services are expressed in current prices (i.e., the market prices prevailing in each particular year) then any comparison between 2 or more years is affected not only by changes in the volume of production between those years but by price changes as well. The effect of changes in price levels is eliminated if all annual values are expressed in the average prices of a base period; the base used here is the year 1965–66. By expressing the aggregates in constant prices, and not in current values, their real value in terms of goods and services, either produced or available for use, can be better appreciated.

In the following table and the accompanying graph the gross national product is expressed in both current and constant prices, as well as per head of population at constant prices. Other aggregates in both current and constant prices are shown in section 25C Real Gross Domestic Product.

Year Ended 31 MarchAt Current PricesAt Constant 1965–66 Prices
Gross National ProductAnnual Percentage ChangeGross National ProductAnnual Percentage ChangeG.N.P. Per Head of PopulationAnnual Percentage Change

*Provisional.

 $(m)%$(m)%$%
19704,80910.424,1944.851,503.93.78
19715,53415.084,3804.441,547.02.87
19726,45216.594,5002.741,564.91.16
19737,49816.214,6793.981,598.22.13
19748,68215.785,018.7.251,680.25.13
19759,4528.885,2304.221,716.42.15
1976x10,91415.475,2740.841,702.7–0.80
1977*12,78617.155,228–0.871,675.3–1.61

ANNUAL PERCENTAGE CHANGES EN GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT AND EXPENDITURE—The following table gives the composition of the national income by factor shares plus net indirect taxation and depreciation allowances entering into the market prices of all goods and services the production of which can be attributed to New Zealand residents (gross national product); the other side of the product account is a description of final expenditure on gross national product by type of expenditure. Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services is obtained as a residual item in this table, all other aggregates being obtained by direct estimates.

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT

March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesRental Value, Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal IncomeSurplus of Producer Boards and Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountsCompany IncomePublic Authority Trading IncomePublic Debt Interest Paid in New ZealandNational Income at Factor CostIndirect TaxationSubsidiesNational Income at Market PricesDepreciation AllowancesGross National Product

*Provisional.

 $(million)
1969–702,49347140766–8605202–1484,097377–284,4453644,809
1970–713,004561568101644171–1584,684462–525,0944405,534
1971–723,555681691,01750653199–1715,540537–895,9884656,452
1972–733,993702011,277–3913220–1906,481603–1016,9835157,498
1973–74x4,767792171,398–101,032250–2197,514687–1348,0666158,682
1974–755,678842531,262–7989158–2338,184725–1328,7776759,452
1975–76x6,562953011,565–191,144153–2609,541861–22910,17374110,914
1976–77*7,5001043411,851–101,308379–32411,149983–17311,95982712,786

GROSS DOMESTIC EXPENDITURE

March YearPersonal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and ServicesPublic Authority Current Expenditure on Goods and ServicesChanges in StocksGross Domestic ExpenditureExports of Goods and ServicesImports of Goods and ServicesExpenditure on Gross Domestic ProductNet Factor Payments to Rest of WorldExpenditure on Gross National ProductGross Capital Formation in New Zealand
PrivatePublic Authority

*Provisional.

 $(million)
1969–702,8337217093821194,7641,273–1,1304,907–984,809
1970–713,3368618314322585,7181,296–1,4055,609–755,534
1971–723,7621,0379324972426,4701,537–1,4816,526–746,452
1972–734,5651,1401,047592207,3641,946–1,6937,617–1197,498
1973–74x5,1591,3561,3755853518,8262,210–2,2238,813–1318,682
1974–755,7931,6771,5697751,00610,8202,119–3,3619,578–1269,452
1975–76x6,6842,0311,8901,00132011,9262,674–3,44811,152–23810,914
1976–77*7,7002,2992,15999451613,6683,713–4,19213,189–40312,786

The following tables provide some more detailed analyses of particular aspects of the national accounts.

Private Income and Outlay—This table gives in detail the break-up of private income and, on the expenditure side, the manner in which this income is spent on personal expenditure on consumer goods and services, paid in direct taxation, or saved. An analysis of other personal income is also given.

The total of personal consumption derived from the preceding table is carried forward to this table and this time private savings is obtained as a residual item.

Revenue Account of Public Authorities—The Government sector is discussed in more detail later in this section, but this table gives a consolidated statement of Central Government and local authority revenue and expenditure, showing as a balance that portion of the revenue which was available for capital formation and other capital transactions.

Combined Capital Account—This account indicates the manner in which resources for capital formation have been made available (a) from private savings, (b) from revenue surpluses of public authorities, and (c) from amounts set aside as depreciation. Gross capital formation represents the construction in New Zealand or purchase from overseas of durable capital assets by the private, Central Government, and the local authority sectors, plus the net change in stocks of trading concerns.

Rest of World Account—An account of external economic transactions between New Zealand and other countries; it is, in essence, a balance of payments on current account for the period, presented here in abridged form.

These four tables, then, give a comprehensive picture in broad terms of the changing pattern of New Zealand's economy. One important point to consider when examining the tables, however, is that all the figures are at prices current during the period and consequently are inflated to a greater or lesser extent by price movements over the period.

PRIVATE INCOME AND OUTLAY

March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Welfare Benefits and PensionsOther Personal IncomeSurplus of Producer Boards and Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountsCompany Income Before DistributionPrivate Income (Before Tax)
Rental Value of Owner-occupied HousesFarmingBusiness and Investment

*Provisional.

 INCOME $(million)
1969–702,49347298140326440–86054,341
1970–713,0045632815632348716444,999
1971–723,5556836616949252550653x5,878x
1972–733,99370488201698x579x–3913x6,938x
1973–744,76779594217710688x–101,032x8,077x
1974–755,67884675253476786–7989x8,934x
1975–766,562x95846301x667x898x–191,144x10,494x
1976–77*7,5001041,043341856995–101,30812,137
March YearPersonal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and ServicesNet Transfers to Rest of WorldDirect TaxationPrivate SavingsPrivate Outlay
Undistributed Profits of CompaniesOther Private Savings

*Provisional.

OUTLAY $(million)
1969–702,83368882593554,341
1970–713,33611,0782393454,999
1971–723,762–201,2872326175,878
1972–734,565–461,4604864736,938
1973–745,159x–551,855490x628x8,077x
1974–755,793–362,3314573898,934
1975–766,684x–502,540x626x694x10,494x
1976–77*7,700–323,11663372012,137

REVENUE ACCOUNT OF PUBLIC AUTHORITIES (CENTRAL GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES)

March YearTaxationTrading IncomeDirect Taxes Paid by Public Authority Trading UndertakingsTotal Revenue
DirectIndirect

*Provisional.

 REVENUE $(million)
1969–70904377202–161,467
1970–711,093462171–151,711
1971–721,300537199–142,022
1972–731,478603220–182,283
1973–741,876687250–212,791
1974–75x2,349725158–183,215
1975–76x2,561861153–203,554
1976–77*3,140983379–244,478
March YearCurrent Expenditure on Goods and ServicesTransfer PaymentsSubsidiesBalance of Revenue Over ExpenditureTotal Expenditure Plus or Minus Revenue Balances
Social Welfare Benefits and PensionsNet Transfers to Rest of WorldInterest on Public Debt Paid in New Zealand

*Provisional.

 EXPENDITURE $(million)
1969–707212988148282631,467 
1970–718613289158523031,711 
1971–721,03736611171893492,022 
1972–731,140x48815190101349x2,283 
1973–741,356x59421x219134467x2,791 
1974–751,677675352331324633,215 
1975–76x2,031846492602291393,554 
1976–77*2,2991,043483241735924,478 

COMBINED CAPITAL ACCOUNT

March YearPrivate SavingsRevenue Balances of Public AuthoritiesDepreciation AllowancesTotal SavingsGross Capital Formation in New ZealandChanges in StocksNet Investment OverseasTotal Investments
PrivateCentral Government Trading UndertakingsLocal Authorities Trading UndertakingsPrivateCentral GovernmentLocal Authorities

*Provisional.

Savings$(million)Investments
1969–7061426330543161,242709235147119321,242
1970–7158430338044161,328831270162258–1921,328
1971–7284934940245181,663932309188242–81,663
1972–7395934944848191,8241,047388204201661,824
1973–74x1,11846753857202,2011,375367218351–1102,201
1974–7584646359263201,9841,5695232521,006–1,3661,984
1975–76x1,32013964574222,2001,890668334320–1,0112,200
1976–77*1,35359271587252,7722,159643351516–8972,772

REST OF WORLD ACCOUNT

March YearExports ofImports ofNet Factor PaymentsNet TransfersSurplus on Current Account
GoodsServicesGoodsServicesPrivatePublic Authorities

*Provisional.

 $(million)
1969–701,112161–828–302–98–6–8+32
1970–711,104192–1,043–362–751–9–192
1971–721,305232–1,071–410–7420–11–8
1972–731,665281–1,224–469–11946–15+166
1973–741,841369–1,585–638–13155–21–110
1974–751,628491–2,579–781–12636–35–1,366
1975–762,047628–2,581–867–23850–49–1,011
1976–77*3,013700–3,129–1,063–40332–48–897

PUBLIC AUTHORITY SECTOR—The Revenue Account of Public Authorities shown earlier is a consolidation and simplification of two separate and more detailed accounts—the Central Government Revenue Account and the Local Authorities Revenue Account. The consolidated account eliminates all transfers between the two levels of Government and aggregates the respective totals of economically significant flows.

The Revenue Account of the Central Government has been obtained by an analysis of the various accounts within the Public Account. In the case of trading department operations, which are treated separately, profits only are brought into the main account as a revenue item. Expenditure has been taken "net" in all cases, sundry departmental receipts being set off against departmental expenditure. The account covers only current revenue items and therefore excludes capital receipts and payments of all kinds, thus accounting in part for the differences between the details given here and those given in the published statement of the Public Accounts in parliamentary paper B. 1 [Pt. 1].

Although all Government transfer expenditure—social welfare cash benefits and pensions, interest on public debt, and subsidies—is also paid from the Government's taxation revenue and trading profits, it is not part of Government final consumption. It only becomes final consumption in the hands of recipients, or, in the case of subsidies, can be looked upon as an offset to indirect taxation which reduces prices to consumers. For this reason the best measure of transfers is the national income itself on which they are a charge and which they redistribute.

The balance of revenue over expenditure is the Government's surplus on current transactions and is, together with the depreciation provisions of Government trading undertakings, available for capital formation, lending, and debt repayment. Its magnitude changes appreciably from year to year both absolutely and in relation to total current revenue and is the result of short-term changes in fiscal and economic policies pursued by the administration. Year-to-year changes in the Government's surplus are, however, complementary to changes (in the opposite direction) in private savings. This is of course, merely a reflection of the fact that changes in taxation policies are a major cause of the redistribution of total savings as between the private and Government sector. It is notable that in 1975–76 the Government spent more than it borrowed on current account whereas for many years savings have been in excess of 10 percent of current revenue.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—REVENUE ACCOUNT

Item1971–721972–731973–741974–751975–76x1976–77*

*Provisional.

†On Government debt paid overseas.

1. TAXATION
      (a) Direct:REVENUE $(million)
      Income tax1,161.11,314.51,697.92,136.02,295.82,828.5
      Land tax3.83.43.33.43.46.6
      Gift and death duties24.828.433.841.154.154.7
      Other0.20.30.24.5
       Total1,189.71,346.31,735.22,180.82,353.62,894.3
      (b) Indirect:
      Sales tax139.5171.1206.4234.7311.4353.3
      Customs and excise duties198.0210.2245.8275.3265.4299.3
      Motor vehicles taxation108.6115.7124.8125.3201.4228.5
      Payroll tax40.846.333.50.8----
      Other30.537.149.448.653.770.0
       Total517.3580.4659.9684.7832.0951.1
2. Total, all taxation1,707.01,926.72,395.12,865.53,185.63,845.4
3. TRADING INCOME154.7174.0219.0124.0111.1337.3
4. Less direct taxation paid by trading departments–13.7–18.0–20.7–18.1–20.2–23.6
       Total141.0156.0198.3105.990.9314.1
5. TOTAL REVENUE1,848.02,082.72,593.42,971.43,276.54,159.5
6. CURRENT EXPENDITUREON GOODSAND SERVICESEXPENDITURE $(million)
      (a) General administration93.5107.7x130.7x168.5199.1234.3
      (b) Interest36.338.3x34.1x41.368.8110.4
      (c) Law and order26.631.539.149.964.666.3
      (d) Development of primary and secondary industries64.283.498.9121.6151.2152.9
      (e) Health114.0103.0120.5151.9187.9210.1
      (f) Education279.6309.1367.2432.6499.3572.0
      (g) Other social services7.820.324.427.044.760.4
      (h) Defence121.8135.5140.5165.5193.2215.2
      (i) Rehabilitation0.90.80.80.9--
      (j) Maintenance of public works and services21.541.1x43.7x56.766.574.2
       Total766.2870.7x999.9x1,215.91,475.31,695.8
7. TRANSFERS
      (a) Monetary social welfare benefits and pensions361.4483.9590.3671.1839.61,039.4
      (b) Family benefit advances4.53.63.34.16.83.3
      (c) Net transfers to rest of world10.715.121.434.749.347.8
8. Interest on Central Government debt paid in New Zealand130.5146.5166.2179.7201.2256.7
       Total507.1649.1781.2x889.61,096.91,347.2
9. TRANSFERSTO LOCAL AUTHORITIES-
      (a) Hospital boards169.1230.8269.6329.0401.6458.8
      (b) Other47.956.260.169.288.890.1
       Total217.0287.0329.7398.2490.4548.9
10. SUBSIDIES89.4100.7133.7131.8229.4172.7
11. TOTAL EXPENDITURE1,579.71,907.5x2,244.5x2,635.53,292.03,764.6
12. Balance of revenue over expenditure268.3175.2x348.9x335.9–15.5394.9
13. TOTAL EXPENDITUREPlus REVENUE BALANCES1,848.02,082.72,593.42,971.43,276.54,159.5

Local Authorities—The revenue account of local authorities is in all respects similar to that of the Central Government and has been obtained by an analysis of the accounts of all local authorities including hospital boards. In 1976–77 the Central Government contributed 63.3 percent of the revenue of local authorities through transfers. Trading profits contributed a further 4.7 percent, and rates and licence fees at 32.0 percent continued the pattern of recent years.

Current expenditure on goods and services by local authorities in 1976–77 at $603.6 million, was 8.6 percent higher than in the previous year, whereas the increase in Central Government current expenditure on goods and services was 14.9 percent. The limitation in the scope of local government activities as compared with those of the Central Government do not call for a detailed analysis of expenditure items and therefore current expenditure on the provision of goods and services by local authorities is shown as a single total.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES—REVENUE ACCOUNT

Item1971–721972–731973–741974–751975–76x1976–77*

*Provisional.

14. TAXATIONREVENUE $(million)
      (a) Direct: Rates110.5131.6140.7168.6207.0245.7
      (b) Indirect: Licence fees, petrol tax, etc.19.422.326.640.629.031.7
       Total129.9153.9167.3209.2236.0277.4
15. Trading income44.646.430.734.342.041.0
16. Transfers from Central Government217.0286.9329.7398.2490.4548.9
17. TOTAL REVENUE391.5487.2527.7641.7768.4867.3
 EXPENDITURE $(million)
18. Current expenditure on goods and services270.7269.6356.0461.5555.4603.6
19. Interest on local authority debt paid in New Zealand40.644.053.252.958.466.8
20. TOTAL EXPENDITURE311.2313.6409.2514.3613.8670.4
21. Balance of revenue over expenditure80.3173.6118.5127.4154.6196.9
22. TOTAL EXPENDITUREPlus REVENUE BALANCES391.5487.2527.7641.7768.4867.3

25 B—BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

GENERAL—A country's balance of payments statement is a comprehensive account of its economic transactions with the rest of the world. The New Zealand balance of payments estimates are based on the principles set out in the Balance of Payments Manual (Fourth Edition), published by the International Monetary Fund and are in conformity with the methods used by other countries.

MAJOR PRINCIPLES—The major principles used in preparing a balance of payments statement are:

  1. Goods sold from one country to another are recorded at the time ownership changes, and other transactions are recorded at the time they occur.

  2. Exports and imports of merchandise are valued at f.o.b. (free on board) of the exporting country.

  3. As far as possible, all transactions are shown on a gross, rather than on a net, settlement basis.

  4. Wherever possible, all transactions are valued at market prices.

  5. All transactions are recorded in New Zealand dollars. Where another currency was used for the transaction the currency exchange rates ruling at the time the transaction occured have been used to convert the transaction to New Zealand dollars.

COMPONENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND BALANCE OF PAYMENTS—This description refers to the summary table on a following page.

Exports/Imports (as published in external trade statistics)—These are for March years and are otherwise identical with the figures published in Section 22—External Trade. Exports are valued f.o.b.; imports are valued c.i.f. (cost, insurance, and freight).

Adjustments to balance of payments concepts—There are some imports and exports which are included in the balance of payments but not in external trade statistics. These include ships and aircraft purchased by New Zealand residents for use in international trade.

A considerable portion of New Zealand's exports are sold on consignment in the United Kingdom. The change of ownership occurs well after the goods have been recorded in New Zealand external trade statistics. Also, the valuation in external trade statistics is an estimate of future realisations. Adjustments to bring trade statistics to balance of payments concepts show mainly as a credit entry.

The debit entry contains the adjustment of imports from c.i.f. value to f.o.b. value.

Some items, such as ships' stores and passengers' baggage, are removed from merchandise trade and shown elsewhere in the balance of payments statement.

Exports/Imports (f.o.b. exporting country)—New Zealand's exports and imports of merchandise on a balance of payments basis.

Balance on Merchandise Trade—The surplus of exports f.o.b. over imports f.o.b.

Transportation, Travel, Insurance, Other Miscellaneous Services, and Government Transactions—The exports of services from, and imports of services to, New Zealand. The balance on services is the difference between the sum of the credit entries and the sum of the debit entries for these items.

International Investment Income—The credit entries show the income accruing to New Zealand residents from overseas investments while the debit entries show the income accruing to overseas residents from their investments in New Zealand.

Balance on Invisibles—The balance on services plus international investment income credits minus international investment income debits.

Transfers—This item provides the counter-entries for gifts of goods, services, and financial assets to and from New Zealand. Examples are immigrants' transfers, gifts and donations, foreign aid payments and relief supplies.

Balance on Current Account—The balance on merchandise trade plus the balance on invisibles plus transfer credits minus transfer debits. It is a measure of the surplus of outflows of goods, services, and transfers from New Zealand over the inflows of goods, services, and transfers into New Zealand.

Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand, New Zealand Direct Investment Overseas, and Other Private Long-Term Capital Movements—These items show the changes in long-term claims on the rest of the world and long-term liabilities to the rest of the world of the private sector.

Government Capital Movements—Includes all Government capital movements except movements in Government-held reserve assets and Government borrowing to maintain New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves.

Capital Movements by Monetary Institutions—This item includes those capital movements by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand and the five trading banks which are not movements in reserve assets or borrowing to maintain reserves.

Residual—This is the balancing item. It is the difference between the sum of the credit column and the sum of the debit column. It covers any errors in the balance of payments estimates and all omissions. Included in the omissions are short-term private capital movements.

Balance Before Compensatory Financing—The sum of all transactions, other than reserve transactions and transactions undertaken to maintain reserves.

Compensatory Financing—Borrowing undertaken by the Government or the Reserve Bank to compensate for imbalances in New Zealand's transactions with the rest of the world.

Balance after Compensatory Financing—The sum of all transactions other than reserve transactions. The change in New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves due to transactions is the same in direction and magnitude as this balance.

Reserve Transactions—The movements in New Zealand's foreign exchange reserves during the year. Reserves measured in New Zealand dollars may change because transactions have occurred or because the value of the New Zealand dollar has changed relative to the currency in which the reserve asset is denominated. The presentation shows the total change in reserves and, separately, a counterpart to changes in reserves caused by exchange rate changes. The difference of these two items is equal to the change in reserves caused by transactions in reserve assets.

New Zealand's reserves may change because of an allocation of Special Drawing Rights by the International Monetary Fund. This is not regarded as a transaction and there is a counterpart item for such an allocation. For a more detailed description of the concepts and methods used in preparing balance of payments estimates and the contents of items in the estimates refer to the Department of Statistics publication Balance of Payments 1976–77 obtainable from the Government Printer.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND EXCHANGE RECORD—There are several very important differences between a balance of payments statement and the statistics of overseas receipts and payments which are included in an exchange record, such as is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency. The main differences are:

  1. The balance of payments attempts to show all economic transactions between residents of one country and residents of other countries, whereas the exchange record shows only transactions involving remittances.

  2. The import and export figures in the balance of payments are based on trade statistics, which enable goods to be valued at a definite and uniform valuation boundary—viz, f.o.b, country of export; the exchange record, on the other hand, records remittances for imports and exports whenever these are made and without adhering to any valuation basis (f.o.b. or c.i.f.). The result is a difference both in timing and valuation between the two statements.

  3. Whereas exchange statistics record net settlements resulting from a number of possible contra-entries or offsets, the balance of payments shows these transactions as far as possible on a gross basis.

Other differences arise from the fact that the balance of payments is constructed on a basis of country of purchase for imports and country of destination for exports, country of residence of remittor or remittee, and nationality in the case of shipping companies, whereas the record of exchange transactions is based on the country of monetary settlement.

In essence, the exchange record is a statement of cash flows, or using the terminology of commercial accounting it is the "cash book" of the nation's transactions with other countries; the balance of payments statement on the other hand approaches an "income and expenditure" account.

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION—The regional break-up of the balance of payments is on a geographical (as distinct from a currency) basis. This means that it is not the currency in which any economic transaction is settled but the residence of New Zealand's immediate partner in the transaction which determines in which regional column the transaction is recorded. Any exception to this rule is due to statistical necessity—insufficiency of basic data, etc., rather than choice.

The New Zealand figures include transactions of New Zealand's dependent island territories. In this respect they differ from the rest of the world account included in the national income and expenditure estimates where the rest of the world account refers to New Zealand only, and does not cover the island territories. However, this difference in coverage only slightly affects the gross figures, and the final outcome of the balance of payments current account differs very little from the rest of the world account.

United Kingdom (including Channel Islands).

Australia (including Norfolk Island, but excluding Papua New Guinea).

USA—United States of America, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, and other American islands in the Pacific.

Canada, Japan

EEC Countries—The 6 members of the European Economic Community which formed a common market in 1958; Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy and the Federal German Republic, together with their associated and dependent overseas territories. From and including 1973–74 Denmark and Ireland are included with EEC. The United Kingdom has also become a member of the EEC but it is being shown separately.

Other OECD—Austria, Finland, Greece, Iceland, Liechenstein, Norway, Portugal, Spain. Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey.

Asia-Oceania—All Asian and Pacific countries except Australia, Japan, and New Zealand. Afghanistan is the most western country in this group.

Latin America-Caribbean—All the Americas except Canada and the USA.

Other Countries—All countries not included in any other group.

International Organisations—Transactions with the United Nations and its agencies, the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Finance Corporation, the Asian Development Bank, South Pacific Air Transport Council, and other international organisations.

ACCOUNTING PERIOD—All estimates are for financial years ended 31 March.

RESIDENTS AND NON-RESIDENTS—The balance of payments is a record of economic transactions between residents and non-residents.

Residents are all people living permanently in New Zealand (and who have their "centre of interest" in New Zealand). Subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies are treated as residents, while subsidiaries and branches of New Zealand companies operating overseas are regarded as residents of the country in which they operate.

In order to simplify the rather complex operations of overseas shipping companies, the shipping transactions of their branches in New Zealand (such as their receipt of freights, port disbursements, administrative expenses in New Zealand, etc.) are regarded as transactions of non-residents, by way of exception to the general rule stated above; on the other hand, their investment activity is included in the data on New Zealand branches of overseas companies and conforms to the general rule.

SUMMARY TABLES—The following table presents a summary of New Zealand's transactions with other countries during the four latest available financial years.

Item1973–741974–751975–761976–77*
CreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebitCreditDebit

*Provisional.

 NZ$(million)
Exports/imports (as published in external trade statistics)1,848.11,734.61,611.42,765.72,016.92,772.73,070.83,327.3
Adjustments to balance of payments concepts1.4–151.817.7–193.321.3–196.3–53.2–183.7
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)1,849.51,582.81,629.12,572.42,038.22,576.43,017.63,143.6
      Balance on merchandise trade266.7–943.3–538.2–126.0
Transportation194.2294.4264.5391.9349.0418.9410.7475.3
Travel78.5143.4107.0180.3143.1193.4160.8245.1
Insurance7.320.821.925.118.626.724.446.6
Other miscellaneous services57.7127.559.5114.872.7164.978.2178.6
Government transactions31.152.036.469.341.959.249.364.3
      Balance on services–269.4–292.2–237.8–286.4
International investment income84.5214.978.6207.177.3313.592.4507.8
      Balance on invisibles–399.8–420.7–474.0–701.8
Transfers122.989.0123.1121.8142.7141.5141.7156.6
      Balance on current account–99.2–1,362.7–1,011.0–842.7
Overseas direct investment in N.Z. (net)152.7...179.8...114.7...278.9...
N.Z. direct investment overseas (net)...13.5...15.0...17.7...35.8
Other long-term private capital movements
      Increases in assets (net)...–7.7.........–11.9...–26.5
      Increases in liabilities (net)43.4...209.3...147.5...25.0...
Government capital movements (excluding movements in Government-held reserve assets)
      Increases in assets (net)...1.9...8.8...21.9...28.6
      Increases in liabilities (net)32.6...38.8...108.7...168.1...
Capital movements by monetary institutions (excluding movements in reserve assets)
      Increases in assets (net)...5.7...8.2...8.4...6.2
      Increases in liabilities (net)............
Residual (includes short-term private capital movements and errors and omissions)...38.2162.0...43.1...112.6...
      Balance before compensatory financing77.9..–805.0..–543.1  –302.2
Government borrowing (net)–55.7...301.8...371.6...178.4...
Reserve bank borrowing (net)...106.1...70.7...15.9...
I.M.F. drawings (net)...100.5...192.1...117.8...
Total compensatory financing (net)–55.7...508.4...634.4...312.1...
      Balance after compensatory financing22.2–296.691.39.9
Monetary gold............
Special drawing rights     ..  
       Total change in holdings...0.2...–47.2...4.9.....11.5
      Counterpart to allocation/cancellation............
      Counterpart to valuation changes......0.1......1.9
      Change due to transactions...0.2...–47.3...4.9...9.6
Reserve position at the I.M.F.        
       Total change in holdings......–45.1......
      Counterpart to valuation changes............
      Change due to transactions......–45.1......
Assets of the N.Z. banking system       ..
       Total change in holdings...–84.7...–195.5...92.5...16.5
      Counterpart to valuation changes...–131.5...23.2...26.4...9.7
      Change due to transactions...46.8...–218.7...66.1...6.8
Treasury and other Government-held securities
       Total change in holdings...–51.4...38.0...41.4...10.6
      Counterpart to valuation changes...–26.8...23.5...21.1...17.1
      Change due to transactions...–24.6...14.5...20.3...–6.5
Summary of reserve transactions
       Total change in reserves...–136.1...–249.8...138.8...38.6
      Counterpart to valuation changes...–158.5...46.8...47.5...28.7
      Changes in reserves due to transactions...22.2...–296.6...91.3...9.9
       Total reserves at 31 March (as shown in Reserve Bank Bulletin)778.5542.1684.8720.6

A summary of New Zealand's balance of payments transactions by regions during the years 1971–72 and 1976–77 is shown in the table on the following two pages.

Commentary—New Zealand is a small economy dependent on overseas trade. Exports of merchandise over the period 1971–72 to 1976–77 averaged 20.1 percent of GDP and imports of merchandise averaged 20.7 percent. Current account receipts (credits) averaged 26.7 percent of GDP and current account payments (debits) averaged 31.6 percent.

Exports f.o.b. averaged 75.1 percent of total current account credits between 1971–72 and 1976–77 while imports f.o.b. averaged 65.3 percent of current account debits. Thus movements of aggregates in New Zealand's balance of payments are dominated by movements in the balance on merchandise trade.

The balance on merchandise trade is strongly influenced by changes in New Zealand's terms of trade (see Section 23) as well as by changes in the volume of exports and imports (export and import volume indexes, Section 22A).

During the year ended March 1972, New Zealand's terms of trade improved by more than 25 percent. There was a simultaneous increase in the surplus on merchandise trade, and, for the year ended March 1973, all balances (except invisibles) were in surplus.

During 1972–73 and 1973–74 import volumes increased sharply. However, over the same time-period export volumes showed a moderate decrease. By 1973–74 New Zealand had a current account deficit of $99 million. Over the next year New Zealand's terms of trade deteriorated by 40 percent with the result that at 31 March 1975 New Zealand had a current account deficit of $1,363 million (14.2 percent of GDP).

Import volumes declined sharply in March 1975 and since then have been falling at a moderate rate. Over the same period export volumes have risen (at a slightly faster rate than the fall in import volumes), and the terms of trade have shown a slight improvement.

The balance on current account for the year ended March 1977 showed a deficit of $843 million (6.4 percent of GDP).

During 1974–75, because of the massive current account deficit, the Government borrowed $508 million as compensatory financing and used $297 million of New Zealand's reserves. During 1975–76 compensatory financing was $634 million, but reserves were replenished by $91 million. Compensatory financing during 1976–77 totalled $312 million.

RegionUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States of AmericaCanadaJapanE.E.C.
Itemcreditdebitcreditdebitcreditdebitcreditdebitcreditdebitcreditdebit

*Figures amalgamated and shown net to preserve confidentiality.

†Included with United States of America in 1971–72.

NZ$(million)
1971–72
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)442.1325.6111.0245.7249.3146.9  115.4122.6167.582.6
      Balance on merchandise trade116.5-134.7102.4  –7.284.9
Services102.4202.757.171.534.845.9  9.218.715.126.8
International investment income27.555.513.227.42.733.6  0.1–2.30.31.5
      Balance on invisibles–128.3–28.7–42.0  -7.2–13.0
Transfers31.615.916.816.711.34.4  0.20.12.62.5
      Balance on current account3.9–163.267.3   –14.2 72.0
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand–7.1...36.0...70.3*...  4.9...–8.0...
New Zealand direct investment overseas...10.9...2.1...*......
Other long-term private capital movements69.5–8.421.00.6–1.1–1.1  –6.0–1.40.72.8
Government capital movements9.2 --–5.0  0.7
Capital movements by monetary institutions–5.4  
Residual140.0...114.3......124.9  24.6......109.7
      Balance before compensatory financing213.0-7.7  11.4–47.8
Compensatory financing–11.7–6.7  –0.164.7
      Balance after compensatory financing201.3-1.0  11.317.0
Total change in reserves...202.2......1.0  ...11.3...17.0
Counterpart to valuation, etc., changes...0.9......  ......
Change due to transactions...201.3......1.0  ...11.3...17.0
    1976–77        
Exports/imports (f.o.b. exporting country)587.8593.7364.1695.6346.1550.675.881.2384.1445.1380.5290.1
      Balance on merchandise trade-5.9–331.5–204.5–5.4–61.090.4.
Services217.4336.3242.0233.2137.5169.33.99.928.651.225.074.9
International investment income17.2113.337.771.86.7157.31.49.14.818.93.564.5
      Balance on invisibles–215.0–25.4–182.4–13.7–36.7–110.8
Transfers50.633.646.937.914.812.55.43.60.62.69.43.1
Balance on current account–203.9–347.9–384.6–17.3–99.7–14.1
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand100.6...92.1...58.8...4.8...12.3...4.8*...
New Zealand direct investment overseas...4.8...5.6...15.6...5.4...2.5...*
Other long-term private capital movements1.4–5.5–34.1–16.525.2–0.5–0.2–0.6–2.7–6.6–0.4
Government capital movements20.01.1–0.190.613.5-17.810.227.3
Capital movements by monetary institutions
Residual39.3...263.4...160.9...4.2...100.4...23.4...
      Balance before compensatory financing–41.9–14.4–64.20.225.6–9.2
Compensatory financing–1.4200.01.5–114.1
      Balance after compensatory financing–43.3–14.4135.80.227.1–123.3
Total change in reserves...–33.7...–14.0...143.5...0.4...29.2...–117.4
Counterpart to valuation, etc., changes...9.6...0.4...7.7...0.2...2.1...5.9
Change due to transactions...–43.3...–14.4...135.8...0.2...27.1...–123.3
Other Sterling CountriesOther OECDAsia - OceaniaLatin America - CaribbeanOther CountriesInternational OrganisationsTotal
creditdebitcreditdebitcreditdebitcreditdebitcreditdebitcreditdebitcreditdebit

*Figures amalgamated and shown net to preserve confidentiality.

†Included in Other Countries in 1971–72.

‡Distributed to appropriate geographical region in 1976–77.

109.098.8      105.149.21299.61071.5
10.2      55.9228.1
6.424.9      6.719.50.5232.5410.2
2.81.0      4.446.8121.1
–16.5      –17.00.5–252.0
5.79.0      1.04.66.369.259.4
–9.6      35.3–5.8–14.1
2.1...      1.5*.........97.4...
...      ...............10.7
-1.00.5   2.5.........85.6–7.0
0.3--      0.40.45.60.4
-      4.3–5.44.3
8.6...      ...57.219.4...15.1...
–0.1      –22.013.6175.8
-      19.9–4.4108.847.0
–0.1      –2.19.2237.6
...–0.1      ...–2.1...28.3...257.6
...      ......19.1...20.0
...–0.1      ...–2.1...9.2...237.6
1976–77
  109.683.2372.3263.092.415.7304.9125.23017.63143.6
  26.4109.376.7179.7–126.0
  7.323.542.183.26.65.313.019.50.23.6723.51009.9
  7.828.68.81.42.53.31.639.40.392.4507.8
  –37.1–33.80.5–44.3–3.1–701.8
  2.11.49.150.30.41.12.35.25.3141.7156.6
  –10.034.376.5132.5–8.4–842.7
  3.4...0.9...1.8...–0.2.........278.9...
  ......1.0...1.3..............35.8
  35.4–0.16.5–2.30.5–0.4–0.6......25.0–26.5
  2.810.31.00.91.4168.128.6
  6.26.2
  ...128.6...56.3...71.3...189.4...33.5112.6...
  –96.9–3.0–55.9–42.4–302.2
  96.93.074.1110.258.2662.4350.3
  18.29.69.9
  ............19.0...11.5...38.6
  ............0.8...1.9...28.7
  ............18.2...9.6...9.9

There has been a long-term trend towards a more diversified pattern of trade for New Zealand During 1959–60 54.9 percent of New Zealand's exports were sold to the United Kingdom and 46.8 percent of her imports were purchased from the United Kingdom. By 1975–76 the United Kingdom took only 19.5 percent of exports and was the source of only 18.9 percent of imports.

The table below shows New Zealand's merchandise trade with various regions during 1976–77 expressed as percentages of the total merchandise trade.

CountryExports f.o.b.Imports f.o.b.
U.K.19.518.9
Australia12.122.1
U.S.A.11.517.5
Canada2.52.6
Japan12.714.2
Other E.E.C.12.69.2
Other O.E.C.D.3.62.6
Asia Oceania12.38.4
Latin America-Caribbean3.10.5
Other10.14.0
       Total100.0100.0

SURVEY OF COMPANIES WITH OVERSEAS AFFILIATIONS—The picture of international capital movements would be incomplete without the consideration of investment flows originating with private commercial firms. While such investment takes place in response to usual economic motivations, its effect on a country's balance of payments differs in no respect from other capital movements, such as Government lending or borrowing abroad, investment or repatriation of assets from abroad by private individuals, etc.

The type of investment referred to here is that defined as direct private investment. Subsidiaries (i.e., New Zealand companies under control of an overseas company), branches of overseas companies, companies where many of the shareholders reside overseas, or any other companies where overseas shareholders exercise a controlling interest, fall under this category. The question of control is decided in some cases on the strength of the parent company's holdings (a 25 percent holding of the subsidiary's ordinary share capital is deemed as the qualifying minimum), in others on the actual circumstances of the case. The same criteria apply for direct investment by New Zealand companies and residents overseas.

Direct investment flows assume various forms; they may be by remittances of cash, the provision of plant, machinery, or goods without corresponding payments, charging up of services rendered by the parent company, the re-investment in New Zealand of undistributed profits, or the partial remittance only of declared dividends and branch earnings. The inclusion of undistributed profits may require some explanation: the non-remittance abroad of the whole of the current year's earnings, or any portion of them involves, where no statutory constraints exist on remittances of current profits, a decision to invest which is in every respect equal to a decision to bring additional investment capital into the country. By treating, as already mentioned previously, total earnings of subsidiaries and branches of overseas firms in New Zealand as a current account debit or payment to the rest of the world, the unremitted portions of such earnings are treated as an inflow of investment capital which, together with other forms of investment capital (cash, goods, services), make up the total of the private direct investment item in the capital account.

The information tabulated in the following tables is based on an annual survey of companies with overseas affiliations in which the companies report on the distribution of paid-up capital and its changes, dividends and dividend remittances, intercompany accounts with the parent company or affiliated company, and head office accounts in the case of branches.

It should be noted that investment figures given in the following four tables are in terms of annual changes at current prices. The total worth of direct investment assets is extremely difficult to establish in view of the fact that book values may bear little relationship to what such investments would realise on sale; annual changes on the other hand are capable of precise expression, and define exactly their relationship to other capital movements.

Overseas Private Direct Investment in New Zealand—Data on overall private investment in New Zealand are shown in the following table. The figures are totals reflecting investment changes in firms resident in New Zealand and controlled from overseas irrespective of their legal organisation. They include therefore subsidiaries incorporated in New Zealand, companies incorporated in New Zealand which have a majority of shareholders resident overseas or are controlled by overseas residents, and New Zealand branches of overseas companies.

The figures shown in the country or regional area columns refer to the country of incorporation of the New Zealand firm's parent company, head office, or other subsidiary of the parent associate company from which the investment flows, or to which the New Zealand company owes or is owed on outstanding accounts, or the country of residence of individual shareholders who collectively hold a controlling interest (as defined above) in the New Zealand company.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries

*Provisional.

†Other Sterling Countries included with Other Countries after 1972–73.

NZ$(million)
1972–7338.335.72.325.13.02.0106.4
1973–7461.936.1..48.83.52.4152.7
1974–7554.7x57.3..45.40.721.6179.7x
1975–76x29.238.7..27.56.712.6114.7
1976–77*100.692.1..63.64.518.2278.9

The graph now presented shows changes in the overseas direct investment in New Zealand.

CHANGES IN OVERSEAS DIRECT INVESTMENT IN N. Z.

Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table provides a subdivision of total direct investment income derived by all enterprises controlled from overseas and operating in New Zealand. The investment income is given net (after payment of New Zealand taxation). The regional totals as well as the "All Countries" total correspond to the "Income from Direct Investment" debits shown in the regional current accounts.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaOther SterlingCountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries

*Provisional.

†Other Sterling Countries included with Other Countries after 1972–73.

NZ$(million)
Dividends
1972–7310.510.10.77.32.03.033.6
1973–7413.310.3...9.41.82.837.6
1974–7512.110.8...7.10.22.532.7
1975–76x13.49.5...6.20.43.232.7
1976–77*31.011.9...8.80.33.054.9
Undistributed Earnings
1972–7334.814.50.218.9–1.1–3.264.1
1973–7438.929.0...26.71.43.499.4
1974–7528.5x22.3...12.5–0.40.363.2x
1975–76x41.822.9...13.8–1.12.680.1
1976–77*56.643.1...57.32.811.1170.8
Net Earnings of Branches
1972–7312.03.8–0.22.6–0.31.219.1
1973–7416.28.4...3.10.8–0.428.1
1974–751.913.8...2.71.00.820.1
1975–76x12.17.2...4.20.0–0.622.8
1976–77*16.512.0...2.60.21.432.8
Total Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand
1972–7357.328.30.728.80.51.1116.7
1973–7468.447.7...39.24.05.8165.1
1974–7542.4x46.9...22.30.83.6115.9x
1975–76x67.339.5...24.2–0.75.3135.6
1976–77*104.267.0...68.73.215.5258.4

Industrial Classification of Overseas Private Direct Investment and Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table shows details of overseas direct investment and income from overseas direct investment classified by major industry groupings.

Industry1973–741974–751975–76x1976–77*

* Provisional

 NZ$(million)
Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, and fishing1.81.0–2.80.3
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying–5.13.2x4.4–0.3
Manufacturing—
      Food, drink, and tobacco6.221.5–7.819.4
      Meat and dairy products9.5–35.219.120.2
      Textiles, clothing, and footwear2.04.40.32.4
      Wood, cork, and furniture production–0.10.40.6--
      Pulp, paper, and printing–1.413.18.85.9
      Leather and rubber products1.65.40.15.0
      Chemical and mineral products–18.120.321.035.8
      Metalworking–0.9--9.519.9
      Engineering and transport equipment22.535.11.119.6
      Miscellaneous manufacturing8.99.94.116.5
Building and construction2.81.3--1.0
Electricity, gas, water............
Wholesale and retail trade71.961.329.696.3
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property9.034.526.135.8
Transport and communications5.20.3–5.80.7
Services0.73.56.30.5
       Total152.7179.7x114.7278.9
Income from Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, and fishing0.5–0.3–0.40.3
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying1.24.9x6.11.1
Manufacturing—
      Food, drink, and tobacco8.87.05.212.8
      Meat and dairy products9.6–15.017.016.4
      Textiles, clothing, and footwear3.02.40.63.0
      Wood, cork, and furniture production0.30.20.4
      Pulp, paper, and printing4.24.37.37.7
      Leather and rubber products1.81.32.12.8
      Chemical and mineral products15.49.19.326.7
      Metalworking8.60.87.916.2
      Engineering and transport equipment20.512.417.922.9
      Miscellaneous manufacturing10.15.57.718.2
Building and construction2.92.11.51.9
Electricity, gas, water............
Wholesale and retail trade45.244.930.787.7
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property29.032.322.436.6
Transport and communications2.01.5–2.30.8
Services2.02.52.23.3
       Total165.1115.9x135.6258.4

Investment by New Zealand Companies Overseas—The following table presents the converse picture of those immediately preceding, viz, direct investment and income for direct investment by New Zealand companies in their overseas subsidiaries and branches.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaOther Sterling CountriesUnited States and CanadaOther CountriesTotal, All Countries

*Provisional.

†Other Sterling Countries included with Other Countries after 1972–73.

NZ$(million)
Direct Investment
1972–73–11.96.63.46.6–2.02.7
1973–747.08.9..–0.7–1.713.5
1974–754.31.5..2.17.215.0
1975–764.0x5.0..8.40.417.7
1976–774.85.6..21.04.435.9
Income from Direct Investment
1972–735.71.52.30.80.110.4
1973–745.08.0..0.53.717.3
1974–755.98.0..1.15.720.6
1975–76x3.314.8..1.05.324.4
1976–77*4.122.6..2.39.738.7

25 C—INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES

Input-Output analysis, one of the most important economic tools of today, was devised by a Harvard professor of economics, Wassily Leontief, in the nineteen thirties and first set out in his book The Structure of American Economy 1919–1939 in 1941. In his "Introduction", Leontief described his book as "an attempt to apply the economic theory of general interdependence to an empirical study of interrelations among the different parts of a national economy" and went on "The ultimate aim of such study needs no special justification. Laymen and professional economists alike are all equally aware of the existence of some kind of interconnection between even the remotest parts of a national economy. The presence of these invisible but nevertheless very real ties can be observed whenever expanded automobile sales in New York City increase the demand for groceries in Detroit; it is dramatically demonstrated when the sudden shutdown of the Pennsylvania coal mines paralyses the textile mills in New England, and it reasserts itself with relentless regularity in alternative ups and downs of business cycles."

The interdependence of the different parts of a national economy is a truism that had been amply demonstrated by the economic reverberations of depression and war. The technique of input-output analysis was designed to define and measure that interdependence down to the level of the individual industry. It provided a tool with which, for example, it was possible to measure the effects of a stated increase or decrease in the demand for houses on the timber industry, the cement industry, and the industries producing glass, steel, paint, bricks, tiles, concrete blocks, nails, plumbing requisites, and all the hundreds of other items that go into houses, as well as on the demand for imports.

An inter-industry study involves three distinct tasks. They are:

  1. The systematic collection, evaluation, and arrangement of a vast body of statistical information on production and consumption covering, as far as possible, every facet of the economy. This is the basic data on which the worth of the whole study depends.

  2. The formulation of an appropriate theoretical scheme.

  3. The application of theoretical methods and devices to the analysis of emprical data.

In a sense, input-output analysis brings together those who in economic research have always tended to drift apart—the producers of elegant theories, and those engaged in empirical research and the accumulation of data. Input-output analysis gives scope to the theorist but at the same time keeps him anchored firmly to the basic data, to the figures of goods poured out by factories, transported by ships, trucks, and trains, and sold over shop counters.

The term "Inter-Industry Study" refers to the whole task of investigation, compilation, and preliminary calculations as well as the mass of input-output tables and derived tables that forms the end product.

THE BASIC INPUT-OUTPUT TABLE—In the basic input-output table the entire economic activities of a country are divided into industry groups, which may number some hundreds. In New Zealand they range from 12 in the earlier studies to 130 in the latest study. A very great deal of investigation and research is necessary in order to discover what each industry consumes, both in the form of the products of other industries and in the form of primary inputs such as labour; and what is produces, what it supplies to other industries in the form of raw materials, components, and semi-finished products, and what if supplies to final consumers such as households.

Each industry appears twice in an input-output table—in a row as a producer and in a column as a consumer. The rows and columns intersect, so that what appears in a row as part of industry A's output sold to industry B can also be read down the industry B column as part of industry B's input purchased from industry A.

DERIVED TABLES—If the straightforward monetary transactions table is subjected to a mathematical process, known as inversion of the matrix, a derived table or model is produced. This derived table will show on a unit basis (that is per $ or per $ million, etc.) what will be required in additional output from every industry in the economy to support an increase of one unit in the final output of a selected industry. Such an account is often known as a table of total requirements (direct and indirect) per unit of final demand. The words "direct and indirect" are used to indicate that the table includes not only the direct requirements of the selected industry, but also the additional requirements of industries supplying that industry with raw materials, components, and services, and the additional requirements of industries supplying those industries, and so on through an ever-widening circle of the economy until the economic reverberations die away.

DATING OF INPUT-OUTPUT STATISTICS—It is a common criticism of inter-industry studies (and not only in New Zealand) that they are invariably years out of date and therefore stale and of historical interest only. A considerable delay is inevitable with a full-scale study (there are methods of updating existing studies) because of the enormous amount of preparatory investigation necessary and the fact that sometimes the detailed information required for input-output purposes is not available until a considerable time after the close of the year or other period that is the subject of the study.

However, the essential value of input-output tables lies not so much in the actual transactions portrayed as in the structural relationships revealed. These relationships are, of course, subject to technological changes and other developments, but it has been found by experience that in developed countries they remain reasonably stable for periods of several years. It is in the application of these structural relationships and characteristics to current economic questions and forecasting that the value of input-output analysis lies.

NEW ZEALAND INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES—The Department of Statistics has published 2 major inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy. The Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1959–60 was published in 4 parts and the Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1965–66 in 2 parts.

A further study, based on the year 1971–72, is now in the process of publication. The format of the 1971–72 Inter-Industry Study has been modified from that of the 1965–66 Study to bring it more into line with concepts used in the United Nations System of National Accounts (1968). The study also forms the basis for the Department of Statistics' revised national accounts which were published this year. The different concepts and industry groupings used mean that comparisons between the 1965–66 and 1971–72 input-output transactions should be made with considerable caution.

The table on the following pages provides an analysis of inter-industry transactions during the year 1971–72 on a basis of twenty-five industry groups. These groups match those for which contributions to the gross domestic product are shown in the revised national accounts to be published in future Yearbooks.

In addition to the table on the following pages, the following tables are available and can be obtained on request to the Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington. A special article in the 1975 Yearbook gave a general introduction to inter-industry studies. Copies of this and of other explanatory matter may also be obtained on request from the Department of Statistics.

Inter-Industry Transactions: 130 industries, primary inputs and final demand.

Gross Fixed Capital Formation: 25 and 130 industries, primary inputs and final demand.

Imports used by Industries: 25 and 130 industries and final demand.

Inverse Matrix: 25 and 130 industries.

Further Coefficient Tables: 25 and 130 industries.

These tables, as well as descriptions of the industries covered and the methodology used, will be published shortly in volume form.

INTER-INDUSTRY TRANSACTIONS 1971–72

In $(million) at approximate basic values

For the disposition of output of an industry read the row for that industry. For the origin of input into an industry read the column for that industry.AgricultureFishing and HuntingForestry and LoggingMining and QuarryingFood, Beverages, and TobaccoTextile, Apparel, and Leather ProductsWood and Wood ProductsPaper, Printing and PublishingChemical, Petrol, and Plastic ProductsNon-Metallic Mineral Products
No.12345678910
1 Agriculture238.80.10.20.0748.013.01.10.00.20.0
2 Fishing and hunting0.10.06.90.10.00.00.0
3 Forestry and logging0.0 14.50.00.00.033.69.00.00.0
4 Mining and quarrying1.30.00.24.43.60.40.11.24.311.4
5 Food, beverages, and tobacco10.90.30.00.088.85.60.10.73.80.1
6 Textile, apparel, and leather products7.40.00.10.03.689.40.90.31.20.2
7 Wood and wood products8.60.30.20.33.80.949.94.90.80.4
8 Paper, printing, and publishing5.70.00.10.131.25.22.362.710.33.6
9 Chemical, petrol, and plastic products87.40.51.40.713.77.26.49.736.02.2
10 Non-metallic mineral products7.10.00.30.211.50.10.80.21.815.2
11 Basic metal industries5.70.00.10.10.60.10.90.40.40.3
12 Metal products, and machinery21.23.91.91.419.22.26.34.011.93.9
13 Other manufacturing0.50.00.00.01.02.00.60.30.50.2
14 Electricity, gas, and water11.40.00.31.312.13.32.97.24.02.9
15 Construction5.00.01.35.25.61.31.31.81.81.4
16 Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels47.80.94.72.649.124.517.023.626.97.8
17 Transport and storage42.20.98.66.865.911.410.816.314.99.7
18 Communications6.40.10.40.23.01.51.01.91.50.6
19 Insurance, real estate, finance47.01.02.61.424.210.46.710.38.93.3
20 Ownership of dwellings
21 Social, personal, community services19.60.21.20.84.71.11.21.21.01.0
22 Central Government0.80.00.10.00.80.20.10.10.20.1
23 Local Government0.80.00.10.00.30.20.10.20.20.1
24 Private non-profit services to households0.10.00.00.00.10.00.00.00.10.0
25 Domestic services
      Sub-total575.68.538.225.71,097.7180.3144.3156.2130.564.4
26 Compensation of employees144.55.826.216.7216.2125.371.6100.970.236.7
27 Operating surplus528.83.258.68.8126.746.930.649.657.125.7
28 Indirect taxes29.00.62.31.215.68.53.35.26.02.1
29 Subsidies–57.40.0–0.7–1.9–1.10.0–0.10.0–0.3–0.2
30 Consumption of fixed capital110.43.27.17.738.411.78.216.913.78.3
31 Second-hand assets0.10.00.10.00.20.10.10.40.10,1
32 Imports48.20.94.33.265.669.014.624.9143.310.3
      Sub-total803.613.897.735.8461.5261.4128.3198.0290.283.1
      Grand-total1,379.222.3136.061.51,559.3441.6272.6354.2420.7147.5

It is planned to complete an updating of the 1971–72 input-output study to 1976–77. This will use information from the 1971–72 study and production accounts of the New Zealand System of National Accounts. While lacking the accuracy of a full input-output study, it will fill a need by economic analysts for more up-to-date information on the structure of the economy.

INTER-INDUSTRY TRANSACTIONS 1971–72—continued

In $(million) at approximate basic values

Basic Metal IndustriesMetal Products and MachineryOther ManufacturingElectricity, Gas, and WaterConstructionWholesale and Retail Trade, Restaurants and HotelsTransport and StorageCommunicationsInsurance, Real Estate, and FinanceOwnership of DwellingsSocial, Personal and Community ServicesCentral GovernmentLocal Government
11121314151617181920212223
0.00.20.10.11.18.60.50.00.10.30.82.90.3
0.00.00.00.01.50.00.00.00.10.0
0.00.00.00.04.10.00.00.00.00.00.00.00.1
0.70.30.24.315.50.30.10.10.22.40.21.70.4
0.00.40.10.00.279.41.10.00.20.00.84.40.1
0.21.50.80.00.410.11.20.10.70.01.42.70.3
0.16.10.80.182.95.20.90.11.59.41.43.30.2
0.28.31.70.910.257.54.11.620.02.94.811.72.2
0.323.31.80.535.116.611.90.52.510.410.59.01.7
0.12.00.20.277.71.90.30.10.73.20.50.90.2
19.533.60.70.16.50.60.20.00.21.70.20.50.0
4.597.60.81.390.020.536.81.53.59.39.411.81.9
0.11.21.20.11.71.40.20.00.62.20.81.00.1
2.77.20.4100.44.923.62.80.85.80.73.98.53.1
0.24.10.21.6186.912.325.30.45.425.22.630.639.1
5.765.13.03.183.998.934.31.819.915.326.019.25.3
3.323.11.62.824.435.744.78.28.92.59.520.22.2
0.33.90.20.72.924.85.30.017.20.07.48.91.0
1.521.11.78.233.5171.018.41.0104.335.522.624.03.4
0.23.10.20.64.737.311.70.410.20.121.013.41.8
0.00.30.00.16.92.13.20.10.70.10.71.20.1
0.00.30.02.211.32.81.10.11.30.01.00.68.8
0.00.10.00.10.10.20.10.00.20.01.20.50.1
-
39.8303.015.7127.5685.0612.3204.216.9204.2121.4126.7177.372.6
16.6241.713.051.8280.5670.2296.1113.9236.4117.1618.862.5
7.589.86.878.785.4471.450.117.6309.1131.194.80.00.0
1.019.61.02.812.9117.126.34.235.246.711.45.33.2
0.0–0.30.0–0.5–0.1–0.9–10.80.0–0.6–7.1–0.10.0
5.622.21.527.325.490.560.613.842.037.013.9
2.31.90.00.00.60.20.20.00.10.10.10.10.0
24.3219.46.94.465.150.455.63.211.06.641.740.33.9
57.2594.429.2164.5469.71,398.9478.1152.7633.2221.5271.9664.569.6
97.0897.444.9292.11,154.72,011.2682.3169.6837.3342.9398.5841.9142.3
For the disposition of output of an industry read the row for that industry. For the origin of input into an industry read the column for that industry.Private Non-profit Services to HouseholdsDomestic ServicesSub-totalHousehold ConsumptionPrivate Non-profit and Government ServicesGross Fixed Capital FormationStock ChangeExportsSub-totalGrand Total
 2425 2627282930  
1 Agriculture1.31,017.798.113.358.4191.7361.51,379.2
2 Fishing and hunting0.08.71.90.00.131.513.622.3
3 Forestry and logging0.061.50.00.454.120.074.5136.0
4 Mining and quarrying0.353.83.50.31.12.97.761.5
5 Food, beverages, and tobacco1.6198.9487.92.768.5801.31,360.41,559.3
6 Textile, apparel, and leather products0.4122.9286.13.39.020.3318.8441.6
7 Wood and wood products1.0183.352.718.44.214.089.3272.6
8 Paper, printing, and publishing8.4255.960.91.83.132.598.2354.2
9 Chemical, petrol, and plastic products1.3290.699.45.39.715.6130.1420.7
10 Non-metallic mineral products0.7125.87.85.14.24.621.6147.5
11 Basic metal industries0.172.71.42.08.512.524.497.0
12 Metal products, and machinery0.8365.6223.8230.947.129.9531.7897.4
13 Other manufacturing1.116.922.11.21.82.827.944.9
14 Electricity, gas, and water5.6215.973.32.10.10.676.2292.1
15 Construction5.4364.05.5785.20.00.0790.71,154.7
16 Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels7.0593.31,125.5100.523.1168.81,417.92,011.2
17 Transport and Storage0.5375.0109.333.99.8154.2307.2682.3
18 Communications4.493.769.34.10.02.475.8169.6
19 Insurance, real estate, finance6.3568.4253.712.10.03.1268.9837.3
20 Ownership of dwellings 342.9342.9342.9
21 Social, personal, community services2.7139.6255.10.60.13.1259.0398.5
22 Central Government0.218.013.1804.91.30.04.5823.9841.9
23 Local Government0.231.95.299.75.30.00.2110.4142.3
24 Private non-profit services to households1.64.638.464.00.10.00.2102.8107.4
25 Domestic services6.16.16.1
      Sub-total50.75,178.73,643.0968.71,229.9303.21,496.77,641.612,820.3
26 Compensation of employees44.56.13,583.426.226.23,609.6
27 Operating surplus0.02,278.37.47.42,285.7
28 Indirect taxes2.7363.2264.753.59.80.5328.4691.7
29 Subsidies0.0–82.2–26.3–0.60.00.0–27.0–109.2
30 Consumption of fixed capital6.0571.40.90.9572.3
31 Secondhand assets0.06.917.1–26.61.41.3–6.90.0
32 Imports3.5 920.6332.5179.536.029.3577.31,497.9
      Sub-total56.86.17.641.6588.0205.747.165.5906.38,547.9
      Grand Total107.46.112,820.34,231.0968.71,435.6350.41,562.28,547.921,368.2

25 D—REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

The Gross Domestic Product is the total value of all goods and services produced by the economy during each March year. The "Real" Gross Domestic Products are for a number of years the total amounts of the goods and services produced in each of those years valued at constant prices, so that the differences in the volume of production are apparent.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT—The Index of Real Gross Domestic Product measures the relative levels of the volume of production in each year, with each sector of the economy represented in proportion to its contribution to gross domestic product at factor cost in 1965–66; the basis for these analyses being the input-output tables for 1965–66. The economy has been divided into eleven industry groupings representing the major divisions of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (N.Z.S.I.C.), but with major division 1 "Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry and Fishing", split into 3 groups, namely: Agriculture, Hunting and Fishing, Forestry and Logging.

The industry groupings, and the contribution made by each to the gross domestic product in the base year 1965–66, are shown below.

Industrial GroupsPercentage of Base Year Gross Domestic Product
Agriculture15.0
Hunting and fishing0.2
Forestry and logging0.6
Mining and quarrying0.7
Manufacturing21.7
Electricity, gas, and water2.6
Construction7.3
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels18.8
Transport, storage, and communication8.2
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services12.0
Community, social, and personal services12.9
 100.0

The Index of Real Gross Domestic Product is presented in the following table, analysed by the industry groupings.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

Base for each Industrial Group and for All Industrial Groups combined: 1965–66 (= 1000).

Industrial Groups1965–661971–721972–731973–741974–751975–76x1976–77*

*Provisional.

†From 1972–73 measures real net output.

Agriculture100011331015966110311721150
Hunting and fishing1000137812801244126812321329
Forestry and logging1000132713991494149114981732
Mining and quarrying1000110512351406142713171762
Manufacturing1000130313841566163916431683
Electricity, gas, and water1000145616661769183820462180
Construction1000101811561213129613631190
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels1000110912091319134913271298
Transport, storage and communication1000115112331407136313511353
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services1000118412401306131913421375
Community, social and personal services1000113011561189122312631270
All industrial groups combined1000117412261314136713901391
Annual percentage increase—All industrial groups combined 2.54.47.24.01.70.1

INDEX OF EMPLOYMENT—The Index of Employment is based on the numbers of persons in the total labour force as estimated by the Department of Labour. The total labour force includes all persons actively engaged for 20 or more hours per week and excludes the unemployed.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT PER LABOUR FORCE MEMBER—Increases in real production are due partly to increases in the numbers of persons engaged, and in part to other factors (additions of productive fixed capital assets, improvements in management, organisational measures) as well as to greater labour effort or improved skills of the labour force. While the elements pertaining to labour input are relatively easy to quantify, the measurement of the other factors is exceedingly difficult.

The three indexes are compared in the following table. All three indexes are on base 1965–66 = 1000.

YearReal G.D.P.EmploymentReal G.D.P. per Labour Force MemberAnnual Percentage Increase
IndexAnnual Percentage IncreaseIndexAnnual Percentage Increase

*Provisional.

†Minus sign signifies a decrease.

1971–7211742.511031.210641.3
1972–7312264.411181.410973.1
1973–7413147.211593.711343.4
1974–7513674.011892.611501.4
1975–76*13901.711990.811590.8
1976–77*13910.112080.81151–0.7

NATIONAL AGGREGATES AT CONSTANT PRICES—The index of real gross domestic product is readily convertible into a series of national aggregates expressed in the dollar values of some base year, in this case the year ended March 1966. The following table presents the 3 significant national accounts aggregates at current prices and also at 1965–66 prices.

YearIn Current PricesAt 1965–66 Prices
Gross Domestic ProductGross National ProductGross Domestic ExpenditureGross Domestic ProductGross National ProductGross Domestic Expenditure

*Provisional.

 $(million)
1965–663,8773,8233,9813,8773,8233,981
1966–674,0393,9734,1114,0243,9584,124
1967–684,1834,1284,1933,9893,9363,900
1968–694,4364,3554,2934,0754,0003,822
1969–704,9074,8094,7644,2804,1944,036
1970–715,6095,5345,7184,4394,3804,337
1971–726,5266,4526,4704,5524,5004,401
1972–737,6177,4987,3644,7534,6794,653
1973–74x8,8138,6828,8265,0945,0185,316
1974–75x9,5789,45210,8205,3005,2305,729
1975–76x11,15210,91411,9265,3895,2745,326
1976–77*13,18912,78613,6685,3935,2285,167

GROSS DOMESTIC EXPENDITURE—Gross domestic expenditure is derived by deducting exports of goods and services from gross domestic product and adding imports of goods and services. The relationship between gross domestic product and gross domestic expenditure at 1965–66 prices is shown in the following table.

YearGross Domestic ProductExports of Goods and ServicesImports of Goods and ServicesGross Domestic Expenditure at 1965–66 Prices

*Provisional.

$(million)
1965–663,8778399433,981
1966–674,0248839834,124
1967–683,9899148253,900
1968–694,0751,0638103,822
1969–704,2801,1408964,036
1970–714,4391,1351,0334,337
1971–724,5521,2001,0494,401
1972–734,7531,2391,1394,653
1973–745,0941,1901,4125,316
1974–75*x5,3001,1641,5935,729
1975–76*x5,3891,2231,2605,326
1976–77*5,3931,4681,2425,167

EFFECTIVE GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT—In the following table, movements caused by changes in the terms of trade are assessed by showing gross domestic product at 1965–66 prices corrected for the terms of trade. This figure of effective gross domestic product is obtained for each year by deducting the value of exports included in the gross domestic product and replacing this figure by another representing the constant dollar value of the imports they could buy. By making this correction to the gross domestic product at 1965–66 prices a better picture can be obtained of the changes in the purchasing power of the income it represents.

YearGross Domestic ProductExports of Goods and Services Included in G.D.P.Exports of Goods and Services Corrected for the Terms of TradeEffective Gross Domestic Product

*Provisional.

$(million)
1965–663,877–8398393,877
1966–674,024–8838924,033
1967–683,989–9148183,893
1968–694,075–1,0639283,940
1969–704,280–1,1401,0144,154
1970–714,439–1,1359674,271
1971–724,552–1,2001,0914,443
1972–734,753–1,2391,3164,830
1973–745,094–1,1901,4045,308
1974–75x5,300–1,1641,0075,143
1975–76*x5,389–1,3239805,046
1976–77*5,393–1,4681,1275,052

25 E—ECONOMIC PLANNING

GENERAL—Before the establishment of the New Zealand Planning Council in April 1977, the Government was assisted in long-term economic planning and the development of natural resources by a Planning Advisory Group and a number of councils with a wide coverage of the economic, social, and cultural life of New Zealand. These councils, most of which were originally sector councils under the now-defunct National Development Council, were the Agricultural Production Council, Manufacturing Development Council, Forestry Development Council, Mineral Resources Council, Tourist Development Council, Trade Promotion Council, Building Industry Advisory Council, Transport Advisory Council, Distribution Council, National Research Advisory Council, Education Development Council, Environmental Council, Social Development Council, National Conservation Council, Land Use Advisory Council, Vocational Training Council, the Committee on Women, and the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council.

It is intended that such sector councils shall have close links with the Planning Council, but not be part of its formal structure.

The need for long-term planning in order to achieve a faster, more balanced, economic growth-rate coupled with a proper consideration for environmental, social and other non-material factors first came to the fore in the early 1950s.

This section has been replaced by Section 11 National Planning.

Chapter 27. Section 26 CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

26 A—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

GENERAL—Central Government is concerned with the future of the nation and therefore with the economic, social, and cultural development of the people as a whole and the quality of their environment. In New Zealand the State is fairly broadly concerned in national development and social welfare. The Central Government budgets for and controls expenditure on capital works such as electricity supply, land settlement, housing, public buildings, forest development, railway and road construction, telecommunications, and on other functions such as social security, health, education defence, and paying interest on the public debt.

Taxing, charging, and borrowing are the three alternative avenues of raising revenue to meet Government expenditure. The problem of choice between these avenues can be described as the choice of the most efficient and equitable way of paying for publicly-provided services. However, the problems of finance and of raising revenue cannot be considered in isolation. In the first place some Government expenditures, such as subsidies and transfer payments (for example, pensions and child benefits), can and do alter the equity of the tax system. For instance, subsidies and monetary benefits can be regarded as refunds of tax. In the second place, it is now generally accepted that a system of raising revenue must be in accord with the general objectives of Government economic policy. In the final analysis any system of Government finance, embracing both expenditure and the raising of revenue, must be designed to achieve the economic objectives of growth, full employment, price stability, and external balance of payments in an efficient manner, tempered by the prevailing views about freedom and the equitable distribution of income.

Central Government, by budgeting for a surplus (revenue exceeding expenditure) or a deficiency, or by varying the impact of taxation or the level of Government expenditure on certain sectors of the economy, now uses these powers to regulate internal economic activity.

The Public Revenues Act 1953 is the governing legislation on the administration of public money.

THE PUBLIC ACCOUNT—This is a single financial account held at the Reserve Bank. The following funds and accounts controlled by the Treasury are included in the Public Account; the Consolidated Revenue Account, Works and Trading Account, Trust Account, Loans Redemption Account, National Development Loans Account, Reserve Fund, and National Roads Fund. The Trust Account represents only lodgements or withdrawals of (mainly) non-Government money. (The Loans Redemption Account is dealt with in the subsection on indebtedness.)

The receipts and payments of the Consolidated Revenue Account over a long period will be found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume.

Fuller details of the Public Account are given in Parliamentary paper B. 1 (PT. I and II) The Public Accounts and in the Budget (Parliamentary paper B. 6), both obtainable from Government bookshops.

Financial Year—The financial year commences on 1 April and ends on 31 March. The expenditure of public money is authorised by an annual Appropriation Act, which lapses at the end of the financial year. However, the Minister of Finance is authorised to pay money for services for a period of 3 months from the commencement of the next financial year, pending the granting of supplies by Parliament.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—The following table shows gross Government expenditure and the net amount of expenditure which requires financing from the Public Account. The functional classification is intended to focus attention on the broad areas in the economy in which there is substantial Government activity. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

It is to be remembered that the Public Account as shown in this section is prepared on a receipts and payments (cash) basis, and consequently the accounts of the operations of various departments (prepared on an accrual basis) shown in other sections will differ to some extent from those appearing here.

The functional classification of Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

Item1974–751975–761976–77
GrossNet*GrossNet*GrossNet*

*Net expenditure is generally arrived at by deducting trading and departmental receipts from gross expenditure.

Administration—$(million)
      General administration111.0101.7126.5113.3199.1157.8
      Law and order79.261.098.177.8107.079.6
      Government services86.370.192.070.693.172.5
      Miscellaneous services19.75.423.76.226.26.9
      Stabilisation162.1162.1208.0208.071.571.5
 458.3400.3548.3475.9496.9388.3
Foreign Relations—
      Defence166.9163.0193.5188.4214.8210.7
      Foreign Affairs52.351.286.282.681.678.0
 219.2214.2279.7271.0296.4288.7
Development of Industry—
      Land use255.5151.4391.3286.1377.9211.7
      Fuel and power244.589.0314.3149.2363.5124.8
      Other industrial services60.756.384.579.297.891.7
 560.7296.7790.1514.5839.2428.2
Education—
      Education529.8526.6631.8627.0704.7699.4
Social Services—
      Social welfare711.0703.4884.7876.11,077.91,067.2
      Other social services91.886.1122.1120.9130.691.7
 802.8789.51,006.8997.01,208.51,158.9
Health—
      Health493.6492.3606.5605.7690.4689.1
Transport and Communications—
      Transport392.1172.3489.9212.8516.9208.3
      Communications287.138.9345.862.0379.127.0
 679.2211.2835.7274.8896.0235.3
Debt Services and Miscellaneous—
      Debt services221.8221.8272.8272.8371.3371.3
      Miscellaneous investment transactions45.661.7117.339.1106.836.3
Miscellaneous financing transactions196.5196.5308.1308.1208.8208.8
 463.9480.0698.2620.0686.9616.4
       Total4,207.53,410.85,397.14,385.95,819.04,504.3

The following table shows financing of Government expenditure.

Item1974–751975–761976–77

*Includes the sale of Government securities to the Reserve Bank of $170.5 million in 1974–75, $252.3 million in 1975–76 and $330.3 million in 1976–77.

†Excludes Treasury bills issued and redeemed of $182.3 million in 1974–75, $452.3 million in 1975–76, and $589.1 million in 1976–77.

‡Excludes supplier's credit and currency realignments adjustments.

Expenditure$(million)
      Administration400.3 475.9 388.3 
      Foreign relations214.2 271.0 288.7 
      Development of industry296.7 514.5 428.2 
      Education526.6 627.0 699.4 
      Social services789.5 997.0 1,158.9 
      Health492.3 605.7 689.1 
      Transport and communications211.2 274.8 235.3 
      Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions283.5 311.9 407.6 
      Subtotal 3,214.3 4,077.8 4,295.5
      Miscellaneous financing transactions 196.5 308.1 208.8
       Total expenditure 3,410.8 4,385.9 4,504.3
Financed from
      Taxation—
      Income tax2,136.0 2,295.8 2,828.5 
      Customs, sales tax, and beer duty510.0 576.9 652.6 
      Highways tax104.8 101.2 107.4 
      Motor spirits tax 76.3 100.4 
      Other taxation114.5 135.1 156.0 
       Total taxation 2,865.3 3,185.3 3,844.9
Interest, Profits, and Miscellaneous Receipts155.1 198.9 153.3 
       Total taxation, interest, etc. 3,020.4 3,384.2 3,998.2
Amount to be financed from borrowing 390.4 1,001.7 506.1
Borrowing in New Zealand*209.6 1,100.9 629.4 
      Less repayments in New Zealand144.7 414.4 238.6 
 64.9 686.51 390.8 
      Plus sales (less purchase) of investments+75.0 +15.7 –12.8 
      Net borrowing in New Zealand +139.9 +702.2 +378.0
      Internal surplus (+) deficit (—) –250.5 –299.5 –128.1
Borrowing overseas316.8 483.1 421.4 
      Less repayment overseas35.1 156.6 278.9 
 281.7 326.5 142.5 
      Less purchase of overseas investments–35.6 –39.4 –12.7 
      Net borrowing overseas 246.1 287.1 129.8
      Cash surplus (+) deficit (–)–4.4 –12.4  +1.7

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—By including the receipts of both the Consolidated Revenue Account and the National Roads Fund the following table shows the total receipts of direct and indirect taxation during the latest five years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19731974197519761977

*Interest received by State Advances Corporation, which was later restructured into two separate corporations, the Housing Corporation and the RBFC.

†Includes transfer from Reserve Fund ($115 million) and temporary transfer from National Development Loans Account ($55 million).

 $(million)
Direct taxation—
      Income tax1,314.51,697.92,136.02,295.82,828.5
      Estate and gift duty28.633.841.154.254.7
      Land tax3.43.33.43.46.6
      Property speculation tax0.30.20.3
       Total—Direct taxation1,346.51,735.22,180.83353.62,90.1
Indirect taxation—
      Motor vehicle fees and charges20.021.620.623.920.6
      Customs duty168.3201.2229.1217.0252.9
      Beer duty41.944.746.248.446.5
      Sales tax171.1206.4234.7311.4353.3
      Racing duty16.519.221.926.729.9
      Other stamp duties19.929.425.926.233.7
      Motor spirits tax76.398.8
      Highways taxation95.7103.2104.8101.3107.4
      Foreign travel tax............4.9
      Energy resources levy............4.0
      Payroll tax46.333.50.8----
      Other taxation0.30.40.60.52.3
       Total—Indirect taxation580.2659.6684.5831.7954.3
       Total—Taxation receipts1,926.62,394.82,865.33,185.33,844.4
Interest—
      On capital liability—
      Electric supply41.445.250.959.575.3
      Post Office15.516.718.019.928.7
      Housing Corporation25.1*28.7*20.527.652.6
      Rural Banking and Finance Corporation13.318.328.5
      Other24.024.426.734.064.5
On other public moneys13.012.516.325.628.3
       Total—Interest119.0127.5145.6184.9278.0
Profits from trading undertakings22.316.025.711.811.8
Departmental receipts65.574.588.9104.9137.6
Special and miscellaneous receipts98.22.525.3299.966.0
       Total—Other305.0220.5285.5601.5493.4
       Total—Receipts2,231.52,615.33,150.83,786.84,337.9
Total taxation as percentage of national income29.7%31.9%35.0%33.4%34.5%

The following table shows expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1974197519761977

*Includes Reserve Bank compensation for depreciation of bank's investments because of devaluation of currency.

†Reclassified under Development of Industry.

‡Reclassified under Social Services.

Permanent appropriations—$(000)
      Under Special Acts of Legislature—
      Civil List1,5601,6021,7301,843
      Debt services—
      Interest200,323221,030270,013367,037
      Transfer to Loans Redemption
      Account—
      New Zealand Loans Act 1953—
      Section 5941,51644,33448,43357,162
      Section 57 (c)8,4845,6661,5672,838
      Administration and management1,6017362,7484,260
       Total—Debt services251,924271,766322,761431,297
Special Acts—
      Superannuation Act 195618,87922,146x25,33232,369
      N.Z. Superannuation refunds (recoverable).........31,442
      Miscellaneous8,05812,395x7,26922,141
       Total—Special Acts26,93734,54132,60185,952
       Total—Permanent appropriations280,421307,909357,092519,092
Annual Appropriations—
      Administration—
      General Administration—
      Vote—
      Accident Compensation20222524
      Audit1,5761,7252,0402,176
      Broadcasting41707384
      Commission for the Environment.........383
      Customs6,0096,6367,7859,009
      Inland Revenue13,19317,29522,50724,899
      Internal Affairs17,23422,29427,59432,270
      Legislative2,0682,3232,8363,759
      Prime Minister's Department227389639640
      Rural Banking and Finance Corporation...913
      Housing Corporation181618
      State Services Commission9,3749,90823,78830,003
      Statistics4,5184,6035,91010,134
      Treasury3,2914,1124,6015,023
      Valuation3,5144,6845,2585,348
       Total—General administration61,08374,087103,087123,752
      Law and order—
      Vote—
      Crown Law357416574581
      Justice23,82029,69837,69840,725
      Police32,28840,61849,43454,713
      Security Intelligence Service628728802905
       Total—Law and order57,09371,45988,50896,924
      Government services—
      Vote—
      Government Printing Office11,66816,58418,59416,915
      Works32,48347,43140,15640,294
       Total—Government services44,15564,01658,75057,209
      Stabilisation—
      Vote—
      Stabilisation112,185148,152182,55358,321
       Total—Administration274,512357,714432,898336,206
      Foreign "relations—
      Defence—
      Defence140,511166,854193,465214,831
      Foreign affairs—
      Foreign affairs32,45447,68381,39380,415
       Total—Foreign relations172,965214,537274,858295,246
      Development of industry—
      Land use—
      Agriculture and Fisheries78,272102,337205,106171,686
      Forest Service5,7466,7858,4598,839
      Lands and Survey10,36412,76616,00519,414
      Rural Banking and Finance Corporation......6,036
       Total—Land use94,382121,888229,570205,975
      Fuel and power—
      Energy Resources170197574811
      Mines1,1683,1413,3672,724
 1,3383,3383,9413,535
      Other industrial services—
      Trade and Industry9,78015,70317,76517,730
      Labour9,92811,47423,48436,246
      Scientific and Industrial Research18,92422,90027,22029,906
      Tourist and Publicity7,5538,2399,48610,588
       Total—Other industrial services46,18558,31677,95594,470
       Total—Development of industry141,905183,542311,466303,980
      Education—
      Education442,660529,803631,751586,145
      Social services—
      Housing Corporation.........47,133
      Social Welfare621,003710,959884,6631,077,886
      Maori Affairs11,91915,0586,7157,135
      Internal Affairs1,9793,0255,3777,013
       Total—Social services634,901729,042896,7551,139,167
      Health—
      Health399,044491,367602,546685,785
      Transport and communications—
      Transport—
      Roads, etc.7001,25016,35021,000
      Transport36,65147,40958,49262,186
       Total—Transport37,35148,65974,84283,186
       Total—Annual appropriations2,103,3382,554,6653,225,1163,429,715
Adjustment on currency realignment14,369
Unauthorised expenditure5,97118,73821,24111,962
Defence credits and other special entries95,680*3,57780,642*54,347
Additional contribution to Loans Redemption Account10,00030,000100,000
Transfer to National Development Loans Account120,00010,000
Transfer to Reserve Fund100,000
       Total Payments2,509,7793,034,8893,684,0914,225,117

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT LOANS ACCOUNT—Particulars of receipts and payments of the National Development Loans Account were as follows.

Item1974–751975–761976–77

*Electric supply, $43,768,265, Railways, $15,389,669.

Receipts$(thousand)
Stock issued500,8701,116,634920,422
Advance subscriptions22,942
Securities issued to Asian Development Bank—
      Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes1,2552,4871,400
Securities issued to IMF—
      Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes10,682113,776
Transfer from Consolidated Revenue Account120,00010,000
Total622,1251,129,8031,068,540
Payments
Contribution to Consolidated Revenue Account-Capital equipment credit arrangements2,1285,641
Charges and expenses on raising and repaying loans3,4337,6186,828
Transfer to Works and Trading Account—
      Public Works144,500115,000214,500
      Electric supply147,000208,500205,500
      Land settlement24,00029,50010,500
      State Coal Mines1,70010,50013,500
      Railways20,00049,50046,000
Capital equipment credit arrangements7,91658,09559,158*
Advances to—
      Post Office32,00053,00027,000
      New Zealand National Airways Corporation2,0002,0005,175
      Development Finance Corporation14,142275
      Tourist Hotel Corporation4513,2354,799
      Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand13,00016,9008,000
      Natural Gas Corporation8,2545,9471,791
      Offshore Mining Company Ltd.18,35380,68875,552
      Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Ltd.2,1982,011
      Housing Corporation of New Zealand132,250310,000180,000
      Rural Banking and Finance Corporation60,50093,00090,000
      New Zealand Export-Import Corporation3201,680
      Linen Flax Corporation139
Calls on shares in Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Ltd.3,500
Acquisition of shares in New Zealand Steel Ltd.1,497
Acquisition of shares in Air New Zealand Ltd.4,0006,000
Acquisition of shares in Development Finance Corporation6,0001,000
Encashment of securities in favour of Asian Development
Bank200650490
Currency subscription to Asian Development Bank806
Securities in favour of Asian Development Bank1,2552,4871,400
Security in favour of IMF10,682113,776
Encashment of securities in favour of IBRD204050
Temporary transfer to Consolidated Revenue Account55,000
       Total626,1561,137,4431,080,932
      Balances at end of year61,30653,66741,275

WORKS AND TRADING ACCOUNT — The Works and Trading Account receipts and payments are shown in the following table.

Receipts1974–751975–761976–77

*Expenditure now met by Housing Corporation.

Administration—$(000)$(000)$(000)
      General Administration
      Works and Development (Programme VI)1,3281,9931,196
      State Services Commission (Programme IV)2
      Law and Order
      Justice (Programme IX)--
Government Services
      Works and Development (Programmes VII and VIII)7897571,300
      Development of Industry—
      Land Use
      Forest Service39,90937,64759,687
      Lands and Survey37,39542,96059,117
      Maori Affairs15,24418,59723,723
      Fuel and Power
      Electric Supply117,461128,147199,493
      Mines15,75920,05433,837
      Education—
      Education (Programme VI)25
      Foreign Relations—
      Foreign Affairs (Programme VI)591424
      Health—
      Health7
      Social Services—
      Works3,938
      Transport and Communications—
      Transport
      Railways158,134172,337248,594
      Transport542
      Works and Development (Programme V)3612032
 390,035423,245627,430
      Contributions from National Development Loans Account—
      Electric Supply147,000208,500205,500
      Land Settlement24,00029,50010,500
      Public Works144,500115,000214,500
      Railways20,00049,50046,000
      State Coal Mines1,70010,50013,500
 337,200413,000490,000
      Capital equipment credit arrangements-
      Electric supply1,41631,00443,768
      Railways6,50026,11615,390
      State Coal Mines975
 7,91658,09559,158
 345,116471,095549,158
      Contributions from Consolidated Revenue Account—
      From vote "Mines": For losses in State Coal Mines2,5002,6002,000
      From vote "Stabilisation":
      For losses incurred in Railways46,10068,50016,000
      For losses incurred in Electric Supply18,53913,070
      Excess of payments over receipts8,674
       Total810,964978,5101,194,588
Balances at beginning of year—$(000)$(000)$(000)
      Cash10,4871,3671,413
      Investments905833
      Imprests outstanding1,4721,9502,443
 12,0493,3753,889
      Excess of receipts over payments5141,728
       Total12,0493,8895,618
      Payments1974–751975–761976–77
      Annual Appropriations-
      Administration—$(000)$(000)$(000)
      General Administration
      Works (Construction of Public Buildings)17,33523,96817,735
      Law and Order
      Justice4,3425,0246,178
      Police2,0542,9232,196
      Government Services
      Works and Development (Programmes VII and VIII)16,83624,16024,549
      Development of Industry—
      Land Use
      Agriculture and Fisheries3,5483,4612,334
      Forest Service61,52478,70494,522
      Lands and Survey33,93938,39136,832
      Maori Affairs29,10136,35434,598
      Fuel and Power
      Electric Supply218,678275,104310,177
      Mines20,96832,99547,241
      Other Industrial Services
      Scientific and Industrial Research1,9272,2412,318
      Education118,533
      Foreign Relations—
      Foreign Affairs4,5784,8331,092
      Health—
      Health2,2313,8584,676
      Social Services—
      Works (Programme VIII—Construction of Housing)71,475**
      Transport and Communications—
      Transport
      Railways217,968274,780295,883
      Transport—Airport Development3,3624,336775
      Works—Developmental Roading2,2192,7212,013
 712,084813,8531,001,650
      Contributions to Superannuation scheme6,4779,5469,648
      Interest on capital liability paid to Consolidated Revenue Account—
Electric Supply50,77358,67275,052
      Land Settlement11,28911,71114,981
      Railways2,5703,5905,157
      State Coal Mines1,886
 64,63273,97397,077
Payments1974–751975–761976–77
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Contributions to Loans Redemption Account for redemption of securities15,43717,64421,272
Capital equipment purchased under credit arrangements7,91658,09559,158
Land acquired other than under annual votes4,0214,4483,425
Miscellaneous expenditure396435347
Unauthorised expenditure284
Excess of receipts over payments5141,728
 810,964978,5101,194,588
Excess of payments over receipts8,674
Balances at end of year—
      Cash1,3671,4134,821
      Investments583335
      Imprests outstanding1,9502,443761
 3,3753,8895,618
       Total12,0493,8895,618

Works Programme—Details of the works programme and roading expenditure by special categories are shown in the following table.

ItemYear ended 31 March
19741975*1976*1977*

*Maintenance, and some capital expenditure for smaller departments, are no longer included in the Works programme.

†Now included in the first item.

‡Provision mainly for Clutha Valley development for hydro-electric purposes.

Administration-$(million)
      Works—
      National water and soil conservation10.58.114.114.9
      Public building maintenance3.2
      Irrigation and water supplies2.42.1
      Development of natural resources1.9
      Public Buildings—
      Government services7.410.515.017.7
      Law and order5.16.47.98.4
      Miscellaneous3.84.77.69.7
       Total32.431.844.652.6
Foreign relations-
      Defence7.52.95.95.5
      Public buildings—overseas posts6.74.64.81.1
       Total14.27.510.76.6
Development of industry—
      Forestry5.76.47.68.1
      Land utilisation3.76.58.25.5
      Electricity99.0146.4210.4207.9
      Tourism0.40.32.52.8
      Mines0.81.69.314.9
      Natural Gas1.79.96.03.2
      Miscellaneous2.11.82.22.3
       Total113.4172.9246.2244.7
Education—
      Primary, secondary and special education—
      Buildings43.657.672.868.2
      Maintenance8.8
      Tertiary education—
      University buildings18.619.826.428.5
      Technical institutes2.56.513.615.2
      Teachers' Colleges3.84.37.36.6
       Total77.388.2120.0118.5
Social services—
      Housing construction18.267.489.158.0
      Public buildings—social welfare1.31.41.81.9
       Total19.568.890.959.9
Health—
      Health and hospital buildings2.32.23.94.7
Transport and communications—
      Railways15.116.420.119.2
      Roading101.5136.6128.3129.4
      Transport6.84.25.92.0
      Post Office36.947.156.757.6
      Broadcasting1.01.72.21.0
       Total161.3186.0213.2209.2
      Grand Total420.4557.4729.5696.2

NATIONAL ROADS FUND—The National Roads Act 1953 established a National Roads Fund within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Consolidated Revenue Account. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Receipts and payments of the National Roads Fund were as follows.

Item1973–741974–751975–761976–77
Receipts$(thousand)
Motor spirits duty85,41185,33380,82985,936
Other taxation, etc.17,75519,44720,42221,481
Contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account7001,25016,35021,000
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account2,000
Miscellaneous1,5852,9063,0033,156
Interest971014152
Total105,548109,037122,645131,625
Payments    
State highways maintenance16,74519,67625,90929,265
State highways construction35,97340,75941,68135,881
Local authorities' subsidised works39,34344,30447,44548,278
Administration and general expenses7,4589,61510,52713,940
Repayment of temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account.........2,000
Unauthorised expenditure3482
       Total99,522114,358125,570129,366
      Balance at end of year8,3012,981562,315

SUMMARY OF BALANCES—A summary of the balances in the Public Accounts is given in the following table.

AccountBalance at 31 March
197419719761977

*Cash received but not yet allocated.

 $(thousand)
Consolidated Revenue Account48,37459,54357,95760,624
Works and Trading Account12,0493,3753,8895,618
Loans Redemption Account140,935109,555232,756176,288
National Development Loans Account65,33761,30653,66741,275
National Roads Fund8,3012,981562,315
Reserve Fund92,125105,6142,588102,654
Suspense Account*369296803142
Trust Account31,63834,50438,13731,400
       Total399,128377,174389,852420,315

The composition of the total balances is shown in the following table.

NatureAt 31 March
1974197519761977
 $(thousand)
Cash90,22585,85073,38875,132
Imprests23,29045,04746,40449,663
Investments in New Zealand101,83426,80211,15223,974
Investments overseas183,779219,474258,908271,546
       Total399,128377,174389,852420,315

26 B—TAXATION

TOTAL TAXATION—A summary of taxation revenue during 5 recent March years is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchIncome TaxTotal Taxation
AmountPercentage of Total Taxation (All Sources)Amount
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population
 $(million)$ $(million)$
19731,314.5448.9968.21,926.9658.16
19741,697.9568.5370.92,395.1801.96
19752,136.0701.0174.52,865.6940.46
19762,295.8741.2972.83,185.61,028.44
19772,828.5906.4174.13,845.21,232.20

The following table shows receipts, under the various heads, of taxation during 5 recent years. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

ItemRevenue for Year Ended 31 March
19731974197519761977

*Included in National Roads Fund.

†Additional to portions paid into National Roads Fund.

‡Includes share of Victorian Government tax on lottery tickets sold in New Zealand.

Consolidated Revenue Account—$(million)
      Customs revenue168.3201.2229.1217.0252.9
      Beer duty41.944.746.248.446.5
      Motor spirits tax75.498.8
      Motor vehicles fees and charges20.021.620.623.920.6
      Sales tax171.1206.4234.7311.4353.3
      Film-hire tax0.40.40.60.50.6
      Mileage tax***0.91.6
      Estate and gift duties28.633.841.154.254.7
      Racing taxation16.519.321.926.729.9
      Payroll tax46.333.50.8----
      Land tax3.43.33.43.46.6
      Income tax1,314.51,697.92,136.02,295.82,828.5
      Foreign fishing vessel entry tax............0.5
      Foreign travel tax............4.9
      Energy resources levy............4.0
      Property speculation tax...0.20.30.20.3
      Stamp duties—
            On instruments16.425.822.022.128.8
            On cheques, etc.2.42.72.62.93.4
            Lottery duty1.41.21.51.51.8
National Roads Fund—
      Highways revenue (less rebate)95.7103.2104.8101.3107.4
       Total1,926.92,395.12,865.63,185.63,845.2

The sources of revenue are shown in the following diagrams.

REVENUE FROM TAXATION

REVENUE FROM TAXATION

A comparison of taxation revenue and total private income and national income is afforded by the following table, which also shows taxation as a percentage of private income and national income.

YearNational Income at Factor CostCentral Government Taxation
Total RevenuePercentage of National Incomex

*Provisional.

 $(million)Percent
1971–725,5401,707.230.8
1972–736,4811,926.929.7
1973–74x7,5142,395.131.9
1974–758,1842,865.635.0
1975–76x9,5413,185.633.4
1976–77*11,1493,845.234.5

Figures of total taxation for some years as shown in this section differ slightly from those shown in the previous section. The reason is the inclusion in taxation figures in this section of New Zealand's share of the Victorian (Australia) Government's lottery tax which represents the tax on tickets sold in this country. This figure ($262,482 for the year ended March 1977) is included elsewhere as a Treasury receipt.

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION—Revenue under the headings of Customs does not include receipts from motor spirits tax paid into the National Roads Fund. The following table shows customs and excise revenue, for ordinary revenue purposes, for the latest available six years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCustoms Duties*Beer DutyTotal Customs and Excise DutiesProportion of Total Taxation

*Including excise duties other than beer duty.

  $(thousand) percent
1972157,27440,700197,97411.6
1973168,33841,901210,23910.9
1974201,16344,674245,83710.3
1975229,08146,233275,3149.6
1976217,02448,374265,3988.3
1977253,39646,457299,8537.0

Information in regard to Customs and excise duties generally is contained in Section 22D—Customs Tariff and Revenue.

ROADS TAXATION—The National Roads Fund derives its revenues from a tax on motor spirits, heavy traffic licence fees, and a mileage tax on vehicles not using motor spirits. Other revenues of the fund, which are not classed as taxation, consist of a Government contribution, interest earned, and miscellaneous receipts—e.g., from the sale of materials, etc. For 1968–69, tax on petrol paid to the fund was 14.8c per gallon. From 1 April 1969 the rate was increased to 17.1c per gallon by the transfer to the fund of 2.3c per gallon previously credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account, and from 1 April 1971 to 18.1c per gallon by the transfer of a further 1c a gallon.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities in 21 tax areas covering the country to levy a local authorities petroleum tax at the rate of 1, 2, or 3 cents a gallon on motor spirits and 0.5, 1. or 1.5 cents a gallon on diesel fuel delivered in a tax area. All tax areas decided to make the levies at maximum rates from February or March 1971. The proceeds of any tax imposed may be applied to projects for the benefit of the region or distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenues. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of taxpayers.

Taxation receipts for roads purposes paid into the National Roads Fund have been as follows during the latest five years. Refunds have been deducted.

Year Ended 31 MarchPetrol TaxMileage TaxHeavy-traffic and other FeesTotal
$(000)
197378,6085,78211,26595,655
197485,4115,79711,958103,166
197585,3336,91512,532104,781
197680,8297,38313,038101,250
197785,9367,77213,709107,417

SYSTEM OF TAXATION—The following precis of the New Zealand tax system takes into account all relevant amending legislation effective up to the year ended 31 March 1978.

Income tax is levied under the Income Tax Act 1976.

Tax Year—The New Zealand tax year is from 1 April to 31 March.

Income Tax—Income tax is chargeable on most forms of income received by individuals, companies, and estates.

Income, because of its many forms, is not exhaustively defined, but includes income from the following: property; labour or effort; pensions, estates, and trusts (pensions paid by countries with which New Zealand has a double tax agreement, are generally exempt from tax in the country of origin and subject to tax in New Zealand. If a pension is taxed in the country of origin, credit is allowed in a New Zealand income tax assessment for the overseas tax paid); value of benefit allowances received in cash or kind; wages or income (earnings-related compensation) paid by the Accident Compensation Commission where a taxpayer is unable to work because of personal injury or incapacity.

Capital Gains—There is no capital gains tax but certain "gains" are deemed to be income.

These are profits on sale of patent rights, and profits on sale of property (land and buildings). Generally profits from ordinary sales of a person's private residence, business, or farm property, are exempt from tax.

Apart from ordinary sales of a person's residence, business, or farm property, profits on sale of property are subject to:

Property Speculation Tax—where the property is owned for less than 2 years, but there are exemptions (see later page).

Income Tax—where the property is not liable for Property Speculation Tax but the owner:—acquires the property for the purpose or intention of resale,

—deals in property,

—is a builder,

—makes a profit which is primarily due to, rezoning or likely rezoning,

—subdivides the property within 10 years of purchase,

—subdivides the property more than 10 years after purchase and carries out extensive subdivisional work before selling. (Only the "development profit" is taxable in this case.)

Exempt Income—Income is exempt from tax in New Zealand only if provisions are made in the New Zealand Tax Act.

Some of the more common items exempt from tax are the following: maintenance or alimony payments; the first $200 of interest from the Post Office Savings Bank, private savings banks, trustee savings banks, deposits with building societies, and mortgages under the Housing Corporation's housing mortgage guarantee scheme; any excess of interest over the $200 exemption outlined above plus interest from all other sources qualifies for a general $100 exemption; Social Welfare benefits (except the National Superannuation Benefit); war pensions and service disability pensions paid by any Government; interest on National Development Bonds (not exceeding $500 in any one year); income derived by charitable and certain non-profit organisations; proceeds of certain insurance policies; and lottery and raffle prizes.

"Pay as You Earn" System—A "Pay as You Earn" (PAYE) system of collecting income tax is used for individuals and for companies.

How the PAYE System Works—Income for PAYE purposes falls into two general classes—

Salaries and wages and all other forms of remuneration. With these, PAYE tax is deducted at time of payment.

Business, farming, investment, and professional incomes. With these incomes, tax is not deducted at time of receipt but the taxpayer pass "provisional tax", usually based on the income tax paid for the previous year.

In both cases an adjustment or "square-up" is made when the return of income for the particular year is furnished.

Tax, which is called "Terminal tax", is assessed on the basis of the annual return, and credit is allowed for the tax deductions or provisional tax paid during the year.

If there is an overpayment the taxpayer will receive a refund or credit against future tax—if insufficient tax was paid there will be further tax to pay.

Income Tax and the Individual: Residents of New Zealand— New Zealand residents are liable to New Zealand tax on all income including income from outside New Zealand. Credit is allowed for any overseas tax paid, but this is limited to the New Zealand tax payable on that income.

Who is a Resident?—A New Zealand resident, for New Zealand tax purposes, is a person whose home is in New Zealand. As a general rule a person is regarded as having a home in New Zealand, if he lives in New Zealand for longer than 15 months, or if leaving New Zealand is away for less than 15 months.

Generally this means persons who come to New Zealand with the intention of residing permanently or to stay more than 15 months, are taxed on their total income from all sources, both inside and outside New Zealand, as from the date of arrival.

How the Wage Earner is Taxed—At the beginning of the year, or when a new job is started the wage earner fills in a Tax Code Declaration. This form fixes the tax code used to work out tax deductions. The codes are—

  • •"S" for a single taxpayer, or for a married taxpayer whose spouse receives income in excess of $520.

  • •"M" for a married taxpayer with a dependent spouse.

  • •"SEC" for a secondary job in addition to the person's regular job. Tax is deducted from these earnings at a rate of 18c in each dollar.

  • •"S & F" For those taxpayers with at least one child under 5 years of age and who are entitled to claim the young family rebate.

  • •"M & F"

Employers Take Off Tax—The employer, when working out the tax, uses a tax table divided into "tax codes". The tax payable is taken off the employee's earnings and paid to the Inland Revenue Department.

The Tax Code Declaration also incorporates a Tax Deduction Certificate. This is returned to the employee on termination of employment or at the end of the financial year.

The certificate shows the following: income earned; tax deducted; back pay relating to earlier years; overtime hours worked; shifts worked; extra pays; superannuation deducted; and the period of employment.

This information is used when the employee fills out a tax return at the end of the tax year.

Annual Returns of Income—Most salary and wage earners file tax returns each year and over 80 percent of these receive refunds of overpaid tax. Refunds can arise as a result of exemptions and rebates being claimed which are not allowed for in the Tax Code Declaration, or of the wage earner having been employed for part of the year only.

Most salary and wage earners use the return form IR 5. It is required to be completed and sent to the Inland Revenue Department by 7 June. Salary and wage earners are assessed on their total taxable income, less any deduction for expenses and special exemptions. Rebates and the taxes previously paid are deducted from the tax assessed to give either a refund or further tax to pay. For more about exemptions and rebates see later pages.

All Other Individuals—Individuals who are self-employed, in partnership, or who receive income from investments pay provisional tax. Provisional tax is payable in instalments; generally in two payments, one in September and the other in the following March. Provisional tax is calculated using as a base the income received during the previous year.

Provisional taxpayers use form IR3 which is required to be furnished by 7 September. Expenses are deducted from the gross business or investment income and tax is calculated on the net income less any special exemptions. Credit is given for the provisional tax already paid and for any rebates. If there is an overpayment the taxpayer will receive a refund or credit against future tax. If insufficient tax was paid there will be further tax to pay.

Deductions for Expenses: Persons in Business, Shearers, Woolclassers, and Ministers of Religion—Expenses which are incurred in producing income, and relevant and incidental to deriving that income, may be claimed as a deduction from income. Expenses of a private, domestic, or capital nature are not deductible.

Salary and Wage Earners may claim 2 percent of salary or wages up to a maximum claim of $50 without receipts, or actual and reasonable income-related expenses supported by receipts or other appropriate evidence.

Special Exemptions—Special exemptions are deducted from the income before tax is calculate Special exemptions for the year ended 31 March 1978 are shown in the following table.

ExemptionAmount
School fees and charitable donationsUp to $200.
Life insurance, personal accident and sickness premiums paid for self, wife, or children, and superannuationThe amount paid or contributed up to a maximum exemption of—
 $800 if a member of an employer-subsidised superannuation fund for the whole year with proportionate increases if a member for only part of the year.
 $1,000 in other cases.

Rebates—Rebates are deducted from the total tax payable. Rebates for the year ended 31 March 1978 are shown in the following table.

RebateAmount
Personal$155
Wife/husband$156, decreases by 30 cents for each dollar by which spouse's income exceeds $520. Where spouse's income exceeds $1,040—no rebate allowable.
Single income familyAllowable to the principal income earner of a single income family with a child under 10 years of age. Also available to widows and solo parents with a child under 10. The rebate is $208 a year. It decreases by 30 cents for each dollar of a claimant's spouse's income in excess of $1,040 a year and is extinguished when the spouse's income exceeds $1,733.
Housekeeper (under certain circumstances)Limited to the smaller of 40 cents for each complete dollar of payments made; or $156
Dependent relativeLimited to the smaller of 40 cents for each complete dollar contributed to the support of a relative; or $156.
Back pay6 cents per $1 of back pay received which relates to a previous income year.
Overtime10 cents per hour for every hour of qualifying overtime worked.
Shift40 cents for each qualifying shift worked.
Young familyAllowable to principal income earner in a family with at least 1 child under 5 years of age. The rebate is $468 where the sole or principal income earner derives less than $7,800 per annum. Rebate decreases by 10 cents for each dollar of income over $7,800 per annum and is extinguished when the income reaches $12,480.
Special Home, Farm, or Fishing Vessel Ownership Account45 cents for each $1 of annual savings increase in Special Home, Farm, or Fishing Vessel Ownership account. Maximum rebatable savings are.:
 Home ownership—$2,000 per year (rebate $900).
 Farm ownership—$4,000 per year (rebate $1,800).
 Fishing vessel ownership—$4,000 per year (rebate $1,800).
Home vendor mortgage interest20 cents for each $1 of net interest received in respect of a "Home Vendor Mortgage", subject to a maximum rebate of $500. This rebate is in substitution for, and not additional to, the relevant interest exemption which would otherwise be available.

Rates of Tax—The following table shows the rates of income tax payable for the year ended 31 March 1978 on each dollar of taxable income. "Taxable income" is the income after deducting exemptions and expenses. A 5-percent rebate on tax applies from 1 February 1978, which equals a rebate of I of 1 percent when applied to the full year. When calculating tax for the year ended 31 March 1978 the cumulative totals in the following table should therefore be reduced by ⅚ of 1 percent.

Taxable IncomeRate per DollarCumulative Total
$  
Up to 2,00020.0400.00
2,001–2,50021.0505.00
2,501–3,00023.5622.50
3,001–3,50026.0752.50
3,501–4,00028.5895.00
4,001–4,50031.01,050.00
4,501–5,00033.51,217.50
5,001–5,50036.51,400.00
5,501–6,00039.51,597.50
6,001–6,50042.51,810.00
6,501–7,00045.52,037.50
7,001–8,00045.52,492.50
8,001–9,00048.02,972.50
9,001–10,00048.03,452.50
10,001–11,00049.03,942.50
11,001–12,00049.04,432.50
12,001–14,00050.05,432.50
14,001–16,00051.06,452.50
16,001–18,00052.07,492.50
18,001–20,00054.08,572.50
20,001–22,00057.09,712.50
Over 22,00060.0

Taxes for Visitors: Who is a Visitor?—Generally a person who comes to New Zealand and intends to stay less than 15 months is taxed as a visitor or non-resident. If he stays for a longer period he is normally deemed to be a resident for tax purposes. A person not resident in New Zealand is liable to New Zealand tax on income from New Zealand but not on income from outside New Zealand.

How the Visitor is Taxed—A visitor to New Zealand is taxed on income from a New Zealand employer for personal services while in New Zealand; income from an overseas employer for personal services in New Zealand (there are certain exemption periods which are outlined in the following paragraphs); and any other income from New Zealand sources.

Income From a New Zealand Employer—The employer deducts the tax from the salary or wages of a visitor in the same way as for a resident.

Special Exemptions and Rebates Allowable in an Annual Assessment—In an assessment the visitor is allowed a proportion of the rebates allowable to the New Zealand resident. The proportion is based on the amount of time spent working in New Zealand, e.g., present in New Zealand for 30 weeks of which 20 were spent working for wages, the proportion of personal rebate allowable is 20/52 of $155=$59.62. Visitors are not entitled to claim any special exemptions in respect of donations, school fees, life insurance, or superannuation payments.

Income from an Overseas Resident—A visitor (other than a public entertainer) who performs personal (including professional) services in New Zealand for an overseas resident is exempt from New Zealand tax if the length of the visit is not more than 92 days whether or not the period of the visit falls into one or more income years; the period in New Zealand in any one income year is 92 days or less, whether in one visit or several visits in the same income year; and the income is chargeable with tax in the country where the visitor normally resides.

Public Entertainers—Public entertainers are subject to a withholding tax of 20 percent on the gross income derived by them. This is a final tax unless the entertainer considers that the true rate will be lower. To be taxed at a lower rate a return of the income received and expenses incurred n New Zealand must be furnished.

Visitors from "Double Tax" Countries— Agreements to avoid double taxation have been entered into between New Zealand and Australia, Canada, Fiji, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.

A visitor from one of these countries who gets income for personal services in New Zealand from an overseas employer should refer to the relevant Agreement. Depending on the circumstances and the terms of the particular Agreement, the exemption period of 92 days could be extended.

Non-Residents: Who is an Absentee?—An absentee is a person whose home has not been in New Zealand during the income year but who derives income from a New Zealand source. An absentee is not entitled to any exemptions or rebates.

Withholding Tax on Non-residents— The Tax Act imposes a withholding tax on the following classes of income derived from New Zealand by non-residents—dividends, interest, royalties, and "know how" payments.

The rate of tax is 15 percent on the gross payments except for interest payments to Australian and Fijian residents (10 percent), and royalties paid to United Kingdom residents (10 percent).

It is a final tax on dividends, cultural royalties, and on interest except where the borrower and the lender are associated persons. On other royalties, "know how" payments, and interest where the payer and payee are associated persons, it is a minimum tax. A later assessment may be made if the rate of income tax on the income is greater than the withholding tax.

These provisions may be varied by the double tax agreements and the relevant agreement should be referred to.

Taxation of Companies—Companies in New Zealand are taxed in a different way to individual taxpayers.

The main differences are that—

  1. A company does not get any of the special exemptions or rebates which the individual taxpayer may claim.

  2. A company does not get the interest exemptions.

  3. Dividends received by a company incorporated in New Zealand are treated as "non-assessable" income.

  4. The rate of income tax is different.

New Zealand Companies: Income Tax— Resident companies pay tax on their income at the flat rate of 45 cents in the dollar.

Bonus Issue Tax— A special tax of 17½ cents in the dollar on the bonus issues made from income sources is levied on the company. Shareholders receive these issues tax-free.

Excess Retention Tax— Privately controlled New Zealand investment companies are liable for an "excess retention tax".

Excess retention tax is payable if the investment company does not pay a dividend equal to at least 40 percent of its tax-paid profits and 100 percent of its dividends from other companies.

The rate of excess retention tax is 35 cents in the dollar on any "insufficient distribution".

A refund of excess retention tax paid will be made, if in a later year, the investment company declares a dividend greater than the amount needed for that year.

Special Types of Companies—Differing methods of assessment apply to overseas shipping companies, life insurance companies, and certain types of mining companies.

Non-Resident Companies—Non-resident companies are taxed in the same way as resident companies except that they pay an additional tax of 5 percent of their income on top of the 45 percent rate payable by a resident company; income received from dividends, interest, royalties, and "know-how" is liable to a withholding tax of 15 percent (10 percent in the case of interest received by Australian and Fijian companies "and royalties received by United Kingdom companies). This is the final liability except for interest paid between associated persons, royalties (other than "cultural" royalties), and "know-how" payments, when there may be an end-of-year assessment.

These provisions may be varied by a double taxation agreement and the relevant agreement should be referred to. Special concessions apply to non-resident investment companies receiving dividends or interest from approved "development investments", and processors of minerals to the primary metal stage under a "special development project".

Incentive Legislation—There are tax incentives to help New Zealand's export drive and to encourage agricultural development, mining, fishing, winemaking, and other industries. Full details of these are obtainable from the Inland Revenue Department.

Property Speculation Tax—Property speculation tax is payable on the assessable profit derived from the sale of real property owned for less than 2 years.

Certain transactions are exempt from property speculation tax. These include properties which have been held for more than 2 years, properties acquired for personal residences or business premises and subsequently sold for purposes other than for realising a profit, properties in respect of which substantial development costs have been incurred, and properties which have been substantially renovated.

Rates of tax are set out below.

Where the Period between Date of Acquisition and Date of Disposition is.Rate of Tax on Assessable Profit
 Percent
6 months or less90
Exceeding 6 but not exceeding 9 months85
Exceeding 9 but not exceeding 12 months80
Exceeding 12 but not exceeding 15 months75
Exceeding 15 but not exceeding 18 months70
Exceeding 18 but not exceeding 21 months65
Exceeding 21 but not exceeding 24 months60

Land Tax—Land tax is assessed on the total "land value" of land owned at 31 March each year after allowing any special exemption. Both companies and individual taxpayers are liable to land tax which is due and payable on 7 October each year. The last day for payment is 7 November.

Various types of land, including land used solely or principally for farming or agricultural activities, and various land owners are exempt from land tax.

Special Exemption— The exemption is $175,000 reduced by $1 for every $1 by which the "land value" of the land exceeds $175,000. Thus no exemption is allowable when the "land value" exceeds $350,000.

Rates of Land Tax—Land tax is charged at a graduated rate according to the amount of the taxable balance after deducting any allowable special exemptions. These rates are as follows: 0.2 cents in the dollar up to $20,000; 0.4 cents in the dollar on excess over $20,000 up to $30,000; 0.6 cents in the dollar on excess over $30,000 up to $40,000; and 0.7 cents in the dollar on excess over $40,000.

Special Adjustments—There are special adjustments for absentee owners and in addition companies and estates can be subject to a special basis of assessment.

Estate Duty—Generally estate duty is a tax on the total net wealth of a deceased person. There is recognition, however, of the dependency which a widow, widower, or child may have on the estate and special exemptions and reliefs from estate duty are provided for. These are explained later.

Property Liable to Estate Duty—Estate duty is payable on the following: all property in New Zealand which passes under a deceased person's will or intestacy; all property outside New Zealand if the deceased was domiciled in New Zealand at the date of his death (relief is given if death duties have been paid overseas on the same property); and certain property, usually called "notional estate" which, although it doesn't pass under the will or intestacy, forms part of the dutiable estate. Examples of "notional" assets are gifts made within 3 years before death; property held by the deceased and another as joint tenants, except the joint family home; property disposed of by the deceased before death, but in such a way that income was received from it by the deceased during his lifetime; property in annuities or other interests, bought or provided by the deceased so that a beneficial interest in them, arises on his death; and policies of life insurance on life of deceased assigned to relatives within 3 years of death.

Rates of Estate Duty— Estates with a net value of $25,000 or less are exempt from duty. When the final value is between $25,000 and $27,000 the rate is 7 percent on the amount over $25,000. The rates then gradually increase according to the value of the estate, but the overall rate never exceeds 40 percent.

Examples of the duty payable when there are no special exemptions are shown in this chart.

Net Value of EstateAmount of Duty
$$
25,000Nil
35,000900
45,0002,300
55,0004,200
75,0009,300
95,00015,000
125,00024,300
175,00041,700
255,00072,200

Special Reliefs from Estate Duty: Widow/Widower Relief—The duty at scale rates is reduced by the duty on the lesser of the value of her or his succession, or the sum of $60,000.

Infant Child Relief— If property is left to infant children the duty payable at scale rates is reduced for each child by the duty on the lesser of the benefit received from the estate, or the sum of $1,000.

The allowance for infant children is in addition to that for the widow or widower.

Succession of Orphan Infant Child—The infant child relief is substituted by relief for the succession of orphan infant children where a child suffers the loss of both parents before attaining the age of 20. The relief is calculated on the same formula as for the widows relief. The table of rates is as follows:

AgeRelief for Child
Under 5$10,000
Over 5 but under 10$7,500
Over 10 but under 15$5,000
Over 15 but under 20$2,500

Quick Successions—It sometimes happens that a person who gets property from another estate dies shortly afterwards. The property to which he succeeded may then become liable to estate duty again. Relief is available if the second death is within 5 years of the first.

Special Exemptions from Estate Duty: Joint Family Homes—A home registered under the Joint Family Homes Act 1964 is excluded from the dutiable estate of the first spouse to die.

Matrimonial Home Allowance—Where the deceased had an interest in a matrimonial home (other than a joint family home) a matrimonial home allowance may be made if the home or other property passes to the surviving spouse.

Pensions from Superannuation Funds—These are excluded from the estate up to $2,000 per annum if payable to the deceased's spouse for the rest of his or her life or until remarriage.

Personal Chattels—The first $4,000 of furniture and personal effects is excluded from the dutiable estate.

Charitable Bequests—Bequests to charities of up to $25,000 are exempt from duty.

The leaflet Estate Duty, available from the Inland Revenue Department, supplies more information.

Stamp Duty—Stamp Duty is payable on documents, executed in New Zealand or elsewhere, affecting property situated, or to be situated, in New Zealand.

The rates of duty are shown in the chart below—

Type of DocumentRate of Duty
Transfer of
      – Mortgage, debenture, shares, share rights, mining rights40 cents for each $100 or part of $100 of the value of the property.
      – All other property including land$1 for each $100 or part of $100 of the value of the property. (Transfers involving people purchasing their first home or first farm, and transfers involving the sale of larger family houses by sole occupants or older persons to growing families and the subsequent purchase of suitable smaller accommodation, are only liable to duty of $1 as Deeds.)
Leases 
      – Rentals40 cents for each $100 or part of $100 of 1 year's rent.
      – Premiums, fines, consideration other than rent$1 for each $100 or part of $100 of the consideration.
Deed$1
Duplicate or counterpart40 cents
Cheques2 cents for each form or 5 cents for 3.

Gift Duty—Gifts, whether to one or more persons, are liable for gift duty if the total value exceeds $8,000 in any 12-month period. In some cases small gifts, or those made for charitable purposes or for the maintenance or education of relatives, are exempted from gift duty.

Examples

Total Value of Donor's Gift within 12 monthsAmount of Gift Duty
$$
8,000Nil
10,000180
12,000380
20,0001,380
24,0002,000
30,0003,080
36,0004,340
40,0005,280
Exceeding 40,0005,280 plus 25 percent of excess over $40,000

If gift duty has been paid and, on the death of the donor, the gift becomes liable to estate duty, the gift duty is credited to the estate or whoever paid the duty.

The net revenue received from estate duty and gift duty during each of the latest five years is given below.

Year Ended 31 MarchEstate DutyGift DutyTotal Estate and Gift Duties
 $(thousand)
197326,7141,85328,567
197431,0182,80433,822
197538,3602,75141,111
197650,5243,64454,368
197751,6972,99054,687

Taxation Review Authority—The Inland Revenue Department Act provides for the establishment of one or more authorities. There is at present only one authority. Every authority shall consist of one person who is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of not less than 7 years practice and is appointed by the Governor-General. The functions of the authority are to sit as a judicial authority for hearing and determining such objections to assessments of tax or duty or the decisions or determinations of the Commissioner as are authorised by the relevant legislation. A determination of an authority is subject to an appeal to the Supreme Court as to any question of fact where the tax or duty exceeds $1,000 and to any question of law.

ESTATES PASSED FOR DEATH DUTY—Particulars of certified estates of persons who died during the year ended 31 March 1975 are given in the tables following. Totals for the previous 2 years are appended. Estates of Maoris, other than hereditary interests in Maori land, are included.

The following table analyses the estates certified by size of estate value.

Size of Estate (Net Value)Estates of MalesEstates of FemalesTotal EstatesAggregate Net Value of EstatesEstate Duties Assessed
$(000) $(000) Number $(000)$(000)
Under 24244708941,092
2 and under 46325951,2273,671
4 " 66435751,2186,084
6 " 86094731,0827,558
8 " 105504159658,6471
10 " 125323108429,236
12 " 144112886999,11827
14 " 1639130669710,48098
16 " 1835727863510,812147
18 " 2033628061611,703223
20 " 2230826056811,905289
22 " 2428720248911,239319
24 " 306205491,16931,4041,212
30 " 406054911,09637,6751,981
40 " 5039127166229,4772,138
50 " 6030014544524,3392,091
60 " 7022312034322,1392,425
70 " 801516021115,7611,804
80 " 901225017214,5822,033
90 " 1001073514213,4192,013
100 " 1201472817519,1893,222
120 " 140933813116,9563,113
140 " 16073189113,5642,796
160 " 18053217412,5882,856
180 " 200455509,4242,296
200 and over1213515654,51816,358
       Total, 1974–758,5316,31814,849416,58047,442
       Total, 1973–748,1185,76513,883342,76937,613
       Total, 1972–737,6995,73113,430276,73226,232

The average net value per certified estate of persons who died during 1974–75 was $28,054 (males $32,275; females $22,355), compared with $24,689 (males $28,863; females $18,813) in 1973–74. Duty on estates of males amounted to $33.3 million and on estates of females $14.1 million, the respective figures for 1973–74 being $27.1 million and $10.5 million.

The law relating to death duties is contained in the Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968 which came into force on 1 January 1969. From 26 June 1969 the exemption for both a widow and a widower has been $40,000 and, from 29 July 1976, estates up to a value of $25,000 are exempt from duty.

The average amount of duty assessed within each of the various estate groups is now given. The rates of average duty to average estate value are also given.

Size of Estate (Net Value)Average Duty AssessedAverage Duty as Percentage of Average Value of Estate
Estates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined AverageEstates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined Average
$(000)$$$percentpercentpercent
Under 10
10 and under 12
12 " 142358380.20.40.3
14 " 161001911400.71.30.9
16 " 181503362310.92.01.4
18 " 202325183621.22.71.9
20 " 223477015091.73.32.4
22 " 244988716522.23.82.8
24 " 307681,3381,0362.85.03.8
30 " 401,3562,3621,8073.96.95.3
40 " 502,6934,0043,2306.09.07.3
50 " 604,0566,0254,6987.411.08.6
60 " 706,0269,0067,0689.314.011.0
70 " 807,63710,8468,55010.214.511.4
80 " 9010,86514,13911,81712.816.613.9
90 " 10012,83518,26314,17313.619.115.0
100 " 12017,60222,66318,41216.120.516.8
120 " 14021,94328,20623,76016.922.018.4
140 " 16029,72334,78430,72519.923.520.6
160 " 18036,10244,87938,59321.226.222.7
180 " 20045,55549,13245,91324.225.724.4
200 and over110,43585,593104,86130.428.330.0
      All estates, 1974–753,9052,2353,19412.110.011.4
      All estates, 1973–743,3341,8282,70911.59.711.0
      All estates, 1972–732,3811,3771,95310.08.59.5

A summary showing gross assets, notional estate, and debts and charges, classified in broad groups according to size of estate, is now given. This refers to the certified estates of persons who died during the year ended March 1975.

ItemSize of Estate (Net Value)All Estates
Under $6,000$6,000-$9,999$10,000-$19,999$20,000-$23,999$24,000-$39,999$40,000-$99,999$100,000-$199,999$200,000 and Over
Gross Assets—$(000), except average per estate $
      Cash5,0885,60713,2534,70913,43518,2967,6165,45873,461
            Average per estate1,5232,7383,7984,4555,9319,26314,61834,9854,948
      Furniture, effects, etc.5977781,7786081,6262,2981,0528019,537
            Average per estate1783805095757171,1622,0195,132642
      Farm stock, implements, etc.4449112344001,5393,1532,0937,425
            Average per estate132432321777796,05113,416500
      Private business interests421034141979994,4064,0221,79411,977
            Average per estate12501181874422,2337,71911,498807
      Assurance policies1,3661,4994,6001,7704,1547,2553,7561,28525,684
            Average per estate4087321,3181,6741,8343,6737,2088,2341,732
      Loans6181,5645,1472,0898,39320,75111,0627,95257,576
            Average per estate1857631,4741,9763,70510,50621,23250,9763,882
      Shares, stocks, etc.7101,0813,8441,3216,60618,09512,94713,82758,931
            Average per estate2125281,1011,7222,9169,16224,85088,6343,972
      Real property3,3134,92519,07110,91428,69437,41223,39416,055143,779
            Average per estate9932,4065,46610,32512,66818,94244,901102,9189,693
      Other property4066251,7266562,6764,9622,3291,91115,291
            Average per estate1213054946201,1812,5124,46912,2491,029
      Notional estate6761,4944,2611,3934,2667,4784,1342,86926,569
            Average per estate2017291,2201,3171,8833,7907,93418,3871,790
      Foreign property821534622379552,7432,8063,36610,803
            Average per estate24741312254211,3905,19321,575722
Debts—
      Unsecured1,2569661,9787761,9793,3212,3711,87814,515
      Secured8397071,34,15101,1452,2062,1771,0139,938
             Total2,0951,6733,3191,2863,1255,5174,5482,89124,453
            Average per estate6278179501,2161,3792,7938,72918,5341,647

Realty comprised 33.5 percent of gross New Zealand assets, while the proportion of cash was 17.1 percent.

In the following table deceased persons estates for 1974–75 are analysed by occupations.

Occupational GroupUnder $6,000$$$$$$Total
6,000 to 9,99910,000 to 19,99920,000 to 23,99924,000 to 39,99940,000 to 99,999100,000 and over

NOTE: In this table for the separate occupation classes, estates in any value group which has less than three in it have been included with the number for the value group below; where this was not possible no net estate distribution has been shown. As the full distribution for each occupation or value group has been given in the totals, this procedure means that in some cases the sum of individual groups will not agree with the totals.

 Number of Estates
Physical life scientists, technicians, etc.1318401331399163
Architects, engineers, technicians, aircraft and ships officers43346723584413282
Medical, dental, and related workers1712337193311132
Teachers, clergy and jurists21255616555822253
Artists, authors, athletes, sportsmen and related workers232223812795
Administrative and managerial workers806915174156240124894
Clerical and related workers14912625566125783802
Transport and communication workers46395820279199
Sales workers83681304779748489
Protective service workers, armed forces, etc.171237518105104
Housekeepers, cooks, waiters, maids, etc.35201461085
Caretakers, launderers, hairdressers, and related service workers23181984678
Farmers and farm managers119106229852695052901,603
Agriculture, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters6535721720144227
Miners, quarrymen, well drillers, etc.211213450
Metal and chemical processers111513410356
Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers, etc.2271361058
Food, beverage and tobacco processers593347101063168
Tailors, dressmakers, etc.781054539
Shoemakers and leather goods makers1031025
Machinery fitters, assemblers, instrument makers, electrical fitters and related electrical and electronic workers145831813886486587
Glass formers, potters, printers and related workers9810313952
Painters, bricklayers, carpenters and other related construction workers1349118451695819606
Stationary engine operators, material and freight handlers, transport equipment operators1701421754462274624
Labourers, and occupations not stated or 1,0411,6524981,1167051497,178
Total3,3392,0473,4881,0582,2651,97567714,849

RACING TAXATION—The Government taxation on totalisator turnover from 1 September 1976 is at the rate of 8.5 percent on gross on-course investments and 9.0 percent on gross off-course investments, subject to a rebate of 2½ percent on the first $100,000 of gross investments received by a club in any one year. Total deductions from gross on-course investments are as follows: (a) totalisator duty, 8.5 percent; (b) club or Totalisator Agency Board's commission, 7.5 percent in respect of win and

place dividends and 10.18 percent on doubles, quinella and trebles investments; (c) 0.5 percent levy for the purposes of the Stakes Subsidy Account; and (d) 0.5 percent levy for the purposes of the Amenities Account. In the case of special races, win and place investments, commission of 8 percent is deducted and on special doubles, quinellas, and trebles, commission of 10.68 percent is deducted, and in these cases the 0.5 percent levy for the Amenities Account is waived.

The Racing Act 1971 came into operation on 1 August 1972. Under this Act the ½ percent levy on gross turnover for racecourse improvements, and an additional ½ percent levy for supplementary stakes paid by clubs on specified races, are paid to the New Zealand Racing Authority for distribution to totalisator clubs. The Totalisator Agency Board pays its profits to the authority which determines its distribution to totalisator clubs.

The Minister of Internal Affairs granted totalisator licences for 458 days in the racing year 1976–77. Of these 458 days, 296 were allocated to racing and hunt clubs and 162 to trotting clubs.

The following table gives figures of totalisator duty, and the amount of turnover retained by clubs or the Totalisator Agency Board.

ItemYear Ended 31 July
19731974197519761977

*Retained by clubs and T.A.B.

 $(thousand)
Totalisator duty17,42320,02223,18027,93232,103
Amount of totalisator turnover retained by clubs or TA.B.17,44320,02923,02328,03532,657
Unpaid fractions*8169391,1351,2301,309
Amenities Account9991,1481,3271,4621,585
Stakes Subsidy Account1,0071,1541,3331,5111,832

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on 31 July.

ItemGallopingTrotting
197519761977197519761977
Racing days No.295295296161161162
Races No.2,6232,6462,6471,4471,4481,456
Stakes $(000)5,8796,2707,0252,8992,9813,470
      Average per race $2,2412,3692,6542,0032,0592,383
Totalisator Turnover—$(million)
      On course64.969.170.732.633.635.4
      With T.A.B.120.7153.3184.048.364.676.3
       Total185.6222.4254.780.998.2111.7
      Amount paid in dividends150.8180.6206.265.779.990.4

Totalisator turnover for the year ended 31 July 1977 rose by 14.3 percent, from $320.6 million in the previous year to $366.4 million.

26 C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS

GENERAL—The principal legislative measure which is concerned with public indebtedness is the New Zealand Loans Act 1953.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of New Zealand. No portion of the public estate is pledged for either principal or interest.

Whereas in 1934, 56 percent of the public debt was owing to overseas investors, the percentage has in recent years dropped as low as 12.5 percent, and at 31 March 1977 was slightly over 29 percent. Over 40 percent of the public debt is held by Government-owned institutions, and by reserve accounts set up for the benefit of the primary industries. Internal public debt as at 31 March 1977 comprised $4,462.6 million of the total public debt of $6,289.2 million.

Most of the present public debt was borrowed for national development. A National Development Loans Account was established within the Public Account, as from 1 April 1942, into which moneys for national development are paid. Moneys are transferred from this account as required, the amounts transferred during the last three years being given in Section 26A.

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT—Movement of the overseas public debt in recent years can be gauged from the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchLondon, Europe, etc.United States and World BankTotal Overseas Debt
New BorrowingsRepayments*Balance of DebtNew BorrowingsRepaymentsBalance of Debt

*Includes debt transferred to New Zealand register.

†Includes currency adjustments.

1NZ$(thousand)
197346,641111,890428,8864,60328,914135,095563,981
19745,94682,924351,9082,52024,313113,302465,210
1975348,86118,130682,64084,03917,230180,111862,751
1976517,77142,1151,158,295239,341114,544304,9081,463,203
1977393,895242,6931,309,496285,84973,646517,1111,826,608

A summary of movements in the public debt during 1976–77 is given in the following table.

ItemAmount
External DebtNZ$(million)
      Loans raised (gross value)—
            For national development—
                  Multi-currency credit agreement96.8
                  Swiss franc loans (2)96.9
                  Eurodollar loans (2)160.8
                  Deutschemark loan42.2
                  Dutch guilder loan31.5
                  Export-Import Bank of Japan4.5
                  Capital equipment credit arrangements—
                        Electric supply43.8
                        Health2.1
                        Railways15.4
                        State Services Commission3.5
 497.8
      For conversion (Swiss franc loan)..37.4
      For defence (U.S. and U.K. military credits)7.2
             Total value of securities issued542.4
            Increase in debt due to international currency realignments137.3
                  Gross increase679.7
      Loans redeemed— 
            Multi-currency credit agreement200.0
                  London12.4
                  Europe52.4
                  U.S.A.12.9
                  Japan6.8
                  World Bank7.6
                  Capital equipment credit arrangements13.7
                  U.S. military credits6.3
                  U.K. military credits4.2
                   Total securities redeemed316.3
                  Gross decrease316.3
      Net increase in external debt363.4
      External debt at 31 March 19761,463.2
      Outstanding at 31 March 19771,826.6
Internal Debt 
      Loans raised (gross value)— 
            For national development- 
            Public issues261.3
            Special issues161.3
 422.6
            Registered Treasury Bills589.1
      For loans redemption— 
            Special issues227.7
            Conversion issues— 
                  Public issues78.6
                  Special issues775.3
 853.9
            Gross increase2,093.3
      Loans redeemed— 
            Public issues27.8
            Special issues210.8
 238.6
            Registered Treasury Bills632.9
      Conversion cancellations— 
            Public issues78.6
            Special issues775.3
 853.9
                  Gross decrease1,725.4
Net increase in internal debt367.9
Internal debt at 31 March 19764,094.7
Outstanding at 31 March 19774,462.6

A detailed allocation of the public debt as at 31 March 1977 is now given.

Allocation of DebtLoan CapitalInterest on Loan CapitalEquity Capital*Total Allocation

*The following dividends have been received during 1976–77;
(a) Air New Zealand Ltd. $1,500,000.
(b) Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd. $952,000.
(c) Bank of New Zealand $3,355,000.
(d) New Zealand Steel Ltd. $499,47.7
(e) New Zealand Woolpack and Textiles Ltd. $40,025.

†Interest capitalised and payment deferred until such time as the industry has recovered its initial deficit and is operating profitably.

‡No interest charged 1976–77—position under review.

§Interest on loan capital remitted each year.

||Interest during construction to be capitalised.

¶Includes calibration aircraft $649,598.

(a) Loans and investments in trading undertakings—$(000)percent$(000)$(000)
      Air New Zealand Ltd.  40,00040,000
      Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand38,9008–10 38,900
      Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.6,60011,920 
      Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.1862,00020,706
      New Zealand Export-Import Corporation  2,0002,000
      New Zealand Steel Ltd.6,0009,987 
      New Zealand Steel Ltd.2,7507 18,737
      New Zealand National Airways Corporation5,0001014,00019,000
      Bank of New Zealand shares  12,65612,656
      Development Finance Corporation of New Zealand3,00011,825 
      Development Finance Corporation of New Zealand33,1676½-7¼ 47,992
      Offshore Mining Co. Ltd.28,7761030,000 
      Offshore Mining Co. Ltd.102  
      Offshore Mining Co. Ltd.29,6998 88,577
      Railways158,7506–10206,283 
      Railways (IBRD Railway projects)23,771Var.  
      Railways (Third Cook Strait Ferry)2,275  
      Railways (Fourth Cook Strait Ferry)6,550  
      Railways (North Island sleeper train)7006  
      Railways (G.E.C. Locomotives)15,307Var.  
      Railways (Silver Fern railcars)509  
      Railways (1500 L wagons)10,4528⅛  
      Railways (ISO containers)1,235  
      Railways (ZA wagons)5,286  
      Railways (guards vans)4,185  
      Railways (conversion of Aratika)4,876Var. 440,179
      Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Ltd.5,3617–812,21017,571
      Housing Corporation920,7286–8½ 920,728
      Housing account (Housing Corporation)590,5396–8½ 590,539
      Rural Banking and Finance Corporation516,7956–8½ 516,795
      State Coal Mines§40,3066–1015,000 
      State Coal Mines (Huntly project)7047 56,010
      Tourist Hotel Corporation11,1278–106,28117,408
      Electric power1,392,2136–10  
            Revenue money57,0006–10  
      Electric power (IBRD projects)26,7795½-6¼  
      Electric power (Linton substation)504Nil  
      Electric power (Marsden B power station)16,204  
      Electric power (New Plymouth power station)14,246  
      Electric power (Stratford/Whirinaki)25,787Var.  
      Electric power (Stratford power station)1,8718  
      Electric power (Huntly power station)29,494Var. 1,564,098
      Post Office486,2436–10 486,243
      Land settlement266,2076–8½  
            Revenue money8,0006–8½ 274,207
      Linen Flax Corporation§139§6–10 139
      IBRD Harbour projects5,076 5,076
      Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand||39,83010 39,830
5,217,391
(b) Not earning interest though represented by permanent assets or development works—
      Airport development   38,416
      Forests (State)   182,181
      General public works   433,931
      International finance organisations—
      Cash portion of subscriptions   22,021
(c) Non-productive debt—
Consolidated Revenue Account—
      Defence   26,180
      State Services Commission (EDP equipment)   5,197
      Reserve Bank indemnity   71,180
      Health (EDP equipment)   2,163
Currency adjustments   327,734
National Development Loans Account   8,333
Revenue money   10,000
Loans Redemption Account   19,518
6,364,245
Less total revenue money   75,000
Total public debt   6,289,245

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS—The gross indebtedness of the Central Government and the amount of indebtedness per head of population are given in the following table. Figures for previous years are shown in a table in the Statistical Summary.

At 31 MarchAmountPer Head of Population
 $(m)$
19723,1871,096.55
19733,5031,180.75
19743,7351,232.07
19754,2001,359.17
19765,5581,778.82x
19776,2892,002.75

INTEREST—The following table shows the payments of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchInterestInterest on Overseas Debt as Percentage of Export IncomeRecovery of Interest from Government Enterprises and InvestmentsNet Interest CostNet Cost as a Percentage of Total Taxation
OverseasNew ZealandTotal
 NZ$(thousand)
197338,318146,499184,8172.3118,97065,8473.4
197434,056166,266200,3221.9127,49872,8253.0
197541,309179,721221,0302.5145,62175,4092.6
197668,817201,196270,0133.1184,91385,1002.7
1977110,359256,678367,0373.5277,96389,0742.3

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT—The maturity years of the debt outstanding at 31 March 1977 are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between overseas and internal debt. All amounts shown may be regarded as being either in New Zealand dollars or in nominal amounts.

Loans Maturing in Financial Year Ending 31 March*DueTotal Debt (Nominal Amount)
OverseasNew Zealand
PublicDepartmental and Other

*In respect of many of the loans, the Government has the option to redeem the securities at an earlier date.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
197886,04445,178125,947257,169
197967,757128,796347,838544,391
1980417,302136,468148,489702,259
1981257,16053,297189,672500,129
1982201,443257,126211,358669,927
1983134,189120,384111,569366,142
1984236,83093,678143,188473,696
198536,922104,57340,065181,560
198651,55177,014311,346439,911
1987179,551151,577457,763788,891
198840,76657,03456,822154,622
198918,88138,79754,342112,020
199014,37092,55858,600165,528
199125,088172,20896,216293,512
199233,450149,705146,621329,776
199325,30324,997151,179201,479
1994..27,23578,438105,673
Registered Treasury Bills..2,560..2,560
       Total1,826,6071,733,1852,729,4536,289,245

OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC DEBT—As shown in the preceding table, a large proportion of the public debt outstanding is held by various Government departments and quasi-Government organisations. A summary of these investments for the latest three years is as follows.

StockholderAt 31 March
197519761977
 $(thousand)
Investments held by accounts within the Public Account20,9785,9765,971
Earthquake and War Damage Commission182,144208,144242,244
Government Life Insurance70,89180,09182,127
Government Superannuation Board301,987351,887388,187
Maori Trustee5,1642,2502,251
National Provident Fund55,81025,80927,109
Post Office833,228891,728953,728
Post Office: National Savings200200200
Public Trustee2,8762,8762,833
Reserve Bank302,015554,355884,632
Housing Corporation35,67945,19251,185
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation19,81520,81523,315
State Insurance Office8,3856,3858,385
Meat Industry Account67,25657,61157,286
       Total1,906,4282,253,3192,729,453

Chapter 28. Section 27 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The constitution and franchise of local authorities are described in Section 2, History, Government, and International Relations.

Local government is concerned with the provision of facilities for the population of a limited area, with finances levied from that area. The major authorities are city, borough, and county councils. These authorities raise money mainly by rates on property and by loans. They expend it on the provision of roads, water supply, sewerage, transport, recreational, and other services. Electric power boards and harbour boards, among the larger of the other local authorities, collect revenue from consumers or users in payment for the facilities or services provided.

Detailed statistics relating to each local authority, other than hospital boards, are contained in the Report on the Local Authority Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics. Hospital boards, which supply their returns to the Department of Health, are omitted from most of the statistics contained in this section. A special note is made where they are included, while summarised data relating to hospital boards will be found in Section 5B.

In general, the local authority year ends on 31 March. Exceptions are harbour boards (other than Greymouth) where the year ends on the preceding 30 September, the Hurt Valley Drainage Board and the Wellington Regional Water Board where the year ends on the last day of February, the Marlborough Forestry Corporation where the year ends on the last day of November, and the Marlborough Nassella Tussock Board where the year ends on the last day of December.

RATING—Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are, except where the assets purchased provide revenue to meet the loan charges, ultimately liquidated by rate revenues—known then as special rates. The law relating to the making and levying of rates is contained in the Rating Act 1967. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:

  1. General, for general purposes.

  2. Special rates imposed to secure the repayment of loan money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be; and

  3. Separate rates levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land and buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

There are three main systems of rating: (a) by capital (land and improvements) value; (b) by annual value; and (c) by unimproved value or land value (as values are revised, the unimproved values system is being phased out in favour of land valuation).

For rating on either the capital value or the unimproved value, the rating roll is based on the district valuation roll prepared by the Valuation Department. Where the rating is on the annual value, the local authority generally prepares its valuation roll on the basis of the valuations made by its own valuers. Separate rates require to be struck on the annual value, and when the annual value has not been entered in the valuation roll, the annual value is required to be taken as 6 percent of the capital value. Provision is made for the Valuer-General to act as a local authority valuer where an annual roll is to be prepared.

For Chatham Islands county, import and export dues are charged in lieu of rates on land. In the case of pest destruction boards the system normally used is by rating on an acreage basis, though occasionally some boards rate according to the number of sheep and/or cattle carried.

The system of rating normally attributed to a local authority is that applicable to the general rate, but it is stressed that, in many instances, subsidiary rates of the local authority are levied in accordance with other systems.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities in 21 tax areas covering the country to levy a local authorities petroleum tax at the rate of 1, 2, or 3 cents a gallon on motor spirits and 0.8, 1, or 1.5 cents a gallon on diesel fuel delivered in a tax area. All tax areas voted to levy the tax at the maximum rate mostly from 1 February 1971. The proceeds of any tax imposed may be applied to projects for the benefit of the region or distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenue. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of ratepayers.

With harbour boards, two types of rates are applicable, namely: (a) harbour improvement rates, based on so much per ton of cargo by weight or measurement; and (b) harbour rates on rateable property, which are levied according to the system of rating in force by each of the local authorities within the harbour boards' rating areas. However, the Rating Act 1967 gives to harbour boards the power to have a system of rating different from that in force in all or some of its constituent local authority districts.

RATING BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Total rate receipts have remained as a relatively constant percentage of gross national product, national income, and private disposable income, despite short term fluctuations. This is shown in the following table.

Financial Year ended 31 MarchRates and Levies*Annual IncreaseRates and Levies as % of GNPRates and Levies as % of N.I.Rates and Levies as % of P.D.I.

*Includes water rate.

 $(m)PercentPercentPercentPercent
195536.511.31.962.282.67
196051.55.52.122.482.81
196577.213.02.212.573.01
1970108.18.22.262.663.23
1972126.37.12.022.352.86
1973148.517.62.112.442.91
1974153.83.61.781.912.49
1975192.225.02.052.362.98
1976236.623.12.172.492.97

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The sources of revenue of all local authorities including electric power boards, are shown by broad classes in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRates. Levies, Fines, etc.*Grants from Central and Local GovernmentSales of Commodities and Services incl. Water RatesOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts

*Includes rates other than water rates $168,576, and other taxes, fines etc. $26,480 in 1975 and rates, $207,150, and other taxes, fines, etc., $29,063 in 1976.

 $(000)
1974167,69176,738383,98233,240661,651
1975195,056100,928429,00739,023764,014
1976236,213115,206488,44341,728881,590

Rates were equivalent to $70.54 per head of population in 1974–75 and to $84.89 per head during 1975–76.

A fairly large proportion of the receipts of urban local authorities result from the sales of commodities or services, for instance, sales of electric power and gas, and fares collected for public transport.

The payments of all local authorities during each of the latest 3 years has been as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchLabour and Related CostsPurchases of Commodities and ServicesAil InterestOther PaymentsTotal Payments
 $(000)
1974202,090301,49942,48238,172584,244
1975237,014367,44446,28656,529707,274
1976285,899415,62552,00759,355812,886

Receipts and payments of various classes of local authorities during 1975–76 are shown below.

Receipts

Local AuthorityRates, Levies, Fines, etc.Grants from Central and Local GovernmentSales of Commodities and ServicesOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts
 $ (thousand)
City and borough councils167,47430,886155,49920,748374,607
County councils50,98331,16319,7815,205107,132
District councils1,0893908141652,459
Electric power boards4532177,1661,999179,701
Harbour boards67616652,6495,94459,435
Regional authority76016,11621,3503,93142,157
Urban drainage boards6,5551,9816234069,565
Catchment boards4,0126,6602,5941,39414,660
Fire boards1921,01150026521,795
Pest destruction boards2,0353,5881611455,929
Urban transport boards1,5971052,5362964,534
Other local authorities1,0092,60854,7701,23059,617
       Total236,213115,206488,44341,728881,590

Payments

Local AuthorityLabour and Related CostsInterestPurchases of Commodities and ServicesOther PaymentsTotal Payments
 $ (thousand)
City and borough councils116,27221,293156,87027,868322,303
County councils32,0403,78157,0604,50897,389
District councils868821,219692,238
Electric power boards43,2666,425127,44411,100188,235
Harbour boards30,8778,17317,3996,50862,957
Regional authority17,0485,9597,8151,88132,703
Urban drainage boards3,1632,1741,7031067,146
Catchment boards5,6804243,51545310,072
Fire boards16,5524122,72294220,628
Pest destruction boards3,346312,0871895,653
Urban transport boards3,0941387703264,328
Other local authorities13,6933,11537,0215,40559,234
       Total285,89952,007415,62559,355812,886

TERRITORIAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The following table shows total receipts and payments of territorial local authorities for the years ended 31 March 1975 and 1976. The local authorities petroleum tax introduced in March 1971 produced $17.8 million in 1974–75 and $17.9 million in 1975–76 for the general purposes of territorial authorities.

Item1974–751975–76
 Receipts $(million)
Rates and grants in lieu155.3191.9
Other taxes and fines26.228.7
Grants and contributions from Central Government51.361.6
Grants and contributions from local authorities15.317.1
Sales of main product86.1102.7
Other commodities and services83.294.8
Interest7.48.2
Miscellaneous current receipts20.821.9
       Total445.6526.9
 Payments $(million)
Labour and related costs137.5166.3
Interest paid26.931.2
Levies and grants to Central Government and local authorities26.624.3
Bulk purchase for resale39.144.6
Other commodities and services166.3178.7
Other current payments9.010.0
      Sub-total405.4455.1
      Less capitalised payments25.624.5
       Total379.8430.6

A wide variety of public utilities and amenities are provided by territorial local government, the main activities being electricity supply, water supply, roading, sewerage, drainage, and refuse collection. The table below shows the current receipts and payments for a number of selected activities for the years ended 31 March 1975 and 1976.

Excluded from the figures are sales and purchases of fixed assets and repayment of loan monies.

Activity1974–751975–76
ReceiptsPaymentsReceiptsPayments
 $(million)
Electricity supply52.547.761.055.8
Passenger transport18.520.027.024.1
Water supply33.234.641.038.4
Road construction and maintenance62.372.096.590.0
Refuse, sewerage, and drainage25.735.041.539.3
Abattoirs5.85.87.36.6
Libraries5.57.49.39.3
Parks and domains12.818.525.723.6

Many of the services provided are also trading undertakings. Generally speaking, territorial local authorities are restrained from operating trading undertakings that are particularly profitable. Public transport undertakings, which are usually a substantial burden upon ratepayers, are particularly unprofitable. The only major exception is electricity distribution from which a few territorial local authorities make surpluses.

Grants and Subsidies—A substantial portion of local authority revenues is derived from grants and subsidies, especially those from the National Roads Board. Notes on some of these grants and subsidies are given below.

National Roads Board—The finance available from the National Roads Fund represents an important source of revenue for territorial local authorities. (See section 12D.)

Forest Service Fifths—The New Zealand Forest Service distributes to territorial local authorities grants equal to one-fifth of net revenue received from the sale of timber, and in the case of national endowment land, one-tenth of net revenue from the sale of timber.

Water and Sewerage Subsidies—From 1960 until 1969 a sewage treatment subsidy was available to local authorities with populations of less than 20,000. In 1969 this scheme was replaced by a more comprehensive water and sewerage subsidy scheme administered by the Department of Health, which provided assistance towards certain loan repayments on existing works and towards the capital costs of new works. There was a subsidy limit of $100,000 for any one project. Up to 31 March 1972 $5.9 million had been approved in respect of this and the earlier scheme. In 1972 the subsidy limit was abolished. In 1974–75 water and sewerage subsidies totalled just over $8 million compared with $4.5 million the previous year.

Rural Water Supply Scheme—The Rural Water Supply Scheme is administered by the Ministry of Works and Development and provides for subsidies towards the cost of piped water supply to rural areas. As from December 1974 the Government subsidy rate has been $1 for $1.

Housing for the Elderly—Since 1950 this form of housing has been recognised as being, in the main, the responsibility of local authorities, with the Government providing the necessary finance through subsidies and long-term concessional loans. The cost of flats for the elderly is met by a $3,500 loan per flat, with the balance of the approved cost provided by subsidy. During the year ended 31 March 1975 some 618 flats were completed and the subsidy totalled $4,849 million. During the 5 years 1971 to 1975 the total subsidy was $10.6 million.

Urban Renewal—Grants for urban renewal have been available for local authorities since 1945. Since the passing of the Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act in 1969 a number of local authorities have exhibited a renewed interest in urban renewal projects. In 1974–75 the total was approximately $539,000.

Civil Defence—A dollar-for-dollar subsidy towards some items of civil defence costs is paid by the Ministry of Civil Defence.

Rural Electricity Distribution—The Rural Electricity Reticulation Council has since 1947 provided subsidies towards the cost of rural electricity distribution lines. The chief beneficiaries have been power boards, but small amounts have been paid to territorial local authorities.

Noxious Weeds Eradication—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates the subsidy scheme on the cost of noxious weeds eradication.

Urban Passenger Transport—Municipal and private urban passenger transport operators receive subsidies based on the heavy traffic licence fees they pay. The annual payments are approximately $1 million. The scheme is administered by the Ministry of Transport.

Local Authorities Petroleum Tax—Local authorities receive a tax of 3c per gallon on petrol and 1.5c on diesel fuel. For 1975–76 this tax produced $17.9 million, compared with $17.8 million in 1974–75.

BORROWING—Under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Authorities Loans Board.

As a general rule local authorities may raise a loan by special order and without a poll of ratepayers, but in the case of a local authority that is a rating body, a poll of ratepayers is to be taken if—

  1. The Local Authorities Loans Board requires a poll to be taken; or

  2. Before the date fixed for the meeting of the local authority to confirm the resolution to raise the loan not less than 5 percent of the ratepayers demand a poll; or

  3. The local authority itself decides to take a poll.

A poll cannot be required in cases such as renewal loans, loans raised for emergency expenditure 6y reason of flood, storm, earthquake, etc., or loans for work of national and local importance and carried out by an agreement between the Government and a local authority.

Where a poll is required it shall be deemed to be carried if a bare majority of the valid votes recorded is in favour of the proposal. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospitals Act 1957 a hospital board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow. Harbour boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour works from special empowering legislation and similar authority is given for the capital works of certain other local authorities.

The Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 places the determination of rates or interest in the hands of the Local Authorities Loans Board, subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance of the maximum rate.

The interest rates current on and from July 1977 are as follows: 1 year, 9.5 percent; 2 years, 10.0 percent; 3 years, 4 years, and 5 years, 10.25 percent; 6 years and over, 10.5 percent.

Loans Sanctioned, Authorised, Raised, and Uplifted—The following summary of the operations of the Local Authorities Loans Board during 5 recent years shows concisely the trend of local authority borrowing during that period. Hospital boards and the Fire Service Commission are included.

YearValue of Total ApplicationsSanctioned
New WorksRedemption Loans
 $(million)
1972–73170.0x110.821.4
1973–74262.0x183.816.0
1974–75358.9285.129.3
1975–76441.7297.021.2
1976–77259.7168.120.2

The following table shows loans authorised during year ended March 1977, with amounts raised and uplifted to 31 March 1977 on these authorisations.

Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised Year Ended 31 March 1977Amounts Raised to 31 March 1977Balance Not Raised at 31 March 1977Amounts Uplifted to 31 March 1977
 $(thousand)
Territorial
      Cities and boroughs60,78716,94143,84616,752
      County councils12,7555,2337,5224,142
      District councils2,0345341,500408
      Regional authority3,2421,3341,9081,334
      Town districts5251151
Other$(thousand)
      Catchment districts1,3871491,238149
      Electric power and gas boards24,4958,52315,9728,443
      Harbour boards34,60215,15619,44615,156
      Harbour bridge authority48542461424
      Pest destruction boards888888
      Urban drainage boards7,7011,9845,7171,984
      Urban transport boards164164
      Valley authority4032815
             Total147,83250,44997,38348,946

The following table shows comparative debt figures. Hospital boards are included.

Year Ended 31 MarchAmounts Sanctioned by Loans BoardGross Indebtedness at Beginning of YearAmount UpliftedPrincipal RepaidGross Indebtedness at End of Year
$(thousand)
1972146,500746,85695,94259,830782,969
1973132,200782,969129,27247,929864,312
1974199,700864,312132,70179,211917,802
1975314,400917,802161,70592,439987,067
1976318,200987,067196,31277,3341,106,045

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross public debt of local authorise and the annual charge thereon for the latest 5 years.

At 31 MarchGross Public DebtAnnual Loan Charge
AmountRate Per HeadAmountRate Per Head
 $(000)$$(000)$
1972667,086229.2567,60323.23
1973722,431242.8673,54924.73
1974787,397258.7793,70830.77
1975840,843271.19107,61334.71
1976933,671298.36103,98333.23

In the following table gross public debt is classified by types of local authority. It should be noted that the debt of electric power districts shown in the following table does not represent the complete local authority debt on account of electric power activities, since a considerable portion of the city and borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose.

At 31 MarchCities, Boroughs and Town DistrictsCountiesElectric Power DistrictsHarbour DistrictsUrban Drainage DistrictsUrban Transport DistrictsOther DistrictsTotal
 $(thousand)
1972277,31253,62876,269121,51134,0651,974102,328667,086
1973300,36361,32985,628127,70935,5712,194109,637722,431
1974321,07770,57395,113136,89335,9132,134125,694787,397
1975355,66867,983101,941140,48636,9862,171135,608840,843
1976397,45878,295116,271148,49839,6372,345151,167933,671

Chapter 29. Section 28 INCOMES AND INCOME TAX

Table of Contents

GENERAL—Particularly in times of relatively rapid inflation, comparisons between money incomes in different years should be made with caution. To be meaningful, comparisons should be made in terms of effective or real income, i.e., money in relation to the costs of goods and services. However, it is not easy to measure these changes as there is no one index that adequately gives a measure of the changing purchasing power in all circumstances. This is because the purchasing power of money is conditional to a large extent on the patterns of expenditure out of income, and these may and do differ substantially from person to person.

The elements of individual and company income and the taxation requirements of a modern welfare state are closely related. Statistics of incomes and income tax are compiled annually by the Department of Statistics. Complete details and methods of compilations are given in the annual statistical report on Incomes and Income Tax.

TREND OF INCOMES: Individuals—The data required for statistical compilation of incomes do not become available for a lengthy period after the end of the income year. This, coupled with the necessary time taken by the statistical processing, means a long time lag before final results of the compilation are available. To meet this situation provisional estimates are made on the basis of a restricted sample. Most of the tables in this section are presented on this basis.

The following table gives data for the principal sources of incomes of individuals.

Source of Total IncomeIncome Years
1974–75x1975–76x1976–77
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
Self-employment— $(m) $(m) $(m)
      Agriculture and livestock production—
            Sheep farming24,000140.424,000184.823,900246.2
            Dairy farming25,500136.425,200139.925,000162.5
            Other farming22,000110.022,300129.322,500146.2
       Total, farming71,500386.871,500454.071,400554.9
      Manufacturing6,50037.06,50042.66,40048.0
      Construction15,700116.215,700128.015,500141.0
      Wholesale and retail trade11,80073.211,90080.911,90090.4
      Transport4,70029.54,80032.44,90039.1
Services-
            Professional9,810165.810,060191.110,230204.4
            Other11,00055.011,20065.511,45075.6
      All other industries8,50038.18,50042.38,50047.4
       Total, self-employment139,510901.6140,1601,036.8140,2801,200.8
Salary and wages1,430,0005,879.91,450,0006,770.61,465,0007,811.4
Investment incomes103,000301.1102,000330.5105,000367.2
      Grand total1,672,5107,082.61,692,1608,137.91,710,2809,379.4

The estimates for 1975–76 showed an increase of $67.2 million in the incomes of all farmers, with the incomes of sheep farmers showing an increase of $44.4 million, while the incomes of dairy farmers and other farmers increased by $3.5 million and $19.3 million respectively. In 1976–77 the estimated incomes of sheep farmers increased by $61.4 million while the incomes of dairy and other farmers increased by $22.6 million and $16.9 million respectively.

The estimate of the incomes of the non-farming section of self-employed individuals showed an increase of $67.7 million in 1974–75 followed by increases of $68.0 million and $63.1 million in 1975–76 and 1976–77 respectively.

The following table shows an analysis by the amount of total income for the three major sources (self employment, salary and wages, and investment incomes) combined.

ALL SOURCES

Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1974–75x1975–76x1976–77
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income

*An "unknown" group has been included to cover cases still under investigation mainly because of problems in matching tax deduction certificates for broken periods of work; this applies to salary and wage earners with incomes of less than $2,600 who were not required to furnish a return of income. This group has been provisionally estimated at a fixed value of $36.0 million for the years 1974–75 to 1976–77 inclusive on the basis of past experience.

$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)5,1603,9003,450
1–999282,500141.2245,500122.7237,900118.9
1,000–1,19937,40041.129,50032.522,50024.7
1,200–1,39933,40043.426,10033.920,50026.6
1,400–1,59934,40051.626,80040.219,00028.5
1,600–1,79934,00057.726,80045.519,80033.6
1,800–1,99937,40071.029,10055.221,50040.8
2,000–2,19943,70091.734,30072.024,30051.0
2,200–2,39942,10096.834,50079.424,80057.0
2,400–2,59941,700104.233,50083.724,20060.4
2,600–2,79941,700112.535,80096.723,40063.2
2,800–2,99940,200116.633,80098.023,50068.2
3,000–3,19944,000136.337,800117.227,40084.9
3,200–3,39938,500127.032,700107.825,40083.8
3,400–3,59937,700131.931,600110.525,30088.5
3,600–3,79937,000136.931,700117.224,20089.5
3,800–3,99944,600173.943,800170.932,500126.7
4,000–4,39994,800398.199,700418.7100,200420.8
4,400–4,79999,700458.6109,800505.1111,600513.4
4,800–5,19988,500442.5100,600503.0108,400542.0
5,200–5,59977,800420.188,500477.995,000512.9
5,600–5,99971,000411.784,500490.090,850526.9
6,000–6,39965,000403.078,500486.787,400541.8
6,400–6,79951,600340.562,200410.572,100475.9
6,800–7,19944,100308.759,500416.577,300541.1
7,200–7,59935,050259.444,250327.457,950428.6
7,600–7,99930,700239.442,250329.657,050444.9
8,000–9,99972,200649.891,300821.7112,2001,009.8
10,000–11,99928,900317.939,150430.650,100551.1
12,000–13,99910,800140.416,300211.925,500331.5
14,000–15,9997,300109.510,100151.518,400276.0
16,000–17,9995,38091.58,150138.613,800234.6
18,000–19,9993,77071.65,20098.810,130192.5
20,000–39,9998,800248.812,650359.319,200546.3
40,000–59,9991,14054.61,65079.82,520121.4
60,000 and over51046.766060.993085.6
Unknown*36.036.036.0
Total1,672,5107,082.61,692,1608,137.91,710,2809,379.4

The next table provides an analysis of the incomes of self-employed individuals by income group

SELF-EMPLOYED PERSONS

Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1974–75x1975–76x1976–77
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)3,0002,1001,500
1–9999,5004.77,5003.75,9002.9
1,000–1,1991,9002.11,8002.01,1001.2
1,200–1,3991,9002.51,4001.81,1001.4
1,400–1,5992,4003.61,6002.41,2001.8
1,600–1,7992,5004.22,1003.51,4002.4
1,800–1,9992,4004.51,6003.01,3002.4
2,000–2,1992,7005.62,1004.41,6003.3
2,200–2,3993,1007.12,3005.31,8004.1
2,400–2,5992,7006.72,3005.71,7004.2
2,600–2,7992,5006.72,4006.51,7004.6
2,800–2,9993,1009.02,6007.52,1006.1
3,000–3,1993,50010.83,0009.32,3007.1
3,200–3,3993,0009.92,9009.52,3007.6
3,400–3,5993,30011.53,10010.82,5008.7
3,600–3,7993,60013.33,40012.52,90010.7
3,800–3,9993,50013.63,50013.73,00011.7
4,000–4,3996,30026.46,70028.16,00025.2
4,400–4,7996,70030.86,3002.9.05,80026.7
4,800–5,1996,30031.56,10030.55,60028.0
5,200–5,5995,80031.36,00032.45,80031.3
5,600–5,9995,40031.35,70033.05,70033.0
6,000–6,3994,50027.94,70029.15,20032.2
6,400–6,7994,20027.74,50029.75,00033.0
6,800–7,1994,30030.14,50031.55,00035.0
7,200–7,5994,30031.84,30031.84,70034.7
7,600–7,9993,90030.44,20032.84,70036.6
8,000–9,99910,40093.612,300110.713,800124.2
10,000–11,9997,10078.18,3009.1.310,100111.1
12,000–13,9994,20054.65,60072.86,70087.1
14,000–15,9992,90043.53,60054.04,80072.0
16,000–17,9992,10035.72,80047.63,40057.8
18,000–19,9991,60030.42,00038.02,90055.1
20,000–39,9994,300113.86,000159.88,500225.3
40,000–59,99946022.465032.590044.9
60,000 and over15014.521020.628027.4
       Total139,510901.6140,1601,036.8140,2801,200.8

The incomes of salary and wage earners are analysed by income group in the following table.

SALARY AND WAGE EARNERS

Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1974–75x1975–76x1976–77
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income

*An "unknown" group has been included to cover cases still under investigation mainly because of problems in matching tax deduction certification or broken periods of work; this applies to salary and wage earners with incomes of less than $2,600 who are not required to furnish a return of income. This group has been provisionally estimated at a fixed value of $36 million for the years 1974–75 to 1976–77 inclusive on the basis of past experience.

$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)1,100730950
1–999247,000123.5214,000107.0209,000104.5
1,000–1,19931,00034.124,00026.418,00019.8
1,200–1,39927,00035.121,00027.316,00020.8
1,400–1,59928,00042.022,00033.015,00022.5
1,600–1,79927,00045.921,00035.715,00025.5
1,800–1,99930,00057.023,00043.716,00030.4
2,000–2,19936,00075.628,00058.819,00039.9
2,200–2,39934,00078.227,00062.118,00041.4
2,400–2,59935,00087.527,00067.518,00045.0
2,600–2,79936,00097.230,00081.018,00048.6
2,800–2,99934,00098.628,00081.218,00052.2
3,000–3,19938,000117.832,00099.222,00068.2
3,200–3,39933,000108.927,00089.120,00066.0
3,400–3,59932,000112.026,00091.020,00070.0
3,600–3,79932,000118.427,00099.920,00074.0
3,800–3,99939,000152.138,000148.227,000105.3
4,000–4,39985,000357.089,000373.890,000378.0
4,400–4,79990,000414.0100,000460.0102,000469.2
4,800–5,19980,000400.092,000460.0100,000500.0
5,200–5,59970,000378.080,000432.086,000464.3
5,600–5,99964,000371.277,000446.683,000481.4
6,000–6,39959,000365.872,000446.480,000496.0
6,400–6,79946,000303.656,000369.665,000429.0
6,800–7,19939,000273.054,000378.071,000497.0
7,200–7,59930,000222.039,000288.652,000384.7
7,600–7,99926,000202.837,000288.651,000397.8
8,000–9,99960,000540.077,000693.096,000864.0
10,000–11,99921,000231.030,000330.039,000429.0
12,000–13,9996,00078.010,000130.018,000234.0
14,000–15,9994,00060.06,00090.013,000195.0
16,000–17,9993,00051.05,00085.010,000170.0
18,000–19,9992,00038.03,00057.07,000133.0
20,000–39,9994,000120.06,000180.010,000300.0
40,000–59,99960028.290042.31,50070.5
60,000 and over30026.437032.655048.4
Unknown*36.036.036.0
       Total1,430,0005,879.91,450,0006,770.61,465,0007,811.4

The next table gives corresponding data for individuals whose incomes were principally derived from investment, i.e., from interest, rents and royalties, "estate" income, and also company dividends if there was no other major source of income.

INVESTMENT INCOMES

Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1974–75x1975–76x1976–77
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)1,0601,0701,000
1–99926,00013.024,00012.023,00011.5
1,000–1,1994,5004.93,7004.13,4003.7
1,200–1,3994,5005.83,7004.83,4004.4
1,400–1,5994,0006.03,2004.82,8004.2
1,600–1,7994,5007.63,7006.33,4005.7
1,800–1,9995,0009.54,5008.54,2008.0
2,000–2,1995,00010.54,2008.83,7007.8
2,200–2,3995,00011.55,20012.05,00011.5
2,400–2,5994,00010.04,20010.54,50011.2
2,600–2,7993,2008.63,4009.23,70010.0
2,800–2,9993,1009.03,2009.33,4009.9
3,000–3,1992,5007.72,8008.73,1009.6
3,200–3,3992,5008.22,8009.23,10010.2
3,400–3,5992,4008.42,5008.72,8009.8
3,600–3,7991,4005.21,3004.81,3004.8
3,800–3,9992,1008.22,3009.02,5009.7
4,000–4,3993,50014.74,00016.84,20017.6
4,400–4,7993,00013.83,50016.13,80017.5
4,800–5,1992,20011.02,50012.52,80014.0
5,200–5,5992,00010.82,50013.53,20017.3
5,600–5,9991,6009.21,80010.42,15012.5
6,000–6,3991,5009.31,80011.22,20013.6
6,400–6,7991,4009.21,70011.22,10013.9
6,800–7,1998005.61,0007.01,3009.1
7,200–7,5997505.69507.01,2509.2
7,600–7,9998006.21,0508.21,35010.5
8,000–9,9991,80016.22,00018.02,40021.6
10,000–11,9998008.88509.31,00011.0
12,000–13,9996007.87009.180010.4
14,000–15,9994006.05007.56009.0
16,000–17,9992804.83506.04006.8
18,000–19,9991703.22003.82304.4
20,000–39,99950015.065019.570021.0
40,000–59,999804.01005.01206.0
60,000 and over605.8807.71009.8
       Total103,000301.1102,000330.5105,000367.2

In the 3 years covered in the above table, persons with certain types of investment income were not required to complete income tax returns unless they were normally in receipt of income from self-employment or were applying for refunds. Returns were not required if:

  1. all income was from dividends and was less than $1,480 in 1974–75, $1,530 in 1975–76 and $1,560 in 1976–77.

  2. all income was from interest or building society dividends (after exemption), rents, royalties, or a share in an estate or trust and was less than $750 in 1975–76, and $775 in 1976–77.

  3. all income was from universal or national superannuation.

These changes affect the numbers of returns in the table.

Average and median incomes have been estimated from a restricted sample on a provisional basis. The averages are based on total income derived from all sources and not on income from self-employment alone or salary and wages income alone. Incomes of self-employed persons include an element of interest return on capital investment, as well as a reward for the person's own efforts.

The following table gives estimates of average and median incomes of self-employed persons in selected industries.

SELF-EMPLOYED PERSONS

Type of Self-employmentIncome YearIncome Year
1974–75x1975–76x1976–771974–75x1975–76x1976–77

*Arithmetic mean.

 Averages* $Medians $
Agriculture and livestock production—
      Sheep farming5,8507,70010,3004,8006,2508,250
      Dairy farming5,3505,5506,5004,6004,8005,650
      Other farming5,0005,8006,5003,9004,5004,900
Manufacturing5,7006,5507,5004,6505,4006,050
Construction—
      Builders8,1508,5509,7006,6007,1007,300
      Building ancillary trades6,7007,6008,4005,9006,5006,900
Wholesale and retail trade6,2006,8007,6005,1505,6506,500
Transport—
      Road passenger5,2005,5006,1005,0505,3505,900
      Road freight7,7508,40010,4006,8507,4008,800
Services, professional—
      Medical practitioners (including surgeons, specialists, and physicians)22,55025,50024,60019,65022,00021,500
      Dental practitioners16,00015,45019,90015,25018,10018,700
      Legal practitioners18,50021,40022,80016,45018,65021,500
      Chartered accountants15,30016,75018,20013,15013,70014,600
Services, other5,0005,8506,6003,7504,2004,700

Companies—The provisional estimates of assessable income for companies are given in the next table. They are calculations based on the income trends revealed by a small sample of returns. The sample is confined to those income returns which are available at an early date. Companies with balance dates later than 30 June would be almost completely unrepresented in the sample.

The estimates are given with the warning that the figures are subject to a possible considerable margin of error and should therefore be used with caution.

Industry Group1974–75x1975–76x1976–77
Number of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income
  $(m) $(m) $(m)
Agriculture and livestock production6,85018.37,10023.87,40027.7
Manufacturing11,500319.611,900365.212,400410.3
Construction7,05051.97,55058.47,85056.2
Commerce—
      Wholesale and retail trade20,500316.521,000346.721,500391.3
      Other21,100228.822,000259.223,000300.7
Transport, storage, and communication2,75022.32,80026.32,85031.4
Services6,25026.66,50031.26,70035.9
All other industries9504.99804.31,0004.3
       Total76,950988.979,8301,115.182,7001,257.8

FINAL DATA ON INCOMES—As stated at the beginning of this section, final data on incomes do not become available until a considerable time after the end of the income year. The previous tables in this section are all provisional estimates based on restricted samples of tax returns. The summary tables following show final figures, with 1973–74 as the latest year. Final figures are published in detail in the annual report Incomes and Income Tax, published by the Department of Statistics.

In the case of individuals, the statistics are in normal years substantially based on a 5 percent sample for all incomes of less than $12,000; there is a complete enumeration of all incomes of $12,000 and over. The data for companies are derived from a complete enumeration.

The broad principle adopted in calculating the assessable income is that any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of assessable income for any year may be deducted from the total income from any assessable source for that year. Depreciation is allowed, varying rates for different classes of assets being fixed. The assessable income is approximately equivalent to the net profit as determined by the normal commercial accounting systems after the deduction of special taxation incentive allowances. Before the deduction of these allowances it is on the whole, rather higher than the commercial net profit, since certain types of expenditure which are regarded as a revenue charge in commercial accounts are not permissible deductions for income tax purposes.

Capital profits are not assessable and capital losses are not deductible.

Classes of Taxpayers—"Individuals" comprise all assessments for individual persons. Partnership returns are ignored in the compilation, as the individual shares of partnership income are included in the individual tax assessments. The incomes of deceased persons' estates are not included, as the greater part of these are transferred to assessments of the beneficiaries.

The term "companies" not only covers companies incorporated under the Companies Act and other Acts relating to the formulation of companies, but also includes associations (incorporated or unincorporated), and aggregations of individuals (other than partnerships) which form separate and distinct entities for income tax purposes. Government departments which are liable to pay income tax are included, but most local and public authorities are not taxable even in respect of their trading operations, and consequently are not included in these statistics.

Summary—The following tables summarise the main items of information for income years.

INDIVIDUALS

YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersTotal IncomeExemptions*Taxable Income*Income Tax Assessed

*From 1969–70 exemptions and taxable income were estimated where incomes and tax data were derived from tax deduction certificates. The special exemption of $135 for each child was reduced to $35 for 1972–73 and repealed as from 1 April 1973.

   $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1969–701,414,3501,296,9503,273,720781,9202,470,480524,330
1970–711,460,8201,359,6403,805,600842,4202,944,670689,290
1971–721,517,4901,420,4904,457,350892,9503,551,250873,810
1972–731,574,4601,487,1805,124,480830,3304,279,1201,021,900
1973–741,650,3701,566,0306,087,800834,8305,236,0001,295,890

COMPANIES

YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersAssessable Income*Returnable IncomeIncome Tax Assessed

*In ascertaining assessable income any expenditure exclusively incurred in the production of the income for the year may be deducted.

   $(000)$(000)$(000)
1969–7062,97045,066622,795682,066278,426
1970–7166,52247,476660,701737,473292,654
1971–7268,63948,408672,955738,591271,100
1972–7371,30450,299861,553942,853352,996
1973–7474,32052,5601,032,6871,132,121423,695

A strict comparison of the figures for any year with those of another is not possible, as changes in compilation practice and numerous amendments in income tax law have affected the comparability of the figures.

The next table shows some additional data concerning companies which relate to the income year 1973–74.

Industry GroupStocks at End of PeriodIncomeExpenditureGross Profit
Sales and ServicesInterest and RentsPurchasesSalaries and WagesInterest and RentsDepreciation
 $(million)
Agriculture and livestock production88.8345.55.388.680.524.818.9187.4
Forestry, hunting, and fishing1.737.60.4...11.41.63.319.4
Mining and quarrying2.778.20.5...16.34.74.8...
Manufacturing—
      Food, beverages, and tobacco266.42,386.67.51,572.2297.225.744.5419.6
      Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear127.0582.84.0304.8136.816.011.0164.8
      Metals and metal products274.91,573.34.6966.0298.839.035.2395.8
      Other368.52,116.811.01,081.7435.445.069.4639.4
Construction147.41,096.65.5519.3255.515.425.7284.6
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1.614.10.15.93.30.80.94.0
Commerce—
      Wholesale and retail1,185.78,722.647.46,803.5721.5137.971.11,544.7
      Other52.6785.6585.561.0204.6238.131.5...
Transport, storage, and communication4.7651.53.543.4187.518.049.6...
Services, community and business, and recreation20.0522.19.9176.5162.926.319.2139.3
       Total 1973–742,541.918,913.4685.311,623.02,811.7593.3385.13,798.8
      1972–732,064.815,853.3554.59,720.72,382.7494.9323.43,229.5
      1971–721,874.813,292.5492.07,958.82,076.8425.2282.22,606.0

One point which should be noted is that the purchases figures have not been given for the forestry and mining industry groups. It was found that there was a considerable lack of uniformity in such data for these two groups, which was probably connected with differing treatments of royalty and equivalent payments.

The amount of gross profit shown in the accounts is used in these statistics, despite the wide variations in the conceptions of gross profit. No attempt has been made to secure uniformity of calculation for individual companies, but of course the total gross profit for each industry should correspond with that industry's average conception of gross profit. In some industries, such as the transport industry, it is not normal practice to calculate gross profit, and in some cases the gross profit is recorded in these statistics as nil. Estimates of the amount of gross profit were, however, made when any company did not calculate the gross profit, and it was the custom of the industry concerned to show this figure.

The abridged version of the full industry classification for which data are given in this publication does not reveal the individual industries where the gross profit is not generally calculated. Apart from "Mining and quarrying", "Commerce—other", and "Transport, etc.", there are a number of industries included in "Services, community" which do not show gross profit.

Companies with Overseas Affiliations—Two types of companies operating in New Zealand but subject to some degree of overseas control have been identified. The two types are:

  1. branches of overseas organisations operating in New Zealand;

  2. New Zealand-registered companies with 25 percent or more of their equity shareholding subject to overseas control.

The second category includes not only companies in which overseas residents have a 25 percent or greater shareholding, but also companies which are subject to this degree of control without themselves having any overseas owners. For instance, if a New Zealand company was 50 percent owned by another New Zealand company, which itself was 50 percent overseas owned, the company would qualify as having 25 percent overseas control. These are generally termed "second generation" companies.

Overseas companies whose only New Zealand income is from investments, patent rights, royalties, copyrights, and the like, are not included in the 1,494 companies selected, as they are not considered to be active in the New Zealand economy. Also excluded are those overseas companies such as air and shipping lines, which enjoy exemption from New Zealand income tax under the terms of double taxation agreements with their own countries.

The 25 percent minimum equity criterion used to classify objectively a New Zealand company as subject to some degree of overseas control, approximates the definition of international private direct investment used by such organisations as the International Monetary Fund. Although the measure of overseas control of New Zealand firms varies according to a great number of circumstances, a minimum holding of 25 percent does provide a consistent and practical criterion for determining its presence.

In the following table, four significant values for the 1,494 overseas controlled companies are shown in industry groups both as absolute values, and as percentages of the totals for all companies assessed for income tax in the 1973–74 income year. The figures for assessable income (and, incidentally, for shareholders' funds) indicate that overseas-affiliated companies are, on average, larger units than are wholly New Zealand controlled companies. On the other hand it must be remembered that the New Zealand companies include Government trading departments which may follow profit policies different from private sector companies and for which capital values are not included in shareholders' funds. The figures would also suggest that there is some concentration of branches and subsidiaries of overseas companies in the four manufacturing groups and mining and quarrying; these industries offer scope to large concerns with access to capital and technical expertise.

Industry GroupNumber or ReturnsAssessable IncomeIncome Tax AssessedSalaries and WagesDividends Paid

*Companies with overseas affiliations.

†All New Zealand companies including those with overseas affiliations.

‡Percentage of companies with overseas affiliations to all New Zealand companies.

   $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Agriculture and livestock production, forestry, hunting, and fishingOverseas*293581582,89812
 All N.Z.7,12326,3619,89391,9294,829
 Percent0.41.41.63.20.2
 Overseas*434391341,0771,470
Mining and quarryingAll N.Z.3592,9101,11716,3392,269
 Percent 12.015.112.06.664.8
Manufacturing—food, beverages, and tobaccoOverseas*5821,5799,71470,1864,873
 All N.Z.94881,25736,490297,24325,776
 Percent6.126.626.623.618.9
Manufacturing—textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textilesOverseas*317,4603,33119,6871,452
 All N.Z.98135,95615,818136,7778,121
 Percent3.220.721.114.417.9
Manufacturing—wood, paper and chemical products, and miscellaneous manufacturingOverseas*23050,47622,674108,88315,232
 All N.Z.3,921155,65768,937435,35349,939
 Percent5.932.432.925.030.5
 Overseas*16330,76013,80465,2314,357
Manufacturing—metals and metal productsAll N.Z.5,25081,51135,031298,75711,927
 Percent3.137.739.421.836.5
 Overseas*291,0194846,968155
ConstructionAll N.Z.6,58142,61717,246255,4784,432
 Percent0.42.42.82.73.5
 Overseas*
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary servicesAll N.Z.753511443,281343
 Percent
 Overseas*37493,78742,132118,53015,148
Commerce—wholesale and retailAll N.Z.20,090335,078145,500721,49962,230
 Percent1.928.029.016.424.3
 Overseas*42390,21629,76297,40416,113
Commerce—otherAll N.Z.20,314225,60974,922204,57975,423
 Percent2.140.039.747.621.4
 Overseas*451,58772628,994175
Transport, storage, and communicationAll N.Z.2,64021,1388,854187,5367,125
 Percent1.77.58.215.52.5
 Overseas*692,6061,1337,604155
Services—community, business and recreationAll N.Z.6,03824,2439,742162,9245,149
 Percent1.110.711.64.73.0
 Overseas*1,494300,288124,051527,46259,143
All industriesAll N.Z.74,3201,032,687423,6952,811,694257,564
 Percent2.029.129.318.823.0

CENSUS 1976: INCOMES OF INDIVIDUALS—The following statistics on incomes were compiled from a representative sample of personal questionnaires from the Census of Population and Dwellings taken on 23 March 1976.

The table divides into income groups the persons actively engaged in the labour force and also the total population, including those not actively engaged in employment.

The question asked for income for the year ended 31 March 1976 from all sources without deduction of taxes, superannuation, life insurance, rates, etc. Social welfare benefits (age, family, etc.) and war pensions were not included.

Income GroupPersons Actively EngagedTotal Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
 $
Nil- 99924,90042,48067,380659,3301,098,0201,757,350
1,000–7,99971,300123,190194,490105,290200,720306,010
3,000–3,99985,59085,300170,89094,65097,480192,130
4,000–4,999128,86067,350196,210134,59074,010208,600
5,000–5,999160,30048,710209,010164,22052,670216,890
6,000–6,999111,64020,560132,200113,97022,530136,500
7,000–7,99981,89010,26092,15083,25011,13094,380
8,000–8,99957,2304,64061,87058,2605,35063,610
9,000–9,99935,2002,08037,28035,9002,71038,610
10,000–14,99965,8703,08068,95067,5404,59072,130
15,000 and over28,9401,10030,04029,6901,78031,470
      Not specified9,8405,81015,65010,6208,00018,620
       Total861,560414,5601,276,1201,557,3101,578,9903,136,300

Persons actively engaged but with relatively small incomes would include considerable numbers of school leavers who began work late in 1975 or in early 1976 as well as persons unemployed but seeking work, and those assisting relatives without pay.

In the following table incomes of actively engaged persons from the population census on 23 March 1971 are related to highest levels of educational attainment or attendance. Comparable data from the 1976 Census are not yet available.

Highest Formal Educational QualificationIncome GroupTotal Incl. Not Specified
Under $1,000$1,000-$2,999$3,000-$5,999$6,000-$7,999$8,000 or over

*Most members of this group have attended secondary school.

University degree or diplomaM1,2825,17316,3176,6218,13337,721
 F9993,0943,4753041448,057
University Entrance or higher secondary
 M3,01016,79328,4535,1063,82057,386
 F4,74119,1005,4741116329,675
School Certificate (incl. endorsed)M4,45730,59628,3382,0121,37367,149
 F9,07637,2224,245627251,244
Other secondaryM9728,17119,8612,2041,39832,816
 F3,26112,2612,381884818,262
Primary, nil and not specified*M25,748260,103257,29218,00816,637589,897
 F60,656145,85812,670614592226,628
Totals, actively engagedM35,469320,836350,26133,95131,361784,969
 F78,733217,53528,2451,179919333,866

Income Earners in Each Household—An analysis of income earners in each household was made from a representative sample of questionnaires from the Census of Population in 1976. For this analysis an income earner was defined as one who received $500 or more a year, excluding social welfare benefits, universal superannuation, and war pensions. A summary of the analysis is given in the following table.

Number of OccupantsNumber of Households with—Total Households
No Income Earners1 Income Earner2 Income Earners3 Income Earners4 Income Earners5 or more Income Earners
158,95091,720150,670
245,17089,040129,840264,050
39,32059,82054,04028,910152,090
44,88077,67058,27020,15010,120171,090
52,93046,18037,75013,4306,5502,250109,090
61,49019,88017,2607,7403,8201,99052,180
76107,5706,5403,8202,0001,21021,750
83503,0303,0601,8301,09070010,060
9 or more3502,0802,0201,6201,1301,1608,360
Total124,050396,990308,78077,50024,7107,310939,340

Chapter 30. Section 29 BANKING AND CURRENCY

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The core of the New Zealand banking system comprises a central bank (the Reserve Bank of New Zealand) and five commercial or trading banks. There are also 12 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank, while each trading bank has had a private savings bank since 1 October 1964. In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call—virtually a system of cheque issuing. Particularly during the 1960s, an expansion in the size and scope of near-banks (or non-banking financial institutions) was a feature in New Zealand as in many other countries, but this trend has been reversed to some extent in recent years. Report No. 10 of the Monetary and Economic Council, The New Zealand Financial System, published in March 1966, presents a comprehensive description of the financial and credit system, arid Report No. 24, published in December 1972, reviews further developments in the financial system.

RESERVE BANK—The Reserve Bank was originally established in 1933 as a privately-owned institution, but became a fully State-owned institution in 1936. A brief survey of its historical development was included in this section in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks. The 1933 Act establishing the Bank was the culmination of proposals ranging back to 1886 that a central bank or a State trading bank should be set up in New Zealand. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 and amendments provided the Reserve Bank with powers in line with modern central banking practice and monetary policy. It provided the Government and the Reserve Bank with flexible authority to take such monetary action as might be appropriate to the times with respect to any financial institution.

Functions of the Bank—Section 8 is the most important section in the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act. As amended in 1973, it restates the primary functions of the bank, its basic relationships with Parliament, the Government, and the Minister of Finance, and lays down the criteria for Government monetary policy. The section reads:

  1. The primary functions of the bank shall be—

    1. To act as the central bank for New Zealand; and

    2. To ensure the availability and conditions of credit provided by financial institutions are not inconsistent with the sovereign right of the Crown to control money and credit in the public interest; and

    3. To advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking, and overseas exchange; and

    4. Within the limits of its powers, to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated in writing to the bank under subsection (2) of this section, and to any resolution of Parliament in relation to that monetary policy.

  2. For the purposes of this Act, the Minister may from time to time communicate to the bank the monetary policy of the Government, which shall be directed to the maintenance and promotion of economic and social welfare in New Zealand having regard to the desirability of promoting the highest degree of production and trade, and full employment and of maintaining a stable internal price level.

  3. The bank shall, as directed by the Minister, regulate and control on behalf of the Government—

    1. Money, banking, banking transactions, any class of transactions of financial institutions, credit, currency and the borrowing and lending of money;

    2. Rates of interest in respect of such classes of transactions as may from time to time be prescribed;

    3. Overseas exchange and overseas exchange transactions.

  4. The bank shall make such loans to the Government and on such conditions as the Minister decides from time to time, in order to ensure the continuing full employment of labour and other resources of any kind.

The Bank also has a number of subsidiary functions including:

  1. Banking functions for the Government, Government trading organisations, and the primary

  2. produce marketing authorities as well as for the trading banks.

  3. Management of the note and coin issue.

  4. Management of public and local authority debt.

  5. Management of foreign exchange reserves.

  6. The administration of various acts including the Overseas Investment Act 1973, the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948, and the Private Savings Banks Act 1964.

  7. The administration of various regulations including the Companies (Limitation of Distributions) Regulations 1976, the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974 (as applied to financial institutions), and the Limitation of Directors' Fees 1976, as well as regulations concerning the trustee and private savings banks and the public sector securities requirements of other financial institutions.

  8. Maintaining relations with international organisations such as IMF, IBRD and OECD.

  9. Economic research.

Whilst the bank must give effect to Government monetary policy, or to resolutions of Parliament related thereto, the directors are given a fair degree of independence and responsibility in the carrying out of the policy laid down, and in the management of the bank and the conduct of its business.

The exercise of the Reserve Bank's powers is at the discretion of the directors, but the consent of the Minister of Finance is required in certain special cases. The consent of the Governor-General in Council is required before the bank can engage in trade or have a direct interest in any commercial, industrial, or financial institution, or purchase, or lend against, the shares of a trading bank or financial institution. The Government is required to entrust to the bank, and the bank to undertake, free of charge to the Government, all Government banking transactions.

The Reserve Bank has 10 directors, comprising the Governor, the Deputy Governor, the Secretary to the Treasury, and seven other directors appointed by the Governor-General in Council.

Bank Notes—The bank retains the sole right of issue, and has authority for the calling in, with the consent of the Minister, of any note or series of notes issued by the bank. Notes called in cease to be legal tender, but remain a liability of the bank. Provisions covering the defacing of bank notes and their reproduction or imitation without the prior consent of the bank are in the Reserve Bank Act.

Overseas Exchange—Part IV of the Reserve Bank Act 1964 deals with overseas exchange and other transactions affecting the overseas resources of New Zealand. The bank has the authority to fix the actual exchange rates used in its operations, and may also prescribe or approve rates of exchange to be used by other persons in foreign exchange transactions. In December 1968 an amendment to the Act gave the Minister of Finance the right, after consultation with the Governor, to determine the par value of the New Zealand dollar in terms of the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund. The Governor, with the prior consent of the Minister, may temporarily suspend dealings in foreign exchange.

In recognition of the fact that the holding of external reserves is dependent on aspects of economic policy and conditions beyond the control of the Reserve Bank, its duty is described as "to endeavour, within the limits of its powers, to maintain, in addition to any holdings of gold, an adequate level of overseas reserves". The bank keeps the Minister of Finance informed of the overseas exchange position and prospects, and of the level of overseas exchange reserves it regards as adequate. To assist it in carrying out this duty to hold reserves, the bank has a statutory power to require trading banks to sell to it their foreign exchange holdings in excess of maximum amounts prescribed by the Reserve Bank.

Comprehensive permissive provisions for exchange control regulations are set out in Part IV of the Act, as are provisions for regulations covering dealings in gold.

Regulation of Banking and Credit—In Part V of the 1964 Act, trading banks are required to make monthly returns to the Reserve Bank detailing their principal liabilities and assets. Statutory authority has been provided for obtaining such subsidiary returns and other information from trading banks as the Reserve Bank may require.

There is complete flexibility, subject to the approval of the Minister, in the application of reserve ratios or assets ratios. The trading banks may be required to hold balances at the Reserve Bank or to hold assets of a specified kind including balances at the Reserve Bank. The minimum requirements may be laid down as a percentage of deposit liabilities or of assets, as a percentage of parts of such deposit liabilities or assets, or as percentages of both, or in any other manner. Different percentages may be laid down for different classes of deposit liabilities or assets. Under earlier legislation, the minimum requirements could not be reduced below 7 percent of demand plus 3 percent of time liabilities; there is now no minimum.

The Reserve Bank is authorised to give directions to trading banks as to the policy to be followed in relation to advances, discounts, and investments and in relation to rates of interest or discount.

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act 1973 extended the controls previously exercised over the trading banks to include all financial institutions. The Amendment Act provided the monetary authorities with forms of control over non-bank financial institutions including the power to make recommendations or give directives, to specify rates of interest, to require the holding of specified assets, and to inspect books and request information. Fuller information on instruments of monetary control and their operation is given later in this section.

Statistics collected from finance companies, the short-term money market, the commercial bill market, life assurance companies, stock and station agents, and all savings banks appear regularly in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Bank Profit—The Bank's profit increased from $3.8 m in 1976 to $16.9 m in 1977, mainly through greater income from exchange transactions, a higher level of deposits held by the Bank for International Settlements, and a reduction in losses from the realisation of securities. Overseas debt servicing costs rose but these were partially off-set by an increase in interest on New Zealand investments.

Payment to Government in terms of Section 40 of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1965 was $6,907,440.76.

The indemnity arrangement between the Reserve Bank and the Government in the event of an exchange rate adjustment was re-enacted in 1973 in an amended form because the section of the Act was not adequate to deal with the new situation of floating exchange rates. The latest amendment enables the indemnity arrangement to be adjusted in the event of any prolonged floating of any one or more of the major currencies. While a currency is "floating" or has been allowed to depart from its declared I.M.F. parity but the requisite formalities to establish a new parity have not been completed, the Minister of Finance now has the power to declare a basic rate between that currency and New Zealand currency for the purposes of making a settlement between the bank and the Government.

Liabilities and Assets—Details of the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank at the end of June for the latest 3 years, and weekly averages for calendar years are shown in the following tables.

LIABILITIES OF RESERVE BANK

YearBank NotesDemand DepositsOther LiabilitiesTotal Liabilities
StateMarketingBanksOther
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
1975343.5136.316.826.6350.3309.41,182.9
1976382.8145.022.412.4466.7357.01,386.3
1977414.9164.933.411.4538.1455.61,618.4
At End of June
1975331.1119.214.543.6346.9363.71,219.0
1976367.5110.419.10.1472.1320.91,290.1
1977405.2155.037.015.2542.5438.31,593.1

ASSETS OF THE RESERVE BANK

YearGoldOverseas AssetsInvestments in New ZealandAdvances in New ZealandAll Other Assets in New Zealand
Short-termInvestmentsSpecial Drawing RightsStateMarketing OrganisationsOther Advances and Discounts
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
19750.7108.1139.93.0322.0164.8340.138.466.0
19760.7178.853.49.9583.393.9x369.636.460.7
19770.7166.755.725.8796.9113.3377.134.447.8
At End of June
19750.7135.5114.90.5258.8272.6369.719.447.1
19760.7148.437.16.5564.011.8416.226.878.5
19770.7201.468.324.7779.947.9407.129.733.6

TRADING BANKS—There have been trading banks in New Zealand since the early days of settlement and they have conducted their business according to the general principles which have long been traditional in British banking institutions. With the exception of the Bank of New Zealand, which became a fully State-owned bank with the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act 1945, the banks are owned by private shareholders. New Zealand has a branch banking system with nearly 1,100 branches and agencies in New Zealand and a world-wide network of agents and correspondents. The general business of banking is governed by the Banking Act 1908. Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act 1908 and the Cheques Act 1960 are the law relating to cheques drawn on a bank.

Banks accept deposits from the public for either a fixed term or on an "on demand" basis. Fixed term or time deposits bear interest, but unlike demand deposits cannot be operated on by cheque. Cheques drawn on current accounts are efficient and widely used instruments for the settlement of commercial and private debts. The fundamental principle of bank advances policy is to confine advances as far as possible to financing customers' current trade or seasonal requirements. The major form of bank lending to customers is still by way of overdraft but term lending, mainly for medium terms of from 2–5 years, has grown rapidly from approximately 3 percent of total bank lending in December 1971 to 32 percent in December 1977.

With the enactment of the Private Savings Banks Act 1964 the trading banks established savings banks from 1 October 1964 on a similar basis to that of the Post Office Savings Bank, offering ordinary, investment, thrift club, home lay-by, and special purpose accounts.

There are five trading banks in New Zealand, two of these institutions—the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand Limited—being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of New Zealand, although the National Bank was domiciled in the United Kingdom until recently. The other three banks—the Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Limited, the Bank of New South Wales, and the Commercial Bank of Australia Limited—are predominantly Australian institutions.

The close Australian affiliations of the Australian banks operating in New Zealand resulted in the past in an interlocking between the Australian and New Zealand financial structures, the separation of New Zealand business being one of the major motives leading up to the founding of the Reserve Bank.

The 5 trading banks jointly own a computer company, Databank Systems Ltd. Databank had a national network of computer centres operating by the end of 1969. This network handles the daily operations of the banks, including the clearing of cheques.

Bank of New Zealand—The Bank of New Zealand became a wholly State-owned trading bank on the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act in 1945. At 31 March 1977 it had 222 branches and 192 agencies in New Zealand, a branch and an agency in London, 3 branches in Australia, and 6 branches in Fiji. It also has representative offices in Japan and Singapore, owns 50 percent of the shareholding of the Bank of Western Samoa and holds 20 percent of the capital of the Bank of Tonga. In addition, in common with other trading banks, it operates a savings bank. A finance company promoted by the bank commenced operations on 1 April 1966, and a separate merchant bank was established in 1973. These two companies merged in mid 1977 to form a new company in which the Bank retains the 40 percent shareholding it held in the two separate companies.

Trading income (including income from investments) of the Bank of New Zealand, during the year ended 31 March 1977, was $78.9 million compared with $66.0 million the previous year. Of this total of $78.9 million, operating expenses took $63.2 million and provision for taxation $8.3 million, leaving a net profit of $7.5 million compared with $5.9 million in 1975–76.

The total assets of the Bank as at 31 March 1977 amounted to $1,956.1 million. Among the main items were advances, bills discounted, and sundry debts ($1,305.2 million), Government and local body securities ($332.9 million), and cash on hand, items in transit, and deposits with bankers ($202.8 million). Bank properties and equipment were valued at $64.9 million. The principal item of liabilities was deposits at $1,764.8 million.

Liabilities and Assets of Trading Banks—Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of certain liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. Monthly averages for the latest 3 calendar years and figures as at the last Wednesday in June are given in the next table.

SELECTED LIABILITIES OF TRADING BANKS*

YearLiabilities in New ZealandLiabilities Outside New ZealandTotal Liabilities
DepositsOther Liabilities
DemandTime

*Trading bank business only, excludes liabilities of savings bank subsidiaries, shareholders' funds, capital liabilities to overseas head offices, contingencies, interbank accounts, and transit items within New Zealand.

$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19751,139.51,042.540.073.22,295.2
19761,305.81,329.160.484.52,779.8
19771,340.01,772.971.2107.83,291.9
At End of June
19751,149.4979.656.072.02,257.0
19761,353.91,329.375.584.92,843.6
19771,357.21,775.343.1112.13,287.7

SELECTED ASSETS OF TRADING BANKS

YearCoinReserve Bank NotesDemand Deposits Held in Reserve BankOverseas AssetsInvestmentsLoans*Other AssetsTotal Selected Assets

*Includes advances, discounts and term lending but excludes interbank lending.

†Includes interbank lending, land and buildings.

$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
19755.265.022.1143.3452.21,611.8114.82,414.4
19765.568.914.1183.7666.31,814.5141.32,894.3
19775.770.1224.4638.82,342.2160.43,441.6
At End of June
19755.355.343.6138.2413.81,594.4125.32,375.9
19765.062.3199.1736.01,780.6140.72,923.7
19775.262.915.2243.5639.62,350.1141.43,457.9

Deposits and Advances of Trading Banks—The weekly averages of total deposits (together with the amount per head of mean population), and of total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits for each of the latest 3 calendar years, are given in the following table.

YearDepositsAdvances
Not Bearing Interest*Bearing InterestTotal*Per Head of Mean PopulationTotal AmountRatio to Deposits

*Including Government deposits.

†Exclusive of transfers by the Bank of New Zealand to its Long-term Mortgage Department but includes advances, discounts and term loans.

  $(m) $$(m)percent
19751,038.21,134.52,172.7703.821,612.674.2
19761,193.01,420.72,613.7x838.75x1,808.769.2
19771,231.11,870.53,101.5991.622,342.575.5

The following diagram illustrates the movements that have occurred in deposits and advances, the figures used, as in the earlier table, being the weekly averages for calendar years.

TRADING BANKS - DEPOSITS AND ADVANCES

Interest rates on trading banks advances are given in the following table.

Rate Charged PercentPercentage of Total Advances at Each Rate at 31 March
1974197519761977
Less than 643.244.039.05.6
6 and less than 727.632.425.27.4
7 and less than 8   41.4
8 and less than 929.223.635.819.3
9 and over   26.4
Weighted average6.1.6.016.107.73

The maximum permitted average interest rate on bank overdrafts was 6 percent from 31 August 1965 until 3 March 1976, when the restrictions on overdraft rates were abolished. This control had been in operation since early in World War II.

An analysis of overdrafts and term lending by the New Zealand trading banks is given in the following table.

Group13 March 197412 March 197510 March 19769 March 19778 March 1978
1. Farming, forestry, hunting, and fishing—  $(million)  
      (a) Mainly dairy farming40.943.245.751.958.2
      (b) Mainly sheep farming42.253.450.454.470.0
      (c) Other farming43.853.257.574.790.3
      (d) Farm services10.813.213.517.420.2
      (e) Forestry, hunting, and fishing7.78.69.113.520.0
            Sub-total145.4x171.5x176.1x211.8258.8
2. Mining and quarrying2.92.63.64.94.5
3. Manufacturing—
      (a) Dairy companies, factories, etc.13.420.321.928.131.3
      (b) Freezing works, meat companies, etc.195.2195.6206.2266.4273.6
      (c) Other food, beverages, and tobacco32.149.450.557.364.2
      (d) Textiles, footwear, and clothing30.134.740.064.858.9
      (e) Pulp and paper and paper products18.723.432.125.837.0
      (f) Metal products, machinery, and engineering70.285.880.3112.6142.2
      (g) Transport equipment23.128.923.127.765.4
      (h) Other manufacturing80.3115.291.6128.7147.5
            Sub-total463.1x553.2545.7711.5820.2
4. Construction68.171.082.6113.9117.7
5. Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services3.96.28.64.74.0
6. Transport, storage, and communication31.534.038.645.059.4
7. Commerce, trade, and finance—
      (a) Wholesalers, mainly importers47.368.4101.371.982.5
      (b) Wholesalers, other29.531.933.146.258.5
      (c) Retailers76.681.597.8141.8154.1
      (d) Woolbuyers61.148.284.6104.798.7
      (e) Stock and station agents36.659.426.653.961.4
      (f) Finance companies (mainly hire-purchase)12.411.65.822.113.3
      (g) Other financial institutions50.558.954.362.170.0
            Sub-total314.1360.1403.6502.7538.5
8. Local bodies, n.e.i.3.76.97.39.98.8
9. Services87.192.3111.0157.3160.1
10. Personal—
      (a) For housing purposes73.276.8125.7196.3207.1
      (b) Other141.7138.4120.5174.4170.0
            Sub-total214.9215.2246.1370.7377.1
             Total1,334.7x1,513.01,623.22,132.32,349.1

The following diagram illustrates the level of trading bank advances in March of the last three years.

TRADING BANKS - CLASSIFICATION OF ADVANCES

Trading Bank Credit Authorities—The following table shows calendar-year averages and end of June figures for unexercised overdraft and term-loan authorities, total credit limits, and the percentage utilisation of credit limits.

YearUnexercised Overdraft and Term Loan AuthoritiesTotal Credit LimitsUtilisation of Credit Limits
 $(million)$(million)Percentage
Average for Calendar Year
1975619.22,231.072.2
1976787.42,601.969.8
1977821.23,163.474.0
At End of June
1975598.02,192.472.7
1976750.82,531.470.3
1977785.33,135.375.0

RECENT MONETARY CONDITIONS AND POLICY—During 1972 and early 1973, the monetary policy stance was one of ease as credit expansion was encouraged in an endeavour to revive demand in a below-capacity economy. This, coupled with the expansionary budgets of 1972 and 1973 and a balance of payments inflow, resulted in an excessive monetary expansion. The growth of bank lending that occurred in December 1972 and early 1973 was extremely high, being equivalent to over 50 percent in annual terms. Several measures were announced in mid-1973 to dampen the rate of credit expansion and reduce existing private sector liquidity including the introduction of the reserve asset ratio scheme relating to trading banks at a high level; a subsequent 2 percentage point policy increase in the ratios; and the introduction of a farm income equalisation scheme.

The tightening of the supply of loanable funds as a result of these measures and the impact of a marked turnaround in the balance of payments happened suddenly. The institutions whose borrowing rates were controlled tended to lose funds and experience liquidity problems while the uncontrolled financial sector attracted funds by raising interest rates.

The reserve asset ratios of the trading banks were progressively eased because of the liquidity drain on bank reserves throughout most of 1974. By October, the trading banks' lending to deposit ratio had reached what was considered a maximum prudent level and the Reserve Bank introduced a special deposits scheme. The reserve asset ratios were maintained at a constant level and the level of special deposits approved by the Reserve Bank became the variable element.

The tight liquidity situation was felt strongly by the housing sector. To maintain investment in housing, the Government security ratios of the trustee and private savings banks were reduced on 3 occasions during 1974 and again in March 1975. The Housing Corporation also expanded its lending activities significantly.

The liquidity position in the economy improved during 1975, primarily as a result of a large Government sector deficit which more than offset the balance of payments drain, but also because of demand factors. The special deposit assistance for the trading banks was phased out except for some special aspects relating to particular categories of trading bank lending. From July 1975, the reserve asset ratios were adjusted monthly so as to maintain a constant pressure on bank lending. In January 1976 a policy adjustment was made which increased the reserve asset ratios. The higher reserve ratios were introduced so that the growth in credit limits would fall to a more acceptable level.

The introduction of two policy packages in 1976 had important implications for monetary policy in New Zealand; the wool and export meat price stabilisation schemes have dampened the influence of external factors on monetary aggregates in New Zealand, and the measures announced in the 2 March 1976 package represent a move towards a more flexible interest rate policy and a more meaningful public debt policy. The March measures included:

  • • the revocation of the Interest on Deposits Regulations;

  • • the freeing from control of trading bank term deposit interest rates, except on deposits of $12,000 or less;

  • • freeing the trading banks from the 6 percent maximum average rate on overdrafts;

  • • the raising of investment account interest rates at savings banks;

  • • more realistic prime lending rates for the Housing Corporation and the Rural Bank;

  • • higher interest rates for new Government and local body stock.

In addition, to further reduce the demand for imports, tighter hire-purchase controls on motorcars and colour television receivers were announced. The Government security ratios on trustee and private savings bank deposits were lowered by 2 percentage points, to make additional funds available to home buyers. Other policy measures introduced during the first half of 1976 were the introduction of a limited import deposit scheme and increases in Government charges and reductions in subsidies. A selective tight monetary policy was maintained throughout 1976; and price and rent freezes, and a stringent incomes policy were also maintained.

In the latter half of 1976 and the beginning of 1977, the tighter budgetary stance of the Government was offset by the growth in lending to the private sector, especially from the finance companies and trading banks, and consequently there was no general tightening in monetary conditions. However, as a result of the large tax flow to the Government in March 1977 and high lending-to-deposit ratios, the rate of growth of trading bank lending eased substantially from June 1977 after nearly 12 months of rapid growth. This led to a tightening of liquidity in the private sector.

As a further step towards a flexible interest rate policy, and to encourage the development of an efficient and flexible financial system, the 1977 Budget contained the following measures—

  • —higher interest rates for new Government and local Authority securities; — greater freedom for the savings banks to set the structure of, and interest rates on, investment and other term deposit accounts;

  • —the introduction of inflation-adjusted savings bonds;

  • —reductions in the Government security ratios on trustee and private savings banks.

On 28 October 1977, the Minister of Finance announced the introduction of measures designed to ensure that spending did not decline and to maintain business confidence. These measures were expected to increase the deficit before borrowing for the March 1978 year by approximately $180 million. Included in this package were the following monetary measures—

  • —trading banks were to be directed to give higher priority to lending to finance stockholding;

  • —reserve asset ratio policy was to be eased by increasing the margin of trading bank "free reserves";

  • —the Government security ratio on life insurance offices was to be reduced by 1 percentage point, and the offices requested to invest the $24 million released, particularly in industrial projects with an export orientation;

  • —a scheme of compensating deposits by the Reserve Bank with the trading banks was to be instituted to offset the seasonal liquidity squeeze during the tax payment period;

  • —most, consumer goods were to be exempted from hire-purchase restrictions;

  • —the 2 percentage point reduction in the savings bank Government security ratios scheduled for 31 January 1978 was brought forward to 31 October 1977, in addition to the reduction already approved for that date;

  • —the Post Office was to be authorised to lend up to 2 percent of total deposits on second and subsequent mortgages for housing;

  • —restrictions on trading bank and life office holdings of local authority securities were to be removed;

  • —interest rates on Treasury bills were increased by ½ percentage point, and rates on 1 and 2-year Government securities were reduced by 1 percentage point.

The increased Government deficit and some demand factors resulted in some easing in monetary conditions. The Government security ratios of the Trustee and Private savings banks were reduced by a total of 6 percentage points in 1977 including a 4 percentage point reduction in October, to provide additional finance for housing.

Whilst liquidity was relatively tight during 1977, especially in certain sectors such as housing, the growth in domestic credit remained nevertheless at relatively high levels.

MONETARY INSTRUMENTS: Trading Banks—In June 1973, a new system of controlling trading bank operations was introduced. The reserve assets ratio scheme consists of a conventional liquidity requirement with the minimum ratios expressed as percentages of trading bank demand and time deposits. The ratios are varied on two grounds. Firstly, to take account of seasonal and random influences on bank liquidity and, secondly, to put into effect a change in credit policy. A bank unable to meet its reserve requirement has to borrow the shortfall from the Reserve Bank on conditions determined by the Reserve Bank. The percentage requirements, which are usually set monthly, are less for time deposits than for demand deposits, in order to continue to give the banks an incentive to compete for term deposits. Reserve assets consist of trading banks' holdings of notes and Government securities and of the time and demand balances of the trading banks at the Reserve Bank. Details of the reserve ratios are published in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Savings Banks—All Post Office Savings Bank deposits are invested in Government and public corporation securities apart from cash requirements and personal loans (introduced in 1973 and extended slightly during 1977).

The trustee and private savings banks have been required to invest a proportion of their deposits, after allowing for statutory cash requirements, in Government securities. The savings banks' ratios have been high compared with other financial institutions. Since March 1968 the ratios have been reduced in stages, primarily to increase investment in housing mortgages.

Finance Companies—Capital issues control on finance companies was abolished in 1962 and "voluntary" agreements on investments existed until capital issues control was reintroduced in February 1967. These controls were abolished again in June 1969. The finance companies were then required to invest a prescribed percentage of their "borrowings" in Government securities. The initial ratio of 10 percent which was to be attained by July 1970 was phased in over four quarters. This ratio has been varied since as a tool of monetary policy. In October 1975 it was increased from 10 percent to 15 percent.

Life Insurance Companies—Between 1965 and 1969 there were several "voluntary" agreements with the insurance companies regarding investment in Government securities. In October 1969 the bases of the present controls were introduced. The insurance companies "voluntarily" agreed to invest 30 percent of their "assets" in public sector (Government and local authority) securities with a minimum of 22 V percent in Government securities. By October 1973, when this arrangement was formalised, the minimum Government securities ratio had been reduced to 22 percent and it has since been reduced to 19 percent with an overall ratio of 29 percent.

Building Societies—From November 1970 the building societies were required over a five-year transitional period to reach and maintain 5 percent of their "assets" in public sector securities (with a minimum of 3 percent in Government securities). The 1976 Budget announced the phasing-in over a 10-year period of a 15 percent public sector securities requirement, with a minimum of 11 percent in Government securities. The savings banks' operations of authorised building societies are also required to invest a proportion of their deposits in Government securities.

Private Superannuation Funds—In June 1970 the private superannuation funds were given a five-year transitional period in which to place 30 percent of their assets in public sector securities in order to qualify for tax exemptions. This agreement was formalised in August 1975 and provision was made for the ratio to increase by 2 percent annually to 40 percent by April 1980. Up to 10 percent of the increased requirements could be met by authorised "housing" investments.

Official Money Market Dealers—From the time of their official recognition late in 1962, dealers have been subject to deposit limits and controls on assets they can hold.

Discount Rate—In effect, the Reserve Bank's discount rate is the minimum rate at which trading banks may borrow from the bank if they need to do so in order to maintain the statutory minimum ratio requirements, and the rate at which the bank lends to approved short-term money market dealers. The discount rate does not apply to advances to the State or marketing organisations. Between October 1970 and March 1971 a sliding scale was introduced for the trading banks in which borrowing was charged in three tranches of 7 percent, 8½ percent, and 10 percent. In March 1974 these tranches were reimposed, but the first two tranches were increased to 1 percent of a bank's total deposits as compared with ½ percent during the earlier period. From March 1976 the ratios were raised by 1½ percent. In February 1977 the three-tranche system was replaced by a single rate of 10 percent. This was increased to 12 percent from 1 May to 10 November 1977, but then reverted to 10 percent.

Interest Rate Controls—Until March 1976, when the fixed rates were changed to maximum rates, the interest payable on deposits at trustee and private savings banks was, like the POSB, absolutely controlled. While there have been no changes in the rate of interest on "other" accounts, the interest rates on investment accounts have been increased several times in recent years to make them more competitive with other deposit instruments. In 1977 the restrictions on savings bank investment accounts were largely removed.

As part of its stabilisation policy, the Government introduced the Interest on Deposits Regulations in March 1972. These regulations prescribed maximum rates of interest payable by non-bank financial institutions. After being amended in 1974 and 1975, the regulations were revoked in March 1976.

Directives—The Reserve Bank can also issue directives to supplement the other instruments. For many years, the trading banks have been subject to qualitative lending directives which specify high and low priority lending categories. At present, farming, exporting, and housing are high priority sectors while personal (excluding housing), importing, and lending to financial institutions are low priority. Finance for stockholding was given higher priority from October 1976. The savings banks have also been issued with directives concerning the investment of funds released by reductions in the Government securities ratios in housing mortgages.

INTEREST RATES ON DEPOSITS: Savings Banks—The interest rate paid on ordinary, thrift club, special purpose, and home lay-by accounts at the Post Office, trustee and private savings banks is set at 3 percent. The Post Office Savings Bank (POSB) and trustee savings banks also offer school, home ownership, and farm ownership accounts with the same rate of interest. In addition qualifying home lay-by, home ownership, and farm ownership account holders are eligible for grants and subsidies of various sorts aimed at encouraging saving for home and farm purchase.

Deposits can earn 3½ percent interest in National Savings Accounts with the POSB and some trustee savings banks after a qualifying period.

No interest is paid on personal cheque accounts but non-profit institutions may receive 3 percent interest on accounts with cheque facilities.

Housing bonds, which were introduced in September 1976 by the POSB and trustee savings banks, can earn 9 percent interest for a five-year term.

As from August 1977 the savings banks were given the freedom to set the structure of, and the interest rates on, investment and other term deposit accounts, and the deposit limits were removed. The Trustee Savings Banks and the POSB require the concurrence of the Reserve Bank and the Secretary to the Treasury respectively regarding changes in rates. Prior to August 1977 the structure and maximum interest rates of savings bank investment accounts were fixed by Order in Council.

Trading Banks—On deposits up to $12,000 individual trading banks can offer up to the maximum rates of interest payable by their savings bank subsidiaries on investment accounts. Interest is not payable on cheque accounts. All other interest rates are free from control.

Other Deposit-Taking Institutions—The Interest on Deposits Regulations were revoked in March 1976 and deposit rates with non-banks are now free from control.

Other Deposits and Interest Rates—References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section 30A (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section 26c (State Indebtedness), and interest on local authority debt in Section 27 (Local Government Finance).

SAVINGS BANKS—Savings banks include the Post Office Savings Bank, the trustee savings banks, and the savings banks operated by the trading banks. In recent years there have been major changes in savings bank operations. Following an amendment to the Trustee Savings Bank Act passed in 1957, the five trustee savings banks that had survived from the middle of the last century were joined by eight new trustee savings banks between 1959 and 1964. In 1972 two of these banks merged and there are now 12 trustee savings banks. Another major change was the formation of private savings banks by the five trading banks, following the passing of the Private Savings Bank Act in 1964.

As from April 1973 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been able to advance personal loans. In March 1973 the responsibilities for the administration of the trustee savings banks and the private savings banks was transferred from the Treasury to the Reserve Bank. Trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been allowed to offer cheque facilities since 1974.

The following table shows the total amounts of transactions in savings bank accounts, including accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, private savings banks, National Savings accounts, and School Savings Bank Accounts, but excluding National Savings bonds.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestAmount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

*Includes interest paid out on Investment accounts.

$(million)
19732,413.960.42,256.8217.52,048.2
19743,157.465.82,969.3253.92,302.1
19753,337.0x71.9x3,290.3118.62,420.7
19764,155.8x77.9x3,964.9268.72,689.4
19774,853.488.04,713.8227.62,917.1

In the following table the accounts in the three types of savings banks are classified by amount groups. It will be noted that more than two-thirds of the accounts have balances of less than $200.

Balances in the Post Office Savings Bank and the trustee savings banks are as at 31 March 1977. In the private savings banks, balance dates range between 31 March and 31 October. National Savings and school savings accounts are included.

SAVINGS BANK ACCOUNTS BY AMOUNT GROUPS

BalancePost Office Savings BankTrustee Savings BanksPrivate Savings Banks
Number of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of Total
$
Under 2605,54520.0305,11515.6121,7989.8
2–1991,702,94655.3977,92449.8678,04254.5
200–999432,52114.0407,79320.8275,25022.1
1,000–1,999153,6974.9137,3086.985,4656.9
2,000–3,999108,7683.584,1154.353,5904.3
4,000 and over72,9362.350,2672.629,3912.4
      All accounts3,076,413100.01,962,522100.01,243,536100.0

SAVINGS BANKS

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK: Operation—The business of the Post Office Savings Bank started on 3 February 1867, when branches were established at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hokitika. At 31 December 1976 there were 1,193 branches of the bank throughout New Zealand. Deposits may be made at any of these branches. A full demand withdrawal service is provided at 180 branches which have ledgers, and a limited service is provided at the remaining non-ledger offices.

Three new services were introduced during the year ended 31 March 1977. These were a Special Home Ownership Account, a Special Farm Ownership Account, and Housing Bonds.

Conversion of Post Office Savings Bank accounts to computer operation is proceeding. At the end of March 1977 some 955,000 accounts were operating through 173 terminals situated at 78 offices, located in the Masterton, Thames, Oamaru, New Plymouth, Whangarei, Timaru, Blenheim, Nelson, Rotorua, Gisborne, Wellington, and Auckland districts.

Remaining districts will come on to the system progressively.

Bonus Bonds continue to attract investors and savings held in this way totalled $138.3 million at 31 March 1977, the monthly prize fund then exceeding $480,000.

The following table covers the activities of the Post Office Savings Bank.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestTotal Amount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits, Plus Interest, Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

*Includes interest paid out on investment accounts.

†Includes Ordinary National Savings and School Saving Accounts.

‡Excludes National Savings Bonds and coupons.

 (000)  $(thousand)  
19732,838782,36430,478736,50776,3351,038,723
19742,941912,98531,921843,803101,1031,139,827
19752,954976,64934,138963,69847,0901,186,917
19762,9371,175,69435,3071,132,13478,8661,265,783
19773,0761,328,13338,5491,296,60170,0811,335,864

The Post Office Savings Bank assets as at 31 March 1977 included investments in the name of the Postmaster-General totalling $1,304 million, made up as follows:

 $(000)
Government Stock951,927
Housing Corporation of New Zealand Stock217,408
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation of New Zealand Stock122,700
Personal loans11,492
 1,303,527

Depositors and bondholders balances held at 31 March 1976 and 1977 are set out in the following table.

Accounts19761977
 $(000)
Ordinary769,851777,230
6 months investment2,5825,126
1 year investment103,04295,373
2 year investment118,651104,351
3 year investment28,19182,322
National savings19,87916,798
Thrift club35,71735,190
Ordinary home ownership8,3669,608
School6,2837,130
Home lay-by445343
Ordinary farm ownership110243
Cheque10,10821,847
Bonus bonds128,088138,275
National Development Bonds27,57627,145
New Zealand Savings Certificates6,8098,006
Housing Bonds..5,306
Special farm ownership..436
Special home ownership..689
New Zealand Savings Bonds and coupons212211
Adverse Event Bonds116
Balance in transit59433
       Total1,265,9801,336,068

PRIVATE SAVINGS BANKS—The Private Savings Bank Act 1964 came into force on 1 October 1964. Under this Act the five trading banks all formed private savings banks. These savings banks may transact business only in premises ordinarily occupied and used by the parent bank. In addition to ordinary deposits, these banks may accept investments similar to the trustee savings banks, by way of deposits in Home Lay-by, Investment accounts, Thrift Club, and Special Purpose accounts.

The following table relates to private savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearInterest CreditedExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
 (000)  $(thousand)  
1973885575,032540,21912,62747,440399,500
1974954811,351773,03212,82451,143450,642
19751,075860,612x857,51914,619x17,712468,354
19761,1121,100,878x1,029,04116,657x88,494556,848
19771,2431,260,6661,214,82419,30465,146621,995

Private savings banks assets at 31 March 1977 included $392.9 million invested in Government securities, $23.7 million in local authority securities, $206.9 million in mortgages and other loans. Government securities must be held for amounts equal to 58 percent of deposits in ordinary and investment accounts.

TRUSTEE SAVINGS BANKS—The trustee savings bank movement is generally regarded as having originated in Scotland in 1810. The movement spread quickly, and the first such New Zealand bank was established in Wellington in 1846, 20 years before the New Zealand Post Office Savings Bank commenced business. By 1870 nine trustee banks were in existence, but four, namely, Lyttelton, Wellington, Napier, and Nelson did not survive the turn of the century. The five remaining banks—Auckland (1847), New Plymouth (1850), Dunedin (1864), Southland (1864), and Hokitika (1866), grew in strength and their activities became an important factor in New Zealand's economic structure. Since 1957 a number of new trustee savings banks have been established, and the total is now 12. The legislation dealing with trustee savings banks is contained chiefly in the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948. In October 1977 the Government Stock requirement of the trustee savings banks was reduced from 45 percent to 41 percent of investments in order to provide greater funds for new housing. A proportion of depositors' balances must be kept as cash in hand or on current account, namely 5 percent up to $20 million, and 2½ percent of the amount in excess of $20 million. Repayment of deposits is guaranteed by the State.

In addition to ordinary deposits, trustee savings banks may accept investments similarly to the Post Office Savings Bank, by way of deposits in Investment accounts.

The following tables relate only to trustee savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest CreditedTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
NOTE—This statement includes national savings accounts.
 No.  $(thousand)  
19731,548,5531,056,49417,285980,07193,708609,945
19741,648,415x1,433,06121,0591,352,434101,686711,631
19751,750,518x1,499,73223,1011,469,03753,796765,427
19761,857,2821,879,22825,9301,803,769101,390866,816
19771,962,5222,264,57730,1952,202,37492,398959,215

The following table shows the results of the transactions inclusive of National Savings accounts, of each of the trustee savings banks during 12 months ended 31 March 1977.

BankNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest CreditedTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

NOTE—Hawke's Bay and Gisborne/Manawatu-Wairarapa merged as Eastern and Central Savings Bank as from November 1972.

 No.  $(thousand)  
Auckland799,201760,71712,594737,06036,251405,007
Waikato154,098171,8802,128167,8446,16463,765
Bay of Plenty96,165157,7781,500152,6166,66248,086
Taranaki86,52989,7261,55887,4413,84345,507
Eastern and Central128,890211,4851,571209,9673,08950,566
Wanganui53,95459,63273958,5751,79621,681
Wellington District97,824103,6181,072100,4414,24934,532
Westland21,49621,05843420,0411,45112,721
Canterbury264,781339,7174,054329,04914,722127,957
South Canterbury32,63450,40755648,5792,38417,616
Otago142,381128,1112,207124,6145,70468,837
Southland84,569170,4481,783166,1486,08362,939
       Total1,962,5222,264,57730,1952,202,37492,398959,215

Following is a summary of trustee savings banks' assets at 31 March 1977. The total assets include an amount of $752,000 securing National Savings deposits all of which is invested in New Zealand Government securities. Under the Trustee Savings Banks Act. however, National Savings deposits are not regarded as assets of the Trustee Savings Banks, and for this reason are shown separately.

BankMortgagesNew Zealand Government SecuritiesLocal Authority DebenturesCash in Hand and on Call at BankTotal Assets* (Includes Other Assets but not National Savings Deposits)National Savings DepositsTotal Held Including National Savings Deposits

*Total assets include $51 million in fixed deposits and money at call.

 $(thousand) 
Auckland171,071183,89128,0575,192417,004506417,510
Waikato27,37028,4322,60862463,84963,849
Bay of Plenty24,12621,09122252748,39048,390
Taranaki21,58120,02911240446,6554046,695
Eastern and Central23,98822,82219154150,09950,099
Wanganui10,3279,44027270922,02122,021
Wellington District16,09015,60224057034,13834,138
Westland6,0735,57425373913,23013,230
Canterbury55,49659,4707,2072,161128,807128,807
South Canterbury6,7887,8901,57446418,09618,096
Otago33,27031,4652,56575370,70521670,921
Southland21,65828,6366,9712,09464,0165064,066
       Total417,838434,34250,27214,778977,010812977,822

STOCK AND STATION AGENTS—Many of the existing stock and station agents first commenced business as general merchants or retailers in the early days of the country's settlement. However, during the greater part of their history, the main financial operations have been in the supply of merchandise, machinery and implements, and the provision of finance to the farming community. The companies have developed a specialised banking business involving the maintenance of current accounts for farmers, the acceptance of time deposits and the granting of secured and unsecured advances. It is a widespread practice for farmers to have current accounts with their stock and station agents to which the proceeds of the sale of livestock and produce are placed and farm and personal expenses charged. Any surplus may be left on current account or placed with the agents on fixed deposit. Stock and station agents have top-tier borrowing priority with the trading banks in order to obtain additional funds to lend for seasonal and farm development needs.

Financial data as at 30 June are given of deposits, advances, etc., for the stock and station agents operating in New Zealand. The statistics refer to the whole of the companies' trading operations including, in some cases, activities additional to normal stock and station transactions, such as retail trading in consumer goods.

The deposit figures include only moneys received for an agreed term and rate of interest and exclude amounts secured by mortgage or debenture, and amounts in credit on current account. Secured advances to customers include those made on mortgage or chattel security. The figure for merchandise and commodity stocks includes all types of trading stock which are regarded as current assets, but excludes livestock, goods held on consignment, or motor vehicles used by the company.

The following table summarises the financial statements of 21 stock and station agents. Quarterly information, including details of interest rates, is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemAt 30 June
19731974197519761977
 $(thousand)
Deposits held57,96543,92736,24138,78637,872
Customers' credit balances on current account75,11857,77347,47779,97486,791
Advances to customers—
      (a) On current account (unsecured)77,188104,12286,90881,128108,166
      (b) Other advances (secured)30,62650,37856,64942,69049,311
Investments—
      (a) Government securities1,9151,8041,6171,4431,498
      (b) Fixed deposits61,5784,5825,65312,8898,132
      (c) Other investments22,19817,05212,48825,91332,575
Cash balances (in hand and at bank)9,8582,7411,1686073,966
Bank overdrafts outstanding17,41249,47136,94024,05565,866
Merchandise and commodity stocks44,82462,18760,56169,25994,341
Interest rates paid on deposit—Percentage of Deposits
      Under 5 percent52.026.723.414.711.3
      5 percent and under 6 percent22.431.320.820.819.1
      6 percent and under 7 percent21.832.733.729.221.5
      7 percent and over3.89.322.135.348.0

FINANCE COMPANIES—In 1971 there were 27 finance companies designated "large" by the Reserve Bank for statistical purposes, and their assets were 90 percent of the total assets of 526 surveyed finance companies. There has been rapid growth of these large companies in recent years as people have responded to higher interest rates on deposits and debentures and to the improved services offered. The large finance companies have developed simple and easily operated means of accepting money. Furthermore, many companies offer flexible deposit plans to depositors with large sums. By March 1977 twenty-one "large" finance companies were providing statistical information every quarter.

During the year to March 1977 total assets and liabilities of these finance companies expanded by over 34 percent, compared with a growth rate of about 26 percent in the preceding twelve months. Most of the $174 million increase in liabilities was due to a substantial inflow of funds in the form of deposits, debentures, and notes. Evidence of an expansion in the net deposit intake was first noted in March 1976 and this pattern continued throughout the year. By the end of December 1976 the level of deposits had reached a peak and was 69 percent higher than the total one year earlier. By March 1977 the deposit level had declined slightly, mainly due to the seasonal tax drain to Government, causing the annual growth rate to fall to 48 percent.

The availability of investible funds increased during 1976 as a result of an improved liquidity situation and an official move towards a more flexible interest rate policy. This situation was given impetus in March 1976 when the controls on interest rates were relaxed with the revocation of the Interest on Deposits Regulations. Interest rates on finance company deposits moved freely and frequently during the year as these intermediaries competed vigorously for deposits and sought to establish a balanced maturity structure of deposits after the distortions caused by the interest rate controls. Since September 1976 the annual rates for all terms have moved upwards so that by March 1977, 12 percent was being offered for deposits between 3 months and 2 years and 13 percent for longer terms.

The change in the maturity structure of deposits, reflected in the fact that during the year more emphasis was being placed on relatively short-term deposits—a feature reflected by the interest rates for these terms. In March 1976 over 70 percent of deposits was for terms over 2 years but by March 1977 this proportion was only 46 percent. Deposits for one year and to a lesser extent, for less than 3 months were relatively more prominent.

The rapid expansion in the level of "borrowings" (mainly in the form of deposits and debentures) has resulted in the Government security holdings of the large companies rising also. By the end of March 1977 these holdings, representing 15 percent of "borrowings", totalled $36 million compared with $25 million a year earlier.

The substantial gain in deposits has financed a corresponding movement in the level of gross loans and advances. Total loans increased by nearly 58 percent in the latest year following a more moderate rise of 28 percent in the twelve months to March 1976. As a result of the excessive rate of growth of private sector credit the finance companies and trading banks were officially directed in December 1976 as part of a number of monetary policy measures, to reduce the rate of increase in their lending to non-priority areas and to give greater emphasis to lending for the priority export and housing sectors.

Statistics of deposits, debentures, and notes held by the large companies for which the Reserve Bank collects statistics are shown in the following table.

TermAt 31 March
1973197419751976x1977
$(m)
At call23.031.827.320.034.1
Under 3 months18.321.916.919.644.5
3–5 months24.722.716.615.331.7
6–11 months32.729.913.513.229.2
12–23 months32.034.225.316.0102.6
2 years and over77.972.299.7216.9203.9
       Total208.6212.7199.3301.1446.0

Gross loans and advances of these finance companies are shown in the following table.

Type of loanAt 31 March
19731974197519761977
Motor vehicles—$(m)
      Commercial37.747.642.765.4113.2
      Private67.587.576.073.579.6
Television sets0.80.91.61.72.5
Other consumer durables13.818.212.316.818.5
Type of LoanAt 31 March
19731974197519761977
Machinery and equipment—  $(m)  
      Industrial35.747.741.359.097.5
      Agricultural7.27.76.512.919.2
Property loans27.944.042.362.0116.0
Other35.040.131.735.568.6
       Total225.7293.8254.4326.8515.1

A common feature of finance company lending is the regular repayment required on most loans and the short turnover period of assets, often averaging less than a year. This enables finance companies to switch their lending rapidly from one purpose to another. Interest rates range from about 12 percent to a more common 17 to 20 percent for most instalment loans. Despite the high costs, businesses have grown to appreciate the fast and efficient services offered by finance companies, which process loan applications quickly and accept greater risks than other lenders.

MERCHANT BANKS—The major expansion of merchant banking in New Zealand occurred in 1971, when the Government allowed overseas companies to participate in their establishment. The merchant banks offer a wide range of financial services to industrial clients and also manage investment portfolios and deal in and accept commercial bills. The merchant banks engage in underwriting new share issues by companies, advise on and finance mergers and takeovers, and lend money for expansion to growing companies. The merchant banks played an important role in the expansion of the commercial bill market.

STRUCTURE OF FINANCIAL SYSTEM—The changing structure of the New Zealand financial system is shown by movements in the money supply and other major liquid assets of the public; a comparative table of selected liquid assets is now given. (Source: Reserve Bank Bulletin.)

Deposits, etc.At 31 MarchPercentage at 31 March
1976197719761977
      (a) On an institutional basis$(m)$(m)  
Trading banks2,290.52,747.239.440.9
Private savings banks556.9622.09.69.3
      Sub-total2,847.43,369.248.950.1
Post Office Savings Bank1,266.01,336.021.819.9
Trustee savings banks865.7959.314.914.3
Stock and station agents92.5110.41.41.6
Finance companies372.1555.96.48.3
Official money market31.827.10.60.4
Notes and coin342.3367.65.95.5
      Total selected liquid assets5,817.86,725.5100.0100.0
      (b) On a functional basis
Money supply1,596.01,689.627.425.1
Other demand deposits1,999.92,113.034.431.4
      Sub-total3,595.93,802.661.856.5
Time and fixed deposits2,221.92,922.938.243.5
      Total selected liquid assets5,817.86,725.5100.0100.0

COINAGE AND CURRENCY: Decimal Currency—Under the Decimal Currency Act 1964 a system of decimal currency was introduced in New Zealand on 10 July 1967 with the dollar as the monetary unit. The dollar is equivalent to the previous 10s. The equivalent in decimal currency of the shilling is 10c. There are coins for $1 (not in general circulation), 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c, and Reserve Bank notes for 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 100 dollars. The coins are cupro-nickel, except for the one and two cent pieces which are bronze. Notes and coins have distinctive New Zealand designs.

Issue of Notes and Coin—Since 1 August 1934 the Reserve Bank has had the sole right to issue bank notes in New Zealand. Coin is the responsibility of the Treasury but is distributed by the Reserve Bank. Notes and coin are issued solely in response to the demands of the public. In assessing likely requirements there are seasonal factors to be considered, as well as basic economic conditions, such as national income, the levels of salaries and wages, changes in price levels generally, and in the total volume of money. In addition, methods and frequency of payments affect the amount to be issued.

Legal Tender—Under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 notes issued by the Reserve Bank are constituted legal tender up to any amount. In terms of the Decimal Currency Act 1964, dollar coins are legal tender for any amount, coins of 5, 10, 20, and 50c for any amount not exceeding five dollars, and coins of 1 and 2c for any amount not exceeding 20c.

Restrictions on Export of Currency—Under the Exchange Control Regulations 1965 the taking or sending of money from New Zealand is forbidden except with the consent of the Reserve Bank. The Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1965, Amendment No. 8, permits travellers to take out up to $50 of New Zealand money in notes of $5 or $2 or $1 or in coin up to $4. The export of any other New Zealand notes or coin or the currency of any other country requires specific consent.

NEW ZEALAND EXCHANGE RATES—The relationship between the New Zealand pound and sterling previous to the 1960s was described in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

In 1961, New Zealand became a member of the International Monetary Fund, an institution established in 1948 at a United Nations conference at Bretton Woods, U.S.A. In accordance with one of the principal objectives of the Fund—the promotion of a stable international monetary system based on fixed exchange rates—each member country was required to establish a par value for its currency, expressed in gold. New Zealand adopted the relationship NZ£1 = 2.47130 grammes of fine gold (the equivalent of US$2.7809). Par values could be altered with the consent of the IMF to correct a fundamental disequilibrium in members' balance of payments; although if the proposed change, together with all previous changes, did not exceed 10 percent of the initial par value, the Fund's concurrence was automatic.

Until 1971 members were required to confine buying and selling rates for spot foreign exchange transactions within a margin of one percent either side of the par value, and in the case of other than spot transactions, buying and selling rates could not differ from parity by more than a margin that the Fund considered "reasonable".

Following the United Kingdom devaluation by 14.3 percent on 18 November 1967, New Zealand devalued its dollar by 19.45 percent, to move to parity with Australian currency. The new par value for the New Zealand dollar was NZ$1 = 0.99531 grammes of fine gold. This was equivalent to US$1.12 and the sterling relationship on par values was NZ$2.1429 = £1 sterling. New Zealand continued to maintain sterling as its intervention currency and the fixed public telegraphic rates upon sterling were established at equal margins either side of the revised sterling rate, at NZ$2.1492 (selling) and NZ$2.1367 (buying).

World Currency Realignment—During 1971 the value of the United States dollar underwent severe pressure on currency markets. The United States Government reacted by suspending the gold convertibility of the dollar in August 1971. The U.S. dollar was then floated against all other currencies, against which it rapidly depreciated.

The breakdown of the Bretton Woods international monetary system and the introduction of widespread floating necessitated a re-establishment by the International Monetary Fund of a system which while being more flexible, would promote an orderly basis for conducting foreign exchange transactions. The Smithsonian Agreement of December 1971 was intended to facilitate the resumption of fixed par values and stable exchange rates on a more liberal basis. The United States dollar was devalued at this time by a change in the official price for fine gold from US$35 to US$38 per troy ounce and there was a general realignment of several other important currencies.

As part of the arrangements, member countries had the choice of maintaining their existing par values against gold as the basis for their exchange rates, or of establishing a "central rate" against another currency as its "official" exchange rate. To retain an existing par value resulted in a currency revaluation against the United States dollar (after the change in gold price to US$38 per ounce); New Zealand along with the United Kingdom and Australia opted for this arrangement. At the same time New Zealand, like Australia, nominated the United States dollar as its intervention currency instead of sterling as previously. This enabled New Zealand to quote fixed rates upon the United States dollar and fluctuating rates for sterling.

In addition, the Smithsonian arrangements established wider margins within which spot exchange rates were permitted to move and New Zealand availed itself of this facility. The new margins were 2¼ percent either side of parity or central rate (previously 1 percent) and, where an intervention currency was used to establish rates for other currencies, twice this margin for currencies other than the intervention currency. New Zealand established its fixed United States dollar selling rate (US$1.1887) at the maximum permissible level below the crossed par value/central rate for the United States dollar (US$1.2160) and allowed its rate on other currencies to vary up to 4½ percent either side of the crossed rates of the "official" rates.

The Smithsonian Agreement did not completely resolve the problems of the world's monetary system and it was soon evident that the arrangements made to promote exchange stability were not flexible enough to accommodate the rapidly changing economic circumstances between nations. A further breakdown occurred in 1972 when 18 currencies including sterling were floated, and the United States dollar again came under severe pressure. In February 1973 the United States dollar was devalued by 10 percent to US$42,222 per fine ounce of gold (from US$38). New Zealand maintained its gold parity, thus appreciating against the United States dollar to an equivalent par value of US$1.35111 = NZ$1. The fixed telegraphic selling and buying rates NZ/USA became US$1.3207 and US$1.3337, respectively.

New Zealand's Currency Basket and Recent Exchange Changes—With the continuation of widespread floating through 1973, the New Zealand dollar, tied to the United States dollar, was experiencing a gradual depreciation against most other currencies, as most were strengthening with respect to the United States dollar. This depreciation was not warranted as far as New Zealand's balance of payments was concerned, and as it was producing inflationary pressures on the economy, it was decided to terminate the fixed relationship between the New Zealand and United States dollars.

On 9 July 1973, the New Zealand dollar was adjusted upwards by 3.24 percent relative to the United States dollar, the amount needed to restore the relationship existing in mid-February, immediately following the devaluation of the United States dollar. From 9 July the value of the New Zealand dollar was calculated daily in such a manner as to preserve the average relationship that existed on 15 February with the currencies of New Zealand's main trading partners on a trade-weighted basis. Movements in the currencies of these countries would be reflected by alterations in the value of the New Zealand dollar according to their relative importance in New Zealand's international trade. This method of calculating New Zealand's exchange rates obviates some of the fluctuations that would occur in some rates if its currency were pegged to one particular currency. At the time New Zealand advised the IMF that it would no longer maintain a fixed relationship relative to the United States dollar.

On 9 September 1973, the New Zealand dollar was revalued by a further 10 percent in view of a very strong balance of payments and in an effort to reduce domestic inflation. After that date the exchange rates were calculated by the same method as previously with the base date, to which daily adjustment was made, being altered to 10 September 1973.

A devaluation of the New Zealand dollar by approximately 6.2 percent against the basket of currencies was made on 24 September 1974. At the same time the Australian dollar was devalued by 12 percent. This was a time of reversal in New Zealand's terms of trade and a heavy drain on overseas reserves following rapid domestic expansion. From this time, 25 September 1974 became the date for the basis of daily adjustments to the rates.

In view of a continuing deterioration in the terms of trade and weaknesses in the balance of payments, the New Zealand dollar was again devalued on 14 August 1975. This time by 15 percent against the basket of currencies. It had become evident that the anticipated increase in export receipts expected to follow from a recovery from the world trade recession of 1974 was not eventuating. The objective of the devaluation was to restore the income of farmers and to stem New Zealand's rising import bill. Following the devaluation of the Australian dollar by 17.5 percent from 29 November 1976 the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 2.73 percent against the basket of currencies, with effect from 30 November 1976. After a number of minor revaluations of the Australian dollar during December 1976, the New Zealand dollar was revalued by 2 percent on 20 December 1976. New Zealand's exchange rates are still calculated daily employing the basket of currencies of New Zealand's main trading partners.

OVERSEAS RESERVES—The trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals showing among other things overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on account of New Zealand business.

Statistics of New Zealand's official overseas reserves are shown in the following table and, over a longer period, in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook. The figures are as at the last Wednesday of the month. (Source: Reserve Bank of New Zealand.)

As atAssets of N.Z. Banking System*Treasury-held Overseas SecuritiesGovernment-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldReserve Position at I.M.F.Special Drawing Rights§Total

*Comprises foreign exchange and overseas investment of the Reserve Bank and the trading banks in respect of New Zealand business. A small item "Liabilities in Other Currencies" has been deducted from the Reserve Bank's overseas assets while gross foreign liabilities on account of New Zealand business have been deducted from the trading banks' overseas foreign assets.

†Gold holdings of the Reserve Bank at NZ$31.25 a fine ounce.

‡Equal to the gold subscription less any drawings of the gold tranche.

§Allocations less exchange transactions.

 NZ$(million)
 End of June
1975316.2222.923.90.70.5564.2
1976299.1239.326.30.76.5571.9
1977399.3286.723.90.72.524.7737.8
 End of December
1975288.7224.126.40.74.6544.5
1976359.3285.323.90.79.8679.0
1977257.6258.523.91.62.540.5584.6

The following diagram shows the overseas reserves.

OVERSEAS RESERVES

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS—In the year ended December 1977 a current account deficit of $603 million was recorded, an improvement of $20 million on the deficit recorded in the previous year. The deficit for the December year was made up of a surplus on trade transactions of $221 million and a deficit of $825 million on "invisible" (non-merchandise) transactions.

Export receipts, at $3,380 million, were 15 percent higher than the $2,928 million recorded in 1976. All categories of exports, excluding butter, contributed to the increase of $452 million, with meat, other dairy products, forest products, and manufactured goods showing the greatest growth in receipts in 1977.

Total import payments of $3,159 million for the calendar year 1977 were 8 percent higher than the level of $2,938 million recorded in 1976. The increase was entirely due to higher import prices since import volumes have fallen during 1977.

The "invisible" transactions balance continued to deteriorate sharply during 1977, moving from the deficit of $614 million registered in 1976 to one of $825 million. Large increases in payments, in particular for freight on exports, other transport, travel, overseas expenses of New Zealand firms, interest and investment income, and official debt interest, overshadowed the more modest increase in invisible receipts. Payments increased by 26 percent to $1,567 million, while receipts increased by 17 percent to $742 million.

Capital transactions for the year resulted in a net capital inflow of $472 million. This inflow comprised net official receipts of $248 million and a net private inflow of $225 million. In the preceding year the net official inflow was $361 million and private receipts totalled $256 million. The totals given for these loans are the New Zealand dollar equivalents received at various times during the year by the New Zealand banking system and do not take into account exchange rate changes since the date of receipt which will affect the amount repayable in New Zealand currency terms when the loans fall due.

At the end of December 1977 official overseas reserves amounted to $585 million, a decrease of $95 million when compared with December 1976.

A full classification of overseas exchange transactions for the five latest calendar year is now given.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS: YEARS ENDED DECEMBER

Item19731974197519761977
NOTE—Minus sign (—) denotes a deficit.
 NZ$(million)
Exports—Receipts
      Meat624.0532.9513.7783.6892.8
      Wool451.4337.1318.9610.7663.2
      Butter110.9109.6146.8199.0178.0
      Cheese59.244.473.771.289.6
      Other dairy products126.5167.8171.0241.2297.7
      Other animal products140.9130.9132.6206.8284.2
      Forest products107.4142.9153.7243.0282.4
      Other primary products73.274.385.5120.3163.7
      Manufactured exports143.6195.3266.8435.8503.0
      Miscellaneous7.111.613.116.625.6
             Total export receipts1,844.21,746.71,875.82,928.33,380.1
Other current—
      Cook Islands exports0.20.9
      Transport78.8109.7145.4182.2222.4
      Insurance11.614.219.614.923.8
      Travel (excluding fares)72.594.5130.4157.1162.4
      International investment income—
      Interest and dividends51.354.047.542.345.4
      Other investment income4.64.36.88.913.6
      New Zealand Government receipts and expenditure by other
      Governments in New Zealand23.622.621.430.040.8
      Miscellaneous—
      Commissions, royalties11.917.120.420.226.4
      Expenses of business firms10.010.310.513.817.3
      Personal receipts, legacies and immigrants transfers120.0119.1135.0137.7155.8
      Other current transactions12.717.223.725.333.3
             Total current2,241.32,209.62,436.43,561.04,122.0
Capital Transfers—
      Government borrowing3.7232.7511.4430.9496.9
      Other official receipts0.6106.1166.798.055.9
      Private180.5270.4360.7435.8409.7
             Total capital184.7609.21,038.6964.7962.5
I.M.F.—
      Drawings78.5161.1170.8
      Allocations of SDRs
             Total Receipts2,426.02,897.33,636.44,696.55,084.5
Imports—Payments
      Private1,422.82,179.42,286.02,784.12,999.2
      Government62.997.5189.6153.7159.7
             Total import payments1,483.72,276.92,475.62,937.83,159.0
      Cook Islands imports0.30.40.20.50.3
      Transport144.5175.6243.5334.0426.4
      Insurance—
            Premiums3.85.16.69.710.9
            Claims0.81.11.01.43.1
   ਀      other transfers12.412.118.219.722.9
      Travel (excluding fares)133.1179.2186.5235.4294.6
      International investment income—
            Private56.375.0103.8147.1169.8
            Government interest34.736.089.6156.9196.1
            Local authority interest0.10.1--
      Government expenditure overseas58.072.376.278.0116.3
      Miscellaneous—
      Commissions, royalties, and rebates24.428.930.146.553.5
      Expenses of business firms51.653.977.990.0117.5
      Film hire and entertainment3.96.35.45.34.9
      Religious and charitable10.010.617.917.716.5
      Personal remittances, legacies, and emigrants transfers46.262.056.870.390.0
      Transfers by temporary residents11.114.620.824.213.5
      Other current transactions12.415.111.69.730.0
             Total current2,089.33,025.43,421.94,184.04,725.4
Capital Transfers—
      Government debt repayments41.549.2136.4234.8304.9
      Other official payments3.25.680.1104.0
      Private159.9128.5157.4179.7185.2
      Local authorities debt repayment0.90.70.8
             Total capital205.5184.0374.6518.4490.1
             Total payments2,294.83,209.43,796.54,702.55,215.5
            Surplus of receipts over payments+131.2–312.0–160.1–6.0–131.0

The next table gives overseas exchange transactions in summary form for a number of June years, which fit more closely to the farm-production export season than do calendar years.

ItemYear Ended 30 June
19731974197519761977
 NZ$(million)
 Receipts
Exports—
      Meat585.7565.4484.8674.5874.1
      Wool436.3371.4286.1512.1687.8
      Butter106.3108.5113.2185.9211.8
      Milk powders84.491.4116.4116.7149.7
      Other dairy products119.4114.286.7171.0221.5
      Forest products96.7120.1145.8197.6267.1
      Manufactured exports130.0171.0208.1343.6491.0
      Other214.3205.8216.9289.2427.5
       Total exports1,773.11,747.91,658.02,490.53,330.4
Other current receipts349.9423.7493.1616.9698.5
       Total current receipts2,123.02,171.62,151.13,107.44,028.9
Capital receipts—
      Government borrowing4.20.5497.6393.5457.3
      Other official receipts14,092.7190.675.3
      Private187.0189.4378.5381.3383.6
       Total capital receipts191.2204.0968.8965.4916.2
I.M.F.—
      Drawings100.5250.259.7
      Allocation of SDRs
       Total Receipts2,314.22,375.63,220.44,323.1.5,004.8
itemYear Ended 30 June
19731974197519761977
 NZ$(million)
 Payments
Imports—
      Government65.968.7147.1172.7158.2
      Private1,182.81,780.42,227.62,554.22,988.4
       Total imports1,248.71,849.02,374.72,727.03,146.7
Other current payments—
      Government98.295.5147.1203.1277.7
      Private451.1561.0696.1881.71,135.0
       Total current payments1,798.02,505.53,217.93,811.84,559.4
Capital payments—
      Government debt repayments92.967.732.5237.4264.5
      Other official repayments7.04.9181.0
      Private91.6190.4103.0198.5171.1
       Total capital payments184.5265.0140.4617.0435.7
I.M.F. repurchases
       Total payments1,982.52,770.53,358.34,428.94,995.0
Balance on trade transactions+524.4–101.2–716.7–236.5+183.7
Balance on current account "Invisible" transactions–199.4–232.8–350.1–468.0–714.2
Balance on current account+325.0–333.9–1,066.8–704.4–530.5
Balance on capital account+6.8–61.0+828.4+348.4+480.5
I.M.F. transactions (incl. SDRs)  +100.5+250.2+59.7
Change in official overseas reserves+335.8–499.9–29.4+7.7+165.9

Overseas Travel Allowances—Since 1938, there have been restrictions on the amount of overseas travel funds made available for non-business purposes. From June 1973 trading banks have been able to sell overseas exchange to travellers up to $1,000 a month with a maximum of $4,000 a year. Requests for higher amounts need to be referred to the Reserve Bank, which is prepared to approve all reasonable requests.

Exchange Control— Transactions affecting overseas exchange are governed by the Exchange Control Regulations 1965, made under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964. The exemption in respect of dealings in sterling area currencies and securities in the hands of New Zealand residents was continued by the Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1965.

Certain new measures in exchange control and related fields were introduced by the Minister of Finance in the Budget of 16 June 1966, and are set out in paragraphs (a) to (d).

  1. Overseas Securities and Currencies: The facility previously available to New Zealand residents to sell overseas sterling area securities for New Zealand currency or other assets in New Zealand was withdrawn. These securities could then be sold only for other sterling area securities or for sterling area currencies. Therefore, if a New Zealand resident sought cash in New Zealand for his sterling area securities the only avenue available at law was to sell overseas and transfer the proceeds to New Zealand through the banking system.

    This measure, in effect, closed the market in sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency. A limited market has since been re-opened (see (f) below).

    In June 1972 the United Kingdom made changes in its exchange control system. As a result the sterling area and the non-sterling area were redefined. For New Zealand exchange control purposes the sterling area incorporates the United Kingdom (including the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, and Gibraltar) and the Republic of Ireland. The non-sterling area covers all other countries outside New Zealand except Rhodesia. Exchange control transactions with Rhodesia are strictly limited because of the United Nations sanctions against that country. Therefore, all currencies and securities domiciled outside New Zealand (except Rhodesia) may now be dealt with freely, i.e., in the same manner as sterling area currencies and securities were previously (see also paragraph (f)).

  2. Export and Import of New Zealand Notes: A limit was set in June 1966 on the export of notes at $10 for all travellers, regardless of destination.

    The importation of New Zealand money (including postal notes, money orders, cheques, and promissory notes, but excluding travellers' cheques) was also prohibited, except that travellers to New Zealand could bring in with them up to $10 in New Zealand notes.

    From June 1971 travellers from New Zealand have been able to take out up to $50 (of which not more than $4 may be in coin and the denominations of the notes may not exceed $5). For travellers to New Zealand there is now no restriction on bringing in notes of $1 or $2 or $5 or coin of any denomination.

  3. Supervision of Non-Residents' Accounts in New Zealand: The Reserve Bank was given power to exercise supervision over specific accounts in New Zealand of non-residents, with banks or elsewhere.

    The following accounts were initially declared to be controlled accounts:

    1. Those of non-resident banks;

    2. Those of non-resident travel agents;

    3. A group of seven individual accounts connected with international currency dealers.

    A subsequent notice to banks had the effect of bringing under control any accounts for the credit to which New Zealand money was received from overseas without the consent of the Reserve Bank. No change of policy was involved, this being a technical measure to ensure that transfers of funds outside the banking system were not facilitated by the operation of New Zealand accounts.

  4. London-domiciled New Zealand Government Stock: In 1920 provision was made for New Zealand residents to transfer holdings of London-domiciled New Zealand stock to the New Zealand register, a facility which provided a means of transferring funds to New Zealand outside the banking system. The volume of such transactions in recent years became excessive, and the following conditions were therefore applied to transfers to the New Zealand register on 16 June 1966:

    1. Stock must have been registered in the applicant's name for at least six months;

    2. After stock has been transferred to the New Zealand register it may not be sold for six months.

    Since 5 September 1969 the transfer to the New Zealand register has been limited to stock held on or prior to that date. Stock purchased subsequently may not be transferred to the New Zealand register.

  5. Overseas Investment in New Zealand: In 1973 the Overseas Investment Act was passed to make better provision for the supervision and control of overseas investment in New Zealand. The Overseas Investment Commission established under that Act administers the Overseas Investment Regulations 1974 which came into force on 28 May 1974 to give administrative effect to the Act. The secretariat for the Overseas Investment Commission is at the Reserve Bank.

The new legislation consolidated and repeated the provisions of the Capital Issues (Overseas) Regulations 1965 and the Overseas Takeovers Regulations 1964 which formerly governed overseas investment in New Zealand. In addition, the opportunity was taken to close some avenues through which the existing takeover regulations could in some circumstances be evaded.

The Overseas Investment Regulations cover such transactions as borrowing overseas by any New Zealand incorporated company; borrowing in New Zealand or overseas, or the issue of any shares by any New Zealand incorporated company which is 25 percent or more overseas owned; borrowing in New Zealand by a New Zealand branch of an overseas company; and the issue of shares to overseas residents by a New Zealand incorporated company.

Consent under these regulations is also required to the acquisition by any overseas resident individual or organisation of

  1. 25 percent or more of the shares of a New Zealand incorporated company where such shares carry voting rights at any general meeting of the company.

  2. all, or substantially all, of the property in New Zealand used in carrying on a business in New

Zealand where the value of the property is more than NZ$100,000.

Any New Zealand incorporated company also requires the prior consent of the Reserve Bank before it borrows overseas or issues shares to overseas residents.

(f) Market in Overseas Securities: Trading in overseas sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency is confined to New Zealand residents, and to securities which were registered in the names of New Zealand residents on 16 June 1966. All dealings must be effected through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, and both seller and purchaser must supply details of the transaction to an approved depository, with whom the scrip must be lodged. Securities so purchased may be sold for New Zealand currency under the same conditions, or sold for overseas currency through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, provided the proceeds are either remitted to New Zealand or re-invested in similar securities within three months. The new scrip must also be lodged with an approved depository. The approved depositories are the Reserve Bank in Wellington and its branches in Auckland and Christchurch and the Bank of New South Wales (in respect of its own shares only).

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION—New Zealand became a member of these three organisations on 31 August 1961 under the International Finance Agreements Act 1961. The organisations are specialised agencies of the United Nations, and their objectives and the implications of New Zealand membership are set out in parliamentary paper A. 12, 1961. One of the purposes of the International Monetary Fund is to give confidence to members by making the fund's resources available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity. By paying in some gold and the balance of its fund quota in its own currency a member is able to draw against its gold for a nominal cost. New Zealand's fund quota was increased in March 1966 and again in December 1970, with a resultant increase in drawing rights under the gold and credit tranches. Such drawings up to January 1976 were permitted up to 100 percent of quota with increasing conditionality attached to drawings under successive tranches. After January 1976 the maximum access under the four credit tranches (but not the gold tranche) was increased by 45 percent in anticipation of an impending quota increase. In addition, drawings may be made under the fund's compensatory financing facility and the various special funding arrangements which are set up from time to time, such as the oil facilities of 1974 and 1975 and the supplementary financing (Witteveen) facility which is expected to come into operation during 1978.

New Zealand's position with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as at the end of a number of recent years is shown in the following table

As at End of YearQuotaDrawing Outstanding*General Account Position*Special Drawing Rights (SDRs)
GoldN.Z. Currency SubscriptionGold TrancheCredit TranchesOil FacilitiesCompensatory FinancingIMF Holdings of N.Z. CurrencyHoldings as % of QuotaN.Z.'s AllocationHoldings by N.Z.

*Drawings are made by obtaining usable foreign exchange from the Fund in return for New Zealand currency which the Fund then holds in its General Account until drawings are repaid.

†From time to time the IMF allocates SDRs to members with the objective of increasing international liquidity and promoting world trade. Holdings alter when SDRs are sold or purchased in exchange for foreign currency, or when payments in SDRs are made to the IMF in settlement of interest or other charges.

‡From 1 July 1974 the previous exchange rate of SDRs 1.12 = NZ$I was replaced by a system of fluctuating rates determined by the IMF in consultation with participating nations. At the end of 1974 the exchange rate was SDRs 1.0744 = NZ$1; at the end of 1975 it was SDRs 0.8916 = NZ$1; at the end of 1976 it was SDRs 0.8177 = NZ$1; and at the end of 1977 it was SDRs 0.8394 = NZ$1.

 SDR $(million)
197350.5151.5151.57569.458.1
197450.5151.550.585.7287.714269.40.5
197550.5151.550.5191.750.5444.222069.40.8
197650.5151.550.5238.7151.5592.229369.48.4
197750.5151.548.4238.7151.5590.129269.434.2

The principal purpose of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) is to promote the economic development of its member countries, by providing loans to governments (or loans guaranteed by governments) for development projects, and related technical assistance. The International Finance Corporation (IFC) promotes the growth of the private sector by lending or investing in business enterprises that are not guaranteed by governments. Both organisations now concentrate their efforts in the developing countries.

New Zealand has subscribed to 1,716 shares in the IBRD, with a par value of $207.0 million. Of this sum 90 percent has not been called up, but, together with the uncalled subscriptions of other member countries, acts as a guarantee for the IBRD's major source of funds, namely borrowing in the financial markets. The balance has been paid in US dollars ($2.1 million) and New Zealand currency and promissory notes ($18.6 million). New Zealand has subscribed to 923 shares in the IFC, with a fully paid-up value of $0.9 million.

During the period when the IBRD still lent to the more developed countries, New Zealand borrowed to finance a variety of development projects, as shown in the following table.

ProjectAmount $(million)DateInterest Rate (percent)Term (Yrs)
Harbour Improvements6.7196325
Cook Strait Electricity Cable32.5196420
Marsden Point Thermal Power Station15.7196615
Railways Development (First Loan)41.1196615
Railways Development (Second Loan)5.5197115

The second Railways development loan was originally approved for $16.0 million. In 1973 the undrawn balance of $10.5 million was cancelled when a decision not to increase railway freight rates for 3 years proved to be incompatible with undertakings in the loan agreement.

INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION—The purpose of the International Development Association (IDA) is to promote economic development in developing countries too poor to meet the costs of IBRD or other loans. Its highly concessional credits are financed by contributions from its developed country members. The IDA shares the same staff as the IBRD (and to some extent the IFC) and the three organisations are collectively known as the World Bank.

New Zealand joined the IDA in 1975, having earlier made a voluntary contribution of $5 million payable in instalments from 1970–71. As a member of the IDA New Zealand has contributed to the fourth replenishment of its funds ($7.9 million in instalments from 1974–75) and more recently to the fifth replenishment ($8.0 million from 1977–78).

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK—New Zealand is participating in the Asian Development Bank whose main objective is to accelerate the economic development of the ESCAP region. New Zealand's initial contribution to the capital stock of the bank is US$22.56 million, half of which is callable, Of the paid-in portion, 50 percent is paid in convertible currency, a total of US$5.64 million, while the balance is paid in New Zealand currency. In 1971 the capital subscription was increased 150 percent, increasing New Zealand's contribution from US$22.56 million to US$56.4 million. Of the increase 20 percent is paid in and 80 percent is callable, with a total of US$3.24 million to be paid in convertible currency.

New Zealand also makes contributions to two special funds—the Technical Assistance Special Fund to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$600,000, and the Asian Development Fund (ADF) to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$4.05 million (US$6 million), and has undertaken to contribute a further NZ$4.1 million over the period 1977–78 to 1980–81.

Two-thirds of the contributions to ADF I were tied to the procurement of goods and services from New Zealand, but all of the contributions to ADF II are fully convertible. The multi-purpose Special Fund to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$822,370, has been consolidated with the Asian Development Fund. All New Zealand's contributions to the Technical Assistance Special Fund, along with the New Zealand currency portion of the equity capital of the bank, are non-convertible.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL—The Monetary and Economic Council was established in 1961 to make independent reports on the extent to which price stability, economic growth, and full employment were being achieved in New Zealand and to make recommendations on both short- and long-term policy measures to secure those objectives. It reported to the Minister of Finance and published its findings on economic issues. The council issued 33 reports, approximately two a year. One generally concerned current economic trends and policies, the other a major economic topic calling for special attention. Recent special reports by the Council include Monetary Policy and the Financial System (No. 24), Growth (No. 26), Energy and Economic Policy (No. 27), The Public Sector (No. 31) and Inflation (No. 33).

In February 1978 it was announced that the Monetary and Economic Council was to disband after 17 years of operation and that its functions would be merged with those of the New Zealand Planning Council formed in 1977.

DEVELOPMENT FINANCE CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—This Corporation is a development bank established by Act of Parliament for the purpose of encouraging investment in, and providing financial assistance and advisory services to industry. The share capital of the Development Finance Corporation is owned by the Crown and is vested in the Minister of Trade and Industry, who appoints a board of directors to control the Corporation's business. The board consists of two Government officials and five others drawn from the private sector.

The Corporation's principal activity is the provision of term loan finance to manufacturing, processing, construction, transport, and service industries for the purchase of plant and equipment. Other forms of financial assistance including equity participation, hire purchase and leasing finance, commercial bill and mortgage money, and sub-underwriting are also provided. In addition it offers guarantee schemes to other institutions for the provision of mortgage and overdraft facilities. It also administers two suspensory loan schemes on behalf of the Government for the specific encouragement of export industries and regional development.

The Development Finance Corporation is concerned primarily with the support of projects which will advance the economic growth of New Zealand, make better use of the country's natural resources and provide employment opportunities.

The Corporation's Act requires it to "evaluate each proposal having regard to the economic worth of the industry concerned, its usefulness to the New Zealand economy, the extent to which it will be owned or effectively controlled by persons domiciled in New Zealand, and the prospects of it becoming profitable within a reasonable time".

During the year ended June 1977 the Corporation gave assistance, mainly in the form of loans, to a total value of $48.1 million.

In the 1976 Budget it was announced that, in order to rationalise Government assistance in the development of new industrial products and processes, a number of Government agencies were to be amalgamated under the administration of the Development Finance Corporation. These agencies were the Inventions Development Authority, the Industrial Research and Development Grants Scheme, and the National Research and Development Scheme. All these have now been integrated into the Applied Technology Programme inaugurated in November 1976 by the Development Finance Corporation.

Chapter 31. Section 30 INVESTMENT AND FINANCE

30 A—MORTGAGES

MORTGAGE LAW—The borrowing of money on mortgage is a principal means of financing the erection or purchase of houses and commercial buildings, and the purchase of farms. Under the Land Transfer Act 1952 "mortgage" means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing:

The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt.

The repayment of future advances, or payment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise.

The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge.

The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, see Section 10E, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act; they take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property reregistered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

SUMMARY OF MORTGAGES REGISTERED—A table is given showing the number of registrations and amounts involved.

Year Ended 31 MarchMortgage RegistrationsAreaAmount Secured
0.4 Hectares and underOver 0.4 HectaresTotalOver 0.4 Hectares0.4 Hectares and UnderOver 0.4 HectaresTotal
NOTE—These figures exclude certain miscellaneous registrations, but may include minor duplications.
  No. hectares (000)$(m)$(m)$(m)
1973101,04417,960119,0042,339684.0256.7940.7
1974117,94221,051138,9932,341958.9342.71,301.7
1975110,79920,871131,6702,1621,067.1410.11,477.2
 Under 2 Hectares2 Hectares and overTotalTotal AreaUnder 2 Hectares2 Hectares and overTotal
 hectares
  No. (000)$(m)$(m)$(m)
1976126,03021,620147,6503,3441,213.9398.61,612.4
1977137,94722,474160,4212,8371,375.7494.41,870.1

The 160,421 mortgages in 1976–77 were in the following categories: first table, 42,751; first flat, 52,071; subsequent table, 21,755; subsequent flat, 34,551; increases in amount, 9,293.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED: Value by Districts—The total amount for which mortgages were registered under the Land Transfer Act, together with the number of mortgages and the area of properties involved, is shown by registration districts in the following table.

Auckland urban area, the largest centre of population in New Zealand, is in the North Auckland district.

Land Registration District1975–761976–77
NumberAmountAreaNumberAmountArea
  $(m)hectares (000) $(m)hectares (000)
North Auckland48,609560.935853,609643.1305
South Auckland19,281222.645924,287302.4542
Gisborne1,53217.31641,59221.0151
Hawke's Bay6,17782.42026,80179.4169
Taranaki4,63450.31894,56958.298
Wellington30,249309.756729,078319.9500
Marlborough1,64716.11661,84821.287
Nelson3,75036.1953,71235.2105
Westland7156.5557086.433
Canterbury19,068197.250920,268230.9355
Otago7,21862.42818,61783.1260
Southland4,77051.03005,33269.2231
       Total147,6501,612.43,344160,4211,870.12,837

Classification by Amounts—The following table shows mortgages by amount groups for 1975–76 and 1976–77.

Amount Group1975–761976–77
NumberAmountPercentage of TotalNumberAmountPercentage of Total
$ $(000)  $(000) 
Under 1,0006,0621,1200.11,3617870.1
1,000–1,9996,7258,9440.65,0266,6330.4
2,000–3,99919,73553,7513.317,13146,8232.5
4,000–5,99919,28290,0455.618,33885,8064.6
6,000–7,9999,63463,5073.910,15966,9463.6
8,000–9,9997,62965,1104.08,14969,5553.7
10,000–14,99928,245350,70021.826,760327,78517.5
15,000–19,99918,485305,48419.019,235319,27217.1
20,000–49,99913,737367,73722.818,604489,81026.2
50,000 and over3,106306,00719.04,547456,66324.4
Unspecified15,01031,111
       Total147,6501,612,405100.0160,4211,870,080100.0

Rates of Interest—The average rate of interest on new mortgages over the last 50 years is given in a table in the Statistical Summary at the end of this Yearbook.

The average rate of interest for 1976–77 was 9.85 percent. The comparable rate for 1975–76 was 8.61 percent.

In 1976–77 the number of 3-percent mortgages decreased from 1,501 to 965 and the amount advanced decreased from $24.3 million to $15.6 million.

An analysis showing amounts classified by interest rate groups is given below. It should be noted that some mortgages, notably those of trading banks, do not specify the rate of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchNot Exceeding 5%Over 5% to 5½%Over 5½ % to 6½%Over 6½% to 7½%Over 7½% to 8½%Over 8½% to 9½%Over 9½% to 10%Over 10% to 12%Over 12%
 $(million)
197326.4135.249.4203.8288.567.552.79.011.9
197430.4125.043.0284.8464.8121.272.616.819.9
197546.3163.647.8189.9342.3233.7205.468.531.0
197664.1253.144.5146.1217.6183.8294.8176.169.6
197753.490.027.5221.4165.3227.8280.7416.2180.5

A similar analysis by interest rate groups is shown (together with the annual average interest rate) in the following diagram.

NEW MORTGAGES

Mortgages by Class—In this section, mortgages are tabulated by class, i.e., as first flat, subsequent flat, first table, subsequent table, and as increases on existing mortgages. The majority of housing mortgages, especially those from Government agencies, are table (or instalment) mortgages. At the 1976 Census, out of a total of 939,340 inhabited permanent private dwellings, 391,860 were owned with mortgage, 260,590 dwellings were owned without mortgage, 253,340 were rented or leased, and the balance of the dwellings were free with job, loaned without payment, or the tenure was unspecified.

The following table shows the amounts advanced and average interest rates of mortgages by class. Mortgages for which the interest rates are not specified are excluded from the calculations of average rates.

Year Ended 31 MarchClass of Mortgage
First FlatSubsequent FlatFirst TableSubsequent TableIncrease of MortgageTotal
Amount Advanced $(m)
1973338.376.5416.881.627.5940.7
1974514.1111.5559.583.732.91,301.7
1975592.2162.4551.994.576.11,477.2
1976585.2209.7603.3125.588.71,612.4
1977719.6249.9664.0164.472.21,870.1
Average Interest Rate (percent)
19738.198.326.997.647.157.60
19748.358.587.267.847.437.85
19759.079.257.237.958.368.29
19769.789.857.128.468.878.61
197710.6910.788.629.919.379.85

From 12 February 1958 the State Advances Corporation and its successor, the Housing Corporation, have made housing loans with provision for rebate of interest to 3 percent where the income of applicants does not exceed prescribed limits. If mortgages at 3 percent interest are excluded from the calculations, the average rate of interest on all mortgages during recent years becomes 7.45 percent in 1971–72, 7.63 percent in 1972–73, 7.66 percent in 1973–74, 8.34 percent in 1974–75, 8.70 percent in 1975–76, and 9.91 percent in 1976–77.

SOURCES OF MORTGAGE FINANCE—The following table indicates the sources of finance for mortgages registered. Of the new mortgages registered in 1976–77, 17.4 percent of the aggregate advances were obtained from Government agencies (of which the principal one is the Housing Corporation) compared with 23.0 percent in 1975–76.

Year Ended 31 MarchProducer Enter-prisesCentral Govt.Local Govt.Trading Banks*Trustee Savings BanksBuilding SocietiesInsurance and Pension FundsHouseholdsOtherTotal

*Includes related savings banks from 1976.

†Includes solicitors nominee companies.

 $(million)
 0.4 Hectares and Under
1973..127.20.78.259.071.054.9150.0213.0684.0
1974..142.31.410.473.7108.979.2174.4368.7958.9
1975..198.21.715.868.395.979.9233.4373.91,067.1
Under 2 Hectares
1976228.6268.42.832.880.573.192.7241.1193.91,213.9
1977280.7202.12.424.3106.6113.8122.1275.6248.11,375.7
Over 0.4 Hectares
1973..83.90.11.48.37.919.082.653.4256.7
1974..79.70.22.39.713.328.8106.5102.2342.7
1975..82.90.32.97.111.828.7160.6115.8410.1
2 Hectares and Over
197647.7102.50.73.05.17.227.0143.262.2398.5
197771.8125.10.23.28.911.830.4187.255.7494.4

Points to note in considering statistics of mortgages by source of finance are that most trading bank mortgages specify neither interest rates nor the amounts involved; and that, from 1976, the Government Life Insurance Office and the State Insurance Office have been included among Insurance and Pension Funds, not Central Government, as previously.

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED—Details of mortgage discharges for the latest 2 years are given in the following table.

Land Registration District1975–761976–77
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
North Auckland32,699240.537,996309.6
South Auckland10,45481.515,096136.5
Gisborne9787.21,1458.3
Hawke's Bay3,69024.04,68732.1
Taranaki2,66618.53,10722.7
Wellington20,058134.721,112153.5
Marlborough9816.21,1388.1
Nelson2,36213.32,50315.8
Westland4511.64502.0
Canterbury12,26478.314,717108.2
Otago5,14527.16,70038.7
Southland2,81521.33,48428.0
       Total94,563654.1112,135863.4

Many discharges are not registered, particularly in the case of leaseholds and also of second or other further mortgages when the power of sale has been exercised by the first mortgagee.

30 B—STATE FINANCE FOR FARMS AND OTHER PRIMARY INDUSTRY

The Government first entered the field of mortgage finance in 1894 with the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act—the objective being to provide loans at economic interest rates and on stable terms and conditions to farmers for land development purposes. The functions of the office, later known as the State Advances Department, were subsequently enlarged to allow loans for the erection and purchase of houses and to local authorities for the provision of public facilities. A public corporation was established with the passing of the Mortgage Corporation Act 1934–35—the share capital of $2,000.000 being subscribed equally by Government and public, in terms of the State Advances Corporation Act 1936, the Government acquired the privately-owned share of the Mortgage Corporation, extended its functions and changed its name to the State Advances Corporation of New Zealand. Under the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974 the rural lending activities of the State Advances Corporation passed to the newly-established Rural Banking and Finance Corporation from 1 April 1974.

RURAL BANKING AND FINANCE CORPORATION—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation is the organisation through which Government loans are channelled to individuals or companies engaged in any type of farming, to the fishing industry, or to support industries in these areas. The Rural Bank consists of a chairman and four other directors appointed by the Minister of Finance. Two of the directors are appointed after consultation with the Federated Farmers of New Zealand (Inc).

The principal functions of the Rural Bank are to carry on the business of making loans and providing other assistance in its discretion for farming, other primary industries, and related service industries. Its powers include the acquisition of land and other property by purchase or lease and the management, development, sale, or lease of such property. The Rural Bank also has powers to give guarantees and indemnities to other lenders. In the execution of its functions and powers it is required to give effect to Government policy.

Farm Purchase—Loan finance is granted by the Rural Bank for the purchase of farm properties. Present policy is directed towards assisting young farmers and farm workers who can demonstrate a need for finance from the Rural Bank, and who have not previously owned an economic property. Loans may be granted for the purchase of land and improvements and for stock and plant.

The policy of average amounts for particular types of loans, which allows a higher sum to be granted in appropriate cases, has been continued. These lending guidelines now run at $50,000 for dairy farms and $70,000 for sheep farms.

Farm Development—Loan policy in the area of farm development is to stimulate increased production' strengthen marginal farms, and provide buildings and other essential development. In appropriate cases, loans may be advanced on second or subsequent mortgage.

Refinance—The Rural Bank has limited funds for refinancing mortgages but will normally not provide assistance unless the mortgagor is facing serious hardship through inability to obtain a renewal.

Loans on Stock and Plant—Loans which are essentially for the purchase of stock and plant, e.g., sharemilking propositions, are available on the security of the stock and chattels being purchased.

Sharemilkers' Suspensory Loans—A sharemilker or other short-term lessee, purchasing his first farm, who faces a tax liability through having to reduce stock may qualify for a suspensory loan if the carrying capacity of the farm he is purchasing is less than that of the property he has been farming and the stock reduction is more than 20 head. The loan is calculated on $30 per cow reduction with a maximum of $7,000 and is interest free. Subject to the borrower owning and farming the property for 10 years the suspensory loan may be written off.

Co-operative Rural Intermediate Credit Associations—Loans may be granted by the Rural Bank to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations operating in terms of the Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927 and amendments. At 31 March 1976 there were four co-operative rural intermediate credit associations in operation. The loans authorised through this channel during the year 1975–76 amounted to $2,146,256.

Farm Mortgage Guarantees—In recognition of the need for fanners to have access to more capital for future reorganisation and reconstruction than the Rural Bank can make available by direct loans, the Rural Bank operates a Farm Mortgage Guarantee Scheme. Under this scheme the Rural Bank protects prudent lenders with soundly administered mortgage against loss of capital.

Forestry—Where it is considered that tree planting is the best use of the land the Rural Bank will lend to farmers for forestry projects and associated development works.

Climatic Relief—In adverse conditions, such as drought, flooding, or damage to crops from gales, the Rural Bank may provide by way of loan, emergency funds to enable a disaster victim to resume or continue operations. The criterion is need—whether or not adequate security is available—and the motive is relief, not compensation for loss.

Farm Ownership Savings—The Farm Ownership Savings Scheme, administered by the Rural Bank, allows farm workers, sharemilkers, others associated with farming, and also students the opportunity of opening savings accounts for the purpose of buying a first farm or for the purchase of stock and plant to go sharemilking or share farming for the first time. These accounts can be opened with the Post Office Savings Bank, Trustee Savings Banks, and some Building Societies. Depositors have the option of operating one or other of the following types of accounts under the scheme:

  1. Ordinary Farm Ownership accounts which provide for tax free purchase grants; or,

  2. Special Farm Ownership accounts which allow depositors tax benefits on their savings.

Fishing Vessel Ownership Savings—This scheme is administered by the Rural Bank and is similar to the Farm Ownership Savings Scheme. It gives fishermen, students, and other persons connected with fishing, the opportunity of opening savings accounts to purchase their first vessel of 9 m or more, or to acquire an interest in a vessel of this size.

The accounts can be opened with the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, and some building societies. Like the Farm Ownership Accounts, depositors have the option of operating one or other of the following types of accounts under the scheme:

  1. Ordinary Farm Ownership Accounts which provide for tax free grants.

  2. Special Farm Ownership Accounts which allow depositors tax benefits on their savings.

Industrial Lending—Loans are available to those industries in the rural sector which have export potential, which will assist regional development, or which service the primary industries. Examples include veterinary clinics, packing sheds, cool stores, grain dryers, and milk treatment plants as well as agricultural contractors. Consideration is also given to assisting soundly-based operators to purchase plant and machinery of an innovatory nature for demonstration and evaluation in New Zealand conditions.

Export Suspensory Loans—To promote the export of non-traditional agricultural and horticultural and fish products, the Rural Bank will grant to exporters suspensory loans of up to 40 percent of qualifying expenditure on plant and equipment, including fishing vessels. Upon achievement of an export target, each loan is converted to a grant and written off.

Fishing Industry—It is the policy of the Rural Bank to encourage the development of the fishing industry on a sound basis, and, to this end, it will provide loans for the purchase building, or refinance of larger or more efficient vessels. Loans are also available for carrying out improvements, including re-engining, to already owned vessels. Similar loans are offered for the acquisition of replacement or additional fishing gear. The Rural Bank also helps with the purchase of modern equipment and buildings for the handling, storage, freezing, and discharge of fish. Rock oyster and mussel farmers are eligible for loans assistance for development work provided they hold a lease or licence and themselves contribute a minimum of 50 percent of the risk capital.

The Rural Bank's lending policies to the fishing industry have recently been expanded by the introduction of the following new schemes.

Special Fishing Boat Loans—These enable fishermen who are experienced, with proven ability and who only have modest means to obtain a loan of up to 80 percent for the purchase of a new or used vessel including gear and equipment.

Fishing Vessel Construction Suspensory Loans—These loans are to encourage the building of larger fishing vessels in New Zealand shipyards for the development of the less traditional fish species. Suspensory loans of up to 40 percent of the total cost of the vessel are provided by the Bank. The loan will be written off if the catch targets set by the bank are met.

In addition the Rural Bank is involved in the financing of shore based facilities for the fishing industry. These include loans for fish processing facilities and cool stores and flake ice plants. Loans are also provided for upgrading work necessary for processing factories to meet increased hygiene requirements.

LOAN AUTHORISATIONS—A summary of loans authorised by the Rural Bank during the years ended 31 March 1976 and 1977 is given in the following table.

Loans1975–761976–77
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
Standard settlement93643.8094846.07
Special settlement......858.89
Additional land (strengthening existing farms)2476.552758.19
Sharemilkers' suspensory (farm purchase)1240.331520.34
Development2,67531.182,83438.11
Irrigation1823.311923.80
Irrigation suspensory60.19160.10
Stock and plant loans7707.087887.97
Advances to RIC associations2812.142611.91
Refinance1,49716.124438.58
Climatic relief350.20560.41
Estate duty......361.08
Department of Lands and Survey settlements220.84381.41
Industrial (including fishing)27316.1014517.39
 7,048127.846,269144.25
Livestock Incentive Scheme loan option......1,1679.80
Seasonal finance support2,61511.42880.29
 9,663139.267,524154.34
Livestock Incentive Scheme tax option......1171.97

A breakdown of the item, industrial (including fishing) loans in the above table is given below.

Item1975–761976–77
No.$(m)No.$(m)
Non-fishing
      Rural industries401.88300.92
      Producer boards110.0017.69
      Co-operatives81.56134.12
      Special plant200.37110.14
      Agricultural contractors640.65400.83
      Rural export suspensory loans120.1850.12
       Total14514.6410013.82
Fishing industry
      Loans to fishermen1261.40363.30
      Loans for processing facilities20.0670.24
      Rural export suspensory loans......20.03
       Total1281.46453.57

30 C—STATE FINANCE FOR HOUSING

HOUSING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—Under the Housing Corporation Act 1974 the functions of the State Advances Corporation in housing were amalgamated with those previously performed by the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works and Development to constitute the Housing Corporation of New Zealand, responsible to the Minister of Housing.

Housing Loans—The Housing Corporation continues to concentrate the bulk of its residential lending on the provision of loans for the erection of houses or the acquisition of houses not previously occupied. Loans to assist home seekers to purchase previously occupied houses, reinstated in 1964, are available to the extent of available funds and to applicants within strictly defined priority categories.

All loans are made on security of a first mortgage of land. Each case is considered on its merits, taking into account the financial position of the applicant and the cost of the proposition. Each applicant is expected to make the maximum possible contribution from available resources.

There are no fixed loan limits but an average loan concept is applied which provides loans of a greater amount in areas where housing costs are highest. The maximum loan available for either erection or purchase will, however, generally not exceed 90 percent of the Corporation's assessed value of the security offered.

The prime interest rate since 22 July 1977 is 8½ percent. This rate is subject to review at 3-yearly intervals. The rebated interest rate of 3 percent is still available, and intermediate interest rate concessions of 5 percent and 6½ percent are also available. To qualify for a rebated interest loan, borrowers must not have owned a property within 5 years prior to the date of the loan application and the breadwinners' gross income (including overtime, bonus payments, and secondary employment) must not exceed certain limits—for 3 percent $85 per week increased by $5 for each dependent child, for 5 percent between $85 and $120, and for 6½ percent between $120 and $160, with both similarly increased by $5 for each dependent child. Loans now being granted with an interest rebate provide for an automatic increase to the next higher rate at 3-yearly intervals.

Of the 10,620 housing loans for erection or purchase approved during the year ended 31 March 1977 (involving $163.7 million), 2,192 loans (involving $39.61 million) carried interest rebates.

Loans are also granted for essential alterations and alterations to Corporation securities as where the housing of an elderly or dependent relative is involved. Loans together with any prior mortgage debt, must be within 90 percent of value and where using of an elderly relative is involved may be by way of second or subsequent mortgage security.

Housing improvement loans, introduced in 1972, were extended in 1975 to all localities, but with particular emphasis continuing to be placed on the inner areas of the four main centres. Loans are entertained for owner-occupier or tenanted properties on subsequent mortgage for the purposes of upgrading of older housing stock.

Loans to refinance existing mortgages on a residential property where family income is under undue strain caused by high interest rates and/or onerous terms of repayment, were introduced in the 1973 Budget. This policy was extended in August 1977 to provide for refinance where a mortgage had fallen due and could not be renewed or replaced within the private sector. For the year ended 31 March 1977 a total of 138 loans for $0.9 million were advanced. Security may be on first and subsequent mortgage.

Family Benefit Capitalisation—Applications for advances under the Family Benefit (Home Ownership) Act 1964 are received only from applicants who have already been declared eligible by the Department of Social Welfare. For the year ended 31 March 1977, 2,354 advances totalling $3.03 million were authorised by the corporation under this agency, compared with 6,012 advances totalling $8.20 million in 1975–76.

Mortgage Guarantee Scheme For Housing—The corporation has statutory authority to guarantee mortgages and operates a scheme whereby an approved lender may be guaranteed repayment of a housing loan granted by the institution. In 1976–77, when there were two separate guarantee schemes, there were 1,165 guarantees involving $8.29 million.

Loan Authorisations—A summary of loans authorised by the corporation for the latest 2 financial years ended 31 March is given in the following table.

Class of Loan1975–761976–77
NumberAmountNumberAmount
Housing loans— $(m) $(m)
      Erection11,659177.98,421133.5
      Purchase3,70154.52,19930.2
      Other purposes3,49414.69854.9
      Refinance3682.01380.9
       Total housing19,222249.011,743169.5
Loans to industry142.1103.0
      Grand total19,236251.111,753172.5

The above figures include rehabilitation loans to ex-servicemen for housing purposes. They do not include loans to local authorities.

A summary of the number of housing loans under administration as at 31 March 1977 is as follows:

Loans on Mortgages* 

*These figures do not include loans administered by the Housing Corporation on an agency basis (e.g. hotel investment account, gas companies) or industrial loans.

Urban147,977
Local authority300
Urban housing1,049
Rural housing696
Approved securities85
       Total150,107

HOUSING ACT 1955—In addition to its lending activities the Housing Corporation has the function of administering the Housing Act 1955 on behalf of the Crown. The following are the main operations:

  1. Letting and administration of Corporation rental houses and flats.

  2. Sale of State rental houses to tenants desiring to purchase.

  3. Loans to local authorities for the erection of rental accommodation.

Corporation Rental Housing—The number of additional dwelling units taken over by the corporation during the year ended 31 March 1977 totalled 2,238, including 25 older houses purchased by the corporation. Rental properties under administration on a tenancy basis at 1 April 1976 were 55,059. After adding the new units taken over and allowing for sales and repurchases, there was a net total of 56,863 at 31 March 1977.

Rental accounts in arrears at 31 March 1977 were 6.57 percent compared with 8.14 percent a year earlier.

Rents received from tenancies amounted to $37,441,257 compared with $30,051,640 for 1975–76. Apart from interest, the largest single item of expenditure charged against rentals was the provision for maintenance of rental houses. For the year ended 31 March 1977 this amounted to $14 million against $12 million for the previous year. Rates payable to local authorities showed an increase for the year ended 31 March 1977 totalling $7,087,796 compared with the previous year's figure of $5,822,363.

The interest rate payable on National Development Loans capital increased from 3 to 8½ percent on new borrowings. The rate of interest payable on the capital as at 31 March 1976 was 6 percent increasing to 8½ percent on 10 percent of that capital per annum. The average rate charged for the year was 6.13 percent, of which 3.13 percent was recouped from the Public Account.

References to Corporation housing construction are contained in Section 19 (Building Construction and Housing).

Sale of Rental Houses—The Government reintroduced the sale of rental houses to tenants in March 1976 on the following terms:

  1. Sale price to be the current market value of the property.

  2. The minimum deposit to be 20 percent of the purchase price.

  3. The balance of the purchase price together with interest payable over a term of up to 30 years on an instalment table basis.

  4. Interest at 8½ percent reducible to 5½ percent or 3 percent reviewable 3-yearly while conditions of sale are complied with in the case of purchasers who would qualify for these rates for a Corporation housing loan.

From the inception of the sale of rental houses up to 31 March 1977 the number of sales finalised amounted to 27,774 dwellings (excluding pensioner units transferred to local authorities) for a total consideration of approximately $184.50 million.

30 D-BUILDING SOCIETIES

GENERAL—Building societies are a relatively popular means of saving and investment in New Zealand and have about 465,000 members. There are 59 building societies with total assets of $540 million. They provide finance for home ownership to the extent of some $90 million a year. Building societies have assisted the national economy by developing the field of saving. They are encouraged by legislation, as in other countries, and are exempt from income tax except for income derived from the letting of property. The relevant legislation is the Building Societies Act 1965, the Building Societies Savings Bank Regulations 1966, and the Building Societies Regulations 1967.

The Building Society Amendment Act 1974 brought the sale of shares by terminating societies under provisions along the lines of those of the Door to Door Sales Act 1967.

The Building Societies Investment Order 1977 requires building societies to hold 15 percent of their assets in qualifying public securities.

TERMINATING SOCIETIES—Although some of these societies issue preference shares and accept deposits, most of their funds are obtained from periodical subscriptions paid by members on their shares. In general members contract to subscribe for a minimum period of 10 years. Subscriptions cannot be withdrawn within 10 years of membership without penalty. Field staffs are employed to recruit, by direct canvassing of new members who take up subscription shares, each share entitling a member to compete for a loan of $400, with a contractual payment of 10 cents weekly per share. As funds allow, ballots are held for interest-free loans. A member winning an interest-free loan may use it to finance a home, but the popular feature of these societies is that they offer to ballot-winners, as an alternative to an interest-free loan, a tax-free lump sum payment which is accepted by the great majority of ballot-winners in preference to the interest-free loan.

Members may also compete for interest-bearing loans by a process of tendering or by application. Over 90 percent of the loans granted are on an interest-bearing basis and generally if a member receives an interest-bearing loan he is then excluded from ballots. Terminating societies do not pay an annual dividend or interest on subscription shares but shareholders who have not received a loan and withdraw their shares after 10 or more years of membership receive their subscriptions back in full plus such an amount as the directors may determine. Shares are segregated into groups which terminate after some 30 years when those remaining financial members who have not won a ballot nor received an interest-bearing loan receive a share of profits in addition to a return of their subscriptions. At 31 March 1977 there were 15 terminating societies with 405,627 shareholders and 478 terminating groups.

During 1976–77,1,214 interest-free loans won by ballot were taken up, while in 6,159 cases members elected to receive payments for rights won by ballot; 1,181 advances were made through tender or auction process, and 3,034 other interest-bearing advances were made on mortgage to members.

PERMANENT SOCIETIES—Whilst encouraging systematic savings these societies rely more substantially for their funds on single investment deposits and fully paid shares. Some of these societies are authorised to conduct savings banks in a manner substantially similar to the Post Office and other savings banks. A number of permanent societies maintain financial ratios which have enabled them to qualify for designation as societies with which trustees may invest trust funds by way of deposit.

Permanent societies do not conduct ballots but make loans available to members on application. The structures of permanent societies differ, some being purely co-operative, others being partly proprietary and partly co-operative, and others being fully proprietary with all fixed capital somewhat similar to finance companies. Permanent societies have, in the past, tended to be conservative and localised. Their progress has been largely confined to the south of the South Island. This situation is now changing. Permanent societies are providing offices in most central city areas, the types of investment they offer are becoming more widely known, and share subscriptions are rising substantially. At 31 March 1977 there were 44 permanent societies with 59,043 shareholders.

ACTIVITIES OF SOCIETIES—Societies do not have a common balance date. The following tables have been prepared from the annual returns of societies as at their various balance dates during the calendar year. The first of these tables gives a summary of results for the latest 3 available years.

Item 197419731976
      Permanent Societies    
Number of societies 494744
Paid-up capital$(000)72,19186,770113,290
Number of shareholders 53,74355,43359,043
      Terminating Societies    
Number of societies 121215
Paid-up capital$(000)246,360270,083294,828
Number of shareholders 408,643405,365405,627

A summary of receipts and payments during 1976 is given in the following table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

*Ten Societies are authorised by the Act to accept deposits on conditions substantially similar to the conditions pertaining to the Post Office, trustee, and private savings banks.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Receipts
Share subscriptions (excluding subscriptions on borrowing shares)70,39860,936131,334
Deposits received—
      Savings bank*5,7252565,981
      Other80,40714,38194,788
Interest and principal repaid—
      Advances on mortgage (including subscriptions on borrowing shares)33,39962,15395,552
      Advances on shares3129,6869,998
Investments realised25,43448,90374,337
      Payments
Share moneys withdrawn45,91133,72479,635
Deposits and interest withdrawn—
            Savings bank*5,7922586,050
            Other81,87816,72098,598
Advanced on mortgage34,27760,65894,935
Advanced on shares24110,55710,798
Investments made30,89148,13579,026

A summary of income and expenditure for financial years ended in 1976 is given in the following table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

*Mainly agency commissions.

Income
Interest earned on—$(000)$(000)$(000)
      Advances11,40620,21331,619
      Investments1,3212,3893,710
Fees, commissions and fines2751,1441,419
Incomes from properties71601672
Net credit from shares forfeited or withdrawn at a discount...2,0592,059
Mortgagors' contributions to reserves2451453
Other1011,9472,048
       Total income13,17628,80441,980
      Expenditure
Interest incurred on borrowings3,6232,0495,672
Directors' emoluments172148320
Auditors' fees5587142
Salaries9613,5624,523
Other administrative expenses6142,3852,999
Selling and establishment expenses—written off322,3222,354
Payments for ballot loan rights—written off...8,9638,963
Expenses on properties, including depreciation58595653
Discount on shares paid in advance—written off...5454
Other811,144*1,225
       Total expenditure5,59621,30926,905
      Excess of income over expenditure7,5807,49515,075

The purposes of advances on mortgage in the 3 latest available years are shown in the following table.

purpose of loanPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
197419751976197419751976197419751976
  $(m)  $(m)  $(m) 
Dwellings—
      Erections5.75.54.99.79.48.315.414.913.2
      Purchases27.215.924.138.122.426.565.338.350.6
      Other purposes4.62.73.428.119.522.432.722.225.9
Business and other properties5.32.11.95.03.83.410.35.95.3
       Total42.826.134.380.855.160.7123.681.394.9

The following table summarises balance sheets for the financial year ended during 1976.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

*Most terminating societies bring the principal outstanding on interest-free loans into their balance sheets at its face value.

†For definition and analysis see Parliamentary paper B.14 Report of the Registrar of Building Societies.

Assets$(000)$(000)$(000)
Land and buildings1,17319,39320,566
Other fixed assets1762,5642,740
Advances on security of mortgage (less credits on borrowing shares)*146,512289,145435,657
Advances on security of shares34613,65313,999
Investments25,86436,52762,391
Cash and bank1,0111231,134
Appropriations in trust debit balances...1,4261,426
Other2201,8612,081
 175,302364,692539,994
      Liabilities
Paid-up capital (excluding borrowing shares)113,290294,828408,118
Reserves8,80524,25933,064
Retained profits99129,15830,149
 123,086348,245471,331
      Less fictitious assets6318,80018,863
 123,023329,445452,468
Deposits—
      Savings bank2,6641352,799
      Other46,88426,54273,426
Appropriations in trust credit balances...1,7641,764
Provisions1,6771,0762,753
Bank overdraft7721,6722,444
Other2824,0584,340
       Total liabilities175,302364,692539,994

30 E—COMPANIES

GENERAL—The method of carrying on business by companies is now a proved system, a system for the incorporation of persons into a separate entity for trading purposes and providing a convenient method for the investment of capital and for the limitation of liability of the people associated in the company. The incorporation of a company with limited liability provides the framework of commercial and industrial life; private companies have become a usual form of business organisation for the smaller trader.

LEGISLATION—Comprehensive legislation relating to companies is contained in the Companies Act 1955, which came into force on 1 January 1957. An important principle in the legislation is the protection of shareholders, creditors, and the general public by the requirement that there must be the fullest practicable disclosure of information concerning the activities of companies. The annual financial statements must exhibit a true and complete account of a company's affairs and transactions. A prescribed form of presentation is required, and comparative figures for the previous year must be shown. A prospectus must be deposited with the Registrar of Companies before it is issued.

Any number of persons from 2 to 25 may form a private company; a public company must have at least 7 members. A private company of not less than 7 members may, under certain conditions, be re-registered as a public company.

The Companies Amendment Act 1963 restricts company takeovers. The Companies Amendment Act 1966 deals with deposits and debentures, and came into force on 1 January 1967.

COMPANY REGISTRATIONS—The following table shows, for the latest available 5 years, th number of new companies registered, deleted from the company register, placed under receivership, and liquidated. In comparing company registration figures for one year with another, it should not be overlooked that registrations, on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons, are included.

YearNew Companies RegisteredCompanies Dissolved or Struck OffCompanies Placed Under ReceivershipCompany LiquidationsTotal Number of Companies
Court OrderVoluntary
19726,4032,4022979738888,071
19738,8143,1711687323494,233
19747,7363,5891917831398,399
19758,0804,878207148319101,666
19766,3662,083282121288106,106

ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC COMPANY FINANCIAL STATEMENTS—Since 1953 the Reserve Bank of New Zealand has undertaken an analysis of the annual financial statements of a sample of public companies in New Zealand to obtain information concerning company finance and the capital market. Results of these analyses are published in an annual supplement to the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

The basis of coverage includes only companies of New Zealand domicile whose income is wholly or mainly from New Zealand sources.

The 1976 survey covers the analysis of the annual accounts of 245 New Zealand public companies received during the calendar year 1976. Annual surveys prior to 1973 covered the annual accounts of public companies received on a June year basis. Of these 245 companies, 85 percent actually balanced in 1976 with the remaining 15 percent balancing during 1975.

Proportionate changes in sources and use of funds over the latest 4 years are shown in the following table.

1973197419751976
Source of Funds—percent
      Retained profits and depreciation37.538.234.738.5
      Other long-term sources28.515.944.645.3
      All long-term sources66.054.179.383.8
      Short-term sources34.045.920.716.2
       Total100.0100.0100.0100.0
Use of Funds—
      Property and plant40.936.946.142.6
      Long-term investment8.71.51.912.0
All long-term use49.638.448.054.5
      Stocks7.629.440.612.0
      Debtors25.426.93.817.9
      Other short-term17.45.37.615.6
       Total100.0100.0100.0100.0

Appropriation of income of 245 New Zealand public companies in the latest 2 years is shown in the following table.

Annual Accounts19751976
 $(000)
Income for year—
      Trading524,640663,266
      Investment18,48620,969
      Other non-trading3,0274,246
             Total income546,153688,481
Less—
      Depreciation131,356147,865
      Interest on fixed liabilities71,08897,934
      Directors' fees2,8373,030
      Tax on current year income117,466144,721
      Minority interests6,9597,393
            Net profit after tax216,447287,538
Previous year's adjustments—
      Tax1,4781,297
      Other551–37,727
            Available for appropriation218,476251,108
Appropriations—
      Goodwill, etc., written off15,2557,017
      Ordinary dividends100,247106,802
      Preference dividends2,1511,951
      Retained in reserves100,823135,338
             Total218,476251,108

Net Profits and Net Profit Ratios—Net profits (after tax) and net profit ratios are shown in the following table. This analysis reflects trading conditions mainly from April 1975 to July 1976. Most industries experienced gains in net profits during the period, substantial improvements being recorded for a number of groups associated with exporting. The profits of companies engaged in meat processing and the stock and station agents were assisted by the greatly-improved prices for meat and wool, while companies in the forestry and wood sector also increased profitability.

Of the 20 company groups set out in the table, all but 3 groups-recorded upward profit movements. The drugs and chemicals, gas, and the financial sectors had movements against the overall upward trend. The lower profits of the drugs and chemicals sector were associated with the decreased farm investment in agricultural insecticides and topdressing, whereas the gas industry decline was caused by the restriction of the quantities of natural gas available. The financial sector's profit reductions reflected the additional borrowing costs and operating expenses being met by the various institutions in this sector.

While there was a sharp percentage increase in the aggregate net profits of the 245 companies in this survey compared with the previous year's figures, care must be taken not to misinterpret this figure because it is computed on a relatively low base following the decline in profitability of 15.8 percent recorded in the 1975 survey. The figure is put in perspective by comparing it with the results in the 1973 and 1974 surveys. The returns on shareholders' funds and the annual increases in profits in those 2 years were all in excess of the results for 1976.

The relatively high rates of inflation have greatly contributed to the rising costs being incurred by companies. The relatively high rates of inflation during the survey period coupled with the conventional accounting procedures used for profit calculation, mean that the recorded rates of growth in profits cannot be said to represent the "real" increase taking place.

Type of Company*Number of CompaniesNet ProfitReturn
TotalChange From Previous YearOn Shareholders FundsOn Total Resources

*For note on balance dates see opening paragraphs of this sub-section.

†The return on shareholders' funds is net tax-paid profit expressed as a percentage of shareholders' funds. This ratio demonstrates the earning power of the funds invested in the business by the shareholders.

‡The return on total resources is an expression of the percentage of net tax-paid profit to total tangible assets. This ratio is an indicator of the earning power of the business.

  $(000)percent
Manufacturing
      Meat processing56,457+4,0169.54.7
      Beverages611,105+1,9815.72.8
      Other food813,221+6,09912.76.9
All food1930,783+12,0968.44.2
      Woollen mills511,142+1,5959.84.5
      Clothing manufactures51,235+19214.37.7
      Forestry and wood854,020+14,56014.16.1
      Printing and publishing159,590+2,11312.07.6
      Drugs and chemicals1311,042–7749.75.3
      Non-metallic minerals78,024+1488.05.2
      Metals and machinery2131,345+6,62113.56.5
      Electrical machinery and appliances138,165+1,72615.98.1
      Other manufacturing1612,800+1,40113.27.1
Manufacturing other than food103147,363+27,58212.56.1
All manufacturing122178,146+39,67811.55.7
Other (excluding financial)
      Construction915,243+3,92712.86.0
      Gas5630–2148.93.2
      Mainly wholesale3028,782+5,37212.55.8
      Mainly retail3123,849+6,26811.55.8
      Stock and station agents1722,988+12,9119.73.7
      Transport127,913+3,24016.17.4
      Property investors92,668+5479.94.5
Total other (excluding financial)113102,073+32,05111.65.2
      Total (excluding financial)235280,219+71,72911.55.5
Financial107,319–63812.41.7
Grand Total245287,538+71,09111.65.2

Chapter 32. Section 31 INSURANCE

31 A—LIFE ASSURANCE

DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE ASSURANCE—Life assurance is no longer restricted to its original function, but has been encouraged for its avenue of contractual savings accumulating to considerable capital investment. Its additional role as the basis of many private superannuation schemes gives to a large segment of the labour force a protection not available to it a generation ago. Whole-life assurance has been widely supplemented by endowment assurance. Under this category there are policies with titles such as "family-income", "education", "mortgage-protection", or "retirement", and persons taking out policies regard them as a means of systematic saving. Government encouragement is given by way of income-tax concessions on premiums paid, this approach being common to the governments of many countries.

The steady flow of funds to insurance companies by the payment of premiums are in the form of contractual saving, and the investment of these funds has become a major influence on the financial market. Life-assurance companies are leading lenders of long-term funds to the private sector and important investors in Government and local authority securities. Growth in life-assurance assets has exceeded $100 million a year in recent years and in 1976–77 they totalled $2,485 million of which 29.9 percent is invested in mortgages on property, 27.8 percent in Central Government and local authority securities, and 15.9 percent in company stocks, shares and debentures.

In the year 1976–77 there were 231,382 new policies issued for a total sum assured of $3,508.8 million, or approximately $1,114 per head of population. The total number of policies in force at the end of the year was 2,719,439 for a total life assurance of $17,372 million. (These totals exclude annuities and figures from one small company where returns were net available at the time of printing.)

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON — On the basis of the ratio of the value of life assurance in force to the national income, New Zealand is fourth to Japan, United States and Canada, as shown in the following table. (Source: Life Insurance Fact Book, 1977.) Selected countries are listed in the following table.

Country19701975
 percent
Canada157153
United States157158
Sweden127117
New Zealand135152
Japan128209
Australia108114
Netherlands107114
United Kingdom92100

In Sweden the introduction in 1963 of a large national group life plan sponsored by the Government but underwritten by private life companies helped to increase the ratio markedly. Term life cover is believed to constitute a higher proportion of the total coverage in Canada and the United States than in New Zealand, where permanent life cover is relatively high. (Purchase of assurance for a set term provides maximum immediate cover at the lowest cost and can be used to cover mortgage repayments on a house; insurance for a short term for travel purposes is also popular in the United States and Canada.) Group life plans are negotiated by groups of workers in other countries and typically provide for a death benefit equal to one or two times annual earnings.

GENERAL—The statutory provisions affecting life assurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act 1908, the Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910, and the Government Life Insurance Act 1953.

There are 34 life-assurance offices conducting business in New Zealand at the present time. Of these, 15 are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, Capital Life Assurance Ltd., Cuna Mutual Insurance Society, New Zealand Insurance (Life and General) Co. Ltd., Metropolitan Life Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd., the South British Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Superannuation and Mutual Savings Ltd., Primary Industries Insurance Co. Ltd., A.A. Mutual, Tasman Mutual Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Fidelity Life Assurance Go. Ltd., A.G.H. Insurances Ltd., Equitable Life and General Insurance Co. Ltd., Invincible Life Assurance, and the Medical Life Assurance Society Ltd., whilst three, the Provident Life Assurance Co., Commercial Union Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd. (formerly Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand Ltd.), and the Monarch Life Insurance Co. of New Zealand, are registered in this country. The balance dates of the offices vary between July and June of the following year, the financial year of the majority ending in December. The statistics given here relate exclusively to business transacted in New Zealand. Further information is available in the annual report Insurance Statistics prepared by the Department of Statistics and available in Government bookshops.

LIFE ASSURANCE: Ordinary and Industrial—The progress of life assurance in New Zealand is illustrated by the following diagram, which shows the amount of new business transacted.

LIFE ASSURANCE - NEW BUSINESS

A summary of annual life-assurance business is given in the following table.

YearValue of Policies IssuedValue of Policies DiscontinuedValue of Policies Existing at End of YearAnnual Premiums on Existing PoliciesNumber of Policies in Force
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)(000)
1971–721,560.5462.07,996.4168.62,337
1972–731,988.1563.09,445.0196.32,443
1973–742,212.9677.910,984.7221.82,534
1974–752,535.1792.412,858.9248.92,637
1975–763,392.01,109.315,150.2284.12,673
1976–772,508.81,298.317,371.5312.92,719

While the upward trend shown in the figures has been influenced both by the rate of monetary depreciation and the normal growth of population, the course of life-assurance business, particularly during the past decade, has been one of steady progress. In the last 12 years the face value of new business underwritten annually and the amount of cover in force has increased almost fourfold.

Total discontinuances include surrenders and lapses, as well as policies maturing or terminated by death.

A prominent feature of new insurances of recent years has been the increase in the average amount of the sum assured per policy.

YearAverage Amount*

Excludes annuities and Industrial policies.

 $
1971–727,174
1972–738,575
1973–749,916
1974–7511,210
1975–7615,242x
1976–7715,311

Reasons for the growth in the average amount of the sum assured per policy shown in the above table include the changing types of policies being issued, and the increasing numbers of such policies which have a high cover (for example, cover for staff superannuation purposes by business concerns, temporary insurance with a high death-risk cover, multiple death benefit and family benefit policies having a high initial cover, and "unit" policies whereby a single premium provides a high initial death cover). A further reason is the relatively high rate of inflation in recent years.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS—The principal items in the balance sheets of life-assurance companies are summarised below for the 3 latest years. As in the previous tables the figures relate to New Zealand business only. In the case of some companies other branches of insurance business are included.

Liabilities1974–751975–76x1976–77
 $(000)
Paid-up share capital5,9626,0095,570
Life-assurance and annuity funds1,960,9562,165,1882,398,334
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds23,78226,15727,910
Claims admitted but not paid14,07316,03516,384
Other liabilities44,25635,04436,506
       Total2,049,0292,248,4352,484,704

The assets of the New Zealand branches at the end of each of the 3 latest years were as follows.

AssetsAmountPercentage of Total
1974–751975–761976–771974–751975–761976–77
 $(m)percent
Mortgages on houses, etc.656.9695.4744.132.131.029.9
Loans on policies108.0119.9133.25.35.35.4
Central Government securities404.7440.2482.419.819.619.4
Local authority securities156.0181.4208.17.68.18.4
Real estate323.6373.0431.915.816.617.4
Company shares and debentures325.9353.9395.315.915.715.9
Outstanding premiums20.521.924.71.01.01.0
Interest accrued, etc.21.725.328.61.01.11.2
Cash15.214.715.60.70.60.6
Other assets16.522.720.90.81.00.8
       Total2,049.02,248.42,484.7100.0100.0100.0

The Government has made agreements with the life-insurance companies regarding the proportion of their new funds invested in Government and local authority securities. By September 1976 the proportion to be held in Government Securities was lowered from 21 to 20 percent, of which up to 10 percent could be in local authority securities. In addition, Life offices were required to hold 20 percent of their assets in housing and farming investments.

For 1976–77 the average rate of interest earned on the life funds of insurance companies was $8.05 percent, compared with $7.59 percent during 1975–76.

The following diagram illustrates the expansion that has taken place in recent years in the assets of the New Zealand branches of life-assurance companies and the manner of their investment. In composite-insurance offices, receipts of life assurance and annuity business must be treated as a separate fund, and the interests of the policyholders are safeguarded by the fact that these funds are available only for liabilities arising from such business.

LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES - TOTAL ASSETS

31 B—ACCIDENT INSURANCE

GENERAL—Until 1974 there were three principal classes of accident insurance transacted in New Zealand. These were: (a) personal, covering accidents, sickness, etc.; (b) employers' liability under statutory or common law; and (c) motor vehicle insurance. Other classes of accident insurance include the insurance of plate glass, television sets, luggage, and livestock.

The Accident Compensation Act 1972, effective from 1 April 1974, provides continuous cover against accidents of all persons in regular employment, whether at work or not, through an earners' scheme financed by levies averaging 1 percent of incomes payable by employers on behalf of employees: the levies replace employers' liability premiums under the Workers Compensation Act. (See Section 35B—Industrial Injuries.)

Until 1974 there were two classes of motor vehicle insurance—comprehensive coverage, and compulsory third-party risks cover. Owners of motor vehicles were compelled to insure against their liability to pay damages on account of the death or bodily injury of another person caused through the car-owners negligence. However, this compulsory scheme was replaced from 1 July 1974 by a new scheme under the Accident Compensation Act 1972. The new scheme provides financial compensation for personal injuries suffered in motor vehicle accidents irrespective of blame. It is financed by levies similar to the previous insurance premiums paid by motor vehicle owners.

The number of accident insurance offices represented in the statistics for 1976–77 was 59. The head offices of the companies concerned were in the following countries: Great Britain, 12; Australia, 11; United States of America, 3; Hong Kong, 1; and New Zealand, 32.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The following table shows the principal items of revenue and expenditure. Premiums and claims are net, i.e., after deductions for acceptances of reinsurance, whether effected locally or overseas, have been taken into account.

YearNumber of OfficesRevenueExpenditure
PremiumsOther RevenueTotal*ClaimsCommissionSalariesOther ExpensesTotal*

*Excluding reserve provisions.

 $(million)
1971–7267106.25.7111.977.27.011.38.6104.1
1972–7367126.26.3132.586.58.012.213.3120.0
1973–7464137.49.1146.599.88.713.213.0134.7
1974–7562121.912.1134.0103.48.713.815.8141.7
1975–7664120.810.1130.997.59.415.311.0133.2
1976–7759141.111.5152.6108.211.216.914.9151.2

Premium receipts in 1976–77 were 16.8 percent above the 1975–76 figure, while claims rose by 11.0 percent.

A review of the expenses incurred in transacting all accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of 6 years are shown in the form of percentages of revenue to expenditure under various heads. The percentages do not take into account reserve provisions.

YearClaims to PremiumsCommission to PremiumsSalaries to PremiumsOther Expenses to PremiumsTotal Expenses (other than Claims) to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to Total Revenue
 percent
1971–7272.76.610.68.125.398.093.0
1972–7368.56.39.710.526.695.190.6
1973–7472.66.39.69.525.498.092.0
1974–7584.87.111.313.031.4116.2105.8
1975–7680.77.812.79.129.5110.2101.7
1976–7776.77.912.010.630.5107.299.1

Working expenses (excluding taxation) amounted to $36,772,000 in 1974–75, $34,889,000 in 1975–76, and $40,477,000 in 1976–77. The ratios of working expenses to premium income for each of the 3 years were respectively 30.2, 28.9, and 28.7 percent.

31 C—FIRE INSURANCE

GENERAL—Fire is still the main cause of property damage, but today many property owners seek protection not only against fire damage, but also against a wide range of other dangers including water, windstorm, explosion, breakages, theft, aircraft, and impact by motor vehicles. Under houseowners' and householders' comprehensive policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, many thousands of additional claims are now dealt with each year. Increasing numbers of commercial property owners, too, are extending their fire policies to include damage from other causes.

In 1976 there were 43 fire-insurance companies conducting business in New Zealand. Of these the head offices of 25 were in New Zealand, 11 were in Great Britain, 5 in Australia, 1 in the United States of America, and 1 in Hong Kong. The statistics in this section relate to the calendar year for about two-thirds of these companies; for the remaining companies the financial year nearest to the calendar year is used.

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS—The statistics in the following summary of business relate to the business conducted with the insuring public. Reinsurance transactions are not taken into account. While the bulk of the claims represent fire losses the figures also include the numerous, frequently minor, claims made under comprehensive policies for damage from other causes.

YearPolicies at 31 DecemberGross Cover at 31 DecemberPremium IncomeGross LossPercentage of Claims to Premium Income

*Estimated.

 No.$(m)$(000)$(000)percent
1971–722,068,97018,309.443,33917,34940.0
1972–732,092,71121,223.754,49220,86038.3
1973–742,149,59824,832.860,77524,80440.8
1974–752,259,37732,842.577,90233,14542.5
1975–762,274,69541,131.997,91545,59646.6
1976–77*2,328,66248,758.5111,18750,19445.1

LIABILITIES—The following table shows whole-world liabilities of fire-insurance offices. The figures refer to all departments of business underwritten. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act 1908 life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available for other classes of insurance transacted. Of the 43 fire offices, 4 also engage in life-assurance business in New Zealand.

Item1974–75 Total1975–76 Total1976–77
Overseas CompaniesLocal CompaniesTotal
 $(million)
Paid-up capital614.4791.8481.154.2535.3
Reserves3,480.44,491.43,873.7123.43,997.1
Other liabilities8,362.811,215.77,928.8398.68,327.4
       Total12,457.616,498.712,283.6576.212,859.8
Life funds10,499.113,576.87,878.21,575.49,453.6
       Total liabilities22,956.730,075.520,161.82,151.622,313.4

ASSETS—The following table gives the amount of assets in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last 5 years classified under various heads. The figures given include all investments in New Zealand securities and do not relate merely to the assets held by the New Zealand branches of the companies concerned. The assets of other departments—accident, life, marine, etc.—are also included.

Assets in New Zealand1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77
 $(million)
Real estate41.2947.2156.062.778.6
Central Government securities31.7733.8635.832.941.1
Local authority securities28.4031.4034.328.826.6
Company shares and debentures79.0288.93104.5109.7143.0
Mortgages, etc.37.2241.1649.548.463.6
Outstanding premiums31.4334.9139.7x46.249.6
Cash and other assets in New Zealand51.7569.2867.952.665.5
       Total New Zealand assets300.88346.75387.6381.3468.0

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—A statement of the total revenue and expenditure, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross figures include reinsurance business accepted, while the net figures comprise insurances with the public, plus re-insurances accepted, and less amounts reinsured with other offices.

It is insurance practice at the closing date of the accounts of a fire-insurance company to transfer to a reserve a proportion of the income received during the year, to allow for policies whose currency extends into the following accounting year. Thus, if the amount transferred to reserve at the end of the current year is greater than that transferred at the end of the previous year, the net effect is equivalent to an increase in this year's expenditure and the difference is therefore shown as expenditure. Similarly, if the amount transferred this year is less than last year, then the difference will be shown as revenue.

The entry of change in reserve provision in the gross figures, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the actual net reserve to the net premium income.

Item1975–761976–77
GrossNetGrossNet
Revenue$(thousand)
Change in reserve provisions...103x...475
Amount of fire premiums received during year118,70875,099141,96891,457
Interest and dividends...5,847...7,291
Rents...1,144...1,353
Other revenue...1,743...2,085
       Total118,70883,935141,968102,661
      Expenditure    
Change in reserve provisions8,6506,2259,7146,806
Amount of fire claims paid during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage51,49637,06156,28139,431
Fire authority levies12,2868,53613,0909,913
Central Government taxes308–8462,7453,084
Rents1,0141,0141,2181,212
Depreciation8878871,0761,081
Allowance and commissions on premiums to agents, subagents, and others12,9487,71917,8447,962
Salaries and wages, including commissions, on profits or bonuses12,96012,72215,64815,580
Other expenses of management6,978x7,035x8,7269,417
       Total107,526x80,353x126,34294,486

31 D—STATE INSURANCE

LIFE ASSURANCE—The New Zealand Government Life Insurance Office was founded in 1869 at a time when New Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities in regard to life assurance. The payment of all policies has always been guaranteed by the Government.

From a total of 59 policies, assuring a sum of $60,005, issued during 1869–70, the business of the office has grown to a stage when, at the end of 1976, policies numbered 463,959 and the total sum assured reached $2,282 million. Among life assurance companies, the Government Life Insurance handles the second largest volume of business in New Zealand.

Income and expenditure figures of the Government Life Insurance Office are now given for each of the latest 4 years.

YearPremium Income (Including Purchase of Annuities)Total IncomeManagement Expenses and CommissionsTotal ExpenditureRatio of Management Expenses to Total IncomeRatio of Management Expenses to Premium Income
  $(thousand) percent
197332,51452,7725,23724,1049.9216.11
197433,01555,6586,08626,26910.9318.43
197541,25866,5957,18235,65410.7917.41
197645,72574,4368,80839,89611.8319.26

During the year ended December 1976 7,853 policies became claims by death of the life assured or by maturity. The amount paid in respect of these claims was $15,830,341, a further sum of $583,816 was paid to annuitants, and $12,878,047 was paid to policyholders who cashed bonuses or surrendered policies.

Figures showing the progress of the office during the latest 4 years are contained in the next table. Annuities and bonuses are excluded.

YearNew BusinessPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies in Force at End of Year
Number of PoliciesSum AssuredAnnual* PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums

*Excludes single premiums.

  $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m)
197330,585228.53.819,17273.91.7446,2521,458.527.5
197428,251267.34.021,19081.91.7453,3131,643.929.7
197529,390340.23.723,803118.72.7458,9001,865.430.8
197630,191373.34.425,132124.32.4463,9592,114.532.8

The following table shows the progress of business of the Government Life Insurance Office from the date of establishment until 31 December 1976.

PoliciesAnnuities
NumberSum AssuredReversionary BonusesAnnual Premiums
  $(million)$(000)
Total issued1,030,4663,223.0252.458,45830,192
Total void566,5071,109.084.825,69319,371
Total in force at 31 Dec 1976463,9592,114.5167.632,76610,820

The office's total assets at 31 December and their class of investment are shown in the following table.

Class of InvestmentAmountPercentages
197419751976197419751976

*Mainly premiums and interest due and accrued interest.

 $(million)percent
Mortgages on property142.4153.9161.340.5040.2138.73
Loans on policies21.924.025.56.236.276.13
Government securities70.477.782.920.0220.3019.90
Local authority securities27.931.337.07.948.188.87
Real estate34.040.146.99.6710.4811.26
Company shares and debentures46.346.350.813.1412.1012.21
Miscellaneous assets*8.89.312.02.502.432.90
       Total351.6382.7416.4100.00100.00100.00

FIRE, ACCIDENT, AND OTHER INSURANCE—The State Insurance Office is empowered to carry on any class of insurance business other than life assurance. As the State Fire Office it commenced business in 1905. In 1925 accident business was transferred to it from the Government Life Insurance Office and since 1947 it has undertaken marine insurance.

Its growth is indicated in the following table.

YearNet PremiumsClaimsWorking Expenses
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
197334,40524,2635,092
197433,83129,4765,545
197542,25934,5695,912
197654,39238,4947,440

Prior to 1974, the main classes of accident insurance transacted were motor vehicle (comprehensive and third-party risk), employer's liability, personal accident, public risk, and plate glass. With the implementation of the Accident Compensation Act on 1 April 1974, all classes of business involving the insurance of liability for personal injury by accident ceased to be risks insured by the office. The major classes of business affected were employer's liability insurance and Transport Act insurance.

Fire insurance is more accurately described as property insurance, since the houseowners' and householders' policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, provide coverage not only against fire but also against a wide range of other possible causes of damage. Commercial property owners, too, are increasingly extending their fire policies to cover other dangers.

The total assets of the State Insurance Office at 31 December 1976 amounted to $78.8 million which included $51.3 million in the form of investments ($8.3 million in Government securities, $15.1 million in local body securities), and $18.6 million in fixed assets, mainly land, buildings, and plant. Of the total liabilities, reserves amounted to $27.3 million, unexpired risks to $23.5 million, and unadjusted claims to $9.3 million.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE INSURANCE—The Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944 is administered by a Commission, of which the Minister of Finance is chairman. All property insured against fire is deemed to be insured to the extent of the indemnity value against earthquake and war damage. Premiums at the rate of 5c for each $100 of insurance cover are collected by the insurance companies and paid into the Earthquake and War Damage Fund (less commission of 2½ percent).

Advances may be made from the Consolidated Revenue Account if at any time the amount in the Earthquake and War Damage Fund is not sufficient to meet the claims thereon.

"Earthquake damage" is defined as damage occurring as the direct result of earthquake or of fire occasioned by or in consequence of earthquake. In 1950 an extension of the scheme was instituted to provide some measure of protection to the insured against storm and flood of an abnormal or widespread nature. In 1954 the definition of disaster damage was extended to include volcanic eruption, and authority was given to the commission to accept insurance against landslip. This latter type of cover does not apply automatically. Finance is provided by crediting 10 percent of the premiums compulsorily collected under the Act to a special Disaster Fund.

Since 1 June 1967 the commission has had power to underwrite the geothermal activity insurance on a voluntary basis.

The following is a comparative statement for the last 6 years of the financial operations under the Earthquake and War Damage Act.

Item1971–721972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77

*At end of each period.

†From commencement in November 1949.

Income—$(thousand)
      Premiums—
            Earthquake and war damage7,9019,62310,75113,62317,24720,341
            Disaster8821,0691,1951,5141,9162,260
            Interest7,6728,7809,85311,41413,34215,436
       Total16,45619,47221,79926,55132,50538,037
Outgo—
      Claims—
            Earthquake and war damage21127392420182337
            Disaster5634365771,2635,2114,414
      Salaries and expenses of management646365709498
      Discount to insurance offices215269298378479563
       Total1,0521,0401,0322,1315,9665,412
Surplus15,40418,43220,76724,42126,54032,624
Earthquake and War Damage Fund*150,306164,886181,969208,270239,968267,773
Disaster Fund1,9502,600x3,2493,6774993,255

For the year ended 31 March 1977 a total of 3,935 claims were received, compared with 11,709 for the previous year. The breakdown of claims was as follows: earthquake 2,113; extraordinary disaster 1,538; landslip 284. Respective figures for the previous year were 1,728; 9,711; and 270.

Earthquake Claim—The amount paid, including an estimate for outstanding claims was $337,236. No earthquake caused serious damage during the year, although several hundred earthquakes of magnitude 4 on the Richter scale and greater were recorded during 1976. The largest earthquake which registered 7 occurred on 5 May 1976 near Milford Sound, and resulted in 450 claims for minor damage. Two deep earthquakes registering 6.1 and 6.3 were recorded in the Bay of Plenty on 15 May and 23 December 1976, but these caused only minor damage. The greatest number of claims, 980, resulted from a magnitude 6 earthquake on 18 January 1977 near Cape Campbell.

Disaster Claims—Disaster claims paid, with an estimate for outstanding claims, totalled $3,981,577. The disastrous flood in Wellington and the Hutt Valley on 20 December 1976 resulted in very heavy claims from the commercial and industrial sectors. The total number of claims incurred as a result of this flood was approximately 580.

Landslip Claims—The cost of landslip claims, including an estimate for outstanding claims, was $432,823. The 20 December 1976 flood in Wellington and the Hutt Valley resulted in several dwellings becoming total losses, while other dwellings were severely damaged.

Chapter 33. Section 32 EMPLOYMENT

Table of Contents

LABOUR FORCE—Important factors affecting the proportional size of the labour force to population include the age-structure of the population, the usual age of completion of full-time education, the percentage of married women engaged in full-time paid employment, and net migration flow. The fluctuations in the growth of the labour force follow those of births some 15 to 20 years earlier There is a relatively greater importance of the 15–25 year age group in the labour force as the majority of females are actively engaged at this period of their lives before taking on home-making responsibilities. At the time of the 1971 Census, 26.6 percent of the female labour force was below 21 years of age, compared with 12.4 percent of the male labour force.

The estimated annual growth of the labour force in recent years is shown in the following table.

As at AprilMalesFemalesTotalLabour Force as - a Percentage of Total Population
NumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual Increase
 (000)percent(000)percent(000)percentpercent
1972796.90.9326.01.21,122.91.038.9
1973814.72.2335.52.91,150.22,438.7
1974834.22.4357.16.41,191.33.639.2
1975843.21.1364.52.11,207.71.438.9
1976849.50.7372.52.21,222.01.239.1
1977841.7–0.9388.44.31,230.10.739.2

The following table shows the male and female members of the labour force by age groups at five censuses.

Age Group (Years)19561961196619711976x

*Includes Not Specified ages at 1956 census.

Under 20(m)53,84862,39678,66975,97386,341
 (f)48,88958,22474,35872,59875,295
20–24(m)66,40775,68291,155108,686120,029
 (f)33,63438,88449,32163,36775,206
25–34(m)155,628153,128159,117175,557221,787
 (f)32,65830,58636,87551,68779,497
35–44(m)138,820149,691164,492158,185165,006
 (f)32,55838,31746,54557,20675,002
45–64(m)184,497209,456229,693244,476252,684
 (f)42,34654,93868,60884,09897,816
65 and over(m)22,93520,15322,46922,09219,251
 (f)3,7933,9084,7374,9104,419
Total*(m)622,758670,506745,595784,969865,098
 (f)194,094224,857280,444333,866407,235

Though year-to-year fluctuations were considerable during the 10 years to 1967 the average migration gain to the population was about 10,000 a year, representing approximately one-fifth of the annual increase in the population as a whole. As immigrants as a body have a higher proportion in the working-age group than the normal cross-section of population, a period of high net immigration adds rapidly to the percentage of the population in the labour force an i is particularly valuable where vacancies requiring particular skills are filled by migrants. In 1968 and 1969 there was a migration 3oss with a loss of some workers to Australia and a consequent slowing down of the labour force growth. During the years ended March 1970 to 1974 the net annual inflow from migration rose from only 800 in 1969–70 to 33,576 in 1973–74. There was a slight decline to 29,643 in 1974–75, followed by a sharp decline to 6,567 in 1975–76.

During the two latest March years, 1976–77 and 1977–78, there has been a substantial population loss from net migration. Among permanent and long-term migrants, final statistics for the year ended March 1977 showed 37,020 arrivals and 56,092 departures, a net loss of 19,072 compared with a net gain in this category of 5,300 in 1975–76. Of this net loss of 19,072, 15,484 (81.2 percent) were actively engaged in the labour force. Of these, 2,638 were in the occupational division, professional, technical, and related workers (these were mainly teachers and nurses) and 3,258 were in the clerical division. The greatest loss was in the division, craftsmen, production process workers, and labourers, which had a net loss of 6,034.

In 1977–78 figures for permanent and long-term migrants showed 36,972 arrivals and 63,680 departures, a net loss of 26,708 compared with 19,072 the previous year. Of this net loss, 19,880 (74.4 percent) were in the labour force. More detailed figures are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE—The growth of population has been accompanied by a changing emphasis in employment. In the nineteenth century the major activities of farming, mining, and lumbering gave rise to manufacturing industries and to commercial and professional occupations. In 1881, 11.2 percent of the total population was engaged in agriculture, 13.1 percent in industries, which included mining, and 6.6 percent in commercial and professional occupations. By 1901 the proportion in tertiary activities and farming had increased, while that in secondary industries had remained constant, and mining had declined relatively in importance. The proportions were then 14.5 percent in farming, 13.1 percent in industry, and 11 percent in services.

The more recent rapid development of larger urban centres has been associated with a trend away from primary into secondary industries, a trend which developed noticeably after the depression of the 1930s and which was given marked impetus by the war. The broad changes in the economy are indicated by the following table. Decreases in the proportions engaged in primary production are typical of advanced economies, although it has to be noted that the farming community makes greater use of the services sector in the development of farm productivity.

Production Group1966 Census1971 Census1976 Census x
Persons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour Force
Primary production140,93613.7134,15912.0133,95910.5
Secondary industry381,58937.2388,07134.7433,19034.1
Services503,51449.1596,60553.3705,18455.4

From April 1971, estimates of the industrial distribution of the total labour force have been made according to the revised New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification. Only the figures for "Total in industry" and "Total labour force" are comparable with earlier estimates.

The following figures show the estimated size and distribution of the labour force in April 1976 and April 1977.

Industrial Group N.Z.S.I.C.April 1976April 1977
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*The ratio of males to females in agriculture and hunting was revised from October 1976 in accordance with 1971 Census of Population benchmark data.

 (000)(000)
Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing126.115.9142.0117.4*23.5*140.9
Mining and quarrying4.30.24.54.40.24.6
Manufacturing industry—
Food, beverages, and tobacco58.712.971.660.414.474.8
Textiles, wearing apparel and leather17.129.846.917.332.149.4
Wood and wood products22.32.524.821.92.624.5
Paper and paper products, printing and publishing21.27.728.921.68.129.7
Chemicals, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastics15.65.921.516.56.322.8
Non-metallic mineral products10.51.311.810.41.411.8
Basic metals, metal products, machinery and equipment, and other manufacturing industries75.717.593.276.718.795.4
       Total, manufacturing industries221.177.6298.7224.883.6308.4
Electricity, gas, and water14.11.515.614.01.615.6
Construction89.53.593.087.53.791.2
Wholesale and retail trade110.382.5192.8110.482.5192.9
Transport, storage, and communication89.921.9111.889.021.8110.8
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.43.734.177.844.235.179.3
Community, social and personal services—
      Public administration, etc.38.316.654.937.916.954.8
      Sanitary and similar services4.62.47.04.52.36.8
      Social and related community services53.796.5150.254.297.4151.6
      Recreational services7.44.311.77.44.311.7
      Personal and household services33.612.446.033.912.546.4
             Total, community and personal services137.6332.2269.8137.8133.4271.3
       Total in industry836.6369.41,206.0829.6385.41,215.0
Armed forces in New Zealand10.40.711.110.20.811.0
Registered unemployed2.52.44.91.92.24.1
Total labour force849.5372.51,222.0841.7388.41,230.1

LABOUR FORCE PROJECTIONS—The alternative labour force projections for the period 1978–2011, shown in the table which follows, are integrated with the 31 March 1977 base-population projections, included in the population section, and the same mortality, fertility, and net migration assumptions apply. The definition of "labour force" used in deriving these projections includes those "unemployed but seeking work" and consequently they should be regarded as indicating the future potential supply of labour in terms of the stated assumptions. The "changing" labour force participation assumption employed in these projections implies an increasing participation by women in most economically active age groups, and a declining participation by both sexes at the older economically active age groups.

As at 31 MarchProjected Total New Zealand Labour Force* Assuming "Changing" Age-Specific Labour Force Participation Ratesand Net Immigration Variant Designated:
LowMediumHigh
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*These projections hive as base the estimated labour force (provisional) at 31 March 1977. The mortality, fertility, and net immigration assumptions on which the projections are based, are the same as those for the population projections appearing in the population section.

†Projections based on "changing" labour force participation assume the continuation of 1956–76 trends in age-and-sex- specific labour force participation rates until 1986, after which time participation rates are assumed to remain constant.

 (thousand)
1977 (Base)8784111,2898784111,2898784111,289
19788834201,3038834201,3038834201,303
19798904301,3208914301,3218924311,323
19808994411,3409004421,3439054451,350
19819084531,3619124551,3679194581,377
19829194651,3859264681,3949334711,404
19839334781,4119404811,4219474841,431
19849474911,4389534941,4479614971,458
19859615051,4659675071,4759755101,485
19869745181,4929815201,5019885231,512
19911,0515541,6051,0575571,6141,0655601,625
19961,1105761,6861,1175801,6971,1255831,709
20011,1616001,7601,1686041,7721,1776081,786
20061,2096281,8381,2186331,8501,2276371,865
20111,2506481,8991,2596521,9111,2686571,925

EMPLOYMENT SITUATION—In the post-war years up to 1967 the labour situation was characterised by overfull employment and a high number of vacancies in industry. In 1967, following deflationary measures, there was a sharp rise in the number of unemployed persons. By the middle of the year when seasonal workers found difficulty in obtaining off-season jobs the number of unemployed rose to over 6,000, or about 0.6 percent of the labour force. Unemployment became stabilised at about this level until the autumn of 1968, when it rose further to 8,500 and remained about this figure during the following winter. From a peak of 8,560 in July 1968 the number of unemployed fell steadily, except for occasional monthly increases, to under 1,200 in March 1971. The number of unemployed rose to average 5,684 for 1972 but for 1973 dropped to an average of 2,321. During 1974 the average monthly total of unemployed was 955, the lowest figure since 1966, but the later months of the year were showing a rising trend, and the monthly average for 1975 was up to 4,166. In 1976 it was 5,356 and in 1977 it was 7,385. Unemployment continued to rise relatively sharply during the last quarter of 1977 and the early months of 1978 (the totals for these are given in the Latest Statistical Information section). Vacancies, which moved from a general level of about 8,000 to a level between 2,000 and 4,000 during 1967 and 1968, increased to approximately 6,000 in late 1969, and averaged 2,648 for 1972, 3,538 for 1973, 4,556 for 1974, 2,051 in 1975, 1,666 in 1976, and 1,523 in 1977.

PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT—The functions and duties of the Department of Labour are set out in the Labour Department Act 1954. On the employment side the duties include: the provision of a complete employment service for the purposes of placing workers in employment, assisting employers to provide employment, helping persons to find better or more suitable employment, and aiding persons who require occupational readjustment or training; the collection and publication of information relating to employment and unemployment; the making of surveys and forecasts of the classes of employment required or available; the promotion of voluntary placing of suitable persons in such employment; and in general the promotion and maintenance of full employment. The department also operates hostels for workers, and arranges for the selection of immigrants.

To sum up, the department seeks to maintain a policy of full employment at the highest productive level. As an aid to this, it operates 22 district employment offices and 16 satellite offices, and administers employment schemes, subsidised where necessary, for those unfit to compete in the ordinary labour market.

Six hostels are operated by the department, comprising workers' hostels, Public service hostels, and a Maori youth hostel.

The department's employment service is being restructured and strengthened to cater for the needs of a much wider spectrum of the work force and potential members of it. The aim of the new service is to provide the co-ordinating point for employment and related services for the labour force. It offers advice and assistance to both workers and employers to promote the best use of available labour resources. Piloted initially in Auckland, the new service has been extended to Whangarei, Manukau, Tauranga, Hamilton, Rotorua, Palmerston North, Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Greymouth, and Invercargill. Remaining districts are being upgraded as accommodation and other resources permit, but their staff has been strengthened by the appointment of employment officers (special duties) as a preliminary step to the development of a full range of advisory employment and placement services.

A feature of district employment service developments is the involvement of community interests in the work of the new service. The Auckland Employment Advisory Committee, established in 1972, has been restructured to facilitate its role in the further development of the Auckland Employment Service. A small management committee now guides the work of sub-committees (concerned with the particular employment problems faced by the disabled, young people, ethnic groups, and women returning to the work force) and reports on other matters in which the main committee is interested. It also co-opts the services of persons (other than committee members), with particular skills or specialist knowledge to participate in working parties on employment matters. The latter have made a valuable contribution to working parties concerned with the employment problems of Maoris and Pacific Islanders in the Auckland area and with elderly persons returning to the work force.

In addition, employment advisory committees have been established in Whangarei, Tauranga, Gisborne, Hawke's Bay Manawatu, Buller-Westland, Canterbury, and Southland.

A core responsibility of the new service is to match the training, experience, aptitudes, and desires of workers or potential workers, with the job opportunities offering. To help achieve this, considerable emphasis is placed on personal contact and continued liaison with employers and other organisations. This, in turn, leads to the notification of an increased number and wider range of vacancies as well as a better appreciation of the regional labour market. The result is that clients can be interviewed in greater depth and more and better matched placements made.

The restructuring of the department's employment service also recognises that many clients do not wish to formally register for employment. They do, however, require informed advice to satisfy their own employment or training needs. In this category are short-term, part-time, farm or seasonal workers, apprenticeship, trade and vocational inquiries, school leavers, women contemplating returning to the work force, those seeking employment or training opportunities in other districts, and many others. Advisory type of discussions or interviews have become a marked feature of the Auckland employment service. This level of assistance also encompasses the development of better written information resources, occupational and careers displays, and facilities for a "job self service". The Cabinet has approved the transfer of the Vocational Guidance Service to the Department of Labour in order to form a complete advisory and placement employment service.

MANPOWER PLANNING—Changes in the structure of industry and in technology are occurring at an ever-increasing rate. This fact has led to a growing emphasis on forecasting manpower supply on the one hand and likely manpower requirements on the other, with a view to equating the two by means of relevant manpower policies. The forecasts are based on certain assumptions concerning the growth of population, net migration and labour force participation rates on the supply side, and on production plans and productivity rates on the demand side. As the bases of the forecasts are volatile, the latter need to be revised at frequent intervals. The forecasting process is therefore never completed, but is an on-going task which must take account of the dynamic forces operating in the labour market. During the past year the Department of Labour's National Manpower Forecasting Section has prepared a comprehensive series of industry employment studies. These have gathered together a variety of historical information pertaining to manpower in each industry. The next step is to prepare forecasts of manpower requirements by industry, occupation, and level of vocational qualifications. A research monograph describing the methodology and giving provisional projections of manpower requirements is to be published shortly. It is expected that this will provide the basis for regular forecasts of manpower requirements which can be fed into the manpower planning system.

VOCATIONAL TRAINING—Meeting the employment needs of industry and commerce in order to improve productivity growth rates and enhancing an individual's chances of contributing to his/her development and to the economy are vital functions of vocational training. The development and organisation of training within New Zealand on a national basis is the responsibility of the Vocational Training Council.

The council has the following membership, appointed jointly by the Ministers of Education and Labour: a chairman; the Director-General of Education; the Secretary of Labour; two members nominated by the N.Z. Employers' Federation: two members nominated by the N.Z. Federation of Labour; one member nominated by the N.Z. Manufacturers' Federation; one member nominated by the Technical Institutes Association; one member nominated by the Technicians Certification Authority of New Zealand; and not more than five other members (three appointments have so far been made under this provision).

In addition, the council has three associate (non-voting) members: an appointee of the State Services Co-ordinating Committee; an appointee of the Combined State Services Organisations; and the Chairman of the University Grants Committee.

Under the Vocational Training Council Act 1968 the council's functions are prescribed as advisory to Government, State departments, industry, commerce, agriculture, social welfare, and other interested organisations. Recommendations may relate to improved training, the development of new or established facilities, the co-ordination of training schemes, levies or other methods for the financing or encouragement of training, the award of scholarships, the fostering of research, the carrying out of inquiries and investigations in any field of training, and the maintenance of an adequate information service.

However, the activities of the council considerably exceed that of an advisory or recommendatory role. Council has been, and still is, deeply involved in the promotion of fully integrated and meaningful training in the majority of industries and local authorities.

The Vocational Training Council, encourages a systematic approach to training at all levels in all sectors of the economy, linked to proper manpower development policies with in-built tangible recognition for proven efficiency. There is emphasis on industry self-help and on joining in company manpower schemes.

Representative voluntary industrial and commercial training boards have been established for 28 industries. Boards include members from employer, employee, educational, and other specialist groups. A major incentive has been the Government grant of $17,500 a year to encourage the appointment of executive training officers to work for industry training boards. There are now 56 of these officers. Industry training boards, among other things, examine existing training and assess the need for revised or new schemes. This involves both the identification of the level of ability of the person required (machine operator, graduate, tradesman, supervisor, etc.) and the numbers required at each level.

Further, the council has concerned itself with "back-up" research and investigational studies and with promoting training programmes for particular groups within the community. This is done through a series of advisory committees. Specialists in areas such as women and employment, apprenticeship and trade training, management, and supervisory training, and Polynesians in the work force meet to organise projects in these areas and to make recommendations to council.

APPRENTICESHIPS—Under the Apprentices Act 1948 orders governing apprenticeships are made by the Industrial Court, which consists of a judge, a workers' member, and an employers' member. Orders are made on the recommendations of New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees, which consist of four representatives of employers, four representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of each committee. The New Zealand committees are in effect policy-making committees. There are 36 committees, which normally meet once or twice a year. Committees covering larger industries, e.g., engineering, carpentry, printing, meet three or four times per year.

Day-to-day administration of the Apprentices Act and the apprenticeship orders is carried out by the District Commissioners of Apprenticeship in conjunction with local apprenticeship committees, of which there are 245. They consist of three representatives of employers, three representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the District Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of all committees for the district for which he is appointed. District Commissioners delegate chairmanship to other officers of the Department of Labour when necessary.

In the majority of industries there are provisions in apprenticeship orders for the attendance of apprentices at technical classes, both during working hours and in the evening. In most industries technical training is concentrated into an annual course of three or four weeks' duration. In some cases courses are longer with the advent of extended institute training, as in the carpentry and joinery, engineering and aircraft engineering industries.

The general policy regarding apprentice education is determined by the Department of Education in co-operation with New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees. That department itself operates a Technical Correspondence Institute, which provides courses of instruction for those apprentices who live too far from any school to allow them to attend evening classes.

A statutory body, the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, conducts examinations for apprentices (see Section 7A, Education). The examinations are voluntary and, except in the electrical trade and in plumbing (where registration is required), no examination test is required for the practice of a trade. Trades which have extended trade training, e.g., carpentry and engineering, have internal assessment conducted by technical institutes in place of the 1st and 2nd qualifying examinations. There is very close liaison between New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees and the board, the Commissioner of Apprenticeship being a member of the board.

In 1972 the Apprentices Act was amended so that apprenticeships in all trades are now open to women as well as to men.

The number of apprenticeship contracts registered and the number completed during the two latest March years, and in force at the end of each year, are indicated in the following table.

TradeApprenticeship Contracts
Registered During Year Ended 31 MarchCompleted During Year Ended 31 MarchIn Force at 31 March
197619771976197719761977
Aircraft101886259438454
Baking61974851234252
Boilermaking62614647249243
Bricklaying75754951284271
Carpentry1,3471,4811,0981,3576,4686,211
Clothing27445641130124
Coachbuilding5375263753341,8401,853
Dentistry137136
Electrical6946094634602,2632,309
Engineering7458975635492,8073,007
Footwear repair and making8432910
Footwear manufacturing48562116121145
Furniture2523591882049891,058
Greenkeeping18237105357
Hairdressing6196412192651,4611,543
Heating and ventilating31332026115115
Horticulture80782936240259
Industrial instrumentation521521
Jewellery34461921162175
Masonry31121010
Motor trades1,3941,5171,1861,1675,4165,369
Moulding16136116357
Painting and paperhanging228262100180763738
Glazing47573340203195
Signwriting22332811102113
Photo-engraving37614824119150
Piano repairing and liming21234
Plastering62463232183158
Plumbing3353691731961,3311,384
Printing248268297183872879
Radio1221657991444486
Refrigeration engineering49533838153159
Retail meat3513851682321,0191,094
Saddlery, leather, etc.284081286104
Sheetmetal working1081048156372396
Shipbuilding40641826148176
Timber industry50433332108106
Woollen milling42146
Others44441725140141
       Total7,9318,6695,6195,89529,42029,838

In addition to the numbers of apprentices shown above, there were at 31 March 1977 2,517 Government apprentices under the Railways Act, the Post Office Act, and the State Services Act.

TRAINING COURSES FOR MAORIS AND POLYNESIANS FROM THE PACIFIC—Trade training is one approach that has been adopted to broaden employment opportunities for Maori and Polynesian youths.

The trade-training schemes have the approval of the educational and apprenticeship authorities. Time spent on a course is credited towards the normal apprenticeship, which is completed with employers in the usual way. The schemes are run in conjunction with the technical institutes at Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Petone, and Christchurch. Special tuition is also given in other subjects to help the boys adapt themselves to urban living.

Entry into the schemes is generally restricted to school leavers from country areas where apprenticeships are not normally available. Trainees taken into the schemes, and their parents, enter into a training agreement with the Maori Affairs Department, whereby the trainees are required to live at approved hostels, regularly attend evening technical classes, and to sit the appropriate trade examinations. The trainees are paid a weekly training allowance.

Training is provided in 16 trades—carpentry (all four centres), motor mechanics (Auckland, Hamilton, and Christchurch), plumbing, electrical wiring (Auckland and Hamilton), diesel mechanics, coach and body building, ladies hairdressing, meat retailing and sheetmetal work (Auckland), fitting and turning (Hamilton, New Plymouth, and Christchurch), plastering (Petone), panelbeating, and bricklaying (Christchurch), fitting and welding, joinery (New Plymouth), painting and decorating (New Plymouth and Christchurch). Two further courses are now provided—general merchandising, and secretarial and typing in Auckland, with a total intake of 444 trainees each year. The training courses last for 1 year, except that carpentry is a 2-year course and includes 1 year on practical house building works for the department. From the time of the pilot scheme in 1959 up to 31 March 1977, 3,672 school leavers have entered the scheme and 1,814 have completed their apprenticeships with private employers and become qualified tradesmen.

The number of identified Maori and Island apprentices in recent years is shown in the following table.

At 31 MarchRegistered Maori or Island ApprenticesPercentage of Total Registered Apprentices
19711,3755.3
19721,4895.6
19731,4715.3
19741,5135.1
19751,2144.1
19761,4255.1

Farm Training—Special arrangements have been made for 8 Maori boys to enter Telford Farm Training Institute each year. This is a comprehensive one-year course covering important theoretical and practical aspects of farming and farm management. The department meets full cost of board and school fees at the Institute.

Shorthand Typists—Each year up to 12 Maori girls from rural districts are trained as shorthand typists. Their mornings are spent at a local commercial college and afternoons in practical instruction at the Maori Affairs Department under the supervision of the head typist. On completing their training the girls are expected to take up employment in Government departments.

City Pre-employment Courses—Special pre-employment courses to help Maori and other Polynesian boys and girls from country areas coming to cities for work are conducted early each year by the Maori Affairs Department in conjunction with the Wellington Polytechnic and the Auckland, Christchurch, and Waikato Institutes. The Education, Health and Police Departments and local, civic authorities also co-operate in the schemes. The courses, which last about four weeks, are specially designed to help with initial adjustments to city life and with the selection of suitable employment. At the end of the course the students take up suitable employment in the city. Accommodation is provided at hostels. The present annual intake of students into the course is: Wellington, 60 boys—75 girls; Auckland, 30 boys—20 girls; Hamilton, 15 girls; and Christchurch, 15 girls. By 31 March 1976 a total of 1,810 young people had passed through pre-employment courses.

STATISTICS OF EMPLOYMENT: Half-yearly Surveys—The Department of Labour carries out at half-yearly intervals a general survey of employment in New Zealand. These surveys are conducted by means of inquiries sent out to employers of labour, the results being published in the Labour and Employment Gazette. Returns are required from all establishments in which at least two persons (including working proprietors) are engaged. Government and local authority employment is included. Employers in farming, hunting, trapping, fishing, waterfront work, seagoing work, private domestic service, and armed forces are not required to submit half-yearly returns. The following tables are based on these surveys. (A survey of farm employment is given on page 797.)

A summary of employment is given in the following table.

Date of SurveyFull-time Employees and Working ProprietorsPart-time WorkersHalf-yearly Percentage Rate of Labour Turnover*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemales

*The relationship between the number of terminations over the previous half-year and the average number of employees during the same period.

April—      percentpercent
1975634,937293,178928,11532,78693,302126,0882334
1976641,961299,754941,71532,13196,623128,7542029
1977644,735307,513952,24832,800102,586135,3862129
October
1975625,552291,850917,40232,61396,070128,6832027
1976628,342299,289927,63132,895100,806133,7011926
1977624,631302,939927,57033,696106,200139,8962026

EMPLOYMENT BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Employees of local authorities are principally engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric and water supply, and transport), and community services.

In the following table particulars are given of the number of all direct wage-earning employees who were actually in the employ of the various classes of local authorities (hospital boards excluded) at 15 April of each of the latest three years inclusive. Besides permanent staff, including administrative and professional employees, the statistics include part-time, casual, and temporary employees, and subsidised workers, but exclude those employed by contractors.

Local Authority*Employees at 15 April
197419751976

*For numbers see Section 2.

†As at 30 September.

§ Included in counties.

||Gas board employees are included with electric power board employees.

¶Total includes employees of licensing trusts (2,479 employees in 1976) and hydatids districts (26 employees in 1976).

Catchment boards733823824
City and borough councils16,72318,64319,411
County councils5,6375,6625,564
Crematorium board2
District council142
Electric power boards6,099||6,391||6,638||
Fire boards2,1012,0902,169
Gas boards||||||
Harbour boards3,6993,8553,832
Harbour bridge authority129131128
Land drainage boards364432
Local railway board101011
Museum authority68133130
Nassella tussock boards414747
Plantation board8610
Pest destruction boards875737735
Regional authority2,1912,3132,508
River boards865
Road tunnel authority394037
Town boards—
      Dependent15§§
      Independent23332
Underground water authorities
Urban drainage boards699458461
Urban transport boards428446454
Valley authority313438
Water supply boards46123129
       Total41,89144,73545,844

PUBLIC SERVICE EMPLOYMENT—Permanent staff in the Public Service as at 31 March 1977 totalled 59,307, of whom 40,219 were males and 19,088 females. In addition, the Public Service gave employment to 1,735 temporary staff and 17,852 wage workers, giving a total for all employees of 78,894 (54,306 males and 24,588 females) compared with 79,199 as at 31 March 1976. These figures do not include the staffs of the Post Office, the railway service, the Police (except civilian staff), education boards, or universities.

UNEMPLOYMENT—Except for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available. Such information is, however, available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Department of Labour (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade unionists were collected from trade union secretaries by the Department of Statistics from 1925 to 1930. A table showing figures of unemployment from June 1931 to March 1939 will be found on page 854 of the 1940 Yearbook. Monthly average figures of registered unemployed for each year from 1946 are given in the Statistical Summary near the back, of this Yearbook.

Census Data on Unemployment—The great disadvantage of the population census as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only. Unemployment figures from the 1971 Census were 8,757 males and 7,411 females. Provisional figures from the 1976 Census give a total of 14,560 males and 12,650 females. Of these, 4,120 of the males and 6,370 of the females were in the 15–19 years age group.

The following table gives relevant census data on unemployment during this century. Prior to 1951 Maoris were not included.

CensusNumber of Males UnemployedProportion per 1.000 Male Wage and Salary Earners
31 March 19018,46748
12 April 19068,18939
2 April 19117,15230
15 October 19165,92026
17 April 192111,06139
20 April 192610,69434
24 March 193635,77496
25 September 19455,82316
17 April 19517,90218
17 April 19565,55812
18 April 19614,6749
22 March 19665,1258
23 March 19718,75713
23 March 197614,56021

The 1936 figure includes men on rationed relief work, but excludes men (16,222) partly unemployed but not on relief work. The 1945 figure includes ex-servicemen recently returned from overseas who had not then resumed work. At the time of the 1951 Census the waterfront strike was in progress and it was estimated that approximately 15,000 workers in that and other industries were on strike. Evidently many of these were not returned as unemployed; it is likely that a number changed to other industries, while some may not have considered themselves to be unemployed.

Unemployment Benefit—Unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act have been payable since 1 April 1939. The number in force at 31 March 1977 was 3,651 compared with 5,127 at the same date in 1976, 2,894 in March 1975, and 483 in March 1974.

Subject to the conditions set out in Section 6A, the unemployment benefit may be claimed as of right. Registration at a district office of the Department of Labour is a compulsory prerequisite to eligibility for the benefit. Hence it is considered that the great majority of workers becoming involuntarily unemployed would register for employment in order to validate a claim for the benefit.

Close liaison is maintained between the Social Welfare Department and the Department of Labour to prevent the payment of benefit where work is available. In addition to the requirement that a benefit applicant must register for work at an employment office, all unemployment beneficiaries must report once weekly at the employment office.

VACANCIES, PLACEMENTS, AND UNEMPLOYED PERSONS—In addition to the half-yearly survey of the employment position, the Department of Labour maintains a weekly record of registered unemployed persons and a half-monthly record of vacancies and placements. The following tables are derived from this record and hence relate only to the department's operations as an employment service.

The following table contains a summary of the numbers of notified vacancies, placements, and registered unemployed persons as recorded by the Department of Labour.

DateNotified Vacancies at End of MonthPlacements During MonthRegistered Unemployed Persons at End of Month
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Monthly Average For Calendar Years
19732,6269123,5381,3123941,7061,5917302,321
19743,3861,1704,5561,0673451,412607348955
19751,6404112,0512,0235432,5662,7131,4534,166
19761,2873791,6662,3567793,1353,1332,2235,356
19771,1973261,5232,1888563,0444,3183,0677,385

Registered unemployed, vacancies, and placements are classified by occupation in the following table on the basis of monthly averages. Because of rounding, individual components in this and the following table do not always add to the total given.

Occupation GroupRegistered Unemployed (Monthly Average)Vacancies (Monthly Average)Placements (Monthly Average)
197619771976197719761977
Professional, technical, and clerical511710139142131166
Sales35945673738493
Farming, fishing, logging2873714650206191
Transport and communications1992472461316255
Manufacturing and trades1,4891,982824807479463
Service51760210798165144
Labouring1,2341,643161159463408
All other occupations7601,37370631,5451,524
All occupations5,3567,3851,6661,5233,1353,044

A finer breakdown of the monthly average numbers of unemployed by usual occupation and sex is shown in the following table for the two latest calendar years.

Usual Occupation19761977
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

*Includes typists, machinists, and other related workers.

†Includes sawmill workers.

‡Includes those who have been attending university full-time.

Professional, technical, and clerical*165347241469
Storemen, packers1292716430
Sales workers, shop assistants, etc.84275103353
Farm and forestry workers181106234137
Drivers18292109
Tradesmen14232068
Freezing workers3421540220
Process/factory workers287544428725
Cooks and other domestic workers, etc.84433108494
Labourers1,218151,59648
All other occupations144113244148
School leavers (no previous full-time job)175336384626
       Total3,1332,2234,3183,067

STATISTICS FROM CENSUS OF POPULATION—Provisional figures of the industrial and occupational distribution of the labour force by industry major divisions and occupation major groups at the 1976 Census of Population are given in the two following tables.

Industry Major DivisionAge Group (Years)
15–2425–4950 and OverTotal

*Includes related workers.

 Number of Persons
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing28,40071,82029,090129,310
Mining and quarrying7602,1901,0403,990
Manufacturing86,880159,36062,250308,490
Electricity, gas, and water3,4507,1003,99014,540
Construction30,68063,87019,970114,520
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels57,840111,49049,190218,520
Transport, storage, and communication27,57060,51022,670110,750
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services28,42039,00013,69081,110
Community, social, and personal services77,870130,70049,810258,380
Activities not adequately defined17,09014,1405,28036,510
       Total358,960660,180256,9801,276,120
Occupation Major GroupAge Group (Years)
15–2425–4950 and OverTotal
 Number of Persons
Professional and technical*54,220100,11029,600183,930
Administrative and managerial1,64028,58013,10043,320
Clerical*76,34091,24039,320206,900
Sales workers25,47071,15030,930127,550
Service workers22,63049,31020,08092,020
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters28,44071,74030,550130,730
Production workers*, transport equipment operators, and labourers137,660237,84089,540465,040
New workers seeking employment4,8601104,970
Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described4,6408,2103,45016,300
Workers not reporting any occupation3,0601,8904105,360
       Total358,960660,180256,9801,276,120

It should be noted that, because the 1976 Census figures in the previous tables and the following table are sample-based provisional figures, the totals differ from final totals shown elsewhere in this Yearbook. For example, the provisional national estimate of the labour force is 1,276,120, whereas the final full census count was 1,272,333.

Employment Status—The following table shows the employment status of persons in the labour force, and also persons not actively engaged including children at the two latest censuses.

Employment Status1971 Census1976 Census x
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*Including those of unspecified status.

†In the labour force.

Employer59,8158,10367,91870,98712,50083,487
Own account worker62,18510,10172,28676,75114,76091,511
Wage or salary earner651,499307,064958,563699,326363,8441,063,170
Unemployed8,7577,41116,16814,39211,94526,337
Relative assisting, unpaid2503536036703,2053,875
Total, actively engaged*784,969333,8661,118,835865,098407,2351,272,333
Not actively engaged645,8871,097,9091,743,796696,9441,160,1061,857,050
      Grand total1,430,8561,431,7752,862,6311,562,0421,567,3413,129,383

Industrial Distribution: Divisions—The industrial distribution of the labour force analysed by industrial major divisions and divisions as recorded at the 1971 Population Census is shown below. At the time of going to print, the detailed figures of industrial and occupational distribution shown in this and the following table were not available for the 1976 Population Census.

Industrial Major Division and DivisionMalesFemalesTotalPercentage
Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing—
      Agriculture and hunting101,31017,962119,27210.7
      Forestry and logging6,8571967,0530.6
      Fishing2,498712,5690.2
       Total 1971110,66518,229128,89411.5
       Total 1976105,69723,203128,90010.1
Mining and quarrying—
      Coalmining2,054472,1010.2
      Crude petroleum and natural gas production19818216 
      Metal ore mining23011241 
      Other mining2,6061012,7070.2
       Total 19715,0881775,2650.5
       Total 19764,8392205,0590.4
Manufacturing—
      Food, beverages and tobacco54,08111,12665,2075.8
      Textile, wearing apparel and leather industries17,71733,18150,8984.5
      Wood and wood products including furniture19,3171,58020,8971.9
      Paper and paper products, printing and publishing21,0297,32028,3492.5
      Chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products16,7236,41723,1402.1
      Non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal9,3821,31210,6941.0
      Basic metal industries3,7952834,0780.4
      Fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment62,94710,89873,8456.6
      Other manufacturing industries2,0971,9054,0020.4
       Total 1971207,08874,022281,11025.1
       Total 1976223,72182,003305,72424.0
Electricity, gas and water—
Electricity, gas and steam11,1881,15312,3411.1
Waterworks and supply917159320.1
Total 197112,1051,16813,2731.2
Total 197613,7681,56115,3291.2
Construction Total 197190,6713,01793,6838.4
Total 1976107,2954,842112,1378.8
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels—
      Wholesale trade43,60413,22156,8255.1
      Retail trade60,96749,121110,0889.8
      Restaurants and hotels12,66618,73631,4022.8
       Total 1971117,23781,078198,31517.7
       Total 1976123,25992,863216,12217.0
Transport, storage and communication—
      Transport and storage66,9786,83873,8166.6
      Communication17,88311,48229,3652.6
       Total 197184,86118,320103,1819.2
       Total 197687,76423,523111,2878.7
Finance, insurance, real estate, and business services—
      Financial institutions10,5528,32918,8811.7
      Insurance8,7685,01213,7301.2
      Real estate and business services18,49113,62232,1132.9
       Total 197137,81126,96364,7745.8
       Total 197644,88834,90479,7926.3
Community, social and personal services—
      Public administration and defence34,65111,80046,4514.2
      Sanitary and similar services3,7933,1146,9070.6
      Social and related community services42,50974,973117,48210.1.5
      Recreational and cultural services8,3023,68211,984li.l
      Personal and household services21,10811,83932,9472.9
      International and other extra-territorial bodies5242327560.1
       Total 1971110,887105,640216,52719.4
       Total 1976132,599130,650263,24920.7
Activities not adequately defined Total 19718,5565,25213,8081.2
       Total 197621,26813,46634,7342.7
      Grand total 1971 actively engaged784,969333,8661,118,835100.0
      Grand total 1976 actively engaged in the labour force865,098407,2351,272,333100.0

Occupations—The occupational classification in major and minor groups is given for 1971 in the following table, with major group totals for 1976.

Occupational Major Groups and Minor GroupsMalesFemales.Total

*Includes related workers.

†Including workers not classifiable by occupation.

Note: n.e.c. denotes—not elsewhere classified.

Professional and technical*
      Physical scientists and technicians3,1331,3144,447
      Architects, engineers and technicians22,6391,06223,701
      Aircraft and ships officers2,82142,825
      Life scientists and technicians2,7071,6014,308
      Medical, dental, and veterinary workers*9,32722,25431,581
      Statisticians, mathematicians, systems analysts and technicians1,2902481,538
      Economists42251473
      Accountants7,1702647,434
      Jurists2,683502,733
      Teachers18,44625,83444,280
      Workers in religion2,8305013,331
      Authors, journalists and writers*1,9186682,586
      Sculptors, painters (artists), photographers2,7149263,640
      Composers and performing artists1,0627921,854
      Athletes, sportsmen*702139841
      Professional, technical n.e.c*2,0861,7323,818
       Total 197181,95057,440139,390
       Total 1976104,85773,964178,821
Administrators and managerial workers-
      Legislative officials and government administrators62413637
      Managers (excluding those in wholesale and retail trade, catering and lodging services and in farming)26,7241,04227,766
       Total 197127,3481,05528,403
       Total 197638,0352,87340,908
Clerical workers—
      Clerical supervisors4,0594654,524
      Government executive officials4,6261924,818
      Stenographers, typists and punch machine operators52633,86634,392
      Bookkeepers, cashiers*13,74016,17229,912
      Computing machine operators5966,7337,329
      Transport and communication supervisors5,8481505,998
      Transport conductors6362638
      Mail distribution clerks2,1521,5543,706
      Telephone and telegraph operators1,5715,5687,139
      Clerical n.e.c*36,28045,64581,925
       Total 197170,034110,347180,381
       Total 197670,019135,899205,918
Sales workers—
      Managers (wholesale and retail trade)16,0172,28018,297
      Working proprietors (wholesale and retail trade)8,3194,11112,430
      Sales supervisors, and buyers8,0198638,882
Technical salesmen, commercial travellers and manufacturers' agents12,98630713,293
      Insurance, real estate, securities and business services salesmen and auctioneers9,78138410,165
      Salesmen and shop assistants*21,33130,70252,033
      Sales workers n.e.c.9036126
       Total 197176,54338,683115,226
       Total 197677,61847,662125,280
Service workers (incl. Armed Forces)—
      Managers (catering and lodging services)1,9931,1883,181
      Working proprietors (catering and lodging services)3,1452,2345,379
      Housekeeping and related service supervisors2542,9703,224
      Cooks, waiters, bartenders*6,33612,47418,810
      Maids and related housekeeping workers n.e.c.1,0599,04910,108
      Building caretakers and cleaners*5,3314,2129,543
      Launderers, drycleaners and pressers1,2582,7914,049
      Hairdressers, barbers, beauticians*1,5104,6676,177
      Protective service workers7,4522187,670
      Service workers n.e.c.3,3415,8999,240
      Armed Forces10,80666111,467
       Total 197142,48546,36388,848
       Total 197646,35149,63095,981
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters—
      Farm managers and supervisors5,798705,868
      Farmers58,8296,45665,285
      Agricultural and animal husbandry workers39,05810,62849,686
      Forestry workers5,337405,377
      Fishermen and hunters*3,393413,434
       Total 1971112,41517,235129,650
       Total 1976108,64922,040130,689
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers-
      Production supervisors, overseers and general foremen (non-clerical) (and excluding Agricultural, transport, sales and service supervisors, overseers and foremen)13,1441,01314,157
      Miners, quarrymen, and well-drillers*2,6992,699
      Metal processers2,5071202,627
      Wood preparation workers and paper makers7,5662047,770
   Chemical processers*2,2933142,607
  Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers*5,5124,52010,032
  Tanners, fellmongers and pelt dressers1,3171651,482
  Food and beverage processers36,7703,84440,614
  Tobacco preparers and tobacco product makers162360522
  Tailors, dressmakers, sewers, and upholsterers*4,76421,01625,780
  Shoemakers and leather goods makers2,1462,8945,040
  Cabinet makers and related woodworkers4,8942065,100
  Stone cutters and carvers1971198
  Blacksmiths, toolmakers and machine tool operators6,7606017,361
  Machinery fitters, machine assemblers and precision instrument makers (except electrical)46,4451,02747,472
  Electrical fitters and electrical and electronics workers23,2852,19625,481
  Broadcasting station and sound equipment operators and cinema projectionists33098428
  Plumbers, welders, sheet-metal and structural metal preparers and erectors22,46777323,240
  Jewellery and precious metal workers657168825
  Glass formers and potters*2,3014832,784
  Rubber and plastics product makers4,0721,7945,866
  Paper and paper-board products makers8456941,539
  Printers*8,2932,60510,898
  Painters12,28815312,441
  Production and related workers n.e.c.2,8161,7264,542
  Bricklayers, carpenters and other construction workers44,275944,284
  Stationary engine and related equipment operators n.e.c.3,27643,280
  Material handling and related equipment operators, dockers and freight handlers37,9757,80545,780
  Transport equipment operators41,1781,01742,195
  Labourers n.e.c.24,9342,24927,083
  Total 1971366,16857,959424,127
  Total 1976403,07165,765468,836
Workers not classifiable by occupation—
  New workers seeking employment9961,6322,628
  Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described4,1591,7835,942
  Workers not reporting any occupation (excluding armed forces)2,8711,3694,240
  Grand total 1971, actively engaged784,969333,8661,118,835
  Grand total 1976, actively engaged in the labour force865,098407,2351,272,333

WOMEN IN THE LABOUR FORCE—During the past 40 years there has been a marked change in the composition of the New Zealand labour force. The female component of the labour force has increased from 21.2 percent in 1936 to 32.0 percent in 1976.

The percentage of women and girls of 15 years of age and above, who were actively engaged in the labour force, is given below for each population census during the past 40 years: 1936, 24.9; 1945, 26.0; 1951, 25.0; 1956, 26.0; 1961, 27.7; 1966, 30.9; 1971, 33.8; and 1976, 36.6. Between 1936 and 1976 the male labour force increased by 64.0 percent and the female labour force by 186.9 percent.

Despite these marked increases the New Zealand female participation rate in the labour force is not as high as that in some overseas countries.

The following table shows for a selected group of countries the percentage of the females in each age group and in the female population as a whole who are actively engaged in the labour force. As with all international statistics, comparisons should be made with caution owing to differences in definitions of "actively engaged" (especially as regards women assisting without pay in family businesses), different methods of data collection, and the different age-structures of the populations.

CountryFemale Labour Force Participation RateTotal Female Population
Age Groups (Years)
15–2425–4445 +

Source: Based on data in ILO Yearbook 1975.

 Percentage
Japan (1970)54.752.646.239.1
United Kingdom (1971)58.150.332.732.9
Sweden (1970)42.449.628.229.9
United States (1970)41.847.534.729.5
Canada (1971)49.344.229.928.3
Australia (1971)55.341.523.126.7
New Zealand (1971)55.933.221.423.3

Compared with Australia and New Zealand, the United States and Sweden report considerably lower participation rates by 15 to 19 year old girls, reflecting the longer time spent in formal education. This trend is also appearing in New Zealand and may be expected to continue. There is a rather lower New Zealand participation rate in the 25 to 29 years age group and this may be due to the higher incidence of marriage, the higher New Zealand birth rates, and differing positions about child-care facilities. It seems apparent that the likely continued rise in the female labour force will be due mainly to the re-entry of married women after their children have reached school age.

Married women in the labour force have increased until, in 1976, 56.7 percent of the total female labour force consisted of married women.

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of the female labour force are given in the following table.

Item193619451956196619711976
Number of married women in labour force11,29129,606x62,033116,314166,472231,104
Percent of female labour force8.0x17.732.041.549.9x56.7

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of all married women increased from 3.6 in 1936 to 32.6 in 1976, with every indication that this momentum of increase is being sustained.

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of all married women in the same age group are given in the next table.

Age (Years)193619451956196619711976*

*Provisional

Percentage of Married Women in the Labour Force
16–195.718.218.523.530.340.7
20–244.317.419.426.734.344.1
25–293.710.311.715.820.729.5
30–343.68.011.316.424.331.1
35–393.68.413.921.831.841.8
40–443.98.716.626.935.345.0
45–494.47.817.527.235.943.7
50–544.26.115.525.230.737.3
55–594.24.610.818.522.025.2
60–642.82.55.29.511.211.1
  65 +1.61.01.62.12.42.5
All ages—
  16 +3.77.712.919.926.132.4

A table in the 1976 Yearbook showed the occupations of married women in the labour force in 1971 by age groups.

Participation of married women in the labour force may be said to follow this pattern—higher than average percentages below 25 years of age when the economic desirability of a second income in the purchase and furnishing of a home is likely to be at its greatest; lower than average percentages between 25 and 34 years when younger families are being cared for; higher than average percentages at 35–54 years when family responsibilities have diminished; and lower than average percentages at 55 years and beyond when retirement causes increasing withdrawals from the labour force.

The increasing tendency for women to continue in employment after marriage until the birth of the first child and to re-enter the labour force as family responsibilities lessen has been aided by a combination of factors, including the progressively younger ages at marriage, changing social attitudes particularly toward the role of married women, and possibly to a greater awareness and acceptance of family planning.

LEVEL OF EDUCATION ATTENDED — The 1976 Census of Population included a question on educational levels attended. Provisional figures of educational levels, attended by members of the labour force of 15 years of age and above, are given by occupation major group in the following table. It should be noted that each person is included under every applicable level, and so may be included more than once. For example, a person who proceeded through secondary school to a university, technical institute, or teachers college will be included under Secondary School and also under the appropriate tertiary institution.

Occupation Major Group*Education Level Attended
No Attendance at Secondary or Tertiary Levels of EducationSecondary School (Form 111 onwards)UniversityTechnical InstituteTraining CollegeOther Tertiary

*Part-time members of the labour force (less than 20 hours weekly) are included in the relevant major groups.

†Not engaged in any work activity.

‡Includes related workers.

 Males
Professional, technical2,790104,95052,06033,13018,66013,550
Administrative and managerial workers3,76035,5907,5808,5309303,050
Clerical7,44062,2807,6409,1901,3603,550
Sales workers9,55070,9906,18010,1801,1903,350
Service workers7,48035,8802,6504,8501,1403,130
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forest workers, fishermen, and hunters22,16088,2306,4205,7207302,740
Production, transport equipment operators and labourers72,490326,8908,34063,7703,80012,320
New workers seeking employment801,7601104010
Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described4,1407,490460630160130
Workers not reporting any occupation6902,4902601008030
Not applicable88,660119,37019,8908,0202,4602,010
  Total219,240855,920111,590144,16030,51043,870
 Females
Professional, technical1,69087,67024,2109,00030,43034,420
Administrative and managerial workers4003,760460240270250
Clerical10,280143,7106,17014,6305,1108,920
Sales workers10,52049,6801,3702,1401,2101,810
Service workers14,65055,2001,8002,9101,5602,450
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forest workers, fishermen, and hunters3,89022,1601,0107801,4401,240
Production, transport equipment operators and labourers15,80054,5509501,740800910
New workers seeking employment603,07070803050
Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described1,6004,030170120170100
Workers not reporting any occupation3801,78050504020
Not applicable215,890423,53026,11017,73024,53019,430
  Total275,160849,14062,37049,42065,59069,600

WORKING LIFE EXPECTANCIES—A table of working life displays the manner in which rates of participation in, entry to, and withdrawal from the labour force vary with age for the given population group. Also included are expectancies of future working life and retirement life, assuming that the rates displayed in the table continue unchanged. The main applications of these tables are to economic and social studies relating to large groups of people. Individuals frequently do not conform to group patterns and, therefore, applications of any statistics from the tables must be made with caution.

Abridged tables of working life for males and females, based on labour force data from the 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings and the 1970–72 Life Tables (Total Population), are now given.

Exact Age (Years)Percentage of Population in Labour ForceNumber in Labour Force, per 100.000 Live BirthsChanges in the Labour Force in the following 5 Years of Age, per 100,000 Live BirthsExpectation of Work Life of Person in Labour Force(Years)Expectation of Retirement Life of Person in Labour Force(Years)
Total Entries*Total Withdrawals

*Entries of females into the labour force below the horizontal line are secondary entries by those who withdrew at younger ages for family formation.

†The working life expectancies for females allow for the possibility of a second spell of labour force membership after a period of non-membership due to family formation.

†Difference between life expectancy and working life expectancy.

§These are withdrawals at all ages 80 and above.

Males
1582,37546646.78.7
2084.881,90911,14671042.08.8
2596.492,3451,96762837.38.9
3098.493,68433171732.58.9
3598.893,298151,05527.89.0
4098.892,2581,90923.19.1
4598.490,3493,40218.59.2
5097.386,9476,04214.19.2
5595.080,90515,26710.09.4
6083.565,63829,4736.59.2
6552.436,16522,2164.87.8
7024.713,9499,5954.25.6
7510.54,3543,0633.83.6
805.11,2911,291§3.22.4
Females
1588,10718,36618.243.0
2071.569,7416,611 *39,54316.240.1
2537.836,8091,61812,29922.129.4
3026.926,1288,6343,25125.221.5
3532.631,5116,8942,11422.619.3
4037.936,2913,1261,26618.818.3
4540.338,1511,8034,27614.418.2
5038.435,6786247.68910.717.4
5531.728,6131019,9928.015.9
6021.618,72210,1945.714.0
6510.58,5285,1935.011.0
704.63,3352,2254.48.0
751.81,1107624.05.4
800.8348348§3.13.6

Chapter 34. Section 33 WAGES

Table of Contents

GENERAL—For many years the basis for determination of wages and salaries for the majority of employees has been a system of conciliation and arbitration supplemented by general wage orders. About half of New Zealand's wage and salary earners are subject to awards and collective agreements falling under the jurisdiction of the Industrial Relations Act 1973.

The State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, provides for determinations covering salaries and conditions of service for State employees to be made by employing authorities. A State Services Co-ordinating Committee has been established as the principal coordinating body for Government and as the main official negotiating body on issues having significant inter-service or '"across the board" application. Hospital and Education Services Committees have been appointed to conduct negotiations on matters affecting respectively the hospital service alone and the education service (teachers) alone. There is a State Services Tribunal to hear appeals by employee organisations, and also a Government Service Tribunal, a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, a Post Office Staff Tribunal, and a Hospital Service Tribunal, all with a common chairman.

Pay and allowances for the Armed Services are prescribed by the Secretary of Defence in accordance with provisions of the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969. A Police Staff Tribunal established under the Police Act 1958 makes orders as to the remuneration and conditions of service of members of the Police.

The State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969 provides for the wages and salaries of all State servants to be adjusted half-yearly on the basis of an index of general movement from the half-yearly survey of wages and salaries conducted by the Department of Labour, but the operation of the October 1973 and April 1974 adjustments was suspended by the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1973 and the Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 further suspended this provision.

A significant feature of recent years has been the exceptionally high rate of wage and salary increases Average weekly earnings have increased at nearly three times the average annual rate of 4.8 percent for the 10 years prior to 1970. Following the 1970 experience of a rise of 13.6 percent, consideration of deflationary measures began with discussions between the Government and representatives of the Employers' Federation and the Federation of Labour, with a view to slowing down the accelerated trade-by-trade leap-frogging which was occurring with wage bargaining. These discussions showed that the relativities issue was but one aspect of a total problem contributing to the inflationary spiral. Attention then turned to positive wage and salary stabilisation as part of an overall stabilisation programme, and on 25 March 1971 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act was passed. This Act stipulated that new awards and agreements had to remain in force for at least 12 months and established an independent Remuneration Authority to administer certain arrangements under the Act. The Remuneration Authority continued to operate until December 1972, although in April 1972 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act was superseded by the Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations.

After the abolition of the Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations in December 1972 there was a return to free collective bargaining within the framework of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954. However, in response to increasing pressure on the level of wage settlements during the early part of 1973, direct Government intervention in the wage-fixing process was again deemed necessary and the Economic Stabilisation Regulations became effective on 10 August 1973. Under the regulations a partial wage pause until June 1974 was introduced with a Wages Tribunal being established to deal with various administrative aspects of the regulations, including the settlement of wage relativity anomalies caused by the regulations.

Following the expiry of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations on 30 June 1974, and in response to continued inflationary pressures within the economy, Government introduced long-term wage stabilisation measures. The Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 became effective on 1 July 1974 and form an integral part of a much wider economic stabilisation policy.

In their original form the Wage Adjustment Regulations represented a significantly less restrictive and more flexible wage control system than that previously operating; one of the major relaxations was a return to free collective bargaining for wages and conditions of employment. However, subsequent amendments to the regulations, particularly changes made in 1976, greatly tightened the criteria under which increases in remuneration might exceed those general adjustments prescribed under the regulations. Restrictions were eased by a further amendment in August 1977. A modicum of free bargaining was allowed provided the existing wage rates had been in force for at least 12 months.

GENERAL WAGE ORDERS—Following the re-establishment of the Arbitration Court under the Industrial Relations Amendment Act 1977 the General Wage Orders Act 1969 was consolidated and amended to form the General Wage Orders Act 1977, which came into force on 17 April 1978.

The general purpose of the Act is to provide for the making from time to time by the Court of Arbitration of a just and equitable review of rates of remuneration in awards and collective agreements. The Court is required to give paramount importance to the promotion of the economic stability of New Zealand, but other considerations to be borne in mind include the maintenance and promotion of living standards, the promotion of industrial harmony, export promotion, the maintenance of full employment, and movements in the Consumers Price Index and in relative income levels.

The General Wage Orders Act 1969 was previously suspended by the Wage Adjustment Regulations gazetted in June 1974. Prior to this the Act had been suspended during the currency of the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971 and later by the Economic Stabilisation Regulations in August 1973. However, a 1976 amendment to the Wage Adjustment Regulations provided for the making of a "wage order" on the basis of criteria similar to those of the General Wage Orders Act 1969 and, as described later in this section, such an order was made in March 1977.

Historically, general wage orders have been the principal source of a large number of general adjustments made to salary and wage payments in the economy. Before 1970, general wage orders were made by the Court of Arbitration under the authority of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1953. In recent years the empowering legislation has been the General Wage Orders Act 1969; and, following the enactment of the Industrial Relations Act 1973, responsibility for making such orders was placed on the Industrial Commission.

Amendment 9 to the Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974, dated May 1976, made provision for the establishment of a Wage Hearing Tribunal. On the application of the New Zealand Federation of Labour or the New Zealand Employers' Federation Inc., the Tribunal was empowered to make an order simultaneously amending the rates of remuneration prescribed in awards and collective agreements. Wage increases authorised under the stabilisation legislation between 1971 and 1977 are shown on a later page in this section.

General wage orders from 1964 have been as follows:

Date of OrderEffective DateIncrease in Minimum Wage Rates

*Application limited to first $40 a week for male workers, $30 for female workers and $25 for junior workers. Earlier, in June 1968, after a general wage order hearing, the Court had decided not to issue a general wage order.

†Limited to $7 per week, i.e., 7 percent on first $100 of weekly income.

  percent
19 August 196410 September 19646
10 November 19661 December 1966
5 August 196819 August 19685*
3 November 197023 November 19703
4 July 197817 July 19787

INCOME STABILISATION—Stabilisation of Remuneration—On 25 March 1971 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971 was passed which, among other things, limited the renegotiation of new agreements affecting remuneration to a minimum period of 12 months (subject to certain exceptions), and generally aimed to restrict the annual increase in such agreements to a maximum of 7 percent. In addition, a Remuneration Authority was established to administer certain arrangements under the Act.

Under the Act the Remuneration Authority was required to make cost of living orders as soon as possible after the Consumers Price Index has been prepared by the Government Statistician for the quarters ended 30 June 1971 and 31 December 1971. Two orders were made by the Remuneration Authority—the first of 4.8 percent applying from 21 July 1971, and the second of 9.1 percent (including the order of 4.8 percent) applying from 31 January 1972. The orders applied automatically to all awards and agreements which, based on the rate of 1 January 1971, had not changed.

As from 1 April 1972, increases in pay were subject to the Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations 1972, which were made under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948. The Remuneration Authority continued to operate until 17 December 1972 when it was discontinued with the change in Government.

In accordance with a provision made by the Government, a cost-of-living order of 4.2 percent was made by the Remuneration Authority following publication of the Consumers Price Index for the September 1972 quarter. The order applied automatically from 26 October 1972 to minimum rates in awards and industrial agreements as at 1 February 1972 and, by agreement between the parties, could be applied to other rates of pay.

As with the orders made under the 1971 Act, negotiated increases effective from February 1972 were offset against the order. But increases approved by the authority explicitly on the grounds of productivity not involving price increases were not to be offset.

Economic Stabilisation Regulations—Following the abolition of the Remuneration Authority in December 1972, New Zealand experienced a return to free collective bargaining during the earlier part of 1973. However, in response to the high level of wage and salary increases in the period of free bargaining, deflationary measures were considered necessary and resulted in the promulgation of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1973. These regulations became effective on 10 August 1973, the section relating to wages being designed to expire on or before 30 June 1974.

The main features of the regulations are now covered.

All instruments in force at the date of making of the regulations were to continue in force without amendment until the expiry of the regulations. All new instruments made subsequent to 10 August 1973 were to cover a period of not less than 12 months.

A wage adjustment order of 8.5 percent, up to a maximum of $5.80 per week, was introduced to be applied to all rates payable under any award or industrial agreement. The increase could also be applied to other rates of pay by agreement between the parties concerned. However, this order was to be offset by any increase effected during the period 1 February to 10 August 1973 (inclusive). The application of the wage adjustment order to State employees was limited to 6.2 percent up to a maximum of $4.60 per week.

A Wages Tribunal was established to remove or relieve any serious anomalies created by the regulations. Provision was also made for the tribunal to consider applications for wage increases on the basis of productivity gains.

Under the regulations a further wage adjustment order effective from 11 February 1974 was made on the basis of movements in the Consumers Price Index during the 6 months ended 31 December 1973. The amount was 2.7 percent based on a 4.7 percent rise in the index over the period abated by 2 percent.

Wage Adjustment Regulations—Subsequent to the expiry of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations on 30 June 1974, a new long-term wage stabilisation policy became effective. The Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 provide for the control and adjustment of salaries and wages in both the private and State sectors and, as well, delineate specific guidelines for the control of special salaries such as those of members of Parliament and senior employees in the State services, public bodies, and local authorities.

Upon introduction, the Wage Adjustment Regulations created an initial round of adjustment in 3 distinct tiers. The first of these provided for a general wage adjustment of 9 percent, effective from 1 July 1974, applying automatically to the rates of remuneration payable on 30 June 1974 under all awards and collective agreements. Its application to other types of industrial instrument (such as ruling rates or house agreements) was subject to agreement between the parties to the instrument concerned. State employees and officers of public bodies and local authorities automatically received the 9 percent order but the salaries of members of Parliament were specifically excluded from its scope. The general increase applied to every payment expressly stated in money terms, including piece rates and allowances.

In addition to the wage adjustment order the regulations restored freedom for a majority of those groups in the State and private sectors to negotiate a supplementary increase of up to 2.25 percent of the rate of remuneration payable on 30 June 1974. Members of Parliament and specific groups in the higher salaries category were excluded from this provision. Freedom for alt groups to negotiate improvements in conditions of employment (such as sick leave, annual holiday, etc.) was restored.

The third tier of wage adjustment contained in the regulations enabled parties to negotiate wage and salary increases beyond the 2.25 percent limit, subject to the consent of the Industrial Commission or other appropriate wage-fixing tribunal.

As first introduced, the Wage Adjustment Regulations also empowered the Industrial Commission to grant cost-of-living increases (based on movements in the Consumers Price Index) at intervals of not less than 6 months. The filing of applications for such orders was restricted to a central organisation (i.e., the Employers' Federation or the Federation of Labour) or to the Minister of Labour. All groups covered by the regulations received the cost-of-living orders, although in the private sector their application was subject to the same conditions that applied to the general wage adjustment of 30 June 1974.

In addition to the provision for making cost-of-living orders the Wage Adjustment Regulations established a Higher Salaries Commission; its functions include the determination of salaries and allowances of members of Parliament, the salary of the highest paid executive officer of each of a number of corporations and other public bodies, salaries of the highest paid officers of local authorities, and the salaries of certain university positions.

The Industrial Commission (private sector) and the State Services Tribunal (public sector) were vested with the authority to approve wage increases in order to remove or relieve any "serious anomalies".

Since their promulgation the Wage Adjustment Regulations have been the subject of considerable amendment. The major amendments have been as follows: Amendment 3 provided for the first cost-of-living adjustment to be applied as from 15 January 1975; the amount was 4 percent on the first $75 of gross weekly earnings.

The main purposes of amendment 4 were to absorb the 15 January cost-of-living order into a new cost-of-living order and to extend the coverage of the regulations to individual worker/employer instruments. Under this amendment every ordinary time rate of remuneration lawfully payable on 14 January 1975 was increased on and from 9 July 1975 by 11 cents per hour or $4.40 per week or $230 per year as appropriate. Piece rates were increased by 4.5 percent. In contrast to earlier provisions, the 2.25 percent free bargaining margin was negotiable on the 14 January 1975 rate, as increased by the application of the 9 July cost-of-living order.

A third cost-of-living order was made under amendment 7. As from 27 January 1976 rates of remuneration payable in any award or collective agreement as at 26 January were increased by 9 cents per hour or $3.60 per week or $188 a year as appropriate. The second tier of the regulations, which enabled parties to negotiate a further 2.25 percent in addition to general adjustments, was removed.

Amendments 9 and 10 introduced in May and June 1976, respectively, substantially amended the Wage Adjustment Regulations. From a wage bargaining viewpoint, the net effect of these two amendments was to considerably tighten the conditions under which wage increases could be obtained. In summary form, amendments 9 and 10 provided for—

  1. A cost-of-living order of 7 percent to a maximum of $7 per week or $365 in any one year. Application was to all taxable earnings and the order was effective on and from 25 June 1976.

  2. The establishment of a Wage Hearing Tribunal with power to make an order effecting a general wage increase under similar criteria to those of the General Wage Orders Act 1969.

  3. A change in the definition of "remuneration" to include conditions of employment such as paid leave (sick leave, annual holidays, etc.)

  4. A further tightening in the criteria under which the parties to an industrial instrument could negotiate, and have approved, wage increases in the excess of those provided for by general orders. Under the "exceptional circumstances" clause employers and workers are required to make a joint application to the appropriate wage fixing authority when seeking approval to increase rates of remuneration payable under any industrial instrument. Increases in remuneration can also gain approval if they form part of a new genuine productivity agreement or are matters specifically deferred until the next renegotiation of the instrument.

  5. Continued freedom to negotiate reimbursing payments and conditions of employment not involving rates of remuneration. Coincident with amendment 9 to the Wage Adjustment Regulations, separate regulations were introduced to "freeze" professional charges and to limit directors fees and company distributions to shareholders for a period of 12 months.

In November 1976 the Federation of Labour lodged an application for a wage order to be made under the Wage Adjustment Regulations. Following a series of hearings from interested parties, the Wage Hearing Tribunal made a General Wage Order for a 6 percent increase on basic rates applicable from 14 March 1977.

Wage increases authorised under the stabilising legislation are summarised as follows:

AuthorityEffective DateRate of Increase

*This increase absorbed that effective from 21 July 1971.

†Limited to 2.8 percent for State employees.

‡Maximum $5.80 per week, application to State employees limited to 6.2 percent (maximum $4.60 per week).

§A supplementary increase of 2.25 percent could be negotiated.

||On first $75 of gross weekly earnings.

¶$4.40 per week, $230 per year. Piece rates increased by 4.5 percent. A supplementary increase of 2.25 percent could be negotiated.

**Cost-of-living allowance which applies each time the rate of remuneration changes. Maximum $7 per week.

††Applies to rates of ordinary pay only, not to cost-of-living allowances.

Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 197121 July 19714.8 percent
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 197131 Jan 19729.1 percent*
Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations 197226 Oct 19724.2 percent
Economic Stabilisation Regulations 197311 Aug 19738.5 percent
Economic Stabilisation Regulations 197311 Feb 19742.7 percent
Wage Adjustment Regulations 19741 July 19749.0 percent§
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197415 Jan 19754.0 percent||
Wage Adjustment Regulations 19749 July 197511.0 cents per hour
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197427 Jan 19769.0 cents per hour
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197425 Jun 19767.0 percent**
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197414 Mar 19776.0 percent††

The regulations were again substantially amended in August 1977, when the general freeze on increases in rates of remuneration ceased. Existing rates of remuneration could be amended provided they had been in force for 12 months; and new rates of remuneration set after 14 August 1977 were to remain in force for 12 months. The 6 percent General Wage Order effective from 14 March 1977 and the 7 percent cost-of-living allowance effective from 25 June 1976 could be absorbed into rates of remuneration when negotiation of a new award or collective agreement was carried out.

As described in section 34, dealing with industrial relations, under the Industrial Relations Amendment Act 1977, the Industrial Commission was abolished and a new Arbitration Court established, among the functions of which was the making of general wage orders. In March 1978 the Federation of Labour lodged an application for a general wage order under the General Wage Orders Act 1977.

EQUAL PAY—The Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Equal Pay (Parliamentary paper H.54 1971) was tabled in Parliament in September 1971. An Equal Pay Act giving effect, in the main, to the Commission's recommendations was passed in October 1972. It provided for the phasing in of equal pay in five annual steps, ending in 1978, but an amendment to the Act in 1973 required the phasing in to be completed by 1977.

The Act was further amended in 1976 as a consequence of the recommendations made by the Equal Pay Review Committee. Among other things, an employer is now required to keep a record of his equal pay determinations as well as to provide his employees, on request, with details of their entitlements under the Act. Full equal pay was to be implemented by not later than 1 April 1977. The 1971 Commission of Inquiry recommended that an informal review committee be set up at the end of the implementation period to report on the implementation and on legislative or other action considered necessary to deal with any defects that may have become apparent. Such a review committee was set up early in 1978.

INSTITUTIONAL SECTORS—A classification of salary and wage payments by institutional sectors is given in the following table.

Institutional SectorPayments
 1973–741974–75
Producer enterprises—$(million)
    Private—
  Corporate2,586.03,123.8
  Non-corporate415.3472.6
  Producer boards6.98.2
  Government producer enterprises389.2463.8
  Local government producer enterprises83.599.2
Total3,480.94,167.6
Financial intermediaries—  
  Central bank49.161.9
  Trading banks - Central Government and private
  Insurance and pension funds—77.893.0
  Central Government
  Local Government
  Private  
Other financial intermediaries—  
  Central Government31.237.7
  Local Government
  Private
Total158.2192.6
General Government—  
  Central Government934.01,098.0
  Local Government121.6140.9
Total1,055.61,238.8
Private non-profit organisations serving households72.590.4
Households
Rest of world0.60.8
Total4,767.85,690.2

INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION OF SALARY AND WAGE PAYMENTS—The data in the following table represent the results of an industrial classification of the salary and wage payments to employees during the latest three years ended 31 March. This information is extracted from returns required in connection with "pay as you earn" income tax.

Actual gross payments made during a year are not the exact equivalent of the earnings of the employees during that year. Accrued wages at the beginning of the year are taken into account but those accrued at the end of the year are not. The effect of this is normally insignificant.

The "enterprise" concept has been used in this classification. Under this concept where an individual or a company is concerned in two or more industries for which separate classifications are provided, the whole of the wage payments have been classified according to the predominant activity. In most statistical analyses the enterprise is subdivided into separate units where two or more industries are involved, and each unit is then appropriately classified. A minor exception to the general rule has been made in the case of the road passenger transport and the electricity supply services of local authorities. These activities have been included in the appropriate industries.

Industry GroupSalary and Wage Payments
1972–731973–741974–75
  $(million) 
Agriculture and livestock production146.0170.7190.3
Forestry, hunting, and fishing12.615.318.0
Mining and quarrying17.420.022.9
Manufacturing, food, beverages, and tobacco292.3338.9399.2
Manufacturing, textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles124.3149.4185.7
Manufacturing, wood, paper, chemical, etc., products (including miscellaneous manufacturing)415.5508.0610.5
Manufacturing, metals and metal products296.2367.9454.6
Construction317.8380.5458.0
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services (not construction)61.570.081.9
Commerce—wholesale and retail trade594.0703.9831.2
Commerce—other203.0241.7282.3
Transport, storage, and communication474.0556.1672.5
Services, community, business, recreation, and personal1,037.51,244.91,482.6
Activities not adequately described0.50.60.5
Total3,992.74,767.85,690.2

Percentage rates of increase during the latest years were: 1969–70 to 1970–71, 20.2 percent; 1970–71 to 1971–72, 18.2 percent; 1971–72 to 1972–73, 12.1 percent; 1972–73 to 1973–74, 19.4 percent; and 1973–74 to 1974–75, 19.3 percent. It should be noted that the labour force has grown over the period.

WEEKLY EARNINGS—The Department of Labour carries out surveys at half-yearly intervals; returns are required from all establishments in which at least two persons (including working proprietors) are engaged; Government and local authority employment is included, but not farming, hunting, fishing, waterfront and seagoing work, domestic service in private households, and armed forces.

The following table shows the average weekly wage payout per person (covering males and females, adult and juvenile) derived from this survey during the latest 5 years. Comparison is made with the weighted average nominal wage rate for adult males as used in the wage rates index covering rates prescribed by all determining authorities.

Date of SurveyWeekly Wage Payout per PersonNominal Minimum Weekly Wage for Adult Males* as at End of Preceding Month
Aggregate Payout (Including Overtime, Bonus Earnings, etc.) for One Week Divided by—Aggregate Ordinary-time Earnings Divided by Full-time and Half Part-time Employees
Full-time and Part-time EmployeesFull-time and Half Part-time Employees

*Nominal minimum weekly wage, which relates to adult males only, is the weighted average of the sample rates used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index.

 $$$$
1973—April71.75576.10367.88668.957
  October74.93780.00771.81875.176
1974—April80.89586.32477.07077.422
  October88.46994.87785.63387.000
1975—April94.388100.83691.60590.656
  October97.333104.20595.662x95.559
1976—April104.994112.227102.835100.218x
  October110.773118.809109.748106.665x
1977—April120.538129.164118.165117.205
  October123.906133.305124.000118.482

HOURLY EARNINGS—In the following table average hourly earnings from the half-yearly surveys are shown; estimated average ordinary time worked by full-time employees has been obtained by dividing aggregate ordinary-time hours worked during one week by the sum of full-time employees plus half of the part-time employees; hence if there are any part-time workers the sum of the average ordinary-time hours and overtime hours will not be equal to the average time worked by full-time and part-time employees as shown in the last column.

DateAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For: All Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For: Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $$$hourshourshours
1973—April1.8282.7011.89437.13.237.9
  October1.9342.8181.99837.13.137.5
1974—April2.0683.0002.13937.33.337.8
  October2.3043.2602.37237.23.137.3
1975—April2.4533.4822.52137.42.837.4
  October2.5683.6092.63037.22.537.0
1976—April2.7643.9842.83737.22.537.0
  October2.9474.0483.01037.22.436.8
1977—April3.1764.4013.25337.22.737.1
  October3.3394.5543.40237.12.236.4

The preceding table combines all industries. A dissection by industrial groups of the last line of that table according to the major headings of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification, relating to October 1977, is now provided.

Industrial GroupAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For: All Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $$$hourshourshours
Forestry and logging3.1874.6533.27037.12.338.9
Mining and quarrying3.6074.7623.75437.35.542.3
Manufacturing—      
  Seasonal food processing3.6094.4083.68033.93.436.6
  Other food, beverages and tobacco3.0374.2103.16036.94.738.1
  Textiles, clothing and leather2.8523.9242.89536.61.636.1
  Wood and wood products3.0724.4523.16437.22.738.8
  Paper and paper products, printing and publishing3.5715.4213.72937.63.739.2
  Chemicals, petroleum, rubber and plastics3.4904.4503.56737.43.439.6
  Non-metallic mineral products3.1244.4883.27737.54.941.3
  Metal products and engineering3.3334.7243.45637.43.740.1
  Machinery3.2554.5053.34137.52.839.3
  Electrical equipment3.1124.2853.17337.32.138.3
  Transport equipment3.3584.9533.47137.22.939.6
  Other manufacturing2.9574.0932.98737.21.136.3
  Subtotal3.2584.5793.35736.83.138.4
Electricity, gas and water3.5704.8653.65037.92.539.9
Construction3.2374.4093.34239.03.942.9
Wholesale, retail etc.—      
  Wholesale trade3.4694.2163.49138.11.237.6
  Retail trade2.7313.8572.76437.01.432.1
  Restaurants, hotels etc.2.7973.7132.83932.92.724.4
  Subtotal3.0293.9523.05936.71.532.4
Transport and communication—      
  Transport and storage3.4105.0823.59438.04.841.8
  Communication3.3154.8013.39639.12.339.8
  Subtotal3.3735.0173.51838.43.841.0
Financing, insurance etc.—      
  Finance3.5244.3003.53137.90.436.9
  Insurance3.7715.1653.77837.60.236.5
  Real estate and business services3.5574.6273.57636.30.734.0
  Subtotal3.5834.5693.59537.10.535.5
Community and personal services—      
  Government services (not elsewhere classified)4.0545.4824.06837.10.436.9
  Local Authorities (not elsewhere classified)3.7034.3773.74137.82.038.5
  Sanitary services etc.2.8013.9822.84531.32.621.1
  Education services3.8273.6973.82735.90.033.3
  Research and scientific institutes4.6555.3774.66437.20.537.0
  Health services3.3804.0873.40138.01.434.0
  Other community services3.3464.5173.36436.00.729.9
  Recreational services3.5724.7903.63434.22.429.5
  Personal and household services2.8034.1332.85338.01.636.8
  Subtotal3.5574.3173.57336.80.934.0
  Total, all surveyed industries3.3394.5543.40237.12.236.4

NOMINAL WAGE RATES—The present index dates from 1966, with a recent change of expression base to 31 December 1974 (= 1000), and is designed to represent the movements in all minimum or mandatory rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court or any special industrial tribunal, or determined from time to time by some statutory authority. Within this wider index a major sub-index is provided of minimum rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court. The residue then provides a second major sub-index of mainly mandatory rates fixed within the jurisdiction of other industrial tribunals or determined by some other statutory authority. Within the "All Jurisdictions" index and both the "Arbitration Court" and "Other Jurisdictions" major sub-indexes, further sub-indexes give analyses firstly by industry groups and secondly by occupation groups.

Complete details regarding the computation of this index are contained in the Report of New Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index for Adult Males published as a special supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics in August 1968.

The next table shows the index numbers of nominal wage rates of adult males for industry and occupation groups. Because of back-dated increases in wage or salary rates in awards, collective agreements, determinations, etc., revisions in recent quarters are common, and therefore the latest index numbers shown here should be regarded as provisional. For revisions of recent quarters see Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Base: For each group the average rates for that group at 31 December 1974 (= 1000)*.

Industry GroupAverage for Calendar YearAs at
19751976197731 Dec 197631 Mar 197730 Jun 197730 Sep 197731 Dec 1977

*Comparisons of the index numbers for one grouping of rates with those for other groupings indicate the relative movements in the average rates for the different groupings, not the relative levels of the average rates of wages and salaries in the different groupings.

Part I—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of the Arbitration Court
Industry Groups        
Primary industries10491161135112061312141214141444
Manufacturing10611186134212641343134513481427
  Food, beverages, and tobacco10531159132112491327133213361369
  Meat processing and dairy factories10501151131512441322132813281348
  Other food, beverages, and tobacco10641195135112721348135013711457
  Textiles and apparel10591177132512401337133913391380
  Wood, pulp, paper and their products10551194134712761350135113511464
  Printing and allied industries10591184135112811354135513711456
  Metals, machinery and transport equipment10721203135612741348135113511461
  Other manufacturing10641196135112621352135613621438
Construction10551201135612771356135613651478
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services10741231138613011381138113951505
Commerce10541180133712621345134613551401
  Wholesale and retail trade10541184134512711353135413591410
  Finance, insurance and real estate10521158129312071300130013311347
Transport, storage and communications10661191134312571337133813721463
Service industries10611192134112501344134613621406
Occupation Groups        
Professional, technical, managerial10481170136512841364137913911414
Clerical10581172131612391321132213371410
Sales10531175131912461335133513351349
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining10511165133612161314138313861419
Transport10651189135112531336133713921491
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers10601194134912721350135213551443
Service occupations10691207135712631368137113761406
  All (industry or occupation) groups combined10591189134512641345134913581434
Part 2—Rates Prescribed by Wage and Salary Determining Authorities Other Than the Arbitration Court
Industry Groups        
Primary industries10841281x14291354x1435143614451472
  Agriculture and livestock10961328x14551383x1466146614801481
  Other primary10591183x13751295x1370137313731453
Manufacturing10601179x13131260x1331133613361363
Construction10571171132512531325133613361368
Electricity gas, water, and sanitary services10531161131312441315132413241353
Commerce10511144128212091278129012901336
Transport storage and communications10581174x13271257x1329133613361386
Service industries10491144x12941210x1286130713071350
Education and health services10491139127511931265128912891331
Government, community, business, personal, and recreational services1049114813111226x1305132313241367
Occupation Groups        
Professional, technical, managerial1046113012731185x1257128912901333
Clerical10521152x12861217x1286129212921335
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining10841281x14291354x1435143614451470
Transport10641185x13461268x1343135813581397
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers10601181x13361269x1345134713471392
Service occupations10541186x13891320x1395139513951430
  All (industry or occupation) groups combined10581175x13261251x1325133713381379
Part 3—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of All Determining Authorities
Industry Groups        
Primary industries10751251x14101318x1405143014381465
Manufacturing10611186x13411264x1342134513481425
Construction10551194134812711349135113581452
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services10651204135812791356135913671446
Commerce10541179133512601342134413531398
Transport, storage and communications10601180x13321257x1332133713481412
Service industries1052115513041220x1299131613201363
Occupation Groups        
Professional, technical, managerial10461139x12931207x1281130913121351
Clerical10551163x13031229x1306130813171377
Sales10531175131912461335133513351349
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining10731244x13981309x1395141914261454
Transport10651187x13491259x1339134513791455
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers10601192x13471272x1349135113531434
Service occupations10631197x13711288x1380138213851418
  All (industry or occupation) groups combined10591184x13381259x1338134513511415

Allowances for housing, board and lodging, or rations are included in cases where these are normally provided in addition to the cash pay.

EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES—The index numbers quoted in the foregoing paragraphs relate to nominal weekly wage rates only—that is, they are based on actual or equivalent money rates without any allowance being made for changes during the period under review in the prices of those goods and services which are purchased out of wages earned. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance, for a rise in wage rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing power of money. Index numbers of effective (or "real") wage rates are arrived at by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices (both series of index numbers having first been set on a common time base) and multiplying the result by the base value of 1000.

The following table accordingly shows a comparison of nominal and effective weekly wage rates of adult male workers. The base of the index numbers is in each case 31 December 1974 (= 1000).

YearConsumer Prices (All Groups)Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Adult MalesEffective Weekly Wage Rates Adult Males
1971742672906
1972793734926
1973858819955
1974953932978
197510931059969
197612781184x926
197714611338916

The continuous index of consumer prices required for the foregoing table has been obtained by linking together the successive series of the Consumers Price Index and converting the whole to the base: quarter ended 31 December 1974 (= 1000).

In making use of these results it should not be overlooked that the index numbers of nominal rates apply only to full-time employment at award or mandatory rates of pay. They do not take into account either, on the one hand, above-award rates or overtime earnings, or on the other, short-time deductions. Nor do the consumer prices index numbers take cognisance of all classes of household expenditure; income tax, charitable and other gifts, overseas travel, domestic help, etc., are omitted.

MINIMUM WAGE—Enforceable minimum wage rates are determined under various statutes, the most universally applicable being the Minimum Wage Act 1945. This Act provides that workers of age 20 years and upwards must receive not less than the rates prescribed under the Act. In the great majority of cases, however, workers are subject to wage orders, awards, or industrial agreements relating to the particular industries in which they are employed and which provide somewhat higher enforceable minimum rates. The minimum wage for males is currently set at a rate which is lower than the standard rate for unskilled labour.

As from 15 March 1977 the minimum rates for male workers became 162c an hour if paid by the hour or on piecework, $12.89 a day if paid by the day, and $64.41 a week in other cases. On and after 1 April 1977, minimum rates for female workers became the same as for males.

AVERAGE MINIMUM WEEKLY WAGES—A table showing minimum wages in various occupations is given in the annual statistical report Prices, Wages, and Labour available in Government bookshops.

FARM EMPLOYEES—The numbers of paid permanent employees on farms at 30 June 1976 and the aggregate totals of salaries and wages (including bonuses) paid during the year ended 30 June 1976 are shown by types of farm in the following table. The table does not include paid part-time employees (of whom there were 9,458 at 30 June 1976) or paid casual employees, of whom there were 9,469 at the same date.

Farm Type**Paid Permanent Employees on 30 June 1976Salaries and Wages Year Ended 30 June 1976
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

*Gross income of 75 percent or more is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first-named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

||More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶The relevant percentage of income may be from dairying or dairying and pigs, provided the income from pigs does not exceed 25 percent of gross income.

††These farm types are as defined in the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

   $(000)$(000)
Dairy farming*4,16781719,0492,014
Sheep farming*4,99454021,424931
Beef farming*497742,310144
Pig farming*262171,37458
Cropping*1752081227
Dairy farming with sheep1734379192
Dairy farming with beef21044986102
Dairy farming with other1012245741
Sheep farming with dairy39516713
Sheep farming with beef3,93030317,215535
Sheep farming with cropping491632,03691
Sheep farming with other1511166322
Beef farming with dairy27515311
Beef farming with sheep539382,28572
Beef farming with other4131775
Cropping with sheep326211,35747
Cropping with other3952055
Pig farming with other49320210
Mixed livestock1,9481618,690309
General mixed farming§556502,563115
Poultry farming||3901591,888512
Market gardening and flowers||5621382,736488
Orchards||8851334,589481
Tobacco growing||140111784324
Nurseries||5993372,9361,022
Plantations||2,8505214,178198
Other farming734703,789247
  Total all farm types24,8753,245113,8177,914

Chapter 35. Section 34 INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND WORKING CONDITIONS

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The rules underlying the New Zealand system of industrial relations have traditionally been embodied in legislation. In the private sector, statutes confer bargaining rights on certain registered/recognised organisations and specify various procedures for the conduct of negotiations. Various institutions are also available to assist the parties in resolving their differences.

RULES GOVERNING INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS—The main body of rules covering industrial relations in the private sector is contained in the Industrial Relations Act 1973. By a process of registration, unions secure bargaining rights for the class of workers they represent, and also access to various procedures for the settlement of disputes associated with the renegotiation of the collective agreement (disputes of interest) and its subsequent application (disputes of right).

In the case of disputes of interest, the emphasis is on the parties reaching a settlement through the processes of collective bargaining. The parties may agree to negotiate a voluntary settlement of the dispute. Alternatively, either party may apply for the dispute to proceed through the more orthodox conciliation and arbitration channels. It should be stressed that the applicant may, at any time, withdraw his claims from conciliation. Moreover, the Arbitration Court may refuse to arbitrate (i.e., make an award) if it considers that the parties have not made a genuine attempt to settle in conciliation.

In the case of disputes of right, the emphasis is on their peaceful resolution, and accordingly the process of arbitration is rather more in evidence. The disputes proceed through a system of disputes committees chaired by an independent person who may either make a decision in the event of the parties failing to agree or refer the matter to the Arbitration Court for a decision. Personal grievance issues proceed directly to the Court for a decision in the event of the parties failing to agree.

The Act provides for the registration and enforcement of collective agreements. An agreement so registered is binding on the immediate parties to it (and their members). Additionally, an agreement arrived at through the process of conciliation, or an award of the Court, automatically binds any person who subsequently becomes connected with or engaged in the industry to which it relates.

Separate enactments cover bargaining relationships in the agriculture sector, on the waterfront, and in the aircrew services.

INSTITUTIONS: The Arbitration Court—The 1973 Industrial Relations Act split the functions of the old Court of Arbitration between two new bodies: the Industrial Commission and Industrial Court. The Industrial Commission assumed responsibility for the registering of settlements as collective agreements and for the making of awards. The Industrial Court was given jurisdiction for the settlement of disputes of right referred to it under the Act.

Under the Industrial Relations Amendment Act 1977, the functions of the Commission and Court have once again been merged. The body responsible for the exercise of the merged functions is the Arbitration Court. The establishment of the Court was associated with moves to achieve, by means of a common membership, consistency in the decisions of the various wage fixing tribunals.

The constitution of the Court varies according to the matters before it and the wishes of the parties. The full Court comprises five persons: one Judge and two sets of members, nominated by the Employers' Federation and the Federation of Labour. The full Court is limited to hearing disputes of interest and then only at the request of one or both of the parties. In all other circumstances, the Court comprises three persons: being one Judge and one set of nominated members. An establishment of three Judges (with jurisdiction over other wage fixing tribunals) together with two sets of nominated members creates the possibility of two courts and one tribunal (or one court and two tribunals) sitting simultaneously.

The Court has jurisdiction for the settlement of disputes of interest and the making of awards and for the settlement and determination of disputes of right. The Court also has jurisdiction for making general wage orders under the General Wage Order Act 1977. More specifically the Court may:

  1. hear and determine any question connected with the construction of any award or collective agreement;

  2. hear and determine any question connected with the construction of the Industrial Relations Act or any Act relating to industrial matters;

  3. make an order determining the rights of parties under any award or collective agreement;

  4. order compliance with any award or collective agreement;

  5. make an order determining the validity of any award or collective agreement (this power was not in the 1973 Act and is designed to cope with situations in which a union negotiates an agreement which covers workers who are not covered by its membership rule):

  6. hear and determine enforcement and recovery actions;

  7. hear and determine appeals from disputes committees;

  8. hear and determine matters referred to the Court relating to the grievance procedure;

  9. hear and determine questions relating to the registration and jurisdiction of unions;

  10. inquire into and determine questions relating to disputed elections.

The Industrial Conciliation Service—The New Zealand system of industrial relations has historically been governed by a formal system of conciliation and arbitration—and the Industrial Conciliation Service has long been an integral part of that system.

The service consists of conciliators appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister. The conciliator acts to convene conciliation councils for the hearing of disputes of interest, and to take any other steps considered advisable in reaching fair and amicable voluntary settlements of such disputes. More specifically, a conciliator sets dates for the hearing of disputes, appoints assessors to constitute the council, and calls or strikes out parties to a dispute. He is also responsible for recording and reporting the procedures of a conciliation to the Court and referring unsettled disputes to the Court for determination.

In practice, what does this mean? The conciliator really has two roles. During the formal proceedings he acts as a chairman. That is, he occasionally calls the council to order, ensures that they stick to the topic, and suggests the time for a break in the formal proceedings. It is during the break in formal proceedings that the conciliator really gets into action. He moves from one room to the other, listens to what each party is saying, drops hints, and makes suggestions. In short, he acts as a link between the parties and assists them in moving to common ground. Above all, he ensures that the negotiations keep going.

The Industrial Mediation Service—The mediation service is relatively new to the industrial relations scene. It was established by an amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act in 1970.

The service consists of mediators appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister after consultation with the central organisations. A mediator acts to "assist employers, unions, and workers to carry out their responsibilities to establish and maintain harmonious industrial relations". The mediator has no power to impose his services on the parties to a dispute and may merely offer his assistance. With the agreement of the parties however he may decide issues referred to him. The mediator is on no account to be involved in a dispute of interest while conciliation or arbitration proceedings are in progress.

Once involved in a dispute, the mediator's approach is, of necessity, a flexible one. As with the conciliator, his objective is to assist the parties in arriving at a settlement themselves. This involves getting the parties talking to one another, and keeping them talking. In certain circumstances, it might be appropriate for the mediator to request that the Minister appoint a compulsory conference, perhaps with himself as chairman with decision-making powers. At other times, it might be appropriate to get the parties together in an informal way as a prelude to more formal discussions.

The Industrial Relations Council—This is an advisory body comprising representatives at national level of employer organisations, worker organisations, and the Government, under the chairmanship of the Minister of Labour. The council provides permanent machinery for tripartite consultation on industrial affairs. Some specific matters to which the council gives consideration are: the formulation and implementation of manpower policies; the formulation of codes of practice relating to industrial relations; and ways and means of improving industrial relations, industrial organisations, and industrial welfare. A sub-committee of the council called the Consultative Committee on Employment Policy has been formed to consider policy issues in greater depth.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS—The New Zealand system of conciliation and arbitration is based on the voluntary registration of industrial unions and industrial associations. The Industrial Relations Act 1973 simplified and consolidated procedures developed over the years under the former Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. A sliding scale operates to determine the minimum number required to form a union depending on the number of industrial districts in which the union has coverage. A union of employers with coverage of up to one full industrial district is to have a minimum of six members or more than 75 percent of employers engaged in the industry in the area concerned who together employ more than 75 percent of the workers so engaged, with an absolute minimum of three. A union of workers with coverage of up to one full industrial district is to have a minimum of 30 members or more than 50 percent of the total number of workers engaged in the industry in the area concerned with an absolute minimum of 10 members. The prime minimum and the absolute minimum figures increase progressively with coverage of a greater number of industrial districts. If the membership of a union falls below the minimum requirements the union may be deregistered.

The great majority of unions of workers and employers in the private enterprise field are registered under the Industrial Relations Act. The wages and conditions of the majority of agricultural workers have been determined by wage orders made under the Agricultural Workers Act 1977.

Further provisions of the Industrial Relations Act 1973 operate to deter multiple unionism and simplify the procedures for amalgamation of unions. It is hoped that this will give impetus to amalgamation of unions.

Restrictions on the exercise of welfare activities by unions have been removed and unions are able, subject to membership approval, to devote any percentage of subscription to welfare activities. A union may apply funds to furtherance of political objects if this is decided by a secret ballot of members.

Awards and collective agreements may, by agreement of the parties or by wish of the majority of the workers concerned, contain a provision making membership of a union a condition of employment, but not so as to restrict an employer's right to engage a worker who at the time of engagement is not a member of the union.

UNIONS OF WORKERS—In the years subsequent to 1936, when changes in the law enabled national unions of workers to be formed and introduced compulsory membership of unions, two tendencies were visible. The first was the immediate creation of many new small unions, the number of unions jumping from 410 in 1935 to 499 in 1937, as many small groups of workers for the first time became unionised and secured an award. Later, a tendency for small unions to amalgamate into New Zealand unions became evident, so that the total number of unions declined at the same time as the number of larger unions increased. By 1942 the result of these changes was to leave the number and membership of the small unions little different from what they were in 1928, but substantially to increase the number of larger unions, and to increase greatly their membership.

Compulsory unionism resulted in a great numerical strengthening of the existing unions with consequential increase in their financial strength, while the legislation enabling national unions to be formed helped to consolidate these gains: at the same time it resulted in the unionisation of many small groups of workers who were previously unorganised. Since 1962 the State has not imposed compulsory union membership.

The union movement remains diverse, with 291 separate registrations and some important unions and the professional associations outside it*. In size, the registered unions range from over 43,000 membersdown to 6, with many of them having fewer than 100. Amalgamation is proceeding and significant consolidation has occurred in recent years.

*Mainly the State Services organisations, and the pulp and paper workers.

†The Engineers Union.

Most unions are still occupational, or craft-based, and the industry agreements that are becoming more common—especially at the informal bargaining level—require the co-operation of numerous unions*

The Act provides for a worker to seek a certificate of exemption from any union-membership provision on grounds of conscience.

Federation of Labour—The great increases in the membership of the trade unions brought about by compulsory unionism and the formation of national unions were factors facilitating the formation of the Federation of Labour in 1937 as an organisation representative of the trade union movement as a whole on a national basis.

The supreme authority of the Federation of Labour is the annual conference of delegates representing affiliated unions. Between conferences the business of the federation is carried on by a National Executive Committee and a National Council. The executive consists of the president, vice president, secretary, and six members elected directly by the conference. The National Council which meets regularly twice a year, and at other times as required, consists of members of the National Executive and is representative of each local trades council. It is the governing body of the federation between meetings of the conference. The local organs of the federation are the local trades councils, 20 in number, and one trade union committee, to which all local unions and branches of unions affiliated to the Federation of Labour are entitled to send representatives. The trades councils meet once a month to carry on the local business of the federation and they maintain close contact with the National Executive by means of exchange of minutes of meetings. Within each district the trades council has local autonomy, but where any matter affects other districts the National Executive or the National Council usually deals with it.

UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS—By registering, the employers secure all the rights of a union and can exercise them, with only minor differences, in the same manner as a union of workers.

Compulsory membership of unions does not apply to employers and in many cases their unions are maintained with a nominal membership.

Employers are more organised for negotiations with unions than figures of membership and the prevalence of local unions of employers might suggest. The New Zealand Employers Federation is the central organisation of employers and the chief co-ordinating body of employers in all matters of industrial relations and employment. It comprises four regional divisions (the Auckland Provincial, Wellington Regional, Canterbury, and Otago-Southland Employers Associations) plus national and North or South Island organisations that are admitted to membership of the Federation's General Council. There are nearly 70 in this latter category.

Individual company membership of the four regional divisions of the federation now exceeds 10,000 and these employers receive advice, assistance, and representation from the associations' specialist industrial staff. In addition to work in the negotiations and advocacy field, the Employers Federation has staff handling research and information services.

A new constitution adopted by the federation in 1971 was designed to achieve greater unity amongst employers and employer organisations associated with the federation, and greater employer sector participation has been provided in the formulation of the federation's policies.

STATISTICS: Unions of Workers—The numbers and membership of workers' unions at the end of the year according to industry groups is shown in the following table. Where the members of a union are employed in more than one industry they have been classified to the predominant industry for the union concerned.

*More than a dozen, for example, in the forest products agreements and in the Hutt Valley motor vehicle assembly plants agreement.

Industrial Group197419751976
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.512,356517,354516,418
Mining and quarrying447644734486
Manufacturing—      
  Metal products and engineering1550,6751651,0421551,854
  Textiles, clothing, and leather2331,0392230,2912232,032
  Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal4447,9504348,7154150,932
  Wood and wood products, including furniture917,248916,838917,093
  Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing49,700510,02759,935
  Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics104,211104,047104,372
  Non-metallic mineral products61,83271,74071,765
Other manufacturing111,10097358814
Construction1341,3361245,1781344,828
Road and rail transport1735,2011736,2911736,175
Air transport51,73951,86851,863
Shipping and stevedoring3514,4823114,2393114,328
Finance, insurance, real estate etc.2961,6152966,0902967,195
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.3377,9833380,1463481,318
Government and local authority, n.e.c.1411,7451012,4831014,196
Recreational services104,718104,902103,629
Social community services including health, education, etc.483141,27742,928
Other personal and community services1110,3861111,2551312,292
  Total302436,623292454,991292464,453

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership.

At 31 DecemberUnder 100100–199200–299300–499500–9991,000–1,9992,000–2,9993,000–4,9995,000–9,99910,000 and OverTotal
Number of Unions
19749029322941291711159302
197590262333343418101410292
197687292132373613131311292
Membership
19744,0954,1427,95211,64428,76140,63039,28238,669101,626159,822436,623
19754,3243,5985,70513,27823,75045,13543,65636,497100,476178,572454,991
19763,9924,1165,13612,60824,87350,09231,47948,48692,601191,070464,453

The following table shows the total membership of industrial unions of workers at the end of each of the latest 42 years. The 1936 total of 185,527 was more than double the 1935 total of 80,929. This was as a result of the 1936 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act which made union membership compulsory whenever an award or industrial agreement existed.

YearNumber of Members
1936185,527
1937232,986
1938249,231
1939254,690
1940248,081
1941231,049
1942218,398
1943214,628
1944223,027
1945229,103
1946247,498
1947260,379
1948271,100
1949275,977
1950275,779
1951272,957
1952283,496
1953290,149
1954299,254
1955304,520
1956308,031
1957317,137
1958324,438
1959327,495
1960332,362
1961324,747
1962332,801
1963334,128
1964346,338
1965353,093
1966362,760
1967366,884
1968364,872
1969366,523
1970378,465
1971386,275
1972394,748
1973427,692
1974436,623
1975454,991
1976464,453
1977473,432

Unions of Employers—The numbers and membership of registered industrial unions of employers as at the end of the year are shown in the following table according to industrial groups. Some are employers belonging to two or more unions.

Industry Group197419751976
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.104,020104,116104,445
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing—      
  Metal products and engineering, etc.91,16791,17181,163
  Textiles, clothing and leather114581146311455
  Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal225922258722492
  Wood and wood products, including furniture951795069538
  Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing14423144258539
  Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics524582308247
  Non-metallic mineral products245245245
  Other manufacturing122166121
Construction555,438566,849567,159
Road and rail transport51,74751,81141,802
Air transport234234234
Shipping and stevedoring14137131334142
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.367641,10151,554
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.5815,0725815,5455615,567
Government and local authority n.e.c.540143734372
Recreational services1103190192
Social community services, including health, education, etc.281528222782
Other personal and community services773577367718
  Total23532,64723835,10322036,167

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS—Associations of two or more unions in different districts in the same industry can be registered as industrial associations. As at 31 December 1976 there were 13 industrial associations of employers and 28 of workers, the former having 106 affiliated unions and the latter 140.

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS—The following table shows the proportion of workers belonging to registered unions to the total number of wage earners in the country. The figures for total wage earners are derived from census enumerations.

Census YearTotal Wage EarnersEnd of Year Nearest to Census DateNumbers of Workers on Rolls of Registered Unions*Percentage of Wage Earners on Rolls of Registered Unions*

*There are a number of associations of employees not registered. These include many State servants and mine workers chemical fertiliser workers, agricultural workers, etc.

1956 (Apr)653,3581955304,52047
1961 (Apr)750,8821960332,36244
1966 (Mar)870,8131965353,09341
1971 (Mar)958,5631970378,46539
1976 (Mar)1,063,170x1975454,99143x

STATISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES—In the tables which follow only those disputes are included which resulted in a strike, penalty, or lockout, or where organised "go slow" or other passive-resistance methods were clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes. Stoppages in which no demand is made on the employer (or the employees in the case of a lockout) are not included—for example any stoppage which is the result of disagreement by workers with measures taken (or not taken) by Government or other authority, as distinct from employers, is excluded. To avoid confusion with the term "dispute" as used in industrial relations legislation, these statistics have been called "industrial stoppages". A long-term series of stoppages is given towards the back of this Yearbook.

The figures for stoppages include details of stopwork meetings unless, as on the waterfront, provision is made for these in the relevant award or agreement. In all cases unauthorised stopwork meetings are included, also unauthorised delays in resuming work after recognised stopwork meetings. A single stoppage may include or may consist of one stopwork meeting or several stopwork meetings; if several such meetings are included, these may be held at different times or at different places, provided all relate to the same issue.

The following table shows incidence rates of stoppages during recent years.

YearNumber of Wage and Salary Earners*Workers Involved in Stoppages as Percentage of Wage and Salary EarnersWorking Days Lost per 1,000 of Wage and Salary Earners

*October estimates.

 (000)  
1972948.56.37141.81
1973987.411.73275.17
19741,015.86.98180.83
19751,024.57.30209.50
19761,034.319.44472.24

Industrial stoppages during recent years are summarised in the following table. The totals of stoppages include lockouts (if any). Where several occasions have been grouped as one stoppage the largest number of firms affected and the largest number of workers involved on any one day have been included under the relevant headings. Workers indirectly involved have also been included. "Partial strike" indicates a reduction of the normal rate of output.

Calendar YearNumber of StoppagesDurationNumber of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostAverage Days Lost per Worker InvolvedApproximate Loss in Wages
Complete StrikePartial StrikeTotal*Total (Working Days)Average (Working Days)

*Includes lockouts.

      (000)(000) $(000)
1970310103231,3944.321102772.522,425
1971288223131,3894.44861631.892,109
1972232312661,2574.7360135x2.231,951
1973355363941,8924.801162722.354,289
1974348293801,5304.03711842.593,332
1975396314281,8294.27752152.874,219
1976453344871,9864.082014882.4310,840
1977538245622,1713.861594302.7010,310

In the following table industrial stoppages are classified according to the industry in which they took place. The figures relate to stoppages which terminated during 1977.

IndustryNumber of StoppagesDuration (Working Days)Number of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
     $(000)
Agriculture, hunting1110100.4
Forestry, logging252964929.5
Fishing
Mining, quarrying3111612936.9
Meat export works195417½80,462176,2455,026.6
IndustryNumber of StoppagesDuration (Working Days)Number of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages

*From 1976, when there were 16 cases, a stoppage which involved workers in more than one industry has been counted once in each respective industry but as a single stoppage in the total of all industries. In 1977 there were 38 extra cases and 147½ extra days' duration.

     $(000)
Other slaughtering, preparation, and preserving meat41032952113.0
Dairy products; fruit, vegetable, and fish canning and preserving, vegetable oils, animal oils and fats.62768653414.0
Grain milling, bakery products, sugar, confectionery, etc.3177573,61974.9
Beverage industries, tobacco736½4221,04425.1
Textile, wearing apparel, leather goods191101,6873,41053.7
Wood, wood products (incl. furniture)9387,51843,647934.0
Paper, paper products; printing and publishing24115½4,18719,398431.6
Chemicals; chemical, petroleum, and coal products1580½5813,03695.4
Rubber and plastic products1644½3,7709,348282.5
Non-metallic mineral products1033½1,8316,640199.8
Basic metal industries936½3,9114,121108.0
Metal products; machinery including electrical26153½2,2098,651235.6
Transport equipment17613,4298,914190.1
Professional and scientific equipment
Other manufacturing
Electricity, gas, water195721713.4
Building contracting372781,56622,455689.4
Civil engineering, contracting101291,4735,488131.8
Owner builder and allied building trades2116641,71040.6
Wholesale trade12854,49715,279291.9
Retail trade41115,38826,922540.3
Restaurants and hotels1126280.5
Land transport21975,90319,962380.7
Water transport12434513,80043,166433.0
Air transport310½300200.3
Services allied to transport2331,2882,24947.8
Communication
Financing, insurance, real estate, etc.255921,06427.0
Community, social, and personal services14103½5721,59818.7
Several industries121661663.6
Total, all industries*5622,170½159,053430,20110,310.2

The following table gives a more detailed analysis of stoppages by duration during 1976.

DurationNumber of StoppagesNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
    $(000)
1 day and less20483,70369,9821,704.5
Over 1 day but not over 2 days10120,60434,306757.5
Over 2 days but not over 3 days4711,80030,714738.9
Over 3 days but less than 1 week248,56818,692460.4
1 week but less than 2 weeks6428,68674,5771,579.7
2 weeks but less than 4 weeks3630,831111,0102,370.4
4 weeks but less than 8 weeks815,416138,2003,007.7
8 weeks and over31,47710,960221.0
  Total487201,085488,44110,840.3

CAUSES—In the next table the causes of stoppages occurring during 1976 are shown. A breakdown in negotiations over a range of matters rather than over any one or more of the other categories of cause is recorded under "Breakdown in Negotiations".

Under the heading "Wages" are included stoppages concerning wages, overtime, or rates of piecework. Stoppages concerning the hours of work, leave, and holidays are included under the heading "Period of Work".

"Conditions of Work" includes safety, health, and general working conditions. Such matters as supervision, work allocation, manning levels, dismissals, redundancy, etc., are included under "Managerial Practice".

Stoppages caused by workers striking in sympathy with demands of other workers, demarcation, victimisation, and other union matters are included under "Union Matters".

The number of stoppages, number of workers involved, and working days lost are shown for each cause.

InvolvementCause of StoppageTotal
General Breakdown in NegotiationsWagesPeriod of WorkConditions of WorkManagerial PracticeUnion Matters* and other Causes

*Union matters: 18 stoppages; 3,555 workers involved; 4,934 working days lost.

Number of—       
Stoppages4213296593146487
Workers involved90,98144,3841,14224,4539,67830,447201,085
Working days lost167,846184,9961,35144,47435,01354,761488,441

METHODS OF SETTLEMENT—Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes causing stoppages in 1976. "Private negotiations" take place when discussions have occurred between employers and workers without intervention of a third party. Third parties intervening may include the industrial mediator, conciliators, the Department of Labour, the Minister of Labour, the Federation of Labour, etc.

A settlement is classified as "Voluntary return to work" where no negotiations have taken place, no conditions are changed, and workers simply return to work or decide to drop their claims.

Method of SettlementNumber of StoppagesNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
    $(000)
Private negotiations12420,63947,266949.0
Intervention of third party11535,863107,2852,181.7
Other and voluntary return to work248144,583333,8907,709.6
Total487201,085488,44110,840.3

WORKING CONDITIONS—A considerable proportion of the persons comprising the labour force of New Zealand have their working conditions determined either directly or indirectly by virtue of the provision of the Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971, the Factories Act 1946, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Shops and Offices Act 1955, the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Agricultural Workers Act 1977, the Construction Act 1959, the Machinery Act 1950, the Disabled Persons Employment Act 1960, the Bush Workers Act 1945, the Sharemilking Agreement Act 1937, the Shearers Act 1962, and the Industrial Relations Act 1973. Legislative authority covering the working conditions of substantially the greater portion of the remaining participants in the labour force is contained in the State Services Act 1962, the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, the Government Railways Act 1949, the Post Office Act 1959, the Police Act 1958, the Education Act 1964, the Hospitals Act 1957, the Hospital Employment Regulations 1963, and the Waterfront Industry Act 1953.

Notes on Acts which have as their prime purpose the protection of workers from accidents in the course of their employment have been included in Section 35D—Occupational Safety.

HOURS OF WORK—Employees in most occupations have had the benefit of a 40-hour 5-day week since 1946, with the first legislation in this regard being enacted in 1936.

HOLIDAYS—The Annual Holidays Act 1944 provides for an annual holiday of 3 weeks duration paid at the workers average weekly earnings during the year of entitlement. A worker who has been employed for less than 1 year, on termination of his employment, is entitled to holiday pay for the period of employment. An employer is required to keep a record (holiday book) containing particulars of employment, annual holidays, and amounts paid in respect of each worker in his employment.

Public holidays include Christmas Day, Boxing Day, New Year's Day, 2 January (or a day in lieu), Waitangi Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Anzac Day, Labour Day, the Sovereign's Birthday, and the provincial anniversary day (or a day in lieu). Labour Day is deemed to be the fourth Monday in October. Waitangi Day is 6 February. Anzac Day (the 25th day of April) is a day of commemoration, being the anniversary of the first landing of troops on Gallipoli in 1915, and in terms of employment is observed as if it were a holiday. Observance of Waitangi Day and Anzac Day cannot be transferred to another date.

Other statutes dealing with holidays are the Anzac Day Act 1966, Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952, and the Waitangi Day Act 1976.

FACTORIES ACT—The Factories Act 1946 applies to "any building, office, or place in which two or more persons are engaged or in which one or more persons are employed … directly or indirectly, in any handicraft, or in preparing or manufacturing goods for trade or sale …".

Restrictions on Employment—No boy or girl under 16 years of age may be employed in any factory unless a certificate of fitness is issued by an Inspector of Factories.

Safety, Health, and Welfare—The safety measures have reference to dangerous liquids, harmful noise, means of access and safety of employment, and means of escape in case of fire. The employer is required to keep a register of all accidents of which he has any knowledge, and first-aid appliances must be provided and maintained. The health and welfare provisions are very extensive and include reference to such matters as air space, cleanliness, ventilation, canteens, the care of employees, amenities, and other things to be supplied by the employer to secure employees' health or welfare.

SHOPS AND OFFICES ACT: Hours of Work—For shop assistants the hour of commencing work for persons under 16 years must not be earlier than 7 a.m., except that newspapers may be delivered from 6 a.m. by persons aged 12 years and under 16, and milk by persons aged 14 years and under 16 from the same hour. Persons under 18 years may not be employed after 10.30 p.m. The Act also provides that persons under 18 years cannot be employed in restaurants before 5 a.m. or after 10.30 p.m.

Shop Trading Hours—On 1 October 1977, the Shop Trading Hours Act 1977 replaced the trading hour provisions of the Shops and Offices Act 1955 and the various awards and collective agreements.

Shops may now open at any time between 7 a.m. and 9 p.m. Mondays to Fridays inclusive but are to be closed outside these hours and on Saturdays, Sundays, and Statutory holidays.

The Act provides however, that "approved" goods may be sold at any time and that "special" goods may be sold between the stated hours on Saturdays only. Goods other than those on the "approved" or "special" list are "restricted" goods. If an occupier desires to open his shop to sell "approved" or "special" goods outside the hours mentioned above, then all "restricted" goods must be out of sight of the public or kept in a part of the shop that is closed off.

Provision is made for the granting of orders authorising a shop occupier to open at times other than those mentioned above. The majority of the shop occupiers in an "area" (which may be a street, mall, or municipality area) can also apply for such an order to cover the whole of the area.

"Approved" and "Special" Goods—These are listed in schedules to the Act. "Approved" goods include bakers' and pastrycooks' goods, building supplies and handyman requisites, condiments, confectionery, dairy produce, drinks, fish, frozen foods, fruit and flowers, fuels, gardening supplies, miscellaneous groceries, magazines and periodicals, meats and smallgoods, medicinal and household goods, motor accessories, photographic goods, plants, prepared and cooked foods, tobacco, etc., vegetables, and a number of miscellaneous lines. "Special" goods which can be sold on Saturdays only include cut flowers, wreaths, vegetables, new and used motorcars, and motor cycles.

Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions—The Act also makes provision for the welfare, health, and safety of assistants. Particular matters that are covered relate to dangerous liquids and noxious gases, limitation of loads, safe means of access, construction and maintenance of floors, passages, stairs, fire precautions, lighting, cleanliness, ventilation, drinking water, drainage, washing facilities, clothing, accommodation, seating and first-aid facilities, rest rooms for women, sanitary conveniences, temperature and heating appliances, accommodation for meals, etc.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT—Under the Agricultural Workers Act 1962 regulations have been made setting out minimum standards of accommodation to be supplied for agricultural workers.

Restrictions on Employment of Children—Under the Agricultural Workers Act no child under the age of 15 years may: (a) be employed in any agricultural work during such times as the child is required to attend school under the Education Act; (b) be required to lift any weights, or to perform any task, likely to be injurious to his health; (c) work more than 8 hours in any 1 day.

Safety and Health—The Agricultural Workers Act requires employers to take reasonable precautions for the safety and health of employees and provides for the instruction of employees as to dangers and precautions, miscellaneous protection, and the provision of protective clothing or equipment as appropriate.

SHEARERS ACT—Under the Shearers Act 1962 an employer is required to provide amenities for all shearers employed by him. Where five or more shearers are to be accommodated on the farm suitable accommodation must be provided. Minimum standards of amenities and accommodation are prescribed by the Shearers Regulations 1963.

SHIPPING AND SEAMEN LEGISLATION—The general superintendence of matters relating to merchant ships and seamen in New Zealand is the responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport.

Competence, Safety, and Welfare Provisions—The Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 makes provision to ensure competence on the part of navigational officers, engineers, and certain crew members. Rules or regulations under that Act set out the qualifications and examination standards for persons to obtain the appropriate certificates in New Zealand, and there are provisions for the acceptance of certain certificates granted in other Commonwealth countries. The number and qualifications of persons required to man ships of various classes are set out in statutory scales.

The seaworthiness of ships is covered by annual survey for compliance as to condition and equipment, and regulations govern the day-to-day operations of ships to ensure their safe navigation and operation.

The pay and many conditions of employment are determined by industrial awards or agreements between shipowners and employee organisations. There are also legislative measures to ensure compliance with some of the international conventions or recommendations relating to the employment of seafarers.

MINING LEGISLATION—Consolidating legislation was passed as the Mining Act 1971 and this became law after its attendant regulations were gazetted early in 1973.

Working Conditions—In the coal-mining industry working conditions are determined by agreement reached at annual conferences between the coal-mine owners and the employee organisations.

Restrictions on Employment—No person under the age of 16 years may be employed underground in any coal mine, or in any alluvial mine, or on or about any dredge; while the minimum age in respect of underground work in a quartz mine is 19 years. No youth may be employed in a mine for more than 8 hours per day or 48 hours per week except in cases of emergency.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY—Measures for occupational safety, involving the Machinery Act 1950, the Construction Act 1959, and a number of other Acts, are discussed in Section 35D.

WORKING CONDITIONS OF STATE SERVANTS—Apart from remuneration (which is discussed in Section 33, Wages) the working conditions of State servants are controlled by legislation set out in the following paragraphs.

Members of the Public Service are governed by the State Services Act 1962 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977. Included in the functions of the State Services Commission are the provision of suitable office accommodation, the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions, and also the regulations of a variety of points connected with control—e.g., leave, hours of work.

The Government Railways Act 1949 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977 furnish the legislative framework for determination of the working conditions of railway employees. There is a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, the principal function of which is to adjudicate on single service conditions of work in respect of railway employees.

Working conditions for Post Office employees are determined by the administrative authority, the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. Power is vested in the Minister by virtue of the Post Office Act 1959. There is a Post Office Staff Tribunal whose function it is to hear and determine applications referred to it in respect of conditions of employment of Post Office staff.

There are other legislative enactments which apply to the relevant sections of general Government employees. Members of the Police are governed by the Police Act 1958 and the Police Regulations 1959, while there is also a Police Staff Tribunal. The three armed services are controlled by the Defence Act 1971.

The Education Act 1964 and amendments authorise, either by regulation or through the agency of education boards, the determination of the conditions of employment, leave of absence, etc., for the members of the teaching profession.

WATERFRONT INDUSTRY—Work within the waterfront industry is governed by the Waterfront Industry Act 1976. The Act defines waterside work as the loading and unloading of ships, barges, lighters, and other vessels, together with certain other work customarily performed within wharf limits by waterside workers. Work within the waterfront industry includes waterside work and certain other work carried out within wharf limits such as the driving or operation of mechanical cargo-handling equipment, tallying, the shoring and unshoring of cargo, and the work of foremen stevedores and timekeepers. Separate bodies are empowered by the Act to carry out, on the one hand, legislative and judicial functions, and on the other administrative functions only.

Waterfront Industry Tribunal—The legislative and judicial body is the Waterfront Industry Tribunal, which consists of two members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister, and as chairman the Chief Judge of the Arbitration Court or a judge of the Arbitration Court nominated by him. The members are appointed for a term of 3 years. The tribunal is a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The functions of the tribunal are, firstly, to prescribe the terms and conditions of employment for work within the waterfront industry, and here the tribunal's procedure is similar to that followed by the Government Service Tribunal. To assist with this function, the Act also provides for the Minister of Labour to direct the establishment of conciliation councils each consisting of an independent chairman and an equal number of employers' representatives and workers' representatives. These councils conduct conciliation proceedings on any application to the tribunal which concerns two or more ports and the chairman is appointed by the Minister for a term not exceeding 1 year. Secondly, the tribunal is required to settle any disputes that arise in relation to work within the waterfront industry and for this function has the assistance of Port Conciliation Committees which consist of an equal number of employers' and workers' representatives with an independent chairman. Thirdly, the tribunal is a general appeal court from decisions of Port Conciliation Committees (with certain limitations) and to determine appeals from any orders or decisions of the Waterfront Industry Commission imposing levies or charges and in respect of the provision of amenities for waterside workers, as well as against refusal of the commission to register an applicant for entry on the Register of Employers of Waterside Workers.

Waterfront Industry Commission—The Waterfront Industry Commission, which is the administrative body, consists of an independent chairman, two members nominated by the Union of Employers, and two members nominated by the New Zealand Waterside Workers' Federation. All five members are appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour for a term not exceeding 3 years. The functions of the commission are, firstly, to carry out all administrative work in connection with guaranteed wage payments, annual and statutory holiday payments, and systems of payments by results, for waterside workers, and to perform these functions for other workers in the waterfront industry if requested by the employers and workers concerned. Secondly, the commission is responsible for the supervision of amenities for waterside workers and for the equipping, operation and management of these amenities which include waiting rooms or assembly halls, restaurants, canteens, and first aid rooms. The commission provides such amenities costing not more than $50,000 each at any port and approves schemes for the provision by harbour boards of amenities costing more than $50,000 each at any port.

Of the remaining functions of the commission, the main ones are the determination of the number of workers to be entered on the Bureau Register for each port so as to ensure the supply of sufficient waterside labour for its efficient working, to be the sole employer of waterside workers for the purposes of the Accident Compensation Act 1972, to train waterside workers in first aid, to publish statistical information in relation to the waterfront industry, and to register employers of waterside labour providing they meet the statutory requirements.

The organisation of "registered" waterside workers is on the basis of separate port unions with one association or federation of unions. The port unions and the association are registered through the Registrar of Industrial Unions in the Department of Labour.

LEGISLATIVE PROVISION FOR CERTAIN OTHER GROUPS: Hospital Board Employees—The provisions relating to working conditions of hospital board employees, such as nurses, etc., will be found in the Hospitals Act 1957 and the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977.

Chapter 36. Section 35 PERSONAL SAFETY

35 A—ACCIDENT PREVENTION, REHABILITATION, AND COMPENSATION

ACCIDENT COMPENSATION ACT—The Accident Compensation Act 1972, which took effect from 1 April 1974, is undoubtedly one of the most significant developments in social welfare for many years.

The 3 main objectives of the legislation are: (a) to promote safety in every walk of life; (b) to urge forward the concept of prompt and effective rehabilitation of all people injured by accident so as to restore them to the fullest physical, mental, social, vocational, and economic usefulness of which they are capable; and (c) to provide prompt, fair, and reasonable compensation so that every accident victim will be treated according to his real needs.

Cover, embracing all 3 objectives, extends to virtually everyone in New Zealand, from the smallest child to the oldest citizen.

Accident prevention, which is of great importance to the Accident Compensation Commission, is promoted by a safety division which aims at co-ordinating existing organisations and maintaining its own advisory programme.

Similar stress is laid on rehabilitation, and a staff of field officers has been established in main centres to make personal contact with the injured person and to ensure that all necessary rehabilitative measures are effectively undertaken.

As far as compensation is concerned, the Accident Compensation Act:

  1. provides immediate benefits for every person who suffers personal injury by accident in New Zealand, regardless of his or her fault and wherever the accident occurred in New Zealand; (b) entitles the injured person to compensation both for permanent physical disability and also for loss of earnings on an income-related basis; (c) provides for regular adjustment in the level of payment to injured persons in accord with variations in the value of money; and (d) provides for everyone an effective insurance against personal injury by accident in New Zealand.

In all, New Zealand has a comprehensive system, the essence of which is that the community itself recognises its responsibility for both the accident toll and its effects, and finances and provides for the victims of all accidents however their injuries are caused.

ACCIDENT COMPENSATION COMMISSION—To administer the Act, the Accident Compensation Commission, comprising 3 persons, is appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour.

The head office of the commission, based in Wellington, has safety, medical and rehabilitation, compensation, legal, research and planning, finance, and administration divisions each headed by a director. There is a branch office in Dunedin. Regional offices are in Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, and Christchurch; district offices at Whangarei, Rotorua, New Plymouth, Napier, and Invercargill; and liaison services at Gisborne and Nelson.

SAFETY—By virtue of its legislative duty as a matter of prime importance to take an active and co-ordinating role in the promotion of safety in all the different areas where accidents can occur, the commission is involved in the prevention of accidents of every kind, whether they happen at work, on the roads, in the home, on the playing field, or in the outdoors. It has been recognised by industry that accidents have no economic boundaries, since a worker's productivity is affected equally whether he is injured on the job or off the job.

As accidents are reduced there is a corresponding reduction in the need for compensation and rehabilitation and a lessening of the financial drain on the whole community of which compensation and other "direct" costs are only a portion.

The commission's safety division comprises specialists in various aspects of accident prevention—including occupational, rural, home, and recreational safety.

Education and training form the cornerstone of their activities. An extensive range of residential and in-plant training courses is available, each course tailored to meet the requirements of a different level of employee—top and middle management, safety officers and engineers, supervisors, apprentices, and the rank-and-file worker.

The safety division also assists and co-ordinates the efforts of organisations already doing valuable work in accident prevention, and makes financial grants for specific projects.

REHABILITATION—Prompt and successful rehabilitation reduces the need for compensation by returning people to economic usefulness more quickly, as well as in some cases providing them with a vocation and self-respect they might otherwise have lost altogether.

In many ways, however, rehabilitation goes hand in hand with compensation. By removing anxiety and economic fear, adequate compensation in itself helps to achieve rehabilitation of the injured. From the outset, earner and non-earner alike are assured of retaining a reasonable enjoyment of life and a reasonable standard of living, despite even the most severe disability.

The commission's interests in rehabilitation extend to co-operating with existing work—some of it of an extremely high standard already—and to developing the whole concept to give the injured person the best possible treatment.

Rehabilitation extends to such matters as reducing the possibility of permanent disability; assisting those who are disabled to make the best possible use of what ability remains or can be inculcated by new training, further education, or other special help; re-establishing people in employment; modifying homes or workplaces to provide for incapacitated people; providing a wide assortment of rehabilitation aids; and adapting a car to hand-control so that transport to work is available.

To achieve these objectives, the commission employs a field force of rehabilitation liaison officers, whose function it is to counsel and advise claimants in respect of their needs and who recommend to the commission what should be done to assist them.

Their services are readily available to all who have cover under the Act, earners and non-earners alike.

COMPENSATION—People are covered against personal injury by accident under 3 schemes in the accident compensation system:

  1. Earners' scheme—This provides for everyone who receives remuneration either as an employee or as a self-employed person in New Zealand. Persons who have cover under the earners' scheme are entitled to both earnings-related compensation and other benefits as summarised below.

  2. Motor vehicle accident scheme—This covers everyone injured by the use of a motor vehicle. Motor accident victims qualify for all benefits including, if they receive earnings in New Zealand, earnings-related compensation.

  3. Supplementary scheme—This brings in all those not otherwise covered, among them tourists and visitors to New Zealand; and people not earning, such as housewives, children, students, and retired people. Persons who have cover under the supplementary scheme do not normally qualify for earnings-related compensation but they are eligible for all other benefits.

BENEFITS PROVIDED: Earnings-Related Compensation—The earners' scheme provides for the payment of compensation for loss of earnings at the rate of 80 percent of normal average earnings at the time of the accident, subject to a maximum of $240 a week. No payment is made by the commission for the first week following the accident but if it happens at work (including travel to and from work), an employer is generally required to pay an employee his normal rate of pay (excluding overtime) for this period.

If the injured person has more than one job he receives full pay for the first week from his employer on the job on which the accident occurred and the commission pays compensation based on the amount he would have earned from the other jobs.

After the first week, earnings-related compensation is paid by the commission to all earners, regardless of how or where the accident occurred.

Weekly payments generally cease at age 65 years, but can continue until the normal retiring age for a particular job. If the accident occurs after age 60 years, payment continues for a further 5 years; if it occurs after age 65 years then up to age 70 years; and if the accident happens after age 70 years compensation is payable for 1 year; assuming in all these cases that the injured person was an earner at the time of the accident.

Appropriate adjustments to the amount of compensation payable are made for partial incapacity. In some special circumstances, compensation for loss of potential earnings may be awarded.

Earnings-related compensation constitutes taxable income, PAYE tax being deducted at source.

Other Compensation—Provision is made for a wide range of benefits, including compensation for medical and hospital expenses, cost of transport to hospital, or wages paid to an attendant or nurse, and for reasonable expenses resulting directly from the accident.

In addition, the injured person may qualify for payment of a lump sum for permanent loss or impairment of bodily function up to a maximum of $7,000; and for loss of capacity to enjoy life, for pain and mental suffering, and for disfigurement, up to a maximum of $10,000.

Fatal Claims—In the event of a fatal accident, the commission pays reasonable funeral expenses.

Also, the dependent widow of an earner who has died as a result of an accident can qualify for half the earnings-related compensation her husband would have received had he been totally incapacitated but still living. For each of up to three dependent children, an additional one-sixth may be paid. Thus a widow with three or more children could qualify for the full earnings-related compensation her husband would have received had he been totally incapacitated. In addition, a lump sum of up to $1,000 is payable to the totally dependent widow, plus up to $500 for each dependent child, to a maximum of $1,500 for the dependent children.

Partially dependent widows and children receive a proportion of these amounts.

Housewives—As well as the appropriate benefits listed under "Other Compensation" and "Fatal Claims", housewives who are injured in an accident may, if justified, qualify for the cost of home help; or, in certain circumstances, the husband may be compensated for loss of earnings while he is looking after the house until the injured wife can resume her duties.

FINANCING OF COMPENSATION FUNDS—Accident compensation is a form of compulsory insurance in which the community as a whole accepts responsibility for the accidents which inevitably will afflict a proportion of its members, as a consequence of the kind of life that society today demands as its right.

The community pays in these ways:

  1. Levies on employers (including the Crown) and on the self-employed to pay for the earners' scheme. They are paid through the Inland Revenue Department (as agent for the commission).

  2. Levies on vehicle owners are paid to another agent for the commission, the Post Office, to pay for the motor vehicle accident scheme.

  3. General taxation pays for the supplementary scheme through the Consolidated Revenue Account.

The employer pays levies on a risk-related scale, ranging from 25 cents to $5 per $100 of wages paid, and he classifies his employees for the appropriate levy in accordance with the industrial activity in which he is engaged. There are special classes for staff on clerical-management and commercial travelling duties, so that the employer can pay for them at a lower levy rate than that for employees engaged directly in his industrial activity. The maximum amount on which levy is payable is $15,600 a year for each employee.

A levy of 1 percent of earnings applies to self-employed people, regardless of their industrial activity, but the limit of income on which the levy may be imposed is $15,600 a year. Hence, the maximum payable by any self-employed person is $156 a year.

Levies for the motor vehicle accident scheme are collected when motor vehicles are registered or re-registered.

HANDLING OF CLAIMS—The commission itself deals with claims in Otago. In all other areas the State Insurance Office is the claims handling agent for all cases except New Zealand seamen, whose claims are dealt with by P. & I. Services Limited. Claims are made by a worker injured at his place of employment notifying his employer and filling in a claim form which the employer then forwards to the State Insurance Office; or, in other cases, by direct notification to the State Insurance Office. Claims need to be supported by a medical certificate.

It is intended that there should be no long delays in providing compensation. An injured worker who is hurt at work will receive his pay in full from his employer for the first week he is unable to work. If his incapacity continues beyond the first week, earnings-related compensation should become available promptly, so that, effectively, there is no break in his flow of income. He will continue to be paid locally, without delay.

The commission's objective for the self-employed is that earnings-related payments should begin equally promptly, after the first week. Difficulties often arise, however, in determining the weekly amount which on a fair and just basis truly reflects loss of earning capacity. More complex arrangements are necessary and these are set out in pamphlets available from all commission and State Insurance offices.

Naturally, it will take time to assess permanent disability, loss of faculty, potential earnings, pain and suffering, loss of enjoyment of life, and the like; but here again it is firmly intended that delays will be minimised and early payments made once the disability has reached a stable condition.

REVIEWS AND APPEALS—Decisions by the commission acting either itself or by its agents are subject to a right of appeal. The claimant can first apply to the commission for a review of the decision. This review will be conducted by the commission itself, or by a hearing officer appointed by the commission. From any decisions made on a review there is a right of appeal to an Appeal Authority, who has full power to confirm, modify, or reverse any decision by the commission. There is a further right of appeal to the Supreme Court, on a question of law, a matter of general or public interest, or a matter which for any other reason should be heard by the Supreme Court, and to the Court of Appeal on questions of law only.

35 B—INDUSTRIAL INJURIES

GENERAL—Statistics of industrial injuries have become increasingly important with the ever-increasing mechanisation of industry and the growing labour force. For programmes of training in industrial safety they provide both a means of measuring the success or otherwise of the safety education being provided, and an indication of "black spots" where additional safety measures or training are required.

The far-reaching scheme for compensation for personal injuries, which took effect from 1 April 1974, is described in the previous section. One of the duties of the Accident Compensation Commission, the statutory body set up to administer the scheme, is the compilation of data on accidents resulting in more than one week's disability and for which compensation is paid by the commission. Pending the publication of later statistics by the Commission, this section includes reprinted tables referring to the last year for which data of industrial injuries was processed by the Department of Statistics.

The statistics cover compensable accidents, which require that the injured worker is paid compensation for an absence from work of one day or longer. Considerable numbers of accidents involving reimbursement of medical expenses only, i.e., "no time lost" cases, are thus excluded from the statistics. The statistics exclude accidents to working proprietors and similar persons not insurable under the Workers Compensation Act 1956. This limits the scope of the statistics in the farming industry especially. Coverage does, however, extend to organisations exempt from insurance under the Act.

PRINCIPAL STATISTICS—The following table gives a summary of the principal statistics for compensable accidents during 1973:

Number of accidents resulting in— 

*Claims settled but reported cases numbered 60 in 1973.

  Fatality53*
  Permanent total disability2
  Permanent partial disability501
  Temporary disability66,810
Total67,366
Compensation paid (inch damages)— 
  Total $(m)9.8
  Average per accident $146
Calendar days lost— 
  Temporary disability only (000)925.0
  Average days per accident14

NATURE OF INJURIES—The nature of injuries is shown by industry divisions in the following tables for 1973. The most common types of injuries were sprains, or strains, closely followed by lacerations, punctures, and open wounds. In 1973, injuries of the first type made up 33.3 percent of all compensable injuries, and injuries of the second type, 29.0 percent. Bruises or contusions, the third most common type of injury, made up 9.0 percent.

Nature of InjuryAgriculture, forestry, hunting and fishingMining and quarryingManufacturingBuilding and ConstructionElectricity, gas, water and sanitary servicesCommerceTransport, storage, and communicationServicesActivities not adequately describedTotals
Traumatic amputation or enucleation53010311151
Fracture588361,19661910026444126413,509
Dislocation without fracture42470439184229257
Sprain, strain1,9823019,4033,8807501,5192,8111,800922,455
Laceration, puncture or open wound2,25914510,9332,3174341,4341,098941219,563
Superficial injury (scratch, abrasion, etc.)497722,62083516838556929335,442
Bruise, contusion426612,8101,04218237775243126,083
Foreign body in eye or car112271,3975324664173462,397
Burn, scald238252,1444287513113140933,584
Injury to nerve or spinal cord1341202108101105
Internal injury (not eye or ear)9123119641
Multiple8941514243
Other551221,64256512623230943763,890
Total6,73069332,30710,2981,8944,4436,3584,6692867,420

PERMANENT PHYSICAL DISABILITY—During 1973 there were 503 accidents which involved permanent physical disabilities. Of these, 289 involved 15 percent or less permanent disability, 86 involved 50 percent or more, and an additional 2 involved total disability. There were 60 reported cases involving fatalities.

The largest proportions of permanent total and permanent partial disabilities occurred in the agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing; manufacturing; building and construction; and transport, storage, and communication industries.

AGE GROUPS—A feature of industrial injury statistics over a number of years has been the high percentage of accidents involving male workers under 21 years of age. In 1973, for example, this age group made up 14.28 percent of the male labour force, but included 23.09 percent of males sustaining industrial injuries.

Victims of industrial accidents during 1973 are shown by sex and age group in the following table.

ItemAge Group (in years)Total
Under 2121–2425–3435–4445–5455–6465 and over
Males
Number of accidents13,1599,21213,4799,0897,4774,00955656,981
Percentage of accidents involving males23.0916.1723.6615.9513.127.040.98100.00
Percentage of male labour force at 1971 Census14.2812.4722.6518.9517.3111.892.45100.00
Females
Number of accidents1,9868091,0761,1911,122419456,648
Percentage of accidents involving females29.8712.1716.1917.9216.886.300.68100.00
Percentage of female labour force at 1971 Census27.2114.5015.28.16.7816.848.041.35100.00

Note—3,791 accidents in which the age of the injured worker was not stated are excluded from the table.

TIME OF ACCIDENT—Records of times at which industrial accidents take place suggest that the most dangerous time of the day for industrial workers is the middle of the morning. Year after year, the greatest number of accidents occur between 10.30 a.m. and 11.29 a.m., with the next largest number occurring between 9.30 a.m. and 10.29 a.m.

A factor to be considered, however, is that these are the times when (allowing for part-time workers, shift workers, and the growing practice of glide-time) the number "at risk" is likely to be at its peak.

ACCIDENTS BY TYPE, SOURCE, AND AGENCY—Industrial accidents are analysed by type, source, and agency.

The definitions of the three characteristics are as follows:

Type of Accident—Occurrences such as falls; stepping on, striking against, or being struck by objects; over-exertion or strenuous movements; exposure to, or contact with, electricity or harmful substances, etc.

Source of Injury—The source of injury covers the object that inflicted the injury on the worker, e.g., a machine or tool; the ground when someone falls from a ladder.

Agency of Accident—The direct cause of the accident, e.g., if a workman strikes his finger with a hammer then the hammer is both the source of injury and the agency of the accident. However, in the instance of an impact with a surface following a fall, e.g., floor, then the floor would be taken as the source of the injury but not the agency. The agency would be a slipping ladder or some such other cause.

Agencies of accidents in 1973 are analysed in the next table.

Agency of AccidentNumber
Machines— 
  Prime movers and pumps (excluding electric motors) and transmission machinery195
  Metal-working machines2,715
  Wood-working machines1,539
  Other machines2,736
Means of transport and lifting equipment— 
  Lifting machines and appliances915
  Means of transport3,777
Other equipment— 
  Tools, implement's, and appliances including electric hand tools8,785
  Other equipment2,174
Materials, substances, and radiations— 
  Objects stepped on, struck against, or being handled20,296
  Other materials, substances, and radiations9,019
Working environment and other agencies15,269
  Total67,420

The following table analyses the types of accidents in 1973.

Type of AccidentNumber
Falls of persons13,802
Struck by falling objects4,711
Stepping on, striking against, or struck by objects (excluding falling objects)16,918
Caught in or between objects7,036
Over-exertion or strenuous movements13,515
Exposure to or contact with extreme temperatures2,260
Exposure to or contact with electricity675
Exposure to or contact with other harmful materials, substances, or radiations4,787
Other types of accident3,716
  Total67,420

Fuller data on industrial accidents and injuries during 1973 is contained in the report Industrial Injuries 1972 and 1973 issued by the Department of Statistics.

35 C—FARM ACCIDENTS

GENERAL—In the preceding section on industrial injuries the statistics include farm employees but not self-employed farmers.

The high degree of mechanisation on the 67,000 farm holdings of 1 hectare or more is responsible in large part for the high output per unit of labour engaged in farm production; but it has been responsible too for an increase in the hazards associated with rural work. Nearly 10,000 harvesters, 19,000 wool presses, 30,000 internal combustion engines, 120,000 electric motors, 95,000 agricultural tractors, 21,000 milking plants, 68,000 shearing machines, as well as farm trucks, cultivating and harvesting implements, and other farm equipment and installations have taken a high annual toll in accidents and deaths, especially in recent years when there has been rapid growth in the use of heavy machinery, both for normal farm activities and for bringing new land into production.

The increasing use of chemicals in agriculture for weed control, and as pesticides and therapeutants, has added to the hazards to which those engaged in the agricultural industry are subjected. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries undertakes educational activities to endeavour to reduce the accident rates.

Tables in this section present information compiled by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health on accidents and deaths sustained on farms. Domestic accidents or accidents in farm homes are excluded.

Accidents on Farms—The following table shows the number of patients discharged from, or dying in, public hospitals in 1973 after treatment for injuries sustained in farm accidents (excluding motor vehicle accidents). Readmissions are included.

Cause of AccidentsAge of Patients (in Years)Total Patients
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
Machinery, n.e.c.11211817471
Falls8946556520275
Animals201124985815496
Accidental poisoning10911636
Firearms174214
Fires and flames564217
Hot substances, corrosive liquids, or steam71032325
Struck by falling object16111518464
Cutting or piercing instruments185969282176
Other and unspecified farm mishaps807492687321
Total 1973438367369266551,495

Deaths from Accidents on Farms—Causes of deaths from accidents on farms are shown in the following table. Injured persons who died after admission to a public hospital are also included in the preceding table. (Motor vehicle accidents on a farm are included.)

Cause of Fatal AccidentAge of Deceased (in Years)Total Deaths
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
197319741973197419731974197319741973197419731974
Farm machinery5452472741624
Electric current1212
Falls131133
Firearms1111132
Blow from falling or projected object12322275
Drowning or submersion44
Other and unspecified53311312145
  Total1711103910711564841

35 D—OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

GENERAL—The legislation on occupational safety is principally contained in the following statutes (and the regulations made under them). The last 2 items were actually made under the Public Works Act 1928 but are always quoted in their own right.

The Factories Act 1946, sections 44 to 79; the Machinery Act 1950; the Bush Workers Act 1945; the Construction Act 1959; the Shops and Offices Act 1955, First Schedule; the Accident Compensation Act 1972; the Coal Mines Act 1925; the Mining Act 1971; the Explosives Act 1957; the Dangerous Goods Act 1974; the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950; the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952; the Quarries Act 1944; the Health Act 1956 so far as it relates to occupational health (see Section 5A); the Petroleum Act 1937; the Geothermal Energy Act 1953; the Electricians Act 1952; the Electric Linemen Act 1959; the Electrical Wiring Regulations 1961; and the Electrical Supply Regulations 1967.

Department of Labour—This department has the largest overall responsibility for the prevention of accidents in industry. The principal statutes it administers are: the Factories Act 1946, which is concerned with safety, health, and welfare in factories; the Construction Act 1959, which covers safety, health, and welfare of workmen on construction work as defined in the Act; and the Machinery Act 1950, which is concerned with the inspection of all machinery (with some exceptions covered by other legislation) in work places and the safety of persons working with such machinery. The department also administers regulations under these acts, and other statutes dealing with specific spheres of occupational safety, health, and welfare, e.g. the Bush Workers Act 1945, the Agricultural Workers Act 1977 (section 6) and the Shops and Offices Act 1955. In addition the department supervises more than 800 collective agreements and awards, many of which include specific safety, health, and welfare provisions relating to particular occupations and processes.

The administration of this safety legislation is based primarily on regular inspection of work places and requisitioning for improvements, together with investigation of reported breaches of legislation by employers and workers and investigation of a large number of accidents including serious and fatal accidents in industries coming within the scope of the legislation. The department employs some 150 inspectors of factories (including 10 who specialise in bush undertakings), together with some 47 safety inspectors appointed under the Construction Act 1959, all of whom are qualified by special examination. Their work is substantially preventive. The Department also engages in a large amount of occupational safety education.

A joint Committee on Occupational Health and Safety of the Departments of Labour and Health and the Accident Compensation Commission ensures that the educational work in this field is coordinated and that unnecessary overlapping of functions is avoided.

Machinery Act—The Machinery Act 1950, with certain exceptions, applies to all machinery and places an obligation on the owners of machines to securely fence moving and dangerous parts. The Act also covers amusement devices, which require a certificate from a registered engineer that the device is mechanically and structurally safe for the purpose intended. The Act also requires the testing and certification of tractor safety frames used in agricultural operations.

Construction Act—The Construction Act 1959, the provisions of which are in addition to and not in substitution for the safety provisions of any other Act promotes the safety and welfare of persons engaged in construction work, a description which covers a wide variety of work including new construction, maintenance and demolition of buildings, roads, harbour works, railways, canals, bridges, dams, pipelines, earthworks, etc. Certificates of competency are issued after examination for scaffolders, safety supervisors, construction blasters, and powder-powered tool operators.

A register of divers competent and fit to undertake underwater construction work is maintained.

Ministry of TransportSafety of Ships—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960 and the International Load Line Convention 1930, to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. Both conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

Aircraft—The Ministry of Transport is responsible for promoting the safety of aircraft and crews engaged in private and commercial carriage of the public and commercial carriage of goods, including agricultural aviation.

Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes—All boilers and power cranes are inspected and certificated once per year and lifts twice per year. In the calendar year 1976 there were 23,576 inspections of boilers, 6,392 inspections of lifts, and 4,120 inspections of cranes.

Ministry of Energy—The Mining Act 1971 and the Quarries Act 1944 make provision for the safety of persons working in mines (both undergound and opencast) and in quarries. The definition of a quarry covers the construction of electric power generation works, dams for public water supply, tunnels, and opencast coal quarries.

The Ministry is also responsible for the administration of Acts designed to ensure the safety of electrical apparatus and installations and of electrical workers.

Department of Internal Affairs—The Department of Internal Affairs, through its Explosives Branch, administers legislation which has as its purpose the protection of life and property from the hazards associated with the handling, storage, transport, manufacture, and use of explosives and dangerous goods.

Ministry of Works and Development—On each major construction project the Ministry of Works and Development appoints a senior technical officer to act in the capacity of safety officer.

Occupational Health Centres—The Department of Health provides occupational health centres at strategic points in Auckland, Rotorua, Mount Maunganui, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Attendances at occupational health centres and waterfront clinics in 1976 totalled 23,880 first attendances and 26,794 re-attendances.

Chapter 37. Section 36 OVERSEAS TERRITORIES, AND COOK ISLANDS AND NIUE

Table of Contents

GENERAL—New Zealand is responsible for Tokelau and the Ross Dependency, also for the defence and international relations of the Cook Islands and Niue.

Self-governing Territory—The 15 Cook Islands achieved a status of self-government in free association with New Zealand in 1965. The Cook Islands were proclaimed a British Protectorate in 1888, and in 1901 they were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act 1895.

Niue, which was also brought within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901, achieved internal self-government in 1974. Constitutional changes negotiated between the Niue Legislative Assembly and the New Zealand Government culminated in the granting of self-government to Niue in October 1974.

Non-self-governing Territory—Tokelau became a legal part of New Zealand in 1949. The group of islands had formerly been part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, although New Zealand had administered it on behalf of Britain since 1925.

Reports on progress in Tokelau are forwarded annually to the United Nations and, in June 1976, a delegation from the UN Committee on Decolonisation visited Tokelau to gather facts on special problems and to ascertain the wishes and aspirations of the people.

Administered Territory—New Zealand administers the Ross Dependency. The Ross Dependency has been inhabited for some years by parties of persons maintaining the permanent scientific bases.

South Pacific Commission—The South Pacific Commission is an advisory and consultative body comprising the governments of Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, the United States, Western Samoa, Nauru, Fiji, and Papua New Guinea. The functions of the commission are to recommend to the member Governments means for promoting the social, economic, and medical welfare of the peoples in the region, and to this end several programmes are in effect. The South Pacific Health Service advises member Governments on health matters, collects and distributes epidemiological information, assists in the maintenance of professional staffs, and encourages medical research and the training of indigenous people as assistant medical practitioners and nurses.

There is a training scheme under which selected students from the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau receive education and vocational training in New Zealand, Fiji, Western Samoa, and elsewhere. The Department of Education's Officer for Islands Education assists with the appointment of New Zealand teachers on secondment, the publication of school journals and textbooks in the vernacular of the different groups, and the supply of modern teaching equipment.

By arrangement between the Governments of Fiji and New Zealand, young Cook Islanders, Niueans, and Tokelauans receive training at the Fiji School of Medicine and the Central Nursing School in Suva, to equip them for duty in their own territories as medical officers, assistant dental officers, pharmacy and laboratory assistants, and assistant health inspectors. Students receive diploma level instruction in tropical agriculture in Western Samoa and Fiji.

COOK ISLANDS: Descriptive—There are 15 islands in the Cook Group, scattered over an area of some 2,204,000 square kilometres of ocean, and extending from Penrhyn, situated 9° south of the equator, to Mangaia, which is just north of the Tropic of Capricorn. The Cook Islands are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th meridians of the west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd parallels of south latitude. The total land area of the 15 islands is approximately 236 square kilometres.

Of the islands of the Southern Group, Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Atiu, Mitiaro, Mauke, and Mangaia are elevated and fertile, while Manuae and Takutea and the islands of the Northern Group, comprising Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Pukapuka, Palmerston, Nassau, and Suwarrow, are sea-level coral atolls. As a consequence the southern islands support the greater population. The Northern Group island of Penryhn possesses a good harbour while Avatiu harbour in Rarotonga can accommodate vessels of approximately 1,000 tonnes.

All of the Cook Islands lie within the hurricane zone, and a number of destructive storms have been experienced. The Cook Islands are covered by a meteorological service with headquarters in Fiji, and advance warning of the intensity and path of tropical storms is available and enables precautions to be taken to protect life and property. From December to March the climate is warm and humid, and there is always the possibility of serious storms. In the remaining months of the year the climate of the Southern Group is mild and equable. The mean annual temperature in Rarotonga taken over the last 40 years was 23.6°C, and the average yearly rainfall over the same period was 213.4 cm.

Administration: Executive Government—The Executive Government of the Cook Islands is vested in the Crown in the right of New Zealand. The Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964 provides for the appointment by the Governor-General of a High Commissioner of the Cook Islands as the representative of Her Majesty the Queen in the Cook Islands, and also as the representative of the Government of New Zealand. The Chief Justice of the Cook Islands presently holds the position, in terms of the Constitution, as acting Representative of the Head of State, while the New Zealand Government has its own office headed by the New Zealand representative.

Executive Government lies with a Cabinet of Ministers comprising the Premier of the Cook Islands and six other Ministers. The Premier is appointed by the High Commissioner as the member of the Assembly commanding the confidence of the majority of members in the Assembly, and the other Ministers are appointed by the High Commissioner on the advice of the Premier. An Executive Council of the Cook Islands, consisting of the High Commissioner of the Cook Islands and the members of Cabinet, may be summoned by the High Commissioner or the Premier to consider any Cabinet decision, and has power to ask Cabinet to reconsider its decisions. If Cabinet, after reconsideration, reaffirms its original decision, this decision is forthwith put into operation.

The departments of the Cook Islands Government are structured in the following Ministries: Financial Services; Supportive Services; Health and Education; Agriculture, Marine and Scientific and Industrial Research; Trade, Industry, Labour and Commerce; and Internal Affairs, Justice, Lands, Survey and Conservation. The Premier is responsible for the portfolios of Civil Aviation, External Affairs, Police, and Tourism.

The House of Ariki—The House of Ariki of the Cook Islands consists of up to 15 Ariki, representing all islands in the group, and is required to meet at least once every 12 months. The House considers any matters relative to the welfare of the people of the Cook Islands which may be submitted to it for consideration by the Legislative Assembly and has such other functions as may be prescribed by law.

Island Councils—Island councils exist in each of the main islands of the Cook Islands and have done so for many years. All island councils were reconstituted by the Local Government Act 1966, the major effect of which was to provide that the chairman was to be elected from among the councils' members. Previously the Resident Agent (except on Rarotonga) was Chairman ex officio. The Resident Agents are still members ex officio, but without vote, and their primary function is of advisers.

The councils meet regularly and are empowered to make bylaws for the imposition of tolls, rates, taxes, and other charges (except customs duties); to regulate, control, or prohibit many activities; and to carry out various works and services on each island.

Legislative Government—The Legislative Assembly of the Cook Islands, as constituted by the Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964 consists of 22 members, all elected by secret ballot under a system of universal suffrage by the electors of the following islands: three members from Aitutaki and Marnuae; two members each from Atiu and Mangaia; one member each from Manihiki, Mauke, Mitiaro, Penrhyn, and Rakahanga; one member from Pukapuka and Nassau; nine members from Rarotonga and Palmerston.

General elections are normally held at four-yearly intervals. There is a common roll for both Maoris and non-Maoris. The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly is elected by members from persons within or without the assembly.

The Legislative Assembly may make Acts for the peace, order, and good government of the Cook Islands. (These powers extend to the making of laws having extra-territorial operation.) The responsibilities of the Crown in right of New Zealand for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands are discharged after consultation by the Prime Minister of New Zealand with the Premier of the Cook Islands.

The Constitution of the Cook Islands is the supreme law of the Cook Islands and the Legislative Assembly alone has power to amend or repeal it. Such repeal or amendment, however, can only be made by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the Assembly followed by an interval of not less than 90 days.

By virtue of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948, Cook Islanders remain British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

Population and Vital Statistics—The Cook Islands Maori is Polynesian and has a common ethnic origin with the New Zealand Maori. There is a strong resemblance between the two peoples in tradition, language, and custom. Many of the tribes in both places are able to trace their descent back to a common ancestor.

A census of the Cook Islands taken in December 1976, recorded a total population of 18,112, a decrease of 3,211 on the population recorded at the 1971 Census. The main drop was in 1973 and 1974 following the opening of the international airport. Recent quarterly estimates suggest that the population has stabilised for the time being at around 18,000. Details of population of the islands of the group as at December 1976 are set out in the following table.

IslandArea Sq kmMalesFemalesTotal
Rarotonga67.085,0994,7129,811
Aitutaki18.131,2071,2072,414
Mangaia51.807737571,530
Atiu26.947006121,312
Mauke18.39341369710
Mitiaro22.27163142305
Manuae6.22
Palmerston2.07252853
Pukapuka1.29373413786
Nassau1.295756113
Manihiki5.44132131263
Rakahanga4.14142141283
Penrhyn9.84274257531
Suwarrow1.5211
Takatea0.29
  Total236.509,2878,82518,112

Health—All Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment. School and pre-school children also receive free dental treatment.

Although lying within the tropics, the Cook Islands are singularly free from the common diseases prevalent in other tropical islands. Malaria is unknown, but filariasis is endemic, and this provides the main health problem of the group.

A general hospital equipped with dispensary, X-rays, and laboratory facilities, is maintained in Rarotonga. In the outer islands dispensaries with accommodation for a few patients are operated by assistant medical practitioners. Cottage hospitals have been built at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mauke, Penrhyn, Manihiki, Pukapuka, and Mangaia.

Education—Primary education in the Cook Islands is provided by the Government, the Roman Catholic Mission, and the Seventh Day Adventist Mission. The Government also provides secondary education.

Education is free, compulsory and secular from the time of a child's sixth birthday to his fifteenth birthday. In 1976 the total number of pupils on the rolls was 6,572, and there were 268 teachers.

Labour and Employment—On the atolls in the Northern Group the people subsist largely on coconuts and fish, and apart from making copra, there is little opportunity for them to engage in other economic pursuits. It is in the fertile islands of the Southern Group that most of the population is concentrated, and labour is required for the growing, harvesting, packing, and shipment of fruit. As most of the land in these islands is held by family groups under customary title, many of the people are engaged in work on their own plantations. There is, however, opportunity for wage and salary earners in Government departments, in plantation work, in the handling of fruit for export, and in commerce.

In Rarotonga secondary industries have been established in the form of two clothing factories, a fruit cannery, and factories manufacturing local artifacts. Products from these industries are exported to the New Zealand market.

Agriculture—Fresh fruit exports are now almost limited to bananas and mandarins, but canned pineapple and fruit juices processed locally have become major exports. Agricultural statistics are limited. The first agricultural census was taken in Rarotonga in 1975. The following figures of areas planted in major crops are taken from that census: citrus fruits, 249 hectares; coconuts, 151 hectares; maniota, 65 hectares; taro, 58 hectares; and kumaras, 35 hectares. In addition, other vegetables, melons, pawpaws, and other fruit are grown. In the group as a whole, it is estimated that 5,747 hectares are growing coconuts and 598 hectares citrus fruit.

Transport and Communications—The New Zealand Shipping Corporation operates fortnightly shipping services between the Cook Islands and New Zealand ports.

An international airport was opened for full international services in December 1973. Rarotonga is connected by jet service with Auckland, Nandi, Tahiti, and Honolulu; and by turboprop with Niue and Western Samoa. Air New Zealand flies in four times a week, and there are regular services between Rarotonga and the principal Islands run by Cook islands Airways.

Radio communication has largely removed the former isolation of the islands, there being now no permanently inhabited island without a radio station. The chief station is Rarotonga Radio, which maintains direct communication with the substations and with Wellington, Apia, and Suva. Postal and telegraph services are available in all the Islands. There is a telephone service in Rarotonga and smaller services operate on Aitutaki and Mangaia.

Trade—There is free trade between the Cook Islands and New Zealand, which takes almost all the exports of the Cook Islands and supplies over 80 percent of their imports. Import licences are required for goods imported from countries other than New Zealand.

The principal exports are fruit juice, canned fruit, and fruit pulp; copra; and bananas. The main imports are foodstuffs, followed by drapery and piece goods, petrol and oil, and vehicles and spares.

Tourism—Following the establishment of an international airport at Rarotonga, high-class hotel accommodation has been built to accommodate the growing tourist trade. Visitor arrivals have increased from 2,882 in 1973 to 12,282 in 1976.

Public Finance—The New Zealand Government has continued to give financial aid to the Cook Islands Government through grants for social services and ordinary administrative expenditure, plus grants and loans for capital works and economic development. The level of aid is reviewed triennially.

NIUE: Descriptive—Niue Island, discovered by Captain Cook in 1774, became part of New Zealand in 1901, when the boundaries of New Zealand were extended to include the Cook Islands. The island is situated in latitude 19° 2′ south and longitude 169° 52′ west, approximately 483 km east of Tonga, 653 km south east of Samoa, and 933 km west of Rarotonga. The island, which has an area of 26,265 hectares, is an elevated coral outcrop with a coral reef fringing a precipitous and broken coastline. The central saucer-shaped plateau, rising to a height of 67 m is encircled by a narrow terrace about 27 m above sea level. The soil, though fertile, is not plentiful, and this feature, combined with the rocky and broken nature of the country, makes cultivation difficult. The climate is mild and equable, but the island is in the hurricane belt. The mean annual temperature is 24.7°c, and the average rainfall is 217.7 cm.

Administration—On 19 October 1974 (Constitution Day), Niue became self-governing in free association with New Zealand. The Leader of Government became the Premier of Niue and the Executive Committee became the Cabinet. Under the Constitution the Niue Assembly consists of 20 members elected by universal suffrage, 14 members each representing a village constituency, and 6 members elected on a common roll.

It is written into the Niue Constitution Act 1974 that New Zealand will continue to be responsible for the external affairs and defence of Niue and for providing necessary economic and administrative assistance.

Niueans are Polynesians with close ethnic ties with the Tongans and Samoans. The language is a Polynesian dialect peculiar to the island, but closely related to that of Tonga and Samoa, with some elements from eastern Polynesia. Niueans are British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

The population at 31 December 1976 was estimated to be 3,954, the continued decline being principally due to emigration to New Zealand.

The principal exports of Niue are passion fruit, limes, copra, plaited ware, and honey. The bulk of the trade is with New Zealand.

TOKELAU: Descriptive—Situated some 480 kilometres to the north of Western Samoa, between 8° and 10° south latitude and between 171° and 173° west longitude, forming a border area between Micronesia and Polynesia, are the 3 atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo, of the Tokelau Group. A fourth island, Olohega, belonging to the United States of America and lying 160 kilometres to the south of Fakaofo, completes the group.

Each atoll is composed of a number of coral islets surrounding a central lagoon. These islets vary in size from 100 metres in length, while none is wider than 400 metres nor, with but few exceptions, higher than 3 metres above sea level. The land area of each atoll is approximately as follows: Fakaofo, 263 hectares; Atafu, 202 hectares; Nukunonu, 546 hectares. The atolls do not lie in close proximity, there being 64 kilometres of open sea between Fakaofo and Nukunonu, and 92 kilometres between Nukunonu and Atafu.

Owing to the absence of humus in the soil, the vegetation is practically restricted to coconut palms, although one islet of each atoll is reserved for growing the tauanave, a short stubby tree, which yields to the people of Tokelau their only timber for the construction of canoes and utensils.

Administration—Tokelau was included under the protection of Great Britain in 1877. In 1916 the islands, at the request of the inhabitants, were formally annexed to Great Britain by an Order in Council, which also extended the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony to include the Tokelau Group (then known as the Union Islands) and their dependencies. The group was governed by the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific and administered by the District Officer at Funafuti, in the Ellice Group. In 1925 the New Zealand Government, at the request of the British Government, agreed to administer the islands. By Order in Council the group was separated from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and by a further Order in Council in the same year the Governor-General of New Zealand was empowered to make laws for its peace, order, and bood government.

By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 the Tokelau Group was included within the territorial boundaries of New Zealand; legislative powers are now vested in the Governor-General in Council. In December 1976 the territory was officially redesignated "Tokelau", the name by which it has customarily been known to its inhabitants. The inhabitants of Tokelau are British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

Because of the very restricted economic and social future in the atolls, the Tokelauans agreed to a proposal put to them by the Minister of Island Territories in 1965 that over a period of years most of the population be resettled in New Zealand. Up to the end of March 1975, 528 migrants had entered New Zealand as permanent residents under Government sponsorship. Many others have settled in New Zealand of their own accord. However, as a result of the assisted resettlement scheme, overpopulation is not at present a problem and, in 1975, with a decline in the number of people seeking resettlement assistance and a threat of social distortion through the drain of able-bodied manpower to New Zealand becoming apparent, the scheme was suspended.

Village affairs are managed by the Council of Elders "fono" comprising representatives of the families, and this body also exerts influence over the "aumaga" or village labour force. In this way the traditional form of patriarchal authority has been preserved and regulates Tokelau society, performing a service alongside, and in addition to, the public duties of government which are carried out by local officials such as the Faipule and the Pulenuku.

Population—The people are closely allied to the Samoans.

On 25 October 1976 a census showed a total population of 1,575.

IslandMalesFemalesTotal
Atafu263283546
Fakaofo315351666
Nukunonu169194363
Total7478281,575

General Economic Conditions—The physical characteristics of the atolls allow very little scope for economic development and the few natural resources are sufficient only to meet the needs of the simple pattern of life followed by the people. There has, until recent years, been little demand for the material standards of more developed countries, but increasing contacts with Western Samoa and New Zealand have stimulated a desire among the people for wider opportunities to advance their living standards. The high copra price assisted the economy during 1974–75.

The economy of the Tokelau Islands is based mainly on the resources of the sea and on the coconut and pandanus palms. Employment on the works programme has diverted much of the island's labour force from food gathering and copra production although care is taken to limit such dislocation. Most families obtain part of their cash income from relatives working in New Zealand. Funds are also sent by the Tokelau communities in New Zealand for village and church projects.

Public Works—New hospital buildings on all three atolls were completed during 1976–77. A reef channel improvement programme is well under way, and administration buildings are being built on each island. To improve the supply of fresh water, additional water tanks have been installed in each village.

Land Tenure and Usage—The numerous uninhabited islets at each atoll are used as food plantations. Local timber is used for canoe making, house building, and domestic utensils, while woodwork and plaited ware are marketed on a small scale. The coconut palm, which is predominant in the atolls, provides a staple export in the form of copra.

Practically all land is held by customary title in accordance with the customs and usages of the inhabitants. Land holdings pass from generation to generation within the families, being held by the head of a closely related family group, although some land is held in common.

Apart from the manufacture of copra, agricultural products are of a basic subsistence nature. Food crops consist of coconuts, pulaka, breadfruit, ta'amu, pawpaw, the fruit of the edible pandanus, and bananas. Numerous other seeds have been tested but because of the poverty of the soil very poor results were achieved.

Livestock consists of pigs which, except in Fakaofo, are kept apart from the village areas, and fowls. Ocean and lagoon fish and shellfish are available in quantity and form a staple constituent of the diet, the most common species of fish caught being tuna, bonito, trevally, and mullet.

Labour and Employment—Copra production and the manufacture of plaited ware and woodwork are the only industries and no supervision of employment conditions in these industries is necessary. Between trading calls the people devote their labour to procuring food from lagoon, ocean, or plantation, to village maintenance, and to the production of woven mats, fans, and curios. Many of the men also work on the administration's building projects.

Housing Conditions—Most Tokelau houses are constructed of kanava and pandanus timbers with walls and roofs of plaited pandanus. The style of house is well suited to the climate.

The villages are well laid out. The people of Atafu live in one village which occupies part of a motu (islet). At Nukunonu the village occupies about half of one motu which is connected by bridge to a neighbouring motu where some families have settled.

The village at Fakaofo is situated on a small but comparatively high and well-shaded motu. Until recently some overcrowding has been evident but emigration to New Zealand has lessened this. The Administration is helping to establish a new village on a larger, nearby motu where the school is located and the new hospital and other facilities are being built.

Health—The health authorities in Tokelau receive advice and guidance from Apia. The incidence of disease in the islands is comparatively slight.

A Fiji-trained Tokelauan medical practitioner is stationed on each atoll. Other medical staff consists of staff nurses, nurses, and dressers, who obtain their training at Apia hospital in Western Samoa. In addition, each atoll has an active women's committee, and to these committees much credit is due for their work in village health and sanitation.

Education—During 1976–77 there were 35 trained Tokelauan teachers and 16 teacher-aides in the islands. This year saw the phasing-out of the scheme whereby expatriate teaching couples were stationed in each island in an advisory capacity. All necessary school equipment, stationery, and textbooks are supplied by the New Zealand Government; the schools also receive copies of the Samoan Teachers Monthly Guide and of Samoan and New Zealand School Journals. In addition, they are equipped with filmstrip and movie projectors and also with radio sets so that the daily educational broadcasts of the Western Samoan Education Department may be utilised. Attendance at schools is very close to 100 percent, parents being most enthusiastic in supporting the schools. Pre-school classes are run in each village.

Tokelauan pupils are included in the training scheme for education in New Zealand, and selected students also receive schooling and training in Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, and Fiji.

Communications—Trading voyages between Western Samoa and Tokelau are made at regular intervals by an Administration-chartered vessel.

Radiotelegraph receivers and transmitters are operated on each atoll. In addition, radio receiving sets are installed in all villages and enable the people to listen to broadcasts from the Apia broadcasting station.

Trade and Finance—The quantity of copra shipped for the year ended 31 March 1976 amounted to 108 tonnes valued (in Tokelau) at $22,658. Apart from copra, the only other exports are handicrafts.

Revenue is derived principally from export duty on copra, Customs duty of 12½ percent ad valorem on all goods entering the islands, trading profits, radio and telegram services, and the sale of postage stamps. New Zealand's financial aid to Tokelau in 1976–77 amounted to $NZ751,579.

ROSS DEPENDENCY: Descriptive—The Ross Dependency comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160° east and 150° west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60° south.

Within these boundaries there are an estimated 400,000–450,009 square kilometres of land and 330,000 square kilometres of permanent ice shelf. The land is virtually entirely covered by ice, but has bases inhabited by scientific personnel.

Administration—By Order in Council of 30 July 1923 under the British Settlements Act 1887 (Imp.) the territories of the Ross Dependency were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government. From time to time laws for the Dependency have been made by regulations promulgated by the Governor-General of New Zealand.

Administrative powers are vested in the Governor-General of New Zealand. Since 1956, the Leader of the New Zealand Expedition at Scott Base has been vested with the powers of Magistrate, Justice of the Peace, and Coroner. The Officer in Charge has jurisdiction over all New Zealand nationals in Antarctica and is responsible for the implementation of the Antarctic Research Programme as directed by Antarctic Division, DSIR.

The Ross Dependency Research Committee formulates the annual scientific programme for approval by the Minister of Science and Technology and the Antarctica Division, D.S.I.R. then has the responsibility for the detailed planning and implementation of this programme.

The division employs staff and obtains supplies and equipment for all Government projects. University projects are financed and equipped from university sources. The operation and control of all projects is directed by the Antarctic Division through the Officer in Charge, Scott Base.

New Zealand's international relations on Antarctic affairs are conducted at the political level by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Whilst scientific contact with other countries and institutions engaged in Antarctica research is maintained at all levels, the primary channels are the Ross Dependency Research Committee, which reports to the Minister of Science, and New Zealand's National Committee on Antarctica Research (NCAR).

In 1959 New Zealand was one of the 12 nations to sign the Antarctic Treaty which requires that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only, promotes international co-operation, freedom of scientific investigation and exchange of information and scientific personnel, but does not require New Zealand to renounce her territorial claim to the Ross Dependency. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative parties, increased to 13 by the accession of Poland in 1977, meet regularly in full consultative meetings to consider questions of mutual interest within the treaty framework. Questions of resource management have assumed considerable significance in recent years and a series of special meetings has been convened to discuss these issues which pose a significant challenge to the stability of the treaty. Several countries, not all members of the Antarctic Treaty, are already harvesting the protein-rich krill, and there is considerable interest in the hydro-carbon potential of Antarctic waters.

The Antarctica Amendment Act 1970 provides means of enforcing the regulations contained within the Antarctic Treaty (known as the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora) and the prevention of pollution to the Antarctic Continent and surrounding waters.

Exploration and Field Activities—In January 1957 the first New Zealand expedition, under the leadership of Sir Edmund Hillary, established Scott Base at Pram Point near Cape Armitage on Ross Island. The purpose of the expedition was twofold: to participate in the Antarctic Programme of the International Geophysical Year and to take part in the crossing of the continent from the Weddell Sea to Scott Base by the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition. Every summer since then, field parties have set out from Scott Base to explore most parts of the Ross Dependency.

Field Work—Since 1958 remote field parties using dog teams and sledges, but more recently mechanical transport, have almost completely mapped the Ross Dependency. The Department of Lands and Survey has issued a series of 40 maps at a scale of 1:250,000 and seven maps at different scales.

Each summer season, field parties, comprising scientists from Government departments, private organisations and New Zealand's six universities spend up to several months in the field. Research programmes are carried out in the fields of geology, geomorphology, geochemistry, biology, glaciology, hydrology, and volcanology.

The geological reconnaissance of earlier years has given way to more specialised work in areas of particular interest, especially in the mountains of Victoria Land and in the Dry Valleys.

Scientific Programme—During the International Geophysical Year 1957 New Zealand maintained at Scott Base and jointly with the United States at Hallett Station a scientific programme in close accord with the aims and objects of the I.G.Y. (References to these activities are contained in Appendix (d) of the 1958 Yearbook.)

Since its establishment Scott Base has been continuously occupied each year by teams of scientists and supporting base personnel. The summer population may rise to 70 or 80 people but only about 12 winter-over to continue the scientific programme of continuous observations in the fields of seismology, geomagnetism, ionosphere physics, micropulsations, aurora and airglow, very low frequency radio propagation, satellite tracking, meteorology, glaciology, and oceanography.

Scott Base is one in a chain of international observatory stations for studies in upper atmosphere and earth sciences. The base is manned all year round to enable continuous observations to be carried out. At nearby arrival heights, studies are maintained in auroral physics, micropulsation, and ionospheric absorption.

Vanda Station in the Wright Valley is New Zealand's only base on the Antarctic Continent. Vanda is currently operated during the summer months only. Its main function is to support field activities in the Dry Valley area but, in addition, Vanda serves as a centre for meteorological, hydrological and glaciological studies of the Wright Valley area, which will contribute to a greater understanding of the climatic peculiarities of the Dry Valleys.

Cape Bird, situated 100 km north of Scott Base, on the northern tip of Ross Island serves as a base for biological field parties who conduct annual projects there in terrestrial and marine biology.

For the first 2 seasons after its opening Vanda Station was manned on a year-round basis to enable scientists to carry out environmental investigations in this ice-free area and also to undertake studies in upper air physics and earth sciences in co-ordination with the programme at Scott Base. Blowing dust collection in the vicinity of the station is continuing as part of the study of weathering in the Dry Valleys. Synoptic weather observations are made and other meteorological data collected at the base and at satellite stations in the Wright Valley region.

The station was used only as a summer base during 1970–71 and 1971–72, but was opened again during the full year of 1974 to implement further scientific work. In the 1974–75 season it reverted to a summer base only.

Since the summer of 1972–73 New Zealand scientists have been involved with scientists from Japan and the United States in a Dry Valley drilling project, with the object of studying the subsurface of the McMurdo Sound region by means of deep drill holes in various areas.

The New Zealand Oceanographic Institute has also inaugurated a study of trace element chemistry of Ross Sea sediments.

Biological Programme—Biological studies have been conducted each summer season at various localities within the Dependency.

In the McMurdo Sound and Cape Hallett areas, scientists continue the census and tagging of the seal population. Marine plankton samples are taken from under the sea ice near Scott Base, and further marine research is concentrated in the Cape Bird area. Studies continue of penguin and skua gull behaviour at Cape Bird and Cape Royds.

Whaling—Regulations dated 24 October 1929 prohibit whaling in the territorial waters of the Ross Dependency without a licence. New Zealand is a member of the International Whaling Commission, the purpose of which is to enforce conservation of whale stocks.

Review of Development—Since 1959 New Zealand has achieved many of its earlier aims and ambitions. A topographic survey has been made of the Ross Dependency bringing to an end the era of long and arduous traverses. The numerous maps produced have provided detailed geographic information, particularly important for subsequent field research programmes.

A geological reconnaissance has been conducted of the same area. During recent years New Zealand has been involved in specialised work which has provided evidence indicating that the southern land masses were once linked together to form one super continent—Gondwanaland. Recent fossil discoveries in Antarctica, including land animals similar to those found in South Africa and Australia, seem to confirm this theory. Oceanographic and paleomagnetic researchers also add credence to it. Their studies show that continental drift has been, and still is, taking place at a quite rapid rate of about 3 cm to 5 cm a year. These findings have impelled scientists to revise completely their earlier ideas on the earth's history, the forming of the continents, the causes of earthquakes, and the future physical changes to the surface of the earth that can now be predicted with reasonable certainty.

Detailed hydrographic charts of the Ross Sea area have given considerable information about the ocean floor lying between New Zealand and Antarctica. Oceanographers and marine biologists have carried out intensive studies of the marine life of the Southern Ocean. Results show that the waters surrounding the Antarctic continent contain the richest marine life found anywhere—a great potential food source for the increasing human population.

Extensive studies have been made by biologists of the fauna and flora of Antarctica, enabling accurate assessments of the likelihood of survival of various species. This has given a better understanding of how the many primitive life forms adapt and survive in the narrow life-support zone of Antarctica.

There has been a substantial contribution to man's knowledge of the ice budget of Antarctica—not only important to the study of Antarctica itself but also necessary to a better understanding of the global climate changes that have occurred and the present position of the earth in the cycle of the ice ages. Antarctica contains about 95 percent of the world's ice and small changes in this amount would have a significant if not catastrophic effect on the rest of the world. This southern continent about 80,000,000 to 100,000,000 years ago enjoyed a tropical climate and more recently there have been warm periods.

Continuing studies and monitoring of the upper atmosphere from Scott Base and other Antarctic Stations have provided significant information, when correlated with satellite and space vehicle data, towards new concepts of the sun-earth relationship. Practical application of some of this new knowledge has led to vastly improved methods of radio communication.

Years of intensive studies of meteorology in Antarctica have improved the understanding of the significant part Antarctica plays in the world's weather pattern, the balance of the world's heat budget and the relationship between the atmosphere and oceans.

There have been major changes in the methods of supporting work in Antarctica. Transportation by ship between New Zealand and Antarctica used to take 7 to 10 days. Now, flights take 5 to 8 hours. New Zealand's ability to operate in Antarctica depends entirely on logistic support from the jointly-operated United States/New Zealand transport pool, using mainly heavy C-130 cargo planes and helicopters.

New Zealand scientists are actively involved in several long-term projects in close co-operation with other nations. One of the most notable was the Dry Valley Drilling Project which was completed in 1976. New Zealand is also one of the participant nations in the Ross Ice Shelf Project which was commenced in 1964 for the purpose of studying the physical, chemical, biological, and geological conditions in and beneath the Ross Ice Shelf.

Since 1973, scientists from the United States, New Zealand, and France have been exploring the active volcano, Mt. Erebus, one of only three volcanoes in the world with an active laval lake. The aim of this project is to study the relationship of Mt. Erebus to active volcanoes in New Zealand and other parts of the Pacific Basin. So far attempts to descend into the crater have been unsuccessful but a further attempt will be made during the 1977–78 season.

Scientific co-operation on an international scale is ably complemented by the pooling of logistic support between New Zealand and the United States. New Zealand provides facilities and services for the United States to operate from this country and, in return, the Americans undertake all our air support requirements within Antarctica, mostly by helicopter. United States Navy C141 Starlifters, and ski-equipped C130 Hercules make regular flights to the Ice and the RNZAF contribute as many flights as are necessary to convey New Zealand personnel and material to Antarctica.

In 1973–74 the United States Navy flew 232 helicopter-hours in support of the New Zealand Antarctic Research Programme. Dog teams have been almost entirely replaced by motor toboggans to support small mobile field parties. With the formation of metal-and-snow compacted roads around McMurdo and Scott Base, tracked vehicles have been replaced by wheeled vehicles.

The emphasis in Antarctica is swinging away from basic scientific studies to meet the more specialised demands of man's increasing knowledge and so yield rewards of value to society. Despite the many changes and developments Antarctica has largely retained its IGY status as a unique natural laboratory for man to study the earth as a whole. It should continue to be the last relatively undisturbed area on earth from which may also be monitored the effect of man on the remainder of our global environment.

Chapter 38. Section 37 TRAVEL AND TOURISM

Table of Contents

EXPANSION OF TRAVEL AND TOURISM—Travel between countries in and around the Pacific has developed rapidly in recent years and international jet air services have made New Zealand fairly easily accessible to tourists of all countries. During the last two decades the tourist industry has become a fast-growing sector in international commerce; in some countries it has become the largest industry. The industry has grown so fast and is having such an impact on the international balance of payments that the economics of tourism are receiving increasing attention.

In New Zealand a healthy domestic tourist industry has led to the growth of all the services necessary for New Zealand's wider participation in this expanding industry. There has been a considerable surge in building of hotels and motels and the provision of complementary transport and other service facilities. New scenic routes have been developed, while facilities have been improved and extended in major resort areas. There is a network of convenient air services.

Travel Arrivals and New Zealand Residents Departing Temporarily—Overseas travel, until recent decades largely the prerogative of the wealthy or the adventurous, has become something of a barometer of economic conditions in developed countries. Holidays overseas are among the most easily dispensable luxuries when money becomes tight and the economic future uncertain. Between 1965 and 1970 the surge in overseas travel resulted in almost doubling the annual total of overseas visitors to New Zealand. In more recent years the rate of increase has slackened, reflecting less favourable conditions on the world economic scene.

The following table shows overseas visitors to New Zealand during recent years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTouristsPersons on BusinessTemporary Work or Working HolidayOtherTotal Overseas Visitors*
Holiday or VacationStay with Relations or FriendsTotal

*Does not include through passengers, defined as passengers (mainly on cruise ships) who do not stay ashore in New Zealand. They totalled 117,441 in 1974–75, 136,927 in 1975–76 and 140,920 in 1976–77.

1973157,04642,649199,69526,78315,82012,346254,644
1974187,82257,013244,83533,00020,48519,924318,244
1975217,96567,367285,33234,44621,31320,103361,194
1976243,24869,576312,82437,98610,95022,826384,586
1977236,49069,888306,37839,8388,46825,538380,222

The numbers of New Zealanders going overseas on temporary visits have been affected by economic conditions in the same way as overseas visitors coming to New Zealand. Between 1970 and 1975 the annual total more than doubled, but the rate of increase has slackened in recent years.

New Zealand residents departing temporarily (i.e., for less than 12 months) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchTouristsPersons on BusinessTemporary Work or Working HolidayOtherTotal N.Z. Residents Departing Temporarily
Holiday or VacationStay with Relations or FriendsTotal
197388,41632,296120,71221,7777,1975,30654,992
1974120,19044,941165,13125,93911,8515,393208,314
1975151,07149,879200,95028,19511,7079,032249,884
1976136,70850,362187,07031,39410,56011,634240,658
1977136,92450,150187,07433,17211,59213,160244,998

Some of the permanent movement shown in migration statistics in Section 3 concerns travel. Persons intending to be absent for 12 months or more are shown as permanent departures; when they return to New Zealand after 12 months' absence they are shown as immigrants intending permanent residence. Persons arriving on working holidays or for educational purposes are not normally classified internationally as visitors or tourists.

Auckland is the main point of arrival and receives initially 67 percent of all visitors: most of the visitors arrive by air.

Travel Receipts and Payments—Travel receipts and payments (excluding fares) as recorded by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchAustraliaUnited StatesCanadaUnited KingdomJapanOtherTotal
NZ$ (million)
Receipts
197566.518.21.613.50.56.7107.0
197694.224.12.012.50.89.4143.1
1977102.635.42.410.41.48.6160.8
Payments
197572.122.22.446.01.136.5180.3
197670.029.53.148.11.141.6193.4
197788.043.14.853.21.654.4245.1

From a survey made by the Tourist and Publicity Department a few years ago it was estimated that overseas visitor expenditure in New Zealand during the 12 months ended October 1973 was $76.7 million. This was broken down into expenditure per visitor from selected countries and regions as shown in the following table.

ItemVisitors from
AustraliaUnited States and CanadaUnited KingdomJapanEuropeOther
Total expenditure ($m)41.717.94.71.42.28.8
Expenditure per tourist ($)—      
Accommodation1068974969173
Meals353637273835
Transport576648465650
Excursions12798107
Social181225142016
Souvenirs and gifts373231332229
Personal9793520
Other1620931610
Total290269242230258240
Average length of stay (days)16.511.327.45.716.620.0

This survey refers to all overseas visitors. In addition to tourists, it includes persons from overseas visiting relatives or friends, and expenditure by persons in New Zealand on business.

Countries of Origin—The countries or areas of origin of all visitors other than through passengers to New Zealand during years ended 31 March are given in the following table.

Country or Area1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77
Australia125,466169,390213,301231,358222,804
Canada10,25811,36412,23012,55012,870
United States54,21154,99846,31349,54052,364
United Kingdom18,23922,85423,68726,41225,468
Other countries46,47059,63865,66364,72666,716
All countries254,644318,244361,194384,586380,222

Visitors who are not New Zealanders require permits to enter the country, and temporary permits or student permits are issued as appropriate. Those people who are accorded the right of free entry are not required to apply to make visits. They are granted entry on arrival. Others may make visits without visas under agreements we have entered into with a number of countries, including Japan and United States. Residents of other countries must obtain entry authorities before they set out and these are obtained through the various New Zealand posts overseas. The British posts also have some authority to act in the absence of an accredited New Zealand post. Short-term visitors are asked to submit to very little formality. Those coming under the visa abolition agreements must intend remaining no longer than the periods set out in the agreements, which vary from 30 days to 3 months, and all visitors must have sufficient funds for maintenance, and fully paid tickets which will take them out of the country.

In 1976–77 46 percent of New Zealanders touring overseas went to Australia, and 12 percent to Fiji. In order of popularity, Fiji was followed by the United Kingdom, with 10 percent, and the United States, with 7 percent. The balance was spread over a large number of countries.

Internal Tourism—The Tourist and Publicity Department estimates that New Zealanders' aggregate expenditure on holiday travel within New Zealand is of the order of $215 million annually. This includes accommodation and miscellaneous holiday expenditure.

ACCOMMODATION IN NEW ZEALAND—Accommodation has been developed by the private and public sector, with the Government's Tourist Hotel Corporation (THC) operating establishments in 12 areas. The THC has usually concentrated its activities in isolated resort areas where private enterprise finds it uneconomic to operate. The development by both sectors has provided hotels of an excellent standard in all main centres and resorts. These establishments usually operate on a room-only basis with meals as an optional extra.

There are large numbers of high standard motor hotels and motels throughout New Zealand and scores of motor camps.

Motor camping is a popular form of holidaymaking during the summer months (December to Easter). Campers provide their own tents and equipment (a number of companies specialise in hiring out camping equipment) and the camps provide community washing, cooking, and toilet facilities. Some camps offer limited cabin accommodation.

Tourist arrivals are highest from October to March. These arrivals taken in conjunction with the demand from the New Zealand summer holiday period, can impose a strain on available hotel accommodation at the major tourist resorts.

Inventory of Accommodation—An inventory of accommodation has been compiled by the Tourist and Publicity Department. It relates only to hotels licensed to supply liquor and to motels. Licensed hotels have been grouped, as far as possible, according to physical standards provided.

Group 1—are hotels having all or most rooms with private bath/shower and toilet, ample good quality public rooms, and excellent standards of maintenance.

Group 2—are hotels of good overall quality. They have a sufficient proportion of their rooms with private bath/shower and toilet to meet normal demands from people requiring these facilities. A much greater proportion than of Group 1 are older hotels.

Group 3—are hotels providing good, simple accommodation but generally without any pretentiousness.

Establishments of a motel character having a tourist hotel licence or restaurant licence are counted as hotels in that they may provide hotel facilities for their guests. Motel units when run as part of a hotel are included as accommodation of that hotel.

Motels are defined as establishments providing self-contained units or apartments with bath/shower and toilet. They may include kitchen and dining-room facilities. They may (but usually do not) provide restaurant services on the premises. Tourist flats and holiday flats which do not supply ready made-up beds and where linen, etc., is available for hire, are excluded.

Private hotels and guest houses (and also holiday flats not catering for overnight travellers) have not been included. Private hotels and guest houses, however, provide a significant proportion (up to 20 percent) of all available commercial accommodation. In the following table statistics for licensed hotels and motels are set out by regional areas, as at 31 March 1977.

RegionRooms in Licensed HotelsUnits in Motels
Group 1Group 2Group 3
Northland249259199913
Auckland1,4874111941,356
Waikato134183141436
King Country79781960
Coromandel-Thames2626134299
Rotorua - Bay of Plenty7394001701,428
Taupo15510429492
East Coast64134176282
Hawke's Bay25666188537
Taranaki13654184343
Wanganui - Tongariro National Park1839589254
Manawatu-Horowhenua11248185363
Wairarapa677698
Wellington928276165327
Marlborough10572154374
Nelson231146335
Westland374290169389
North and Mid Canterbury1,173201287820
South Canterbury - North Otago45183171336
Otago1,039302210671
Southland21478161222
Fiordland44792
  Total8,6493,1603,24710,427

NOTE—Licensed hotels are here grouped principally according to availability of rooms with private facilities: Group 1—all or most rooms so equipped; Group 2—sufficient private facilities for general availability; Group 3—a smaller proportion of rooms with private facilities.

Assistance to the Hotel Industry—Between 1962 and 1973 the New Zealand Government made available loan and guarantee finance to encourage the building of new hotels and motor hotels and the extension of existing hotels in areas where there was a shortage of accommodation for overseas visitors.

Under this scheme, the Government made available $10.6 million by way of loan guarantees and $3.9 million by way of loans, resulting in the availability of an additional 3,253 first-class beds. This scheme was renewed in 1976 on a guarantee basis.

A similar scheme of financial assistance in respect of tourist facilities other than accommodation was introduced in 1969 for both loans and guarantees, to encourage private-enterprise operators to develop amenities, where necessary, in focal tourist areas.

There are special depreciation allowances for taxation purposes which apply to approved visitor accommodation.

TRANSPORT—All main cities, towns, and tourist resorts are served by regular road or rail services and there is an extensive network of internal air services. In addition to the inter-island air services, the North and South Island are also linked by roll-on roll-off steamer services operating between Wellington and Picton.

Touring by drive-yourself hire car is a popular way of seeing the country. Several companies provide a nation-wide car-hire service. All main centres also have chauffeur-driven cars available. Coach tours of a high standard and covering a range of prices and periods are operated by a number of companies.

At several locations, but particularly in the alpine and lake regions of the South Island, set or charter air tours are available.

Travel Services—Fully accredited travel agencies are available throughout New Zealand. Most of the major international agencies are represented or have affiliates in the country and there are the Government Tourist Bureaus which offer a national service for overseas visitors and New Zealand travellers.

WIDE RANGE OF ATTRACTIONS—With features such as the amazing thermal areas, magnificent lakes and fiords, glaciers, alpine regions, and unrivalled hunting, fishing, and other sporting opportunities, New Zealand combines in a comparatively small area a host of attractions. In addition to these natural attractions, the dignity and charm of the Maori people offers for study a culture which is unique to New Zealand.

Thermal Areas—New Zealand is distinctive in having a wide range of volcanic phenomena and associated thermal spas. The chief concentration is in the volcanic belt north-east from the three major volcanoes (all usually quiet), in the centre of the North Island. The Rotorua locality is a noted centre of thermal activity, with a wide variety of geysers, mud-pools, pools of boiling water, and steam blow-holes.

Many mineral springs are reputed to have a beneficial effect and mineral baths are maintained by private interests in many places.

Rotorua, with its great variety and abundance of hot springs, is a well-known New Zealand spa. At Taupo and Wairakei hot mineral waters feed into attractive swimming pools.

Weather—New Zealand lies wholly within the South Temperate Zone. The weather is sunny and rather changeable, but is neither excessively hot in summer nor uncomfortably cold in winter. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours of sunshine a year.

Seasons—The seasons in New Zealand are the opposite of those in the Northern Hemisphere:

Summer: December, January, February

Autumn: March, April, May

Winter: June, July, August

Spring: September, October, November

SPORTING ATTRACTIONS: Fishing—A wide variety of salt-water fish abound in the coasts, bays, and harbours and in both North and South islands many streams, rivers, and lakes provide excellent rainbow and brown trout fishing.

Sizes of New Zealand trout vary from district to district depending on environment, climate, food available, and angling pressure. Average trout weights are as follows: North Island—rainbow 2–2½ lb and brown 5 lb in the Rotorua lakes, rainbow 4½ lb and brown 5 lb in Lake Taupo, rainbow and brown 2 lb in river systems; South Island—rainbow and brown 2–3 lb in lake systems, sea-run brown 5 lb in West Coast rivers, sea-run "Quinnat" salmon 12 lb in the east coast rivers, landlocked salmon 2–2½ lb.

Big-game Fishing—The warm waters off the east coast of the North Island provide some of the best surf, line, and scuba fishing in the world. The main bases for line fishing from charter boats are at Whangaroa, Bay of Islands (Russell Otehei Bay, and Waitangi), Tutukaka, Mercury Bay (Whitianga), and Tauranga (Mayor Island).

The most prized catches are broadbill, black marlin, striped marlin and blue marlin, while other types of big game fish found in New Zealand waters are mainly tiger shark, hammerhead shark, mako shark, thresher shark, kingfish (yellow tail), and tuna. The best catches are usually made in February but fishing is good from December to April.

Shooting and Hunting—The principal game birds are duck, swan, pheasant, quail, geese, and chukor, but the sport is limited, the main season usually extending for about 6 weeks from early May.

There are fewer restrictions, however, on stalking—no limit on the number of game animals that can be taken, no licence required, and the season is open all year round. However, commercial hunting operations have severely limited the numbers of some game animals (deer of several species, elk, chamois, and thar), that once abounded in the forest and alpine regions. Wild pigs, goats, and wallaby are still numerous in several areas of the country. A guide is essential for the success of a hunting expedition.

Ski-ing—The ski-ing in New Zealand extends from mid-July to late October in the North Island and from early July to late September in the South Island. With the operation of ski planes from the airstrip at Mount Cook very good spring ski-ing is also available for experienced skiers on extensive snowfields in the Westland and Mount Cook national parks.

In the North Island the main ski-ing centre is Mount Ruapehu in the Tongariro National Park. Equipment and instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include three chairlifts, a T-bar, three Poma lifts, and two rope tows. A new ski field is being developed at Turoa on the south-west slopes of Mount Ruapehu. Mount Egmont is the North Island's other principal ski area, with fields at Dawson Falls, Stratford, and North Egmont.

In the South Island the principal areas are Coronet Peak (Queenstown), Mount Hutt, Lake Ohau, Porters Pass, Wanaka, Arthur's Pass and Mount Cook (access by ski plane or helicopter). Coronet Peak, 11 miles from Queenstown, has the best powder snow conditions in New Zealand lying on extensive undulating slopes of varying gradients; equipment and professional instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include chair lifts and a series of ski tows.

Mountaineering and Tramping—The proximity of mountain and forest to the main centres of population encourages tramping in New Zealand. Both North and South Islands have appealing tramping routes and parties can set out to enjoy the beauty and challenge of lonely country.

In the Waitakere and Hunua Ranges near Auckland, the central ranges of the North Island, at Mount Egmont, Tongariro National Park, and the Urewera area, and in the South Island's Fiord-land and Golden Bay, there are numbers of tracks with high mountain traverses and passages through beautiful scenery.

Other Sports—A wide range of other sports is available. Golf courses are to be found in all parts of the country. Horse racing takes place throughout the year. Rugby football and cricket are widely played during their seasons. There are facilities for bowls, tennis, skating, squash, and most other sports in most parts of the country.

Shopping and Souvenirs—Articles of a particularly New Zealand character include attractive jewellery made from paua shell, greenstone, and gem stones, Maori carvings in native timbers, records of Maori singing, pottery depicting Maori emblems, and natural or dyed lambskin rugs and clothing.

Tourist and Publicity Department—The Tourist and Publicity Department is responsible for the promotion of New Zealand overseas as a tourist destination and also operates a comprehensive travel service. Bureaus are sited in Auckland, Rotorua, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill, with agencies in other parts of New Zealand. There are overseas offices in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, London, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York, Toronto, Tokyo, and Frankfurt. The department also supplies general New Zealand publicity material, publications, films, photographs, and displays for use within New Zealand and overseas to create a background knowledge of New Zealand, its people, and way of life.

Other Tourist Organisations—The New Zealand National Travel Association, an organisation representing private travel interests in New Zealand, is also concerned with the development of the tourist industry.

New Zealand is a foundation member of the Pacific Area Travel Association which was formed in 1952 as a tourist promotional body for the Pacific area.

Chapter 39. Section 38 MISCELLANEOUS

Table of Contents

HUMAN RIGHTS—An Act to establish a Human Rights Commission and to promote the advancement of human rights in New Zealand in general accordance with the United Nations International Covenants on Human Rights was passed by Parliament in November 1977.

The Human Rights Commission, established by the Act of the same name, has the general functions of promoting, encouraging, and co-ordinating programmes and activities in the field of human rights, and the specific functions of investigating alleged breaches of the wide-ranging provisions against discrimination on grounds of sex, marital status, or religious or ethical beliefs set out in part II of the Act. (Part II also makes unlawful any discrimination on grounds of colour, race, or ethnic, or national origin in a number of areas of activity not already covered by the Race Relations Act 1971.)

The membership of the commission consists of the Chief Human Rights Commissioner (the Chairman), the Chief Ombudsman, the Race Relations Conciliator, and three others appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Justice.

An Equal Opportunities Tribunal was constituted under the same Act. The Tribunal consists of a chairman who must be a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court, and two other persons appointed by the chairman for the purposes of each hearing from a panel maintained by the Minister of Justice. The principal function of the Equal Opportunities Tribunal is to adjudicate in civil proceedings brought by the commission alleging discriminatory practice under part II of the Act.

METRICATION—The Metric Advisory Board was set up by the Government in 1969 to encourage, advise, and assist the progressive adoption within New Zealand of the metric system of weights and measures. The conversion to this system was substantially completed by the end of 1976.

New Zealand's decision to change to the metric system was based almost entirely on the necessity to keep in step with her overseas trading partners. The metric system is not only simpler and more efficient than the imperial system but also has the benefits of internationally agreed definition and standardisation. The modern version of the metric system known as the "International System" (also called SI—"Systeme International d' Unites") has been adopted for use in New Zealand. This system is also being adopted by all those other countries that have recently changed, or are in the process of changing, to the metric system. A table showing the relationships between British (Imperial) units and SI (Metric) units is included in the front pages of this Yearbook.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE MARKS—The legislation concerned with patents, designs, and trade marks is the Patents Act 1953, the Trade Marks Act 1953, and the Designs Act 1953. The total number of applications for the grant of letters patent, and for the registration of designs and trade marks during the financial year 1976–77 was 7,560 which was 82 less than in the previous year.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade marks and designs for March years.

YearPatentsTrade MarksDesignsYearPatentsTrade MarksDesigns
1971–723,4973,5934681974–753,2383,618371
1972–733,5183,5153431975–763,3983,828416
1973–743,5664,0413691976–773,2723,757531

Patents—The applications received during 1976–77 were broadly classified as follows: chemistry, 1,062; mechanical engineering, 1,017; electrical engineering, 325; building construction, 354; primary industries, 205; home science and miscellaneous, 309.

Applications originating in New Zealand totalled 1,149, the United States 754, Great Britain 423, Switzerland 151, West Germany 121, Australia 196, with the remaining 478 distributed among 36 other countries.

Trade Marks—During the year 1976–77 applications for trade marks covered the whole of the 34 classes prescribed, the most favoured being: Class 5, pharmaceutical and sanitary substances, etc., 419; Class 25, clothing, boots, shoes, etc., 337; Class 1, chemical products used in industry, 211; Class 9, scientific equipment, 292; Class 3, household cleaning preparations, soaps, and cosmetics, 196; and Class 28, toys and games, 191.

The countries from which the applications originated were: New Zealand 1,384; United States, 934;. Great Britain, 377; West Germany, 161; Japan, 123; with the remaining 778 distributed among 70 other countries.

Trade marks registered during 1976–77 totalled 2,221. Renewal of registration of 3,034 trade marks was effected during the year.

Designs—A total of 294 industrial designs was registered during the year 1976–77.

COPYRIGHT—Under the Copyright Act 1962, copyright comes into existence automatically upon the completion of any original literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic work (including photographs). No registration is necessary (or even possible), nor is any other formality required for securing copyright protection.

Copyright also exists in New Zealand for sound recordings, cinematograph films, broadcasts, and published editions (typography) of literary, dramatic, and musical works.

Copyright in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works (except photographs) continues until 50 years after the author's death, if the works are published in the author's lifetime, and until 50 years after publication or 75 years after death (whichever is shorter) if they are unpublished at the death of the author. Copyright in photographs, sound recordings, cinematograph films, and broadcasts continues until 50 years after the making, and in editions until 25 years after publication.

Copyright in New Zealand in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works and in cinematograph films extends to all countries which are parties to the International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Berne Copyright Union) and to all countries which are parties to the Universal Copyright Convention. In some cases sound recordings, broadcasts, and published editions are also protected overseas. New Zealand is a party to both conventions. Most countries of the world have acceded to the one or the other or to both conventions.

In 1976, New Zealand acceded to the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms against Unauthorised Duplication of their phonograms. The Convention obliges each contracting state to protect the producers of phonograms (i.e., records, cassettes, and other exclusively aural fixations of a performance or other sounds) against the unauthorised reproduction of their phonograms, and against the importation and distribution to the public of such unauthorised reproductions.

In New Zealand certain disputes relating to performing rights of copyright works, sound recordings, or films may be determined by the Copyright Tribunal.

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN COUNCIL—The New Zealand Industrial Design Council was established under the Industrial Design Act 1966 to promote the development of industrial design with the object of improving the quality, efficiency, packaging, and appearance of goods produced in New Zealand. It works closely with relevant Government departments, statutory bodies, and professional design organisations, maintains regular contact with the manufacturers' and retailers' federations and other organisations interested in industrial design. Products which meet high standards of design and manufacture are awarded the prestige Designmark label and included in the Index of Designmark Products. The Council gives assistance through its field advisory service to improve products which do not meet these standards. This can include the recommendation of designers from its designer service. The Council publishes a monthly magazine Design-scape and operates a design and technology information service.

STANDARDS COUNCIL—The Standards Act 1965 established the Standards Council as the governing body of the Standards Association of New Zealand (SANZ). Its aims are to improve efficiency and stimulate development in industry and commerce by providing standards documents, which will also assist in promoting public and industrial welfare, health, and safety. The association administers the standard certification mark scheme, which encourages improved quality control in industry with consequent improvement in the quality of consumer goods.

As technology moves ever more rapidly into completely new spheres, as New Zealand industry becomes more export-orientated, and as the energy challenge escalates, SANZ must keep up with and react to these far-reaching changes as they arise. Even more importantly are fields where standards must lead and where a standard in a developing area of technology can be produced before practices become established.

The council regards international standardisation as an important factor in facilitating international trade. The association is the New Zealand member of the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and the Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC). It has limited membership of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The library of the association includes about 167,000 overseas or international standards. The association publishes new and revised standards and amendments in addition to the quarterly New Zealand Standards Bulletin (circulation about 5,800) and the monthly Standards Association Newsletter. New Zealand, British and all other overseas standards, and the publications of ISO and IEC, can be obtained from the SANZ sales section. SANZ sold its 750,000th copy of an original New Zealand standard during October 1976.

The association depends on the subscriptions of members and on sales of standards for a large proportion of its income. Sales of standards exceed $225,000 annually and the subscribing membership of the association, which includes most of the more prominent manufacturers and local authorities, totalled 1,228 at 31 March 1977.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE—In the early years of settlement in New Zealand those who wished to make provision for the administration of their estates on their deaths often experienced difficulty in selecting a suitable person competent, and willing to act as trustee. That difficulty was natural in a new country where the colonists were fully occupied with their own affairs, and were unable to give to the property or business of another the close attention that was demanded.

In these circumstances the Public Trust Office was established in 1872 (it is now constituted under the Public Trust Office Act 1957) under the administration of the Public Trustee, a corporation sole with perpetual succession and a seal of office. The main purpose of the original Act was to provide a means of overcoming the difficulties that have been mentioned and to make available to the public a trustworthy administrator of the estates of deceased persons at a reasonable cost, the integrity of the Public Trustee and his officers being guaranteed by the State. That continues to be the chief function of the Office, but since its establishment the range of services has been very considerably extended. The Public Trustee now acts in many capacities, e.g., as administrator in intestate estates; executor and trustee under wills; trustee under marriage and other settlements; trustee of benefit or relief funds; agent or attorney for absentees or persons desiring to be relieved of business worries; sinking fund commissioner for local authorities; administrator of unclaimed lands and property; manager of the estates of protected patients; manager (when so appointed by the court) of the estates of aged and infirm persons unable to attend to their own affairs; and trustee of compensation moneys. The wills of persons desiring the Public Trustee to act as their executor and any subsequent will or codicil may be prepared and held in safe custody by him, free of charge. With certain qualifications the Public Trustee may act jointly with another person or persons.

In lieu of obtaining probate or other grant of administration, the Public Trustee may file in an office of the Supreme Court an election by him to administer an estate (testate or intestate) if the gross value of the property in New Zealand is estimated not to exceed $7,500. If after the filing of the election the value of the property is found to exceed $10,000 the Public Trustee must obtain a grant of probate or administration in the ordinary way.

During the year ended 31 March 1977, 8,277 estates and funds valued at $96,727,560 were accepted for administration. The administration of 4,978 estates and funds was completed. Estates and funds under administration at 31 March 1977 numbered 25,922 and were valued at $398,665,496.

Capital moneys becoming available for investment either form part of the Common Fund of the Office or, at the option of the testator or settlor, are invested in such securities as he may specify. Interest is allowed on moneys in the Common Fund at the rate fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council and is free of all commission and other charges. Both capital and interest are guaranteed by the State, thus affording the complete security that it is the object of the Office to provide. On the other hand, moneys directed to be invested in specific securities do not carry the State guarantee and, subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee, any loss resulting from their investment falls upon the estate concerned. Commission is charged on the collection of the interest.

Charges and commission rates are contained in the Public Trust Office Regulations 1958.

New investments completed during the year ended 31 March 1977 totalled $15,378,239. The investments held by the Office at 31 March 1977 totalled $100,141,888. These figures relate exclusively to Common Fund investments, and do not include other special investments made on behalf of estates, or investments which constitute assets of estates when the latter came under the Public Trustee's administration and which are still held as assets of those estates.

During the year ended 31 March 1977, 16,713 wills appointing the Public Trustee executor were deposited with him for safe custody. The total number of such wills held on deposit at 31 March 1977 was 283,034. During the year ended 31 March 1977 effect was given in 11,533 cases to changes desired by testators.

BANKRUPTCY—The law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Insolvency Act 1967 and the Insolvency Regulations 1970. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of $10 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of the court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in this case. Not less than $200 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due to them. In such a case, after approval of the court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the assignee on a resolution by creditors. A person adjudged bankrupt is discharged three years after the date of adjudication unless discharged sooner.

Another form of financial failure is covered by private assignments, of which there was 1 in 1973, and 2 in 1974. Private assignments are not included in official bankruptcy statistics. There were none in 1975 or 1976.

Transactions in Bankruptcy—The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last 5 years is now given. A long-term record of the more important features will be found in the Statistical Summary given later in this volume.

YearBankruptciesCourt Orders for Liquidation of CompaniesTotal Commercial Failures
Petitions by DebtorsAdjudications on Petitions by Creditors

*Includes 2 estates relating to 1975.

19732094674329
19742044674324
197524969169487
1976209100150459*
1977290129207626

In the case of a partnership, each partner is counted in the total of transactions and also the partnership. The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by official assignees.

In some cases of company liquidations, subsequent court orders are given for the winding up of companies to be transferred to private liquidators. There was one such case in 1972, 1 in 1973, 2 in 1974, 1 in 1975, and none in 1976 or 1977; these are not included in the previous table or in succeeding tables.

The table following shows for each of the last 6 years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the proportion of dividends, preferential claims, and secured claims, to debts.

YearAverage Debts Proved per EstateProportion of Dividends, etc., to Debts
 $percent
19728,97711.9
19739,09120.9
19749,28718.8
197518,7315.0
197620,7867.3
197722,8674.8

Apart from dividends, preferential and secured claims, and Government commission, payments made from assets realised include cost of actions, solicitors' fees, and expenses incurred in managing estates for the benefit of creditors.

In the following table bankruptcies are classified according to amount groups of stated liabilities. With all partnerships the liabilities for each partner are included, but not the partnership. Company liquidations are included.

Liabilities19731974197519761977

*Excludes partnerships, 1973, 4; 1974, 6; 1975, 6; 1976, nil and 1977, 3 for which no statement of liabilities was received; also companies 6 in 1974; 21 in 1975; 7 in 1976, and 21 in 1977. Also excludes 1 private bankruptcy for which no statement was received in 1976.

Under $5002315171824
$500-$9994544322222
$1,000-$1,9994944586261
$2,000-$3,9996357828990
$4,000-$9,9997171107115157
$10,000 and over6781164145251
Total318*312*460*451*605*

Industry Groups of Bankrupts—All persons adjudged bankrupt (whether self-employed, employers of labour, or salary and wage earners) have been classified in the following table according to the industry in which they were last employed.

Industry Group19731974197519761977

*Excludes partnerships as follows: 1973, 6; 1974, 6; 1975, 6; 1976 nil; and 1977, 3.

†Excludes 2 1975 estates shown in total figures for 1976.

‡Excludes 4 annulments.

Agriculture and livestock production12292313445
Forestry, hunting, and fishing91414
Mining and quarrying1521
Manufacturing—     
  Food and beverages834722
  Footwear and textiles2236
  Wood and wood products21447
  Paper, printing, and publishing2214
  Machinery and equipment1276128
  Other7851017
Construction5047566049
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels5948703960
Transport, storage, and communications2424292534
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services1014192118
Personal, social, and community services2116262630
Industry not adequately described2016263961
Persons not gainfully employed in any industry1314212450
Total*249244312307412

The types of activity in which bankrupts were engaged at the time of failure frequently bear little relationship to the fact of insolvency. Personal extravagance or business incompetence are probably much more important factors in the majority of cases.

The occupational status of individual bankrupts is given in the following table. With all partnerships the occupation of each partner is included, but not the partnership.

 Occupational Status
YearWorking for Salary or WagesEmployer of LabourWorking on Own Account But Not Employing LabourNot Gainfully EmployedTotal*

*Excludes partnerships as follows: 1973, 6; 1974, 6; 1975, 6; 1976, nil; and 1977, 3. to 1975 and 1 for which the occupational status is not known.

†Excludes 2 estates relating

197397528713249
197486549014244
197598949921312
1976122619924306
19771717811350412

INTERNATIONAL INDICATORS OF STANDARDS OF LIVING—Relative standards of living cannot be compared by taking per-head incomes or expenditure alone. Environmental and other factors are being increasingly recognised as components of quality of life, a much less easily measured concept. In assessing standards of living, the United Nations Economic and Social Council is now giving consideration to the development of social indicators parallel with purely economic terms of measurement. These include health and personal safety; equality of educational opportunity; employment and quality of working life; leisure satisfaction; social welfare provisions; social opportunity and quality; social, cultural, and communication capabilities; housing and community; and the physical environment.

Methods of measurement of these factors are being recommended on an international basis In these wider terms of reference New Zealand's position is appreciably improved.

Some comparative indicators related to standards of living are set out in the following table. In other sections of the Yearbook there are international comparisons on food consumption, life expectancy, infant mortality, medical and dental services, energy, libraries, and newspaper circulation.

ItemNew ZealandUnited StatesCanadaAustraliaUnited KingdomSwedenJapan

*1974.

†1973.

‡1972.

§1976.

Number per 1,000 of population—       
Passenger cars (1975)378500377*371255337155
Commercial vehicles (1975)6711690*89342193
Radios (1974)8921,895894214750378658
Television sets (1974)261571366226315348233
Telephones (1977)520718604395§394689426
Consumption per head (1975)—
Coffee (kg)2.0*5.73.61.91.613.51.0
Sugar (kg)52.942.145.657.6..45.025.2
Steel (kg)300549577467385772583
Wool (kg)3.90.20.21.52.00.21.2
Cotton (kg)*9.87.57.810.14.57.86.3
Artificial and synthetic fibres (kg)*8.714.411.712.59.311.37.0
Newsprint (kg)34.438.727.138.322.231.819.6
Public education expenditure as a percentage of GNP at market price (1974)5.66.67.66.4..7.54.3
Persons per hospital bed (1973)9314910681‡1176678‡

LOTTERIES—Under the Gaming Act 1908 the Police may license raffles where the value of prizes does not exceed in aggregate $50 or the value of any one prize does not exceed $20. The Police may also approve specified organisations conducting raffles, where the aggregate value of prizes in any one raffle does not exceed $10, without the necessity for individual licences. Raffles with prizes exceeding the above maximum values may be licensed by the Minister of Internal Affairs. There were 18,290 licences issued under the Minister's authority during the year ended 31 March 1977 to local, provincial, and national organisations. The Gaming Act precludes the issue of licences to conduct raffles for the purpose of private gain. Otherwise, the Police and the Minister may issue licences subject to such conditions as they think fit.

Under the Gaming Amendment Act 1962 the Minister of Internal Affairs may promote national lotteries. The three lotteries that are conducted at present are the "Golden Kiwi Jackpot" with 250,000 tickets at $1 a ticket, the "Golden Kiwi Sweepstake" with 150,000 tickets at $5 a ticket, and the "Golden Kiwi Half Million" with 150,000 tickets at $10 a ticket.

The aggregate financial results of lotteries are shown for the last 5 years.

Item1972–731973–741974–751975–761976–77*

*22 Golden Kiwi Jackpots, 43 Kiwi Jackpots, 4 Kiwi Supers, and 4 special sweepstakes. (In November 1976 Kiwi Jackpots and Kiwi Supers were discontinued and replaced by Golden Kiwi Jackpots.)

Number of lotteries..4950626673*
Gross sales$(000)9,7509,50011,15011,62415,073
Commission on sales$(000)8258201,0021,0221,419
Expenses$(000)241318430521678
Prizes$(000)5,1585,0446,4916,2348,240
Lottery duty$(000)9759501,2151,1621,507
Direct profit$(000)2,5512,3682,9872,6853,228

The net profits from these lotteries are required by the Gaming Amendment Act to be distributed for charitable, philanthropic, or cultural purposes or for other purposes beneficial to the community. A lottery board of control has the responsibility of apportioning profits of lotteries to various distributing authorities which consider applications for assistance and make grants. Allocations made by the board in 1976–77 were as follows: $600,000 for the welfare of aged persons; $620,000 for social welfare, including various mayoral and other funds for relief of distress; $531,000 for national water safety, national mountain safety, and surf lifesaving organisations; $250,000 for medical research; $250,000 for scientific research; $300,000 for capital works in connection with theatres and concert auditoria; $450,000 to the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council of New Zealand; $200,000 to the Historic Places Trust; $400,000 to the Ministry of Recreation and Sport; and $496,150 for miscellaneous purposes.

LIQUOR LICENSING—The principal source of the liquor law of New Zealand is the Sale of Liquor Act 1962. The principles on which the liquor law of New Zealand rests are that no liquor may be sold without a licence, that new licences are not to be authorised unless they are shown to be necessary or desirable in the locality, and that there should be close regulation of the conduct of the trade and of the provision and standard of accommodation, amenities, and services.

There is a Licensing Control Commission whose principal functions are to ascertain the requirements of the public as to the provision of accommodation, services, and other facilities on licensed premises; to determine what new hotel, tavern, and tourist house premises licences, restaurant licences, and wholesale licences are needed and to authorise their issue; to review provisional hotel licences and determine whether the licence to be issued in their place should be a hotel or tavern premises licence; to prescribe and enforce standards of accommodation, amenities, and services; to grant club charters; and to hear appeals from licensing committees. There is a right of appeal to the commission from most decisions of a licensing committee except on a matter of law or character in which case the appeal is to the Supreme Court. Many of the commission's decisions are themselves subject to appeal to the Supreme Court, and an appeal may be brought in any case on a point of law. Appeals now lie to the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court.

In 1976 2 new kinds of licence were introduced, the caterer's licence and the general ancillary licence. These licences will be available to caterers, sports clubs, and other associations where the consumption of liquor will be incidental to some principal activity.

Also, two types of permit were created. A vineyard bar permit is available to the holder of a wine-maker's licence authorising the sale of wine made by him for consumption on his premises, and a permit may be issued to authorise the consumption of liquor in unlicensed restaurants where the liquor is brought to the restaurant by the patron.

Licences either in force or authorised at 31 March 1976 comprised 781 hotel premises licences, 307 tavern premises licences, and 78 tourist house premises licences.

At 31 March 1976 a total of 303 chartered clubs were in existence. Wine resellers licences authorised totalled 354 and wholesale licences totalled 182.

New Licences—The Licensing Control Commission decides after a public inquiry whether the issue of a hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licence, or a wholesale or wine reseller's licence is desirable in a particular locality. In the case of a hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licence, the commission prescribes the minimum standards of accommodation, services, and other facilities that must be provided. It may direct that any bar-room of a hotel or tavern shall contain facilities for sit-down drinking. There is provision for a poll of residents on the question whether a hotel or tavern premises licence is not desired in the locality, and if the majority of votes recorded at the poll is against the licence the commission may not authorise one unless special circumstances exist.

Subject to the result of any such poll the commission (or in the case of a wholesale or wine reseller's licence, the Licensing Committee) then calls for applications for the licence, and grants it to the most suitable applicant.

Hours of Sale—The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 governs the hours of sale. A special general poll was held on 23 September 1967 concerning the closing hours for the sale of liquor in hotel, tavern, and chartered club bar-rooms. The closing hour had been 6 p.m. since 1917. Voting for later closing was 641,105 and for 6 p.m. closing it was 353,662. Under the Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1967 the usual hours of opening and closing of hotels or taverns were fixed at 11 a.m. and 10 p.m. respectively, and the new hours applied from 9 October 1967. The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1976 allows for further extensions upon application for particular hotels or taverns. Orders may be made permitting these to remain open until 11 p.m. on any Friday or Saturday or on Christmas Eve and until 12.30 a.m. in the morning of New Year's Day. Any extension to usual hours is in addition to the 11 hours per day during which premises are at present open for the sale of liquor to the public. Sales from hotels and taverns are prohibited on Sundays, Christmas Day, and Good Friday.

Legislation in 1960 authorised hotels to serve liquor to guests and lodgers partaking of a meal for consumption with the meal. The 1976 amendment extends the hours, which are now 9 a.m. on any day to 1 a.m. the following morning.

By the 1960 Act the hours during which licensed restaurants could sell and serve liquor to diners were fixed as 12 noon to 2.30 p.m. and 6 p.m. to 11.30 p.m. on any day. The 1976 amendment extended these hours, which are now 12 noon on any day to 1 a.m. in the morning of the following day. The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 authorises the commission to grant permits to an hotel for the sale of liquor in a lounge or lounge bar to diners during hours fixed by the Commission, but not later than 11.30 p.m. This has been extended to 1 a.m. It also provides for theatre, cabaret, and airport licences, and prescribes the hours of sale in each case. The hours in respect of theatres and cabarets have also been extended.

The hours of sale under a general ancillary licence are set by the Licensing Control Commission when granting the licence and are generally between 9 a.m. and 10 p.m. on any day. Caterer's licences authorise the sale of liquor between 9 a.m. on any day (except Good Friday) and 1 a.m. the following day. The permits for unlicensed restaurants authorise consumption by patrons of their own liquor until 11.30 p.m. on any day, and the vineyard bar permit authorises sales until 9 p.m. except on Sundays, Good Friday, or Christmas Day.

Drinking Age—The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1969 made provision from 24 October 1969 for the sale of liquor to persons of the age of 20 years; liquor may also be supplied to persons of 18 years and over if the person is accompanied by a spouse of 20 or more years of age or a parent. The 1976 amendment to the Act also provided for a family lounge permit, whereby parents may take their underage children into designated parts of hotels, taverns, or chartered clubs. Liquor may be supplied to an unaccompanied person 18 years or over as part of a meal provided in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

Licensing Trusts—The system of trust control in New Zealand is an alternative to the traditional means of controlling the sale of liquor through privately held licences supervised by licensing committees, and the Licensing Control Commission gives the public an indirect control over the conditions under which liquor is sold. In the case of trusts, public control is direct since the whole of the liquor trade in a trust district is conducted by the trust, which is elected by the residents and is responsible to them.

The first licensing trust in New Zealand was set up in 1944 following the carrying of restoration in the former Invercargill no-licence district. There are now eight district trusts—Ashburton, Clutha, Geraldine, Invercargill, Masterton, Mataura, Oamaru, and Porirua. In addition an increasing number of local trusts scattered throughout the country are operating hotels. Because of the circumstances of the remaining no-licence districts and their relation to the metropolitan areas as a whole, legislation was enacted in 1963 providing a special procedure if any of them should carry restoration, and introducing a new form of trust control known as suburban trusts.

Prior to 1975 six suburban trusts had been constituted —Johnsonville, Terawhiti, and Wellington South (in Wellington) and Mt. Albert, Portage, and Waitakere (in Auckland). These trusts held licences under the Sale of Liquor Act but had a preferential right to all hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licences, or wholesale licences authorised in their areas. In 1975 these trusts and the Birkenhead Local Licensing Trust were converted into district trusts which do not hold licences, are not under the jurisdiction of the Licensing Control Commission, and are free to choose the nature of the liquor outlets and where and when they will establish them.

The 1976 Licensing Trusts Amendment Act converted these trusts into suburban trusts, cringing them back under a degree of Licensing Control Commission supervision but not to the same extent as that which prevailed prior to 1975. The trusts are still free to establish what outlets they see fit without the need to hold licences, but Licensing Control Commission approval must be obtained first. This allows the commission to consider the accommodation requirements of the greater metropolitan area of which a suburban trust is a part, as well as providing an appropriate forum in which objections to the trust's proposals may be heard.

GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS—A general election of parliamentary representatives was held on 29 November 1975, voting in New Zealand for both General and Maori electorates taking place on that day.

The strength of the political party representation among members of Parliament after the 1975 election was National 55, Labour 32. The relative strengths after the eight preceding general elections were as follows: September 1951, National 50, Labour 30; November 1954, National 45, Labour 35; November 1957, Labour 41, National 39; November 1960, National 46, Labour 34; November 1963, National 45, Labour 35; November 1966, National 44, Labour 35, Social Credit 1; November 1969, National 45, Labour 39; November 1972, Labour 55, National 32.

The total numbers of electors on the roll for the election in 1975 was 1,938,108, of whom 1,611,020 (83.12 percent) recorded their votes.

The following table shows for the last four general elections the number of votes recorded by the main political parties, along with the percentages that the various party votes represent of the total valid votes.

Political PartyVotes RecordedPercentage of Total Valid Votes
19661969197219751966196919721975
Labour499,392592,055677,669636,31941.4444.1848.3739.70
National525,945605,960581,422760,36543.6445.2241.5047.44
Social Credit174,515121,57693,231119,12314.489.076.657.43
Values......27,46783,213......1.965.19
Others5,24320,57721,3633,7570.441.531.520.23
  Total valid votes1,205,0951,340,1681,401,1521,602,777100.00100.00100.00100.00
Informal votes7,03211,6459,0888,243............
  Total votes recorded1,212,1271,351,8131,410,2401,611,020............

A statement of voting in individual electorates at the general election in 1975 was included in the 1976 Yearbook.

NATIONAL LICENSING POLL—The licensing poll of 29 November 1975 held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the seventeenth at which the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. Official figures of the 1975 poll, together with those of five preceding polls, were as follows.

Voting Issue196019631966196919721975
For national continuance765,952791,767817,760903,962931,7781,094,445
For State purchase and control138,644157,581176,946242,499244,003235,374
For national prohibition255,157235,959198,859176,055203,791250,640

POLL ON TERM OF PARLIAMENT—On 23 September 1967 a special general poll was held on a proposal that the term of the House of Representatives be changed. Votes for a maximum of 3 years as at present totalled 678,960; votes for a maximum term of 4 years totalled 317,973.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS—One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand. The New Zealand Gazette of 31 October 1868 contained a Government announcement to the effect that the time corresponding to longitude 172° 30′ east of Greenwich (exactly 11½ hours in advance of Greenwich time) was to be adopted as the New Zealand Mean Time throughout the colony.

This New Zealand Mean Time, 11h 30 min. in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), was observed continuously up to 1927, when on 6 November clocks were advanced 1 hour until 4 March 1928. Summer Time, with clocks advanced only 30 minutes (to 12h ahead of G.M.T.), became standard practice in the summer months under the Summer Time Act 1929.

The Daylight Saving Emergency Regulations of 1941 provided for the continuance of Summer Time throughout that year, and its continued observance during subsequent war years was provided for by regulations made annually.

By the Standard Time Act of 1945 the time of the meridian 180° east of Greenwich (12 h in advance of G.M.T.) was adopted as the Standard Time for New Zealand. Thus, what was formerly known as "Summer Time" became "New Zealand Standard Time" as from 1 January 1946.

The Time Act of 1974 consolidated the Standard Time Act of 1945 and also enabled the Governor-General, by Order in Council, to introduce 1 hour of daylight saving for specified periods. This time is designated New Zealand Daylight Time, and is 13 h in advance of Universal Time (or Greenwich Mean Time). The first period specified for the use of New Zealand Daylight Time was from 3 November 1974 to 23 February 1975.

Time in the Chatham Islands is 45 minutes ahead of that kept in New Zealand.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the New Zealand Time Service, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as correct as possible by comparison with radio signals from observatories in other parts of the world, and the error rarely exceeds a few milliseconds.

The Observatory provides a time service over Station ZLW and stations operated by TV1, TV2, and Radio New Zealand.

BOOK PUBLISHING—The following table classifies the publications for 1976 and 1977 which have been included by the Alexander Turnbull Library in the New Zealand National Bibliography.

Subject19761977
BooksPamphletsTotalBooksPamphletsTotal
General222648313162
Religion, theology, philosophy224971224466
Sociology, statistics51631145667123
Political science6415822271138209
Law, public administration, social welfare70611315567122
Education50621124866114
Trade, communications, transport203353182745
Linguistics, philology1133446511
Sciences796814773131204
Technology, and trades10811522386148234
Agriculture, forestry3757945058108
Domestic science20424201131
Commercial management162440323365
Fine arts, etc.4347906384147
Entertainment, sport532578433275
Literature81651466082142
Geography, travel352560392766
History, biography100381387441115
Total8829531,8358471,0921,939

The New Zealand National Bibliography, which commenced publication in 1967, is issued monthly and cumulated annually by the National Library of New Zealand. It lists works published in New Zealand and also works published overseas by authors normally resident in New Zealand, and works that deal in whole or part with New Zealand. It includes books, pamphlets, art prints, maps, new periodicals, and periodicals that have ceased publication.

As at 31 January 1977 there were 3,141 periodicals (other than parish and school magazines) being received regularly under the provisions of the Copyright Act.

PUBLIC HOLIDAYS—These are listed below.

Holiday19761977197819791980

*Date of Queen's Birthday, 21 April 1926.

New Year's Day1 January1 January1 January1 January1 January
Waitangi Day6 February6 February6 February6 February6 February
Good Friday16 April8 April24 March13 April4 April
Easter Monday19 April11 April27 March16 April7 April
Anzac Day25 April25 April25 April25 April25 April
Queen's Birthday*7 June6 June5 June4 June2 June
Labour Day25 October24 October23 October22 October27 October
Christmas Day25 December25 December25 December25 December25 December
Boxing Day26 December26 December26 December26 December26 December

In addition to the above, there is in each provincial district a holiday for the provincial anniversary. The actual anniversary days are as follows: Northland, 29 January; Auckland, 29 January; Taranaki, 31 March; Hawke's Bay, 1 November; Wellington, 22 January; Marlborough, 1 November; Nelson, 1 February; Canterbury, 16 December; Westland, 1 December; Otago and Southland, 23 March.

When Anniversary Day falls on Friday or later, the holiday is observed on the next Monday; if earlier, it is observed on the preceding Monday. In some cases the holiday is taken on the local show day or some other day; in Taranaki it is the second Monday in March to avoid a clash with Easter observance.

RACE RELATIONS—The Race Relations Act 1971 is designed to affirm and promote racial equality in New Zealand and implements the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Discrimination is unlawful on the grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins, for: (a) access by the public to places, vehicles, and facilities; (b) provision of goods and services; (c) employment (including employment of independent contractors); (d) land, housing, and other accommodation. It is also unlawful to publish or display any advertisement or notice which indicates an intention to commit a breach of any of these provisions.

A breach of any of the provisions may be the subject of an investigation by the Race Relations Conciliator.

The Act also makes it an offence to incite racial disharmony.

The most important role for a race relations mediator is in situations where misunderstanding due to different racial backgrounds or concepts on the part of the parties has occurred. Potential racial incidents can often be avoided by a mediator with an explanatory role. This extension of the conciliator's duties from an area confined to complaints of racial discrimination to one where discrimination may not have occurred, but where racial misunderstanding exists, is in keeping with the aims of the Act of affirming and promoting racial equality in New Zealand.

RECREATION AND SPORT—Although New Zealand has traditionally been considered an outdoor sporting nation preliminary results from a recent national survey indicate that activities based around the home may be the most popular form of recreation. Reading, gardening, and sewing appear to be the three most popular recreational pursuits. Other home-based activities such as knitting, visiting and entertaining friends, cooking and baking, and house maintenance are also enjoyed by many New Zealanders for their recreational value. The popularity of dining-out, as providing a change for the busy housewife and a break from the humdrum of everyday living is reflected in the rise, over the last 10 years, in the number of restaurants and eating places catering for a wide variety of tastes and incomes.

Sport, however, does play an important part in the recreation of New Zealanders. Rugby Union is the most popular sporting activity and the leading winter sport. Soccer, netball, and indoor basketball are also popular winter sports. Swimming is a very popular summer activity and salt-water fishing, tennis, boating, and cricket also have large followings. Of the all-year round sporting activities golf is most popular followed by billiards, snooker and pool, indoor bowls, and squash. An interesting feature of sport in New Zealand is the large number of activities that involve small groups, such as swimming, fishing, tennis, boating, golf, etc., as distinct from the team sports. A substantial proportion of these small group activities are enjoyed more for their socially relaxing value than for any competitive element they may contain. As well as participating in sport, many New Zealanders enjoy watching sports as a recreational activity.

The New Zealand outdoors is enjoyed by many in other ways: of those activities regarded as recreational, driving, travelling, climbing, and tramping are all very popular. So too are hunting and shooting and fishing in New Zealand's many rivers, lakes, and streams. Many people enjoy picnics and barbecues.

Cultural pursuits are also an important part of recreation. Music is a popular recreational activity, and painting and sketching, going to the cinema or theatre, ballroom dancing, woodwork, making models and miniatures, and photography (while not as popular as music) are also enjoyed by a lot of New Zealanders.

Many of these recreational activities are organised into local clubs, some of which (especially in the case of the sporting activities) are affiliated to national organisations.

Promising players, performers, and artists have opportunities, through a variety of ways, to reach national levels in their activities. In many sports, the ultimate level to be reached is to represent New Zealand at the Olympic and Commonwealth Games.

Opportunities and facilities exist for those interested in outdoor education and recreation. The Youth Hostels Association of New Zealand operates 50 hostels in centres ranging from Kaitaia in the north to Invercargill in the south. In the more remote areas the New Zealand Forest Service and several tramping clubs have built huts.

Short courses in outdoor recreation are run by the Cobham Outward Bound School in Queen Charlotte Sound, and the Outdoor Pursuits Centre near Turangi. Educational authorities and some voluntary organisations have established outdoor recreation and education camps throughout the country where young people are encouraged to enjoy and make use of the natural environment.

Attempts have been made to introduce social education programmes into the schools and this has involved the introduction of a wider range of recreational activities with encouragement to continue with these activities after leaving school.

Most of the tertiary education institutions have facilities and staff available to serve the physical recreation needs of the student body.

In November 1972 a Minister of Recreation and Sport was appointed. The Recreation and Sport Act 1973 provided for the establishment of a Ministry of Recreation and a New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport. The general functions of the council are to foster and promote the total well-being of, and the fullest use of leisure by, the residents of New Zealand; to advise the Minister on any matters relating to recreation and sport; to investigate developments in recreation and sport, and disseminate knowledge and information about such developments. The sum of $3,284 million was appropriated through the ministry during 1976–77 to support community recreational activities together with an additional $250,000 made available by the Lottery Board of Control. Grants and subsidies from these funds are designed to encourage the provision of new or expanded facilities or services either by local authorities or voluntary organisations. Particular provision is made for assistance for national youth organisations, a sum of $180,000 being set aside for this purpose; and to encourage the wider community use of school recreational facilities. In 1976–77 $345,000 was set aside to provide subsidies for schools providing new or expanded recreational facilities such as gymnasia, auditoria, sports courts, and swimming pools, which are to receive substantial use by the local community.

A new scheme introduced in 1976–77, for which $75,000 was set aside, provides subsidy assistance for the salaries of new recreation officers being employed by local authorities. The employment of such officers is seen as a way of assisting in the planning of recreation development in local authority areas.

The New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport employs advisers in the fields of outdoor recreation, leadership training, and recreation promotion. The Ministry of Recreation and Sport has advisory officers at each of the main centres and in Rotorua. The council's advisors have responsibilities for promoting recreation programmes and working closely with others involved in their fields of interest and the Ministry's advisory officers maintain a more localised advisory service involving a close liaison with local authorities, educational and recreational organisations, and youth groups on the whole recreation and sport programme.

New Zealand is party with other Commonwealth nations in the Commonwealth Youth Programme. Established in 1973 the Commonwealth Youth Programme is a six-point plan of practical action: developing regional youth development centres, administering youth bursaries and study fellowships, investigating applied research, developing youth information services, assisting local youth projects, and supporting youth programmes. In New Zealand the Commonwealth Youth Programme is administered by a National Liaison Committee serviced by the Ministry of Recreation and Sport. The National Liaison Committee is composed of representatives from the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Department of Education, the Department of Maori Affairs, and the National Youth Council. It has developed the Youth Involvement Programme as a means of assisting innovative youth projects; it is investigating youth work training needs; and it participates in Commonwealth-level management of the programme through its representatives on the Commonwealth Committee of Management and Asia-Pacific Region Youth Development Centre Advisory Board.

The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council and the New Zealand Water Safety Council, which are also serviced through the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, received allocations from lottery profits of $75,000 and $130,000 respectively in 1976–77. These councils work closely with 38 local mountain safety committees and 43 local water safety committees in promoting the safe use of New Zealand's mountain, bush, and water areas.

NATIONAL ANTHEMSGod Defend New Zealand, the words written by Thomas Bracken and the music composed by John J. Woods, was written in the early 1870s and formally adopted as the New Zealand national hymn in 1940. In November 1977 it was announced that, with the consent of Her Majesty the Queen, the Government had decided that the national anthems of New Zealand shall be the traditional anthem, God Save the Queen and God Defend New Zealand, both being of equal status as national anthems appropriate to the occasion.

GOD DEFEND NEW ZEALAND

  1. God of nations at Thy feet In the bonds of love we meet. Hear our voices, we entreat, God defend our Free Land. Guard Pacific's triple star From the shafts of strife and war, Make her praises heard afar, God defend New Zealand.

  2. Men of ev'ry creed and race Gather here before Thy face, Asking Thee to bless this place, God defend our Free Land. From dissension, envy, hate, And corruption guard our State, Make our country good and great, God defend New Zealand.

  3. Peace, not war, shall be our boast, But, should foes assail our coast, Make us then a mighty host, God defend our Free Land. Lord of battles in Thy might, Put our enemies to flight, Let our cause be just and right, God defend New Zealand.

  4. Let our love for Thee increase, May Thy blessings never cease, Give us plenty, give us peace, God defend our Free Land. From dishonour and from shame Guard our country's spotless name, Crown her with immortal fame, God defend New Zealand.

  5. May our mountains ever be Freedom's ramparts on the sea, Make us faithful unto Thee, God defend our Free Land. Guide her in the nations' van, Preaching love and truth to man, Working out Thy glorious plan, God defend New Zealand.

NEW ZEALAND ENSIGN—The national flag is the New Zealand Ensign described in a Gazette notice of 27 June 1902. Its specifications are given in an Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. The basis is the Union Jack in the upper left quarter, and on a blue ground to the right the Southern Cross is represented by four five-pointed red stars with white borders.

NEW ZEALAND COAT OF ARMS—The New Zealand Coat of Arms was pictured and described as a frontispiece in the 1969 and earlier issues of the Official Yearbook. It appears on the title page and the spine of the present volume.

SEAL OF NEW ZEALAND—Previous to the passing of the Seal of New Zealand Act on 28 February 1977 certain New Zealand instruments were sealed with the Public Seal of New Zealand and others with the Great Seal of the United Kingdom or one of the lesser United Kingdom seals. The Act established a Seal of New Zealand and the Seal of New Zealand Proclamation 1977 laid down that this should be the Seal used on instruments of the New Zealand Government.

The Seal of New Zealand bears the New Zealand coat of arms and the words, "Elizabeth the Second. Queen. New Zealand".

BY-ELECTIONS—There were four by-elections during the life of the 1975–1978 National Government. Results in the electoral districts of Nelson, Mangere, and Pahiatua were given in previous Yearbooks. Voting in the Rangitikei by-election is shown below:

Rangitikei (18 Feb 1978)— 
Beetham (SC)6,804
Bull (N)5,469
Hocking (V)264
Leniston (I)13
Stewart (L)1,614
Informal33
Total14,197

Chapter 40. Section 39 OFFICIAL

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND

His Excellency The Rt. Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.

Official Secretary—James Brown.

PREVIOUS VICE-REGAL REPRESENTATIVES

Governors since 1840 and Governors-General since 1917 are listed below.

Vice-Regal RepresentativeAssumed OfficeRetired
THE DEPENDENCY PERIOD    
Lieutenant-Governor    
Captain William Hobson, R.N.30 Jan18403 May1841
THE CROWN COLONY    
Governor    
Captain William Hobson, R.N.3 May184110 Sep1842
Captain Robert FitzRoy, R.N.26 Dec184317 Nov1845
Captain George Grey18 Nov184531 Dec1847
Governor in Chief    
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.1 Jan18487 Mar1853
THE SELF-GOVERNING COLONY    
Governor of New Zealand 
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.7 Mar185331 Dec1853
Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.R. (later K.C.M.G.)6 Sep18552 Oct1861
Sir George Grey, K.C.B. (later P.C.)4 Dec18615 Feb1868
Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G. (later P.C.)5 Feb186819 Mar1873
The Rt. Hon. Sir James Fergusson, Bt., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., P.C. (later G.C.S.I.)14 Jun18733 Dec1874
The Rt. Hon. the Marquess of Normandy, K.C.M.G., P.C. (later G.C.B., G.C.M.G.)9 Jan187521 Feb1879
Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.C.M.G. (later Lord Rosemead, P.C.).17 Apr18798 Sep1880
The Hon. Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.C.M.G. (later Lord Stanmore)29 Nov188023 Jun1882
Lieutenant-General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B.20 Jan188322 Mar1889
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G.2 May188924 Feb1892
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G.7 Jun18926 Feb1897
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Ranfurly, G.C.M.G.10 Aug189719 Jun1904
The Rt. Hon. Lord Plunket, G.C.M.G., K.C.V.O. (later K.B.E.)20 Jun19048 Jun1910
The Rt. Hon. Lord Islington, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., P.C. (later G.B.E.)22 Jun19102 Dec1912
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O.19 Dec191227 Jun1917
Governor-General of New Zealand    
The Rt. Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., P.C.28 Jun19177 Jul1920
The Rt. Hon. Viscount (later Earl) Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O.27 Sep192026 Nov1924
General Sir Charles Fergusson, Bt., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., D.S.O., M.V.O. (later G.C.B.)13 Dec19248 Feb1930
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Bledisloe, G.C.M.G., K.B.E., P.C.19 Mar193015 Mar1935
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Galway, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E., P.C.12 Apr19353 Feb1941
Marshal of the Royal Air Force the Rt. Hon. Lord Newall, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.M.G., C.B.E., A.M.22 Feb194119 Apr1946
Lieutenant-General the Rt. Hon. Lord Freyberg, V.C., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., K.B.E., D.S.O.17 Jun194615 Aug1952
Lieutenant-General the Rt. Hon. Lord Norrie, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., C.B., D.S.O. M.C.2 Dec195225 Jul1957
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Cobham, G.C.M.G., T.D. (later K.G., G.C.V.O., P.C.)5 Sep195713 Sep1962
Brigadier Sir Bernard Edward Fergusson, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., D.S.O., O.B.E. (later Rt. Hon. Lord Ballantrae, K.T.)9 Nov196220 Oct1967
Sir Arthur Espie Porritt, Bt., G.C.M.G., C.G.V.O., C.B.E. (later Rt. Hon. Lord Porritt)1 Dec19676 Sep1972
Sir (Edward) Denis Blundell, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.B.E., Q.S.O.27 Sep19725 Oct1977
The Rt. Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.26 Oct1977  

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PRIME MINISTERS

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856

Name of MinistryName of Prime MinisterAssumed OfficeRetired
1. SewellHenry Sewell7 May185620 May1856
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May18562 Jun1856
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 Jun185612 Jul1861
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 Jul18616 Aug1862
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug186230 Oct1863
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.30 Oct186324 Nov1864
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov186416 Oct1865
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct186528 Jun1869
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 Jun186910 Sep1872
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sep187211 Oct1872
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse, M.L.C.11 Oct18723 Mar1873
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar18738 Apr1873
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 Apr18736 Jul1875
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 Jul187515 Feb1876
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb18761 Sep1876
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sep187613 Sep1876
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sep187613 Oct1877
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct18778 Oct1879
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct187921 Apr1882
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 Apr188225 Sep1883
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sep188316 Aug1884
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug188428 Aug1884
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug18843 Sep1884
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sep18848 Oct1887
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct188724 Jan1891
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan189127 Apr1893
27. SeddonRt. Hon. Richard John Seddon1 May189310 Jun1906
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 Jun19066 Aug1906
29. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bt., K.C.M.G.6 Aug190628 Mar1912
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar191210 Jul1912
31. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey10 Jul191212 Aug1915
32. Massey (National)Rt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey12 Aug191525 Aug1919
33. MasseyRt. Hon. William Ferguson Massey25 Aug191910 May1925
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C., M.L.C.14 May192530 May1925
35. CoatesRt. Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, M.C.30 May192510 Dec1928
36. WardRt. Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bt., G.C.M.G.10 Dec192828 May1930
37. ForbesRt. Hon. George William Forbes28 May193022 Sep1931
38. Forbes (Coalition)Rt. Hon. George William Forbes22 Sep19316 Dec1935
39. SavageRt. Hon. Michael Joseph Savage6 Dec19351 Apr1940
40. FraserRt. Hon. Peter Fraser, C.H.1 Apr194013 Dec1949
41. HollandRt. Hon. Sir Sidney George Holland, G.C.B., C.H.13 Dec194920 Sep1957
42. HolyoakeRt. Hon. Keith Jacka Holyoake20 Sep195712 Dec1957
43. NashRt. Hon. Walter Nash, C.H.12 Dec195712 Dec1960
44. HolyoakeRt. Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.12 Dec19607 Feb1972
45. MarshallRt. Hon. John Ross Marshall, C.H.7 Feb19728 Dec1972
46. KirkRt. Hon. Norman Eric Kirk8 Dec197231 Aug1974
47. RowlingRt. Hon. Wallace Edward Rowling6 Sep197412 Dec1975
48. MuldoonRt. Hon. Robert David Muldoon, C.H.12 Dec1975  

THE MINISTRY

(Prior to General Election in November 1978)

Rt. Hon. R. D. MULDOON, C.H., Prime Minister, Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Legislative Department, Minister in Charge of the Audit Department, Minister in Charge of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service.

Rt. Hon. B. E. TALBOYS, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Overseas Trade.

Hon. J. B. GORDON, Minister of Labour, Minister of State Services.

Hon. D. MacINTYRE, D.S.O., O.B.E., E.D., Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Maori Affairs, Minister in Charge of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation.

Hon. L. R. ADAMS-SCHNEIDER, Minister of Trade and Industry.

Hon. D. S. THOMSON, M.C., E.D., Minister of Justice.

Hon. G. F. GAIR, Minister of Energy, Minister of National Development, Minister of Regional Development.

Hon. L. W. GANDAR, Minister of Education. Minister of Science and Technology.

Air Commodore Hon. T. F. GILL, C.B.E., D.S.O., Minister of Health, Minister of Immigration.

Hon. C. A. McLACHLAN, Minister of Transport, Minister of Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services, Minister of Railways.

Hon. W. L. YOUNG, Minister of Works and Development.

Hon. E. S. F. HOLLAND, Minister of Housing, Minister in Charge of Public Trust Office.

Hon. A. McCREADY, Minister of Defence, Minister of Police, Minister in Charge of War Pensions, Minister in Charge of Rehabilitation.

Hon. H. J. WALKER, Minister of Social Welfare, Minister in Charge of the Government Life Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of State Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission.

Hon. D. A. HIGHET, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Local Government, Minister of Recreation and Sport, Minister of Civil Defence, Minister for the Arts.

Hon. P. I. WILKINSON, Attorney-General, Minister of Customs, Postmaster-General.

Hon. V. S. YOUNG, Minister of Lands, Minister of Forests, Minister for the Environment, Minister in Charge of the Valuation Department.

Hon. H. R. LAPWOOD, Minister of Tourism, Minister in Charge of Publicity, Minister in Charge of the Government Printing Office.

Hon. H. C. TEMPLETON, Minister of Statistics, Minister of Broadcasting, Associate Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Inland Revenue Department, Minister in Charge of Friendly Societies.

Hon. J. B. BOLGER, Minister of Fisheries, Associate Minister of Agriculture.

Parliamentary Under-Secretaries:

K. R. ALLEN, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to the Minister of Trade and Industry.

K. M. COMBER, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to the Minister of Internal Affairs, to Minister of Local Government, to Minister of Recreation and Sport, to Minister of Civil Defence, and to Minister for the Arts.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

(Prior to General Election in November 1978)

Prime Minister—Rt. Hon. R.D. Muldoon, C.H.

Leader of the Opposition—Rt. Hon. W. E. Rowling

Speaker—Hon. J. R. Harrison

Chairman of Committees—J. F. Luxton

Clerk of the House—C. P. Littlejohn, LL.M.

NameElectoral District

*Government member.

†Elected at by-election on 28 February 1976 following the death of the Hon. S. A. Whitehead.

‡Elected at by-election on 26 March 1977 following the resignation of the Hon. C. J. Moyle.

§Elected at by-election on 30 April 1977 following the resignation of the Rt. Hon. Sir Keith Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.

||Elected at by-election on 18 February 1978 following the death of the Hon. Sir Roy Jack, previous Speaker of the House.

For General Electorates 
Adams-Schneider, Hon. L. R.*Waikato
Allen, K. R.*Tauranga
Arthur, Hon. Sir Basil, Bt.Timaru
Austin, H. N.*Hobson
Austin, W. R.*Awarua
Bailey, R. L.Heretaunga
Barclay, B. G.Christchurch Central
Batchelor, Mrs M. D.Avon
Beetham, B.C.||Rangitikei
Bell, R. L.*Gisborne
Birch, W. F.*Franklin
Blanchfield, P.West Coast
Bolger, Hon. J. B.*King Country
Brill, B. E.*Kapiti
Christie, G.Napier
Colman, Hon. F. MacD.Petone
Comber, K. M.*Wellington Central
Connelly, Hon. M. A.Wigram
Cooper, W. E.*Otago Central
Couch, M. B.*Wairarapa
Courtney, M. F.Nelson
Dewe, Miss C. E.*Lyttelton
Douglas, Hon. R. O.Manukau
Downie, G. P. A.Pakuranga
Drayton, R. P. B.St. Albans
Elliott, J.G.*Whangarei
Elworthy, J. H.*Oamaru
Falloon, S. J.*§Pahiatua
Faulkner, Hon. A. J.Roskill
Fenton, W. R.*Hastings
Finlay, Hon. Dr A. M., Q.C.Henderson
Fraser, Hon. W. A.St. Kilda
Freer, Hon. W. W.Mount Albert
Friedlander, A. P. D.*New Plymouth
Gair, Hon. G. F.*North Shore
Gandar, Hon. L. W.*Ruahine
Gill, Hon. Air Commodore T. F., C.B.E., D.S.O.*East Coast Bays
Gordon, Hon. J. B.*Clutha
Harrison, J. R.*Hawke's Bay
Highet, Hon. D. A.*Remuera
Holland, Hon. E. S. F.*Riccarton
Hunt, J. L.New Lynn
Isbey, E. E.Grey Lynn
Jones, D. M. J.*Waitemata
Jones, N. P. H., Q.S.M.*Invercargill
Kirk, N. J.Sydenham
Lambert, B. S.*Warn Hutt
Lange, D. R. Mangere
Lapwood, Hon. H. R.*Rotorua
Latter, E. G., M.B.E., E.D.*Marlborough
La Varis, R. J.*Taupo
Lithgow, J. L.*Palmerston North
Luxton, J. F.*Piako
McCready, Hon. A.*Manawatu
MacDonell, B. P.Dunedin Central
MacIntyre, Hon. D., D.S.O., O.B.E., E.D.*Bay of Plenty
McLachlan, Hon. C. C. A.*Rakaia
McLay, J. K.*Birkenhead
Malcolm, A. G.*Eden
Marshall, C. R.Wanganui
Minogue, M. J.*Hamilton West
Muldoon, Rt. Hon. R. D., C.H.*Tamaki
O'Brien, J. G.Island Bay
Prebble, R. W.Auckland Central
Quigley, D. F.*Rangiora
Rogers, F. L.Onehunga
Rowling, Rt. Hon. W. E.Tasman
Schultz, L. C.*Coromandel
Shearer, Dr I. J.*Hamilton East
Talbot, R. L. G.*South Canterbury
Talboys, Rt. Hon. B. E.*Wallace
Templeton, Hon. H. C.*Karori
Thomson, Hon. D. S., M.C., E.D.*Stratford
Tizard, Hon. R. J.Otahuhu
Walker, Hon. H. J.*Papanui
Wall, Dr G. A.Porirua
Walls, R. F.*Dunedin North
Waring, Marilyn*Raglan
Wellington, M. L.*Manurewa
Wilkinson, Hon. P. I.*Rodney
Young, T. J.Hutt
Young, Hon. V. S.*Egmont
Young, Hon. W. L.*Miramar
For Maori Electorates 
Rata, Hon. M.Northern Maori
Reweti, P. B.Eastern Maori
Tirikatene-Sullivan, Hon. Mrs T. W. M.Southern Maori
Wetere, K. T.Western Maori

PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS

ParliamentPeriod of Session
Thirty-fourth10 June 1964–4 December 1964
27 May 1965–30 October 1965
26 May 1966–1 November 1966
Thirty-fifth26 April 1967–24 November 1967
26 June 1968–19 December 1968
15 May 1969–24 October 1969
Thirty-sixth12 March 1970–13 March 1970
1 April 1970–3 December 1970
25 February 1971–25 March 1971
9 June 1971–17 December 1971
8 June 1972–20 October 1972
Thirty-seventh15 February 1973–16 March 1973
5 June 1973–23 November 1973
4 February 1974–29 March 1974
28 May 1974–8 November 1974
25 March 1975–10 October 1975
Thirty-eighth23 June 1976–14 December 1976
28 February 1977–4 March 1977
19 May 1977–16 December 1977
11 May 1978

LEGISLATION 1977—During the Parliamentary session of 1977, 188 public Acts, 16 local Acts, and 2 private Acts were passed.

PUBLIC GENERAL ACTS OF NEW ZEALAND—The following list shows the departments responsible for the administration of the public Acts of general application in New Zealand which were in force at January 1978 or which had then been passed to come into force at a later date.

The list does not include references to Acts that are spent or expired or to amending Acts, Appropriation Acts, Finance Acts, or other Acts containing miscellaneous provisions, such as Statutes Amendment Acts, Local Legislation Acts, Reserves and Other Lands Disposal Acts, and Maori Purposes Acts.

ActDepartment
Accident Compensation Act 1972Labour
Accident Insurance Companies Act 1908Justice
Acts Interpretation Act 1924Justice
Administration Act 1969Justice
Admiralty Act 1973Transport
Adoption Act 1955Justice
Adult Education Act 1963Education
Age of Majority Act 1970Justice
Aged and Infirm Persons Protection Act 1912Justice
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Chemicals Act 1959Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Pests Destruction Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Workers Act 1977Labour
Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act 1934Agriculture and Fisheries
Agriculture (Emergency Regulations Confirmation) ActsAgriculture and Fisheries
Air Services Licensing Act 1951Transport
Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1977Labour
Airport Authorities Act 1966Transport
Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council Act 1976Justice
Alcoholics Act 1966Justice
Aliens Act 1948Justice
Animal Remedies Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals Protection Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Annual Holidays Act 1944Labour
Antarctica Act 1960Foreign Affairs
Antiquities Act 1975Internal Affairs
Anzac Day Act 1966Internal Affairs
Apiaries Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971Agriculture ands Fisheries
Apprentices Act 1948Labour
Arbitration Act 1908Justice
Arbitration Clauses (Protocol) and the Arbitration (Foreign Awards) Act 1933Justice
Architects Act 1963Internal Affairs
Archives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Armed Forces Canteens Act 1948Defence
Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971Defence
Arms Act 1958Police
Atomic Energy Act 1945Energy
Auckland Harbour Bridge Act 1950Works and Development
Auctioneers Act 1928Justice
Aviation Crimes Act 1972Transport
Bank of New Zealand Act 1971Treasury
Banking Act 1908Treasury
Beer Duty Act 1977Customs
Berryfruit Levy Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Bills of Exchange Act 1908Treasury
Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951Justice
Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950Transport
Broadcasting Act 1976Broadcasting Corporation
Building Performance Guarantee Corporation Act 1977Housing Corporation
Building Research Levy Act 1969Scientific and Industrial Research
Building Societies Act 1965Justice
Burial and Cremation Act 1964Health
Bush Workers Act 1945Labour
Bylaws Act 1910Internal Affairs
Card Tournaments Regulation Act 1933Internal Affairs
Carriage by Air Act 1967Transport
Carriage of Goods Act 1977Justice
Charitable Trusts Act 1957Justice
Chartered Associations (Protection of Names and Uniforms) Act 1930Internal Affairs
Chateau Companies Act 1977Justice
Chatham Islands County Council Empowering Act 1936Internal Affairs
Chattels Transfer Act 1924Justice
Cheques Act 1960Treasury
Children and Young Persons Act 1974Social Welfare
Children's Health Camps Act 1972Health
Chiropractors Act 1960Justice
Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Act 1956Works and Development
Cinematograph Films Act 1976Internal Affairs
Citizenship Act 1977Internal Affairs
Civil Aviation Act 1964Transport
Civil Defence Act 1962Internal Affairs
Civil List Act 1950Prime Minister
Clean Air Act 1972Health
Clerks of Works Act 1944Labour
Coal Mines Act 1925Energy
Commerce Act 1975Trade and Industry
Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908Internal Affairs
Commonwealth Countries Act 1977Foreign Affairs
Commonwealth Fabric Corporation Act 1962Treasury
Commonwealth Games Symbol Protection Act 1974Internal Affairs
Companies Act 1955Justice
Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act 1934–35Justice
Companies Special Investigations Act 1958Justice
Construction Act 1959Labour
Consular Privileges and Immunities Act 1971Foreign Affairs
Consumer Council Act 1966Trade and Industry
Consumer Information Act 1969Trade and Industry
Continental Shelf Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Contracts Enforcement Act 1956Justice
Contraception, Sterilisation, and Abortion Act 1977Justice
Contractual Mistakes Act 1977Justice
Contributory Negligence Act 1947Justice
Cook Islands Act 1915Foreign Affairs
Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964Foreign Affairs
Co-operative Companies Act 1956Justice
Co-operative Dairy Companies Act 1949Justice
Co-operative Freezing Companies Act 1960Justice
Copyright Act 1962Justice
Cornish Companies Management Act 1974Justice
Coroners Act 1951Justice
Costs in Criminal Cases Act 1967Justice
Counties Act 1956Internal Affairs
Counties Insurance Empowering Act 1941Internal Affairs
Courts Martial Appeals Act 1953Defence
Crimes Act 1961Justice
Criminal Justice Act 1954Justice
Crown Grants Act 1908Lands and Survey
Crown Proceedings Act 1950Justice
Customs Act 1966Customs
Customs Law Act 1908Customs
Dairy Board Act 1961Agriculture and Fisheries
Dairy Industry Act 1952Agriculture and Fisheries
Dangerous Goods Act 1974Internal Affairs
Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act 1952Justice
Decimal Currency Act 1964Treasury
Declaratory Judgments Act 1908Justice
Deeds Registration Act 1908Justice
Defamation Act 1954Justice
Defence Act 1971Defence
Demise of the Crown Act 1908Internal Affairs
Dental Act 1963Health
Department of Social Welfare Act 1971Social Welfare
Deputy Governor's Powers Act 1912Internal Affairs
Designs Act 1953Justice
Development Finance Corporation Act 1973Treasury
Dietitians Act 1950Health
Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities Act 1968Foreign Affairs
Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975Social Welfare
Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1950Labour
Disabled Soldiers' Civil Re-establishment Act 1930Social Welfare
Distillation Act 1971Customs
Distress and Replevin Act 1908Justice
District Courts Abolition Act 1925Justice
District Railways Act 1908Works and Development
Dogs Registration Act 1955Internal Affairs
Domestic Actions Act 1975Justice
Domestic Proceedings Act 1968Justice
Domicile Act 1976Justice
Door to Door Sales Act 1967Trade and Industry
Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944State Insurance Office
Economic Stabilisation Act 1948Trade and Industry
Education Act 1964Education
Education Lands Act 1949Education
Electoral Act 1956Justice
Electric Linemen Act 1959Energy
Electric Power Boards Act 1925Energy
Electrical Supply Authorities Association Act 1930Energy
Electricians Act 1952Energy
Electricity Act 1968Energy
Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953Social Welfare
Employment Agents Act 1908Labour
Enemy Property Act 1951Public Trust
Energy Resources Levy 1976Energy
Engineering Association Act 1961Works and Development
Engineers Registration Act 1924Works and Development
English Laws Act 1908Justice
Equal Pay Act 1972Labour
Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968Inland Revenue
Evidence Act 1908Justice
Exhibitions Act 1910Trade and Industry
Explosives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Export Guarantee Act 1964Treasury
Extradition Act 1965Justice
Factories Act 1946Labour
Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964Social Welfare
Family Protection Act 1955Justice
Farm Ownership Savings Act 1974Treasury
Fees and Travelling Allowances Act 1951Treasury
Fencing Act 1977Justice
Fertilisers Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Fire Services Act 1975Internal Affairs
Fisheries Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Fisheries (Agreement with Japan) Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Fishing Industry Board Act 1963Agriculture and Fisheries
Fishing Vessel Ownership Savings Act 1977Treasury
Food and Drug Act 1969Health
Foreign Affairs Act 1943Foreign Affairs
Foreign Travel Tax Act 1976Customs
Forest and Rural Fires Act 1977Forest Service
Forestry Encouragement Act 1962Forest Service
Forests Act 1949Forest Service
Franklin-Manukau Pest Destruction Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Friendly Societies Act 1909Treasury
Frustrated Contracts Act 1944Justice
Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 (U.K.)Justice
Gaming and Lotteries Act 1977Internal Affairs
Gaming Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Gas Industry Act 1958Energy
Gas Supply Act 1908Energy
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act 1948Customs
General Wage Orders Act 1969Labour
Geneva Conventions Act 1958Foreign Affairs
Geothermal Energy Act 1953Energy
Government Life Insurance Act 1953Government Life Insurance Office
Government Railways Act 1949Railways
Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960State Services Commission
Government Superannuation Fund Act 1956Treasury
Guardianship Act 1948Justice
Harbours Act 1950Transport
Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act 1967Lands and Survey
Health Act 1956Health
Higher Salaries Commission Act 1977Labour
Hire Purchase Act 1971Justice
Historic Places Act 1954Internal Affairs
Home Ownership Savings Act 1974Treasury
Hospitals Act 1957Health
Hotel Association of New Zealand Act 1969Justice
Housing Act 1955Housing Corporation
Housing Corporation Act 1974Housing Corporation
Hovercraft Act 1971Transport
Human Rights Commission Act 1977Justice
Human Tissues Act 1964Health
Hunter Gift for the Settlement of Discharged Soldiers Act 1921Lands and Survey
Hydatids Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Illegal Contracts Act 1970Justice
Immigration Act 1964Labour
Impounding Act 1955Internal Affairs
Imprisonment for Debt Limitation Act 1908Justice
Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910Public Trust
Income Tax Act 1976Inland Revenue
Incorporated Societies Act 1908Justice
Indecent Publications Act 1963Justice
Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Design Act 1966Trade and Industry
Industrial Relations Act 1973Labour
Industrial Societies Act 1908Justice
Industries Development Commission Act 1961Trade and Industry
Infants Act 1908Justice
Inferior Courts Procedure Act 1909Justice
Inland Revenue Department Act 1974Inland Revenue
Innkeepers Act 1962Justice
Insolvency Act 1967Justice
Insurance Companies' Deposits Act 1953Justice
Insurance Law Reform Act 1977Justice
International Air Services Licensing Act 1947Transport
International Energy Agreement Act 1976Energy
International Finance Agreements Act 1961Treasury
Invercargill Licensing Trust Act 1950Justice
Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959Energy
Joint Council for Local Authorities Services Act 1977Internal Affairs
Joint Family Homes Act 1964Justice
Judicature Act 1908Justice
Juries Act 1908Justice
Kapuni Petroleum Act 1970Energy
Kermadec Island Act 1887Foreign Affairs
Kitchener Memorial Scholarship Trust Act 1941Education
Labour Department Act 1954Labour
Lake Coleridge Water Power Act 1915Energy
Lake Waikaremoana Act 1971Maori Affairs
Lake Wanaka Preservation Act 1973Prime Minister
Land Act 1948Lands and Survey
Land Drainage Act 1908Internal Affairs
Land Purchase Act 1977Lands and Survey
Land Tax Act 1976Inland Revenue
Land Transfer Act 1952Justice
Land Transfer (Hawke's Bay) Act 1931Justice
Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948Justice
Law Practitioners Act 1955Justice
Law Reform Act 1936Justice
Law Reform Act 1944Justice
Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Act 1949Justice
Legal Aid Act 1969Justice
Legislative Council Abolition Act 1950Legislative
Legislature Act 1908Legislative
Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act 1908Internal Affairs
Licensing Act 1908Justice
Licensing Trusts Act 1949Justice
Life Insurance Act 1908Justice
Limitation Act 1950Justice
Lincoln College Act 1961Education
Litter Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963Internal Affairs
Local Authorities Loans Act 1956Treasury
Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970Internal Affairs
Local Elections and Polls Act 1976Internal Affairs
Local Government Act 1974Internal Affairs
Local Government Commission Act 1967Internal Affairs
Local Railways Act 1914Works and Development
Machinery Act 1950Labour
Magistrates' Courts Act 1947Justice
Manapouri - Te Anau Development Act 1963Works and Development
Maori Affairs Act 1953Maori Affairs
Maori Affairs Department Act 1968Maori Affairs
Maori Education Foundation Act 1961Education
Maori Housing Act 1935Maori Affairs
Maori Purposes Funds Act 1934–35Maori Affairs
Maori Reserved Land Act 1956Maori Affairs
Maori Soldiers Trust Act 1957Maori Affairs
Maori Trust Boards Act 1955Maori Affairs
Maori Trustee Act 1953Maori Affairs
Maori Vested Lands Administration Act 1954Maori Affairs
Maori Welfare Act 1962Maori Affairs
Margarine Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Marginal Lands Act 1950Lands and Survey
Marine and Power Engineers' Institute Industrial Disputes Act. 1974Labour
Marine Farming Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine Insurance Act 1908Justice
Marine Pollution Act 1974Transport
Marine Reserves Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marketing Act 1936Agriculture and Fisheries
Marriage Act 1955Justice
Married Women's Property Act 1952Justice
Massey University Act 1963Education
Master and Apprentice Act 1908Labour
Masterton Licensing Trust Act 1947Justice
Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968Health
Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963Justice
Matrimonial Property Act 1963Justice
Meat Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Control Act 1921–22Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Prices Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966Health
Medical Practitioners Act 1968Health
Medical Research Council Act 1950Health
Mental Health Act 1969Health
Mercantile Law Act 1908Justice
Merchandise Marks Act 1954Trade and Industry
Military Decorations and Distinctive Badges Act 1918Defence
Military Manoeuvres Act 1915Defence
Milk Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Minimum Wages Act 1945Labour
Mining Act 1971Energy
Mining Tenures Registration Act 1962Justice
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Ministry of Energy Act 1977Energy
Minister of Local Government Act 1972Internal Affairs
Ministry of Transport Act 1968Transport
Ministry of Works Act 1943Works and Development
Minors' Contracts Act 1969Justice
Misuse of Drugs Act 1975Health
Monetary and Economic Council Act 1961Treasury
Moneylenders Act 1908Justice
Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act 1936Treasury
Motor Spirits Distribution Act 1953Trade and Industry
Motor Spirits Duty Act 1961Customs
Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933Energy
Motor-Vehicle Dealers Act 1975Justice
Municipal Association Act 1939Internal Affairs
Municipal Corporations Act 1954Internal Affairs
Municipal Insurance Act 1960Internal Affairs
Music Teachers Registration Act 1928Education
Mutual Insurance Act 1955Public Trust
National Art Gallery, Museum, and War Memorial Act 1972Internal Affairs
National Expenditure Adjustment Act 1932Treasury
National Housing Commission Act 1972Housing Corporation
National Library Act 1965Education
National Parks Act 1952Lands and Survey
National Provident Fund Act 1950Treasury
National Research Advisory Council Act 1963State Services Commission
National Roads Act 1953Works and Development
National Savings Act 1940Treasury
Native Plants Protection Act 1934Lands and Survey
Nature Conservation Council Act 1962Lands and Survey
Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908Defence
New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement Act 1965Trade and Industry
New Zealand Bank Act 1861Treasury
New Zealand Boundaries Act 1863 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution (Amendment) Act 1947 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Amendment (Request and Consent) Act 1947Internal Affairs
New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1972Education
New Zealand Council of Law Reporting Act 1938Justice
New Zealand Counties Association Act 1949Internal Affairs
New Zealand Debt Conversion Act 1932–33Treasury
New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Act 1974Trade and Industry
New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946Lands and Survey
New Zealand Government Property Corporation Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Library Association Act 1939Education
New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
New Zealand National Airways Act 1945Transport
New Zealand Planning Act 1977Works and Development
New Zealand Ports Authority Act 1968Transport
New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969Justice
New Zealand Society of Accountants Act 1958Treasury
New Zealand Superannuation Act 1974Treasury
New Zealand Walkways Act 1975Lands and Survey
Newspapers and Printers Act 1955Justice
Ngarimu V.C. and 28th (Maori) Battalion Memorial Scholarship Fund Act 1945Education
Niue Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Niue Constitution Act 1974Foreign Affairs
Noxious Weeds Act 1950Agriculture and Fisheries
Nurses Act 1977Health
Oaths and Declarations Act 1957Justice
Occupational Therapy Act 1949Health
Occupiers Liability Act 1962Justice
Offenders Legal Aid Act 1954Justice
Official Appointments and Documents Act 1919Internal Affairs
Official Secrets Act 1951Justice
Ombudsmen Act 1975Legislative
Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Act 1976Health
Orchard Levy Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Overseas Investment Act 1973Treasury
Overseas Representatives Act 1942Foreign Affairs
Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation Act 1972Education
Partnership Act 1908Justice
Passport Act 1946Internal Affairs
Patents Act 1953Justice
Patriotic and Canteen Funds Act 1947Internal Affairs
Pawnbrokers Act 1908Justice
Payment of Jurors Act 1919Justice
Penal Institutions Act 1954Justice
Perpetuities Act 1964Justice
Petroleum Act 1937Energy
Pharmacy Act 1970Health
Phosphorus Matches Act 1910Labour
Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937Internal Affairs
Physiotherapy Act 1949Health
Plant Varieties Act 1973Agriculture and Fisheries
Plants Act 1970Agriculture and Fisheries
Plumbers, Gasfitters and Drainlayers Act 1976Health
Poisons Act 1960Health
Police Act 1958Police
Police Offences Act 1927Justice
Political Disabilities Removal Act 1960Labour
'Pork Industry Act 1974Agriculture and Fisheries
Post Office Act 1959Post Office
Potato Industry Act 1977Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Board Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Act: Regulations Confirmation Act 1957Agriculture and Fisheries
Private Investigators and Security Guards Act 1974Justice
Private Savings Banks Act 1964Treasury
Private Schools Conditional Integration Act 1975Education
Property Law Act 1952Justice
Property Speculation Tax Act 1973Inland Revenue
Protection of British Shipping Act 1936Transport
Protection of Depositors Act 1968Justice
Public Authorities (Party Wall) Empowering Act 1919Works and Development
Public Bodies' Contracts Act 1959Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Leases Act 1969Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Meetings Act 1961Internal Affairs
Public Contracts Act 1908Labour
Public Finance Act 1977Treasury
Public Holidays Act 1955Labour
Public Safety Conservation Act 1932Justice
Public Trust Office Act 1957Public Trust
Public Works Act 1928Works and Development
Quantity Surveyors Act 1968Works and Development
Quarries Act 1944Energy
Queen Elizabeth The Second Arts Council of New Zealand Act 1974Internal Affairs
Queen Elizabeth the Second National Trust Act 1977Lands and Survey
Queen Elizabeth The Second Postgraduate Fellowship of New Zealand Act 1963Education
Queen Elizabeth The Second Technicians Study Award Act 1970Education
Race Relations Act 1971Justice
Racing Act 1971Internal Affairs
Radiation Protection Act 1965Health
Rangitaiki Land Drainage Act 1956Internal Affairs
Rates Rebate Act 1973Internal Affairs
Rating Act 1967Internal Affairs
Real Estate Agents Act 1976Justice
Reciprocal Enforcement of Judgments Act 1934Justice
Recreation and Sport Act 1973Ministry of Recreation and Sport
Regulations Act 1936Justice
Rehabilitation Act 1941Social Welfare
Rent Appeal Act 1973Labour
Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964Reserve Bank
Reserves Act 1977Lands and Survey
River Boards Act 1908Internal Affairs
Road Users Charges Act 1977Transport
Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind Act 1963Education
Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Royal Powers Act 1953Foreign Affairs
Royal Society of New Zealand Act 1965Scientific and Industrial Research
Royal Titles Act 1974Foreign Affairs
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974Treasury
Rural Housing Act 1939Housing Corporation
Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927Housing Corporation
Safety of Children's Night Clothes Act 1977Trade and Industry
Sale of Goods Act 1908Justice
Sale of Liquor Act 1962Justice
Sales Tax Act 1974Customs
Sand Drift Act 1908Lands and Survey
Scientific and Industrial Research Act 1974Scientific and Industrial Research
Sea Carriage of Goods Act 1940Trade and Industry
Seal of New Zealand Act 1977Internal Affairs
Seamen's Union Funds Act 1971Labour
Secondhand Dealers Act 1963Justice
Secret Commissions Act 1910Justice
Securities Transfer Act 1977Justice
Securities Advertising Act 1977Justice
Services Export Development Grants Act 1973Trade and Industry
Sharebrokers Act 1908Justice
Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937Labour
Shearers Act 1962Labour
Shipping and Seamen Act 1952Transport
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973Transport
Shop Trading Hours Act 1977Labour
Shops and Offices Act 1955Labour
Shorthand Reporters Act 1908Justice
Simultaneous Deaths Act 1958Justice
Small Claims Tribunals Act 1976Justice
Social Security Act 1964Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1969Social Welfare
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941Works and Development
Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952Internal Affairs
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971Labour
Stamp and Cheque Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Standards Act 1965Trade and Industry
State Insurance Act 1963State Insurance Office
State Services Act 1962State Services Commission
State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977State Services Commission
Statistics Act 1975Statistics
Status of Children Act 1969Justice
Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Statutes Drafting and Compilation Act 1920Parliamentary Counsel Office
Statutory Land Charges Registration Act 1928Justice
Stock Foods Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Submarine Cables and Pipelines Protection Act 1966Transport
Summary Proceedings Act 1957Justice
Superannuation Schemes Act 1976Treasury
Surveyors Act 1966Lands and Survey
Swamp Drainage Act 1915Lands and Survey
Syndicates Act 1973Justice
Taranaki Harbours Act 1965Transport
Taranaki Scholarships Trust Board Act 1957Education
Tarawera Forest Act 1967Maori Affairs
Technicians Certification Act 1958Education
Technicians Training Act 1967Labour
Tenancy Act 1955Labour
Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act 1977Foreign Affairs
Testing Laboratory Registration Act 1972Scientific and Industrial Research
Timber Floating Act 1954Forest Service
Time Act 1974Internal Affairs
Tobacco-growing Industry Act 1974Trade and Industry
Tokelau Act 1948Foreign Affairs
Tourist and Health Resorts Control Act 1908Tourist and Publicity
Tourist and Publicity Department Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
Tourist Hotel Corporation Act 1974Tourist and Publicity
Town and Country Planning Act 1977Works and Development
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act 1933Customs
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Canada) Ratification Act 1932Customs
Trade and Industry Act 1956Trade and Industry
Trade Unions Act 1908Treasury
Trademarks Act 1953Justice
Trades Certification Act 1966Education
Trading Coupons Act 1931Trade and Industry
Tramways Act 1908Works and Development
Transport Act 1962Transport
Treaties of Peace (Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Finland) Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Peace (Japan) Act 1951Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975Maori Affairs
Trespass Act 1968Justice
Trustee Act 1956Justice
Trustee Companies Act 1967Justice
Trustee Companies Management Act 1975Justice
Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948Reserve Bank
Tuberculosis Act 1948Health
Turangi Township Act 1964Works and Development
Unclaimed Moneys Act 1971Treasury
Underground Water Act 1953Works and Development
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919Labour
Unit Titles Act 1972Justice
Unit Trusts Act 1960Justice
United Nations Act 1946Foreign Affairs
United Nations (Police) Act 1964Police
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration Act 1944Foreign Affairs
Universities Act 1961Education
University of Albany Act 1972Education
University of Auckland Act 1961Education
University of Canterbury Act 1961Education
University of Otago Ordinance 1869 and University of Otago Amendment Act 1961Education
University of Waikato Act 1963Education
Unsolicited Goods and Services Act 1975Justice
Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act 1945Works and Development
Valuation of Land Act 1951Valuation
Valuers Act 1948Valuation
Vegetables Levy Act 1957Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Services Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Surgeons Act 1956Agriculture and Fisheries
Victoria University of Wellington Act 1961Education
Visiting Forces Act 1939Foreign Affairs
Vocational Training Council Act 1968Education
Volunteers Employment Protection Act 1973Labour
Wages Protection Act 1964Labour
Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act 1939Labour
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivets Improvement Act 1910Works and Development
Waikato Valley Authority Act 1956Works and Development
Wairarapa Cadet Training Farm Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Waitangi Day Act 1976Internal Affairs
Waitangi Endowment Act 1932–33Forest Service
Waitangi National Trust Board Act 1932Lands and Survey
Wanganui Computer Centre Act 1976Justice
War Expenses Act 1939Treasury
War Funds Act 1915Internal Affairs
War Pensions Act 1954Social Welfare
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967Works and Development
Waterfront Industry Act 1953Labour
Weights and Measures Act 1925Labour
Western Samoa Act 1961Foreign Affairs
Westport Harbour Act 1920Transport
Whaling Industry Act 1935Agriculture and Fisheries
Wheat Board Act 1965Trade and Industry
Wheat Levy Act 1974Trade and Industry
Wild Animal Control Act 1977Forest Service
Wildlife Act 1953Internal Affairs
Wills Act 1837 (U.K.)Justice
Wine Makers Levy Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Act 1965Internal Affairs
Wool Industry Act 1977Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Labelling Act 1949Trade and Industry
Wool Testing Authority Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries

ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS—Administrative tribunals have gradually developed over a period of more than 50 years. As a rule they are set up by Act of Parliament or under powers conferred by statute. Their growth is related to the continuing expansion of governmental activity and responsibility for the general well-being of the community. This development is common to many countries. Useful references are The Citizen and Power: Administrative Tribunals—a survey by the Department of Justice, and the reports of the Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee, published annually.

Appeals from Administrative Tribunals—An Administrative Division of the Supreme Court was established by the Judicature Amendment Act 1968. The Division consists of up to four Judges of the Supreme Court, who are assigned to the Division by the Chief Justice. One of the most important functions of the Division is to determine appeals from such administrative tribunals as are specified by statute. It also hears and determines applications for judicial review and for prerogative writs and other classes of applications and proceedings referred to it by the Chief Justice or specified by statute. Judges who are at present assigned to the Division are the Chief Justice, the Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E.; the Hon. G. D. Speight; the Hon. J. C. White; and the Hon. D. W. McMullin.

JUDICIARY

Judges of the Court of Appeal and Supreme Court

Chief Justice: Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E.

Court of Appeal: Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E. (ex officio): Rt. Hon. Sir Clifford Richmond, K.B.E., President; Rt. Hon. Sir Owen Woodhouse; Rt. Hon. Sir Robin Cooke; Rt. Hon. I. L. M. Richardson.

Supreme Court: Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Davison, C.M.G., G.B.E.; Hon. Sir Clifford Perry; Hon. L. F. Moller; Hon. G. D. Speight; Hon. C. M. Roper; Hon. J. C. White; Hon. D. S. Beattie; Hon. J. P. Quilliam; Hon. D. W. McMullin; Hon. P. T. Mahon; Hon. J. B. O'Regan; Hon. M. F. Chilwell; Hon. M. E. Casey; Hon. E. J. Somers; Hon. J. A. Ongley; Hon. R. I. Barker; Hon. J. F. Jeffries; Hon. M. H. Vautier; Hon. J. W. Bain; Hon. J. B. Sinclair; Hon. J. R. Mills.

OMBUDSMEN

Since 1962 there has been an Ombudsman whose principal function has been to inquire into complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of Government departments and related organisations, including hospital and education boards. Jurisdiction was extended under the Ombudsmen Act 1975 to local authorities and certain national boards and organisations. Provision was made under the new Act for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and one or more other ombudsmen, who may be permanent or temporary. The original ombudsman was appointed Chief Ombudsman and two additional ombudsmen (one permanent and one temporary) were appointed. Complaints must be made in writing. Investigations are conducted in private but an ombudsman can decide not to investigate complaints where, for instance, the subject matter is trivial or the complainant has not a sufficient personal interest in the subject matter of the complaint.

An ombudsman is empowered to report his opinion, after such an investigation, to the organisation and to the Minister concerned, and if no action is taken he may report to Parliament. Nearly all complaints held to be justified are rectified by the department or organisation concerned. No complaints of actual malpractice have been found justified.

An analysis of the complaints made to the Ombudsmen and the resultant action both during the latest available year and during the entire period of the office is given in the following table.

Action on ComplaintYear Ended March 19771 October 1962 to 31 March 1977
Outside jurisdiction4884,430
Discontinued4112,227
Withdrawn1231,017
Investigated and considered justified3491,569
Investigated and considered not justified5134,478
Still under investigation463463
Total complaints2,09314,184

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND HOLDERS OF CHIEF ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS

DepartmentChief Administrative Positions
TitleName

* Retiring November 1978. To be succeeded by Major-General B. M. Poananga.

*General Manager of Housing Corporation acts also as permanent head of Rural Bank.

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry ofDirector-GeneralM. L. Cameron, B.AGR.SC.
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralA. C. Shailes, B.A., A.C.A.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralR. C. Savage, Q.C, LL.B.
CustomsComptrollerJ. A. M. Kean, ACCTS. PROF.
Defence, Ministry ofSecretaryJ. F. Robertson, A.C.A., D.P.A.
 Chief of Defence StaffAir Marshal R. B. Bolt, C.B., C.B.E., D.F.C., A.F.C.
 Chief of Air StaffAir Vice-Marshal C. L. Siegert, C.B.E., M.V.O., D.F.C., A.F.C.
 Chief of General StaffMajor-General R. D. P. Hassett, C.B.E.*
 Chief of Naval StaffRear-Admiral N. D. Anderson, C.B.E.
EducationDirector-GeneralW. L. Renwick, M.A.
Energy, Ministry ofSecretaryW. M. Duncan, B.E., M.I.C.E., M.A.S.C.E., M.N.Z.I.E.
Foreign Affairs, Ministry ofSecretaryF. H. Corner, M.A.
Government Life Insurance OfficeCommissionerL. L. Davis
Government Printing OfficeGovernment PrinterE. C. Keating, A.C.A.
HealthDirector-GeneralH. J. H. Hiddlestone, M.D., CH.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.A.C.P.
Housing CorporationGeneral ManagerE. J. Babe, B.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A., DIP.R.V.
Inland RevenueCommissionerT. M. Hunt, A.C.A.
Internal AffairsSecretary and Clerk of WritsJ.N.L. Searle, F.C.A., B.COM.
JusticeSecretary for JusticeG. S. Orr, B.A., LL.M.
LabourSecretary of LabourG. L. Jackson, A.C.A.
Lands and SurveyDirector-GeneralN. S. Coad, B.COM., D.P.A., ACCTS.PROF.
LegislativeClerk of House of RepresentativesC. P. Littlejohn, LL.M.
Maori AffairsSecretary and Maori TrusteeI. P. Puketapu, B.A.
New Zealand Forest ServiceDirector-GeneralG.M. O'Neill, B.SC. B.SC. FOR. (Edb.)
New Zealand Security Intelligence ServiceDirector of SecurityP. L. Molineaux, M.A., LL.B.
PoliceCommissionerR. J. Walton, O.B.E., E.D.
Post OfficeDirector-GeneralG. M. Peters
Prime Minister'sPermanent HeadB. V. J. Galvin, B.A., M.P.A.(HVD.)
Public Trust OfficePublic TrusteeN. C. Kelly, LL.M.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerT. M. Hayward, F.C.I.T.
Rural Banking and Finance Corp.* 
Scientific and Industrial ResearchDirector-GeneralE. I. Robertson, O.B.E., M.SC., PH.D., (LOND.), F.R.S.
Social WelfareDirector-GeneralS. J. Callahan, A.C.A., D.P.A.
State insurance OfficeGeneral ManagerN. R. Ainsworth, ACCTS. PROF.
State Services CommissionChairmanR. M. Williams, M.A., PH.D. (CANTAB.)
StatisticsGovernment StatisticianE. A. Harris, B.A., M.COM., A.C.A.
Tourist and PublicityGeneral ManagerM.S. Roberts, M.A.
Trade and IndustrySecretaryJ. W. H. Clark, B.A., ADMIN.PROF., D.P.A.
Transport, Ministry ofSecretaryA. J. Edwards, B.A. (Hon.), M.C.I.T.
TreasurySecretaryN. V. Lough, ACCTS. PROF., B.COM.
ValuationValuer-GeneralM. R. Mander, DIP.V.F.M., R.V.
Works and Development, Ministry ofCommissionerN. C. McLeod, B.E.

FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS THE STATE SERVICES

The State services comprise, in the widest sense, all servants of the Crown other than those holding political or judicial office. They include the 34 departments of the Public Service, and the Post Office, Railways Department, Legislative Department, Law Drafting Office, and other State organisations such as Government corporations and agencies, the Police, the armed forces, and the teaching and health services.

Under the State Services Conditions of Employment Act 1977, the State Services Coordinating Committee is constituted as the principal advisor to the Minister of State Services and the official negotiating body with service organisations on all personnel matters which in the opinion of the committee significantly affect more than one employing authority. The committee consists of the following or their representatives: Chairman of the State Services Commission; Secretary to the Treasury; Director-General of the Post Office; General Manager of Railways; Secretary of Defence; Director-General of Health; Director-General of Education. Other State service employing authorities may be co-opted as members of the committee from time to time.

Apart from proposals concerning salaries and related conditions of employment, the committee discusses more general personnel matters referred to it by the Government, individual employing authorities, and employee organisations, and tries to achieve a reasonable degree of inter-service uniformity.

Brief summaries of the functions of Government departments are now given.

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of—The main functions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries are to promote and encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, and fishing industries with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing their production.

Audit Department—The functions of the Audit Office are, briefly, the auditing of the financial transactions of (a) Government, (b) local authorities, and (c) most of the statutory corporations, marketing and other boards.

In the audit of Government departments a duty is owed to Parliament to ensure that its constitutional prerogatives in financial matters are observed. Thus it is necessary to ensure that revenues are raised under proper authority and that expenditure is both lawful and covered by the appropriation of Parliament. Other duties are concerned with the evaluation of economies and efficiency within organisations; that value for money is being received in public spending; and that programmes are being achieved with the most effective use of resources.

These duties call for a more detailed examination of the nature of and authority for transactions than would a normal commercial audit and are in addition to the ordinary examination of internal systems and control.

Crown Law Office—The primary function of the Crown Law Office is to act as the legal adviser of the Government and Ministers in matters affecting the Crown and Government departments. In addition the Solicitor-General performs most of the statutory and ex officio duties of the Attorney-General's office and is himself entrusted by statute with various specific rights, duties, and functions. In range and activity the legal work of the Crown Law Office corresponds with the activities of the Government itself, and just as those activities have extended in the past 30 years into commerce and social services, as well as the purely governmental sphere, so the scope of the Crown Law Office's legal work has widened accordingly.

Customs Department—A principal function is the collection of indirect taxation—Customs duty, excise duty, sales tax, beer duty, motor spirits duty, foreign travel tax and foreign fishing vessel entry tax. Advice is given to Government in matters of Tariff protection for local industry.

The department is also responsible for the prevention of smuggling and related offences, for the entry and clearance of ships and aircraft, and passenger processing.

Another principal function is the implementation of policy and procedural decisions in relation to import control. This involves the receipt of applications, issuing licences, exercising delegated authority, and ensuring that import licensing requirements are met at the point of importation.

Defence, Ministry of—Functions include the provision of the resources required to enable Defence Headquarters to undertake the central command, control, management, and administration of the defence forces and the Ministry of Defence, and also maintaining and operating the defence communications network.

Education, Department of—The primary objective of the department is to ensure that suitable educational facilities and services are readily available for all children of compulsory school age (from 6 to 15 years), for children who by choice start school at the age of 5 years, for the rapidly increasing number of pupils over the age of 15 who stay on at school, for suitably qualified school leavers who seek or are required to undertake education and training on leaving school in secondary schools, teachers colleges, or technical institutes, and for adults wishing to continue their education, whether for vocational or non-vocational purposes. Associated with this objective is the responsibility for administering Government policy in the maintenance and development of pre-school education.

In carrying out these objectives, the department's main activities are the provision of professional and administrative services for the support of the education system, the administration of primary and secondary education, special education, the training of teachers, technical and continuing education and the National Library.

Electricity Department, New Zealand*—The primary purpose of the New Zealand Electricity Department is to operate and maintain the bulk electricity supply system, to extend it so that the electricity needs of New Zealand are supplied safely, continuously, and economically, and to undertake measures to achieve greater economy and efficiency in the use of electricity as a means of reducing the future rate of growth of electricity requirements.

*Merged with Mines Department and Ministry of Energy Resources to form new Ministry of Energy.

Energy Resources, Ministry of*—The ministry promotes, co-ordinates, and undertakes economic and technical investigations and research into all aspects of the production, supply, distribution, and use of energy in all its forms, and into the total energy resources of New Zealand. It maintains a statistical and information service for the energy sector.

The ministry is responsible for co-ordinating the implementation of policies and also maintains liaison with all parts of the energy sector.

Foreign Affairs Ministry of—The ministry is responsible for the administration of foreign policy and the conduct of New Zealand's external relations generally, including relations with other countries and their representatives in New Zealand, and New Zealand's representation abroad.

The ministry's operating arm overseas is the network of 45 diplomatic posts, consisting of embassies, high commissions, consulates general, and other permanent missions, located in areas of direct and immediate concern to New Zealand. Attendance at international and regional conferences is undertaken both by staff attached to posts and by officials from the head office of the ministry in Wellington. The ministry also maintains liaison with the representatives of other countries accredited to New Zealand and encourages cultural exchanges and visits to New Zealand by overseas journalists, officials, and others.

On 1 April 1975 the ministry also became responsible for the Islands activities of the former Department of Maori and Island Affairs.

Forest Service, New Zealand—Management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards maintaining an exotic forest estate sufficiently large and diverse to meet future domestic timber and other forest produce needs and to provide for exports whilst also protecting, conserving, and, where possible, perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests of the country.

Development and management of a wood resource for new forest-based industries leads to continuing employment opportunities and other socio-economic benefits regionally.

Implementation of a multiple-use forest policy involves the establishment and maintenance of forests for wood production, soil and water conservation, scenery preservation, the provision of recreational areas, and biological reserves.

Government Life Insurance Office—The operations of the Government Life Insurance Office are essentially a single activity which is to provide full and progressive life insurance and superannuation facilities for the people of New Zealand.

The office is a mutual life insurance office operating in active competition with private offices.

Government Printing Office—The function of the department is to supply the requirements of printing, stationery, and allied services to Government departments. It follows that the volume of demand from client departments regulates to a large extent the development or expansion of the Printing Office.

Health, Department of—The principal functions of the Department of Health arc:

  1. To administer the Health Act 1956, the Hospitals Act 1957, the Mental Health Act 1969, Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, the Poisons Act 1960, and all other public Acts relating to the promotion or conservation of human health.

  2. To advise local authorities in matters relating to environmental health.

  3. To prevent, limit, and suppress communicable and other diseases.

  4. To promote or carry out research and investigation in public health fields and the prevention and treatment of disease.

  5. To publish reports, information, and advice concerning public health.

  6. To organise and control medical, dental, and nursing services, so far as such services are paid out of public moneys.

  7. Generally to take all such steps as may be desirable to secure the preparation, effective carrying out, and co-ordination of measures conducive to public health.

Housing Corporation—The Housing Corporation is the chief Government agency for providing finance for home ownership. It also provides home improvement loans, mortgage guarantees and refinance assistance.

Its other main function is the provision of publicly-owned housing. Activities include land acquisition and development, land sales, house construction, the management of its rental houses, sale of houses, loans and subsidy for pensioner accommodation, and urban development and redevelopment.

*Merged with Electricity Department and Mines Department to form new Ministry of Energy

The Corporation in its own right, or as agent, provides industrial loans and agency services including: administration of the Home Ownership Savings Act 1974; advances under the Family Benefit Capitalisation scheme; rehabilitation concessions to ex-servicemen; subsidies for hostel accommodation for young people; loans for hotel/motel accommodation, private schools, medical centres and home insulation; and loans and mortgage guarantees to provide tourist accommodation and facilities.

Inland Revenue Department—The main function of the Inland Revenue Department is to assess and collect various taxes and duties. The principal of these is income tax which is collected in part by PAYE deductions from salaries and wages, in part by the payment of provisional tax during the year of derivation of income, and in part by an end of the year assessment. Of the other revenues collected the most significant comprise stamp duty, estate and gift duties, land tax, and totalisator duty.

Internal Affairs, Department of—The department is primarily responsible for administering Government policies and legislation relating to local government, the development of cultural and recreational services, and the protection of indigenous wildlife.

The Local Government Division attends to formal constitutional matters relating to the summoning and prorogation of Parliament and administers policies and legislation relating to territorial local government, civil defence, dangerous goods and explosives, the New Zealand Fire Service, servicemen's cemeteries, the Chatham Islands, and the control of Lake Taupo. It also services the Local Government Commission schemes.

The Cultural Branch is responsible for administering Government policies and legislation and a number of funds and fellowships are also administered by this branch. The National Museum, National Art Gallery, the New Zealand Historic Places Trust, the National Archives, and the Film Censor are serviced by the department. The Historic Publications Branch is also part of the department.

The Ministry of Recreation and Sport administers Government policy on recreation and sport and services the New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport. The Youth Services Section within the Ministry has the function of encouraging and assisting local community participation in recreation and youth and co-ordinates the work of the Commonwealth Youth Programme within New Zealand.

The Wildlife Service, in addition to managing the wildlife resources of two major acclimatisation districts, is responsible nationally for the protection of New Zealand fauna. It administers legislation on freshwater fishing, game hunting, and the conservation of rare native birds.

The department also administers the legislation relating to horse racing, gaming and lotteries, New Zealand citizenship, passports and visas, and the registration of alien residents. It operates the translation service for Government departments and administers the cleaning of Government offices. Administrative matters relating to the office of the Governor-General and his staff are also the department's responsibility. Reception of guests of the Government, State functions, meeting the costs of internal and overseas travel by Ministers of the Crown and parliamentary delegations are other responsibilities.

Justice, Department of—The functions of the department may be classified broadly under the headings of penal policy and administration; law reform; the administration of justice; commercial affairs (including the administration of the Companies and Insolvency Acts); electoral; registration work including land titles, trade marks, patents, and births, deaths, and marriages; and social measures of a preventive nature. The Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, Legal Aid Act 1969, the Race Relations Act 1971, and the Summary Instalment Order provisions of the Insolvency Act 1967 have taken the department further into the broad area of social administration. The department is, through its Tribunals Division, responsible for the administration of the Sale of Liquor Act 1962, the Indecent Publications Act 1963, the Town and Country Planning Act 1953, together with other various tribunals.

Labour, Department of—The principal responsibilities of the Department of Labour are to promote and maintain full employment through the provision of a complete employment service, to ensure through the work of its field staff that workers are employed under safe and healthy working conditions, to promote good industrial relations, and to collect and publish relevant information. In addition, it administers a complex variety of statutes; among the most important are the Industrial Relations Act, the Factories and Construction Acts, and those dealing with weights and measures, apprenticeship, and immigration.

Lands and Survey, Department of—As the Government's major land administering agency, the department manages, controls, or is involved with the administration of about 10.3 million hectares of land which represents approximately 38 percent of New Zealand's land area. Some 5.8 million hectares of this area is Crown leasehold, 2.8 million hectares is national parks and reserves, 730,000 hectares is being developed for farming purposes while the balance falls into miscellaneous categories (mountain tops, vacant Crown land, lake and riverbeds, etc.).

The department is also the national survey and mapping organisation, thus providing economies and effective co-ordination of all activities. This work includes control surveys as the basis for cadastral surveys and basic topographic mapping, land title surveys, large scale topographical surveys for engineering and management purposes, land development servicing, fixing of marine and air navigation aids and aerodrome obstruction surveys, earth deformation studies, and land environmental planning.

Maori Affairs, Department of—The broad functions of the Department of Maori Affairs are to assist the Maori and Pacific Island peoples, particularly in social, economic, and cultural matters. For example, Maori land owners are assisted by the way of title reform and capital advances to make full use of their resources, and through its Social Services Division, the department gives encouragement in the fields of education, employment, housing, and health.

Mines Department*—The primary objective of the Mines Department is to encourage the active exploration, and the proper development and use of the country's resources of petroleum and minerals. Within this objective the department has two major activities:

  1. The administration of mining privileges, which includes prospecting rights; the regulation and inspection of mines and quarries to enforce acceptable operating and safety standards; and

  2. The provision of advice and financial assistance to foster prospecting and the development and operation of the mining industry.

The function of State coal mining is the production and marketing of coal from State-owned or leased coal resources.

Police Department—The role of the Police is:

  1. To prevent offences and to detect and apprehend offenders.

  2. To preserve peace and good order.

  3. To protect life and property.

The role of the police in protecting life and property, contrasted with law enforcement, is not governed by statute. Search and rescue features largely in this area of police responsibility, and most search and rescue operations are carried out by the police alone or with the aid of interested voluntary organisations.

Post Office—The Post Office is charged with the operation and development of postal and telecommunications systems, both internal and overseas; the Post Office Savings Bank; and with handling a wide range of payments and receipts for Government departments and other organisations.

Prime Minister's Department—Since December 1975 the Prime Minister's Department has been established as a separately administered department with its own permanent head.

General services provided by the department include servicing the Cabinet, its committees, and the Executive Council; advising the Prime Minister on policy matters as required; and providing a public information service on ministerial matters for the news media.

The External Intelligence Bureau centralises the intelligence functions in the general field of international affairs; it receives direction and policy guidance from the New Zealand Intelligence Council.

Public Trust Office—The Public Trustee provides a wide range of services as trustee, executor, manager, and attorney. He also acts as sinking fund or depreciation fund commissioner for many local authorities when so appointed, and additionally holds other funds on their behalf. He is required to provide a number of statutory services irrespective of whether these are remunerative.

Railways Department, New Zealand Government—The fundamental and continuing aim of New Zealand Railways is to take its part in the operation and development of the nation's transport services by means of a strong, successful, and efficient organisation consisting of rail, road, and inter-island sea services which will help to increase the wealth and well-being of the community.

*Merged with Ministry of Energy Resources and Electricity Department to form new Ministry of Energy.

The main objectives are:

  1. To provide services of the highest standard possible consistent with an overall requirement of economic and safe operation, within the constraints imposed by available labour, equipment, and investment capital.

  2. To trade as a business enterprise.

  3. To earn sufficient revenue to cover operating and renewal costs, to build up a contingency reserve, and to provide whatever proportion of development capital circumstances allow.

Rural Banking and Finance Corporation—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation was established on 1 April 1974 with the principal function of making loans and providing other assistance for farming and other primary industries and for related service industries.

Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of—The department has functions of providing background scientific research for economic development and environmental control in several major areas.

Agriculture—Agriculture is a priority area, it being the mainstay of the country's economy. Increasing emphasis is placed on (a) new crops, including those suitable for irrigated land and mechanical harvesting, to meet the demands of the rapidly expanding food processing industry; (b) the breeding of new and better varieties of pasture, particularly for hill country farming; (c) curing, drying, storage, processing, and packaging of agricultural products.

Manufacturing—Particular emphasis is given to improved industrial liaison and advisory services, electronic and electrical work, metal cutting and forming, industrial vibration and acoustic problems, and new product development.

Minerals—Continuing emphasis is given to prospecting for and testing the processing of local raw materials with a view to substantially increasing the "added value" component before export.

Energy—Aspects of prospecting for, and beneficiation, storage, and processing of energy resources are investigated. Advice is given on building and maintenance of energy-generating installations and on efficiency of use and conversion of energy in buildings and appliances. Processes for production of motor fuels from crops, coal, and wastes are tested, including economic aspects.

Alternative forms of energy, i.e., solar, wind, ocean, are investigated.

Natural Environment—Studies involve freshwater research and pollution problems, and botanical studies associated with major development proposals.

Other Scientific Services—There are increasing demands for scientific services from Department of Health (food and drug analysis), Ministry of Transport (blood alcohol analysis), and Police Department (forensic), and for work related to road safety.

Social Welfare, Department of—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are:

  1. To administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Children and Young Persons Act 1974; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; the Rehabilitation Act 1941; and the Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities.

  5. Maintain close liaison with and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among any organisations and individuals engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

State Insurance Office—The State Insurance Office transacts all classes of fire, accident, and marine insurance in New Zealand. Its function is to maintain a competitive insurance service.

It also administers the Export Guarantee Office, which provides credit insurance for exporters.

Statistics, Department of—The Department of Statistics has the following broad functions:

  1. To collect, compile, analyse, abstract, and publish economic, financial, production, and social statistics, and to make estimates, forecasts, projections, and statistical models;

  2. To advise and inform the Minister of Statistics on statistical policy matters;

  3. To define and promote standard concepts, procedures, definitions, and classifications;

  4. To examine all proposals by other departments for commencing or commissioning new statistical surveys, and to prepare submissions to the Minister of Statistics for his approval;

  5. To review periodically the collection, compilation, analyses, abstraction, and publication of all official statistics;

  6. To maintain liaison with international organisations or agencies requiring or making use of New Zealand statistics.

Tourist and, Publicity Department—The main functions of the Tourist and Publicity Department are to promote travel to, within, and beyond New Zealand; to develop domestic tourism and to stimulate off-season travel; to publicise New Zealand overseas in the national interests of tourism, trade, and prestige; to undertake research in the interests of tourist industry development; to administer schemes for financial assistance for the provision of accommodation and other tourist facilities; to operate and sell tours and provide a booking service to assist overseas travel agents; and to provide, within New Zealand, information and publicity services for Ministers and other departments and Government agencies.

Trade and Industry, Department of—The principal statutory functions of the department are to promote and encourage the improvement and development of industry and commerce and promote and encourage the export trade of New Zealand.

New dimensions to the department's role, however, have emerged recently from New Zealand's rapidly changing economy. The Government's general stabilisation policies have involved the department in the formulation and execution of broader economic matters than formerly, and the development of pricing policy is now inextricably linked with decisions taken in the area of wages and general incomes policy.

Industry's energy requirements and the drive to increase exports are other major areas of departmental activity resulting from a changing economic environment.

Transport, Ministry of—The ministry is responsible for providing Government with the information and advice necessary for the development of an efficient and economic transport policy.

The principal objective of Road Transport Division is to promote the safe and efficient movement of people and goods on the roads and streets of New Zealand.

The main objective of the Marine Division is to promote the safety of shipping in and beyond New Zealand waters, to ensure the safe handling of cargo at New Zealand ports, and the safe operation of boilers, pressure vessels, cranes, and lifts throughout New Zealand.

The main objective of the Civil Aviation Division is continuation of the existing high standards of civil aircraft operation. The ministry will continue its programme of providing improved facilities associated with the safe operation of aircraft particularly in regard to navigation aids, surveillance radars, aircraft and airport security, and general aviation supervision.

The Meteorological Service is responsible for the provision of information and advice to all sections of the community on the atmosphere, environment, weather, climatic conditions, and pollution of the air.

Treasury—The role of Treasury is:

  1. To control the receipt, custody, and payment of Government's finances as directed by statute and Government decisions.

  2. To keep Government informed on the existing external and internal economic situation, the effects of existing policy and trends and prospects for the future.

  3. To advise Government on the level and content of its expenditure and receipts, and assess the most effective allocations of limited resources among competing expenditure proposals.

  4. To advise on, and implement, various aspects of Government': financial and economic policies.

These general functions involve the financial, economic, and programme analysis and evaluation divisions of Treasury in the following particular tasks: the allocation of funds to departments; the investment of public funds; the raising, repayment, and conversion of loans; and the preparation of the Budget and the annual Estimates of Expenditure.

Valuation Department—The major activity of the department is the preparation of valuation rolls for all districts in New Zealand, to maintain these rolls up to date with changes in property holdings, ownership, occupancy, and development and to revise the values at not more than 5-yearly intervals.

Works and Development, Ministry of—In addition to the carrying out of Government works, the ministry has responsibility under the Minister's direction of executing projects and undertakings of national significance. Its objectives include investigation, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of these works, having due regard to standards and costs, and the best practical means whereby environmental conditions can be conserved, restored, or enhanced. In most cases, completed works are taken over for operation and maintenance by operating departments such as the New Zealand Electricity Department and New Zealand Railways.

Further roles of the department include the development of natural resources and the encouragement, investigation, and co-ordination of proposals for regional planning, as well as the task of assembling information on the building and construction industries, and the programming of national capital formation including Government works.

Specific statutes administered by the department include the Public Works Act (which inter alia, provides the Crown and local authorities with land acquisition powers), the Town and Country Planning Act, Geothermal Act, National Roads Act (the department services the National Roads Board), Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, Water and Soil Conservation Act (which involves the department in water allocation and quality control activities), and some local Acts.

Staff of State Services—The following table shows employment levels in the public sector.

OrganisationStaff Numbers at 31 March
19731974197519761977
Public Service69,70372,14776,79579,19978,894
Railways20,89920,93322,02621,65821,301
Post Office33,16534,65236,90338,90738,230
Education43,06642,99040.56641,62741,100
Hospital services38,91835,07343,94446,03237,956
Armed forces12,78912,63012,67012,42012,456
Police3,5603,7404,2864,3324,466
  Total222,100222,165237,190244,175234,403
Percentage of total labour force19.3718.7219.7020.0419.13

Sources: Departmental Reports; Ministerial Statements

In New Zealand, with its long tradition of Government activity in many spheres, the work of the State services covers a broad field. The Government decides when a new service is to be provided or a new function undertaken. Work loads increase as a result of population growth, but are offset to some extent by improvements in efficiency. Recent trends have been for more staff for research and resource development and expanded social services.

The relative cost of government as a percentage of gross national product is shown in the following table.

YearGovernment Current Expenditure on Goods and Services*Gross National ProductPercentage

*This figure is net of departmental receipts It also excludes the operating expenses of trading departments, expenditure of a capital nature, and transfer payments to either persons or local authorities such as social security benefits, pensions subsidies, and interest on the public debt paid in New Zealand

†Provisional.

 $(million)$(million) 
1972–73870.77,49811.6
1973–74999.98,682x11.5x
1974–751,215.99,45212.9
1975–76†1,475.310,914x13.5
1976–771,695.812,78613.3

STATE SERVICES COMMISSION—The State Services Act 1962 provides for a State Services Commission of up to four persons appointed by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.

In respect of departments of the Public Service, the Commission is responsible for—

  1. Reviewing the machinery of Government, including the allocation of functions to and between departments, the desirability of or need for the creation of new departments and the amalgamation or abolition of existing departments, the co-ordination of the activities of departments, and the extent and nature of controls exercised by any one department over the operations of another department;

  2. Reviewing the efficiency and economy of each department;

  3. The provision of suitable office accommodation and the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions of all employees in the Public Service;

  4. Approving and reviewing establishments of staff;

  5. Acting as the central personnel authority for the Public Service;

  6. Prescribing basic training programmes, furnishing advice on and assisting with the training of staff, and making recommendations to the Minister on the facilities necessary for the proper training of staff;

  7. Providing management consultation services, including advice as to efficient work and control methods and techniques, data processing equipment, and problems of organisation.

It has complete independence in dealing with individual employees of the Public Service, but is made responsible to a Minister in all other matters.

When directed by the Minister charged with the administration of the Act, at the request of the Minister responsible for another part of the State Services, e.g., the Post Office or the Railways Department, the Commission must associate itself with the head of that particular part of the service in an investigation of its organisation, methods, or procedures. The Commission must also, when requested by the head of or the Minister in Charge of any part of the State Services, provide management consultation services.

Computer Services—The Computer Services Division of the State Services Commission is responsible for the control, co-ordination, planning, and provision of electronic data processing services within the Public Service. The Divisions head office is at the Pipitea Computer Centre, Thorndon Quay, Wellington, and there are three other computer centres at Cumberland House, Willis Street; Trentham; and Wairere House, Bate Street, Wanganui.

An engineering and scientific computer centre in the Vogel Building, Wellington, is operated by the Ministry of Works and Development as agent for the State Services Commission.

A law enforcement data system to service the Police, Transport, and Justice Departments has been established at Wanganui.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE: Recruitment—The recruitment of public servants is conducted by the State Services Commission through its district representatives, and by departments in collaboration with the Commission. Details of career openings in the Service are regularly supplied to schools, and career leaflets are published.

Promotion—Promotion in the Public Service is based on merit. Although the Service has clearly defined salary scales and avenues of promotion, it also provides quick promotion with special salary increases to officers of outstanding merit. All vacancies above basic level are widely advertised so that all persons in the Service, and sometimes persons outside the Service, may apply for higher positions. Public servants have certain rights of appeal to the Public Service Appeal Board.

Classification and Grading—Since 1963 the Commission has prescribed occupational classes, according to the nature of the duties required to be performed. Each occupational class is graded according to relative levels of responsibility and skills required.

Remuneration—Salary rates are prescribed in accordance with the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969 and are related to the levels of remuneration of persons doing comparable work in employment outside the Public Service. Adequate margins are maintained for skill and responsibility.

Efficiency and Economy—In fulfilling its responsibility for reviewing efficiency and economy in the Public Service, the Commission, in collaboration with departments, makes full use of inspection of work and analysis of systems, standards and controls; new training methods and materials; modern technical processes and equipment; clearly defined systems of delegation of authority and of discipline.

Staff Training and Education—A comprehensive Service training and education policy is provided.

Statistics: Staff—The detailed distribution of staff among departments in the Public Service is shown in the Commission's annual report to Parliament (parliamentary paper G. 3). At 31 March 1977 there were 59,307 permanent officers and 1,735 temporary staff (excluding casuals) employed; a year earlier the comparable figures were 59,558 and 1,939 respectively. These figures do not include wage workers, who totalled 17,852 in 1977.

STATUTORY BOARDS AND COMMITTEES—The following is a list of the main statutory boards and committees grouped according to the Government department responsible for the administration of the legislation or the servicing of the boards. The order of departments is generally that followed in the Yearbook for coverage of the main subject matter.

Health, Department of

Advisory Committee on Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons.

Advisory Committee on Tuberculosis.

Clean Air Council.

Childrens Health Camps Board.

Dental Council.

Dental Technicians Board.

Dental Benefits Central Advisory Committee.

Epidemiology Advisory Committee.

Nursing Council of New Zealand

Medical Council of New Zealand.

Medical Research Council of New Zealand.

Board of Health.

Board of Health, Committee on Care of Aged.

Dietitians Board.

Plumbers and Gasfitters Board.

Maori and Polynesian Health Committee.

Maternity Services Committee.

Poisons Committee.

Food and Drug Advisory and Technical Committees.

Food Standards Committee.

Hospitals Advisory Council.

Radiological Advisory Council.

Drug Assessment Advisory Committee.

Medical Practitioners Disciplinary Committee.

Council of the Pharmaceutical Society.

Laboratory Service Advisory Committee.

Maternal Deaths Assessment Committee.

Maternity Benefits Negotiating Committee.

Medical Services Advisory Committee.

Medical Technologists Board.

Otological Services Advisory Committee.

Pharmaceutical Advisory Committee.

Pharmacology and Therapeutics Advisory Committee.

Pharmaceutical Benefits Negotiating Committee.

Radiological Services Advisory Committee.

Transfusion Advisory Committee.

Hospital Medical Officers Advisory Committee.

Central Committee on Training Orthopaedic Technicians.

Physiotherapy Board.

Occupational Therapy Board.

Chiropodists Board.

Ambulance Transport Advisory Board.

Opticians Board.

Noise Advisory Committee.

Committee on Drainage and Sanitary Plumbing.

Social Welfare Department War Pensions and Rehabilitation

War Pensions Board.

War Pensions Appeal Board.

War Pensions Medical Research Trust.

Rehabilitation Board.

N.Z. Artificial Limb Board.

Advisory Council for the Community Welfare of Disabled Persons.

Education, Department of

Maori Education Foundation.

N.Z. National Commission for UNESCO.

National Council for Adult Education.

National Library Board of Trustees.

Ngarimu V.C. Scholarship Fund Board.

N.Z. Council for Educational Research.

Royal N.Z. Foundation for the Blind (Board of Trustees).

Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation.

Primary Teachers Appointments Appeal Board.

School Certificate Examination Board.

Teachers Assessment and Classification Appeal Board.

Teachers Court of Appeal.

Teachers Disciplinary Board.

N.Z. Technicians Certification Authority.

N.Z. Trades Certification Board.

University Entrance Board.

University Grants Committee.

Vocational Training Council. (Joint appointments Ministers of Education and Labour.)

Justice, Department of

Accident Compensation Appeal Authority. Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council.

Borstal Parole Boards.

Prison Parole Board.

Town and Country Planning Appeal Boards.

Legal Aid Board.

Legal Aid Appeal Authority.

Co-operative Dairy Companies Tribunal.

Indecent Publications Tribunal.

Copyright Tribunal.

Crimes Compensation Tribunal.

Chiropractic Board.

Licensing Control Commission.

Licensing Committees (there are 22 of these committees).

Land Valuation Tribunals (there are 21 of these tribunals).

Motor Vehicle Salesmen Registration Boards.

Motor Vehicle Disputes Tribunals.

Hotel Investment Account Advisory Committee.

Law Reform Council.

Property Law and Equity Reform Committee.

Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee.

Representation Commission.

Small Claims Tribunals.

Contracts and Commercial Law Reform Committee.

Torts and General Law Reform Committee.

Criminal Law Reform Committee.

Company Law Advisory Committee.

Magistrates' Courts Rules Committee.

Real Estate Agents Licensing Board.

Release to Work Committee.

Rules Committee.

Ministry of Defence

Armed Forces Canteen Council.

Police Department

Police Staff Tribunal.

Transport, Ministry of

Air Services Licensing Appeal Authority.

Air Services Licensing Authority.

Marine Advisory Committees.

Marine Council.

Maritime Appeal Authority.

National Airways Corporation.

New Zealand Ports Authority.

New Zealand Urban Public Passenger Transport Council.

Regional Transport Licensing Authority (Auckland).

Road Traffic Safety Research Council.

Shipping Industry Tribunal.

Shipping Corporation of New Zealand.

Transport Advisory Council.

Transport Licensing Authorities (5).

Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Railways Department

Government Railways Appeal Board.

Government Railways Industrial Tribunal.

Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of

Building Research Association of N.Z. Inc.

Carter Observatory Board.

Cawthron Institute Trust Board.

N.Z. Coal Research Association Inc.

Commission for the Future.

N.Z. Dairy Research Institute.

Fruit Research Advisory Committee.

Hop Research Committee.

Logging Industry Research Association.

Meat Industry Research Institute of N.Z.

N.Z. Atomic Energy Committee.

N.Z. Concrete Research Association.

N.Z. Fertiliser Manufacturers Research Association.

N.Z. Leather and Shoe Research Association Inc.

N.Z. Pottery and Ceramics Research Association.

Potato Research Advisory Committee.

Research Institute of Textile Services.

Ross Dependency Research Committee.

Tobacco Research Advisory Committee.

Wheat Research Committee.

Wool Research Organisation of N.Z. Inc.

Testing Laboratory Registration Council.

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of

Agricultural Chemicals Board.

Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

Animal Remedies Board.

Apple and Pear Marketing Board.

Apple and Pear Prices Authority.

British Phosphate Commission.

Canterbury Raspberrv Marketing Committee.

Christmas Island Phosphate Commission.

Citrus Marketing Authority.

Dairy Cattle Breeding Committee.

Dairy Factory Managers' Registration Board.

Dairy Industry Loans Council.

Dairy Products Prices Authority.

Egg Marketing Authority.

Fisheries Licensing Authority.

Fishing Industry Board.

Fruit Distributors Ltd.

Honey Marketing Authority.

Hop Marketing Committee.

Kiwifruit Marketing Licensing Authority.

Marlborough Nassella Tussock Board.

Meat Export Prices Committee.

Meat Industry Authority.

Milk Prices Authority.

National Hydatids Council.

Nelson Raspberry Marketing Committee.

N.Z. Agricultural Engineering Institute Management Committee.

N.Z. Dairy Board.

N.Z. Meat Producers Board.

N.Z. Milk Board.

N.Z. Potato Board.

N.Z. Poultry Board.

N.Z. Wool Board.

N.Z. Wool Testing Authority.

North Canterbury Nassella Tussock Board.

Otago Raspberry Marketing Committee.

Plant Varieties Office.

Pork Industry Council.

Pork Marketing Board.

Raspberry Marketing Council.

Veterinary Services Council.

Veterinary Surgeons Board.

(Excludes advisory or technical committees appointed under section 13 of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953).

Works and Development, Ministry of

Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority.

Building Industry Advisory Council.

Christchurch–Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority.

Clerks of Works Registration Board.

Engineering Associates Registration Board.

National Roads Board.

National Water and Soil Conservation Authority.

Quantity Surveyors' Registration Board.

Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council.

Water Resources Council.

Lands and Survey, Department of

Land Settlement Board.

Marginal Lands Board.

National Parks Authority.

Maritime Parks Boards.

National Parks Boards.

Nature Conservation Council.

N.Z. Survey Board.

N.Z. Geographic Board.

N.Z. Walkway Commission.

Land Use Advisory Council.

National Land Inventory Committee.

N.Z. Forest Service

Forestry Development Council.

Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee.

Forest Disease Control Advisory Committee.

Forest Parks Advisory Committees (13).

Timber Preservation Authority.

Indigenous Forest Timber Advisory Committee.

Scientific Co-ordinating Committee for Beech Research.

South Island Beech Management and Utilisation Council.

Maori Affairs, Department of

Maori Land Board.

Maori Purposes Fund Board.

Licensed Interpreters Board of Examiners.

Valuation Department

Valuers Registration Board.

Housing Corporation of New Zealand

Housing Allocation Committees.

Ministry of Energy Resources

Offshore Mining Ltd.

N.Z. Gas Council.

N.Z. Electricity Department

Electricians Registration Board.

Electric Lineman Training Committee.

Rural Electrical Reticulation Council.

Committee on Electric Power Development.

Committee to Review Power Requirements.

Electrical Wiring Regulations Committee.

Trade and Industry, Department of

Advisory Committee on Heavy Engineering Industry.

Consumer Council.

Development Finance Corporation in relation to invention, development and industrial research and development.

Distribution Council.

Electronics Advisory Committee.

Emergency Protection Authority.

Industries Development Commission.

Manufacturing Development Council.

Metric Advisory Board.

Motor Spirits Licensing Authority.

N.Z. Industrial Design Council.

N.Z. Wheat Board.

Pacific Islands Industrial Development Committee.

Productivity Advisory Council.

Regional Development Councils (11).

Standards Association of N.Z.

Tobacco Board.

Overseas Trade

Export Guarantee Advisory Committee.

Trade Promotion Council.

Services Export Development Grant Advisory Committee.

Mines Department

Coal Mines Council.

Coal Mining Districts Welfare and Research Fund Council.

Natural Gas Corporation.

Treasury

Monetary and Economic Council

Dominion Salt Ltd.

N.Z. Woolpack and Textiles Ltd.

Local Authorities Loans Board.

National Provident Fund Board.

National Provident Fund Investments Committee.

Government Superannuation Board.

Taxation Board of Review.

Co-operative Pig Marketing Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.

Co-operative Milk Marketing Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.

Co-operative Dairy Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.

Snow Loss Reserve Committee.

Visiting Experts Advisory Committee.

Labour, Department of

Auckland Advisory Committee on Training and Employment.

Building Industry Technical Training Council.

Exempted Goods Committee under Shops and Offices Act.

Higher Salaries Commission.

Immigration Advisory Council.

Industrial Commission.

Industrial Conciliation Service.

Industrial Mediation Service.

National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women.

Public Service Appeal Board.

Rent Appeal Boards.

Shops and Offices Exemption Tribunal.

State Services Tribunal.

Research Fund Administration Committee for Society for Research on Women.

Vocational Training Council. (Appointments made by Minister of Education and Minister of Labour, acting jointly.)

Construction Advisory Committee.

Industrial Court.

Public Service Classification and Grading Committee.

Internal Affairs, Department of

Architects' Education and Registration Board.

Architects' Investigation Committee.

Fauna Protection Advisory Committee.

Historic Publications Advisory Committee.

N.Z. Historic Places Trust.

Old St. Paul's Advisory Committee.

Lottery Board of Control and Distributing Committees (4).

N.Z. Fire Service Commission

N.Z. Canteen Fund Board.

N.Z. Patriotic Fund Board.

N.Z. Litter Council

N.Z. Racing Authority.

Totalisation Agency Board.

Arts

ANZAC Fellowship Selection Committee.

Authors Fund Advisory Committee.

Cultural Facilities Advisory Committee.

Films Censorship Board of Review.

Films Licensing Authority.

Film Trade Board.

Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

National Art Gallery, Museum and War Memorial Board and Councils (4).

Art Galleries and Museums Fund Advisory Committee.

Norman Kirk Memorial Trust.

Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council.

Regional Arts Councils (3).

Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Board.

Civil Defence

National Civil Defence Committee.

National Civil Defence Plans Co-ordinating Committee (and 9 sub-committees).

Local Government

Interdepartmental Advisory Committee on the Chatham Islands.

Local Authority Finance Committee.

Local Government Commission.

Lake Taupo Basin Co-ordinating Committee.

Recreation and Sport

N.Z. Council for Recreation and Sport.

Mountain Safety Council.

N.Z. Water Safety Council.

State Services Commission

Classification and Grading Committee.

Education Service Committee.

Hospital Service Committee.

Government Service Tribunal.

National Research Advisory Council.

Public Service Appeal Board.

State Services Co-ordinating Committee.

Public Sector Tribunal.

Wanganui Computer Centre Policy Committee.

Wanganui Computer Centre Management Committee.

HONOURS

Since the preceding issue of the Yearbook the following honours have been conferred by Her Majesty the Queen for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:

Companion of The Queen's Service Order for Community Service (Q.S.O.):

June Daphne, Lady Blundell.

Companion of The Queen's Service Order for Public Services (Q.S.O.):

Sir Edward Denis Blundell, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.B.E.

Queens Gallantry Medal (Q.G.M.):

Keith Trevor Penniall; David Alexander Jethro Hadley.

Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct:

Constable Douglas Robert Smith; Constable Miles Hearn Paington.

Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air.

Russell Godfrey Gutschlag; John William Reid, M.B.E.

NEW YEAR HONOURS LIST 1978

CIVIL LIST

Knights Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.)

Harry Heaton Barker, C.B.E., J.P.; James Clendon Tau Henare, C.B.E., D.S.O.

Knights Bachelor:

Alan Thomas Gandell, C.G.E.; Thomas Wilfred Perry, C.M.G.

Companions of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St George (C.M.G.):

The Most Reverend Allen Howard Johnston; The Very Reverend John Spencer Somerville, M.C.

Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Sydney James Robert Chatten; Leverisk Joseph Kenneth Futter; Esmond Allen Gibson, O.B.E.; Stanislaus Francis Hoskins, J.P.; Emeritus Professor William Parker Morrell; John Lorraine Sullivan; Mrs Miraka Szaszy.

Officers of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Miss (Isoleen) Heather Begg (Mrs King); William Bryan, J.P.; The Reverend Canon Samuel Corney; Albert Roy Frethey; Mrs Alicia Doreen Grant, J.P.; Mrs Shiela Marie Horton; Anthony Frederick Hunter; Charles Frederick Jones; Mrs Joan Stewart MacCormick, M.B.E.; Dr Kingsley Edward Mortimer; Miss Nancy Northcroft; Leslie George Piper, J.P.; Bartholomew Sheehan; James Maxwell Somerville; Edward Bickmore Ellison Taylor; John Samuel Thorn; Herbert Lea Towers, M.B.E.

Companions of The Queen's Service Order for Community Service (Q.S.O.):

Mrs Florence Baber; Edward Browse Gilberd; The Reverend Malcolm Leadbetter.

Companions of The Queen's Service Order for Public Services (Q.S.O.):

Ivan Wilfred Apperley; Peter Norris George Blaxall; Lieutenant Colonel the Right Honourable Sir Martin Michael Charles Chartris, G.C.B., G.C.V.O., O.B.E.; Mrs Dorothy Rita Fraser, J.P.; John Graham Hamilton; Charles Pierrepont Hutchinson, M.B.E., Q.C.; Henry Charles Kennedy, J.P.; George Austin O'Leary, M.C., J.P.; Peter Roselli, J.P.; Geoffrey Fantham Sim; Ian Douglas Stevenson; George Ernest Tiller, J.P.; Evan Graham Turbott.

Members of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Ronald Morrison Barclay; Leonard Charles Barnes; Richard Fenton De Latour; Kenelm Hubert Digby; Ian James Drabble, J.P.; John Boys Drawbridge; Miss Laura Freda Elkins; Douglas Lauriston Fyfe; Peter David Hensman Godfrey; Henry Coleridge Hitchcock; James Edward Knowling; William Trevor Marton; Colin Quincey; The Reverend Canon Rimu Hamiora Rangiihu; Arthur Wellesley Vivian Reeve; William Sanders (Senior); Charles Kesteven Saxton; Leonard Basil Swan; Henry Charles Allan Wards; Squadron Leader Walter Sinclair Anthony Waterston; Henry Woodyear-Smith; Dr John Stuart Yeates.

Queen's Service Medal for Community Service (Q.S.M.):

Mrs Christine Cairns Balloch; Mrs Violet Blease; Mrs Eleanor Mary Burgess; Mrs Alice Maud Campbell; Mrs Jocelyn Ann Carlton; Frederick Charles John Chittock; Mrs Rosea Merle Crawford; Cyril Martin Croucher, J.P.; Colin Henry Gilmore Currach; Mrs Elsie May De Mey; Owen Cecil Finer; Mrs Ella Viola Fryer, J.P.; Mrs Violet Patricia Harris; Mrs Gwendoline Lattey; Miss Martha Iris McCurdy; Mrs Ivy Elizabeth McGreevy; Miss Violet Adela Marie MacMillan; Miss Winifred Nora Mardon; Mrs Myra Isobel Mathewson; Mrs Dulcie Jessie Forrest Menzies; The Reverend Father William Edward O'Donnell; Roland Joshua Papps; Mrs Te Whairangi Kumeroa Ngoi Pewhairangi, J.P.; William Frank Ponder; Mrs Elizabeth Colman Saunders; Mrs Emily Shirley; Ralph Simpson; Stuart Tichborne Campbell Sprott; Miss Iris Myrtle Terry; Murray Thacker; Mrs Lily Elsie Walker; Ronald Ernest Youngman.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

John Bell Brotherston; Dr Allan Lindsay Bryant; Robert Burt Cleland, J.P.; Eldred Ronald Comer; Arthur Rae Cox, J.P.; Ronald Donovan; Huia Gray Gilphin, J.P.; Peter Edward Graham; Oswald Bayly Hawken; Charles William Hawkins, J.P.; Thomas William Horgan; Miss Myrtle Jessie Kay; Gordon Robert Kear, J.P.; Hector Berkley Lawry, J.P.; Mrs Mary Catherine McNamara; Owen Stanely Priest; Ellesmere John Stalker; Harold Strode; Rovert Frew Watson Frederick Charles Yule, J.P.

Queen's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.F.S.M.):

Edwin Wallace Saunders; Sidney Raymond Hide; Leslie George Houston.

POLICE LIST

Member of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Peter Maxwell Gentry.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

Peter Forbes Orr.

Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.P.M.):

Anzac Thomas Paratene; Frederick Timothy Foley.

MILITARY LIST

Companion of the Military Division of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (C.B.):

Major General Ronald Douglas Patrick Hassett, C.B.E.

Commander of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.).

Brigadier Brian Matauru Poanganga, O.B.E.

Officers of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Commander Christopher Richard Vermeil; Lieutenant Colonel Evan John Torrance; Group Captain Stuart McIntyre, D.F.C.

Members of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Lieutenant Commander John Wilfred Jennings; Lieutenant Commander Kenneth Neil Cameron; Major Harry Roberts Burt; Major Anthony Leonard Birks; Major and Quartermaster Girvan Ross Hornbrook, B.E.M.; Warrant Officer Class I Graham Nash; Squadron Leader George Stephen Higgins; Squadron Leader Thomas Michael Strang.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C.):

Flight Lieutenant Nigel Albert Davey.

Associate of the Royal Red Cross Second Class (A.R.R.C.):

Lieutenant Colonel Lois Jones.

British Empire Medal, Military Division (B.E.M.):

Chief Engineering Mechanic Laurence Francis McGuire; Chief Radioman John Hamilton Bullock; Control Electrical Mechanician First Class John Ingram Johnson; Warrant Officer Class II Robert Anthony Cowan; Warrant Officer Class II Janice Marion Barlow; Staff Sergeant Ivan Graham Goile; Staff Sergeant (now Warrant Officer) Peter Charles Sheppard; Corporal Nannette Grant; Warrant Officer Richard Norman Marshall; Flight Sergeant Murray Gordon Blakemore; Flight Sergeant Raymond Murphy.

Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air:

Flight Lieutenant (now Temporary Squadron Leader) Gordon Lennox Wood; Flight Lieutenant Bruce Reid Ferguson.

SPECIAL HONOURS AND AWARDS

Knights Grand Cross of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (G.B.E.):

Rt. Hon. Sir (Herbert) Richard Churton Wild, K.C.M.G., E.D;

Rt. Hon. Sir Ronald Keith Davison, C.M.G.

Polar Medal:

Major James Richard Milton Barker, M.B.E., R.N.Z.I.R.;

Peter John Barrett;

Anthony Maurice Bromley;

Jack Edward Hoffman;

Malcolm Gordon Laird;

Alexander Thomas Wilson.

Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct:

Sapper Laurence Gerald Salmon; Sergeant John Halladay Smith.

QUEEN'S BIRTHDAY HONOURS LIST 1978

CIVIL LIST

Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George (K.C.M.G.):

The Honourable Donald Norman McKay.

Knight Commander of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.):

Hallam Walter Dowling, C.B.E.

Knights Bachelor:

William Glendinning Rodger, O.B.E., J.P.; James Albert Wicks, S.M.

Companions of the Most Distinguished Order of St. Michael and St. George (C.M.G.):

Frank Richardson Askin; Cyril John Keppel.

Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Alexander John Black; Dr Eric Mitchell Elder, O.B.E.; Walter Arnold Hadlee, O.B.E.; Donald Derek Merritt, M.B.E., J.P.; Robert Stuart Milne; Dr Lindsay Russell Wallace, F.R.S.N.Z.; David Graeme Whyte.

Officers of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Austin Graham Bagnall; Roger Fairbairn Ballantyne; Ralph John Ballinger, J.P.; Mrs Shirley Morris Bohm; Albert William Bryant; The Reverend Jim Bernard Chambers; Alexander Annis Corban; Edward Charles Stuart Falconer, J.P.; The Very Reverend Edward Frances Farr; Maxwell Rae Grierson; John Joseph Loftus; James Warwick Fraser Macky; Robert Patrick Magill, J.P.; Dennis Raoul Hillel Nathan; Eric Pearce, J.P.; Andrew Henri Phillips; Leonard Bingley Southward; Francis Gordon Trotman; Evan Wilfred Williams.

Companions of The Queens Service Order for Community Service (Q.S.O.):

Mrs Hera Katene Horvath; Cyril Stanley Jenkin; Albert Henry Marker, J.P.; Miss Gwenyth Pearson; Tupinia Te Para Burrows Puriri, J.P.; Miss Elsie Ward.

Companions of The Queen's Service Order for Public Services (Q.S.O.):

Eric Arthur Batson; Malcolm James Conway; Dr Allen Gordon Cumming; Mrs Catherine Hamilton Hunter; James Gilbert Laurenson, E.D., J.P.; Dr Francis Russell Miller; Anthony Charles Morcom-Green; Kuru Waaka.

Members of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Cyril Leslie Allen; Roy Francis Beadle, J.P.; Ivan James Berghan; Patrick Blanchfield, J.P., M.P.; Edwin Victor Calkin, J.P.; Robert Campbell, J.P.; Basil Frederick Ebbett; Iain Watson Gallaway; Ian Duncan Gilchrist; Miss Gladys Ivy Goffin; Arnold Fraser Grant; Dr Cyril Ashley Heaphy; Allen Francis Higgs; Henry James Hargest Horrell, E.D.; Mrs Gladys Lucy Hudson; Harold David London, J.P.; Mrs Kathleen Ellen Joyce McCann; Mrs Winifred MacDonald; Miss Meda-Therese McKenzie; Terence Power McLean; David Erskine Neave, J.P.; Miss Winifred Laura O'Halloran; William Gordon Parker, J.P.; Robert James Skelton; Bertram Oliver Stokes; Sony Henry White; Mrs Alma Woods.

Queen's Service Medal for Community Service (Q.S.M.):

Watti Pukauae Barclay, M.M.; Mrs Irene Ball; Mrs Gladys Mary Bestic; Mrs Ada May Butchers; Lindsay Raymond Harrison Clark; Mrs Mavis Elizabeth Clayton; Mrs Annie Doris Coward; Mrs Florence Mary Day; Miss Helen McLellan Dykes; Richard Meddings Evans; Miss Ela Hutchison; Alfred Charles Kennerley; Mrs Stella Rosalie Kilpatrick; Charles Edward King; Mrs Eleanor Francis King; Mrs Zillah Jean Liley, J.P.; Mrs Clarice Maud Lilly; Frederick Hubert McCluskey, J.P.; Kevin John Marlow J.P.; Keith Robert Mitchell; Mrs Maera Moke, J.P.; Douglas John Moore; Mrs Vera Kirihau Morgan; The Reverend Cyril Joseph Rutherford Price; Harold Ernest Rance; Miss Eva Gladys Richards, J.P.; Mrs Catherine Mary Rush; Mrs Mary Patricia Snaddon; Mrs Agnes Edsell Stafford; Charles Douglas Stewart; Mrs Bernice Joyce Thompson; James Leslie Woodhouse, J.P.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

Stanley Francis Body, J.P.; Miss Nancy Kathleen Campbell; Dr Cedric Claude Day; Norman Wong Doo; The Reverend Rex Charles Ratcliffe Goldsmith; Douglas Haig Goulden; Mrs Doris May Graham; Mrs Lillian Louisa Henshaw, J.P.; Norman Henry Lanham, J.P.; Rex Day Lovell-Smith; Dr Margaret Martin McDowall; Mrs Molly Felton Morrison, J.P.; Charles Alexander Pilgrim, J.P.; Mrs Marie Joan Plunket, J.P.; Mrs Rhoda Mary Read, J.P.; Adrian Claude Roberts; George Lionel Gordon Sharp, J.P.; Pehimana Tamati; Theo Wylie; Mrs Genevieve Mary Irene Young.

Queen's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.F.S.M.):

Thomas Richard Luckie; Alan Ewart Chapman; Noel Cecil Glen.

POLICE LIST

Member of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Patrick Stewart Revell.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.):

Andria Tolich.

Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.P.M.):

Robert Andrew Henderson.

MILITARY LIST

Commander of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Air Commodore Michael Frank McDonald Palmer, O.B.E.

Officers of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Captain Denis Hyland O'Donoghue; Colonel Peter Noel Leslie, E.D.; Group Captain John Dempster Waugh.

Members of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British' Empire (M.B.E.):

Lieutenant Commander John Trevor Herd; Lieutenant Donald Carpenter; Captain Paul Tekatene McAndrew; Warrant Officer Class 1 Ernest Mathew Dix; Warrant Officer Class 1 William David Anthony Hayward; Warrant Officer Class 2 Brian Michael Colbourne; Squadron Leader Robert Alexander Keown; Warrant Officer Henry Thomas Mitchell.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C.):

Squadron Leader John Willingham Hewson.

British Empire Medal, Military Division (B.E.M.):

Marine Engineering Mechanician First Class David Irving Llewellin; Chief Petty Officer Paul Ernest Cherry; Petty Officer Weapon Mechanic Leonard Arnold Charles Sears; Sergeant Michael Anthony Cunningham; Sergeant Peter Oliver Ramsay; Sergeant William John Price; Flight Sergeant John Charles Devescovi.

Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air:

Squadron Leader Arthur Ross Marbeck.

NEW ZEALAND'S REPRESENTATIVES OVERSEAS

Arab Republic of Egypt—Ambassador resident in Rome.

Australia—High Commission, Commonwealth Avenue, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600.

Consulate-General, 60 Park Street (corner Park and Elizabeth Streets), Sydney, N.S.W. 2000 (G.P.O. Box 365, Sydney, N.S.W. 2001).

Government Tourist Office, 115 Pitt Street, Sydney, N.S.W. 2000 (G.P.O. Box 614, Sydney N.S.W. 2001).

Consulate-General, 330 Collins Street, Melbourne, Vic. 3000 (G.P.O. Box 2136T, Melbourne, Vic. 3001).

Government Tourist Office, 93–95 Elizabeth Street, Melbourne, Vic. 3000 (G.P.O. Box 2136T, Melbourne, Vic. 3001).

Consulate, Watkins Place Building, 288 Edward Street, Brisbane, Qld. 4001 (G.P.O. Box 62).

Government Tourist Office, Watkins Place Building, 288 Edward Street, Brisbane, Qld. 4001 (G.P.O. Box 62).

Consulate, 5th Floor, St. George's Court, 16 St. George's Terrace, Perth, W.A. 6000 (G.P.O. Box X2227, Perth, W.A. 6001).

Austria—Embassy, Hollandstrasse 2/XII, A-1020 Vienna (Postal address: Postfach 1471, A-1011 Vienna).

Bahrain—Consulate-General (Postal address: P.O. Box 5881 Manama, Bahrain).

Bangladesh—High Commissioner resident in New Delhi.

Barbados—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Belgium—Embassy, Boulevard du Regent 47–48, 1000 Brussels.

Britain—High Commission, New Zealand House, Haymarket, London S.W. 1Y. 4TQ.

Brunei—High Commissioner resident in Kuala Lumpur

Burma—Ambassador resident in Kuala Lumpur.

Canada—High Commission, Commonwealth Building, 77 Metcalfe Street, Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5L6.

Consulate-General, Suite 2616, 2 Bloor East, Toronto, Ontario M4W 1A8.

Consulate, Suite 1160–701, West Georgia Street, I.B.M. Tower, Vancouver, B.C. (P.O. Box 10071), Pacific Centre, Vancouver, B.C. V7Y 1B6

Chile—Las Condes, Santiago (Postal address: Casilla 112, Correo Las Condes).

China, People's Republic of— Embassy, No. 1, Street No. 2 East Temple of the Sun, Chao Yang District, Peking.

Cook Islands—Office of the New Zealand Representative, P.O. Box 21, Rarotonga.

Czechoslovakia—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Denmark—Ambassador resident in Brussels.

European Communities—Ambassador resident in Brussels.

Fiji—High Commission, Ratu Sukuna House, corner of Victoria Parade and MacArthur Street (P.O. Box 1378), Suva.

Finland—Ambassador resident in Moscow.

France—Embassy, 7 ter, rue Leonard de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

Consulate-General, 4, Boulevard Vauban, Noumea, New Caledonia (Postal address: Boite Postale 2219).

New Zealand Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Limited, James Norman Hall Building, Rue du General de Gaulle, (P.O. Box 73), Papeete, Tahiti.

Germany, Federal Republic of—Embassy, Bonn Center, HI 902, Bundeskanzlerplatz, D-5300 Bonn. Government Tourist Office, Rathenauplatz 1A, D-6000 Frankfurt am Main.

Greece—Embassy, Leoforos Vasilissis Sophias 29, Athens T.T. 138.

Guyana—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Holy See—Ambassador resident in Paris.

Hong Kong—Commission, 3414 Connaught Centre, Connaught Road, (G.P.O. Box 2790), Hong Kong.

Hungary—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

India—High Commission, 39, Golf Links, New Delhi 110003.

Indonesia—Embassy, Jalan Diponegoro No. 41, Menteng, Jakarta. (Postal address: Kotak Pos. 2439 DKT).

Iran—Embassy, Avenue Nadershah, Afshin Street, No. 29, (P.O. Box 128), Tehran.

Iraq—Embassy, 2D/19, Zuwiya, Jadriyah, Baghdad (near Baghdad University), (P.O. Box 244-B).

Ireland—Ambassador resident in London.

Italy—Embassy, Via Zara, 28, Rome 00198.

Jamaica—High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Japan—Embassy, 20–40 Kamiyama-cho, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo 150.

Korea—Embassy, 2nd Floor, Publishers Association Building, No. 105–2, Sagan-dong, Chongroku (G.P.O. Box 1059), Seoul.

Laos—Ambassador resident in Bangkok.

Luxembourg—Ambassador resident in Brussels.

Malaysia—Embassy, 193 Jalan Pekeliling, (P.O. Box 2003), Kuala Lumpur.

Maldives Republic—Ambassador resident in Singapore.

Malta—High Commissioner resident in Rome.

Mexico—Ambassador resident in Washington.

Mongolian People's Republic—Ambassador resident in Moscow.

Nauru—High Commissioner resident in Suva.

Nepal—Ambassador resident in New Delhi.

Netherlands—Embassy, Lange Voorhout 18, The Hague 2005.

Niue—Office of the New Zealand Representative (P.O. Box 78), Niue.

Norway—Ambassador resident in the Hague.

O.E.C.D.—Mission, 7 ter, rue Leonard de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

Pakistan—Ambassador resident in Tehran.

Papua New Guinea—High Commission, 6th Floor, Australian Government Building, Waigani, Port Moresby (P.O. Box 1144, Boroko).

Peru—Embassy, Avenida Salaverry 3006, San Isidro (Postal address: Casilla 5587), Lima.

Philippines—Embassy, 10th Floor, Philippine Commercial and Industrial Bank Building, 6756 Ayala Avenue (P.O. Box 2208, Makati Commercial Centre), Makati, Rizai, Mania.

Poland—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Romania—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Saudi Arabia—Ambassador resident in Rome.

Singapore—High Commission, 13 Nassim Road, Singapore 10.

Spain—Ambassador resident in Paris.

Sri Lanka—High Commissioner resident in Singapore.

Sweden—Ambassador resident in The Hague.

Switzerland—Consulate-General, 28A chemin du Petit-Saconnex, CH-1209 Geneva (Postal address: Case Postale 84, CH-1211 Geneva 19).

Thailand— Embassy, Anglo-Thai Building, 64 Silom Road (P.O. Box 2719), Bangkok.

Tonga—High Commission, Tungi Arcade, Taufa' ahau Road, Nuku' alofa.

Trinidad and Tobago—High Commission, Furness Withy Building, 84–86 Independence Square (P.O. Box 823) Port of Spain.

United Nations—New Zealand Permanent Mission to the United Nations One U.N. Plaza, 25th Floor, New York, N.Y. 10017.

New Zealand Mission to the Office of the United Nations in Gevena, 28A chemin du Petit-Saconnex, CH-1209 Geneva. (Postal address: Case Postale 84, CH-1211 Geneva 19).

United States—Embassy, 19 Observatory Circle, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008.

Consulate-General, Suite 530, 630 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10020.

Consulate-General, Alcoa Building, Suite 970, 1 Maritime Plaza, San Francisco, Ca. 94111.

Consulate-General, Suite 1530, Tishman Building, 10960 Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles, Ca. 90024.

New Zealand Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Limited, Suite 1700, Waikiki Business Plaza, 2270 Kala Kaua Avenue, Waikiki, Ha. 96815.

New Zealand Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Limited Fagatoge, Pago Pago (P.O. Box 697).

U.S.S.R.—Embassy, 44 Ulitsa Vorovskovo, Moscow, 121069.

Vietnam, Socialist Republic of—Ambassador resident in Peking.

Western Samoa—High Commission, Beach Road (P.O. Box 208, Apia).

Yugoslavia—Ambassador resident in Rome.

NEW ZEALAND'S TRADE REPRESENTATIVES

There are official trade commissioners at the diplomatic missions in Athens, Baghdad, Bangkok, Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Hong Kong, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New York, Noumea, Ottawa, Paris, Peking, Perth, Port Moresby, Port of Spain, Rome, San Francisco, Santiago, Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, The Hague, Tokyo, Toronto, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington, at the addresses given above.

Fuller information and also details of official overseas trade representation in New Zealand are set out in the booklets New Zealand: Representatives Overseas and New Zealand: Diplomatic Corps and Consular and other Representatives published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Wellington.

DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR REPRESENTATION IN NEW ZEALAND

Argentina—Embassy of the Argentine Republic, 5th Floor, IBM Centre, The Terrace, Wellington.

Australia—Australian High Commission, ICI House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Consulate-General, Lorne Towers, Lorne Street, Auckland.

BNZ House, Cathedral Square, Christchurch.

Austria—Hon. Consulate-General, Wool House, 139 Featherston Street, Wellington.

Belgium—Embassy of Belgium, 1–3 Willeston Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 132 Tuam Street, Christchurch.

Brazil—Hon. Consul, 5 Elliott Street, Auckland.

Britain—British High Commission, Reserve Bank Building, 2 The Terrace, Wellington.

Consulate-General, Norwich Union Building, Queen Street, Auckland 1.

Hon. British Representative, 44B Glandovey Road, Fendalton, Christchurch.

Canada—Canadian High Commission, ICI House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Chile—Embassy of the Republic of Chile, Robert Jones House, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Air New Zealand House, Queen Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 415 Main Road South, Hornby, Christchurch.

China—Embassy of the People's Republic of China, 2–6 Glenmore Street, Wellington.

Costa Rica—Hon. Consul-General, 2–12 Parnell Road, Auckland.

Czechoslovakia—Embassy of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, 12 Anne Street, Wellington.

Denmark—Hon. Consul-General, Hon. Vice-Consul, Challenge House, 105–109 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul-General, Princes Court, Princes Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consul-General, Commercial Building, The Square, Palmerston North.

Hon. Consul, 100 Cumnor Terrace, Woolston, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, 12–20 St. Andrew Street, Dunedin.

Equador—Hon. Consul, General Buildings, Waring Taylor Street, Wellington.

Egypt, Arab Republic of—Embassy of the Arab Republic of Egypt, Dalmuir House, The Terrace, Wellington.

El Salvador—Hon. Consul, Gladstone Buildings, 5 Anzac Street, Takapuna, Auckland.

Fiji—High Commission, Robert Jones Building, Wellington.

Consul-General, Fiji Visitors Bureau, Canterbury Building, High Street, Auckland.

Finland—Hon. Consul, Commerce House, 126 Wakefield Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Enfield Street, Auckland 3.

Hon. Consul, 6–8 Kingsley Street, Sydenham, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul 11 Bond Street, Dunedin.

France—Embassy of France, 1–3 Willeston Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, corner of Princes Street and Eden Crescent, Auckland 1.

Hon. Consul, 904–908 Colombo Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, corner of French and Robert Streets, Dunedin.

Germany, West—Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany, Level 23, Williams City Centre, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Columbus House, 14–18 Customs Street East, Auckland 1.

Greece—Hon. Consul-General, 270 Wakefield Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Prudential Assurance Building, 9 Manakau Road, Epsom, Auckland.

Holy See—Apostolic Nunciature, 112 Queen's Drive, Lyall Bay, Wellington 3.

Indonesia—Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, 11 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington 1.

Ireland—Hon. Consul-General, Fletcher Office Building, Broderick Road, Johnsonville.

Hon. Consul, Dingwall Building, 87 Queen Street, Auckland.

Israel—Embassy of Israel, Level 13, Williams City Centre, Wellington.

Italy—Embassy of Italy, 38 Grant Road, Wellington.

Hon. Consular Agent, Victoria Arcade, Queen Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consular Agent, 68 Lichfield Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consular Agent, 353 Trafalgar Square, Nelson (vacant).

Hon. Consular Agent, 356 High Street, Dunedin (vacant).

Office of the Trade Representative for Italy, 95 Queen Street, Auckland.

Japan—Embassy of Japan, 18A Oriental Terrace, Wellington.

Consulate-General of Japan, Bank of New South Wales Building, 79–85 Queen Street Auckland.

Consular Office of Japan, 210 Oxford Terrace, Christchurch.

Korea—Embassy of the Republic of Korea, 12th Floor, Williams City Centre, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Rainger House, 150 Victoria Street West, Auckland.

Malaysia—High Commission for Malaysia, Chase-NBA House, 163–165 The Terrace, Wellington Hon. Consul (Malaysia), 14 Hazeldean Road, Christchurch.

Mexico—Hon. Consul, Tatra House, 96 Tory Street, Wellington.

Nauru—Hon. Consul, P.O. Box 9248, Newmarket, Auckland.

Netherlands—Royal Netherlands Embassy, Shell House, The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 83 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 161–163 Kilmore Street, Christchurch.

Norway—Hon. Consul-General, 38–42 Waring Taylor Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 13 Brighton Terrace, Mairangi Bay, Auckland 10.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 152 Manchester Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 365 Princes Street, Dunedin.

Papua New Guinea—Papua New Guinea High Commission, Construction House, 82 Kent Terrace, Wellington.

Peru—Hon. Consul, Hon. Vice-Consul, 79–83 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Philippines—Embassy of the Philippines, Level 30, Williams City Centre, Wellington.

Hon. Consul-General, care of Wilson and Horton Ltd., corner of Queen and Wyndham Streets, Auckland 1.

Poland—Embassy of the Polish People's Republic, 17 Upland Road, Wellington.

Portugal—Hon. Consul, P.O. Box 190, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, Challenge House, 105–109 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 352 Stuart Street, Dunedin.

Romania—Consulate-General, 100 Evans Bay Road, Wellington.

Singapore—High Commission, Kabul Street, Khandallah, Wellington.

South Africa—Consul-General, Federation House, 95–99 Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Sri Lanka—Hon. Trade Commissioner, Huddart Parker Building, Wellington.

Sweden—Royal Swedish Embassy, Aurora House, 48–64 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Church Street, Onehunga, Auckland 6.

Hon. Vice-Counsul, 154 Hereford Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 40 Jetty Street, Dunedin.

Hon. Vice-Consul, P.O. Box 901, Invercargill.

Switzerland—Embassy of Switzerland, Panama House, 22–24 Panama Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 48 Carr Road, Mount Roskill, Auckland.

Thailand— Royal Thai Embassy, 2 Burnell Avenue, Wellington.

Tonga—New Zealand Agents for the Government of Tonga, Beachcroft Avenue, Auckland 6.

Turkey—Hon. Consul-General, 228 Queen Street, Auckland.

U.S.A.—Embassy of the United States of America, 29 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington 1.

Consul-General, A.M.P. Building, Queen Street East, Auckland.

Consular Agent, 311 Manchester Street, Christchurch.

U.S.S.R.—Embassy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 57 Messines Road, Karori, Wellington.

Venezuela—Hon. Consul, Brooklyn Flats, Emily Place, Auckland.

Western Samoa—High Commission for Western Samoa, Europa House, Wellington.

Consulate-General, Caltex House, 7–9 Fanshawe Street, Auckland.

Yugoslavia—Embassy of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 24 Hatton Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, A.M.P. Building, corner of Queen and Victoria Streets, Auckland.

Countries with diplomatic representation in Canberra, Jakarta, and Tokyo with cross-accreditation to New Zealand are: Austria, Bangladesh, Brazil, Burma, Czechoslovakia (Jakarta), Denmark, Finland, German Democratic Republic, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Iraq (Jakarta), Ireland, Laos, Mexico, Mongolia (Tokyo), Nepal (Tokyo), Norway, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania (Tokyo), Spain, Sri Lanka.

Chapter 41. STATISTICAL SUMMARY

Table of Contents

LIST OF TABLES

 PAGE
Total Population and External Migration887
Vital Statistics888
Education889
Justice890
Summary of Price Movements (i)891
Summary of Price Movements (ii)892
Price and Wage Movements893
Labour Force, Unemployment, and Industrial Stoppages894
Postal and Telecommunications895
Government Railways896
Agriculture897
Livestock898
Agricultural and Pastoral Production899
Factory Production900
Coal Consumption901
Summary of Overseas Trade902
Exports of New Zealand Produce903
New Zealand's Official Overseas Reserves909
Revenue and Expenditure of Central Government910
Government Current Expenditure on Social Services911
Indebtedness of Central Government912
Finances of Local Authorities913
Post Office Savings Bank914
Mortgages and Land Transfers915
Bankruptcies and New Company Registrations916

NOTE: Throughout this section, years are December Years unless otherwise defined.

STATISTICAL SUMMARY

TOTAL POPULATION AND EXTERNAL MIGRATION

YearPopulationMean PopulationNatural IncreaseNet Migration*
At 31 MarchAt 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 March

*Excluding tourists on cruising liners, crews, and members of armed forces, etc.

†Does not include armed forces personnel overseas.

‡Provisional.

19271,438,1321,450,3561,420,8381,439,00416,67811,664
19281,455,8211,467,3701,443,5511,456,07516,078−1,235
19291,471,1101,486,1341,460,3631,473,41915,639711
19301,489,2031,506,8091,478,0271,493,01915,6772,385
19311,511,7001,522,7621,498,4161,514,21515,8055,109
19321,525,5451,534,7251,517,9401,527,06214,660−3,172
19331,538,0281,547,1241,530,1191,539,59014,342−2,595
19341,550,1251,558,3731,542,6511,551,53213,410−2,335
19351,560,9921,569,6891,554,2971,562,23313,486−3,150
19361,573,9271,584,6171,565,2631,575,23113,737−1,114
19371,587,2111,601,7581,578,7571,589,97214,681−353
19381,604,4791,618,3131,594,2751,606,76313,9712,386
19391,624,7141,641,6391,611,3621,628,51216,9394,963
19401,640,9011,633,6451,633,4471,637,30521,0706,028
19411,636,2301,631,2761,635,7151,630,94822,123714
19421,634,3381,636,4031,630,4191,639,57219,701209
19431,634,0941,642,0411,640,1911,635,63517,562541
19441,643,9001,676,2861,637,5701,655,79520,988107
19451,679,9721,727,8171,664,5851,694,64123,8481,018
19461,756,7561,781,2141,710,6801,759,52629,8042,343
19471,789,4761,817,4531,770,2911,798,26232,2563,038
19481,828,0251,853,8061,807,6111,834,65531,7775,756
19491,864,5601,892,0421,843,7671,871,74831,2634,181
19501,902,8831,927,6291,881,3171,909,09231,2477,880
19511,938,0321,970,5221,917,9341,947,52930,9707,522
19521,984,7302,024,5561,958,7291,996,14932,95015,664
19532,037,5532,074,7812,009,5062,048,82633,53422,032
19542,087,7402,118,4342,061,3762,094,91035,17915,441
19552,130,9272,164,7342,105,7672,138,94636,3717,030
19562,175,3732,209,1322,150,2902,182,83336,8358,092
19572,221,1692,262,8142,194,1082,232,59137,56311,492
19582,275,5152,315,9002,246,0932,285,85240,25515,408
19592,326,1292,359,7462,298,8142,334,61740,6709,992
19602,370,1662,403,5672,345,6022,377,01041,8873,213
19612,414,2962,461,2432,388,0042,426,65443,6081,620
19622,474,5882,515,8352,441,4002,484,87342,93318,832
19632,527,8682,566,9152,498,3572,536,91242,11113,639
19642,582,4072,616,9702,550,1142,589,15039,44115,484
19652,628,9002,663,8432,601,2192,635,35237,07111,991
19662,676,7782,711,3182,647,1962,682,60436,22512,02
19672,725,9142,744,9632,694,6802,727,65838,01514,45
19682,752,6622,772,9332,735,2072,753,51237,648−8,090
19692,777,2102,804,0592,760,0772,780,10138,199−10,848
19702,815,9872,852,1372,788,8392,819,60237,210−2,060
1971x2,861,0002,896,6002,831,2002,864,20040,1517,845
19722,906,7002,954,3002,875,5002,912,90038,41410,851
19732,967,1003,015,8002,927,7002,970,80035,41525,475
19743,030,6003,079,0002,986,400x3,031,80034,07533,167
19753,089,0003,127,9003,047,0003,086,90031,52529,141
1976x3,124,5003,148,200x3,097,500x3,116,20029,6485,192
1977x3,140,400x3,151,9003,120,700x3,127,70028,218−16,270
19783,145,800..3,128,800....−22,152

VITAL STATISTICS

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean PopulationDeaths Under 1 Year per 1,000 Live Births*Marriages
Live Births*DeathsDeaths Under 1 YearLive Births*DeathsNumberRate per 1,000 of Mean Population

*Figures from 1926 have been revised to exclude registrations under Section 24 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1925 and Section 16 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 (late registration).

192729,27812,6001,31620.358.7644.9510,7967.50
192828,93812,8601,16619.878.8340.2910,9197.50
192928,85913,2201,08619.598.9737.6311,4037.74
193028,82213,1451,11219.308.8038.5811,4947.70
193128,86713,0621,07719.068.6337.3110,2546.77
193227,53512,8751,03918.038.4337.7310,4926.87
193327,20412,8621,04317.678.3538.3411,0677.19
193427,22013,8101,06017.548.9038.9411,7887.60
193527,15013,6641,12817.388.7441.5512,7448.16
193628,39514,6581,16818.039.3141.1314,4489.17
193729,89615,2151,17818.809.5739.4014,9739.42
193830,84516,8741,53719.2010.5049.8315,9599.93
193932,87215,9331,37120.199.7841.7117,79110.92
194036,94515,8751,36222.569.7036.8718,08411.04
194139,17017,0471,56224.0210.4539.8813,8308.48
194237,81818,1171,38823.0711.0536.7012,7757.79
194334,68417,1221,35021.2110.4738.9212,0217.35
194438,03717,0491,47322.9710.3038.7313,6468.24
194541,53417,6861,44924.5110.4434.8916,6939.85
194647,52417,7201,52427.0110.0732.0721,09611.99
194749,69817,4421,48727.649.7029.9219,04710.59
194849,06217,2851,35026.749.4227.5217,7509.67
194948,84117,5781,46826.099.3930.0617,3549.27
195049,33118,0841,36425.849.4727.6517,0998.96
195149,80618,8361,37425.579.6727.5916,9158.69
195251,84618,8961,47525.979.4728.4517,0618.55
195351,88818,3541,33525.338.9625.7317,2248.41
195454,05518,8761,30225.809.0124.0917,5578.38
195555,59619,2251,36525.998.9924.5517,7958.32
195656,53119,6961,31325.909.0223.2317,5318.03
195758,42520,8621,42026.179.3424.3017,6147.89
195860,55620,3011,41626.498.8823.3818,3058.01
195961,79821,1281,47726.479.0523.9018,3157.84
196062,77920,8921,42026.418.722.6218,9097.96
196165,39021,7821,49026.958.9822.7919,4268.01
196265,01422,0811,33126.168.8920.4719,5727.88
196364,52722,4161,26925.448.8419.6719,8567.83
196462,30222,8611,19324.068.8319.1520,7208.00
196560,04722,9761,17422.798.7219.5521,7028.23
196660,00323,7781,06422.378.8617.7322,9498.55
196761,02223,0071,10222.378.4318.0623,5158.62
196862,11224,4641,16422.568.8818.7424,0578.74
196962,36024,1611,05722.438.6916.9524,9718.98
197062,05024,8401,04022.018.8116.7625,9539.20
197164,46024,3091,06622.518.4916.5427,1999.50
197263,21524,80198821.708.5115.6326,8689.22
197360,72725,31298520.448.5216.2226,2748.84
197459,33625,26192219.578.3315.5425,4128.38
197556,63925,11490418.358.1415.9624,5357.95
197655,10525,45776617.688.1713.9024,1547.75
197754,17925,96177017.328.3014.2122,5897.22

EDUCATION

Roll Numbers at Educational Institutions

At 1 July*PrimarySecondaryHigher
State SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsState SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsTechnical Institutes (Full-time Students)Teachers' CollegesUniversity Institutions (Including Extra-mural and Part-time Students)

*Figures earlier than 1928 are for December, trainees.

†Does not include kindergarten trainees.

‡Includes kindergarten

1927227,77727,35823,4742,932..1,2004,878
1928221,16926,39427,0843,506..1,1154,802
1929220,34726,55628,5133,877..1,1884,623
1930219,27426,61729,2844,513..1,1554,801
1931220,97626,44831,0534,602..1,1655,111
1932217,23626,39030,9444,512..9905,171
1933203,58926,09730,4734,315..4435,085
1934201,87026,58430,9154,430....5,059
1935200,13526,92331,6114,743..4295,101
1936213,49727,54031,8945,108..1,1855,218
1937212,07627,50732,1155,595..1,3465,238
1938209,96128,27134,3456,059..1,5225,707
1939208,64127,97235,6926,266..1,5885,979
1940208,43327,86835,2736,379..1,4575,528
1941208,59527,83633,2536,451..1,5035,065
1942208,72126,98332,3916,483..1,4634,373
1943206,88428,52134,8937,184..1,7755,953
1944207,29229,22340,7238,121..1,6787,267
1945211,74229,58344,2798,933..1,4318,425
1946218,12930,58144,9859,424..1,57511,361
1947229,80431,92945,2499,968..1,63411,874
1948235,24332,81845,1099,793..1,87511,964
1949244,37733,94146,51210,243..2,32111,598
1950254,66435,77548,23210,511..2,68411,515
1951265,23037,10950,68211,045..2,70410,956
1952282,69939,34254,12411,622..2,71010,691
1953298,48141,27759,55812,476..2,76910,831
1954311,54142,79766,34413,627..2,83410,803
1955320,58044,08672,11714,970..2,84710,851
1956332,04946,26175,35415,832..2,96311,077
1957344,95947,95378,84316,265..3,21811,761
1958356,22448,41882,69916,984..3,60212,881
1959365,76151,54989,50817,663..3,75314,388
1960371,82552,88799,36519,293713,83815,809
1961376,47554,079109,63220,7522213,81416,820
1962384,31355,293118,52322,2904414,22317,214
1963392,59556,341124,97823,6035324,53618,303
1964404,25757,154128,70924,4396204,69119,640
1965415,58257,244132,09425,0738574,79022,145
1966429,91656,050136,10425,5851,1635,02224,302
1967445,04554,910141,92226,2321,3555,15626,313
1968455,11953,782152,42227,0201,4856,09628,821
1969461,30552,407155,87327,9101,6616,91231,494
1970465,46050,904157,79728,4411,8827,58734,446
1971467,09751,009160,83929,2672,2367,79137,257
1972468,69250,859166,85129,8043,1188,08838,482
1973470,27350,711171,97830,2013,3787,81138,995
1974473,09950,574177,58231,0143,5617,61639,949
1975474,57850,745187,95031,8043,8407,21142,436
1976475,11349,899197,912x32,3794,5137,52146,207
1977473,62149,309199,73432,2814,9466,83447,706

JUSTICE

YearMagistrates' Courts*Supreme CourtPrisoners in Jail at End of Year (Undergoing Sentence)
Summary ConvictionsRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationPersons SentencedRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1,000 of Population as at 31 Dec

*Revised series. Excludes minor traffic offences as well as applications for prohibition, affiliation, maintenance and separation orders.

†Change in legislation resulting in more offences dealt with in Magistrates' Courts.

‡Provisional.

192726,11318.155690.401,4831.02
192824,50816.834780.331,4350.98
192925,18617.104730.321,3420.90
193025,19216.875380.361,5231.01
193123,25915.366000.401,6141.06
193223,23615.226360.421,5220.99
193320,35513.225310.341,4100.91
193419,65412.674900.321,1990.77
193519,67212.594720.301,1120.71
193621,45013.624620.299150.58
193723,56314.825070.327900.49
193823,76214.784880.307770.48
193924,77415.215710.358950.55
194025,67015.675470.338630.53
194124,52915.045420.339880.61
1942....4570.281,0340.63
1943....4940.301,0240.62
1944....5600.349450.56
1945....6190.379980.58
1946....6550.379920.56
194720,18711.227400.411,0880.60
194821,91011.947170.399860.53
194922,02111.766760.369410.50
195021,10211.056420.341,0430.54
195122,40911.506440.331,0400.53
195227,15113.607040.351,0830.54
195328,99414.151790.091,0880.52
195431,48815.031480.071,1960.57
195532,44415.161470.071,1180.52
195635,30216.172040.091,3620.62
195736,96916.551990.091,4740.66
195835,39315.482060.091,6420.72
195931,83713.362120.091,7140.73
196033,97014.292860.121,7770.75
196135,31814.552940.121,8180.75
196238,31215.412650.121,7070.69
196339,12815.423090.121,7650.69
196439,54915.242420.091,6890.65
196539,96515.163040.121,6530.63
196642,14915.702800.101,8980.71
196747,49117.403180.121,9830.73
196852,35119.013510.132,0230.73
196954,01019.423140.111,9670.71
197055,56019.703600.132,3650.84
197161,70121.544040.142,6360.91
197265,27422.42x4760.162,5310.86
197368,47723.06x479x0.162,5670.85
197472,76224.00x5450.182,4400.79
197582,65626.786690.222,7520.88
197691,67529.427100.232,8430.90
1977    2,8600.91

SUMMARYOF PRICE MOVEMENTS (i)

Base: December Quarter 1977. (= 100 for terms of trade. For all other indexes = 1000.)

YearImport PricesExport PricesTerms of TradeWholesale Prices
Pastoral and DairyAll ExportsImportedHome Produced*All Commodities

*Includes only home-produced items used by domestic industry and consumers.

192810816115614496128113
192910615415114295128113
193010512011811293123109
19319890919392108103
1932938282889110299
19339581828696100103
19349410210210895103103
1935939810010895111106
19369211311312395114108
193797134133137104123116
193898123123126105125118
193998120121123105133122
1940113140139123125137136
1941126143142113140144149
1942138147146106154151161
194315515315298170153172
1944160161160100175156177
1945163174173106178159180
194618219115384177162181
1947217239238110181173188
1948221269264119204191209
1949201261255127199194207
1950220370361164211221226
1951258435423164247257264
1952282348340121278279292
1953265388379143264295290
1954262394386147251309287
1955267405396148257309290
1956274395387141263326301
1957283390381135270324305
1958282330324115279331314
1959275379371135286335318
1960279367359129281338319
1961280346340121283336318
1962274352347127283334316
1963274389380139289340322
1964279426414148289357334
1965278409400144295368343
1966279406396142300374349
1967283368361128311380357
1968334394389116348399382
1969347419412119364420401
1970369420414112387445426
1971390462449115416478458
1972406557540133444512489
1973428739693162471592551
1974543701681125556618596
197571564967594701662675
1976881874884100849813826
197797410131007103966957960

SUMMARYOF PRICE MOVEMENTS (ii)

Base: December Quarter 1977 (=1000)

YearImport Prices (All Groups)Export Prices (All Groups)Wholesale PricesConsumers PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
ImportedHome ProducedAll CommoditiesFoodAll Groups

*Provisional.

†Entire series revised.

Year Ended 31 March
1930....102..117127138..
1935....9510510399112..
1940....108135124133137273
1945....176156177144159361
1950....200197209179185420
1955262390252311288277256490
1960276379285336319303299657
1962279336283336318311308736
1963273355284333317312315768
1964275396290343325322322887
1965279409290361336341335996
1966279397297370345348345946
1967279388301375350357356874
1968295361319384362381378805
19693373963544043873953951044
19703504123684254064134131234
19713734183944544344474461189
19723934724244684654824901078
19734125834495295025055211232
19744397074836065655735701373
19755866625886166076286371051
19767607237436927097147371059
19779129328798558638438551109
1978*9801005......9769801023
Year Ended 30 June
1930..130102..117125137..
1935..9495107104100113..
1940..137113136128134139276
1945..170177157179144160364
1950211292203202213183187432
1955263385254311289279257499
1960279379283338319303299706
1962279338283335317312311733
1963273363286334318314317785
1964276410289348328326325917
19652774022923643393443381004
1966279400297372346351348929
1967279379305377353364361852
1968307367328387367383381831
19693424063574093924004001111
19703564153724314114194191249
19713804274024624424564581151
19723974954304944724894991087
19734166304545485165185311303
19744687055036145775885831326
19756196456226246236426601018
19768157927847307487467671059
19779309699098938988388831097
1978*..........100410081044

PRICE AND WAGE MOVEMENTS

Bases: December Quarter 1977 for CPI and Share prices (= 1000); 31 December 1974 for wage rates (= 1000).

YearConsumers* PricesShare Prices (All Groups)Weekly Wage Rates (Adult Males)
FoodAll GroupsNominalEffective*

*Index numbers of effective or "real" wage rates are obtained by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices and multiplying by 1000. See Wages section of this Yearbook.

1928125138312121568
1929127138327121568
1930122135283121582
1931106125228112583
193297115216103579
19339110925299586
193497111295100585
1935104115312102573
1936109119297113617
1937119127300123628
1938124131281129639
1939131136268131624
1940134142281135614
1941138148281139610
1942141152284145617
1943142156330150622
1944144159359152620
1945144161378164661
1946144162418171684
1947153167441177686
1948173181427189677
1949177184412200707
1950195194463213712
1951224216505243730
1952247232417255712
1953262243416272725
1954275254479293747
1955282260508303754
1956298269524309743
1957297275572323706
1958302287540327738
1959303298612333724
1960308300782349754
1961311306755355752
1962312314751364752
1963318320849373755
1964337331977385753
1965346343971408771
1966353352899420773
1967378373804442767
1968390389961459764
19694094091202485769
19704364351233548815
19714754811076672906
19724985141170734926
19735545561381819955
19746186181123932978
197568370810361059969
197681082811261184926
197794894710261338916

LABOUR FORCE, UNEMPLOYMENT, AND INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES

YearTotal Labour Force*Registered Unemployed, Monthly AverageIndustrial Stoppages
MalesFemalesTotalNumberTotal Duration (Days)Workers InvolvedWorking Days Lost

*Estimated labour force as at 15 April of each year. The Department of Labour publishes estimates as at 15 April and 15 October of each year. April estimates are frequently a little higher than those for the following October because of seasonal employment.

†The National Employment Service was established as from 1 April 1946 under the Employment Act 1945. Prior to 1942 a State Placement Service had operated a system of local labour exchanges. From 1942 to the end of March 1946 this was merged in the Industrial Manpower Division of the National Service Department.

 (000)(000)(000)   (000)(000)
1947540.1167.6707.79213483427.0102.7
1948544.6170.3714.96710160828.593.5
1949550.8172.5723.39212367261.5218.2
1950559.2176.7735.93812956791.5271.5
1951560.4180.3740.7381093,46436.91,157.4
1952572.2182.4754.6475010816.328.1
1953588.1178.6766.7857314522.219.3
1954601.8185.2787.0586113616.220.5
1955609.2191.1800.3566521120.252.0
1956619.5194.4813.92595039013.623.9
1957629.6200.3829.93945116515.528.2
1958641.7206.2847.97854915213.718.8
1959651.3210.5861.81,1887322918.829.7
1960660.6215.0875.66336034414.335.7
1961670.5224.8895.33767135316.638.2
1962680.9230.7911.61,0409649839.993.2
1963693.7236.2929.98496036614.954.5
1964709.8248.1957.96509333334.866.8
1965728.9262.5991.451310528715.321.8
1966745.6280.41,026.046314546233.199.1
1967759.4293,11,052.53,8528934728.5139.5
1968756.2287.21,043.46,88115362237.5130.3
1969764.7296.51,061.22,92616968344.0138.7
1970779.2311.51,090.71,6003231,394110.1277.3
1971789.8322.21,112.03,1153131,38986.0162.6
1972796.9326.01,122.95,6842661,25760.4134.5
1973814.7335.51,150.22,3213941,892115.9271.7
1974834.2357.11,191.39553801,52070.9183.7
1975843.2364.51,207.74,1664281,82974.8214.6
1976849.5372.51,222.05,3564871,986201.1488.4
1977841.7388.41,230.17,3855622,174159.4436.8

POSTAL AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Year Ended 31 MarchMail Posted*TelephonesTollsTelegramsMoney Orders and Postal Notes*RevenueExpenditure

*Calendar year until 1945.

†Installed as at 31 March. At 31 March 1978 there were 1,089,950 subscribers.

 million(000)millionmillionmillion$(m)$(m)
1928259144.69.76.24.4....
1929266152.510.76.34.76.86.8
1930271161.311.46.04.77.37.2
1931233161.710.75.53.67.47.4
1932218160.89.53.93.37.56.7
1933231155.69.03.43.56.66.5
1934243155.19.13.54.06.46.4
1935263159.19.93.44.56.66.6
1936267166.611.43.84.67.17.1
1937274178.613.14.34.57.87.7
1938304192.014.54.64.78.58.5
1939296206.215.64.94.39.19.1
1940266217.915.74.53.49.79.2
1941262228.316.14.23.210.19.6
1942..235.416.94.53.110.510.0
1943..238.417.65.73.011.210.4
1944..244.818.16.33.011.810.3
1945237256.719.56.53.012.611.8
1946..265.821.07.3..13.312.7
1947294282.322.77.13.316.414.3
1948301300.623.96.73.417.116.4
1949319322.825.36.73.418.018.0
1950343348.527.16.93.418.118.4
1951358370.027.26.93.321.821.2
1952347394.628.37.03.424.624.8
1953358425.229.37.03.426.626.7
1954359456.331.17.03.431.731.0
1955386496.334.07.33.534.734.0
1956408534.536.57.63.737.136.7
1957412568.338.87.53.640.039.9
1958439605.241.97.53.544.244.1
1959446641.343.97.23.645.345.2
1960464686.047.57.33.848.548.4
1961495744.851.77.54.153.353.2
1962507801.955.57.24.460.160.0
1963526850.658.27.14.264.964.8
1964534902.061.07.24.470.270.1
1965551962.664.47.24.677.876.6
19665731,025.167.67.34.787.084.9
19675761,085.169.17.24.991.593.6
19685681,119.467.76.14.8106.6100.8
19695751,155.568.35.94.9112.8106.6
19705951,202.667.05.74.9119.5117.1
19716151,262.467.95.55.5129.8143.5
19726221,304.764.85.15.4169.8169.5
19736451,358.167.15.05.5186.9188.9
19746691,444.073.94.95.4206.3212.5
19756991,531.277.64.65.2236.5x257.2x
19767071,610.480.74.35.1262.9301.6
19776621,674.179.43.64.3367.5346.3
19786511,715.383.03.14.1440.0402.3

GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS

Year Ended 31 MarchKilometres Open for TrafficRevenue Train-KilometresRail Passenger JourneysGoods and LivestockRevenue*Expenditure*

*Figures relate to railway operation only.

  (000)(000)tonnes(000)$(000)$(000)
19285,11817,44425,3807,47614,68812,604
19295,29017,88525,5757,73515,05012,750
19305,29019,34725,4147,91414,94813,696
19315,34618,15722,8147,07013,56212,812
19325,33516,36519,1515,91811,57810,604
19335,33515,81818,3675,57910,6789,668
19345,34316,35619,0475,73311,2589,754
19355,34317,10119,6546,12111,81610,278
19365,34317,78320,3586,28812,48811,046
19375,34319,10021,2356,92213,80812,676
19385,34820,56422,4417,63715,18414,584
19395,34121,03923,2667,66016,01015,328
19405,45621,51224,4547,79717,52415,886
19415,45621,82326,2778,56119,38816,814
19425,45622,49728,6118,61020,76817,806
19435,56824,36536,1339,03024,83020,040
19445,63924,67038,6119,17226,93022,732
19435,63920,60432,9959,09824,89623,394
19465,67821,65432,4189,35826,21025,100
19475,67821,19328,8699,47925,64827,290
19485,67522,06725,8879,67627,92830,180
19495,67522,36226,1689,82130,67833,576
19505,67523,20825,89510,10832,12434,722
19515,68322,77724,8249,77037,00037,450
19525,69519,90921,2929,98740,19443,030
19535,68921,58021,45510,18745,17845,510
19545,63922,07923,2729,79047,36447,242
19555,61523,20724,73510,50254,01851,084
19565,50723,95325,07510,84955,74253,550
19575,50124,30425,37710,49157,01457,388
19585,57823,85824,81710,49860,02062,128
19595,50423,50425,43710,53359,64661,010
19605,36923,30326,13410,71260,54261,516
19615,36423,77526,23311,00462,85862,978
19625,36224,05626,32410,99663,39063,632
19635,25123,45625,66510,20562,75266,874
19645,25424,00825,73411,26867,64867,946
19655,23724,66925,13712,16472,78671,932
19665,23224,82923,88912,07974,75373,228
19675,16924,71823,72311,71975,02875,151
19685,01822,27222,18610,75171,65371,880
19694,92921,64122,26110,97174,60272,892
19704,92921,39621,03111,77983,19479,836
19714,84721,87720,78412,04086,99996,502
19724,80721,37620,11511,493101,296107,277
19734,80521,39918,56512,322112,162117,197
19744,79922,44718,94413,378125,789135,363
19754,79722,22918,89412,883124,921166,657
19764,79722,05320,03513,197137,287194,829
19774,72421,30318,47813,601202,419214,796
19784,66820,07316,40212,577212,748251,863

AGRICULTURE

SeasonWheat for ThreshingYield of
AreaYieldYield per HectareOatsBarleyPeas for ThreshingPotatoes

*Includes yield of beans.

 hectarestonnestonnestonnestonnestonnestonnes
1926–2789,065216,4342.4390,67528,19912,376*118,645
1927–28105,618259,6802.4669,90319,55021,839*123,351
1928–29103,321240,3952.3355,61317,71514,357125,591
1929–3095,482197,0322.0654,47417,1248,008132,195
1930–31100,772206,2742.0561,26518,9996,570153,957
1931–32108,762179,1551.6551,13312,1888,420118,617
1932–33122,430300,8722.4693,11812,72415,933131,151
1933–34115,830245,9242.1258,83216,57819,005133,148
1934–3591,212161,4791.7734,29510,99311,881110,874
1935–36100,620241,1132.4059,92316,90515,315122,946
1936–3789,755195,1102.1763,96516,94113,091128,341
1937–3875,251164,4662.1947,91724,62910,138149,141
1938–3976,599151,4341.9847,26224,42110,53289,078
1939–40104,220218,0032.0937,76020,77015,327143,370
1940–4198,418226,0522.3056,51824,18620,18295,634
1941–42104,410235,9972.2662,50329,40823,19091,042
1942–43116,144267,2432.3050,96223,98724,201141,276
1943–4494,610196,1862.0733,28218,88824,187164,104
1944–4574,416190,3002.5676,37131,41128,238127,704
1945–4665,174148,0292.2750,74742,46422,233142,503
1946–4757,225146,0992.5548,73945,96833,508117,620
1947–4850,080123,5342.4751,77447,35431,008157,506
1948–4959,370162,1542.7367,47051,17432,528111,404
1949–5050,650133,3492.6347,54255,19933,822137,601
1950–5158,584170,6972.9133,16643,14717,031121,700
1951–5236,404105,8752.9144,80749,49219,87670,962
1952–5351,486123,1612.3943,27648,53316,72296,171
1953–5446,059130,1802.8317,15375,64725,957158,445
1954–5542,083111,9512.6629,06845,17624,098146,472
1955–5627,71272,3522.6135,33446,07517,278102,293
1956–5726,60580,2953.0252,40564,74223,015147,578
1957–5833,968101,4372.9926,49380,56528,491159,627
1958–5953,788164,3533.0628,59060,35422,585152,332
1959–6066,028236,7853.5933,11571,14325,142159,324
1960–6175,590253,3573.3542,62777,46725,331193,495
1961–6275,388213,2482.8334,22180,75320,765191,049
1962–6391,357249,1982.7318,66395,29327,230184,357
1963–6482,540273,9973.3228,080130,99529,985203,999
1964–6574,450250,2983.3645,249105,90723,891246,965
1965–6680,745291,7843.6143,520114,07728,798234,563
1966–6793,305347,7593.7328,180134,01432,185187,358
1967–68126,651442,3303.4944,754219,39936,300235,835
1968–69129,975456,6483.5152,148232,56956,617256,350
1969–70108,394287,2122.6557,712174,44649,601253,204
1970–7197,528325,6463.3459,752259,32051,856209,927
1971–72106,596389,1563.6549,457335,49057,519219,970
1972–73107,690376,1113.4944,965258,26159,733244,211
1973–74x67,414214,5823.1863,226241,56952,882206,192
1974–7557,656179,8743.1250,219262,88147,522225,522
1975–76103,742388,1783.7441,820285,49554,515248,321

LIVESTOCK

YearBeef CattleDairy Cows in MilkTotal Dairy CattleTotal CattleSheepPigs

*Coverage to 1959 relates to holdings of 1 acre and over; thereafter to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries, except that Manukau City has been included since Manukau County was absorbed by the city. Since 1970–71 the coverage applies to 1 hectare and over. Figures are as at 31 January of year stated, except for sheep which are as at 30 June.

 (000)(000)(000)(000)(000)(000)
1928..1,243..3,27427,134587
1929..1,291..3,44629,051557
1930..1,390..3,77030,841488
1931..1,479..4,04429,793469
1932..1,562..4,07228,692506
1933..1,703..4,15527,756584
1934..1,796..4,26428,649653
1935..1,807..4,25729,077755
1936..1,803..4,21730,114801
1937..1,785..4,35231,306795
1938..1,743..4,46932,379749
1939..1,724..4,52831,897676
1940..1,719..4,49631,063706
1941..1,759..4,53931,752769
1942..1,757..4,642..689
1943..1,715..4,448..605
1944..1,648..4,43933,200573
1945..1,679..4,59133,975594
19462,0661,6622,6004,667..549
19472,0481,6582,5864,63432,682546
19482,0781,7142,6384,71632,483548
19492,0411,7472,6814,72332,845545
19502,0881,8502,8674,95533,857555
19512,1491,8982,9115,06034,786564
19522,2821,9062,8835,16535,384566
19532,4781,9622,9685,44636.193628
19542,6341,9993,1105,74538,011649
19552,8081,9953,0795,88739,117681
1956........40,255..
19572,8611,9982,9485,80942,382602
19582,9151,9672,9705,88646,026628
19592,9701,9313,0045,97346,876692
1960*3,0191,8872,9735,99247,134660
19613,3341,9293,1116,44648,462655
19623,4621,9683,1366,59848,988686
19633,5581,9973,1336,69150,190766
19643,5682,0113,1286,69651,292771
19653,6282,0323,1746,80153,748716
19663,8562,0883,3627,21857,343667
19674,2412,1313,5067,74760,030603
19684,5492,2323,6988,24760,474614
19694,8122,3043,7938,60559,937553
19705,0482,3213,7298,77760,276578
19715,2802,2393,5398,81958,913617
19725,4142,2003,3608,77460,883580
19735,7332,1903,3559,08856,684507
19746,1422,1403,2739,41555,883507
19756,5282,0803,1259,65355,320500
19766,7692,0923,0089,77756,400505
19776,5052,0742,9669,472..536
19786,1972,0532,9329,129..546

AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION

SeasonWool ProductionMilkfat ProductionSawn Timber Production*Meat Production§
Total Production (Greasy Equivalent)Average Price (Greasy Wool)Total ValueTotal ProductionYield per Cow in MilkAverage Revenue per kg

*Year ended 31 March.

†Milkfat for butter making only. These figures do not include payments for non-fat solids in the whole milk delivered for butter manufacture; therefore they cannot be used as a measure of total income from milk or manufacture.

‡Provisional.

§Year ended September.

 kg(m)c per kg$(m)tonnes (000)kgc per kgm 3(000)tonnes (000)
1927–2811530.6235.11209733.07637..
1928–2911927.3432.613110234.00637..
1929–3011915.7218.714210329.39665..
1930–3111710.4312.31469821.12540..
1931–321229.6611.81549820.21363..
1932–331269.4611.918010416.53392..
1933–3413220.3526.819410716.53467..
1934–3512012.0214.418610217.46576..
1935–3613816.7823.119810922.97691..
1936–3713728.8639.720811525.18722..
1937–3813518.4524.919711227.93762..
1938–3914916.8425.118110430.31748..
1939–4014122.4433.219511230.69793..
1940–4115122.4935.521111930.69807..
1941–4215620.5137.019811230.86765..
1942–4315425.6441.318510631.42807..
1943–4415025.6640.217610533.44828..
1944–4516925.6845.319611537.30802..
1945–4616625.5144.116910038.96814550
1946–4716633.0054.518511043.54835569
1947–4816446.1475.819010948.881,017558
1948–4916647.4278.920711751.081,109565
1949–5017769.78123.421111353.641,128586
1950–51177161.38285.522211656.951,246538
1951–5218573.83136.322511763.561,357612
1952–5319084.86160.924012268.341,357587
1953–5419392.33178.422311171.471,354598
1954–5520691.25188.322811370.171,454647
1955–5621084.86177.823811869.821,477693
1956–57223100.60224.023511770.001,409681
1957–5822575.62170.125012767.791,409699
1958–5924566.27162.325012960.251,503743
1959–6026282.03214.724512969.451,638785
1960–6126774.12197.724912861.551,687770
1961–6226671.98191.724812560.801,635834
1962–6328178.70221.325312660.451,517841
1963–64279101.17283.126513164.291,572866
1964–6528377.40218.828213867.621,737836
1965–6631576.46241.129214068.941,787843
1966–6732264.77208.429613868.951,770905
1967–6833050.42166.528912965.541,6211,002
1968–6933261.86205.430113065.811,6971,030
1969–7032856.48185.327812066.181,8061,051
1970–7133453.42178.427912470.071,8531,055
1971–7232266.46214.2292x13273.541,7491,082
1972–73309143.96444.5280x12976.771,7871,097
1973–74285139.19396.4261x12376.662,054990
1974–7529491.75269.8273x13380.892,0861,089
1975–76312157.12489.9296x143 2,0031,234
1976–77303219.58664.2303144 2,2121,153

FACTORY PRODUCTION

YearEstablishmentsPersons* EngagedSalaries* and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsOther Expenses of ProductionValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)Value of Land and Buildings, Plant and Machinery

*For the year 1915–16 and earlier, figures refer to productive employees only.

†Figures based on Integrated Economic Census of Manufacturing (see Section 18 Manufacturing). Not directly comparable with figures for earlier years.

‡Includes ancillary units.

§Purchases and other expenses.

||Turnover.

 No.No.  $(million)   
1900–013,05938,6515.615.4..33.0..13.1
1905–063,38145,1987.226.6..43.2..19.1
1910–113,42142,1428.737.5..57.1..24.0
1915–163,65744,67310.659.7..83.8..31.6
1920–213,89462,97223.5106.0..151.0..51.4
1925–264,64370,21228.3102.614.5156.9..64.8
1930–315,04770,62527.890.616.9143.437.069.0
1935–365,39178,70126.2113.717.3167.537.566.4
1940–416,252104,78448.6186.022.4274.867.784.3
1941–426,225108,27553.6193.024.1291.275.587.5
1942–435,985106,17958.9203.825.1311.684.089.3
1943–446,062109,22162.8214.127.3329.789.892.0
1944–456,340113,53468.4233.029.1357.296.697.5
1945–466,847118,88675.8234.130.6367.1103.9103.6
1946–477,498124,92583.0262.734.6411.3115.8111.6
1947–487,822130,50495.9349.740.2518.4130.5126.6
1948–497,852132,427102.8390.143.9572.8141.0147.2
1949–507,815133,245112.5430.048.3634.7158.8156.0
1950–518,113138,435130.0533.857.7760.4171.6175.2
1951–528,546144,352150.1581.564.0862.0219.7195.0
1952–538,511143,164157.0637.970.5927.9222.9218.2
1953–548,377146,488173.2665.780.5990.4247.8244.5
1954–558,366153,575196.8730.695.71,101.2278.6276.5
1955–568,515158,238215.9769.6113.11,171.9294.4337.1
1956–576,793143,040203.3766.280.61,152.0277.7334.4
1957–586,774148,641219.8810.588.71,233.4303.5349.9
1958–596,757153,811235.3808.596.71,257.4321.9380.9
1959–606,709156,778250.0846.3101.51,345.0366.8415.7
1960–616,875165,572277.3905.0111.01,441.9393.9462.8
1961–626,984171,108296.9936.7120.51,532.4439.3521.6
1962–637,025174,417312.2964.1128.41,596.7461.9591.8
1963–647,317181,399338.61,115.0139.31,832.0531.7626.5
1964–657,554191,995378.81,292.5156.22,081.6580.6693.3
1965–667,659203,165418.81,360.0174.92,260.7664.0792.1
1966–677,838207,999451.71,402.3193.82,354.9691.0874.3
1967–687,788204,510454.21,427.1203.92,404.9704.0912.2
1968–697,667207,703483.51,591.0224.72,645.8757.1969.0
1969–707,686220,108559.61,791.4255.12,994.8867.11,130.4
1970–717,600229,104676.02,014.6306.73,407.4995.71,239.3
1971–727,783232,424780.32,288.6354.43,874.31,130.71,436.9
1972–737,669235,648875.42,787.2561.54,611.31,301.71,634.0
1973–747,690244,5221,042.23,112.8683.75,250.91,502.4..
1974–758,883292,4481,389.04,664.0§6,433.0||2,144.0..
1975–769,212298,6921,576.04,993.0§7,264.0||2,351.0..

COAL CONSUMPTION

YearFactoriesShippingRailGas WorksHouseholdsPublic Hospitals and Central HeatingElectricity GenerationTotal

*Estimated.

    tonnes(000)    
1926522369385233....1182,582
1927500328408232....1552,644
1928510324417225....1802,600
1929506321484232....912,588
1930499251440244....1732,615
1931402180375224....1882,249
1932396151394210....251,941
1933431141388207....82,012
1934443163425208....82,155
1935463157450208....102,240
1936508156466224....102,241
1937517155520225....152,317
1938550154522230....152,312
1939684128538246....342,449
1940693154572262....822,540
1941732125577268....1112,702
1942749148658276....752,759
1943746135671292....762,826
1944765121613305582..492,823
1945758126643315604..672,871
1946747111626320549..622,838
194778893601328607..622,856
194878586328630..2,842
194985856561316650..672,892
195083250486306610..912,778
195187538451264549..642,494
195290437442294599..1312,772
19539083442328355987452,555
195494636405270559881392,651
19551,00429377272528861202,612
19561,04933316265549861362,700
19571,07028273260559761792,627
19581,08825242275559802512,735
19591,04314231280549793632,753
19601,01592232815491006112,965
19611,0038219283544986122,917
19629698190266478963472,474
19631,04991862725251046072,807
19641,046101692624901075952,821
19651,02991432644901224402,664
19661,01010122245488*1284992,645
19679286101252427*1442322,270
1968938650231396*1552572,143
1969920513172376*1635462,311
197091010154345*1635422,306
19719255*109300*1644422,114
1972934*..99290*1875582,188*
1973948*91284*1938272,461*
19741,120*109289*2818142,613*
19751,077*89234*2448442,488*
19761,149*80288*2407302,487*

SUMMARY OF OVERSEAS TRADE*

YearExportsImports (c.d.v.)Imports (c.i.f.)
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population

*Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency. Gold and specie excluded.

†Previous to 1955 c.d.v. +10 percent.

‡Provisional.

 $(m)$$(m)$$(m)$
1928110.275.6681.555.9989.761.58
1929108.973.9188.660.1297.566.14
193088.859.4780.653.9988.759.39
193168.745.4048.231.8253.034.99
193268.945.1044.829.3449.332.28
193379.351.5246.530.2151.233.22
193492.059.2857.036.7262.740.39
193590.257.7266.042.2672.646.49
1936110.770.2880.551.0888.556.18
1937130.582.11102.164.22112.370.63
1938114.271.04100.862.71110.868.98
1939112.869.2989.855.1298.760.63
1940143.687.7089.154.4198.059.84
1941131.380.5089.454.8198.360.29
1942159.197.0597.959.72107.765.69
1943140.685.98173.2105.87190.5116.46
1944152.792.24157.194.87172.8104.35
1945160.794.85100.159.09110.265.00
1946200.2113.80130.173.95143.181.34
1947256.8142.78233.9130.06257.3143.06
1948294.4160.48233.7127.37257.0140.11
1949293.3156.72218.2116.59240.0128.25
1950364.9191.12287.1150.41315.9165.45
1951494.6253.95375.5192.80413.0212.08
1952479.5240.22458.9229.88504.8252.87
1953470.7229.74327.2159.70359.9175.68
1954488.0232.92426.3203.48468.9223.83
1955518.1242.20501.3234.37574.2268.47
1956554.5254.02469.5215.51536.8245.91
1957552.5247.48523.4234.42594.1266.09
1958499.9218.68505.5221.14570.0249.38
1959586.6251.26410.1175.64462.7198.21
1960604.6254.35506.2212.94564.5237.48
1961567.4233.76576.4237.48649.7267.64
Jan–Jun 1962332.6134.32237.495.88264.3106.74
Year ended June 1963627.5249.42523.7208.16576.6229.18
1964737.3286.72637.4247.88694.0269.91
1965742.2282.95662.7252.64724.5276.20
1966767.3288.54729.4274.31792.8298.13
1967727.2268.57752.2277.79813.2300.32
1968820.5299.04622.9227.03674.7245.91
1969989.1357.56799.2288.91852.9308.32
19701,086.7388.3944.3337.41,007.2359.9
19711,131.7398.21,070.6376.71,155.5406.6
19721,375.0476.41,152.7399.41,239.0429.3
19731,792.0609.31,282.2436.01,374.1467.3
19741,787.3595.51,861.8620.42,036.7678.5
19751,621.5529.72,492.0814.02,763.1902.6
19762,386.9768.72,730.1879.32,961.6953.8
1977x3,228.71,033.53,244.41,038.53,538.01,132.5
19783,309.11,057.33,001.5959.03,269.51,044.7

EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE

YearWool
GreasyScoured and WashedTotal, including Slipe*
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

*Including fine animal hair.

 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
192781,29020.36,4822.4100,01825.9
192885,91627.14,9972.2102,87733.4
192989,97825.15,7862.3106,57430.7
193069,95411.25,7401.589,46715.3
193175,0688.25,0120.996,03411.0
193284,6838.66,5971.0108,03611.5
1933104,13011.39,1411.5129,86714.8
193495,07720.27,4992.0116,02825.0
193578,88910.37,1551.5100,99714.2
1936118,72421.17,6581.9142,61426.6
1937106,20430.94,9821.9128,06738.1
1938102,01219.45,7091.6123,05224.4
1939102,74818.45,8591.5125,82323.3
1940104,76224.29,3422.9136,20933.8
194173,31517.411,1643.797,85925.2
194297,77823.317,3985.8139,50136.7
194369,62318.511,3534.093,81327.0
194458,61815.813,4594.885,54725.4
194530,9968.425,1639.575,41425.4
1946119,94935.818,9267.5165,74553.2
1947116,75040.023,02511.6170,24563.9
1948147,23764.818,25311.8190,97289.0
1949148,44766.918,40011.7194,89793.1
1950137,201110.615,09716.4178,704149.3
1951111,820188.510,81524.5143,727256.4
1952154,629122.715,35416.6198,723164.0
1953137,903124.714,68618.2177,630169.2
1954137,692130.816,14220.4178,216176.9
1955146,417138.118,72323.2189,408187.9
1956151,350136.618,44922.0194,163183.1
1957153,478161.219,41125.3195,880212.1
1958162,595122.018,71317.7207,333160.1
1959188,118137.421,20919.4240,037179.5
1960182,542152.923,58925.3236,947205.0
1961197,367152.924,33824.3251,723200.7
Jan-June 1962128,18697.815,32514.6163,039127.5
Year ended June 1963204,338163.229,59628.5261,724214.5
1964195,139201.832,00939.7256,547271.6
1965180,920149.932,31436.1241,066208.6
1966212,149170.237,15837.8278,228231.9
1967158,468117.736,06732.9227,150174.1
1968182,29799.748,91535.6268,427158.2
1969205,260131.465,91355.1307,915212.4
1970196,430119.374,68463.3303,053204.2
1971173,926100.282,22565.7293,499187.9
1972177,990119.196,62984.1312,374228.6
1973160,325224.294,849152.5288,082424.0
1974120,927189.366,976131.3213.158361.6
1975102,871107.786,997125.4218,198261.7
1976142,605220.1105,432197.7272,369456.4
1977124,625283.3103,005304.6253,899648.2
YearBeef and VealLamb and MuttonAll Meat
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
192723,2421.390,32616.1120,14618.2
192838,4762.3144,03317.2192,73520.6
192919,7961.3138,77717.2169,48719.8
193021,2891.5173,23319.2205,07121.9
193123,9421.2175,93115.7210,26117.8
193227,1910.9195,63115.0236,00116.9
193347,1641.9193,92716.0264,33019.7
193445,6261.9177,24519.0252,46023.8
193547,0202.2184,48020.0264,50325.5
193643,2262.3177,18520.2260,09824.5
193750.9113.0184,92922.0274,88329.4
193852,5143.6184,85822.4272,97730.2
193962,1114.5203,87922.2300,05130.8
194075,9856.0237,85727.8354,42939.4
194140,2093.5192,19224.5268,48333.2
194246,6144.5221,01027.6291,67635.6
194325,8312.3188,74823.9224,17327.6
19447,1410.6194,01623.0211,13725.0
194529,9232.9243,11430.3287,22935.2
194662,4886.7255,78635.9343,08746.5
194768,4648.7259,64345.1353,36258.7
194868,9768.1253,43343.8349,00857.2
194959,9666.7261,04943.0349,55654.4
195059,9717.0258,00945.6343,44257.2
195143,5675.8212,07439.6278,92950.7
195257,42110.3299,71760.9384,16278.8
195345,0989.9256,12960.5329,04778.8
195460,48714.7281,44878.0367,237100.5
195595,58126.8262,34683.8383,562121.2
1956119,67529.2274,39487.2420,635127.7
1957117,40231.3254,66887.0394,531128.1
1958117,62751.1273,91085.5411,773146.9
195990,27944.4326,81087.0441,574142.4
196099,99244.4350,45497.2474,188152.3
196197,02444.4348,27889.9467,883144.2
Jan-June 196249,55821.6218,81152.5282,28280.6
Year ended June 1963128,77758.8358,46698.2516,376169.5
1964121,19758.1368,993107.2522,744180.0
1965121,39357.4366,434135.0519,742208.5
1966101,19754.6369,234121.4501,983193.1
1967106,25163.9367,842119.5505,425200.8
1968129,33889.3413.227147.0581,251256.2
1969133,226109.1473,286175.5645,443304.5
1970177,704154.2439,344182.9658,534364.3
1971180,858170.4425,311186.5647,785385.7
1972185,390187.2446,913178.1674,335393.3
1973203,529241.3441,837257.5691,992535.5
1974183,326235.5348,950256.5570,406529.5
1975192,445161.8385,263238.7616,545438.0
1976228,111241.4397,408297.4674,867586.2
1977260,639312.1402,501387.5716,703756.5
YearButterCheeseMilk. Dried and Condensed
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
192773,94521.875,83811.25,6350.7
192873,64222.679,62213.47,8100.8
192984,01726.590,38314.06,2300.7
193095,72423.792,10412.96,8950.7
1931101,02421.383,1308.95,8270.5
1932111,03121.390,9599.97,2730.5
1933133,87723.3100,7389.58,0010.6
1934132,82420.1100,8189.49,7800.8
1935141,70327.287,7648.89,4270.7
1936142,05130.684,24110.210,7690.8
1937151,19234.083,68010.711,2100.7
1938132,82533.081,81811.99,3150.6
1939124,12632.285,20911.711,1340.8
1940133,24036.5103,30716.511,9930.8
1941115,00731.6120,21119.713,4451.4
1942121,80633.9136,53823.712,5131.4
1943102,61929.4102,11018.311,8801.2
1944117,23137.178,95014.98,3601.1
1945105,16738.688,82919.015,3472.0
1946103,43839.776,96216.917,2682.4
1947129,75857.788,44123.220,3023.3
1948137,81167.576,83722.426,9664.4
1949150,04070.995,44625.334,9425.7
1950140,48671.7101,49329.141,2846.6
1951149,83083.0108,33033.347,4637.9
1952186,982112.392,72031.163,73913.1
1953161,660102.9102,98736.764,00112.6
1954134,60789.691,87432.845,9498.2
1955153,388102.086,40727.451,7427.2
1956170,137106.390,30344.552,9168.8
1957147,40376.989,89635.868,79811.5
1958178,20777.790,86324.853,8827.6
1959196,075111.684,79144.271,50911.5
1960159,572100.380,68837.161,28711.1
1961167,68978.889,01339.851,2678.4
Jan-June 196286,07841.552,99021.330,7264.4
Year ended June 1963167,22790.993,68937.064,3679.5
1964184,875109.689,00035.173,76811.0
1965192,180119.694,74640.788,05018.9
1966193,472109.698,03741.7101,15222.0
1967203,163109.4104,36045.1135,23529.8
1968204,467112.2100,28147.4140,45030.3
1969206,378114.887,66142.6134,73323.1
1970198,021109.790,58244.3184,35131.1
1971194,464113.992,68148.0160,45234.1
1972187,680183.988,46466.3191,92576.5
1973176,619137.195,25579.2197,75787.4
1974162,146109.568,48161.8278,333130.6
1975164,171122.164,76348.4159,869103.1
1976206,788204.280.64078.0147,82684.6
1977212,929253.979,04684.9240,423108.5
YearCaseinApples and PearsGrass and Clover Seeds
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

†Whole fruit only.

 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
19272,3760.39,9070.54,5910.5
19282,1410.318,4241.02,5520.3
19292,9060.318,2991.22,9390.4
19302,9110.324,0821.31,8570.3
19312,6880.224,3161.32,0810.3
19322,1730.128,6771.61,7440.2
19332,4730.226,0981.44,0800.3
19342,9330.328,4311.62,4770.3
19353,3100.318,8591.03,6400.4
19364,1070.422,3791.24,0630.5
19373,9390.517,1100.92,9520.4
19382,1030.228,0531.52,3110.5
19391,9570.119,0081.12,3280.6
19401,2370.110,7540.52,3240.7
19416300.1193--4,4801.1
1942250--148--4,1911.2
19437500.184--4,6091.3
1944305--9--8,0512.9
19458180.172--8,4613.6
19467550.15,5150.37,6513.9
19472,6340.7109--7,4693.3
19484,1901.218,2361.78,8823.4
19495,5481.29,6910.88,2303.0
19505,6271.312,9741.48,3374.2
19515,9871.912,6751.44,4922.5
19528,4982.625,0694.18,3044.2
19538,7452.520,9203.49,1073.7
19548,2772.522,5413.19,3605.6
195512,4873.718,8872.64,0342.7
195613,6234.229,2504.17,4383.2
195714,3554.526,0313.68,2582.4
195820,3866.233,1754.67,5303.0
195929,6488.834,8154.84,6342.0
196028,6558.434,8394.86,5263.4
196129,4948.837,1224.86,7022.6
Jan-June 196214,9564.640,7565.63,0511.2
Year ended June 196330,2468.433,7844.78,3083.6
196442,18911.338,5495.39,2583.5
196552,59416.844,0666.14,6342.0
196642,98520.051,5927.110,3223.2
196743,26518.640,1555.511,3373.2
196840,92318.141,5435.711,9193.7
196950,02621.744,0756.19,1613.5
197061,98925.857,7429.47,9393.6
197169,53430.255,5969.29,7194.9
197242,11325.460,63510.711,6404.4
197327,72822.069,56913.415,9546.5
197439,96528.668,96313.59,3098.9
197517,11914.781,11019.711,41110.0
197624,26327.177,93021.26,0714.5
197762,38459.760,66916.612,39610.8
YearHides and SkinsSausage Casings Tallow*

*From 1927 to 1948 figures cover only inedible tallow, and unrendered fats of bovine cattle, sheep, or goats are included in all figures.

 $(m)$(m)tonnes$(m)
19276.51.524,2581.4
19287.71.626,1611.6
19295.91.321,1661.4
19304.41.625,0231.4
19312.50.823,6370.8
19322.10.525,7840.9
19333.70.828,4701.0
19344.41.328,1061.0
19354.81.625,6831.3
19366.61.326,5141.3
19374.51.526,3561.3
19384.81.530,0881.1
19395.11.429,6050.9
19406.51.834,6861.4
19418.21.639,9591.6
19429.51.852,6102.3
19438.82.244,6602.1
19449.02.127,0511.2
194510.02.231,2191.8
194611.52.825,1532.1
194720.83.126,1384.7
194818.94.520,3854.3
194913.44.125,8405.1
195020.05.330,0714.3
195125.77.830,1345.1
195219.99.849,3959.4
195321.44.940,4333.9
195420.96.439,4965.1
195518.48.144,1315.7
195621.29.840,2545.3
195720.29.346,9496.1
195816.69.052,0836.8
195926.58.354,4196.6
196026.67.060,4225.9
196124.37.358,6496.3
Jan-June 196215.26.036,6353.1
Year ended June 196325.410.560,3524.8
196430.412.077,3517.2
196531.711.158,8557.1
196640.010.951,5866.7
196733.612.066,4137.0
196839.89.974,6377.0
196955.410.971,7426.6
197048.714.073,5519.2
197150.614.165,83810.2
197262.215.469,6518.9
197395.914.272,9509.7
197467.017.253,76913.8
197562.718.871,63716.4
197677.423.596,13025.8
1977128.625.895,45133.0
YearTimberWood PulpNewsprint
 $(m)tonnes(000)$(m)tonnes(000)$(m)
19270.9
19280.8
19290.9
19300.6
19310.3
19320.5
19330.5
19340.6
19350.7
19360.5
19370.4
19380.4
19390.3
19400.4
19410.4
19420.2
19430.1
19440.1
19450.1
19460.3
19470.4
19481.0
19491.1
19500.7
19511.5
19521.2
19531.340.4
19541.8201.6
19552.5282.3----
19562.1484.0263.1
19571.8665.3364.3
19582.9705.5425.3
19594.4785.8445.4
19604.2715.6506.2
19614.4655.0475.4
Jan-June 19622.6332.7222.3
Year ended June 19634.1705.5738.0
19645.0675.510911.5
19656.5574.711311.9
19666.5716.011911.9
19677.3735.99610.1
196816.5766.212715.8
196928.5897.412316.1
197034.1827.212215.8
197137.1979.411114.0
197240.911311.313116.5
197345.614214.112316.2
197447.824325.710314.5
197528.231243.512120.8
197632.036058.813234.3
197750.442070.017651.8

NEW ZEALAND'S OFFICIAL OVERSEAS RESERVES

End of QuarterAssets of N.Z. Banking SystemTreasury-held Overseas SecuritiesOther Government-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldInternational Monetary Fund
Reserve PositionSpecial Drawing RightsTotal
   $(million)    
1960—Mar195.290.95.81.8293.6
1961—Mar107.077.55.82.0192.3
1962—Mar113.758.15.80.522.5200.5
1963—Mar167.265.05.80.522.5260.9
1964—Mar166.572.65.80.522.5267.8
1965—Mar159.367.118.10.522.5267.5
1966—Mar116.361.512.70.2190.1
1967—Mar116.356.613.10.3186.3
1968—Mar200.376.914.50.2291.8
Jun209.376.814.51.2301.9
Sep169.379.514.50.9264.1
Dec112.078.014.50.5205.0
1969—Mar183.180.515.31.2280.1
Jun229.478.915.31.0324.6
Sep182.581.715.30.8280.3
Dec155.186.415.30.8257.6
1970—Mar204.887.516.10.823.6332.7
Jun216.887.916.10.823.5345.0
Sep179.8118.516.10.835.00.3350.5
Dec128.6117.516.10.745.10.3308.4
1971—Mar172.4117.317.40.745.119.6372.6
Jun243.9132.817.40.745.119.4459.3
Sep253.4170.717.40.745.119.4506.7
Dec244.1146.517.40.745.124.8478.6
1972—Mar331.4186.318.90.745.147.5629.9
Jun425.2216.218.90.745.151.6757.7
Sep450.6210.218.90.745.152.1777.5
Dec435.7209.825.60.745.152.1768.9
1973—Mar561.9235.022.30.745.152.1917.2
Jun764.3209.122.30.745.151.91,093.5
Sep656.0199.620.00.745.151.9973.3
Dec502.1202.522.50.745.151.9824.8
1974—Mar477.1182.121.70.745.151.9778.5
Jun289.4185.021.70.745.151.7593.6
Sep324.4174.321.70.70.8521.8
Dec335.8220.724.20.70.5581.8
1975—Mar281.8230.923.90.74.8542.1
Jun316.2222.923.90.70.5564.2
Sep322.4221.126.40.74.8575.4
Dec290.9224.126.40.74.6546.7
1976—Mar374.2274.026.30.79.7684.8
Jun299.1239.326.30.76.5571.9
Sep303.5247.326.30.716.1593.9
Dec359.3285.323.90.79–8679.0
1977-Mar390.7284.223.90.721.2720.6
Jun399.3286.723.90.72.524.7737.8
Sep250.4292.123.90.72.532.7602.2
Dec257.6258.523.91.62.540.5584.6
1978—Mar471.7424.323.91.613.848.3983.6
Jun554.4287.323.90.713.854.7934.7

NOTE: To take account of exchange rate fluctuations, the New Zealand currency value of official overseas reserves was increased by approximately $14 million in November 1967 and reduced by approximately $98 million at various dates during the year ended March 1973. Downward adjustments of approximately $90 million in September 1973, $49 million in December 1973 and $22 million in March 1974 were also made to record exchange rate fluctuations during the year ended March 1974. Upward adjustments of approximately $34 million, $65 million, and $31 million were made in October 1974, August 1975 and December 1976 respectively.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsDeficitSurplus
From TaxationFrom Other SourcesTotal

*Excludes duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act; $1.9 million in 1958–59, $4.7 million in 1959–60, $2.0 million in 1960–61, $0.8 million in 1961–62, $0.8 million in 1962–63, $0.8 million in 1963–64.

NOTE—The figures shown in the above table are not on a comparable basis over the whole period.

   $(million) CONSOLIDATED FUND   
192833.716.650.249.90.4
192935.711.547.248.41.2
193039.011.750.750.40.3
193137.28.946.149.43.3
193232.413.145.449.74.3
193331.213.945.145.1
193434.112.947.048.41.4
193540.411.952.349.03.3
193643.19.252.351.80.6
193753.98.462.361.40.9
193863.326.389.688.01.6
193964.622.887.485.81.6
194065.628.293.893.20.6
194168.732.2102.998.53.5
194270.338.7109.1105.83.3
194372.437.8110.2101.88.3
194484.031.1115.1110.74.5
194591.428.5119.9117.42.4
194696.731.1127.8125.32.5
1947181.435.2216.6207.49.2
1948192.242.0234.2230.73.6
1949202.141.0243.0237.85.3
1950207.742.3250.0241.48.6
1951244.443.2287.5271.016.5
1952313.947.7361.6336.325.3
1953308.547.1355.6349.06.6
1954312.452.2364.6361.03.6
1955325.057.4382.4368.813.7
1956334.960.0394.9386.68.3
1957345.667.0412.6405.96.7
1958317.969.3387.2387.50.3
1959409.771.1480.8*480.0*0.8
1960552.976.8629.7*628.4*1.3
1961474.894.0568.7*567.9*0.8
1962508.393.0601.3*600.6*0.6
1963471.5101.8573.3*581.2*7.9
1964512.6120.6633.2*635.9*2.7
  CONSOLIDATED REVENUE ACCOUNT  
1965783.2120.5903.7894.59.2
1966852.2122.2974.5970.93.5
1967918.8132.51,051.31,050.60.7
1968949.4147.31,096.71,095.31.4
1969992.1162.51,154.61,146.97.7
19701,102.0170.51,282.51,275.17.4
19711,363.0203.21,566.21,560.95.3
19721,617.3203.41,820.71,812.38.4
19731,830.9304.92,135.82,141.05.2
19742,291.6220.52,512.22,509.82.4
19752,760.5285.53,046.13,034.911.2
19763,084.0598.53,682.53,684.11.6
19773,737.5490.34,227.84,225.12.7
19784,500.0576.05,076.05,073.82.2

GOVERNMENT CURRENT EXPENDITURE ON SOCIAL SERVICES*

Year Ended 31 MarchHealthEducationSocial Security and WelfareWar PensionsTotal

*Excludes capital expenditure.

†Includes hospital boards.

‡Provisional.

  $(million)  
195663.242.4116.116.9238.6
195771.246.2119.217.9254.5
195878.251.4124.619.6273.8
195983.055.8142.521.9303.2
196089.659.8180.023.2.352.6
196197.467.2192.027.4384.0
1962104.071.0196.327.5398.8
1963113.078.8196.528.3416.6
1964121.287.0205.929.7443.8
1965132.099.0210.329.9471.2
1966148.0110.4217.730.5506.6
1967161.7124.4225.430.9542.4
1968168.2136.8244.830.7580.5
1969178.8145.6254.830.8610.0
1970200.1168.4272.032.4672.9
1971238.7214.9301.333.5788.4
1972283.1279.6338.536.1937.3
1973333.8309.1468.540.21,151.6
1974390.1367.2574.244.61,376.1
1975480.9432.6652.850.31,616.6x
1976x589.5499.3838.452.71,979.9
1977668.9572.01,035.967.22,344.0

SOCIAL SERVICES EXPENDITURE (INCLUDING AND EXCLUDING EDUCATION) AS PERCENTAGE OF GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT, AND OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE

Year Ended 31 MarchGross National ProductPublic A/c Administrative ExpenditureTotal Social Services ExpenditureSocial Services Expenditure less EducationTotal Social Services Expenditure as Percentage ofSocial Services Expenditure less Education as Percentage of
Gross National ProductTotal Government ExpenditureGross National ProductTotal Government Expenditure
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)%%%%
19561,965427.5238.6196.212.155.810.045.9
19572,061462.9254.5208.312.355.010.145.0
19582,208489.6273.8222.412.455.910.145.4
19592,297527.9303.2247.413.257.410.846.9
19602,463585.4352.6292.814.360.211.950.0
19612,650631.4384.0316.814.560.812.050.2
19622,752654.9398.8327.814.560.911.950.1
19632,953691.2416.6337.814.160.311.448.9
19643,231738.2443.8356.813.760.111.048.3
19653,530802.0471.2372.213.358.810.546.4
19663,823872.1506.6396.213.358.110.445.4
19673,973935.6542.4418.013.758.010.544.7
19684,128966.5580.5443.714.160.110.745.9
19694,3551,031.8610.0464.414.059.110.745.0
19704,8091,142.5672.9504.514.058.910.544.2
19715,5341,346.6788.4573.514.258.510.442.6
19726,4521,579.7937.3657.714.559.310.241.6
19737,4981,907.51,151.6842.515.4x60.4x11.2x44.2
19748,682x2,244.51,376.11,008.9x15.9x61.3x11.6x44.9x
19759,452x2,635.51,616.6x1,184.0x17.1x61.3x12.5x44.9x
197610,914x3,292.01,979.91,480.618.160.113.6x45.0
197712,7863,764.62,344.01,772.018.362.313.947.1

INDEBTEDNESS OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—AMOUNT OF DEBENTURES AND STOCK IN CIRCULATION (Nominal Amounts)

As at 31 MarchDomiciled inTotalPer Head of Population
United States and World BankLondon and EuropeAustraliaNew Zealand
   NZ$(million)  $
1928279.58.3214.9502.8343.80
1929298.78.3221.4528.4359.80
1930293.28.6233.1534.8359.20
1931309.18.4234.7552.1365.20
1932268.97.8236.8511.5335.30
1933270.45.7236.7512.9333.50
1934269.45.8278.0553.2356.90
1935269.64.4234.9508.8325.90
1936265.03.2244.5512.7325.80
1937261.11.8260.1523.0329.30
1938261.51.8264.9528.0329.10
1939261.31.8292.5555.6341.90
1940263.31.8328.3593.4361.70
1941264.41.8380.4646.5395.10
1942255.11.7461.6718.4439.60
1943264.21.7609.4875.3535.60
1944265.91.7733.51,001.1608.90
1945266.21.7806.51,074.5639.60
1946189.11.7945.51,136.3646.80
1947189.11.7966.01,156.8646.40
1948166.41.6988.21,156.2632.50
1949159.91.31,068.81,230.0659.70
1950156.31.31,130.21,287.8676.70
1951155.61,178.81,334.5688.60
1952155.61,151.81,307.3658.70
1953155.61,179.81,335.4655.40
1954175.61,233.21,408.7674.80
1955195.61,261.61,457.2683.80
1956191.61,278.81,470.4675.90
19578.9200.91,304.51,514.2681.70
19587.9199.21,357.11,564.2687.40
195947.1236.61,349.01,633.1702.10
196037.9235.51,415.61,689.0712.60
196137.0216.31,483.01,736.3719.20
196225.1254.01,528.61,807.7730.50
196341.5272.51,620.41,934.3765.18
196441.8279.91,700.02,021.7782.89
196554.3276.51,908.82,139.6813.87
196688.3244.81,922.82,256.0842.78
1967107.3283.42,021.32,412.0884.42
1968170.7329.42,116.52,616.6950.56
1969179.2336.22,261.02,776.5999.74
1970184.2341.62,351.32,887.11,021.71
1971178.6397.82,430.53,007.01,051.06
1972159.4494.12,533.03,186.61,096.55
1973135.1428.92,939.13,503.11,180.75
1974113.3351.93,269.33,734.51,232.07
1975180.1682.63,336.94,199.71,359.17
1976304.91,158.34,094.75,557.9,778.82
1977517.11,309.54,462.66,289.22,002.75x
1978564.71,882.05,037.17,483.82,378.98

FINANCES OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES*

Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsTotal Gross Indebtedness
RevenueOther ReceiptsTotal
From Rates and LeviesFrom Other Sources

*Exclusive of hospital boards.

†Debt up to 1967 shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent. As from 1968 the gross public debt is shown in New Zealand currency only, including overseas debt.

‡Includes petrol tax $16.7 million in 1972–73, $18.0 million in 1973–74, $17.8 million in 1974–75, and $17.9 million in 1975–76.

   $(million)   
192610.116.015.741.841.8118.8
192710.617.214.041.943.5128.0
192811.219.012.042.144.9132.8
192911.718.412.942.942.6138.6
193012.020.711.944.544.1142.4
193111.320.49.741.444.4145.4
193211.018.110.039.140.2144.8
193310.517.09.837.237.8145.0
193411.016.58.536.135.5142.0
193511.017.29.037.237.4142.5
193611.218.09.939.038.7140.8
193712.019.19.440.540.4137.1
193813.121.19.743.944.1136.1
193914.022.613.550.050.2136.4
194014.624.414.553.551.4139.0
194114.725.410.250.349.5136.0
194214.926.07.248.048.1133.2
194315.527.46.149.046.5130.3
194415.629.64.950.047.6126.5
194515.830.15.050.950.4122.5
194617.330.86.454.454.7120.0
194719.133.08.560.661.0115.6
194819.634.410.064.064.9114.2
194921.638.212.372.071.6113.2
195023.340.716.280.279.3112.6
195125.243.416.785.386.5112.2
195229.048.121.398.497.7115.7
195330.855.231.5117.4116.7128.9
195432.864.641.0138.5136.4146.9
195536.570.642.1149.2148.0158.6
195637.876.850.9165.4167.1176.0
195741.379.160.7181.2181.5198.2
195845.484.771.1201.2196.6229.4
195948.897.869.6216.2213.2255.9
196051.5101.783.6236.8231.2287.1
196155.0108.788.1251.8245.0318.8
196258.0118.978.7255.6267.5337.6
196362.4125.596.2284.1286.5370.2
196468.3153.2120.0351.5329.6401.8
196577.2164.0122.7363.8361.1436.2
196680.5176.4119.0375.8387.5461.4
196785.9191.2119.4396.5401.6485.0
196892.4200.2137.3430.0420.7533.5
196999.9223.7149.1472.6456.6564.3
1970108.1240.2155.1503.3492.1597.2
1971117.9262.7155.5536.1539.2629.8
1972126.3297.6169.6593.5604.7667.1
1973148.5330.9216.6696.0674.2722.4
1974153.8395.3x274.0x823.1799.8787.4
1975192.2431.6345.7969.5985.8840.9
1976236.6490.7402.11,129.41,139.4933.7

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK

Year Ended MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest Credited to DepositorsTotal Amount of Withdrawals During Year*Excess of Deposits plus Interest over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

*From January 1958 includes interest paid out on investment accounts; and from October 1969 includes interest paid on National Development Bonds redeemed.

†Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

‡Excludes 15,439 accounts credited with '$0.6 million transferred to Apia, Western Samoa.

§Includes School Savings Accounts from 1 April 1964. From 1 October 1969 includes National Development Bonds, and from 1 March 1970 Post Office Bonus Bonds.

||From 1968–69 includes Ordinary National Savings, and School Savings Accounts, with balance dates as at March, June and December respectively.

 Number  $(million)  
1927–28804,72555.23.561.2−2.495.5
1928–29828,29654.53.556.21.897.3
1929–30852,75757.13.659.21.698.9
1930–31878,04349.13.556.1−3.595.3
1931–32877,09038.93.250.9−8.886.5
1932–33797,09733.92.939.3−2.484.1
1933–34798,26238.92.535.65.789.7
1934–35817,61748.42.641.99.198.8
1935–36840,67151.22.847.17.0105.8
1936–37880,85761.33.054.110.3116.1
1937–38920,80566.13.359.310.2126.3
1938–39946,82260.93.569.2−4.9121.4
1939–40960,56550.33.258.9−5.4116.0
1940–411,142,79258.53.350.611.2127.2
1941–421,298,48368.43.750.821.3148.5
1942–431,399,89680.33.853.830.3178.8
1943–441,494,136107.94.471.241.0219.8
1944–451,570,586121.35.584.642.2262.1
1945–461,605,981148.66.5114.041.0303.1
1946–471,634,548155.17.5129.333.3336.4
1947–481,652,765157.78.2143.522.4358.8
1948–491,679,692153.68.7142.020.3379.1
1949–501,730,072197.99.7161.646.0425.1
1950–511,760,541189.310.2179.619.9445.0
1951–521,800,709215.610.8198.927.5472.5
1952–531,835,552216.911.4207.620.7493.3
1953–541,868,788237.212.1214.934.4527.7
1954–551,900,649255.712.8243.624.9552.6
1955–561,927,422255.213.3256.412.1564.7
1956–571,971,731279.116.3265.829.4594.1
1957–582,013,664311.717.9291.238.5632.6
1958–592,052,626294.218.5307.45.3637.9
1959–602,084,837326.318.9311.034.1672.0
1960–612,116,675374.620.1350.144.6716.6
1961–622,143,586383.421.0383.720.7736.7
1962–632.190,757409.122.0397.233.9770.6
1963–642,245,339471.623.6442.952.3822.8
1964–652,563,154506.725.1501.730.0855.8§
1965–662,604,058507.825.8521.911.8867.6
1966–672,639,890525.626.0542.09.6877.3
1967–682,646,284488.127.2512.42.9879.3
1968–692,677,631||487.728.0507.97.8887.1
1969–702,710,202568.528.2561.834.9922.0
1970–712,745,267620.929.6626.424.1946.1
1971–722,769,190663.528.9676.216.3962.4
1972–732,838,441782.430.5736.576.31,038.7
1973–742,941,206913.031.9843.8101.11,139.8
1974–752,953,893976.634.1963.747.11,186.9
1975–762,937,1101,175.735.31,132.178.91,265.8
1976–773,076,4131,328.138.51,296.670.11,335.9
1977–783,157,0331,558.745.91,495.3109.31,445.1

MORTGAGES AND LAND TRANSFERS

Year Ended 31 MarchMortgagesAverage Rate of Interest On New MortgagesLand Transfers
RegisteredDischargedNumberConsideration

*Land sales restrictions removed in 1950.

 $(m)$(m)percent $(m)
192780.058.56.4734,10664.7
192866.448.06.4631,14160.3
192967.150.56.4630,76062.3
193077.756.76.3532,11261.7
193160.440.16.2525,62644.1
193226.820.16.2816,94326.4
193318.316.35.8815,38122.0
193415.618.25.5615,76019.1
193523.727.55.06.18,62824.4
193632.535.14.7323,04431.2
193739.439.64.6025,17837.7
193838.038.74.6526,26946.7
193940.133.24.5828,96547.3
194035.228.24.6928,05744.2
194132.531.94.6928,82851.5
194229.130.24.7328,20746.5
194324.333.44.7227,65748.3
194431.240.14.6333,70176.3
194536.242.04.5133,28464.9
194645.046.64.1038,06076.7
194762.251.93.8542,99489.9
194864.150.83.9048,80180.9
194970.646.83.9836,56476.8
195072.046.23.9939,05881.3
1951*91.664.54.0957,938158.7
1952135.974.54.1556,609218.3
1953147.462.84.2948,378201.4
1954140.872.04.4952,615228.8
1955169.282.34.6956,571273.4
1956192.570.74.7649,100241.9
1957182.475.45.0945,334229.4
1958199.192.25.2450,573279.4
1959217.188.85.1549,153255.2
1960239.0102.35.0152,855285.4
1961300.8136.65.0161,412375.6
1962331.5133.85.2757,813360.1
1963295.1135.65.5153,566336.3
1964339.8168.85.7059,836419.9
1965420.0206.85.7869,548536.2
1966487.7230.06.0771,508592.6
1967493.4239.36.3168,639589.2
1968467.8236.16.6463,925541.8
1969482.3260.96.7465,655576.5
1970573.9328.16.7772,624724.4
1971703.0376.56.8883,610918.9
1972759.8415.87.4086,042985.4
1973940.7510.57.60105,1931,339.9
19741,301.7672.97.61125,7962,133.0
19751,477.2601.58.2596,8472,135.1
19761,612.4654.18.6198,0032,202.8
19771,870.1863.49.48101.9682.691.6

BANKRUPTCIES AND NEW COMPANY REGISTRATIONS

YearBankruptciesNew Company Registrations*
Number of BankruptciesAmount Realised by Official AssigneeAmount of Debts ProvedNumber of New RegistrationsAmount of Nominal Capital

*Public, private, and overseas.

†The extraordinarily high figure for 1934 is due to the inclusion of all overseas companies (numbering 187 with an aggregate nominal capital of $386 million) which had previous to 1934 established places of business in New Zealand and which were reregistered in 1934 under Part XII of the Companies Act 1933.

‡Since 1954 company liquidations are included in the total.

  $(000)$(000) $(m)
1927867217.71,359.069817.4
1928806233.21,534.673622.0
1929687182.41,004.290324.9
1930780166.61,654.789313.4
1931848217.62,084.479516.6
1932661151.31,249.881213.7
1933450123.4979.883014.6
193432689.1517.8933401.5
193525782.1451.081048.5
193626066.0339.794219.9
1937222111.9343.488812.2
1938267129.0460.982413.2
193926788.3451.068117.8
194021384.8250.63917.6
194116570.9142.028822.5
19428259.564.51981.9
19434537.840.12703.1
19445126.9102.14643.0
19454537.1236.47416.8
19465241.997.01,43522.1
19477431.189.51,81319.2
1948148100.6286.61,75117.4
194917976.8406.32,15716.0
195014298.5251.82,07420.4
195114596.5273.62,02025.6
1952168112.5502.31,74466.8
1953215144.3762.02,04186.1
1954277165.1826.92,68555.5
1955304224.8764.62,69536.7
1956390261.11,095.53,25541.2
1957437360.71,564.53,502161.1
1958495369.61,638.33,03461.5
1959618389.81,510.42,73794.2
1960495331.21,337.83,76774.0
1961425303.61,415.83,56771.7
1962591446.12,138.43,35145.1
1963566441.11,660.34,16574.1
1964507325.51,784.95,05490.0
1965507335.62,337.55,56385.8
1966507378.52,033.55,609187.3
1967652373.92,312.24,829102.7
1968820487.23,743.55,010190.1
1969659746.53,743.56,403286.6
1970596466.53,660.16,431282.9
1971477604.43,471.75,490359.0
1972461698.54,138.56,5474,271.1
1973329783.02,991.08,837249.4
1974324606.03,009.07,749471.8
19754871,041.09,122.07,815104.6
19764571,392.09,541.0....
19776261,564.014,314.0....

Chapter 42. CHRONOLOGY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS

NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND

1642 European discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769 Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1791 Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792 First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1814 Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1820 Hongi's visit to England.

1823–28 Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1825 First attempt at colonisation, by an expedition under Captain Herd.

1827 Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1831 Tory Channel whaling station established. Application of 13 chiefs for the protection of King William IV.

1833 Mr James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834 Waimate Pa, near Opunake, shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which HM troops employed in New Zealand.

1835 Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of "United Tribes of New Zealand". Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1838 Pelorus Sound discovered.

1839 Governor of New South Wales authorised to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840 Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841 Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842 Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843 Affray with Maoris at Wairau.

1844 Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845 Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846 Arrival of first steam vessel (HMS Driver) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Maori hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847 Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848 Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Otago founded.

1850 Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852 Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854 Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855 First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856 Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857 Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858 New Provinces Act passed.

1860 Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861 Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovery at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862 Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s White Swan, with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened—Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863 Wreck of HMS Orpheus on Manukau Bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Maori affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand, portion of Christchurch-Lyttelton line, opened.

1864 Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including battles of Rangiaowhia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. First major discovery of gold on West Coast of South Island.

1865 Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Maoris defeated at Wairoa.

1866 Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

1867 Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868 Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner Rifleman and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Maoris.

1869 Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit of Te Kooti. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870 Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail service. Possession taken of Bounty Island. Inauguration of Vogel public works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University.

1871 Commencement of railway construction under public works policy.

1872 Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873 Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Co.

1874 In pursuance of immigration and public works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants arrived.

1875 Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company.

1876 New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877 Education Act passed, providing for free compulsory education.

1878 Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.

1879 Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal mine explosion, whereby 34 lives lost.

1881 Wreck of s.s. Tararua, with loss of 130 lives.

1882 First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883 Direct steamer communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1886 Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887 Annexation of Kermadec Islands.

1888 British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1890 Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1892 Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure.

1893 Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Prime Minister. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. Wairarapa, with loss of 135 lives.

1896 Brunner Mine explosion, causing 67 deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898 Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899 Labour Day instituted. New Zealand contingent (the first of 10) sent to South Africa.

1901 Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902 Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. Elingamite, with loss of 43 lives.

1903 Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905 Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to "High Commissioner".

1906 Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier. Advances to Workers Act passed.

1907 New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908 Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland.

1909 S.s. Penguin wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of 75 lives. Battle cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910 Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911 Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912 Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

1913 Extensive strikes.

1914 Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal mine disaster, with loss of 43 lives.

1915 New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. Pensions for miners introduced.

1916 New Zealand Division transferred to Western Front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918 S.s. Wimmera sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. End of First World War. Great influenza epidemic, causing nearly 7,000 deaths.

1919 Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, Prime Minister.

1920 Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921 Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate.

1922 Meat-export trade placed under control of a board.

1923 Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed, and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy Produce Export Control Act passed.

1924 Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor Vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licensing of motor vehicles. Pensions for blind persons introduced. S.s. Ripple foundered off Cape Palliser with loss of 16 lives.

1925 Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand.

1926 Family Allowances Act passed.

1928 Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea.

1929 Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused 17 deaths.

1930 Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed.

1931 Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 percent in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.

1932 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.

1933 Exchange rate raised to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraphic transfers). Sales tax instituted.

Conversion of internal public debt with reduction in interest rates, and provision made for local authorities interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England.

1934 First official trans-Tasman air mail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. First licensed air transport service commenced operations.

1935 Rural Mortgagors' Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. Labour Government assumed office for first of four successive terms.

1936 Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalised. System of basic prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour week became operative. Powers of Court of Arbitration restored.

1938 Social Security Act passed. Introduction of import selection and control.

1939 Declaration of war with Germany. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Arrangements for purchase of farm products by Britain.

1940 Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Declaration of war with Italy. RMS Niagara sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine. Ballots for military service.

1941 Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial Forces mobilised.

1942 Complete mobilisation of Military Forces ordered. Introduction of control of industrial manpower. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of 18 and 65 inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New Zealand. Rationing introduced. Mobilisation of women for essential work.

1943 North African campaign brought to a successful conclusion. Railway accident near Hyde—21 persons killed. 2nd NZEF (3rd Division) took part in action against Japanese in the Pacific Area.

1944 Australia - New Zealand Agreement 1944, providing for collaboration on matters of mutual interest.

1945 War in Europe ended (8 May). Manpower controls in regard to women and young persons relaxed. Wartime press censorship abolished. War Cabinet dissolved. War in Pacific ended. Japan formally surrenders (15 August). Electoral Amendment Act providing for abolition of the "country quota" passed. South Island Main Trunk Railway opened, through rail connection from Picton to Bluff established.

1946 Restrictions on consumption of electric power imposed in North Island. Remaining manpower controls lifted in June. Family benefit of $1 per week made universal as from 1 April.

1947 Local Government Commission appointed. First woman Cabinet Minister in New Zealand appointed. Marketing of dairy produce taken over by Dairy Commission. Statute of Westminster adopted by New Zealand Parliament.

1948 Licensing Control Commission appointed. Adjustments of exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August.

1949 Polls on the establishment of off-course betting and on an alteration in hotel hours held in March. Referendum agrees to compulsory military training.

1950 Control of land sales, except of farm land, lifted. Control of sterling funds and securities relaxed. Abolition of petrol and butter rationing. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed. Kay-force sailed from Wellington for Korea.

1951 Prolonged waterfront strike resulted in Proclamation of State of Emergency, and issue of regulations under the Public Safety Conservation Act. Servicemen kept essential cargoes moving. Waterfront unions deregistered. Establishment of Civil Emergency Reserve. United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed Pacific Security Treaty.

1952 Accession of Queen Elizabeth II.

1953 Power restrictions suspended in North Island, first time for 12 years. Armistice agreement signed in Korea. New Zealand's worst railway disaster occurred at Tangiwai on Christmas Eve, with a death roll of 154 persons. Arrival of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, on 23 December, the first occasion on which a reigning monarch had visited these shores.

1954 New Zealand took seat on United Nations Security Council. The Executive Council and Cabinet held meetings at Auckland on 25 May to mark the centenary of parliamentary government in New Zealand. New Zealand signed the South-east Asia Treaty at Manila

1955 Pulp and paper mill at Kawerau began operation. Rimutaka tunnel opened for traffic in November.

1956 Roxburgh and Whakamaru power stations in operation. Colombo Plan Conference held in Wellington.

1957 New Zealand Antarctic Expedition established Scott Base at Pram Point, McMurdo Sound. Separate Court of Appeal constituted.

1958 Import selection and exchange allocation brought into force to conserve overseas exchange. PAYE taxation on incomes introduced. Power generated from geothermal steam at Wairakei and from coal station at Mercer.

1959 Auckland Harbour Bridge opened (May). Reconstructed Wellington Airport opened for traffic (July). S.s. Holmglen foundered off Timaru with loss of 15 lives. Twelve nations, including New Zealand, signed treaty to preserve Antarctica for peaceful scientific research for all time.

1960 Government signed agreement for company to use power from Te Anau–Manapouri Lakes system for large aluminium smelting industry. Regular television programmes began in Auckland.

1961 Tasman Empire Airways became wholly owned by New Zealand (later renamed Air New Zealand). New Zealand joined International Monetary Fund, International Bank of Reconstruction and Development, and International Finance Corporation.

1962 Western Samoa became first independent Polynesian State. Cook Strait rail-ferry service commenced with Aramoana. New Tasman cable link completed as part of Commonwealth Pacific cable.

1964 Three Cook Strait cables, each of 25 miles, laid as part of inter-Island transmission project. Start made on Tongariro hydro-electric power scheme. Oil refinery opened at Whangarei.

1965 Limited free trade agreement negotiated with Australia. Cook Islands became self-governing. Auckland International Airport came into use. Jet airliners (three DC8s) obtained by Air New Zealand. Haast Pass highway opened to link south Westland and Otago. Millionth telephone installed.

1966 Labour force reached 1,000,000. Licensed television sets reached 500,000. Collier Kaitawa sank off Cape Reinga with loss of 29 lives.

1967 Matahina electric power station brought into operation. Explosion at Strongman mine caused 19 deaths. Decimal currency introduced on 10 July ($2 equal to former unit of £).

1968 SEATO Conference held in Wellington. T.E.V. Wahine foundered in Wellington Harbour in severe storm with loss of 51 lives. Jet planes introduced in internal air services.

1969 Electric power generated from giant Manapouri project. Construction of aluminium smelter at Invercargill commenced. First output from steel mill at Glenbrook. Construction of thermal power station at New Plymouth commenced. Oil strike off shore at Taranaki. Voting rights extended to 20-year old persons.

1970 Council for Asian and Pacific Co-operation (ASPAC) met in Wellington. Physical Environment Conference held. Natural gas from Kapuni supplied to Auckland.

1971 Negotiations by Britain with members of European Economic Community secure New Zealand's position by special arrangement for her butter and cheese exports to the United Kingdom; Britain decides to join EEC in 1973 and later signs Treaty of Accession. First container ships loaded at Wellington and Auckland. Major shipments of ironsand to Japan from Taranaki coast. Bluff aluminium smelter in commercial operation and first exports made. All seven generators installed at Manapouri hydro-electric station. Silver Star express introduced on North Island main trunk line. Natural gas reticulation to Wellington completed. Introduction of first steps of metric conversion for weights and measures.

1972 Special measures for stabilisation of remuneration and prices. Sheep retention scheme payments. Containerised shipping service in operation from Auckland and Wellington to United Kingdom and Europe. Legislation passed for Wool Marketing Corporation, Equal Pay, and Accident Compensation. Labour Government assumed office under Right Hon. N. E. Kirk. Third Cook Strait rail ferry in operation.

1973 Britain joins European Economic Community. Wool Marketing Corporation established. Farm income equalisation scheme extended. Trade negotiations with China; embassy opened in Peking. Extension of trade with Peru, Brazil and Chile. New Zealand becomes member of organisation for economic co-operation and development (OECD). First DC10 jet aircraft in service with Air New Zealand. Agreement reached for development of Maui field of natural gas off shore from Taranaki. Timber and pulp mill opened at Whirinaki, Napier. New Zealand currency placed on "near float arrangement" of relationships with major trading partners. Revaluations of 3 percent and 10 percent. Colour television introduced. First step of Equal Pay Act in effect. Industrial Relations Act passed. New Zealand Shipping Corporation established. Construction of 100-megawatt Rangipo hydro-power station and 550-megawatt Huntly coal-fired power station approved.

1974 Tenth British Commonwealth Games held in Christchurch. New Plymouth thermal power station in operation and projects approved during the year include three hydro stations, two thermal stations, and more gas turbines. Revised Customs Tariff introduced on 1 July in metric measure. State Shipping Corporation places order for container ship. Fourth Cook Strait rail-ferry brought into service. Self-government granted to Niue after referendum. Death of the Prime Minister, Right Hon. N. E. Kirk; succeeded in office by Right Hon. W. E. Rowling. Severe fall in overseas reserves. Shah and Empress of Iran visit New Zealand; trade agreement signed.

1975 New measures to assist farmers included $50 million for meat and wool income stabilisation schemes, increase in lamb prices of $1 on each lamb sold to export works, minimum wool prices, and suspension of meat inspection fees. Further Government participation in off-shore oil exploration announced. New trade deals established with Middle-East countries, Japan, and U.S.S.R. (Jul) New Zealand's terms of trade reached lowest level since the Second World War. (Aug) New Zealand dollar devalued by 15 percent. (Oct) Permanent stabilisation scheme for meat prices announced. Conversion of New Plymouth power station from oil to natural gas under way. Continued oil conservation measures introduced, including steep petrol price rises. Sharp rise in wool shipping freight rates. National Government, under Right Hon. R. D. Muldoon, assumed office.

1976 In February, cuts in food subsidies and in subsidies on electricity, rail charges, and Post Office charges resulted in substantial price increases. (Mar) Government review of monetary and housing policies resulted (among other things) in a tightening-up of hire purchase terms and higher interest rates on savings. (Apr) Subsidies on bread and flour abolished. Mini-budget abolished subsidies on eggs and butter and made cuts in Government spending. (Jun) Cost-of-living wage order of 7 percent or $7 per week, whichever was less, issued. E.E.C. set import quotas for New Zealand butter in the years 1978–80 of 125,000 tonnes, 120,000 tonnes, and 115,000 tonnes. Rail freight charges raised. (Jul) Wool Income Stabilisation Scheme introduced. (Aug) Price and rent freeze until end of year introduced. New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement extended for further 10 years. Controversy over New Zealand's sporting links with South Africa resulted in African nations walk-out at Olympic Games in Montreal. (Oct-Nov) Rises in freight rates for New Zealand exports. Inflation continued as major problem throughout the year. (Nov) New Zealand dollar devalued by 7 percent following Australian devaluation of 17.5 percent. (Dec) New Zealand dollar revalued by 2 percent in wake of Australian revaluation. Storm caused severe flooding in Hutt Valley.

1977 The Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh visited New Zealand in February as part of the Silver Jubilee celebrations. Also in February the new national superannuation scheme came into operation. (March) General Wage Order of six percent announced. New Zealand Planning Council formed. (May) Announcement that merger of Wool Board and Wool Marketing Corporation was to proceed. Report of the Royal Commission on Contraception, Sterilisation, and Abortion published. (June) Commonwealth Heads of Government Conference sponsored Gleneagies agreement on sporting contacts with South Africa. (July) Budget included announcement that future energy policy will include on-shore oil exploration by the Government, continued Government involvement with oil companies in off-shore exploration, and an increase in exploratory and development work on coal and geothermal steam resources. (September) Territorial Sea and Exclusive Economic Zone Act passed, establishing 200 miles-wide economic zone around New Zealand coast. (October) Act passed establishing Ministry of Energy, combining functions of Mines Department, Electricity Department, and Ministry of Energy Resources. Mildly stimulatory mini-Budget announced. Difficult economic conditions, with inflation as a major problem and an increasing problem of unemployment, continued throughout year. There were also continued population losses from net migration.

Chapter 43. SPECIAL ARTICLES IN PREVIOUS ISSUES

Table of Contents

Special articles published prior to 1946 were listed in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

SubjectYearPage
Alexander Turnbull Library1945914
National Film Unit1946724
Retail prices in New Zealand, with reference to the Consumers Price Index1947–49998
Economic policy and national income19501033
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research1951–521066
Standardisation1951–521076
Sources of statistical information19531016
Royal Tour of New Zealand, 23 December 1953 to 31 January 195419541121
New Zealand: Its tourist industry, tourist and sporting attractions19551143
Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems: Summary of report19561201
Consumers Price Index—1955 Revision19571214
New Zealand activities in the Antarctic19581247
New Zealand's international activities19591221
Grassland research in New Zealand19601243
University education for science and technology19611186
New Zealand and the European Economic Community19621150
Visit of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, 6 to 18 February 196319631167
The development of New Zealand's railway system 1863–196319631175
The arts in New Zealand, including the visual arts, literature, music and opera, and drama and ballet19641145
The Maori people as shown by the Population Census 196119651160
Industrial relations—The next ten years and beyond19661131
Population growth and economic development in New Zealand19661136
Scientific research in New Zealand19671118
Recent constitutional changes in the South-West Pacific19681104
National Development Conference 196919691103
Development of forestry and forest industries19691107
Captain James Cook and his three voyages of discovery in the Pacific 1768–7919691116
Metrication19701110
Human pressures on the natural environment19701115
Ministry of Works, 1871–197119711110
Evolution of social security in New Zealand19721015
Evolution of New Zealand dairy industry 1871–197119721024
Development of the meat industry 1922–7219731047
New Zealand membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development19731064
Tenth British Commonwealth Games 197419731068
New Zealand Ports and Shipping Developments19741065
Revision of Consumers Price Index 197419751039
Household Sample Survey 1973–7419751047
Input-output analysis: an abacus for economists19751052
Tourism: the invisible export19761030
One hundred years of Lands and Survey19761046
Royal Visit 19771977942
New Zealand at the turning point1977945
Education in the New Zealand community1977952

Chapter 44. Select Bibliography
New Zealand Books

Compiled in the Alexander Turnbull Library, National Library, Wellington

THE following list of books has been compiled to give New Zealand and overseas readers a selective approach to the country's literature and sources of information. Entries are arranged alphabetically under appropriate subject headings which are in approximate order of the Dewey Classification. Emphasis has been placed on works which are known to be in print. Selection has covered books published in New Zealand as well as books published overseas about New Zealand or written by resident New Zealanders. Works which are clearly university or school texts have been omitted unless they represent the most concise and authoritative treatment of a subject. Works of less than 75 pages have been indicated by an asterisk.

The standard current bibliography of New Zealand books and pamphlets as from 1967 is the New Zealand National Bibliography issued by the Alexander Turnbull Library for the National Library of New Zealand. Prices of New Zealand imprints are as shown in the Associated Booksellers' New Zealand books in print, in publishers' catalogues and from other sources, but prices of overseas publications are given at the overseas rate.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY, AND ENCYCLOPAEDIAS

BAGNALL, A. G., ed. New Zealand National Bibliography to the Year 1960. Wn, Govt. Print., 1890–1960. 3 v. A–H $10; I–O $13.50; P–Z $22.50.

THE DUNMORE BOOKOF NEW ZEALAND RECORDS, edited by P. Dunmore. Palmerston North, Dunmore Press, 1977. $8.95.

ENCYCLOPAEDIAOF NEW ZEALAND, edited by A. H. McLintock. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. 3 v. $15. o.p.

FAIR, A. P. R. Guide to Book Values, New Zealand – Australia – Pacific – Antarctic; Book Auction Records 1971–1974. Wn, the author, 1975. $5.

FISCHER, B. Guide to New Zealand Book Collecting and Handbook of Values. Dn, City Publishers, 1977. $15.95.

HOCKEN, T. M. A. A Bibliography of the Literature Relating to New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1909. o.p. Reprinted. Wn, Newrick Associates, 1973. $20.

NEW ZEALAND ASSOCIATIONS, SOCIETIES, CLUBS; A National Directory. Wn, The Library Victoria University of Wellington, 1977. $3.

NEW ZEALAND BOOKSIN PRINT 1976. Wn, New Zealand Book Publishers Association, 1976. $9.95.

NEW ZEALAND LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. Bibliography of New Zealand Bibliographies. Wn, 1967.

OXFORD NEW ZEALAND ENCYCLOPAEDIA. London, O. U. P., 1965. o.p.

RODGER, D. M. Theses on the History of New Zealand. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1968–72. 4 v.

TAYLOR, C. R. H. A Bibliography of Publications on the New Zealand Maori, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1972. $3.50.

——— A Pacific Bibliography. 2nd ed. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. o.p.

UNION CATALOGUEOF NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS PRESERVEDIN PUBLIC LIBRARIES, NEWSPAPER OFFICES, AND LOCAL AUTHORITY OFFICES. 2nd ed. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1961. $1.30.

UNION LISTOF SERIALSIN NEW ZEALAND LIBRARIES. 3rd ed. Wn, National Library of New Zealand, 1969–1970. 6 v. $25. Interim edition on microfiche. 1976. $45.

UNION LISTOF THESESOFTHE UNIVERSITYOF NEW ZEALAND, 1910–1954. Wn, New Zealand Library Association, 1956. o.p. Supplement, 1955–1962. $1.25. Supplement, 1963–1967. $4. Supplement, 1968–1971. $4. Supplement, 1971–1975. $9. See also Rodger above.

*WILSON, J. O. A Finding List of British Parliamentary Papers Relating to New Zealand, 1817–1900. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1960. $1.

*WOOD, G. A. A Guide for Students of New Zealand History. Dn, McIndoe, 1973.

SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

ADOLESCENCEIN NEW ZEALAND; A Book of Readings. Editor Robert A. C. Stewart. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1916. 2 v. $7.50 each.

CLEVELAND, L. The Anatomy of Influence; Pressure Groups and Politics in New Zealand. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1972. $3.85.

CLEVELAND, L. and A. D. ROBINSON, comps. Readings in New Zealand Government. Wn, Reed Education, 1972 $8.50.

COLEMAN, M. D. The New Zealand Labour Party, 1916–1966; A bibliography. Wn, Library School 1972.

CONTEMPORARY NEW ZEALAND; Essays on the Human Resource, Urban Growth, and Problems of Society, edited by K. W. Thomson and A. D. Trlin. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1973. $10.40.

DEFENCE PERSPECTIVES: papers read at the 1972 Otago Foreign Policy School. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1972. $2.

*DOLLIMORE, H. N. The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973. 90c.

ENERGYANDTHE ENVIRONMENT, edited by D. M. Adcock. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1975. $4.50.

GLYNN, J. F. The New Zealand Policeman; The Developing Role of New Zealand Police. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1975. $4.25.

GRIMSHAW, P. Women's Suffrage in New Zealand. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $5.25.

GUSTAFSON, B. S. Social Change and Party Organization; The New Zealand Labour Party Since 1945. London, Sage, 1976. £1.50.

HILL, L. B. The Model Ombudsman; Institutionalising New Zealand's Democratic Experiment. Princeton, N. J., Princeton University Press, 1976. US$16.50.

JACKSON, W. K. New Zealand: Politics of Change. Wn, Reed, 1973. $3.95.

JOHNSTON, R. J. Urbanisation in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1973. $10.50.

JULIAN, R. Brought to Mind; A Study of Informal Family Day Care in Four Geographical Areas in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1977. $7.50.

LEVINE, S. I. The New Zealand Voter; A Survey of Public Opinion and Electoral Behaviour. Wn, Price Milburn for New Zealand University Press, 1976. $9.60.

MACLEAN, F. S. Challenge for Health; A History of Public Health in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.50.

N.Z. DEPTOF LABOUR. Research and Planning Division. Immigration and Immigrants; A bibliography. Wn, Dept. of Labour, 1975.

NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN POLICY; occasional papers 1973–74. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1975. 75c.

NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN POLICY: statements and documents, 1943–1957. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $9.

NEW ZEALANDIN WORLD AFFAIRS, Vol. I. Wn, Price Milburn for the New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1977. Hbk: $8.50. Pbk: $4.50.

NEW ZEALAND PARLIAMENTARY RECORD, 1840–1949, edited by G. H. Scholefield. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. $3.50. Supplement 1950–1969, edited by J. O. Wilson. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969.

NEW ZEALAND POLITICS: A Reader, edited by Stephen Levine. Melbourne, Cheshire, 1975. $9.95.

NEW ZEALAND, SOUTH AFRICAAND SPORT, Background Papers. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1976. $1.

N.Z. TASK FORCEON ECONOMICAND SOCIAL PLANNING. New Zealand at the Turning Point. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $4.50.

THE ORDEROF ST. JOHNIN NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. E. Wright-St. Clair. Wn, Priory in New Zealand of the Order of St. John, 1977. $10.

PACIFIC HORIZONS: A Regional Role for New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1972. $2.

POLICIESFOR REGIONAL DEVELOPMENTIN NEW ZEALAND, ed. by G. A. Town. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1972. (Studies in Public Administration, No. 17.) $2.50.

ROTH, H. O. Trade Unions in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

SOCIAL CLASSIN NEW ZEALAND, edited by David Pitt. Ak, Longman Paul, 1977. Hbk: $6.95. Pbk: $4.50.

SOCIAL WELFAREAND NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY, edited by A. D. Trlin. Wn, Methuen 1977. $12.95.

SPIRITOFAN AGE; New Zealand in the Seventies. Essays in honour of W. B. Sutch, edited by John L. Robson and Jack Shallcrass. Wn, Reed, 1975. $7.50.

THOMPSON, K. W. AND TRLIN, A. D. (eds). Contemporary New Zealand; Essays on the Human Resources, Urban Growth, and Problems of Society. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1973. $10.40.

THOMPSON, R. H. T. Retreat From Apartheid: New Zealand's Sporting Contacts with South Africa. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1975. $3.10.

WEBB, S. D., AND J. COLLETTE, (eds.) New Zealand Society; Contemporary Perspectives. Sydney, J. Wiley, 1973. A$6.75.

THE WELFARE STATE TODAY, edited by Geoffrey Palmer. Wn, Fourth Estate Books. 1977. $19.50.

WOODS, N. S. Industrial Relations; A Search for Understanding. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975. $4.65.

ECONOMICS AND BANKING

BERL PUBLICATIONS LTD. Equity Investment, 1975–76; A Ten Year Review of Public Companies Listed on New Zealand Stock Exchanges, Including Share Prices, Earning Rates, Dividend Yields and Asset Backings. Wn. 1976. $5.

BLYTH, C. A. Inflation in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, 1977. $3.95.

BURTT, D. J. Trans-Tasman Development and Trade. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, 1977. $3.

CAREY, R. H., and F. W. HOLMES. A Preliminary Bibliography of New Zealand Economics and Economic History. Wn, Victoria University of Wellington, 1967. o.p.

CHRISTIF, K. M. Retailing; Performance, Planning and Policy. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Economic Research, 1973. $1.50.

FIGGE, A. H. Introduction to Economic Policies in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $5.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT POLICYIN NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. H. Carey. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1975. $4.50.

GREENSMITH, E. I. The New Zealand Wool Commission. Wn, New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation, 1976.

HAWKE, G. R. Between Governments and Banks; A History of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Wn, Govt. Print., 1973.

HOLMES, F. W. Money, Finance, and the Economy. Ak, Heinemann, 1972. $4.95.

JOHNSTON, T. R. The Law and Practice of Company Accounting in New Zealand. 4th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $17.50.

LANE, P. A. Economy in the Balance; an introduction to the New Zealand Economy. Wn, Methuen, 1976. $5.25.

LLOYD PRICHARD, M. F. An Economic History of New Zealand to 1939. Ak, Collins, 1970. $8.

——— Economic Practice in New Zealand 1954/55–1967/68. Ak, Collins, 1970. $5.60.

MARRIS, E. C. New Zealand Investment Guide. Rev. ed. Wn, N.Z. Financial Times Publishers, 1976. $4.50.

N.Z. COMMITTEEOF ENQUIRYINTO INFLATION ACCOUNTING. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $1.75.

NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENTOF INDUSTRIESAND COMMERCE. Investment in New Zealand; A Ready Reference for the Overseas Investor. Rev. ed. Wn, 1972. gratis.

OLIVER, H. M. Printing and Publishing in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Economic Research, 1976. $2.

ORGANISATIONFOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATIONAND DEVELOPMENT. New Zealand. Paris, OECD, 1977. $2.70.

SUTCH, W. B. Takeover New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1972. $3.50.

LAW

ADAMS, F. B. Criminal Law and Practice in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1971. $36.50.

ANDERSON, H. E. Anderson's Company Law Service. 3rd ed. Wn, Brooker and Friend, 1976. $49.85.

BUTTERWORTH'S CASES ANNOTATIONSOFTHE NEW ZEALAND STATUTES REPRINT, 1908–64, by H.J. Wily. Wn, Butterworth, 1974. Hbk $20; Pbk $16.

CHESHIRE, G. C., and C. H. S. FIFOOT. Law of Contract. 4th New Zealand ed., by J. F. Northey. Wn, Butterworth, 1974. Hbk $20: Pbk $16.

DUNCAN, P. C. The Layman and the Law in New Zealand. Rev. ed. Wn, J. McGregor, 1976. $1.95.

ESSAYSON CRIMINAL LAWIN NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. S. Clark. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1971. Hbk $8.50; Pbk $6.

FEA, C. B. Legal Aid in New Zealand. Wn, Butterworths, 1975. $17.50.

GARROW, J. M. E. Garrow's Law of Trusts and Trustees. 4th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $17.50.

GARROW, J. M. E., and H. R. Gray. Garrow and Grays' Law of Personal Property in New Zealand. 5th ed. Wn, Butterworth 1968. $9.50.

GARROW, J. M. E., and J. D. WILLIS. Garrow and Willis's Criminal Law. 5th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $19.

GRAHAM, P. W. Graham's Law of Transportation. Wn, Brooker & Friend, 1975. $18.75.

A LEGAL BIBLIOGRAPHYOFTHE BRITISH COMMONWEALTHOF NATIONS. V. 6: Australia, New Zealand, and Their Dependencies. 2nd ed. London, Sweet and Maxwell, 1958. £2.50.

MATHIESON, D. L. Industrial Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1970–. v. 1 1970. $13.

THE MATRIMONIAL PROPERTY ACT 1976, papers presented at the Legal Research Foundation Inc. seminar, 2nd February 1977. Ak, Auckland University Legal Research Foundation, 1977. $5.

MULHOLLAND, B. D. Introduction to the New Zealand Legal System. 2nd rev. ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1976. Hbk $13; Pbk $11.

NEVILL, P. H. W. Nevill and Brown's Concise Law of Trusts, Wills, and Administration in New Zealand. 6th ed. by J. W. Brown. Wn, Butterworth, 1976.

N.Z. COMMISSIONFORTHE ENVIRONMENT. A Guide to Environmental Law in New Zealand. Wn, Commission for the Environment, 1976. $2.50.

NEW ZEALAND LAWS, STATUTES, ETC. Reprint of the Statutes of New Zealand, 1908–57. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958–1961. 16 v. $11.75 ea.

NORTHEY, J. F. Introduction to Company Law in New Zealand. 8th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1976. Hbk $15; Pbk $12.

NORTHEY, J. F., and W. C. S. LEYS. Commercial Law in New Zealand. 5th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1974. $17.50.

O'KEEFE, J. A. B. Land Title Law. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Valuers Statistical Bureau, 1977. $5.

——— The Legal Concept and Principles of Land Value. Wn, Butterworths, 1974. $17.50.

PALMER, K. A. Planning Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1977. Hbk: $28. Pbk: $23.50.

ROBINSON, K. The Law of Town and Country Planning. 2nd rev. and enl. ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $9.

RODGERS, J. Income Tax; Practice Notes. Wn, Butterworths, 1976. Available only as part of Butterworths taxation library. $50 the 3 v. set.

SIM, Sir W. A. Sim's Divorce Law and Practice in New Zealand. 8th ed., by W. J. Sim. Wn, Butterworth, 1971. $20.

STOUT, R. and W. J. SIM. The Practice of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal of New Zealand. 11th ed., by W. J. Sim. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. 2v. $35.

SZAKATS, A. Introduction to the Law of Employment. Wn, Butterworth, 1975. Hbk $22.50; Pbk $17.70.

WARD, D. A. S., and H. R. C. WILD. Mercantile Law in New Zealand. 6th ed. (rev.) Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974. $7.50.

WILY, H. J. Wily's Magistrates' Courts Practice. 7th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1973. $32.50.

WOMENANDTHE LAWIN NEW ZEALAND, edited by K. Turner and P. Vaver. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975. $3.60.

EDUCATION

ADVISORY COUNCILON EDUCATIONAL PLANNING. Directions for Educational Development. Wn, 1974. $2.25.

ASPECTSOF SCHOOL ORGANISATION, edited by C. J. Wright. Wn, New Zealand Educational Institute, 1976. $8.50.

BARNEY, W. D. Who Gets to Pre-school? The Availability of Pre-school Education in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1975. $12.50.

BARRINGTON, J. M. and T. H. BEAGLEHOLE. Maori Schools in a Changing Society, An Historical Review. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1974. $8.

BROOKING, T. W. H. Massey, Its Early Years; A History of the Development of Massey Agricultural College to 1943. Palmerston North, Massey Alumni Association, 1977.

COMPULSORY EDUCATIONIN NEW ZEALAND; A Study Initiated by the National Commission for UNESCO. Rev. ed., prepared by J. L. Ewing. Paris, UNESCO, 1969. $1.90.

FITZGERALD, T. K. Education and Identity; A Study of the New Zealand Maori Graduate. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1977. $8.

HALL, D. O. W. New Zealand Adult Education. London, Joseph, 1970. $2.50.

HAVILL, S. J., and D. R. MITCHELL, (eds.) Issues in New Zealand Special Education. Ak, Hodder and Stroughton in Association with University of London Press, 1972. $4.80.

MCDONALD, G. Maori Mothers and Pre-school Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1973. $4.

N.Z. COMMITTEEON SECONDARY EDUCATION. Towards Partnership. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. $2.80.

NEW ZEALAND POST-PRIMARY TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. CURRICULUM REVIEW GROUP. Education in Change; Report … Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $2.50.

ROTH, H. O. A Bibliography of New Zealand Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1964. $2.25.

WATSON, J. E. Intermediate Schooling in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1964. $3.75.

THE MAORI PEOPLE, PAST AND PRESENT

TE AO HURIHURI; The World Moves On; Aspects of Maoritanga, edited by M. King. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975, reprinted 1977. Pbk: $6.95.

ARCHEY, Sir G. E. Whaowhia; Maori Art and its Artists. Ak, Collins, 1977. $15.

BARROW, T. T. Decorative Art of the New Zealand Maori. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1975. $4.50.

——— Maori Wood Sculpture of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.50.

BEST, E. Forest Lore of the Maori. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1942. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $17.95.

——— Games and Pastimes of the Maori. Wn, Board of Maori Ethnological Research for the Dominion Museum, 1925. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $17.

——— The Maori as He Was. Wn, Dominion Museum, 1924. Reprinted Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $6.50.

BIGGS, B. G. Let's Learn Maori; a Guide to the Study of the Maori Language. Wn, Reed, 1975. $3.50.

BIGGS, B. G., P. W. HOHEPA, and S. M. MEADS, eds. Selected Readings in Maori. Rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1967. $1.65.

BIGWOOD, K. V., and H. DANSEY. The Maori in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1976. $8.50.

BUCK, Sir P. The Coming of the Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974. $4.75.

CLARK, P. J. A. Hauhau; The Pai Marire Search for Maori Identity. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. $9.40.

CONFLICTAND COMPROMISE; Essays on the Maori Since Colonization. Wn, Reed, 1975. $5.50.

DUFF, R. S. The Moa-hunter Period of Maori Culture. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $17.50.

FIRTH, R. W. Economics of the New Zealand Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $7.

MAIN, W. Maori in Focus. Wn, Millwood Press, 1976. $9.95.

MAORIIS MY NAME; Historical Maori Writings in Translation, edited by John Caselberg. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. Hbk $6.50; Pbk $3.95.

THE MAORI PEOPLEINTHE NINETEEN SIXTIES, A Symposium edited by E. G. Schwimmer. Ak, Longman Paul, 1972. $9.95.

METGE, J. The Maoris of New Zealand: Rautahi. London, Routledge, 1976. Hbk £4.50; Pbk £2.95.

POOL, D. I. The Maori Population of New Zealand, 1769–1971. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $8.35.

REED, A. W. Treasury of Maori Exploration; Legends Relating to the First Polynesian Explorers of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1977. $12.50.

RYAN, P. M. A Dictionary of Modern Maori. Ak. Heinemann Educational, 1971. $1.95.

SALMOND, A. Hui; A Study of Maori Ceremonial Gatherings. Wn, Reed, 1975. Hbk $9.95; Pbk $5.95.

SCHWIMMER, E. G. The World of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1974. $3.50.

SIMMONS, D. R. The Great New Zealand Myth; A Study of the Discovery and Origin Traditions of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1976. $18.50.

TROTTER, M. M., and B. MCCULLOCH. Prehistoric Rock Art of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $2.95.

WILLIAMS, J. A. Politics of the New Zealand Maori; Protest and Co-operation, 1891–1909. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $6.40.

WILLIAMS, H. W. A Bibliography of Printed Maori to 1900, and Supplement. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $4.50.

WILLIAMS, W. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. 7th ed., by H. W. Williams. Rev. and augmented by the Advisory Committee on the Teaching of the Maori Language, Department of Education. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $6.

SCIENCE, GENERAL

DIRECTORYOF NEW ZEALAND SCIENCE. 5th ed., Wn, New Zealand Association of Scientists, 1975. $8.

ELLIS, N. E. The New Zealand Environment; a bibliography of material available through New Zealand public libraries, including a select list of overseas publications, 1968–1974. Wn, Nature Conservation Council, 1975. Supplements also published.

*HOARE, M. E. Beyond the Filial Piety; Science History in New Zealand. Melbourne, Hawthorn Press, 1977.

MILLER, M. C. Reef and Beach Life of New Zealand; An Introduction. Ak, Collins, 1973. $12.50.

NEW ZEALAND'S NATURE HERITAGE. Ak, Hamlyn, 1976.

GEOLOGY

ADKIN, G. L. and B. W. COLLINS. A Bibliography of New Zealand Geology to 1950. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1967. o.p. Index, compiled by D. L. Jenkins, published Wn, D.S.I.R., 1976. $5.50.

BECK, R. J. New Zealand Jade; The Story of Greenstone. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2. 95.

COTTON. Sir C. A. Geomorphology. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1958. $3.25.

EIBY, G. A. Earthquakes. 2nd rev. ed. London, Muller, 1967. $3.

GRINDLEY, G. W., H. J. HARRINGTON, and B. L. WOOD. The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2,000,000. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. $3.25.

KINGMA, J. T. The Geological Structure of New Zealand. New York, Wiley, 1974. $69.

NEW ZEALAND WATERAND SOIL DIVISION. Land Use Capability Survey Handbook; a New Zealand Handbook for the Classification of Land. Rev. ed. Wn, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, 1971.

SALMON, J. H. M. A History of Goldmining in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.70.

SOIL BUREAU. Soils of New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1968. 3 v. (Its Bulletin 26.) $15.

STEVENS, G. R. Rugged Landscape; The Geology of Central New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $.12.50.

WILLIAMS, G. J. Economic Geology of New Zealand. Parkville, Vic. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1974. $23.

ZOOLOGY

BULLER, Sir W. L. Birds of New Zealand New ed., by E. G. Turbott. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1967. $16.50.

CHAPMAN, M. A. and M. H. LEWIS. An Introduction to the Freshwater Crustacea of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1976. $19.50.

DAFF, L. A. An Album of New Zealand Birds. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

DOAK, W. T. Fishes of the New Zealand Region. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1972. o.p.

FALLA, R. A., R. B. SIBSON, and E. G. TURBOTT. A Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand and Outlying Islands. 2nd ed. London; Ak, Collins, 1970. $9.25.

FORSTER, R. R., and L. M. FORSTER. Small Land Animals of New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1970. Hbk $7.95; Pbk $4.95.

FORSTER, R. R. New Zealand Spiders. Ak, Collins, 1973. $10.60.

GASKIN, D. E. The Butterflies and Common Moths of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs 1966. o. p.

LAIDLAW, W. B. R. Butterflies of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1970. o.p.

LESLIE, M. A. Animals of the Rocky Shore of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1968. o.p.

MARSHALL, J., F. C. KINSKY, and C. J. R. ROBERTSON. The Fiat Book of Common Birds in New Zealand. 3 v. Wn, Reed, 1972–75. $7.50.

MILLER, D. Common Insects in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $7.50.

OLIVER, W. R. B. New Zealand Birds. Reprinted. Wn, Reed, 1974. $18.50.

PENDERGRAST, J. G., and D. R. COWLEY. An Introduction to New Zealand Freshwater Insects. Ak, London. Collins, 1966. $1.80.

POWELL, A. W. B. Shells of New Zealand, An Illustrated Handbook. 5th ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $12.

SHARELL, R. New Zealand Insects and Their Story, Ak, Collins, 1971. $9.20.

——— The Tuatara, Lizards, and Frogs of New Zealand. London, Collins, 1966. $8.40.

SOPER, M. F. New Zealand Birds. 2nd ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $19.50.

WILD ANIMALSIN NEW ZEALAND, compiled under the direction of A. L. Poole. Wn, Reed, 1970. $8.50.

BOTANY

ALLISON, K. W. and J. CHILD. The Mosses of New Zealand. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1971. $6.60.

COCKAYNE, L. New Zealand Plants and Their Story. 4th ed., by E. J. Godley. Wn, Govt. Print., 1967. $3.

CONNOR, H. E. The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $9.75.

EAGLE, A. L. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand in Colour, two hundred and twenty-eight botanical paintings. Ak, Collins, 1975. $50.

FISHER, M. E. New Zealand Ferns in Your Garden. Ak, Collins, 1976. $9.95.

FLORAOF NEW ZEALAND. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961–. 3 v. v.1 by H. H. Allan, 1961. $10.50; v. 2 by L. B. Moore and E. Edgar, 1970. $4.50.

HEATH, E. W. and R. J. CHINNOCK. Ferns and Fern Allies of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

LAING, R. M., and E. W. BLACKWELL. Plants of New Zealand. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $3.85.

MARK, A. F., and N. M. ADAMS. New Zealand Alpine Plants. Wn, Reed, 1973. Hbk. $19.50; Pbk. $13.50.

PARAM, B. E. V., and A. J. HEALY. Common Weeds in New Zealand; An Illustrated Guide to Their Identification. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $6.75.

POOLE, A. L., and N. M. ADAMS. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.50.

STEWART, J. P. Plants in New Zealand Poisonous to Man. Rev. ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $2.25.

TAYLOR, G. M. Mushrooms and Toadstools in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.50.

TECHNOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE

ALLSOP, F. The First Fifty Years of New Zealand's Forest Service. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973.

ATKINSON, J. D. Diseases of Tree Fruits in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. $7.50.

ATKINSON, J. D. DSIR's First Fifty Years. Wn, Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1976. $5.

CALDER, D. H. Seeing the Southern Sky. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1977. $7.95.

DURING, C. Fertilisers and Soils in New Zealand Farming. 2d. ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $6.

THE ENGINEERING HISTORYOF ELECTRIC SUPPLYIN NEW ZEALAND, edited by L. B. Hutton and F. N. Stace. Wn, Electric Supply Authority Engineers' Institute of New Zealand, 1958–75. 3 v.

FISHER, M. E., E. SATCHELL, and J. M. WATKINS. Gardening with New Zealand Plants, Shrubs, and Trees. Rev. ed. Ak, Collins, 1975. $12.50.

HADFIELD, J. W. Arable Farm Crops of New Zealand, rev. by J. H. Claridge. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1972. $9.50.

HARRISON, R. E. Handbook of Bulbs and Perennials for the Southern Hemisphere. 2nd ed. rev. Palmerston North, R. E. Harrison, 1963. o.p.

——— Handbook of Trees and Shrubs for the Southern Hemisphere. 5th ed. rev. Wn, Reed, 1967. $12.50.

HEALY, A. J. F. Identification of Weeds and Clover. Wn, Editorial Services, 1976. $9.50.

LANGER, R. H. M. Pastures and Pasture Plants. Wn, Reed. 1973. Hbk $10.95; Pbk $8.50.

LEVY, E. B. Grasslands of New Zealand. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1970. $5.50.

LEITCH, D. B. Railways of New Zealand. Ak, L. Fullerton; Newton Abbot, Devon, David and Charles, 1972. $9.10.

MCCASKILL, L. W. Hold This Land; a History of Soil Conservation. Wn, Reed. 1973. $9.50.

MATTHEWS, B. W. Gardens of New Zealand. Ak, Hamlyn, 1975. $9.95.

METCALF, L. J. The Cultivation of New Zealand Trees and Shrubs. Wn, Reed, 1972. $12.80.

NEW ZEALAND FARMERS' VETERINARY GUIDE. 4th ed. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Exporter, 1972. $6.

NOONAN, R. J. By Design; A Brief History of the Public Works Department, Ministry of Works. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $18.50.

SCHOFIELD, J. C. Materials for the New Zealand Potter. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $3.75.

SIMPSON, T. E. Kauri and Radiata: Origin and Expansion of the Timber Industry of New Zealand. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1973.

THORPY, F. Wine in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1971.

TROUP, G. S. Steel Roads of New Zealand; An Illustrated Survey. Wn, Reed, 1973. $12.50.

WARD, A. H. A Command of Co-operatives; The Development of Leadership, Marketing and Price Control in the Co-operative Dairy Industry of New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Board, 1975. $5.60.

WATKINSON, J. G. and SMITH, R. New Zealand Fisheries. Wn, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1972.

ARTS IN GENERAL

BROWN, G. H., and H. H. KEITH. An Introduction to New Zealand Painting, 1839–1967. Ak, Collins, 1969. $8.50.

CAPE, P. I. Prints and Printmakers in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1974. $19.50.

*COLQUHOUN, N., (comp.) New Zealand Folksongs; Songs of a Young Country. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. $2.95.

DOCKING, G. C. TWO Hundred Years of New Zealand Painting. Wn, Reed, 1971. $29.50.

DOWNES, P. E. Shadows on the Stage; Theatre in New Zealand; The First Seventy Years. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. $9.50.

DOWNES, P. E. and P. HARCOURT. Voices in the Air; Radio Broadcasting in New Zealand. Wn, Methuen, 1976. $9.50.

KNIGHT, H. Photography in New Zealand; A Social and Technical History. Dn, McIndoe, 1971 $7.20.

NEW ZEALAND POTTERS; Their Work and Words, edited by Doreen Blumhardt. Wn, Reed, 1976 $15.95.

NORTHCOTE-BADE, S. Colonial Furniture in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. o.p.

STACPOOLE, J. M. Colonial Architecture in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1976. $11.50.

TAYLOR, R. A. H. and J. GLEN. C. F. Goldie, 1870–1947; His Life and Painting. Martinborough, A. Taylor, 1977. $200, o.p.

WILSON, T. L. R. P. van der Velden, 1837–1913. Wn, Reed, 1976. $13.95.

SPORT, INCLUDING MOUNTAINEERING

AGNEW, I. J. Kiwis Can Fly. Ak, Marketforce, 1976. $7.95.

ALLAN, W. J. D. Power and Sail; A Complete Guide to Yachting and Boating in New Zealand. Ak, Heinemann, 1975.

BULL, M. A. Vintage Motor Cycling; A Record of Motor Cycling in New Zealand from 1899 to 1931. Masterton, Hedley's Bookshop, 1970. o.p.

CARMAN, A. H. New Zealand International Cricket, 1894–1974. Tawa, Sporting Publications, 1975. $12.95.

CUTHBERTSON, K. E. Pighunting in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

DINGLE, G. Wall of Shadows; Jannu, the New Zealand Adventure. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1976. $9.95.

DOOGUE, R. B., and J. M. MORELAND. New Zealand Sea Anglers' Guide. 5th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $5.50.

FORRESTER, R. and ILLINGWORTH, N. Hunting in New Zealand. 2d. ed. Wn, Reed, 1973. $4.50.

HOWITT, R. J. New Zealand Rugby Greats. Ak, Moa Publications, 1975. $7.50.

KELLY, G. M. Golf in New Zealand; A Centennial History. Wn, New Zealand Golf Association. 1971. $4.50.

LOUSLEY, D. P. Guide to the Ski Fields of the South Island, New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1976. $2.95.

MACLEAN, P. J. The Veteran Years of New Zealand Motoring. Wn, Reed, 1971. $5.95.

SWAN, A. C. They Played for New Zealand; A Complete Record of New Zealand Rugby Representatives 1884–1972 and Their Matches. Wn, N.Z. Rugby Football Union, 1973. $1.50.

TODD, S. P. DB Sporting Records of New Zealand. Ak, Moa Publications, 1976. $9.95.

LITERATURE, GENERAL

CURNOW, W. T. L. Essays on New Zealand Literature. Ak, Heinemann, 1973. $5.50.

MCCORMICK, E. H. New Zealand Literature; a Survey. London, O.U.P., 1959. o.p.

ORBELL, M. R., comp. Contemporary Maori Writing. Wn, Reed, 1970. $3.95.

REID, J. C., ed. A Book of New Zealand. Ak. Collins, 1964. $3.95.

POETRY

AN ANTHOLOGYOF TWENTIETH CENTURY NEW ZEALAND POETRY, selected by Vincent O'Sullivan 2nd ed. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1976. Hbk $10.50; Pbk $7.

CURNOW, T. A. M. The Penguin Book of New Zealand Verse. Harmondsworth, Eng., Penguin Books, 1966. $1.25.

JONES, G. M. These Islands; A Collection of New Zealand Verse. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973. $2.95.

MCQUEEN, H. J. Ten Modern New Zealand Poets. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973. Hbk $4.95; Pbk $3.25.

MITCALFE, B. Maori Poetry; The Singing Word. Wn, Price Milburn, 1974. $6.30.

*NEW ZEALAND LOVE POEMS, chosen by J. Bertram. Dn, McIndoe, 1977. Hbk: $8.95. Pbk: $4.95.

NGATA, A. T., (ed.) Nga Moteatea. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1959–72. 3v. Collection of Maori Songs. v. 1, 3 o.p.; v. 2, $7.50.

POETRY NEW ZEALAND. Vol. 3. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1976. Pbk: $3.50.

ALLEY, R. Winds of Change; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1972.

BAXTER, J. K. The Labyrinth; poems 1944–72. Wn, O.U.P., 1974. Hbk $4.35; Pbk $2.95.

JAMES K. BAXTER; A Memorial Volume. Wn, A. Taylor, 1972. $2.95.

DOYLE, C. D. James K. Baxter. Boston, Twayne, 1976.

O'SULLIVAN, V. G. James K. Baxter. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1976. $2.95.

BRASCH, C. O. Home Grown. Ch, Caxton Press, 1974. $4.50.

BERTRAM, J. M. Charles Brasch. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1976. $3.65.

CAMPBELL, A. Kapiti; Selected Poems, 1947–71. Ch. Pegasus Press. 1972. $3.50.

CURNOW, T. A. M. Collected Poems, 1933–73. Wn, Reed, 1974. $5.95.

FAIRBURN, A. R. D. Collected Poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1966. $2.50; paperback $1.75.

JOHNSON, O. A., A. R. D. Fairburn, 1904–57; A Bibliography of His Published Work. Ak, University of Auckland, 1958. $1.50.

GLOVER, D. Enter Without Knocking. Enl. ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972. $4.

MASON, R. A. K. Collected Poems. With an Introduction by Allen Curnow. New ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972. $3.50.

*O'SULLIVAN, V. G. Butcher and Co. Wn, O.U.P., 1977. $3.65.

*TUWHARE, H. No Ordinary Sun. 3rd ed. Dn, McIndoe, 1977. $3.95.

FICTION

CRITICAL ESSAYSONTHE NEW ZEALAND NOVEL, edited by Cherry Hankin. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. $6.95.

HOLCROFT, M. H. Islands of Innocence; The Childhood Theme in New Zealand Fiction. Wn, Reed, 1964. o.p.

N.Z. LISTENER SHORT STORIES, chosen by B. Manhire. Wn, Methuen New Zealand, 1977. $5.95.

NEW ZEALAND SHORT STORIES. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1975. 3 series. $13.35.

RHODES, H. W. New Zealand Fiction Since 1945. Dn, McIndoe, 1968. $1.50.

STEVENS, J. The New Zealand Novel, 1860–1965. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1966. $1.50.

CAMPION, E. A Place to Pass Through and Other Stories. Wn, Reed, 1977. $7.50.

CATLEY, C. C., ed. Shirley Temple is a Wife and Mother, 34 stories, Whatamongo Bay, Cape Catley, 1977. $5.95.

CROSS. I. R. The God Boy. Ch. Whitcombe & Tombs, 1972. $2.70.

DAVIN, D. M. Roads from Home. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1976. $8.40.

DUGGAN, M. N. O'Leary's Orchard and Other Stories. Ch, Caxton Press, 1970. $3.50.

——— Summer in the Gravel Pit; Stories. Ak, Longman Paul, 1965. $1.95.

FRAME, J. Daughter Buffalo. Wn, Reed, 1973. $2.50.

——— Intensive Care: a Novel. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.95.

——— A State of Siege. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1967. $2.50.

EVANS, P. D. Janet Frame. Boston, Twayne, 1977. US$10.45.

GEE, M. G. Games of Choice. Wn, O.U.P., 1977. $4.50.

——— In My Father's Den. Wn, O.U.P., 1977. $4.50.

GRACE, P. F. Waiariki. Ak, Longman Paul, 1975. $4.50; $2.95.

HILLIARD, N. H. Maori Girl. London, Heinemann, 1971. $3; paperback, $1.80.

HILLIARD, N. H. Send Somebody Nice. London, Hale, 1976. £3.10.

HYDE, R. The Godwits Fly. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1970. $3.

IHIMAERA, W. T. The New Net Goes Fishing. Ak, Heinemann, 1977. $8.95.

——— Tangi. Ak, Heinemann, 1973. $4.95.

——— Whanau. Ak, Heinemann, 1974. $5.25.

JOSEPH, M. K. The Time of Achamoth. Ak, Collins, 1977. $8.95.

LEE, J. A. Soldier. Wn, Reed, 1976. $5.50.

MANDER, J. Allen Adair. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1971. $4.10.

MANSFIELD, K. Selected Stories, Chosen and Introduced by D. M. Davin. London, O.U.P., 1969. $1.40.

——— Complete Stories. Ak, Golden Press, 1974. $3.95.

——— Undiscovered Country; The New Zealand Stories. London. Longman, 1974. $4.25.

MORRIESON, J. R. H. Pallet on the Floor. Palmerston North, Dunmore, 1976. $2.95.

——— The Scarecrow. Ak, Heinemann, 1976, $7.95.

MULGAN, J. A. E. Man Alone. 2nd ed. Ak, Longman Paul, 1975, $2.50.

SARGESON, F. Stories. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973. Hbk $6.50; Pbk $2.95.

——— Man of England Now. Ch, Caxton Press, 1972. (New Zealand Short Stories, No. 2.) $4.50.

——— More Than Enough; A Memoir. Wn, Reed, 1975. $4.95.

——— Once is Enough; A Memoir. Wn, Reed, 1973. $4.50.

COPLAND, R. A. Frank Sargeson. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1976.

SATCHELL, W. The Greenstone Door. Ak, Golden Press, 1973. $3.95.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. Among the Cinders. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1975.

——— The New Zealanders; A Sequence of Stories. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974. $3.50; $2.70.

——— Strangers and Journeys, London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1972. Hbk $7.15; Pbk $2.75.

STEAD, C. K. Smith's Dream. Ak, Longman Paul, 1971. $3.50.

WEDDE, I. C. Dick Seddon's Great Dive. Ak, Islands, 1976. $2.10.

WENDT, A. Flying-fox in a Freedom Tree. Ak, Longman Paul, 1974. $4.95; $2.50.

——— Sons for the Return Home. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973.

PLAYS

BAXTER, J. K. The Sore-footed Man [and] The Temptations of Oedipus. Ak, Heinemann Educational Books, 1971. $2.

CURNOW, A. Four Plays. Wn, Reed, 1972. $5.50. Pbk $3.95.

MCNAUGHTON, H. D. Contemporary New Zealand Plays. Wn, O.U.P., 1974. $2.95.

MCNEILL, B. The Two Tigers; a play on Katherine Mansfield and John Middleton Murry. Wn, Price Milburn, 1977. $3.25.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—GENERAL

BIGWOOD, K. V. New Zealand in Colour. Rev. ed. Wn. Reed, 1972. 2 v. $13.

BRAKE, V. J. and M. SHADBOLT. New Zealand Gift of the Sea. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1973. $9.95.

BRATHWAITE, E. F. The Companion Guide to the North Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1970. $7.90.

——— The Companion Guide to the South Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1972. $6.80.

——— New Zealand and its People. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $9.95.

FRANCIS SMITH, R. V. and W. JACOBS and G. BILLING. The New Zealanders, Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $13.95.

MCLAUGHLAN, G. The Passionless People. Ak, Cassell, 1976. $9.95.

NEW ZEALAND ATLAS, edited by Ian Wards. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $33.

NEW ZEALAND AUTOMOBILE ASSOCIATION. AA Road Atlas of New Zealand. Ak, Hamlyn, 1975. $5.95.

PASCOE, J. D., ed. National Parks of New Zealand 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $9.

POPE, D. M. and J. D. POPE. Mobil New Zealand Travel Guide, North Island. 3rd ed. Wn, Reed, 1977. $5.95.

——— South Island. Rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1976. $5.95.

REED, A. W. Place Names of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1975. $10.50.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. The Shell Guide to New Zealand. Rev. ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $9.95.

SIERS, J. and J. HENDERSON. The New Zealanders. Wn, Millwood Press, 1975. $14.95.

SILCOCK, R. and C. BOLLINGER. New Zealand; Land of Scenic Contrast. Ak, Hamlyn, 1974. $5.95.

WISE'S NEW ZEALAND GUIDE; A Gazetteer of New Zealand. 5th ed. Ak, Wises Publications, 1972.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—HISTORICAL

ALEXANDER, J. E. Incidents of the Maori War, New Zealand, in 1860–61. London, R. Bentley, 1863.

Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1976. $18.

Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

BUTLER, S. A First Year in Canterbury Settlement. Edited by A. C. Brassington and P. B. Maling. Hamilton, B. and J. Paul, 1964. $2.95.

EARLE, A. Augustus Earle in New Zealand, by A. Murray-Oliver. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1968. $7.50.

——— Narrative of a Residence in New Zealand. Edited by E. H. McCormick. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 1966. $7.55.

GUTHRIE-SMITH, W. H. Tutira; The Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $8.50.

MCNAB, R. The Old Whaling Days; A History of Southern New Zealand from 1830 to 1840. Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $4.95. Also facsimile titles by the same publisher.

MANING, F. E. Old New Zealand; a Tale of the Good Old Times. Ak, Golden Press, 1973. $3.95.

SHARP, C. A., comp. Duperrey's Visit to New Zealand in 1824. Wn, Alexander Turnbull Library, 1971. $4.75.

TAYLOR, R. Te Ika a Maui. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.95.

TROLLOPE, A. With Anthony Trollope in New Zealand. Edited by A. H. Reed. Wn, Reed for Dunedin Public Library, 1969. $2.50.

WAKEFIELD, E. J. Adventure in New Zealand from 1839 to 1844. Ak, Wilson and Horton, 1971. $2.50. Also similar titles in paperback by the same publisher.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—REGIONAL

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

ACLAND, L. G. D. The Early Canterbury Runs. 4th ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1975. $14.95.

LISTER, R. G., ed. Central Otago. Dn, New Zealand Geographical Society, 1965. $3.50.

MAIN, W. Auckland Through a Victorian Lens. Wn, Millwood Press, 1977. $14.95.

NEW ZEALAND. Town and Country Planning Division. Wanganui Region. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. (National resources survey, Pt. 7). $7.50.

Also similar titles on other regions.

QUARTERMAIN, L. B. New Zealand and the Antarctic. Wn, Govt Print., 1971. $5.85.

SIERS, J. and A. BRISTOW. Wellington. Wn, Millwood Press, 1974. $6.50.

HISTORICAL WORKS—GENERAL AND PERIOD INCLUDING MAORI WARS

BASSETT, M. Confrontation 1951; The 1951 Waterfront Dispute. Wn, Reed, 1972. $4.50.

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. The Discovery of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, O.U.P., 1961. o.p.

BEGG, A. C., and N. C. BEGG. James Cook and New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969. $4.50.

BRETT, H. White Wings. Ak, Brett Printing Co., 1924–28. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1976. 2 v. $50. Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

COOK, J. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Edited by J. C. Beaglehole. Cambridge, Hakluyt Society, 1955–.5 v. to date. (Hakluyt Society. Extra series No. 34.)

COWAN, J. The New Zealand Wars. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955–1956. 2 v. $9.

HEINZ, W. F. Bright Fine Gold; Stories of the New Zealand Goldfields. Wn, Reed, 1974. $9.95.

HOLCROFT, M. H. The Shaping of New Zealand. Ak, Hamlyn, 1974. $9.50.

INGRAM, C. W. N. New Zealand Shipwrecks, 1795–1975. 5th ed. Wn, Reed, 1977. $14.50.

JACKSON, W. K. The New Zealand Legislative Council; A Study of the Establishment, Failure and Abolition of an Upper House. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1972. $8.95.

LISSINGTON, M.P. New Zealand and Japan, 1900–1941. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $5.75.

——— New Zealand and the United States, 1840–1944. Wn, Govt. Print, 1972. $3.

MACGREGOR, M. F. Etiquette and Elbowgrease, Housekeeping in Victorian New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1976.

MCLINTOCK, A. H. Crown Colony Government in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. $3.50.

MORRELL, W. P. The Anglican Church in New Zealand; A History. Dn, McIndoe, 1973.

——— The Provincial System in New Zealand, 1852–76. 2nd rev. ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $4.50.

NEW ZEALAND CENTENNIAL BRANCH. Making New Zealand; Pictorial Surveys of a Century. Wn, 1939–40. 2 v. o.p.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST. Leaflets on various historic sites; Booklets. See under individual authors, e.g., Standish, M. W., in following section, gratis.

NEW ZEALAND WAR HISTORY BRANCH. Documents Relating to New Zealand's Participation in the Second World War, 1939–45. Wn, 1949–63. 3 v. 1 o.p.: 2, $1.25; 3, $2.50.

NEW ZEALAND HERITAGE; the Making of a Nation. Ak, Hamlyn, 1977. 7 v. in 105 pts, issued weekly. $1 per issue.

OLIVER, W. H. The Story of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, Faber, 1963. $3.50; paperback $1.35.

PASCOE, J. D. Exploration New Zealand. Wn, Reed. 1971. $4.50.

REED, A. W. It Happened Today in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1973. $1.95.

Ross, J. O. This Stern Coast; the Story of the Charting of the New Zealand Coast. Wn, Reed, 1969. o.p.

SHARP, C. A. The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman. London, O.U.P., 1968. $8.

SIMPSON, A. C. The Road to Erewhon. Ak, Beaux Arts, 1976. $8.95.

——— The Sugarbag Years. Wn, A. Taylor, 1974. Hbk $8.95; Pbk $5.95.

SINCLAIR, K. A. History of New Zealand. Rev. ed. Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1969. $1.35.

——— The Origins of the Maori Wars. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1974. $4.70.

SUTCH, W. B. Poverty and Progress in New Zealand; A Reassessment. 2nd rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $4.95.

——— The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840 to 1966. Wn, O.U.P., 1966. $6.50; paperback $3.

WOOD, F. L. W. The New Zealand People at War; Political and External Affairs. Wn, Historical Publications Branch in conjunction with Reed, 1971. $5.95.

HISTORY—REGIONAL AND LOCAL

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

ANDERSEN, J. C. Place Names of Banks Peninsula, a topographical history. Wn, Govt. Print., 1927. Reprinted Ch, Capper Press, 1976. $12.

Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

BAGNALL, A. G. Wairarapa. Masterton, Hedley's Bookshop, 1976. $19.50.

BEGG, A. C. and N. C. BEGG. Port Preservation. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1973. $12.50.

BUCHANAN, J. D. H. The Maori History and Place Names of Hawke's Bay. Wn, Reed, 1973.

CAMPBELL, M. D. N. Story of Napier, 1874–1974. Napier, Napier City Council, 1975. $7.

FIELD, T. A. Relics of the Goldfields, Central Otago. Dn, McIndoe, 1976. $6.95.

GIBBONS, P. J. Astride the River; a History of Hamilton. Ch, Whitcoulls for the Hamilton City Council, 1977. $11.50.

GILLESPIE, O. A. South Canterbury; a Record of Settlements. 2nd ed. Timaru, South Canterbury Centennial History Committee, 1971.

A HISTORYOF CANTERBURY. Ch, Canterbury Centennial Historical and Literary Committee; Whitcombe and Tombs, 1957–71. 3v.

HOLCROFT, M. H. The Line of Road; A History of Manawatu County, 1876–1976. Dn, McIndoe for the Manawatu County Council, 1977. $10.

HOWARD, B. H. Rakiura; A History of Stewart Island. Dn, Reed, 1974. $18.50.

MCALLISTER. C. Old Taranaki and its Mountain. Wn, Millwood Press, 1976. $17.50.

OLIVER, W. H. Challenge and Response; A Study of the Development of the Gisborne East Coast Region. Gisborne, East Coast Development Research Association, 1971. $4.50.

PINNEY, R. Early South Canterbury Runs. Wn, Reed, 1971. $9.95.

REED, A. H. The Story of Northland. Wn, Reed, 1975. $6.50.

SMART, M. J. G. and A. P. BATES. The Wanganui Story. Wanganui Newspapers, 1972. $5.90.

*STANDISH, M. W. The Waimate Mission Station. Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. 70c. Also others issued by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust.

BIOGRAPHY

HONOURS, Titles, Styles, and Precedence in New Zealand, compiled and edited by P. P. O'Shea. Wn, Govt. Print., 1977. $13.50.

WHO'S WHOIN NEW ZEALAND. 11th ed., edited by J. E. Traue. Wn, Reed, 1978. $16.50.

BASSETT, J. Sir Harry Atkinson, 1831–1892. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. $9.15.

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. The Life of Captain James Cook. London, Black, 1974.

BELL, G. E. Ernest Dieffenbach. Palmerston North, Dunmore Press, 1976. $10.75.

CRESSWELL, W. D. The Letters of D'Arcy Cresswell. Ch, University of Canterbury, 1971. $6.

HENDERSON, J. M. Ratana; the Man, the Church, the Political Movement. 2nd ed. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1972. $3.95.

HILLARY, SIR E. P. Nothing Venture, Nothing Win. London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1975. $4.50.

KING, M. Te Puea. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1977. $12.95.

LUSH, V. The Auckland Journals of Vicesimus Lush, 1850–63, ed. by A. Drummond. Ch, Pegasus, 1971. $7.

MACGREGOR, M. F. Petticoat Pioneers, North Island Women of the Colonial Era. Wn, Reed, 1973. $8.95. V. 2. 1975. $9.95.

MCCORMICK, E. H. Omai, Pacific Envoy. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1977. $21.60.

OGILVIE, G. B. The Riddle of Richard Pearse. Wn, Reed, 1973. $4.95.

OLSSEN, E. N. John A. Lee. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1977. $14.95.

RAESIDE, J. D. Sovereign Chief, A Biography of Baron de Thierry. Ch, Caxton Press, 1977. $22.50.

ROGERS, L. M. Te Wiremu; a biography of Henry Williams. Ch, Pegasus, 1973. $7.50.

ROLLESTON, R. William and Mary Rolleston. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.50.

SCOTT, R. G. A Stake in the Country; Assid Abraham Corban and His Family, 1892–1977. Ak, Southern Cross Books, 1977. $25.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. Love and Legend; Some 20th Century New Zealanders. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1976. $8.45.

SINCLAIR, K. Walter Nash. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1976. $13.95.

SINCLAIR, K. William Pember Reeves; New Zealand Fabian. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. $6.90.

STACPOOLE, J. William Mason; the First New Zealand Architect. Ak, Auckland U. P.; Wn, O. U. P., 1971. $7.40.

STIRLING, A. M. Amiria; The Life Story of a Maori Woman, as told to Anne Salmond. Wn, Reed, 1976. Hbk: $13.95. Pbk: $9.95.

Chapter 45. ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS, AND ACRONYMS

Table of Contents

An abbreviation or a contraction is a shortened form of a word or a phrase or (perhaps the commonest use) the name of an organisation. An acronym is a word made up of the initial letters of other words. Examples are UNESCO, CORSO, and WHO.

Abbreviations save time, space, and tedious repetitions, and frequently they are more easily recognised than are the full names of the organisations they represent. Such acronyms as UNESCO, NAFTA, and ANZAC are far better known than the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement, or even the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps.

The following list includes only a selected number of abbreviations, contractions, and acronyms. A full list would be book-length; in fact, a number of full-length dictionaries of abbreviations exist. Many abbreviations in common use are included in the following list, but the principal criterion for inclusion has been the use of the abbreviation in the Official Yearbook or in other statistical publications. (This explains the large number of honours included; most of these are to be found in the Official section of the Yearbook.)

Abbreviations of the names of months and days of the week are not included in the list. These names are spelt out in full in textual matter, but in tables they are abbreviated to the first three letters of each word (e.g. Mon, Tue, Wed, etc., Jan, Feb, Mar, etc.) without full stops. Full stops are also omitted in acronyms, between initial letters representing the names of national and international bodies and agencies and well-known corporations; after abbreviations of units of measurement (except where the omission is likely to cause ambiguity, as in "in" for inch, always shown as "in."); and after initial letters representing common statistical or technical terms such as CPI, GNP, and vhf.

A

a.c.alternating current.
ABSAustralian Bureau of Statistics.
A.C.A.Associated Chartered Accountant.
Accts. Prof.Accounting Professional (Examination).
ACCAccident Compensation Commission.
A.C.T.Australian Capital Territory; Associated Container Transportation.
ACPAfrica, Caribbean, and Pacific (trade agreement).
A.D.anno domini (in the year of Our Lord).
ADBAsian Development Bank.
A.D.C.Aide-de-Camp.
Admin. Co.Administrative county.
AECAtomic Energy Commission.
A.F.C.Air Force Cross.
A.F.M.Air Force Medal.
Ak. Auck.Auckland.
a.m.ante meridiem (before noon).
AMFAnhydrous milkfat.
ANLAustralian National Line.
ANZAustralia and New Zealand Banking Group Ltd.
ANZACAustralian and New Zealand Army Corps.
ANZECSAustralia - New Zealand Europe Container Service.
ANZUKAustralian, New Zealand, and United Kingdom (Force).
ANZUSAustralia, New Zealand, and United States (Pact).
APOAsian Productivity Organisation.
ARAAuckland Regional Authority.
ASACAsian Standards Advisory Committee.
ASEANAssociation of South-East Asian Nations.
ASPACAsian and Pacific Council.
ATCAir Training Corps.
ATPApplied Technology Programme (DFC).

B

B.Borough.
b.born.
B.A.Bachelor of Arts.
B. Agr.Bachelor of Agriculture.
BANZBahrain - New Zealand Trading and Storage Company.
B. Agr. Sc.Bachelor of Agricultural Science.
bblBarrel(s).
B.C.Before Christ.
B.C.A.Bachelor of Commerce and Administration.
BCNZBroadcasting Corporation of N.Z.
B.ComBachelor of Commerce.
B.E.Bachelor of Engineering.
B.EconBachelor of Economics.
B.E.M.British Empire Medal.
b/fbrought forward.
bhpbrake horsepower.
BISBank for International Settlements.
BMABritish Medical Association.
BNZBank of New Zealand.
BSIBritish Standards Institution.
BtBaronet.
btlbottle.
B.T.N.Brussels Tariff Nomenclature.
BtuBritish thermal unit.

C

CCity.
°Cdegree(s) Celsius.
ccent.
Cantab.Cambridge (University).
CAPCommon Agricultural Policy (EEC).
CARICOMCaribbean Common Market and Community.
CATCatalogue
C.B.Companion of the Bath.
C.B.E.Commander, Order of British Empire.
cbrCrude birth rate.
cbucompletely built up (motor vehicles).
cccubic centimetres.
CCCCustoms Co-operation Council.
CCCNCustoms Co-operation Council Nomenclature.
CCMSCommittee on the Challenges of Modern Society (NATO).
C.D.Civil Defence.
c.d.v.current domestic value.
centione-hundreth part.
CESCommonwealth Education Scheme.
CFFCommission for the Future.
cf.compare.
c.f.carry forward.
CFTCCommonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation.
C.H.Companion of Honour.
Ch. Chch.Christchurch.
ch:chap.chapter.
CH.B.Bachelor of Surgery.
C.I.E.Companion, Order of Indian Empire.
c.i.f.cost, insurance, freight.
CISSComputerised Information Storage System.
ckdcompletely knocked down (motor vehicles).
C.M.G.Companion, Order of St. Michael and St. George.
cmcentimetre(s).
cm2square centimetre.
cm3cubic centimetre.
CNGcompressed natural gas.
Co.county; company.
c/ocare of.
COAGCommittee on Agriculture (FAO).
COFICommittee on Fisheries (FAO).
COFOCommittee on Forestry (FAO).
comm.community.
cont.continued.
COPECommittee of Officials on Public Expenditure.
CORSOCouncil of Organisations for Relief Services Overseas.
CPIConsumers Price Index.
ctd.continued.
c.v.o.Commander, Royal Victorian Order.
cwthundredweight.

D

daadecare.
DACDevelopment Assistance Committee (OECD).
D.B.E.Dame Commander, Order of British Empire.
d.c.direct current.
d. comm.district community.
DDTdichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane.
decaten times.
dept.department.
DFCDevelopment Finance Corporation; Distinguished Flying Cross.
decione-tenth.
Dip. R.V.Diploma of Rural Valuation.
Dip. VFMDiploma of Valuation and Farm Management.
dmdecimeter.
DMCDeveloping Member Country (ADB).
Dn.Dunedin.
DNAdeoxyribonucleic acid.
doz.dozen.
D.P.A.Diploma of Public Administration.
DSIRDepartment of Scientific and Industrial Research.
D.S.O.Distinguished Service Order.

E

ECAEconomic Commission for Africa (UN).
ECAFEEconomic Commission for Asia and the Far East (UN).
ECEEconomic Commission for Europe (UN).
ECLAEconomic Commission for Latin America (UN).
ECOSOCEconomic and Social Council (UN).
ed.edition; editor; edited.
E.D.Efficiency Decoration.
EDPElectronic Data Processing.
EECEuropean Economic Community (Common Market).
EEZExclusive Economic Zone.
EFTAEuropean Free Trade Association.
e.g.exempli gratia (for example).
EMCEconomic Monitoring Group.
ENEXEngineering Export Association (of New Zealand).
ERDCEnergy Research and Development Committee.
ESCAPEconomic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN).
etc.et cetera (and the rest).
EURATOMEuropean Atomic Energy Community.
excl.excluding.

F

FFemale(s).
FAOFood and Agriculture Organisation.
FAQfair average quality (meat).
F.C.LT.Fellow of the Chartered Institute of Transport.
f.: ff.following page(s).
FFSFinancial Forecasting System.
F.I.E.E.Fellow of the Institute of Electrical Engineers.
fig.figure.
fl ozfluid ounce.
FMFrequency modulation.
F.N.Z.I.E.Fellow N.Z. Institute of Engineers.
f.o.b.free on board.
FOLFederation of Labour.
f.o.r.free on rail.
F.R.A.C.P.Fellow of the Royal Australian College of Physicians.
F.R.C.P.Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians.
F.R.S.Fellow of the Royal Society.
ftfoot, feet (length).
F.T.E.Full-time equivalent.

G

ggram(s).
galgallon(s).
GAQgood average quality (meat).
GATTGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
G.B.Great Britain.
G.B.E.Knight (or Dame) Grand Cross, Order of the British Empire.
G.C.B.Knight (or Dame) Grand Cross, Order of the Bath.
G.C.M.G.Knight (or Dame) Grand Cross, Order of St. Michael and St. George.
G.C.S.I.Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India.
G.C.V.O.Knight (or Dame) Grand Cross, Royal Victorian Order.
GDPGross Domestic Product.
GMSGeneral Medical Service.
GMTGreenwich Mean Time.
G.M.V.Government Motor Vessel.
GNPGross National Product.
G.P.General practitioner (medical).
GSPGeneralised System of Preference (Customs).
GVAGrants by voluntary agencies (overseas aid).
GWhgigawatt hour (1 million kWh).
GWOGeneral Wage Order.

H

hhour(s).
hahectare(s).
H.B.Hawke's Bay.
hbkhardback (book).
HLCHigher Leaving Certificate.
HMNZSHer Majesty's New Zealand Ship.
HMSOHer Majesty's Stationery Office.
Hon.Honourable; honorary.
hpHire purchase; horsepower.
h.t.high tension (electric cable, etc.).
h.v.d.c.high voltage direct current (electricity).
Hzhertz (unit of frequency).

I

IAEAInternational Atomic Energy Agency.
IATAInternational Air Transport Association.
IBRDInternational Bank for Reconstruction and Development.
i/c.in charge of.
ICAOInternational Civil Aviation Organisation.
ICDInternational Classification of Diseases.
ICITOInterim Commission for the International Trade Organisation.
ICRInter-departmental Committee on Resettlement.
IDAInternational Development Association.
i.e.id est (that is).
IEAInternational Energy Agency.
IECInternational Electro-technical Commission.
IFCInternational Finance Corporation.
IGYInternational Geophysical Year.
ILOInternational Labour Organisation.
IMCOInter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organisation.
IMFInternational Monetary Fund.
in.inch(es).
Inc.Incorporated.
INCBInternational Narcotics Control Board.
incl.including.
IPRInstitute of Pacific Relations.
IRCInternational Rice Committee (FAO).
IRSInternational Referral System of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP).
ISAInternational Sugar Agreement.
ISCEDInternational Standard Classification of Education.
ISCOInternational Standard Classification of Occupations.
ISICInternational Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities.
ISOInternational Organisation for Standardisation.
ISONETInternational Standards Organisation Network.
ISSNInternational Standard Serial Number (library catalogue).
ITOInternational Trade Organisation.
ITUInternational Telecommunication Union.
IUDintra-uterine contraceptive device.
IWSInternational Wool Secretariat.
IWTOInternational Wool Textile Organisation.

J

JJoule (measure of energy).
J.P.Justice of the Peace.

K

K.B.E.Knight Commander, Order of the British Empire.
K.C.B.Knight Commander, Order of the Bath.
kckilocycles.
K.C.M.G.Knight Commander, Order of St. Michael and St. George.
K.C.V.O.Knight Commander, Royal Victorian Order.
kgkilogram(s) (weight).
kJkilojoule(s) (energy).
kmkilometre(s) (length).
km/hkilometres per hour.
KtKnight.
K.T.Knight of the Thistle.
kVkilovolt(s).
kWkilowatt(s).
kWhkilowatt hour(s).

L

llitres.
LASH"lighter aboard ship" (cargo-handling system).
L.A.local authority.
lbpound (weight).
lat.latitude.
lin.lineal (measures).
LL.B.Bachelor of Laws.
LL.M.Master of Laws.
log.logarithm.
Lond.London.
long.longitude.
LPGliquified petroleum gas.
Ltd.Limited Liability (company).
LUACLand Use Advisory Council.

M

Mmega (million); male(s).
mmillion; metres; milli.
m2square metres.
m3cubic metres.
M.A.Master of Arts.
MABMan and Biosphere (UNESCO project).
MAFMinistry of Agriculture and Fisheries.
MASMonthly Abstract of Statistics.
M.B.Bachelor of Medicine.
M.B.E.Member, Order of the British Empire.
M.C.Military Cross; master of ceremonies; motor cycle.
M.C.I.T.Member, Chartered Institute of Transport.
M.Com.Master of Commerce.
M.D.Doctor of Medicine.
MEDSEAMinisterial Conference for the Economic Development of South-east Asia.
MFNMost Favoured Nation (Customs nomenclature).
mgmilligram.
MJmegajoule (energy).
mJmillijoule (energy).
M.L.CMember of Legislative Council.
mlmillilitre.
mmmillimetre.
MOmoney order; medical officer.
MOTMinistry of Transport.
MOW:MOWDMinistry of Works and Development.
M.P.Member of Parliament.
M.P.A.Master of Public Administration.
m.p.h.miles per hour.
MRCMedical Research Council.
M. Sc.Master of Science.
Mtmount (mountain).
MTNMultilateral Trade Negotiations (GATT).
M.V.motor vessel; motor vehicle.
M.V.O.Member, Royal Victorian Order.
MWmegawatt.

N

n.a.not available.
NACNational Airways Corporation.
NAFTANew Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement.
NATONorth Atlantic Treaty Organisation.
N.B.nota bene (note well).
NCARNational Committee on Antarctica Research.
NDCNational Development Council (or Conference).
NDLNational Development Loans (Account).
n.e.c.not elsewhere classified.
NEDANational Electronics Development Association.
n.e.i.not elsewhere included.
n.e.s.not elsewhere specified.
NFLNational Film Library.
No.number.
n.o.d.not otherwise defined.
N.P.New Plymouth.
NPFNational Provident Fund.
NRACNational Research Advisory Council.
NRBNational Roads Board.
N.S.W.New South Wales.
NZCERN.Z. Council for Educational Research.
NZDBN.Z. Dairy Board.
NZEFNew Zealand Expeditionary Force.
NZFORSEANew Zealand Force, Southeast Asia.
NZIERN.Z. Institute of Economic Research.
NZLAN.Z. Library Association.
NZPAN.Z. Press Association.
NZRN.Z. Railways.
NZSCON.Z. Standard Classification of Occupations.
NZSCIN.Z. Standard Classification of Imports.
NZSICN.Z. Standard Industrial Classification.
NZSNAN.Z. System of National Accounts.
NZSSN.Z. Standard Specification.
NZSTN.Z. Standard Time.
NZWRACN.Z. Women's Royal Army Corps.

O

OAPECOrganisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries.
O.B.E.Officer, Order of the British Empire.
ODAOverseas Development Assistance.
OECDOrganisation for Economic Cooperation and Development.
OETOverseas Exchange Transactions.
OHMSOn Her Majesty's Service.
O.M.Order of Merit.
o.p.out of print.
OPECOrganisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries.
O.U.P.Oxford University Press.
Oxon.Oxford (University).
ozounce.

P

PDPocket Digest of Statistics.
p.:pp.page, pages.
p.a.per annum (by the year).
PAGPlanning Advisory Group.
PASCPacific Area Standards Congress.
PAYEPay as you earn (taxation).
pbkPaperback (book).
P.C.Privy Councillor; Police Constable; Planning Council.
pcs.pieces.
pd.paid.
per seby or in itself, intrinsically.
Ph.DDoctor of Philosophy.
PIProductivity Improvement.
PIIDSPacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme.
PJpetajoules (energy).
Pktpacket.
Pl.plate(s) (pictorial).
P.M.Prime Minister.
p.m.post meridiem (afternoon).
P.O.Post Office; postal order.
POSBPost Office Savings Bank.
PRProportional Representation; Public Relations.
p.s.i.pounds per square inch.
ptpint(s); part.
PtPoint (geographical).
PVCpolyvinyl chloride.

Q

Q.C.Queen's Counsel.
Q.F.S.M.Queen's Fire Service Medal.
Q.P.M.Queen's Police Medal.
Q.S.M.Queen's Service Medal.
Q.S.O.Companion, Queen's Service Order.
qtquart(s).
qtrquarter.
q.v.quod vide (which see).

R

RBFRural Banking and Finance Corporation.
RDrural delivery; refer to drawer (cheques).
R & DResearch and Development.
RICRural Intermediate Credit (Association).
re;refreference.
Rev.Reverend.
RNZAFRoyal New Zealand Air Force.
RNZNRoyal New Zealand Navy.
RNZNCRoyal New Zealand Nursing Corps.
RNZNVRRoyal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve.
rpmrevolutions per minute.
RSAReturned Services Association.
RTradio telephony; radio telegraphy.
Rt. HonRight Honourable.
R.V.Registered Valuer.

S

S.A.Statistical Area.
s.a.e.stamped addressed envelope.
SACState Advances Corporation.
SALTStrategic Arms Limitation Talks.
SANZStandards Association of New Zealand.
SATScientific and Technical Information Service (Public libraries).
S.C.School Certificate.
SCORITEStanding Committee on Relationships in Tertiary Education.
S.D.Subdivision.
SDRSpecial Drawing Rights (IMF).
S. DivStatistical Division.
SEAFDECSouth-east Asian Fisheries Development Centre.
SEATACSouth-east Asian Transport and Communications Centre.
SEAMEOSouth-east Asian Ministers of Education Organisation.
SEATOSouth-east Asia Treaty Organisation.
SGATARStudy Group for Asian Tax Administration and Research.
SIGMASystem of Integrated Government Management Accounting.
snfsolid non-fat (milk constituent).
S.I.South Island; Systeme International d'Unites (metric system).
sicso written.
SISSecurity Intelligence Service.
SITCStandard International Trade Classification.
smpskim milk powder.
SNASystem of National Accounts (UN).
SPATCSouth Pacific Air Transport Council.
SPCSouth Pacific Commision.
SPCASociety for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.
SPECSouth Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation.
sqsquare.
s.s.steamship.
SSCState Services Commission.
s.t.d.subscriber trunk dialling (telephone).
S&WSalaries and wages.
SWGstandard wire gauge.

T

Ttownship; total.
ttonne(s).
TABTotalisator Agency Board; Technical Assistance Board (UN).
TAGTargets Advisory Group (NDC).
Tbtuberculosis.
TCPTechnical Co-operation Programme (FAO).
T.D.Town District; Territorial Decoration.
TELARCTesting Laboratory Registration Council.
TEVturbo-electric vessel.
THCTourist Hotel Corporation.
THETechnical Help to Exporters. (UK).
TJTerajoule (energy).
TNTtrinitrotoluene.
Trigtrigonometrical.
TTtuberculin tested.
TVtelevision.
TWITraining Within Industry.

U

U.A.Urban Area.
UDCUniversal Decimal Classification (libraries).
UEUniversity Entrance.
UGCUniversity Grants Committee.
UKUnited Kingdom.
UN:UNOUnited Nations (organisation).
UNCTADU.N. Conference on Trade and Development.
UNDATU.N. Development Advisory Team.
UNDPU.N. Development Programme.
UNEPU.N. Environment Programme.
UNESCOU.N. Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation.
UNFPAU.N. Fund for Population Activities.
UNHCRU.N. High Commissioner for Refugees.
UNICEFU.N. Children's Fund.
UNIDOU.N. Industrial Development Organisation.
UNRISDU.N. Research Institute for Social Development.
UPUUniversal Postal Union.
UPUniversity Press (preceded by name of University).
US:USAUnited States of America.
USSRUnion of Soviet Socialist Republics.
UV/LVUnimproved Value or Land Value (Valuation).

V

Vvolt.
VDvenereal disease.
Vol.volume(s).
VATValue Added Tax.
vhf.very high frequency.
vizvidelicet (namely).
VSAVolunteer Service Abroad.

W

Wwatt; west.
WAESWorkshop on Alternative Energy Strategies.
WHOWorld Health Organisation.
WFPWorld Food Programme.
WMOWorld Meteorological Organisation.
Wn:Wgtn.Wellington.
W&RWholesale and Retail (trade).
WRONZWool Research Organisation of New Zealand.
WRNZAFWomen's Royal New Zealand Air Force.
WRNZNSWomen's Royal New Zealand Naval Service.
WWWWorld Weather Watch.

Y

YBYearbook.
ydyard(s) (length).
Y.E.Year ended.
yryear(s).

Chapter 46. GENERAL PRICE INDEX

Table of Contents

In July this year the Government Statistician released the first results of the General Price Index which the Department of Statistics has been developing for the past 3 years, and which forms part of the new integrated macro-economic statistics series related to the New Zealand System of National Accounts.

The General Price Index replaced and considerably extended the Wholesale Price Index, which was discontinued from December quarter 1977 after 57 years of publication. The new series measures price changes on a quarterly basis, commencing from December quarter 1977. The following table provides the values for the March 1978 quarterly indexes, except for a few cases as explained later.

The new index is intended to provide a measure of price changes over all industrial sectors of the economy and makes possible the price deflation of the current value of each industry's output and input of goods and services, thus making it possible to calculate the industry's real net output and contribution to Gross Domestic Product in constant prices, or effectively in volume terms.

The General Price Index contains price indexes for outputs and inputs at both all-industry and group levels. At the all-industry level, the General Price Index reflects price movements as these affect the economy as a whole. The 24 industry groups for which separate index series are available correspond to industry production groups in the New Zealand System of National Accounts.

The list of goods and services being priced for the General Price Index was selected on the basis of input-output commodity flows contained in the Department's Inter-Industry Studies and updated by comparison with data collected for other statistical series including the Farm Costs Index and the Wholesale Price Index regimens, import and export lists, and other economic censuses recently undertaken. On selecting the goods and services to be priced, careful consideration was given to the coverage and representativeness of various commodity groups and, in particular, to their absolute importance to the producing industry and the whole economy.

The specifications for the commodities and services included in the index were obtained in collaboration with the suppliers of the price data concerned, thus ensuring the representativeness of priced commodities and adherence to specifications over time.

The weight assigned to an industry to obtain the all-industry group index is based on the New Zealand System of National Accounts Production Accounts for 1975–76. Commodity weightings within each industry index are based on data from the 1971–72 Inter-Industry Study. Adjustments were made for significant variations in relative commodity weightings occurring between the date of the study and the index expression base.

Industry outputs are priced at approximate basic values (i.e., before the addition of commodity taxes or deduction of subsidies) corresponding to factory door prices or as close to this level as is made possible by a firm's pricing policy, and exclude down-stream commodity taxes. In cases where price differentiation occurs between items that are both consumed locally and exported, separate pricing is usually obtained.

Prices for inputs are producer prices (i.e., factory door prices including commodity taxes) with separate indexes for transport and distribution charges. Wherever reliable unit values (i.e., c.i.f. value divided by quantity) are available from the Department's data on imports, these have been incorporated in the relevant input indexes. Altogether, some 5,000 price quotations are obtained each calendar quarter.

It is not intended to produce separate sub-indexes for the imported components of each industry's inputs.

It is conceptually impossible to calculate an output price index for the non-market-oriented groups of Central Government Services, Local Government Services, and Private Non-profit Services to Households. Their activities differ substantially in character from market-oriented industries in that their output is produced for free distribution or at prices which bear no relationship to the cost of production. The only means of obtaining price movements of their output is to calculate implicit price deflators by dividing the value of their output by an independently-calculated volume index of output. Such volume indexes, however, will not be available for some time to come.

Because of certain technical measurement problems, one input and a few output indexes had not been calculated at the time of going to press. Work on these was proceeding.

The following table shows price indexes of inputs (i.e., current purchases of commodities and services) and of outputs by industry groups. As already stated, input prices are producers' prices and include commodity taxes paid by, and subsidies received by, the producer.

GENERAL PRICE INDEX

Base: December Quarter 1977 (= 1000)

Industry GroupQuarter Ended
31 Dec 197731 Mar 1978
InputsOutputsInputsOutputs
Agriculture1000100010331025
Fishing and hunting100010001022985
Forestry and logging1000100010141031
Mining and quarrying100010001042 
Manufacture of food, beverages, and tobacco1000100010231015
Textiles, wearing apparel, and leather industries1000100010251023
Manufacture of wood and wood products, including furniture1000100010401044
Manufacture of paper and paper products, printing and publishing1000100010321033
Manufacture of chemicals and of chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products10001000  
Manufacture of non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal1000100010431037
Basic metal industries10001000999 
Manufacture of fabricated metal products, machinery, and equipment1000100010181024
Other manufacturing industries1000100010231031
Electricity, gas, and water1000100010171001
Construction100010001040 
Trade, restaurants and hotels100010001029 
Transport and storage1000100010191050
Communications1000100010451000
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services100010001034 
Ownership of owner-occupied dwellings1000100010301017
Community, social, and personal services1000100010211017
Central Government services100010001027 
Local Government services100010001045 
Private non-profit services to households10001000  
All industry10001000  

Chapter 47. LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

Later statistical information has become available during the course of printing the Yearbook. Some of these statistics are entered in the Statistical Summary (pp. 886 to 916). Other information is given in the following pages with references to appropriate sections of the Yearbook. Readers are referred to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and the frequent Information Service releases of the Department of Statistics for the most recent information on many statistical series.

POPULATION

Population (p. 54)—See Statistical Summary.

Employment—The total labour force in October 1976 was estimated to number 1,206,800, of whom 827,700 were males and 379,100 females. Registered unemployed during recent months are shown in the following table:

PeriodRegistered UnemployedEmployed on Special Work
MalesFemalesTotalWith Government Depts.With Local Authorities

*Includes persons employed on special subsidised work in the private sector (1,944 in March, 2,514 in April. 3,343 in May, 4,038 in June, and 4,974 in July).

Monthly average—     
19774,3183,0677,3856,195906
End of month—     
1978—January11,5477,27118,8187,4352,245
February10,3558,29918,6547,6151,732
March10,9638,88119,8448,1823,663*
April12,2789,22421,5028,7814,803*
May13,5839,35222,9359,6076,612*
June14,6999,33624,03510,1388,143*
July16,8209,48726,30710,6559,932*

Migration (p. 70)—Total arrivals and departures are classified in the following table.

CategoryYear Ended 31 March
197619771978

*Mainly on cruise ships.

Arrivals   
Permanent and long-term arrivals48,46037,02036,972
New Zealand residents returning245,618249,982287,868
Temporary visitors384,586380,222390,940
Total678,664667,224715,780
Crews176,379183,786182,176
Through passengers*136,927140,920162,733
Grand total, all arrivals991,970991,9301,060,689
Departures   
Permanent and long-term departures43,16056,09263,680
New Zealand residents departing temporarily240,658244,998284,284
Temporary visitors departing389,654382,404389,972
Total673,472683,494737,936
Crews175,004181,243182,327
Through passengers*136,927140,920162,733
Grand total, all departures985,4031,005,6571,082,996
Net inflow (+) or outflow (–)+6,567−13,727−22,307

The following table shows permanent and long-term arrivals and departures by occupation during the two latest March years.

Occupation DivisionYear Ended March 1977Year Ended March 1978
ArrivalsDeparturesArrivalsDepartures
Professional, technical, and related workers6,0168,6546,2569,408
Administrative, executive, and managerial workers1,2621,6261,1481,808
Clerical workers4,0067,2643,6128,220
Sales workers9801,9341,0042,200
Farmers, fishermen, hunters, loggers, miners, and related workers9021,3309481,600
Transport and communications workers7181,5147401,804
Craftsmen, factory workers, and labourers4,89010,9245,25612,452
Service, sport, and recreation workers1,3782,3901,3962,748
Not actively engaged and occupation unspecified16,86820,45616,61223,440
Total37,02056,09236,97263,680
Net loss19,07226,708
 Actively engaged
Total20,15235,63620,36040,240
Net loss15,48419,880

TRANSPORT

Railway Transport (pp. 306–313)—Summarised statistics of railway transport for the latest available year are compared with previous years.

ItemUnitYear Ended 31 March
197619771978

*Including road services, rail-road ferry, and other subsidiary services.

Passenger journeys—    
  Railways(000)20,03518,47816,402
  Railway road motor services(000)21,32020,32319,900
Freight carried (excl. parcels)tonnes(000)13,19313,60112,577
Revenue—    
  Railway operation$(000)137,287202,419212,748
Total*$(000)170,207248,070266,404
Expenditure—    
  Railway operation$(000)194,829214,796251,863
Total*$(000)233,160260,073304,183

Road Transport (p. 319)—Statistics of motor vehicles licensed at 31 March 1978 are compared with those for 31 March 1977.

ClassAs at 31March
19771978

*Mostly farm tractors, etc.

Cars1,213,4601,228,668
Trucks232,202236,691
Contract vehicles1,2501,280
Omnibuses and service cars3,2683,306
Total1,450,1801,469,945
Motor cycles104,359103,926
Power cycles2,8792,103
Vehicles exempted from payment of licence fees*111,979103,319
Trailers and caravans354,224356,839
Grand total2,023,6212,036,132

International Civil Aviation (p. 336)—The following table shows passengers, freight (including excess baggage), and mail carried by international scheduled air services on scheduled routes.

Calendar YearPassengers CarriedFreight CarriedMail Carried
 (000)tonnes 
19741,11727,6682,084
19751,17930,8772,270
19761,24539,8542,213
19771,27341,2212,286

BUILDING AND HOUSING (pp. 469–472)

Building Permits—The following table presents statistics on building permits and authorisations issued during the two latest March years.

Type of Building PermitYear Ended 31 March
1977x1978*
NumberValueNumberValue

*Provisional.

†Works which require building permits but are not in the nature of buildings, e.g. swimming pools, retaining walls, etc.

  $(m) $(m)
New houses and flats30,060632.121,086500.4
Alterations and additions to houses and flats46,974115.344,344116.6
Other buildings (including additions and alterations)19,252435.316,557477.3
Total, all buildings96,2861,182.781,9871,094.3
Other construction6,88820.76,71220.1

Houses and Flats Completed—Provisional figures of houses and flats completed during the year ended 31 March 1978 give a total of 24,200 compared with 28,600 during the previous year. The 1977–78 total includes 1,427 State rental dwellings built by the Housing Corporation (compared with 1,913 during 1976–77). An additional 200 dwellings were created by the conversion of existing buildings.

MANUFACTURING (pp. 438–439)

NOTE: The 1976–77 statistics were not available at the time of going to print.

Manufacturing Census 1976–77—The following table shows the main aggregates for the 1976–77 Manufacturing Census together with the 1975–76 figures for purposes of comparison.

ItemUnitCensus of ManufacturingPercentage Change %
1975–761976–77
EstablishmentsNo.8,532  
Ancillary unitsNo.680  
Persons engaged in mid-April:    
MalesNo.215,810  
FemalesNo.82,882  
TotalNo.298,692  
Capital expenditure, less disposals$(million)349  
Salaries and wages paid:    
Males$(million)1,277  
Females$(million)299  
Total$(million)1,576  
Purchases and other expenses$(million)4,993  
Turnover$(million)7,264  
Value added$(million)2,351  

As explained in the Manufacturing section of this Yearbook, there was an unavoidable break in the continuity of manufacturing statistics between the 1973–74 and the 1974–75 manufacturing censuses. However, to provide some link, a limited number of main aggregates on an economic basis were collected for the 1973–74 year during the 1974–75 census. The 1973–74 establishment statistics in the following table were calculated on the same basis as those for the more recent censuses.

ItemCensus of Manufacturing
 1973–741974–751975–761976–77
EstablishmentsNo.8,1768,3488,532 
Persons engagedNo.282,136286,365298,692 
Total income$(million)5,4386,352  

NOTE: Further Information is available from the Business Censuses Section, Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Auckland

MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

Wool (p. 519)—Weight, sale value, and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand in the latest three seasons are shown below.

SeasonWeight of Greasy Wool SoldSale ValueValue per KgIndex Numbers* Base: 1974–75 (= 1000)

*Index numbers of price of new clip greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand adjusted to a clean f.o.b. New Zealand port basis. The base is the average over all sales of 1974–75 season (= 1000).

 kg(m)$(m)c 
1975–76212.5333.9157.121669
1976–77200.9441.2219.582363
1977–78198.6378.2190.432066

DOMESTIC TRADE (pp. 540–545)

Retail Trade

Quarter EndedTotal TurnoverTurnover per Head of Population
In Current $In Constant Dec qtr. 1974 $In Current $In Constant Dec qtr. 1974 $
As RecordedSeasonally AdjustedBefore Seasonal AdjustmentSeasonally AdjustedAs RecordedSeasonally AdjustedBefore Seasonal AdjustmentSeasonally Adjusted
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$$$$
1978—        
Mar1,233.21,334.9740.9802.1391.7424.0235.3254.7
Jun1,349.21,368.5785.4796.6431.5437.7251.2254.8

Hire Purchase Trade (pp. 541–542)—The following statistics show trade for the latest quarter (compared with the previous quarter) by surveyed businesses covering about 72 percent of total hire purchase business as recorded by the 1968 Census of Distribution. Since this time some businesses have used other forms of lending and the figures below include some lending by way of lease.

Quarter EndedValue of Goods Sold on Hire PurchaseTotal Amount Owing Under H.P. Agreements*
Motor VehiclesPlant and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal

*As at end of quarter.

   $(000)   
1978—      
Mar75,12227,5881,13217,586121,428351,510
Jun75,83126,7135,65923,549131,752374,568

Wholesale Trade—The quarterly survey of wholesale trade has been revised from the quarter ended 31 March 1977 in line with the 1973 Census of Distribution. It covers all wholesalers with sales in excess of $100,000 in 1973. A number of store types are included for the first time; timber merchants; cement and concrete stores; commission and indent agents; exporters; manufacturers' agents; and wool, hide, and skin dealers. Because of the inclusion of new wholesale store types, comparisons with earlier wholesale trade series must be made with caution.

PeriodFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicals
Quarter ended—$(million)
1977—Sales or Turnover
31 Mar307.192.251.8126.5178.884.9
30 Jun315.390.953.5138.9186.684.7
30 Sep343.791.250.3138.0189.892.0
31 Dec388.381.445.9129.9172.0103.0
1978—      
31 Mar335.782.036.1130.8150.893.0
30 Jun354.697.851.7160.9177.1102.5
As at—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
1977—      
31 Mar103.964.346.3114.6129.762.6
30 Jun114.467.550.6127.4139.962.7
30 Sep122.167.150.4149.6144.871.1
31 Dec119.469.445.8166.8142.874.6
1978—      
31 Mar120.475.245.6142.4140.263.3
30 Jun133.066.942.0147.8137.967.2
PeriodGeneral MerchantsMachineryElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryMiscellaneousTotal
ActualSeasonally Corrected
Quarter ended$(million)
1977—Sales or Turnover
31 Mar93.278.231.731.0233.61,308.91,401.4
30 Jun104.274.036.032.4251.71,368.31,392.1
30 Sep100.076.537.935.4215.31,370.01,335.4
31 Dec107.068.032.538.5215.21,381.71,318.8
1978—       
31 Mar90.570.330.033.4221.41,273.91,364.0
30 Jun99.870.531.733.0267.21,446.71,468.7
As at—Value of Wholesalers' Stocks
1977—       
31 Mar52.174.030.522.4112.7812.9808.4
30 Jun54.678.431.823.6112.8863.6862.7
30 Sep58.985.433.324.1102.8909.6905.8
31 Dec59.9102.833.323.5108.0946.4957.1
1978—       
31 Mar61.898.033.923.5116.7921.0915.3
30 Jun59.7103.329.025.5134.6946.8947.7

EXTERNAL TRADE (pp. 546–594)

Principal Exports and Imports—The following table shows the values of principal exports and imports during the 3 latest June years. Figures for 1977 are revised, and replace the provisional figures shown in Section 22.

Year Ended June
19761977x1978*
Exports, f.o.b.$(thousand)
New Zealand produce—   
Meat and meat preparations593,825765,601764,876
Dairy products—   
Butter204,196253,890240,940
Cheese77,97084,88176,537
Total, excluding casein and lactose370,691449,883449,714
Fruit and vegetables50,50264,76876,500
Hides, skins, and pelts77,393128,648144,269
Wool456,406648,152579,600
Sausage casings23,48725,84426,936
Tallow25,75532,99533,021
Casein27,08659,71860,529
Pulp, paper, and paper board120,948150,524147,390
Total, including other2,255,6283,096,7193,134,593
Re-exports131,226131,974174,520
Total exports2,386,8543,228,6923,309,113
Year Ended June
19761977x1978*

*Provisional.

Imports, c.d.v.$(thousand)
Food and live animals140,540148,763151,157
Beverages and tobacco25,14628,62929,545
Crude materials, inedible, except fuels1.00,305122,816119,917
Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials396,631468,970466,256
Animal and vegetable oils and fats9,47013,70714,920
Chemicals307,254423,861417,356
Manufactured goods classified chiefly by material558,355723,143617,816
Machinery and transport equipment993,7721,091,036938,244
Miscellaneous manufactured articles177,236203,498215,111
Commodities and transactions not classified according to kind21,37119,93431,186
Total merchandise imports c.d.v.2,730,0803,244,3563,001,508
Total merchandise imports c.i.f.2,961,5983,537,9823,269,487

PRICES

Retail Prices (pp. 604–611)—Consumers Price Index figures for the latest available quarters are set out in the following table.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX

Base: Weighted average 25 centres, December Quarter 1977 (=1000)

Group or SubgroupDecember Quarter 1977Quarter Ended 31 March 1978Quarter Ended 30 June 1978Quarter Ended 30 September 1978
Food—    
  Fruits and vegetables100099310511068
  Meat, fish and poultry100098410111092
  Other foods1000101910441055
    All Foods1000100610361067
Housing—    
  Rentals1000102010401052
  Home ownership1000101410321050
    Housing1000101510331050
Household operation—    
  Fuel and light1000100110451051
  Household furnishing1000101710461077
  Household supplies and services1000101810271052
    Household operation1000101510401065
Apparel—    
  Clothing1000101610671076
  Footwear1000101510571067
    Apparel1000101610651075
Transportation—    
  Public transport1000105610981150
  Private transport1000102710561092
    Transportation1000103010601097
Miscellaneous—    
  Tobacco and alcohol1000105210601084
  Other supplies1000103910751108
  Other services1000102610631092
    Miscellaneous1000104110661094
All groups1000102010471073

Compared with September quarter 1977, the Consumers Price Index for September quarter 1978 showed a rise of 11.1 percent. Compared with June quarter 1978, September quarter figures showed a rise of 2.5 percent.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE (pp. 659–670)

Taxation Receipts—This table shows direct and indirect taxation.

Source: Financial Statement (Budget).

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19771978*1979

*Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

†Estimated.

Direct taxation—$(thousand)
  Income tax2,828,5403,482,7813,865,000
  Estate and gift duty54.68748,71349,000
  Land tax6,6188,37210,000
  Property speculation tax260190
Total—Direct taxation2,890,1053,540,0563,924,000
Indirect taxation—   
  Customs duty252,891272,825290,000
  Beer duty46,45758,69365,000
  Sales tax353,261371,461406,000
  Motor spirits tax100,446102,202143,000
  Payroll tax203
  Racing duty29,94933,75037,000
  Other stamp duties33,68930,83828,000
  Energy resources levy4,01332,46730,000
  Motor vehicle fees and charges20,62942,60345,000
  Other6,05815,14518,000
  Highways taxation107,417126,256151,000
Total—Indirect taxation954,8301,086,2431,213,000
Total—Taxation receipts3,844,9354,626,2995,137,000

The functional classification of gross Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF GROSS GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19771978*1979

*Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

†Estimated.

Administration— $(m) 
  General administration199.1191.4219.2
  Law and order107.0136.4155.0
  Government services93.1113.0136.1
  Miscellaneous services26.229.331.1
  Stabilisation71.5116.085.9
Total496.9586.1627.4
Foreign relations—   
  Defence214.8252.2280.7
  Foreign Affairs81.683.190.6
Total296.4335.3371.3
Development of industry—   
  Land use377.9424.3530.8
  Fuel and power363.5458.4487.9
  Other industrial services97.8120.7158.8
Total839.21,003.51,177.4
Education704.7813.9847.5
Social services1,208.51,627.11,858.5
Health690.4809.8897.8
Total2,603.63,250.83,603.8
Transport and communications—   
Transport516.9579.3620.0
Communications379.1429.1450.2
Total896.01,008.41,070.2
Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions686.9888.7901.0
Total5,819.07,072.87,751.1

Consolidated Revenue Account Expenditure—The following table shows expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19771978*1979

*Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

†Estimated.

N.B.—More detailed notes on some items are given in the similar table in the Budget (Parliamentary paper B.6).

  $(thousand) 
Permanent appropriations—   
  Under Special Acts of Legislature—   
    Civil List1,8432,2432,336
  Debt services—   
    Interest367,037464,523537,000
    Transfer to Loans Redemption Account60,00065,00075,000
    Administration and management4,2606,7913,755
          Total—Debt services431,297536,314615,755
Special Acts—   
  Superannuation Act 195632,36947,83959,772
  New Zealand Superannuation Act 19742196
  New Zealand Superannuation refunds (recoverable)31,4421,488
  Miscellaneous21,92214,97714,030
          Total—Special Acts35,95264,31073,802
          Total—Permanent appropriations519,092602,867691,893
Annual appropriations—   
  Administration—   
    General administration—   
      Vote—   
        Accident Compensation243031
        Audit2,1762,5412,865
        Broadcasting84103120
        Building Performance Guarantee Corporation20
        Commission for the Environment383456530
        Customs9,0910,97412,135
        Inland Revenue24,89927,88029,220
        Internal Affairs32,27035,00638,990
        Legislative3,7594,6285,385
        Prime Minister's Department640835965
        State Services Commission30,00331,86744,390
        Statistics10,1347,8738,210
        Treasury5,02316,3486,600
        Valuation5,3486,3436,880
          Total—General administration123,752144,885156,341
    Law and order—   
      Vote—   
        Crown Law581680720
        Justice40,72550,90766,660
        Police54,71371,42783,725
        Security Intelligence Service9051,2101,460
          Total—Law and order96,924124,224152,565
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19771978*1979

*Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

†Estimated.

N.B.—More detailed notes on some items are given in the similar table in the Budget (Parliamentary paper B.6).

    Government services— $(thousand) 
      Vote—   
        Government Printing Office16,91521,59822,900
        Works and Development40,29444,170113,210
          Total—Government services57,20965,768136,110
    Stabilisation—   
      Vote—   
        Stabilisation58,321105,07285,940
          Total—Administration336,206439,949530,956
    Foreign relations—   
      Defence—   
        Defence214,831252,172280,710
      Foreign affairs—   
        Foreign affairs80,41581,54190,440
          Total—Foreign relations295,246333,713371,150
    Development of industry—   
      Land use—   
        Agriculture and Fisheries171,686177,319267,550
        Forest Service8,83910,602128,560
        Lands and Survey19,41424,01577,760
        Maori Affairs43,703
        Rural Banking and Finance Corporation6,0367,0359,900
          Total—Land use205,975218,971527,473
      Fuel and power—   
        Energy3,5352,56220,053
      Other industrial services—   
        Labour36,24648,80474,755
        Scientific and Industrial Research29,90635,71842,785
        Tourist and Publicity10,58812,28313,820
        Trade and Industry17,73021,76527,285
          Total—Other industrial services94,470118,570158,645
          Total—Development of industry303,980340,103706,171
    Education—   
      Education586,145689,405847,520
    Social services—   
      Housing Corporation47,13354,25470,320
      Internal Affairs7,0137,5959,110
      Maori Affairs7,13510,10311,587
      Social Welfare1,077,8861,491,5281,713,380
          Total—Social services1,139,1671,563,4801,804,397
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19771978*1979

*Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

†Estimated.

N.B.—More detailed notes on some items are given in the similar table in the Budget (Parliamentary paper B.6).

    Health— $(thousand) 
      Health685,785806,311897,840
    Transport—   
      Transport and communications83,18685,732103,875
          Total—Annual appropriations3,429,7154,258,6935,261,909
Unauthorised expenditure11,9624,537
Defence credits and other special entries54,34727,748
Additional contributions to Loans Redemption Account100,000100,000
Transfer to National Development Loans Account10,000
Transfer to Reserve Fund100,00080,000
Provision for Supplementary Estimates....220,000
          Total payments4,225,1175,073,8456,173,802

National Roads Fund Income and Expenditure

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197619771978
  $(thousand) 
Income   
Motor spirits duty80,82985,936106,696
Mileage tax, heavy traffic and other fees20,42221,48119,560
Contributions from Consolidated Revenue Account16,35021,00010,000
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account2,0004,000
Miscellaneous3,0033,1563,048
Interest415261
Total income122,645131,625143,365
Expenditure   
State highways maintenance25,90929,26537,191
State highways construction41,68135,88137,240
Subsidies to local authorities47,44548,27856,858
Administration and general10,52713,94013,889
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account repaid2,000
Unauthorised822
Total expenditure125,570129,366145,180

National Superannuation (p. 152)—National superannuation, for persons aged 60 or over who meet a 10-year residential qualification, replaced age and superannuation benefits from 9 February 1977. Weekly rates of national superannuation are taxable but are shown here "gross"—i.e., before any tax deductions have been made.

 Weekly Rate
 9 Feb 197718 Aug 19772 Mar 197831 Aug 1978

Note—Unmarried means: never married, widowed, divorced, separated, etc.

Married Person—$$$$
Where both parties of a married couple are eligible, they are each paid at half the married rate (gross)38.4241.3644.0052.87
Single Person—    
Including a married person whose spouse is ineligible46.1049.6453.2863.45
Married Couple—    
Where a dependent spouse is included subject to an income test. The rates shown are the maximum amounts where there is no reduction on account of income76.8482.7288.00105.74

Social Security Benefits (p. 151)—With effect from the period beginning 26 July 1978 the basic rate of benefit for a single beneficiary was increased from $44.28 to $46.37, and that for a married couple from $73.80 to $77.28.

GENERAL FINANCE

Summary of Budget Proposals—The 1978 Financial Statement (Budget) was presented to Parliament by the Minister of Finance, the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, on 1 June 1978. Major policy changes included the following:

  • • Major changes in personal tax rates provided tax cuts ranging up to $382 a year for about 1.4 million tax payers with taxable incomes of between $3,000 and $27,000 a year. The existing tax scale with 19 steps was replaced by one with 5 steps.

    The personal rebate was abolished, but the single-income family rebate was increased, and a special rebate introduced for school children earning small incomes. Exemptions from estate duty were increased.

  • • Assistance to the farming industry included a $60 million cash payment based on stock holdings to compensate farmers for production lost through drought, a new minimum price scheme for farm products to supplement stabilisation schemes run by the producer boards, increased subsidies on fertilisers and lime and on approved irrigation schemes, the cancellation of all Government inspection fees involved in the processing of primary products, and the introduction of land development encouragement loans.

  • • Additional energy policy measures included a rise in the duty on motor spirits involving an immediate rise of 2c a litre in the retail price, further feasibility studies on the use of liquid petroleum gas (LPG) as an automotive fuel and on the use of Maui gas to make methanol for blending with motor spirits, further incentives to energy conservation in industry and home insulation, a reduction in the rate of sales tax on lower-powered motor cycles, and further measures to encourage the use of natural gas and LPG.

  • • Rail charges were increased by 12.5 percent from 2 July.

  • • Recently-announced measures to assist the home owner and the building industry were supplemented by revised income limits for the family benefit capitalisation scheme, and by higher loans for rural housing.

  • • Some increased financial assistance for recreation and the arts, and for health and social welfare services.

These and other measures outlined in the Budget are expected to result in a deficit before borrowing of $1,050 million for the year ended March 1979. This compares with a deficit of $694 million for the year ended March 1978.

Land Transfers (pp. 284–285)—

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197619771978*

*Provisional.

Properties of under 2 hectares—    
  Number 89,89692,70276,934
  Consideration$(m)1,776.72,113.51,893.3
  Average price per hectare$171,665199,274211,120
Properties of 2 hectares and over—    
  Number 8,1079,2668,771
  Areahectares (000)634.9723.2863.1
  Consideration$(m)426.1578.1645.3
  Average price per hectare$671799748
All properties: Total consideration$(m)2,202.82,691.62,538.6

Mortgages (pp. 738–742)—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the latest three financial years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchRegisteredDischarged
NumberAmountNumberAmount

*Provisional.

  $(m) $(m)
1976147,6501,612.494,563654.1
1977160,4211,870.1112,135863.4
1978*143,5501,810.5105,116851.4

Overseas Exchange Transactions (pp. 731–734)—The following statement gives statistics of overseas exchange transactions for the latest three March years and the latest June year.

(Source: Reserve Bank)

ItemYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 30 June 1978
197619771978

*Provisional.

†Includes $6.4 million for the year ended 31 March 1978 and $14.6 million for the year ended 30 June 1978 I.M.F. repurchases.

RECEIPTS—$(million)
1. Exports—    
  Meat601.3799.7903.2896.8
  Wool410.5688.4612.3619.2
  Butter179.1197.8217.5233.0
  Cheese85.179.892.483.7
  Milk powders113.7142.0150.9157.8
  Other dairy products72.1112.7156.0145.3
  Other animal products156.4229.7281.0294.5
  Forest products172.8256.6291.2288.2
  Other primary products91.7131.8163.2160.0
  Manufactured exports313.1464.0501.0511.6
  Miscellaneous13.618.326.428.6
    Total exports2,209.53,120.93,395.13,418.7
2. Other current receipts592.0662.2747.3752.3
    Total current receipts2,801.63,783.14,142.54,171.0
3. Capital receipts—    
  Government borrowing522.8373.2852.1761.7
  Other official receipts190.674.156.855.5
  Private397.1373.5461.4509.8
    Total capital receipts1,110.5820.81,370.21,327.0
4. I.M.F.—    
  Drawings192.1117.8
  Allocations of SDRs
    Total Receipts4,104.24,721.75,512.75,498.0
PAYMENTS—    
1. Imports—    
  Government192.7162.8166.9172.9
  Private2,411.22,915.32,900.52,823.6
    Total imports2,603.83,078.1,067.52,996.5
2. Other Current Payments—    
  Government188.1249.9321.5339.9
  Private824.11,045.61,63.11,323.6
    Total other current payments1,012.21,295.51,84.61,663.5
      Total current payments3,616.14,373.64,52.04,660.0
3. Capital Payments—    
  Government debt repayments151.8232.8430.2394.4
  Other official repayments124.458.2
  Private191.8162.4201.5227.3
    Total capital payments468.0453.4631.7621.8
      Total Payments4,084.04,827.05,290.15,296.4
Balance on trade transactions−394.3+42.8+327.7+422.2
Balance on invisible transactions−420.2−633.3−837.2−911.1
Current account balance−814.5−590.5−509.5−488.9
Capital account balance+642.5+367.4+738.5+705.2
I.M.F. transactions (incl. SDRs)+192.1+117.8−6.4−14.6
Change in official overseas reserves+142.8+28.7+275.7+196.9
Official overseas reserves at end of period684.8720.6x996.4*934.7

Chapter 48. DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS
SELECTED PUBLICATIONS

Table of Contents

General

  • Monthly Abstract of Statistics

  • Official Yearbook

  • Pocket Digest of Statistics

  • Catalogue of Statistics

Finance and Government

  • National Income and Expenditure

  • Balance of Payments

  • Incomes and Income Tax

  • Local Authority Statistics

Commerce and Industry

  • Agricultural Statistics

  • Building Statistics

  • Industrial Production

  • External Trade

  • Prices, Wages, and Labour

  • Inter-Industry Study of the Economy

  • Transport

  • Census of Distribution

  • Census of Building and Construction

  • Insurance

Social and Demographic

  • Population and Migration

  • Justice

  • Household Survey

  • Vital Statistics

  • Population Projections

  • Life Tables

  • Social Trends

Population Census 1971

  • Vol. 1 Increase and Location of Population

  • 2 Ages and Marital Status

  • 3 Religious Professions

  • 4 Industries and Occupations

  • 5 Incomes

  • 6 Education

  • 7 Birthplaces and Ethnic Origin

  • 8 Maori Population and Dwellings

  • 9 Dwellings

  • 10 Households, Families, and Fertility

  • 11 Internal Migration

  • 12 General Report

Population Census 1976

  • Vol. 1 Pt A Population Size and Distribution

  • Pt B Population Density

A series of 12 bulletins for individual statistical areas provide basic population, dwelling, and household statistics from the 1976 Population Census.

For leaflet showing further details apply to Government Bookshop:

Auckland: Housing Corporation of New Zealand Building, Rutland Street (P.O. Box 5344).

Hamilton: Barton Street (P.O. Box 857).

Wellington: Mulgrave Street (Private Bag); Cubacade.

Christchurch: 130 Oxford Terrace (Private Bag).

Dunedin: T. & G. Building, Princes Street (P.O. Box 1104).

For details of Bulletin Series and Information Service, apply Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

INDEX

NOTE—Where more than one reference to a subject is given, the chief reference, wherever it has been possible to determine it, is indicated by bold type. Two or more references to a subject so indicated signify major, and approximately equal, importance.

A

Abbreviations. 936–942
Abortion, 139
Accident Compensation, 812–815
Accident Compensation Act, 245, 326, 812
Accident Compensation Commission, 245, 251, 663, 674, 812, 954
Accident insurance, 326, 757–758. (See Accident Compensation Act)
Accidents—
aircraft, 140, 338
cases treated in hospitals, 140
causes of, 140, 817–819
deaths from, 99, 100, 106–108, 324–325, 338, 818–819
drowning, 106, 107, 819
farming, 108, 818
industrial, 108, 815–818
in home, 108, 140
mining, 108, 316
motor-vehicle, 99, 106, 107, 140, 324, 325
poisoning, 106, 107, 140
railway, 140, 920
shipping, 306
time lost through, 816
transport, 99, 106, 107, 140, 324, 325
water, 106, 107, 108, 140
Acclimatisation of fish, 414
Accommodation licences, 844–845
Accommodation services, 134, 833–834
Accommodation, tourist, 833–834
Accounts, public, 659–690, 941
Acronyms, 936–942
Acts (see legislation)
Additional benefit, 157, 166
Administrative tribunals, 862–863
Adolescent dental service, 123
Adoptions, 92–93, 159
Adult education, 203
National Council of, 203
Advances—
bank, 714, 715–716
bank, control policy, 716–719
bank, reserve ratio, 711
building societies, 747–750
rural, 741–743
Advertising, radio, television, and press, 123, 346, 349, 350
Aerial—
land survey, 281–282
photography and mapping, 265, 281–282
topdressing, 335–336, 371–372
work operations, 335–336, 338, 371–372
Aero clubs, 338
Aerodromes, 338
Age benefits, 151, 152
Age distribution of population, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83
Agricultural (see also Farms, Farming, Crops, etc.)—
aviation, 335, 336, 338
imports of 587, 590, 591, 592, 593
clubs, 189
imports of 587, 590, 591, 592, 593
machinery, 359, 374–375, 449, 457, 567
imports of 587, 590, 591, 592, 593
production, 207, 360–368, 897, 899
production account, 360–363
Production Council. 370, 658
products exported, 506, 510–513, 564, 565, 566, 567
research, 207–208, 214, 371
services, 361
Workers Act, 800, 809
Agriculture, 207–208, 752. 897, 899, 930, 944
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of, 214, 370–371, 378, 380, 381, 382, 408, 414, 664, 667, 863, 865, 874–875, 955
Aid—
legal, 245–246
overseas, 37–40, 204
South Pacific, 37–39
Air—
Force, Royal New Zealand, 255, 258–259
freight. 334, 335, 337
licensing and control, 332–333
mails, 334, 340
navigation services, 333
pollution, 118, 272–273
Air New Zealand, 331, 332, 334, 336, 665, 687, 920, 921
Aircraft, 332, 334, 336, 338
accidents, 140, 338
imports of, 589, 590, 591
manufacture, 434, 450, 458
safety of, 820
types in domestic services, 334
types in international services, 332, 336
Airport statistics, 338
Alcoholic liquors—
consumption of, 122, 625
duty on, 598, 670, 673
household expenditure on, 619–622
imports of, 585, 589, 590
manufacture of, 452
sale of, 843–845
Alcoholism, 122, 123, 143
Alexander Turnbull Library, 222, 223
Aliens, 76–77
Aluminium (See also non-ferrous metals), 434, 565, 567
Ambulance services, 134
Amenities of dwellings, 481
Americas, relations with the, 33–34
Angling, 414
Anhydrous milkfat, 364
Animal health, 361, 370, 371
Animals, noxious, 397
Anniversary Days, 847
Annuities, 169–171
Antarctic, N.Z. activities in the, 260, 827–830, 920
Ante-natal services, 121
Antiquities, protection of, 221
ANZUK, 36, 259
ANZUS Treaty, 27, 37
Apiaries and apiculture, 391
Apparel, household expenditure on, 619–622
Apples, 375, 376, 381, 382, 383–384, 516
consumption of, 624, 626
exported, 564, 566, 577, 626, 906
marketing of, 371, 516
Apprentices, 770–771
Arable farming, 355, 356, 357, 375–379, 897
Arahunga, G.M.V., 298, 307
Aramoana, G.M.V., 298, 307
Aranui, G.M.V., 298, 307
Aratika, G.M.V., 298, 307
Arbitration Court, 48, 798, 799, 919
Archeological sites, 221, 222
Area of New Zealand, 2, 60, 62–66, 68, 264
of farmland, 357, 358
of forested land, 392, 393, 394
Armed Forces, 254–261, 871
in war, 260–261, 919–920
pay and allowances, 632, 634
serving overseas, 259–261
strengths of, 256–259
superannuation, 168–171
Army, 257–258
Art galleries, 218, 219
Articles on special subjects in previous issues, 923
Artificial aids (for physical disabilities). 130–131, 132
Artificial lakes, 5
Arts in New Zealand, 218–222
Asbestos, 426
Asia, relations with, 30
Asian Development Bank, 35, 39, 40, 641, 665, 736
Assessment of—
income tax, 674–679
land tax, 679
Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN), 30, 31
Assurance, life, 690, 718–719, 754–757
Auckland Harbour Bridge (see also Harbour Bridge Authority), 314, 318
Auckland Regional Authority, 50, 51
Audio-visual teaching aids, 191
Audit Department, 663, 863, 865, 954
Australia—
communications with, 340, 343
Free Trade Agreement with, 33, 547, 550–551, 596
investment in New Zealand, 647, 648
relations with, 33
shipping to and from, 297
social security reciprocity with, 157
trade with, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550–552, 554, 557, 570, 571, 584–585, 596, 642–643, 646
visitors and migrants from, 73, 832, 833
Aviation, 331–338, 947
agricultural, 335, 336, 338
Awards, cultural, 218, 219, 220–221

B

Bacon and ham curing, 444, 451
Balance of payments, 639–650
overseas direct investments in New Zealand, 647, 649
survey of companies with overseas affiliations, 646–650
Balance of trade, 552
Bananas—
consumption of, 624
imports of, 517, 594
Bank notes, 710, 711, 713, 733–735
Bank of New Zealand, 687, 712–713, 917
Bankruptcy, 840–842
industry groups of bankrupts, 841, 916
Banks and banking, 709–737, 914, 926
assets and liabilities, 690, 711–713
merchant banks, 727
overseas assets of, 730–731, 909
savings, 674, 690. 718, 719, 720–724, 914
Barley, 375, 376, 377, 378, 564, 566, 897
Basic metal industries, 441, 442, 448, 456
Beds, hospital, 133–134
Beef—
cattle, 385, 386, 387, 389, 898
consumption of, 623, 625
exports of, 506, 507–508, 572, 625, 904
production of, 356, 358, 359, 366
retail prices of, 609
Beer—
consumption of, 625
duty on, 598, 599, 662, 670, 952
production of, 452, 464
Bees and beekeeping, 371, 391
Benefits, social welfare, 128–132, 148, 149, 150–158, 474, 635, 674, 957
Bentonite, 416, 426
Berryfruit, 383, 624, 626
Beverage industries, 440, 441, 443, 445, 452, 464, 752, 944
Beverages, consumption of, 625
imports of, 582
Bibliography, New Zealand publications, 847, 924–935
Big-game fishing, 413, 835
Bird sanctuaries, 279–280
Birth rate, 54, 86–93, 888
Birthplaces of population, 84
Births, 86–23, 888
ex-nuptial, 91–92
first, 90–91
multiple, 89
of Maoris, 86, 87
registration of, 86, 92, 93
still, 89, 93, 103
Biscuit industry, 445, 452
Blind, benefits for and education of, 156, 179
Board of Health, 117
Boarding of school children, 188
Boilers, lifts, and cranes, inspection of, 820
Bonds, National Development, 674, 722
Bonus Bonds, 721, 722
Book publishing, 846–847
Books—
imports of, 589, 592
library, 224–226
New Zealand, 924–935
Boroughs and cities, 49, 62–63, 691–697, 773
area of, 62–63
capital and unimproved values, 288, 289
councils, 51
debt, 696–697, 913
franchise, 49
number of, 51
population, 62–63
stores in, 527–528
Borstal institutions and training, 230, 232, 239
Botany, publications, 929–930
Bread bakeries, 445, 452
Breweries, 445, 452
Brick productions, 474
Brides and grooms, 109–111
Bridges and bridging, 307, 314, 317, 318
Britain (see United Kingdom)
British—
Airways, 332
postal orders, 341
sovereignty, 23
trade preference, 596, 597
Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, 219, 346, 665
Broadcasting, radio and television, 346–349
for schools, 191, 347
local, 347
stations, 346, 347
Broadcasting Tribunal, 346
Budget, 489, 957–958
Building (see also Housing), 359, 465–483, 947
board exports, 564, 565, 566
imports of, 590, 591, 592, 593
business of private contractors, 467, 468, 703
imports of, 590, 591, 592, 593
Census of, 466–467
imports of, 590, 591, 592, 593
costs, 466–467, 475, 479
imports of, 590, 591, 592, 593
employment, 473, 703, 766
imports of, 590, 591, 592, 593
Industry Advisory Council, 466, 658
imports of, 590, 591, 592, 593
materials, 456, 474, 482, 899
imports of, 590, 591, 592, 593
overseas investments in, 649
permits, 469–472, 947
persons engaged in, 467, 703, 766
statistics, 469–471
wages and working hours of employees, 792, 795–796
work put in place, 472, 473
Building Performance Guarantee Corporation, 466
Building Societies, 476, 477, 719, 741, 747–750
Burials, 98
Bursaries—
ex-servicemen's children, 166
teachers, 194, 196
university, 193–194, 196
war, 166
Buses, 313, 320, 323, 326
Bush, 392, 393–394
Business—
failures, 840–842, 916
loans, 745–746
Butter (see also Dairy produce) 28, 363, 364, 386, 464, 506, 510–511
By-elections, 580

C

Cabinet, 46, 854
Cables, overseas, 343–344
Cadet Forces, 260
Calves, slaughter and marketing of, 367
Campbell Island, 1, 11, 55
Camps, health, 121
Canada—
relations with, 34
trade with, 549, 554, 557, 570, 596–597, 642–643, 646
visitors and migrants from, 73, 832, 833
Cancer—
ages of decedents, 101
deaths from, 101–102, 137–138
lung, 122
site of disease, 102
Society of New Zealand, 101, 125, 133
Canned fruit and vegetables—
consumption of, 624
exports of, 626
production of, 445, 452
Capital—
expenditure in manufacturing industries, 439, 443–444, 451–459, 665, 687
expenditure of Government, 345, 663–664, 665–669
expenditure on farms, 359
expenditure, railways, 311, 665, 666, 667, 669, 687
invested in electric-power undertakings, 469, 499, 665, 666, 667, 668, 688
of companies, 750–753, 916
overseas, invested in N.Z. industries, 647–649, 665
transfers, 731
value of land, 288–289
Capitalisation of family benefit, 151, 155, 468, 474, 745, 867
Cargo carried by air transport, 324, 325, 337
Cargo handled at ports, 299–304
Caribbean, relations with, 34
Carpets and carpet yarns, 434, 445, 453
Casein exported, 512, 562, 565, 566, 576, 906, 950
Casein produced, 364, 512
Catchment authorities, 51, 271, 693, 697, 773
Cattle, 356, 358, 359, 361, 362, 385, 386, 387, 389, 898
hides exported (see Hides, skins, and pelts)
slaughtered, 367
Cement—
industry, 448, 456
production of, 448, 456, 474
Census—
age distribution of population, 78, 83
country of birth, 84
educational attainment, 707
educational attendance levels, 201, 707, 784
employment statistics, 775–781
ethnic groups, 83
income earners in each household, 708
incomes of individuals, 707
internal migration, 84
major industrial groups, 776, 777–778
marital status, 78–79
occupations of population, 776, 777–778
of building and construction, 466–467
of distribution, 523–542
of dwellings, 480–483
of libraries, 224–225
of manufacturing, 438, 444, 948
of mining and quarrying, 428–430
pleasure craft, 306
publications, 960
religious professions, 82
smoking habits, 122
transport to work, 323
Central Government finance, 150, 152, 636–637, 659–690, 724, 741, 742, 744–746, 761, 871, 910–912, 952–956
Central institute of technology, 179
Cereals, 375, 376, 377, 445, 452, 582, 897
consumption of, 624, 626
imports of, 582
Cerebral palsy, 124
Cerebrovascular disease, 102–103
Certificates of title (land), 283
Chatham Islands, 1, 284, 332, 343
schools, 179, 191
Cheese (see also Dairy produce), 28, 363, 364, 386, 464, 506, 511
Chemicals and chemical products industry, 440, 442, 443, 447, 455, 464, 944
imports of, 586, 590
Chemists, 128
Child health and welfare, 121, 158–162, 242–244
Childbirth accidents, etc., 99, 103–105, 139
Children and Young Persons Act 1974, 92, 160, 161, 242
Children—
adopted, 92–93, 159
causes, 106
affected by divorce proceedings, 113
causes, 106
allowances, 148, 149, 150–155
causes, 106
born, number and sexes, 88, 888
causes, 106
deaths of (see Infant mortality), 95, 96, 105–106, 888
causes, 106
dental treatment of, 123–124
dependent, 153, 159, 164
delinquent, 159–162, 242–244
handicapped, 121, 158, 183
heights and weights of, 144–147
intellectually handicapped, 121, 158, 183
killed on roads, 106, 324, 325
offences by, 242–244
restrictions on employment of, 808, 809
school, 174–176, 179–180, 889
under supervision, 162
Children's courts, 160–162, 227, 242–244, 250
Children's homes, 159, 162
China, relations with, 30, 31
Chiropodists, 127
Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel, 315, 318
Chronology of principal events, 917–922
Churches, 82, 252
marriages in, 112
Cigarettes and tobacco—
duty on 598
imports of, 582, 585, 589, 590
production of, 440, 464
Cinemas, 252, 352–353
Cities and boroughs, 49, 62–63, 527–528, 691–697, 773
Citizen radio service, 344
Citizenship, 75–76
Citizenship Act 1977, 75–76
Citrus fruits, 375, 376, 381–382, 824
imports of, 517, 594
consumption of, 624
marketing of, 382, 517
citrus marketing authority, 517
Civil—
aviation, 331–338, 947
defence, 50, 261, 695, 876
jurisdiction, 244–245
List, 44, 45, 954
Clays, 416, 456, 474
Clean Air Council, 118, 273
Clergy, marriages by, 112
Climate, 13–21
observations for year, 18–21
Clinics—
ante-natal, 121
child health, 121
dental, 123
Clothing and footwear, retail prices of, 609–610
Clothing, imports, 584, 594
Clothing industry, 440, 441, 443, 446, 453, 463, 753, 944
Clover (see also grass seed), 380, 381
Clutha River, development of, 495
Coal, 415, 416, 418–421, 428–430, 944
and petroleum products industry, 440, 442, 443, 448, 455
consumption of, 418, 421, 484, 486, 901
deposits, 8
exports of, 568
mining, 418–420, 428–430
research, 418
resources, 418–420, 488
State mines, 418–421
used in gas industry, 503
Coastal shipping, 298, 299, 300
Coastline, 2, 395–396
Cocoa imported, 585, 600
Cocoa manufacture, 445, 452
Co-education, 176, 186
Coffee, consumption of, 625
Coffee imported, 585, 589, 590, 600
Coin and coinage, 727–728
held by banks, 713
Colleges—
teachers', 175, 178, 179, 180, 189–199, 889
Colombo Plan, 197
Colonisation, 23
Commerce Commission, 601, 602
Commercial failures, 840–842, 916
Commercial radio and television, 346–347
Commission for the Environment, 268, 663
Commission for the Future, 291–292
Commission on Nuclear Power Generation, 488
Commodity sales—
retail, 524–533, 540–542, 949
wholesale, 524, 533–537, 543–544
Common Law, 227
Common Market (see European Economic Community)
Commonwealth, 29, 36, 37, 39
defence, 36–37, 259
youth programme, 39, 849
Communications, 339–353, 944
overseas investment in, 649
radio, 343
satellite, 343
Communities, 50, 51, 64
Community care services available, 158
Community centres, 204
Community colleges, 175, 176, 178
Community councils, 50, 51
Community nurses, 126
Companies, 527, 750–753, 916
finance, 718, 725–727, 753
financial statements, analysis of, 751–753
income of, 632, 633, 703, 704–706
joint stock, 750
overseas, 646–650, 750
private, 527, 750
profits of, 752–753
public, 527, 750–753
registered, 527, 750, 916
share prices, indices, 618, 892, 893
taxation of, 678–679, 704
with overseas affiliations, 646–650, 705–706, 750
Comparisons with other countries (see International comparisons)
Compensation—
criminal injuries, 245
workers, 815, 816
Computers, 206, 342
Conciliation service (Industrial), 798–799
Concrete products industry, 448, 456, 474
Condensate, natural gas, 422
Confectionery industry, 445, 452
Confinements, 89, 90–91, 129
Conjugal status of persons marrying, 109–111
Conservation (see Physical environment)
Consolidated Revenue Account, 117, 150, 168, 176, 316, 318, 320, 517, 659, 662–664, 665, 666, 667, 669, 670, 688, 910, 954–956
Constitution of New Zealand, 40–47
Construction Act, 820
Construction, building, and housing, 465–483, 944
Consultative planning, 290
Consumer Council, 603
Consumer information, 603, 630
Consumer prices, 609–610, 796
index, 603–610, 796, 892, 893, 951–952
Consumption of food, 412, 623–628
Containerisation, 297, 305
Contractions, 936–942
Convictions (court), 233–242, 890
for traffic offences, 235, 327–328
of juveniles, 243–244
of women, 236
Convictions in Magistrates' Courts, 232–236, 327–328, 890
Convictions in Supreme Court, 231–232, 890
Cook Islands, 11, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 38, 55, 73, 74, 84, 168, 191, 821–824, 918
constitutional changes, 31–32
immigrants from, 73, 823
population, 580, 823
trade, 549, 580, 594, 732, 824
Cook Strait—
air freight services, 307
submarine power cable, 495
vehicular ferry service, 298, 307, 310, 312
Co-operative credit associations, 743
Copper ore, 425
Copra, 594, 824, 825, 827
Copyright, 838
Correspondence schools and classes, 175, 179, 180, 188–189, 191, 204
CORSO, 40
Cotton piece-goods, imports of, 586, 589, 591
Council for—
Adult Education, 203
Educational Research, 202
Counties, 49, 64–66, 691–697, 773
area of, 64–66
capital and unimproved values, 288–289
councils, 51, 691–697, 773
debt, 696–697
franchise, 49
population, 64–66
roads and roading, 314, 318–319
Country Library Service, 223–224
Court of Appeal, 48, 227, 228, 231, 244, 862
Court of Arbitration, 48, 798, 799, 919
Courts (see also Supreme, Magistrates, etc.), 160–162, 227–228, 890
Judges of, 227–228, 862
structures and types of, 48, 227–228
Cows in milk, 389
Cranes, inspection of, 820
Crayfish (see Rock lobsters)
Cream, consumption of, 623
Credit, rural intermediate, 744
Cremation, 98, 773
Crime, law and, 227–253, 890
Criminal—
appeals, 227, 228, 231
injuries compensation, 245
jurisdiction, 231–237
reformation and punishment, 229–242
Crippled children (see Handicapped children)
Crops, 357, 358, 359, 361, 362, 375–385, 897
Crown land, 274–280, 283, 357
Crown Law Office, 663, 863, 865, 954
Cultivation, area in, 357–358
Cultural activities, 218–222
Cultural awards, 218, 219, 220–221
Cultural Exchange Programme, 28, 219
Currency and banking (see also Exchange), 709–737, 914, 926
Customs Department, 559, 595–600, 663, 863, 865, 954
Customs tariff and revenue, 595–600, 661, 663, 670, 671, 672, 673, 957

D

Dairy—
Board, New Zealand, 365, 510, 515
exported, 301, 304, 506, 510–513, 514, 515, 546–550, 558, 562–563, 564, 565, 574–576, 731, 732, 905, 950
cows, 364, 386, 387, 389, 898
exported, 301, 304, 506, 510–513, 514, 515, 546–550, 558, 562–563, 564, 565, 574–576, 731, 732, 905, 950
factories, 364, 444, 452, 715
exported, 301, 304, 506, 510–513, 514, 515, 546–550, 558, 562–563, 564, 565, 574–576, 731, 732, 905, 950
farming, 354, 355, 356, 358, 359, 361, 362, 363–365, 377, 386, 387, 698, 699, 703, 715, 898, 899
exported, 301, 304, 506, 510–513, 514, 515, 546–550, 558, 562–563, 564, 565, 574–576, 731, 732, 905, 950
machinery, 359, 374–375
exported, 301, 304, 506, 510–513, 514, 515, 546–550, 558, 562–563, 564, 565, 574–576, 731, 732, 905, 950
produce, 361, 362, 363–365, 370–371, 452, 899
exported, 301, 304, 506, 510–513, 514, 515, 546–550, 558, 562–563, 564, 565, 574–576, 731, 732, 905, 950
consumption of, 623–624, 625
exported, 301, 304, 506, 510–513, 514, 515, 546–550, 558, 562–563, 564, 565, 574–576, 731, 732, 905, 950
export price index, 615
inspection of, 370–371
marketing of, 506–513, 514, 515
prices for, 519–520, 899
subsidies on, 628
Data service (Post Office), 342–343
Databank Systems Ltd., 712
Deaf, education of, 189
Death benefits, 157
Death duty, 636
estates passed for, 681–684
Death rates, 54, 86, 94–96, 103, 104, 888
Maori non-Maori comparisons, 94, 95
Deaths, 86, 94–108, 888
accidental (see Accidents)
by ages, 95
by causes, 99–103
distribution over year, 95
due to earthquakes, 10
from accidents on farms, 818–819
from air accidents, 338
from external causes, 106–108
in hospitals, 137–139, 141
in psychiatric hospitals, 144
international classification, 99
neo-natal, 103–105
of infants, 103–105, 888
of Maoris, 86, 94, 95, 96, 103, 104
of pre-school children, 105–106
perinatal, 99, 103–105
registration of, 98
Debt—
hospital boards, 135
local government, 696–697, 913
public, 644–645, 685–690, 697, 912, 954
Decimal currency, 727
Deer farming, 390
Defence, 36–37, 254–261, 874
civil, 261, 875
expenditure on, 255, 637, 660, 664, 668, 953, 955
policy, 36–37
science, 255
services, strength of, 256–259
Degrees, university, 197–198
Delinquency, juvenile, 159–162, 242–244
Demography, 54–85, 887–888
Demolition of buildings, 468
Dental—
benefits (social security), 130
Council, 126
health, 123–124
nurses, 123
research, 124
services, 117, 123–124, 130, 132, 703
Dentists, 126, 703
Departments, Government, 47, 117, 854, 863–871
Agriculture and Fisheries, 214, 215, 370–371, 378, 380, 381, 382, 408, 414, 664, 667, 863, 865, 874–875, 955
Audit, 663, 863, 865, 954
Crown Law, 663, 863, 865, 954
Customs, 559, 595–600, 663, 863, 865, 954
Defence, 254, 255, 863, 865, 874, 955
Education, 174, 175, 181, 183, 188, 219, 664, 770, 849, 863, 865, 871, 873, 889, 955
Electricity, 487, 497, 820, 863, 865, 875
Energy Resources, 418, 487, 664, 863, 868, 922, 955
Foreign Affairs, 28, 204, 219, 664, 666, 667, 849, 863, 866, 955
Forest Service, 209, 268, 270, 276, 394–397, 402, 404, 405, 664, 666, 667, 864, 866, 875, 955
Government Printing Office, 663, 863, 866, 955
Health, 116–147, 149, 212, 820, 863, 866, 873, 956
Inland Revenue, 663, 863, 867, 954
Internal Affairs, 218, 663, 664, 820, 864, 867, 876, 954
Justice, 162, 183, 229, 280, 282, 663, 667, 864, 867, 873–874, 890, 954
Labour, 116, 120, 149, 483, 664, 792–794, 819, 864, 867, 876, 955
Lands and Survey, 265, 266, 268, 280–282, 664, 666, 667, 864, 868, 875, 955
Maori Affairs, 162, 163, 250, 280, 477, 664, 666, 667, 849, 864, 868, 955
Mines, 418, 487, 664, 666, 820, 863, 868, 875
Scientific and Industrial Research, 206–214, 215–216, 255, 270, 273, 380, 415, 490, 664, 667, 864, 869, 874, 955
Social Welfare, 148–173, 183, 246, 250, 664, 864, 869, 873, 911, 955
Trade and industry, 292, 293, 435, 437, 559, 560, 601–602, 664, 864, 870, 875, 955
Transport, 297, 322, 325–327, 329, 332–333, 664, 820, 864, 870, 874, 956
Works and Development, 158, 266, 272, 307, 314, 315, 428, 466, 667, 820, 864, 871, 875, 955
Departures (see Migration)
Dependants of servicemen, pensions for, 163–167
Dependent children, 153, 159, 164
Deposits—
interest on, 726
time, 713, 714
with building societies, 748, 749, 750
with Reserve Bank, 711, 713
with savings banks, 720, 721, 722, 723, 914
with stock and station agencies, 725, 727
with trading banks, 713, 714
Desertion in marriage, 113
Designs, registration of, 837–838
Detention centre, 230, 232, 239
Development Finance Corporation, 293, 435, 489, 665, 687, 737
Diagnostic laboratory services, 129–130, 132
Diatomite, 416, 425
Diesel and diesel-electric rail transport, 308, 309
Dietitians, 127, 134, 135
Diphtheria, whooping cough; and tetanus immunisation, 121–122
Diplomatic representation, 30, 881–885
Disabled, Rehabilitation League, 124
Disabilities from industrial accidents, 816
Disability allowance, 157
Disability war pension, 164, 165
Disabled civilians, rehabilitation of, 124, 813
Disabled servicemen, 163–168
Discount rates, 719
Diseases—
deaths from, 99–106, 137–139
mental, 138, 143–144
occupational, 120
treated in hospitals, 137–139
Displaced persons, 73–74
Dissolution of marriage, 112–114
Distance tax, 316, 671, 673
Distribution—
census of, 523–542
by industry and occupation, 766, 775–776, 781
by ages, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83
of labour force, 766
by industry and occupation, 766, 775–776, 781
by ages, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83
of population, 59–68
by ages, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83
District Community Councils and Community
Councils, 50, 51, 64
District Councils, 50, 51, 773
District high schools, 180, 186, 188
District planning, 266
District Roads Councils, 316
Diversification of trade, 548
Dividends, totalisator, 684–685
Divorce, 109, 110, 111, 112–114
Divorced persons, 78, 79
remarrying, 109, 110, 111
Doctors (see Medical practitioners)
Dolomite, 416
Domains, public, 279–280, 694
Domestic assistance, 130
Domestic proceedings, 246
Domestic purposes benefit, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155
Domestic trade, 523–544, 949–950
Dominion, 26
Drainage boards, 51, 693–694, 697, 773
Drama, 933
Drivers' licences, 320, 326
Drowning accidents, 106, 107
Drugs, 118–119, 129, 447, 455, 753
offences, 233, 249
therapeutic, 118
Drunkenness, 233, 236, 238, 326, 327
Duties—
customs and excise, 595–600, 661, 662, 670, 671, 673, 957
estate and gift, 671, 679–681, 952
instruments, 671
lottery, 671, 843
Dwellings (sec also Houses and flats), 251, 465–483, 744–746, 947
amenities, 481–482
census of, 480–483
materials used, 482
number of rooms and occupants, 482
tenure, 481, 482

E

Earth resources, satellite programme, 265, 273
Earthquake and War Damage Commission, 690
Earthquake and War Damage Insurance, 762–763
Earthquake magnitudes, 9–10
Earthquakes, 9–12, 917, 919
Ecological survey, 212
Economic—
aggregates, 629–638
Monitoring Group (EMG), 291
pensions, 165
planning, 206, 658
Economics, publications, 926
Education (see also Schools), 174–205, 889
Act, 174, 175, 810, 918
adult, 203–204
boards, 174, 175
buildings, 176, 178–179, 469, 470, 668
community colleges, 175, 176, 178
continuing, 203–204
dental health, 123–124
Department of, 174, 175, 181, 183, 188, 219, 770, 849, 863, 865, 871, 873, 889, 955
expenditure on, 176–177, 637, 660, 664, 666, 667, 668, 911, 953, 955
handicapped children, 183
health, 122–123
higher, 192–193, 889
Maori, 185, 186, 202–203
Pacific Islanders 202–203, 823, 827
pre-school, 176, 178, 179, 184
primary, 175, 176, 184–186, 707, 889
psychological service, 183
publications, 191, 927–928
road safety, 326
rural, 188–189
secondary, 175, 176, 186–187, 201, 707, 889
special classes, 176, 183
system, 174–176, 889
technical, 175, 176, 180, 198–201, 770–771, 889
training of teachers, 189–190, 889
University, 192–198, 889
Educational—
attainments, 187, 707
attendance levels, 201
planning, 174–175
qualifications of labour force, 707, 784
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 35, 36, 197, 205
Eels, 414
Effective gross domestic product, 656–657
Effective weekly wage rates, 796, 893
Eggs—
consumption of, 623, 626
export of, 567, 626
marketing of, 390, 517
production, 390
retail price of, 609
subsidy on, 517, 628
Elderly, housing of, 132, 476, 695, 746
Elections, general, 25, 42, 43, 44, 48–49, 845
Electoral—
Act 1956, 42, 48
Representation Commission, 42, 48
roll, 49, 845
Electorates, 48, 855
Electric—
appliances in homes, 481
boards, 51, 497, 693–695, 697, 773
estimates, 495–496
finance of, 496, 665, 666, 667, 688
generation, 499
power, 421, 492–500, 688
boards, 51, 497, 693–695, 697, 773
estimates, 495–496
finance of, 496, 665, 666, 667, 688
generation, 499
railways, 308, 309
stations, 421, 484–488, 497–498
Electrical machinery and appliances—
imported, 584, 587, 588, 591
industry, 441, 442, 444, 450, 457, 463, 944
Electricity, consumption of, 484, 486
Electricity Department, 487, 497, 820, 863, 865, 875
Electronics, manufacture, 434, 450, 457
Embassies, 881–883
Emergency benefits, 150, 151, 152, 153, 157
Emergency Protection Authority, 560
Emigration, 70–73, 945
Employers—
liability insurance, 762
unions, 801, 803
Employment, 764–786, 945
building, 473, 766
by local authorities, 773
centres, 768–769
forestry, 405
in coal mining, 421
in industry, 439–451
in retail stores, 524–528, 531, 532, 533
in service establishments, 538
in wholesale stores, 534, 537
index of, 656
on farms, 358
placement service, 768–769, 774–775
promotion, 768–769
public service, 774, 871–873
regulations affecting, 808–811
survey of, 772–773
vacancies, 774–775
women in labour force, 439, 444–451, 777–781, 782–783
Endowment, land, 276–277
Energy, 209–210, 484–505
conservation, 488–489, 957
pricing policy, 489
research and development, 490–492
Research and Development Committee, 209
Energy Resources—
development of, 487–490
levy, 671, 952
Ministry of, 418, 487, 664, 863, 868, 922
Engineering industries, 450, 458
Environment—
Commission for, 268
physical, 211–212, 262–274
research in, 490–491
Environmental Council, 269–270
Environmental health, 118
Equal Opportunities Tribunal, 637
Equal pay, 791
Erosion, 7, 8, 272, 396
protection, forest, 396
ESCAP, 35, 36
Estate duty, 662, 671, 679–681, 952
Estates—
administered by Public Trust Office, 839–840
passed for death duty, 681–684
Ethnic groups, 83
Europe, relations with, 25, 29–30, 507
European Economic Community (EEC), 25, 28, 29–30, 506, 508, 513–514, 546–548, 921, 922
investment in New Zealand, 647, 648
trade with, 506, 507, 510, 511, 553, 642–643, 646
Ewes, breeding, 388
Examinations, 181–182, 192
Excess retention tax, 678
Exchange (currency)—
control of, 710, 728–729, 733
rates of, 728–729
Exchange transactions, overseas, 710, 730–735, 926, 959
Exchanges, telephone, 342, 343
Excise duties, 598, 599, 600, 661, 662, 670, 671, 673, 952
Exclusive Economic Zone, 407, 409, 412, 435, 922
Executive council, 46
Ex-nuptial infants, 91–92, 93
ages of mothers, 92, 159
births of, 91–92, 159
protection of, 159
registration of, 91–92
Exotic forest, 392–393, 394, 395–396, 406
Expectation of life, 96–98
Expenditure—
civil aviation, 333
defence, 255, 637, 660, 664, 668, 953, 955
education, 176–177, 637, 660, 664, 666, 667, 668, 911, 953, 955
Foreign affairs, 660, 664, 666, 667
Forest Service, 397, 664, 666, 955
government (see Government Finance)
health, 117, 637, 660, 664, 666. 667, 669, 911, 953, 956
household, 601–622
local government, 318, 319, 638, 691–697, 913
national, 629–638, 953–956
National Roads Fund, 317–319, 956
Post Office, 344–345, 895
Railways, 309–310, 311, 665, 667, 669, 736, 896
research, 216–218, 667
roads, 317–319, 660, 664, 669, 956
social services, 151, 166, 168, 637, 660, 664, 666, 667, 669, 911, 953, 955
transport, 660, 664, 666, 667, 669
Export Guarantee Office, 437, 561
Export Import Corporation, 561, 687
Exports and Shipping Council, 518
Exports (see also under individual products), 301–304, 366–367, 386, 514–515, 562–580, 657, 902, 908, 950
by air, 337
value, 562–563, 565–567, 731, 732
volume, 564, 565
dairy produce, 506, 510–513
meat, 506–508, 515–516
index numbers, 614–616, 891
index numbers, 558–559
by ports, 301, 302, 303–304, 579
value, 562–563, 565–567, 731, 732
volume, 564, 565
dairy produce, 506, 510–513
meat, 506–508, 515–516
index numbers, 614–616, 891
index numbers, 558–559
classification of, 567–569
value, 562–563, 565–567, 731, 732
volume, 564, 565
dairy produce, 506, 510–513
meat, 506–508, 515–516
index numbers, 614–616, 891
index numbers, 558–559
commodities exported—
value, 562–563, 565–567, 731, 732
volume, 564, 565
dairy produce, 506, 510–513
meat, 506–508, 515–516
index numbers, 614–616, 891
index numbers, 558–559
control of, 559–561
dairy produce, 506, 510–513
meat, 506–508, 515–516
index numbers, 614–616, 891
index numbers, 558–559
destination of, 548–551, 553–557, 570–576
index numbers, 614–616, 891
index numbers, 558–559
incentive scheme, 559
index numbers, 614–616, 891
index numbers, 558–559
licences, 559
index numbers, 614–616, 891
index numbers, 558–559
manufactured, 434
index numbers, 614–616, 891
index numbers, 558–559
prices, 518–523
index numbers, 614–616, 891
index numbers, 558–559
pulp and paper, 403, 404, 908, 950
index numbers, 558–559
timber 403, 404
index numbers, 558–559
value of, 553–557, 565–567, 902–908, 950
index numbers, 558–559
volume, 562–565, 902–908
index numbers, 558–559
Ex-servicemen—
dependants of, 163–166
disabled, 163–168
pension and rehabilitation, 163–167
External—
migration (see also emigration, immigration), 54, 55, 56, 70–73, 888
trade, 546–600, 902–908, 950–951

F

Factories (see also manufacturing industries), 431–434, 438–441, 444–451, 469, 470
accidents in, 815–819
Act, 808
dairy, 364, 444, 452
Factory production, 431–464, 900
Family—
and the law, 246–247
capitalisation of, 151, 155, 468, 474, 745, 867
benefits, 148, 149, 150–155, 637
capitalisation of, 151, 155, 468, 474, 745, 867
health, 121
planning, 121
Farm—
accidents, 108, 818
imports of, 587, 591, 592–593
production of, 441, 442, 444, 457
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
advisory service, 371
imports of, 587, 591, 592–593
production of, 441, 442, 444, 457
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
area in cultivation, 357, 358
imports of, 587, 591, 592–593
production of, 441, 442, 444, 457
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
capital expenditure, 359
imports of, 587, 591, 592–593
production of, 441, 442, 444, 457
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
cost price indexes, 613–614
imports of, 587, 591, 592–593
production of, 441, 442, 444, 457
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
employees, 358–359, 796
imports of, 587, 591, 592–593
production of, 441, 442, 444, 457
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
finance, 273, 715, 742, 743
imports of, 587, 591, 592–593
production of, 441, 442, 444, 457
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
holdings, 357, 358, 372, 376
imports of, 587, 591, 592–593
production of, 441, 442, 444, 457
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
incomes, 698, 699, 703, 704, 705, 706
imports of, 587, 591, 592–593
production of, 441, 442, 444, 457
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
industry reserves, 523
imports of, 587, 591, 592–593
production of, 441, 442, 444, 457
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
machinery, 359, 374–375, 441, 442, 444, 449, 457
imports of, 587, 591, 592–593
production of, 441, 442, 444, 457
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
ownership account, 721
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
produce—
consumption of, 623–624, 626
export of, 304, 546–550, 903–907
marketing of, 506–523, 948
indexes of, 362–363
production, 207–208, 360–368, 376–391, 897–899
indexes of, 362–363
settlement and assistance, 274–276
subsidies, 373–374
tractors, 359, 374–375
Farming, 264, 354–391, 705, 897–899
arable, 355, 356, 357, 375–379, 897
cattle, 356, 358, 359, 377, 385, 386, 387, 389, 898
crops, 357, 358, 359, 361, 362, 375–385
dairy, 354, 355, 356, 358, 359, 361, 362, 363–365, 377, 386, 387, 388, 898, 899
investment in, 649
occupations, 358
sheep, 354, 355, 356, 358, 359, 361, 362, 377, 385, 386, 387, 388
stud, 359
Fathers, ages of, 89
Federation of Labour, 518, 801
Feeding stuff for animals, export of, 564, 566, 578
Female suffrage, 918
Female wage rates, 797
Ferry services, 298, 307, 310, 312
Fertiliser—
imports of, 303, 583, 585, 589, 591
industry, 361, 447, 455, 464
land topdressed with, 371–372
research, 207, 209, 371–372
spread from air, 335, 336
subsidy, 373, 374
Fibreboard, 402
Fibres, man-made, 445, 453
Film Commission, 219
Film-hire tax, 671
Filmmaking, 219
Finance—
companies, 718, 725–727, 753
farm, 273, 715, 742, 743
Government, 150, 152, 636–637, 659–690, 724, 740–747, 756, 759, 760, 871, 910–912, 952–959
hospital board, 135–136
housing, 474, 744–746, 747–750, 958
local government, 638, 691–697, 913
Fines, 229
Fire—
boards, 693, 773
calls, 251
insurance, 251, 758–760
losses, 759
prevention in forests, 396–397
regions, areas, and districts, 250
safety, 251
service, 250–253
Service Commission, 51, 250
Fires—
causes of, 251
on vessels, 306
properties involved in, 251–253
First births, 90–91
Fish, 5, 409–411, 445, 452, 835
acclimatisation of, 414
and fisheries, 407–414
catch, 410
consumption of, 412, 623, 626
exported, 412, 413, 564, 566, 579, 625
imported, 582
mercury level in, 412
value of production, 410–411
Fishing, 407–414, 435, 743, 744, 835, 944
big-game, 413, 835
Government Loans, 409
grounds, 407, 408
Industry Board, 409
Industry Finance Committee, 409
vessels, 408
Flag, New Zealand, 850
Flats (see Houses and flats)—
pensioners', 468
Flax, linen, 385, 445, 453
Flood prevention, 5
Flour, production of, 464
Fluoridation, 124
Food—
And Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 35, 36, 627
and Drug Act, 118, 119
consumption, 623–628
household expenditure on, 619–622
imports of, 582, 585, 589, 590, 594
inspection and sale of, 119
production, 440, 441, 443, 444–445, 451–452, 464, 752, 944
retail prices of, 609, 611, 951
subsidies, 628
Footwear and clothing, retail prices of, 610–611
Footwear industry, 440, 441, 443, 446, 453, 463
Foreign Affairs, Ministry of, 28, 204, 219, 664, 666, 667, 849, 863, 886, 955
expenditure on, 660, 664, 666, 667
Foreign citizenship, 75
Foreign Fishing Vessel Entry Tax, 671
Foreign policy, 26–40
Foreign travel tax, 671
Forest—
beech, 393–395
conservation, 267–268, 396
exotic, 392–393, 394, 395–396, 406
fire prevention, 396–397
indigenous, 392, 393–395, 406
private, 398
produce exported, 403, 404, 435, 562, 564, 565, 566, 899
Research Institute, 397
resources, 392–394
Service, 209, 268. 270, 276, 394–397, 402, 404, 405, 664, 666, 667, 864, 866, 875, 955
State, 268, 392, 393, 394–397, 688
utilisation, 398–403
Forestry, 1, 392–406, 753, 899, 944
development and future prospects of, 406
Development Council, 658
overseas investment in, 649
persons engaged in, 405
research, 397, 404–405
training, 405
Forty-hour week, 808
Franchise, central government, 49, 918
Freehold land, 274, 275, 284, 357
Freight—
carried by air transport, 334, 335, 337
carried by rail, 309, 896
carried by shipping, 299–304
Freshwater fisheries, 414, 835
Friendly societies, 158
Frost, 17, 18, 21
Frozen foods. 464, 564, 566, 624, 626
consumption of, 624, 626
export of, 564, 566, 572–574, 626
Fruit—
berry, 383, 624
citrus, 375, 376, 381–382, 624
consumption of, 624, 626
export of, 304, 562, 564, 566, 626, 906
imports of, 304, 594
industry, 355, 358, 361, 362, 370, 371, 372, 377, 380, 381, 382–384, 445, 452, 464
marketing of. 371, 516
pip, 375, 376, 381, 382, 383–384
stone, 376, 381, 382, 624
sub-tropical, 381, 382
Fruit and vegetable preserving industry, 376, 379, 445, 452, 464
Fuels and lubricants, imports of, 581, 582
Furniture and fixtures industry, 440, 441, 443, 446, 454

G

Gas—
appliances in homes, 481
boards, 773
Council, 501
generation and supply, 415, 501–505
prices, 502
subsidy, 504, 628
General—
Agreements on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 33, 510, 595–600
Assembly Library, 223
Elections, 25, 42, 43, 44, 48–49, 845
Price Index, 943–944
Wage Orders, 789, 790
Genetic engineering, 205, 207–208
Geological Survey, 209, 427–428
Geology, 7–9
maps and publications, 427, 929
Geothermal power, 209, 484, 488, 491, 493, 494, 920, 921
Geysers (see Thermal activity)
Gift duty, 662, 671, 681, 952
Glaciers, 4, 9
Glass and glass products industry, 440, 442, 443, 448, 455
Glasshouses, production in, 380
Gleneagles Agreement, 922
Gold—
discovery of, 5, 917
mining and production, 416, 425
reserve, 710, 730, 735, 736
Government—
departments (see Departments, Government) 47
employees, 876, 878
finance, 150, 152, 636–637, 659–690, 724, 740–747, 756, 759, 760, 871, 910–912, 952–958
housing, 468, 478–479, 746
Life Insurance Office, 690, 863, 866
Printing Office, 663, 863, 866, 955
Superannuation Fund, 168–171, 690
system of, 40–53
Governors-General, 851–852
power, duties, etc., 41, 42, 43, 44, 46, 50, 227, 242, 254, 255
Graduates, university, 190, 197–198
Grain—
crops, 375, 376, 377, 897
milling, 445, 452
Grants (see also Subsidies)—
from lottery profits, 132, 212, 219, 843, 848
various, 184, 202, 212, 213, 214, 218, 219, 277, 770, 824, 827, 848
welfare services, 117, 132, 476–477
Grapes and vineyards, 376, 380, 381, 383, 517
Grass and clover seed, 380, 381
exports of, 906
Grasses and grasslands, 354–356, 357, 358, 371, 372
Grasslands and grasses research, 214
Greenstone, 416, 426
Groceries, retail prices of, 609
Gross—
capital formation, 630, 633, 635
of Central Government, 644, 685–690, 696–697, 912
of local government, 696–697, 913
domestic expenditure, 630–632, 656–657
of Central Government, 644, 685–690, 696–697, 912
of local government, 696–697, 913
domestic product, 505, 654–657, 941
of Central Government, 644, 685–690, 696–697, 912
of local government, 696–697, 913
indebtedness—
of Central Government, 644, 685–690, 696–697, 912
of local government, 696–697, 913
national product, 177, 319, 630, 631, 632–633, 656, 692, 871, 911
Guardianship, 161–162

H

Hail, 16
Halloysite, 426
Handicapped children, 121, 158, 183
Harbour boards, 51, 692–693, 697, 773
Harbour Bridge Authority, 51, 314. 318, 697, 773
Harbours (see also Ports), 2
Health, 116–147
benefits, 117, 129–132, 150–151
Board of, 117
camps, 121
child, 121
dental, 123–124
Department of, 116–147, 149, 212, 820, 863, 866, 873
education, 122–123
expenditure, 117, 637, 660, 664, 666, 667, 669, 911, 953, 956
family, 121
hazards, 120
insurance, 157
management services and research unit, 125
mental, 141–144
occupational, 119–121
statistics, 124–125
Heart disease, 99, 100–101, 122, 138
Heavy traffic fees, 316
Heights and weights of children, 144–147
Herbicides, 273
Hides, skins, and pelts exported, 304, 562, 564, 566, 576–577, 906, 950
High Commissions, 881–885
Higher Salaries Commission, 44, 789
Higher School Certificate, 182
Highways, 314, 316, 317–318
taxation, 661. 662, 669, 670, 671, 673, 952
Hire purchase trade, 526, 544–545, 949
Historic Places Trust, 218, 221, 222, 278–279
Historic reserves, 278–279
Historical works, 933–935
History of New Zealand, 22–28, 917–922, 933–935
Holdings (see Land holdings)
Holidays, 808, 847
Home nursing services, 130
Home ownership account, 721
Homes—
accidents in, 108, 140
children's, 159, 162
joint family, 479
old people's, 132
Homicide, 106, 107, 140, 232
Honey, 370, 371, 391, 517, 594, 624, 626, 825
Honours conferred, 876–880
Hops and hop gardens, 376, 381, 384
Horse racing, 684–685
Horticulture, 355, 357, 358, 360, 362, 370–371, 372
Hospital—
benefits, 128–132, 151
Boards, 51, 133, 135–136, 637
districts, 133
employees, 134–135, 871
expenditure, 135–136
finances of, 135–136
indebtedness of, 135–136
Hospitals (see also Patients), 133–144, 251, 469, 470, 871
beds in, 133–134
deaths in, 137–139, 141
general, 122, 134
maternity, 121, 129
mental, 141–144
old people's, 132
private, 129, 133, 135, 136
psychiatric units, 122, 129, 137, 141–144
public, 137–139
staff of, 134–135, 811
waiting lists, 134
Hostels, 251, 477, 478, 768
pre-release, 241
Hot springs, 835
Hotels, licensed, 833–834, 843–844
Hours of work, 792–794, 808
House of Representatives, 26, 41, 42, 43, 44, 48, 845, 855, 917
members of, 40, 41, 43, 44–45, 845, 855
Households, 79–82, 480–483
age group of head, 80, 620
expenditure, 619–622
incomes of, 81, 622, 708
motorcar ownership by, 323
occupational status of head, 80, 621
size of, 79, 621
Survey, 619–622
Houses and flats (see also dwellings), 465–483, 744–746, 947
census enumerations, 480–483
completed, 468, 470, 947
conversion to flats, 468
finance of, 468, 474, 476, 479, 744–746, 747–750
mortgages, 476
sale of State, 746
State, 466, 479, 744–746
Housing, 465–483, 607, 744–746, 947, 958
bonds, 720, 721
household expenditure on, 619–622
Maori, 477
of elderly, 132, 476–477, 695, 746
rural, 477
Housing Commission, 466
Housing Corporation, 168, 466, 468, 474, 476, 478–479, 489, 662, 663, 664, 665, 687, 690, 717, 722, 744–746, 863, 866, 875, 955
Human Rights Commission, 837
Humidity, 17–18
Hunting, 836, 944
Hydro-electric power, 4, 5, 484, 488, 492, 493, 494, 495
water sources, 4, 5
Hygiene, 116–118

I

Ice cream industry, 444, 451, 464, 623
Ilmenite, 415, 423
Immigration, 70–75, 945
Act, 74
ages of migrants, 72
assisted, 73–74
hostels, 768
original, 23
policy, 73–75
Immunisation, 116, 121–122, 123
Import price indexes, 558–560, 614–615, 617, 891, 892
Imports, 302–303, 337, 581–594, 657, 731, 733, 902, 951
by air, 337
by end use, 592–593
by ports, 302, 303, 593–594
classification of, 581–584, 592–593
licensing and control of, 559–561
origin of, 548–551, 553–557, 585–589
pulp and paper, 403, 404, 587
timber, 403, 404
value of, 553–557, 581–589, 590–592, 731, 732, 733, 951
volume index numbers, 558–559
volume of, 589–590
Income—
assessable, 704, 705
company, 629, 703, 704–706
earners in each household, 708
industrial classification of, 698, 703, 705, 706
investment, 698, 702
national, 629–638
of households in household survey, 619, 622
of individuals, 698–703, 707–708
of salary and wage earners, 632, 634, 698, 703
of self employed, 698, 700, 703
of women, 707
private, 631, 633, 634, 635, 692
returnable, 706
sources of, 698
Income tax, 636–637, 661, 662, 671. 672, 673–679, 698–708, 952
Indebtedness (see Debt)
Index numbers—
building and construction, 655
commodity prices, 603–608
consumers prices, 603–610, 796, 892, 893, 951
employment, 656
export prices, 614–616, 891, 892
external trade, volume of, 558–559, 614–615
farm production, value and volume, 362–363
farming costs prices, 613–614
gross domestic product, 655
import prices, 614–615, 617, 891, 892
reproduction, 88
retail prices, 605–608, 796, 892, 893
retail turnover, 540–541
share prices, 618, 892, 893
terms of trade, 618, 892
urban house property and section price, 475–476
wage rates, 794–796, 893
wholesale prices, 611–613, 891, 892
wool prices, 519, 948
Indigenous forest, 392, 393–395, 406
Industrial—
associations, 804
classification of salary and wage payments, 791
Commission, 798, 799
conciliation and arbitration, 798–801, 804–807
Conciliation Service, 798–799
Court, 798, 799
Design Council, 838
disputes, 798–801, 894, 919, 921
distribution of population, 776, 777–778
injuries, 815–818
Mediation Service, 798–799
production, 431–464, 900
relations, 787, 798–811
research, 210–211, 215, 438
safety, 812–820
stoppages, 798–801, 804–807, 894
unions, 800
Industrial accidents, 108, 815–818
deaths from, 108, 816, 819
time lost through, 816
Industries—
bank advances to, 715
aids to development, 436, 437
export earnings, 436, 731, 732, 959
Development Commission, 436, 560
aids to development, 436, 437
export earnings, 436, 731, 732, 959
manufacturing, 431–464, 900
aids to development, 436, 437
export earnings, 436, 731, 732, 959
Industry—
environmental protection, 270
groups of bankrupts, 841
persons engaged in, 439–451, 765, 766, 773, 900
State aid to, 661, 662, 664, 667, 668, 743, 745–746, 953, 955
wages and overtime, 439–451, 793–794, 900
Infant mortality, 103–105, 888
Injuries, industrial, 815–818
Inland Revenue Department, 663, 863, 867, 954
Insecticides, 273, 335, 336
Insects and fungi, control in forests, 397
Insolvency, 916
Instalment credit trading, 544–545, 949
Instruments, duty on, 671
Insurance, 361, 754–764
accident, 326, 757–758
earthquake, and war damage, 762–763
employers' liability, 762
fire, 758–760
life, 690, 718, 753–757
sickness, 157, 674
State, 760–763, 815, 864, 869
Intellectually handicapped children, 121, 158, 183
Intelligence service, 261, 663, 864, 954
Inter-departmental Committee on Resettlement, 74
Inter-industry studies and sector accounts, 650–654, 941–944
Inter-island shipping service, 298
Interest—
credit by savings banks, 720, 721, 722, 723, 914
on local government debt, 696
on public debt, 635, 637, 687–688, 689
payments to Consolidated Revenue Account, 662
rates on—
fixed deposits, 714, 719, 726
mortgages, 915
public debt, 696
savings banks, 719–720, 721, 722, 723
stock and station deposits, 725
Internal Affairs Department, 218, 663, 664, 820, 864, 867, 876, 954, 955
Internal migration, 84
International—
activities, 25
air services, 331, 332, 336–338
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 35
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, (World Bank), 35, 39, 641, 665, 686, 687, 688, 735–736, 920
Coffee Agreement, 600
Development Association, 736
education, 204
Energy Agency, 30, 487, 490, 491
Finance Corporation, 35, 735–736, 920
indicators of standards of living, 842
investment income, 731
Labour Organisation (ILO), 35
Monetary Fund, 35, 40, 639, 641, 644, 665, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 735–736, 909, 920, 959
relations, New Zealand's, 26–40
Sugar Agreement, 599
Wool Secretariat, 369, 509
International comparisons—
birth and natural increase rates, 86
consumption of foodstuffs, 627
dairy produce, 511
deaths of pre-school children, 105–106
doctors and dentists to population ratio, 126
energy consumption, 491–492
expectation of life, 98
fish consumption, 412
heights and weights, 147
infant mortality rates, 103–104
libraries, 226
life assurance. 753
marriage rates, 109
motor accident, death and injury rates, 325
newspapers, 350
population, 56, 85, 86
prices, 610–611
public expenditure on education, 177
research expenditure, 218
sheep numbers, 509
standards of living, 842
telephones, 342
wholesale prices, 613
women in the labour force, 782
wool consumption, 509
wool production, 509
Invalids' benefits, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156
Investment—
and finance, 738–753
in New Zealand and overseas, 646–650, 712
incomes, 698, 702, 751
pool—National Provident Fund, 172
Reserve Bank, 712
societies, 747–760
State, 686, 689–690
Invisible imports and exports, 731, 732, 733, 959
Iron and steel—
exports of, 565, 566, 567
imports of, 303, 583, 587, 590, 591
industry, 423, 441, 442, 444, 448, 456
Iron ores and ironsands, 304, 415, 416, 423
Irrigation, 372
Island Territories, 1, 2, 31–32, 55, 197, 821–830
Islands, 1, 2, 821–824

J

Japan, relations with, 31, 506, 507, 509, 511, 546, 547, 548, 549, 554, 557, 570, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575, 576, 584–585, 642–643, 646
Joinery industry, 433, 446, 449, 456
Joint family homes, 479
Judiciary, 48, 168, 169, 227–228, 862
Juries, 228–229
Justice, 227–247, 280, 663, 667, 864, 867, 873–874, 890, 954
Juvenile—
delinquency, 159–162
offenders, 159–162, 242–244
working conditions, 808, 809

K

Kauri gum, 426
Kermadec Islands, 2, 11, 55, 918
Kindergarten schools, 179, 180, 184
Kiwifruit, 381, 382
Knitting mills and hosiery industry, 445, 453
Kraft Paper and Cardboard, exports of, 565, 567, 577

L

Laboratory diagnostic services, 129–130, 132
Labour—
Department of, 116, 120, 149, 483, 664, 819, 864, 867, 876, 955
distribution of, 777–783
educational qualifications of, 707, 784
projections, 767, 769
force, 439–451, 764–786, 792–794, 894, 945
distribution of, 777–783
educational qualifications of, 707, 784
projections, 767, 769
hours, 808
laws and working conditions, 808–811
Lactose, 364
Lakes, 5–6, 267, 492, 493, 494, 495
Lamb—
consumption, 623, 625
exported, 506, 507–508, 521–522, 573, 625, 904
London prices for meat, 521
produced, 354–356, 366, 385, 386, 387, 388
retail price of, 609
Lambs, 387, 388
slaughtered, 367
Land, 262–289
capital value of, 288–289
classification by farm types, 357, 358, 376
classification for soil conservation, 272
classification by farm types, 357, 358, 376
conservation, 263
classification by farm types, 357, 358, 376
Crown, 274–280, 283
classification by farm types, 357, 358, 376
development, 262–289
classification by farm types, 357, 358, 376
drainage boards, 51, 773
classification by farm types, 357, 358, 376
holdings, 357, 358, 372, 376
classification by farm types, 357, 358, 376
Maori, 267, 280–281, 283
public, 274–280
registration, 282–283
Settlement Board, 274, 275
settlement promotion, 274–275, 665, 666, 667, 688
surveys, 281–282
tax, 662, 671, 679, 952
tenure, 274–275, 282–283, 357
transfers, 284–286, 915, 958
use, 262–289, 664, 666, 667, 668
Use Advisory Council, 264–265
Valuation Court (see Supreme Court)
valuation of, 286–289, 691
Lands and Survey Department, 265, 266, 268, 281–282, 664, 666, 667, 864, 868, 875, 955
Latin America, relations with, 34
Law (see Legislation)
and order, 227–253, 660, 663, 667, 668, 890, 954
and the family, 246–247
Reform Council, 227
revision of, 227
Lawn mowers, 463
Lead, 425
Leasehold land holdings 275, 284, 357
Leather and leather products, 440, 441, 443, 446, 453, 567, 583, 944
Legal aid, 245
Legal profession, 229, 703
Legal tender, 728
Legislation, 43–44
in force in January 1978, 856–862
labour and allied, 787–791, 798, 808–811, 812
passed in 1977, 856
publications, 926–927
Legislative authority, 42–44
Legislative Council, 26, 42
Letters, etc., posted, 339–340, 895
Libraries, census of, 224–225
Library school, 224
Library services, 190, 222–226, 241, 694, 847
Licences—
aerodrome, 338
caterers', 843
drivers', 320, 326
export, 559
flight crew, 338
general ancillary, 843
import, 560
motor-vehicle, 319–321, 947
petroleum prospecting, 422
publicans', 843–844
radio and television, 343–344
restaurant, 843–844
tavern, 844–845
tourist house, 844
transport, 322–323
Licensing—
authorities (road services), 322–323
Control Commission (liquor), 843–845
poll, 846
trusts, 845
Licensing of—
commercial air services, 332
goods and passenger services, 322–323
lotteries and raffles, 843
motor vehicles, 319–321, 322, 947
private hospitals, 133, 136
sale of alcoholic liquor, 843–845
shipping vessels, 407
Life, expectation of, 96–98
Life insurance, 690, 718–719, 754–757
Life tables, 97
Lighthouses, 305
Lime—
for agriculture, 371–372, 373, 374
industry, 448, 456
spread from air, 335, 336
Limestone, 416
Linen flax, 385, 445, 453, 665, 688
Linseed, 380
Liquor licensing, 843–845
Literary awards, 220–221
Livestock, 309, 367, 385–391, 898
Loans—
allocation of, 686–689
by building societies, 747–750
dates of maturity, 689
domicile of, 912
farm, 741, 742, 743
forestry, 397
hospital boards, 135–136
housing, 468, 744–746
National Development, 662, 664, 665, 666, 670, 686, 688, 956
of local government, 696–697, 912
on assurance policies, 756
overseas, 686, 689
redemption of, 663, 664, 668, 669, 686–687, 954, 956
Local Authorities Loans Board, 477, 695
Local authorities (see under Local Government and individual names, e.g., Hospital Boards, Counties, etc.)
Local Government, 49–51, 876
Act, 49, 50, 52, 265
advances to, 745–746
Amendment Act, 49, 52
authority, 52–53
Commission, 49, 50, 52
debt of, 696–697, 913
districts, 49–51, 63
employees of, 773, 945
expenditure of, 309–311, 638, 693–694, 913
finance of, 316, 317, 318–319, 638, 691–697, 741, 913
franchise, 53
health and welfare responsibilities of, 118, 468
housing by, 468
investment pool, 172
number of local authorities, 51
rates, 638, 691–693
revenue of, 316–317, 318–319, 638, 692–695, 913
roading of, 314, 316, 318–319, 669
subsidies and grants to, 316, 317, 318–319, 468, 638, 669, 692–695, 956
superannuation, 172
taxation, 638, 691–694
urban transport operated by, 328–331
voting, 53
Lockouts, 805
Locomotives, 309, 398–399
Logging, 209
London prices for meat, 521
Lotteries, 843
duty on, 671, 843, 848
grants, 132, 212, 219, 843, 848
Lubricants, and fuels, imports of, 581, 582, 587, 589, 590
Lucerne, 380, 381

M

Machinery—
accidents, 817–819, 820
Act, 820
electrical, 441, 442, 444
exports, 569
farm, 359, 374–375, 441, 442, 444, 449, 457
imports of, 303, 587, 591, 592–593
industry, 441, 442, 444, 449, 457, 753, 944
safety of, 820
used in manufacturing industries, 457
Magistrates' Courts, 48, 114, 227, 228, 232–236, 244–245, 248, 890
Magistrates, Stipendiary, 228
Mail, 339–340, 895
air, 334, 340
Maize, 375, 376, 377, 378, 381, 564, 566
Malls, shopping, 531–532
Manganese ore, 425
Manila Treaty, 27
Manpower Planning Unit, 769
Manufacturing industries, 252, 431–464, 649, 703, 705, 706, 715, 900
ancillary units, 439, 440–441, 444–451
capital expenditure in, 439, 443–444, 451–459, 900
Census of, 438–463
coal consumed in, 421, 445
development, 431–434, 437, 658
establishments, 439, 440–441, 444–451
export earnings, 436, 731, 732, 959
persons engaged in, 439, 440–441, 444–451, 766, 900
purchases and other expenses, 439, 441–442, 451–459, 900
summary of operations, 438–444, 900
turnover, 439, 441–442, 451–459, 900
value added, 439, 443–444, 451–459, 900
wages in, 439, 441–442, 444–451, 459–462, 793–794, 795–796, 900
Maori (see also Maoris)—
Affairs, Department of, 162, 163, 250, 280, 477, 664, 666, 667, 849, 864, 868, 875, 955
Appellate Court, 228, 283
apprentices registered, 771–772
birth rate, 86, 87
community officers, 163
Council, 162
death rates, 94, 95, 103, 104
education, 185, 186, 202–203
Education Foundation, 202
electorates, 43, 45, 48, 855
housing, 477
Land Court, 168, 228, 280, 283
lands, 267, 280–281, 283, 396
life expectancy, 97
Members of Parliament, 43, 45, 855, 918
population, 57, 66, 69–70, 96, 97
pupils, 185, 186, 202–203
Purposes Act, 1951, 109
Trustee, 280–281, 690
wardens, 163
welfare organisations, 162, 163
Women's Welfare League, 163
youths, trade training for, 771–772
Maoris (see also Maori)—
children attending schools, 185, 186
deaths of, 86, 94, 95, 96, 103, 104
franchise, 48, 49
history of, 22–28
infant mortality of, 103–104
natural increase of, 86
pre-employment courses, 771–772
publications and articles on, 928–929
scholarships for, 175, 202
settled on farms, 280
urbanisation of, 69
Maps—
factory production, 460–461
mineral resources, 417, 424
rainfall, 16
topographical, 282
Marginal land, 273
Marine officers certificates, 305, 809
Marine pollution, 272
Marital status, 78–79, 109–110
Maritime parks, 268, 279
Market gardens, 355, 358, 360, 375–376, 377, 379, 380, 386
Marketing of primary produce, 506–523
Marriage guidance, 114–115
Marriages, 109–115, 888
age of persons, 110
dissolution and nullity, 112–114
rates, 109
Married women in the labour force, 783
Materials used in manufacturing industries, 439–451, 900
Maternal deaths, 105
Maternal welfare, 121, 129, 131
Maternity—
benefits, 151
hospitals, 121, 129, 131
nurses, 126
Meat—
consumption of, 506, 623, 625, 626
export of, 301, 304, 366–367, 506–508, 558, 562–563, 564, 565, 625, 731, 732, 904, 950, 959
export price index, 615
freezing and preserving industry, 444, 451, 715, 771–772
Industry Reserve Account, 523, 690
Inspection of, 370
levy on, 515
marketing of, 507–508, 515–516
prices of, 521–522, 609
production, 356, 366–367, 370, 444, 451–452, 899
retail prices, 609
Meat Producers Board, New Zealand, 367, 369, 515, 521
Mediation, industrial, 798–799
Medical—
advertising, 118–119
benefits, 128–132, 150, 151
care societies, 158
Council, 125–126
practitioners, 125, 126, 128–129, 703
Research Council, 117, 125
services, 116–133
Medicine, physical, 124
Members of Parliament, 43, 44, 45, 848, 855
salaries of, 44–45
superannuation of, 45, 168, 170
Mental—
diseases, 138, 143–144
health and psychology publications, 142
health services, 141–144
hospitals, 141–144
pensions, 166
Merchant banks, 727
Merchant navy qualifications, 305
Mercury, 414, 425
Mercury level in fish, 412, 414
Metal products industry, 441, 442, 444, 449, 456–457, 715, 944
Meteorological—
observations for year, 18–21
publications, 12
Service, 212
Meteorology (see also Climate), 12–21
Metric Advisory Board, 837
Metrication, 837
Middle East—
relations with, 30
trade with, 508, 512, 547, 550, 555–556
Midwives, 126
Migration, external, 54, 55, 56, 58, 70–73, 831–833, 887, 945
ages of migrants, 72
internal, 84
occupations of migrants, 72
Mileage of—
bus, etc., routes, 331
commercial air services, 334, 335
railways, 307, 896
roads, 314
State highways and motorways, 314
Mileage tax, 316, 671, 673
Military forces, 257–258
Milk—
Board, 517, 520
consumption, 623, 626
dried and condensed, exports of, 564, 565, 576, 905
dried and condensed, production of, 364, 464
levy on, 517
marketing of, 365, 517
production and processing, 363, 364, 365, 444, 452, 464
subsidy, 517, 520, 628
Milkfat, 363, 364, 899
Milking machines, 374, 375
Minerals and mineral production, 415–430, 440, 442, 443, 448, 456, 583, 944
imports of, 586, 587, 589, 590, 591
Miners' benefits, 149, 151, 152, 153, 156
Mines Department, 418, 487, 664, 666, 820, 863, 868, 875
Minimum wage, 797
Mining, 270, 415–430, 705, 706, 715–716, 776, 944
accidents, 108, 816
legislation, 418, 810
overseas investment in, 649
persons engaged in, 421
State aid to, 427–428, 667, 668
taxation, 706
value of production, 416, 418
Mining and quarrying, census of, 428–430
Ministers of each Church, and marriages by, 112
Ministers of the Crown, 40, 41, 44, 45, 46, 854
Ministers, successive, 852–853
Minors, marriages of, 111
Monarch, the, 40
Monetary and Economic Council, 291, 737
Monetary policy, 716–717
Money orders, 341, 895
Mortality (see Deaths)
Mortgage guarantee scheme, 474, 743
Mortgages, 476, 724, 738–742, 743, 744, 745, 746, 748, 756, 761, 915, 958
discharged, 741
Housing Corporation, 476, 744–746
rates of interest on, 739–740, 915
R.B.F.C., 742–744
sources of finance, 741–743
Mothers—
ages of, 89–90, 91, 92
in ex-nuptial cases, 92
issue of, 89–90
Motor cycles, 319, 320, 450, 458
Motor spirits—
consumption of, 321
imports of, 303, 586, 589, 590
retail price of, 610–611
taxation on, 316, 661, 662, 669, 670, 673, 691–692, 695, 952, 956
Motor vehicles—
accidents, 99, 106, 107, 140, 324, 325
assembly of, 434, 450, 457, 463
drivers' licences, 320, 326
imports of, 303, 588, 590, 592
inspection of, 326
numbers of, 314, 315, 320
registration and licensing of, 319–321, 322, 947
taxation, 319–320, 671, 952
value of hire purchase sales, 545, 949
Motorways, 314, 318
Mount Cook Airlines, 332, 334
Mountaineering, 836, 931
Mountains, 1, 2, 3, 8, 276, 277
Multiple births, 89
Murder, 106, 107, 140, 232
Museums, 191, 218, 219, 773
Mutton—
consumption of, 623
exported, 506, 507–508, 573, 625, 904
produced, 366, 367
retail prices of, 609

N

Narcotics, 119, 233
Nassella tussock boards, 51, 373, 773
National—
accounts, 629–658, 941
Airways Corporation, 331, 332, 334, 687
Archives, 221–222
Art Gallery and Museum, 218–221
Audiology Centre, 120
Cancer Registry, 101
Council of Adult Education, 203
Development Bonds, 674, 722
Development Council, 290, 293, 415
Development Loans Account, 311, 345, 662, 664, 665, 666, 670, 686, 688, 956
Film Library, 191
flag, 850
Health Institute, 125
Health Statistics Centre, 124–125
income and expenditure, 629–638, 672, 692
Library of New Zealand, 176, 222–223, 847
licensing poll, 846
Marriage Guidance Council, 114–115
parks, 267–268, 269, 276–278, 493
planning, 266–267, 290–294
Provident Fund, 168, 171–173, 690
Radiation Laboratory, 120–121
Research Advisory Council, 205–206, 215–216, 255, 658
Roads Board, 47, 51, 315–319, 695
Roads Fund, 315–319, 669, 671, 673, 956
song, 849
superannuation, 151, 152, 153, 154, 172, 922, 957
Water and Soil Conservation Authority, 271–272
Youth Council, 849
Natural gas, 415–416, 422–423, 435, 484, 486, 494, 498, 501–505, 665, 668, 688, 921
Natural increase of population, 54, 86, 887
Natural resources, 262, 392–394, 417, 418–420, 421, 422–427
Nature Conservation Council, 270
Nautical schools, 305
Naval (see also Royal New Zealand Navy)
bases, 256
defence, 256–257
Training Group, 256, 257
vessels, 256
Navigational aids, air, 333
Navigational aids, sea, 305
Net value added in manufacturing, 439, 443–444, 451–459, 460–463, 900
Netherlands, immigration from, 73
New Zealand—
Apple and Pear Marketing Board, 371, 516
area of, 2, 60, 62–66, 68, 264
Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 33, 434, 550, 546, 547, 550–551, 596, 922
Authors' Fund, 218
Ballet Company, 219
books, 924–935
boundaries of, 1–2
Broadcasting Corporation of, 219, 346, 663, 665, 669, 687, 954
Cadet Forces, 260
Citrus Marketing Authority, 517
constitution, 40–47
Council for Educational Research, 202
Council for Recreation and Sport, 853–854
Dairy Board, 365, 510, 515
Egg Marketing Authority, 517
Electricity Department, 487, 497, 820
Energy Research and Development Committee, 487, 490
Export-Import Corporation, 437, 665, 687
Fire Service, 250–253
Fire Service Commission, 51, 250
Forest Products Ltd., 400, 433, 435
Forest Service, 209, 268, 270, 276, 394–397, 402, 404, 405
Gazette, 46, 48
Historic Places Trust, 218, 221, 222, 278–279
in the Commonwealth, 29
Japan Exchange Programme, 205
Listener, 346, 349
Literary Fund, 218, 220
literature, 924–935
Meat Producers Board, 357, 369, 508, 515, 521
Milk Board, 517, 520
Mountain Safety Council, 849
National Airways Corporation, 665
Planning Council, 290–291, 658, 922
population, 55
Ports Authority, 297
Red Cross Society, 132
register of shipping, 299
representation overseas, 881–883
Seal, 850
Shipping Corporation, 298–299, 665, 687
Standard Industrial Classification, 438
Steel Ltd., 433, 665, 687
Symphony Orchestra, 219, 346, 348
Technical Correspondence Institute, 175, 180, 199, 200, 201, 204
Water Safety Council, 108, 849
Wheat Board, 378
Wool Board, 367, 368–369, 373
Wool Marketing Corporation, 367, 368, 508, 516, 518
Newspapers, 349–350
Newsprint—
exports of, 304, 404, 565, 567, 579, 908
imports of, 404
production, 400–401
Niue Island, 11, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 31, 32, 38, 55, 73, 74, 168, 191, 206, 580, 821, 824–825, 926
immigrants from, 73
Non-ferrous metals industries, 441, 442, 449, 456
Note issue, 710, 711
Notes in circulation, 713
Noxious animals, 397
Nuclear power, 488
Nursing and nurses, 117, 120, 121–122, 123, 125, 126, 134, 135
Nutrition, 119

O

Oats, 375, 376, 377, 378, 897
Occupational—
health, 119–121, 820
safety, 810, 819–820
status, 775, 842
therapy, 124, 127, 134, 136
Occupational classification of—
bankrupts, 842
population, 775, 776, 779–781
Occupied land, 357, 358
Oceanographic Institute, 212, 273
Offices Act, Shops and, 808
Official Development Assistance (ODA), 37–40
Oil drilling and prospecting, 415, 422, 428, 488
Oil, imports of, 303
Oil refinery, 448, 455, 487, 921
Oil usage, 486
Oils and fats, vegetable, 445, 452
Old peoples' homes, 132
Ombudsmen (Parliamentary Commissioners), 47–48, 862–863
Onions, 375, 379, 380, 624
exports of, 564, 566, 626
Opticians, registrations of, 127
Optometrists, registration of, 127
Orchards, 355, 358, 360, 376, 377, 381, 382–383, 386
Orchestras, N.Z. Symphony, National Youth, 219, 346, 348–349
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), 30, 205, 292, 491, 553, 643, 646
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 487
Orphans benefits, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155
Orthopaedic implants, 131
Ottawa Agreement, 595
Outpatients, 134
Outward Bound School, 848
Overseas—
Aid Programme, 204
companies, 646–650, 705–706
exchange transactions, 710, 730–735, 959
investment, 646–650, 661, 705–706, 712, 734
representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand representatives overseas, 560–561, 881–885
reserves (banks), 730, 909
students, 181, 195, 197
territories (see Island territories), 821–830
trade, 546–600, 875, 902–908
travel allowances, 733
Overtime, 503, 793–794, 900
Oysters, 407, 411, 413

P

Pacific Islands Industrial Development Scheme, 436
Pacific Islands (see Island territories, or individual islands)
Pacific islands shipping service, 298
Pacific orientation, 25–26
Paint and varnish industry, 447, 455, 474
Paper and paper products industry, 400–401, 433, 440, 442, 443, 447, 454, 464, 944
Paper and pulp, external trade in, 304, 403, 404, 583, 586, 908
Parcel post, 340
Parents—
ages of, 89
births to, by duration of marriages, 90
previous issue of, 89–90
solo, 153, 155, 164
Parks, National, 268, 276–278
Parliament, 26, 42–43, 227, 855–856, 917
Members of, 43, 44, 45, 845, 855
term of, 846
Parliamentary—
Commissioners (Ombudsmen), 47–48, 862–863
elections, 42, 845, 850
functions and controls, 42–43
procedure, 42
salaries, 44–45
Parole boards, 242
Particle board, 402, 433
Passenger services—
railway, 308, 310, 896
road, 308, 310, 313, 322–323, 328–331
urban local authority, 328–331
Passengers—
buses, etc., 313, 328–331
commercial aircraft, 334, 335, 336
overseas, 70–73, 831–833, 945
railway, 308
Passports, 75
Pasture grasses, 375, 380–381
Patents, designs, trade marks, 837–838
Patients in hospitals, 137–139
Patients in mental hospitals, 141–144
Paua, 414
PAYE taxation, 674–678, 920
Payments, balance of (see Balance of payments)
Pears, 375, 376, 381, 382, 383–384, 516
consumption of, 624
export of, 626, 906
marketing of, 371, 516
Peas, 375, 376, 377, 379, 381, 897
export of, 564, 566
Peat wax, 415, 426
Penal institutions, 237, 238–242
Penal system, 229–230, 237, 242
Pensions—
social welfare, 148–158, 163–167, 635, 957
war, 163–168, 674, 911
Perinatal mortality, 103–105
Periodic detention, 229–230, 234
Perlite, 416, 426
Permanent heads of departments, 863–864
Permits, building, 469–472, 947
Personal safety, 812–820
Pest destruction boards, 51, 693, 697, 773
Pests and pesticides, 141, 208, 273, 335, 336, 373, 447, 455
Petroleum Corporation of New Zealand Ltd., 488–489
Petroleum (see also Motor Spirit), 416, 422–423
exports of, 565, 566
imports of, 5, 589, 590
industry, 440, 442, 443, 448, 455, 486, 944
prospecting, 422
usage of, 486
wholesale distribution of, 535–537
Pharmaceutical benefits, 129, 132, 150, 151
Pharmaceutical chemists, 128
Pharmaceutical Society, Council of, 128
Pharmaceuticals, manufacturing of, 447, 455
Phosphate rock, 426, 585, 589
Physical environment, 211–212, 262–274
Physical medicine, 124
Physical welfare and recreation, 835, 836
Physiotherapists, 124, 127, 134. 135
Physiotherapy benefits, 130, 132
Pigmeats—
consumption of, 623
exports of, 625
prices of, 609
production of, 358, 359, 366
Pigs, 358, 359, 361, 362, 364, 367, 386, 387, 389–390, 898
Pilots, air, 338
Pineapples—
import of, 517
marketed, 517
Placement service (employment), 768–769, 774–775
Planing mills, 446, 454
Planning—
Consultative, 290
Council, New Zealand, 290–291
district, 266
national, 266–267, 290–294
regional, 50, 265–266
town and country, 265, 266, 267
Plantations, timber, 357, 358, 360, 392–394
Plastics industry, 440, 442, 443, 448, 455, 944
Play centres, 163, 179, 184
Pleasure craft, 306
Plumbers, registration of, 127
Plunket Society, 121, 132
Plywood and veneer, 402, 433, 446, 454, 474, 564, 566
Poetry, 931–932
Poisons and poisoning, 106, 107, 119, 120, 140
Police, 160, 213, 248–250, 324, 325, 663, 667, 864, 868, 871, 874, 954
youth aid section, 160, 250
superannuation, 168, 170
Political parties, 44, 845
Polling at general elections, 846
Pollution—
air, 118, 272–273
mercury, 412, 414
water, 271, 272–273
Polynesian Education Foundation, 202
Population (see also Census), 54–85, 887, 945
age distribution, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83
density of, 68
distribution of, 59–68
ethnic groups, 83
growth, 54–59, 69, 86
heights and weights, 144–147
increases, 56–59, 69, 86, 887
industrial distribution of, 776, 777–778
intercensal estimates, 57, 60–66
international comparisons, 56, 85, 86
Maori, 57, 66, 69–70, 96, 97
policy, 56
projections, 58–59
sex proportions of, 67–68
shipboard, 64
urbanisation of, 66–67, 69
vital statistics, 86–115
world, 85
Pork (see Pigmeats)
Pork Industry Council, 516
Port Agriculture Service, 371
Portfolios of Ministers, 854
Ports—
Authority, 297
exports by, 301, 302, 303–304, 579
fishing, 411
imports by, 302–303, 593–594
of arrival and departure, 300, 302–304
shipping and trade of, 299–300, 302–304
Post Office, 339–345, 662, 665, 669, 688, 690, 864, 868, 871, 895
employees, 345, 871
superannuation of, 168–171
Savings Bank, 155, 475, 718, 721–722, 727, 914
Staff Tribunal, 786, 810
Postal notes, 341, 895
Potato Board, 516
Potatoes, 375, 379–380, 516, 897
consumption of, 624, 626
export of, 564, 566, 626
Pottery, china, and earthenware industry, 440, 442, 443, 448, 455
Poultry, 358, 360, 361, 386, 390–391, 444, 451, 623, 625
meat production, 391
Power Planning Committee, 488
Power stations (electricity), 421, 484–488, 497–498, 920
Pregnancy, diseases, etc., 138, 139
deaths from, 99, 138, 139
Pre-school children, heights and weights, 145
Pre-school education, 123, 176, 178, 179, 184
Preventive detention, 230, 232, 237–238, 239
Price control, 601–602
Price index, general, 943–944
Prices, 601–622, 891–893, 951
basic, for dairy produce, 519–520
index numbers, 605–608, 891, 892, 893, 951
comparisons with other countries, 610–611
index numbers, 605–608, 891, 892, 893, 951
Consumer, 892, 893
index numbers, 605–608, 891, 892, 893, 951
export, 517–523
index numbers, 605–608, 891, 892, 893, 951
export, indexes of, 614–616, 891, 892
index numbers, 605–608, 891, 892, 893, 951
farming costs index, 613–614
index numbers, 605–608, 891, 892, 893, 951
import, indexes of, 614–615, 617, 891, 892
index numbers, 605–608, 891, 892, 893, 951
retail, 609–610, 892, 893
index numbers, 605–608, 891, 892, 893, 951
stabilisation of, 601–602
wholesale, 611–613, 891, 892
Primary products—
consumption of, 623–624
export of, 301, 303–304, 337, 546–549, 558, 625–626, 903–907
by ports, 304
marketing of, 506–523
Primary school children, heights and weights, 146
Primary schools, 174, 175, 176, 178, 184–186, 889
Prime Minister's Department, 663, 864, 868, 954
Prime Ministers, successive, 852–853
Principal events, 917–922
Printing and publishing industry, 440, 442, 443, 447, 454, 753, 944
Prison service superannuation, 168, 170
Prisons and prisoners, 238–242, 890
Private—
hospitals, 129, 133, 136
income, 631, 633, 634, 635, 692
savings banks, 476, 690, 717, 718, 719, 721, 723–724, 727
schools, 175–176, 179, 180, 186, 889
superannuation schemes, 719
Privy council, 228
Probation of offenders, 162, 229, 232, 234, 237–238
Production, 654–657
building materials, 474, 899
clothing, 440, 441, 443, 446, 453, 463
dairy, 361, 362, 363–365, 444, 452, 464, 899
farm, 207–208, 360–368, 376–381, 655, 897–899
fisheries, 410–411
index numbers of, 491–492, 655–656
manufacturing industries, 431–433, 438–464, 655, 900
meat, 356, 366–367, 370, 899
mineral, 415–430, 440, 442, 443, 448, 456, 583, 664, 665
pulp and paper, etc., 400–401, 447
timber, 398–399, 899
wheat, 375, 376, 377, 378, 897
wool, 361, 362, 445, 453, 899
Productivity Advisory Council, 292, 437
Productivity Centre, 292
Projections—
labour force, 767, 769
population, 58–59
school population, 181
Property price, index, 475–476
Property speculation tax, 662, 674, 678–679, 952
Prospecting, 430
Psychiatric health and hospitals, 129, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141–144
Public—
accounts, 659–690, 952–958
interest on, 635, 637, 687
administration, publications 925–926
interest on, 635, 637, 687
authority sector of national income and expenditure, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636–638
interest on, 635, 637, 687
debt, 644–645, 685–690, 697, 912, 953
interest on, 635, 637, 687
finance, 910–912, 952–958
health, 116
holidays, 847
lands, 274–280
safety, 227–253
Public Service, 774, 871, 872–873
employees, 774, 810, 871, 872, 873
superannuation, 168–171
Public Trust Office, 690, 839–840, 864, 868
Public works—
maintenance appropriations, 665, 666, 668
occupational safety, 820
railway construction, 306–307
road construction, 313–314, 664, 669
services, maintenance of, 637
Publicans' licences, 843–844
Publishing and printing industry, 440, 442, 443, 447, 454, 846–847
Pulp and paper industry, 400–401, 433, 447, 454, 464, 715
export of, 403, 404, 562, 565, 908, 950
import of, 403, 404, 587
Pumice, 416

Q

Quarries, 428–430
accidents at, 816
persons engaged in, 429
safety in, 820
Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, 218–219

R

Race relations, 847
Racing taxation, 662, 671, 684–685, 952
Radiation protection, 120–121
Radio—
communications, 343–344
New Zealand, 346, 347, 349
private, 346, 347
time signals, 846
Radio and television, 346–349
advertising, 346, 349
assembly and manufacture of sets, 434, 450, 457
licences, 349
Radioactivity, protection against, 120–121
Radiographers, 134, 135
Radiology, 120–121, 132
Radiotelephone services, 343, 344,
Raffles, 843
Rail traffic—
goods, 309, 896, 946
passengers, 308, 896, 946
Railway construction and engineering, 307
Railway equipment, imports of, 588, 590, 591
Railways, 306–313, 786, 864, 868–869, 871, 874, 896, 946
accidents, 140, 313, 920, 921
air freight service, 307
capital expenditure on, 311
employees, 313, 871
licensing protection, 322
private, 313
revenue and expenditure, 309–311, 312, 665, 666, 667, 669, 687, 736, 896
road-rail ferry service, 298, 307, 310, 312, 921
road services, 308, 310, 313, 323
rolling stock, 308, 311
superannuation, 168–171
Tribunal, 786, 810
Rainfall, 14–16
Rangemaking industry, 450, 457, 463
Raoul Island, 1, 11
Rates, local government, 638, 691–693, 913
valuation for, 287, 288
Rates of exchange, 728–729
Re-afforestation, 270
Real gross domestic product, 654–657
Reciprocal tariff and trade, 596–598
Records (gramophone), 463
Recreation, 396, 835–836, 847–849
Recreation and Sports, Ministry of, 847–849, 876
Recreational land, 267–268, 276–280
Re-exports, 580, 950
Refineries, oil, 448, 455, 487
Refrigerators, 463, 481
Refugees, 73–74
Regional—
Authority, 50–51, 693–695, 696, 773
Councils, 51, 52
development, 292–293, 436–438
government, 50–51
planning, 50, 265–266
schemes, 52
Registrars, marriages before, 109, 112
Registration of—
adopted children, 92–93
aliens, 76–77
apprentices, 770–771
births, 86, 92, 93
building societies, 747–750
chemists, 128
child care centres, 159
chiropodists, 127
community nurses, 126
companies, 916
deaths, 98
dental technicians, 126
dentists, 126
designs, 837–838
dietitians, 127
electors, 49
employers' unions, 801
ex-nuptial births, 91–92
friendly societies, 158
land titles, 282–286
land valuers, 289
land values, 286–289
marriages, 109–115
maternity nurses, 126
medical practitioners, 125
midwives, 126
mortgages, 738–742, 915
motor vehicles, 319–321
nurses, 126
occupational therapists, 127
opticians, 127
optometrists, 127
patents, 837–838
pharmaceutical chemists, 128
physiotherapists, 127
plumbers, 127–128
still births, 93
trade marks, 837–838
trade unions, 800–801
trading vessels, 299
unemployed, 774–775, 945
Rehabilitation, 163–168, 637, 813
disabled civilians, 124, 813
Religious professions, 82
Rental cars, 320, 326
Rental units, Housing Corporation, 478
Rental value, owner-occupied houses, 629, 634
Rents, 361, 483
Representation Commission, 42, 48
Representatives, House of, 26, 41, 42, 43, 44, 48, 845, 855, 917
Reproduction index, 88
Research, 205–216
agricultural, 207–208, 214, 371
animal health, 214
Antarctic, 827–830
dental, 124
energy, 490–492
environmental, 207, 211–212
expenditure, 216–218
fishery, 408, 414
forestry, 404–405
grants, 212, 213, 214
grassland and grasses, 214
in building and construction, 211
in transport, 211
industrial, 210–211, 215, 438
manufacturing, 210–211, 215, 438
medical, 125
mining, 418
scientific and industrial, 205–216
soil, 214
wool, 208, 211, 213, 369
Reserve Bank, 47, 642, 643–645, 659, 690, 709–712, 728, 751, 959
assets and liabilities, 690, 711–713
Reserves—
air force, 257
farm industry, 523
military, 258
naval, 257
overseas (banks), 730, 909
public or scenic, 268, 276–280
Restaurant licences, 843–844
Retail prices, 609–610
index numbers, 604–608, 951
Retail trade, 524–533, 540–542, 892, 893, 949
Retailers, bank advances to, 715
Revenue—
broadcasting and television, 349
cinemas, 352
customs, 599, 636
electric power, 499
Forest service, 397
Government (see Government finance)
local government, 316–317, 318–319, 638, 691–697, 913
National Roads Fund, 315–316, 956
Post Office, 344, 895
railway, 309, 310, 896, 946
urban transport, 329
River boards, 51, 773
Rivers, 4–5, 492, 493, 494, 495
access to, 267
control of, 271–272
hydro-electric development on, 5, 488, 490, 492–495
Road—
accidents, 99, 106, 107, 140, 324–325
safety, 325–326
services, 308, 310, 313, 323, 328–331, 946
transport, 305–331
Tunnel, Christchurch-Lyttelton, 315, 318, 773
Roads, 313–319
expenditure on, 317–319, 664, 666, 669, 694, 956
taxation, 316, 669, 670, 671, 673, 956
Rock lobsters, 407, 408, 410, 412, 413
exports of, 412, 413, 564, 566
Rolling stock, railway, 308
Roman Catholic schools, 186
Ross Dependency, 2, 11, 55, 821, 827–830, 919
Royal New Zealand Air Force, 255, 258–259
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve, 257
Royal New Zealand Navy, 255, 256–257
Royal Society of New Zealand, 205, 206, 213
Rubber and rubber products, 440, 442, 443, 448, 455, 464, 583, 585, 586, 589, 590
Rural—
Banking and Finance Corporation, 293, 662, 663, 665, 688, 690, 717, 722, 742–744, 864, 869, 955
education, 188–189
housing, 477
land transfers, 282–283
mail deliveries, 339
mortgages, 742–744
population, 66–67
Reticulation Council, 497
Ryegrass, 380, 381

S

St. John Ambulance, 133, 134
Safe Air Limited, 332, 334
Safety of machinery, 820
Safety of workers, 808, 809, 810, 819–820, 893
Salaries and wages, 632, 634, 701, 705, 706, 786–798, 900
and social welfare benefits, 152
average, 792–794
effective, 796, 893
hourly, 793–794
minimum, 797
nominal, 794–796, 893
weekly, 792, 893
by industry groups, 791–792, 793, 794
average, 792–794
effective, 796, 893
hourly, 793–794
minimum, 797
nominal, 794–796, 893
weekly, 792, 893
by institutional sectors, 791, 793–794
average, 792–794
effective, 796, 893
hourly, 793–794
minimum, 797
nominal, 794–796, 893
weekly, 792, 893
by occupations, 793–794
average, 792–794
effective, 796, 893
hourly, 793–794
minimum, 797
nominal, 794–796, 893
weekly, 792, 893
equal pay, 791
average, 792–794
effective, 796, 893
hourly, 793–794
minimum, 797
nominal, 794–796, 893
weekly, 792, 893
hourly average, 793–794
average, 792–794
effective, 796, 893
hourly, 793–794
minimum, 797
nominal, 794–796, 893
weekly, 792, 893
in manufacturing industries, 439–451, 459–462, 900
average, 792–794
effective, 796, 893
hourly, 793–794
minimum, 797
nominal, 794–796, 893
weekly, 792, 893
industrial classification of, 791
average, 792–794
effective, 796, 893
hourly, 793–794
minimum, 797
nominal, 794–796, 893
weekly, 792, 893
legislation, 787–791
average, 792–794
effective, 796, 893
hourly, 793–794
minimum, 797
nominal, 794–796, 893
weekly, 792, 893
lost through industrial stoppages, 804–807
average, 792–794
effective, 796, 893
hourly, 793–794
minimum, 797
nominal, 794–796, 893
weekly, 792, 893
rates, 787–791, 893
average, 792–794
effective, 796, 893
hourly, 793–794
minimum, 797
nominal, 794–796, 893
weekly, 792, 893
Salaries of members of—
Executive Council, 44–45
House of Representatives, 44–45
Sales tax, 662, 671, 952
Salt, 416, 426
Sanctuaries, bird and other wildlife, 266, 267, 276–278, 279–280
Sand and gravel, 416
Sand dunes, stabilisation of, 395–396
Satellite communications, 343
Satellite, earth resources, programme, 265, 273
Sausage casings, export of, 562, 565, 577, 907, 950
Sausage casings, production, 444, 452
Savings—
accounts and bonds (National), 674, 720–723
banks, 674, 690, 718, 719, 720–724, 914
private, 631, 633, 634, 635, 717, 718, 719, 721, 723–724, 727
Sawmills, etc., 398, 446, 454
Scenic reserves, 276–280
Scheelite, 425
Scholarships—
for Maoris, 175, 202
for Pacific Islanders, 203, 204
university, 182, 193
School—
camps, 848
ages of, 185
duration of attendance, 187
intended occupations of, 187
medical examinations of, 121
roll numbers of, 179–180, 181, 183, 184–186, 889
transport and boarding allowances, 188
Certificate, 181–182, 707
ages of, 185
duration of attendance, 187
intended occupations of, 187
medical examinations of, 121
roll numbers of, 179–180, 181, 183, 184–186, 889
transport and boarding allowances, 188
children, 174–176, 179–180, 889
ages of, 185
duration of attendance, 187
intended occupations of, 187
medical examinations of, 121
roll numbers of, 179–180, 181, 183, 184–186, 889
transport and boarding allowances, 188
committees, 175
dental service, 117, 123–124
inspectors, 186
Journal, 191
Library Service, 190, 224
of Pharmacy, 128
teachers (see teachers)
Schools—
broadcasts to, 191, 347
community colleges, 175, 176, 178
consolidation of, 188
correspondence, 179, 180, 188–189, 191, 204
curricula, 184, 186, 187–188
denominational, 175–176
district high, 180, 186, 188
free textbooks for, 190
intermediate, 179, 185
nautical, 305
primary, 174, 175, 176, 178, 179, 184–186, 889
private, 175–176, 179, 180, 186, 889
publications, 191
roll numbers, 179–180, 181, 183, 184–186, 889
secondary, 174, 176, 178, 180, 186–187, 204, 889
sizes of classes, 185
special, 179, 183
State, 174–189
technical, 179, 180, 198–201, 889
Science in New Zealand, 205–216
budget, 216–217
publications, 212, 213, 928
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of, 206–214, 215–216, 255, 270, 273, 380, 415, 490, 664, 667, 864, 869, 874, 955
Scientific services, 205–216
Sea fisheries, 407–414
Seal of New Zealand, 850
Search and rescue operations, 250, 258, 260
Secondary education (see Schools, secondary)
Secondary school boards and councils, 175
Securities, Government, 665, 722, 723, 724, 753, 756, 761
Security Intelligence Service, 261, 663, 864, 954
Seed certification, 380
Seed sowing, aerial, 335–336
Seeds, grass and clover, 380–381
exported, 906
Seismic regions, 10
Seismology, 9–12
Self employed, incomes of, 698, 700, 703
Separation, marital, 113, 246–247
Serpentine, 416, 426
Service-coach licences, 320
Service establishments (trade), 537–540
Settlement of land, 274–275, 283–284
Sex proportions of population, 67–68
Sexes of—
children born, 88
factory employees, 439, 444–451
Sexual offences, 232, 233, 238, 243, 244
Share prices, index numbers, 618, 892, 893
Shearers' wage rates and amenities, 809
Sheep, 386, 387, 388, 509, 898
and lambs slaughtered, 367
farming, 354, 355, 356, 358, 359, 361, 2, 377, 385, 386, 387, 388, 698, 699, 703, 715
skins and pelts exported (see also Hides), 304, 562, 564, 566, 576–577
Sheetmetal-working industry, 449, 456
Shellfish, export of, 412
Ship building and repairing, 450, 458
Shipping, 297–306, 344, 407, 518
Shipping and Seamen Act, 809
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, 298–299, 665, 687
Shooting, 836
Shops, 523–544
and Offices Act, 808
Short-wave radio broadcasting, 347
Sickness, 137–139
benefits, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156–157
insurance, 157, 674
Silica, 416, 425
Silver, 416, 425
Sixth Form Certificate, 182
Ski-ing, 836
Skins (see Hides, pelts, and skins)
Smoking habits, 122
Snow, 17, 20
Soap industry, 447, 455
Soaps, export of, 568
Social Development Council, 293–294
Social planning, 206, 293–294
Social sciences, 925–926
Social services, expenditure on, 151, 166, 168, 637, 660, 664, 666, 667, 669, 911, 953, 955
Social welfare, 148–173, 183, 246, 250, 664, 864, 869, 873, 911, 955
benefits, 128–132, 148, 149, 150–158, 635, 674, 957, 958
reciprocity with other countries, 157–158
taxation, 150
Soil conservation, 271–272
Soil erosion, 272, 396
Soils, 354–356
Solar heating, 210
Soldiers, 257–258
Solo parents, 153, 155, 164
South Pacific—
aid, 37–39
Bureau for Economic Co-operation, 26, 27, 32–33, 39
Commission, 33, 39, 821
Forum, 25–26, 27, 32, 549
Medical Research Committee, 125
relations with, 31–33
students from, 181, 197
trade training for youths from, 771–772
trade with, 549, 580
South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO), 27, 37, 921
Southern Alps, 3, 8, 17
Sovereignty, 26, 40–42
Soviet Union, relations with, 30
Special education, 176, 183
Special work, employees, 945
Speed limits, 326, 327
Spirits—
consumption of, 625
duty on, 598, 599, 952
imports of, 587, 589, 590
production of, 445, 452
Sports, 835–836
publications on, 931
Stabilisation of Prices Regulations, 601–602
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act, 788
Standard time, 846
Standards Association of New Zealand, 436, 490
Standards Council, 838
Standards of living, international, 842
State—
Advances Corporation, 742
accident and fire, 762
earthquake and war damage, 762–763
life, 760–763
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
aid to private schools, 175–176
accident and fire, 762
earthquake and war damage, 762–763
life, 760–763
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
coal mines, 421, 665, 666, 688
accident and fire, 762
earthquake and war damage, 762–763
life, 760–763
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
departments, 47, 863–871
accident and fire, 762
earthquake and war damage, 762–763
life, 760–763
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
finance, 150, 152, 636–638, 659–690, 725, 740–747, 756, 759, 760, 871, 910–912, 952–958
accident and fire, 762
earthquake and war damage, 762–763
life, 760–763
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
forests, 268, 392, 394–397
accident and fire, 762
earthquake and war damage, 762–763
life, 760–763
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
highways, 314, 317–318, 669
accident and fire, 762
earthquake and war damage, 762–763
life, 760–763
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
housing, 466, 478–479, 744–746
accident and fire, 762
earthquake and war damage, 762–763
life, 760–763
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
indebtedness, 644–645, 685–690, 912
accident and fire, 762
earthquake and war damage, 762–763
life, 760–763
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
insurance, 690, 760–763, 815, 864, 869
accident and fire, 762
earthquake and war damage, 762–763
life, 760–763
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
placement services, 774–775
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
schools, 180, 184–185, 186, 188, 889
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
Services, 786, 864–873
Commission, 663, 688, 864, 871–872, 876, 954
wards, 161–162
Statistical—
divisions—
building permits value, 472
dwelling completions, 472
populations of, 60–61
information, latest, 945–959
publications, 552–553, 960
Summary, 886–916
Statistical areas, 60, 68, 352, 372
area and population of, 60, 68
cinemas in, 352
industrial production by, 459–463
livestock in, 387
Statistics, Department of, 663, 864, 869–870, 954
Statute of Westminster, 26, 42, 227, 920
Statutes (see Legislation)
Statutory Boards and Committees, 873–876
Steel and iron, imports of, 303, 583, 587, 590, 591
Steel industry, 423, 433, 441, 442, 444, 448, 456
Stewart Island, 1, 2, 14–15, 26, 66
Still births, 89, 93, 103
Stock and station agents, 715, 725, 727
Stocks—
retail, 532–533, 540
wholesale, 534, 950
Stone fruit, 376, 381, 382
Stoppages, industrial, 804–807, 894
Stores, self-service, 532–533
Students, 179–180
overseas, 181, 195, 197
projected, 181, 189–190
teachers' college, 180, 889
university, 180, 192–198, 889
Studentships, 189–190
Submarine power cable, Cook Strait, 495
Subscriber toll dialling (STD), 342
Subsidies, 277, 628, 632, 635, 922
agricultural, 373–374
highways, 317, 318, 319, 669, 956
on eggs, 517, 628
on food, 628
on milk, 517, 520, 628
to local government, 317, 318, 319, 468, 637, 669, 695
to mining, 427
Subtropical fruit, 381, 382
Suffrage, 49
Sugar—
consumption of, 624, 626
imports of, 303, 582, 585, 589, 590, 599
international agreements on, 599
production, 445, 452, 464
Suicides, 99, 106, 107, 140
Sulphur, 416, 426
imports of, 589, 590
Summary convictions, 233–234, 890
Sunshine, 18, 19, 20, 21
Superannuation, 168–173
government, 168–171
national scheme, 149, 153, 154, 172, 922, 957
of Members of Parliament, 45, 168, 170
private schemes, 719
self-employed scheme, 172
social welfare, 149, 151, 152, 153, 957
Superphosphate, 371–372
Supplementary assistance benefits, 152
Supreme Court, 41, 48, 113, 168, 169, 227, 228, 229, 231–232, 235, 244, 287, 890
Surveys—
employment, 772–773
geological, 209, 427–428
land, 281–282
Sweepstakes, 843
Swimming accidents, 108
Symphony Orchestra, New Zealand, 346, 348

T

Tallow, 304, 562, 565, 566, 576, 907, 950
Tanning industry, 446, 453
Tariff and Development Board, 560
Tariff, Customs, 595–600
Tariffs and Trade Agreement (GATT), 510, 595–600
Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., 400, 433, 687
Taxation (See individual taxes), 633, 634, 635, 636–637, 638, 661, 662, 669, 670–685, 698–708, 952, 956
direct, 633, 634, 636–637, 662, 670–671, 952
exemptions from, 674, 675–676, 677
incentives, 678
indirect, 632, 634, 636–637, 662, 670–671, 952
rates of, 677–679, 680–681, 682, 683
rebates of, 676, 677
Review Authority, 681
system, 673–680
Taxi cabs, 320, 326
Tea—
consumption of, 625
imports of, 582
Teacher studentships, 189–190
Teachers, 180–181, 183, 189–190
colleges, 175, 178, 179, 180, 184, 189–190, 201, 889
kindergarten, 180
primary and secondary school, 180
superannuation, 168–171
training of, 175, 180, 184, 187, 189–190
Teaching aids, 191
Technical Correspondence Institute, 175, 180, 199, 200, 201, 204, 770
Technical education, 175, 176, 178, 179, 180, 198–201, 770–771, 889
Technology, Central Institute of, 179, 199
Telecommunications, 343–344, 895
Telegraph services, 339, 342–343, 344, 895
Telephone rental concession, 157
Telephone services, 341–342, 343, 344, 481, 895
Television and radio, 346–349
value of sets sold on hire purchase, 545, 949
Television and radio assembly, 450, 457, 463
Telex (teleprinter) services, 342, 343, 344
Temperature, 17–21
Tenancy Act, 483
Tenure—
of Crown lands, 274–275
of dwellings, 481–482
of occupied land, 274–275, 282–283, 357
Terms of trade, 618, 891, 892
Territorial Air Force, 259
Territorial Forces (Army), 258
Tetanus immunisation, 121–122
Textbooks in schools, free, 184, 190
Textiles, imports of, 586, 589, 590, 591
Textiles, production of, 440, 441, 443, 445, 453, 463, 944
Theft, 232, 233, 236, 238, 243, 244, 249
Therapists, occupational, 124, 127, 134, 135
Thermal activity, 3, 835
Thermal generation, 493, 494
Thunderstorms, 16
Timber, 392–406, 446, 454, 474, 899
exports of, 304, 403–404, 565, 566, 578, 908
imports of, 403, 404
inspection of, 397
output, 446, 454, 899
plantations, 357, 358, 360, 392–394
preservation of, 446, 454
resources, 392–394, 398, 406
Timber Preservation Authority, 402
Time service (radio), 213, 846
Tin, 425
Tobacco—
consumption of, 625
duty on, 598, 599
growers, 355, 358, 360, 384–385
household expenditure on, 619–622
imports of, 582, 585, 589, 590
industry, 370, 371, 376, 384–385, 386, 440, 441, 445, 452, 464, 944
Tokelau, 23, 25, 28, 31, 32, 38, 55, 74, 168, 191, 580, 594, 821, 825–827
Toll service, 342, 895
Tomatoes, 379, 380
Tonnage of shipping and cargo, 299–304
Topdressing, 335–336, 371–372
Topographical mapping, 282
Totalisator—
Agency Board, 684–685
taxation, 684–685
turnover on, 685
Tourism, 70, 668, 831–836, 945
Tourist—
accommodation, 833–834
and Publicity Department, 664, 833, 836, 864, 870, 955
attractions, 831–836
Hotel Corporation, 47, 665, 688, 833
industry, 831–836
Town and country planning, 50, 53, 265, 266
Town and Country Planning Act 1977, 265
Town districts, 49–50, 63, 288, 289, 696
Town milk supply, 365, 520
Tractors, imports of, 587, 590, 591
Tractors on farms, 359, 374–375
accidents, 107
Trade and Industry, Department of, 292, 293, 435, 437, 559, 601–602, 664, 864, 870, 875, 955
Trade (domestic), 523–545, 944, 949–950
overseas investment in, 649
practices, 602
retail, 524–533, 540–542, 949
service, 537–540
training of Maori youths, 771, 772
unions, 801–804
wholesale, 524, 533–535, 543
Trade examinations, 199, 200, 201, 770–772
Trade (external), 546–600, 875, 902–908, 950–951
agreement, 513–514, 550–551, 599–600
balance of, 552
commissioner service, 560, 883
direction of exports, 570–578
origin of imports, 585–589
per head value of, 551
Promotion Council, 561, 658
representation overseas, 560–561, 883
statistics, compilation of, 552–553
terms of, 618, 891, 892
volume of, 558–559, 563–564
with Western Europe, 507
Trades Certification Board, 199, 200, 201, 770
Trade-marks, 837–838
Trading banks, 712–716, 718, 720, 727, 741
advances, classification, 715–716
Traffic—
accidents, 99, 106, 107, 140, 324, 325
deaths from, 324, 325
air, 331, 332, 334, 335, 336–338
motor, 320
offences, 234–235, 326–328
railways, 308, 309, 896
Transport, 252, 295–340, 518, 660, 664, 666, 667, 669, 693, 694, 695, 697, 835, 944, 946–947, 953, 956
accidents (sec Traffic accidents)
boards, 51, 693, 694, 697
equipment, imports of, 584, 588, 589, 590, 592
equipment industry, 441, 442, 444, 450, 458, 464, 715, 753, 944
household expenditure on, 619–622
licensing, 322–323
Ministry of, 297, 322, 325–327, 329, 332–333, 664, 820, 864, 870, 874
of school children, 188
overseas investments in, 649
research, 211
to work, 323
urban, 308, 313, 314–315, 318–319, 328–331, 693–697
Travel and tourism, 831–836
Trawling, 407, 408
Treasury, 663, 864, 870, 875–876, 954
Treasury bills, 718
Treaty of Waitangi, 26, 283, 917
Trees, forest, 392–393
Tribunals, administrative, 862–863
Trolley-buses, 330
Trout, 5, 835
Trust (liquor) control, 844–845
Trustee, Public, 690, 839–840, 864, 868
Trustee savings, 690, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721, 723–725, 727
Tuberculosis, 99, 137
Tungsten ore, 416, 425
Tunnels, roads and railway, 307
Tussock boards, 51
Twins and triplets born, 89

U

Undergraduates, 192–197
Unemployment, 767–768, 774–775, 894, 945
benefits, 151, 152, 153, 154, 156, 774
UNESCO, 35, 36, 197, 205
Unexercised overdraft authorities, 716
Unimproved value of land, 288–289
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, trade with, 547, 550, 556, 570, 572, 573, 574
Unions, trade, 801–804
United councils, 51
United Kingdom—
communications with, 340, 343
consumption of butter and margarine, 514
dairy produce and meat imported into, 514
debt, domiciled in, 912
investment in New Zealand, 647, 648
New Zealand representation in, 881
relations with, 25–30, 513–514, 546–547
representation in New Zealand, 883
shipping to and from, 297
social security reciprocity, 157–158
trade agreements with, 513–514, 548
trade with, 506, 507, 508, 509, 511, 546, 547, 548, 551, 554, 557, 570. 572, 573, 574, 576, 584–585, 596, 597, 642–643, 646
visitors and migrants from, 73, 832, 833
United Nations, 34–36, 39, 259
Committee on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 597
Development Programme (UNDP), 33, 39
United States of America—
debt domiciled in, 912
investment in New Zealand, 647, 648
New Zealand representation in, 883
relations with, 33–34
representation in New Zealand, 885
shipping to and from, 297
trade with, 506, 507, 509, 546. 547, 548, 554, 557, 570, 572, 573, 574, 584–585, 642–643, 646
visitors and migrants from, 73, 832, 833
Universities, 180, 192–198, 201, 213, 215, 889
buildings, 176, 178, 179
bursaries, 193–194, 196
colleges of agriculture, 193, 194
entrance examinations, 182, 192
extension, 203–204
graduates, 190, 197–198, 707
Grants Committee, 179, 192, 213, 215, 478
scholarships, 182, 193
staff, 198
students, 180, 192–198, 889
Uranium, 425
Urban—
Areas, 66–67
building permit values, 472
cinemas in, 353
dwelling completions, 472
population, 60–61
Public Passenger Transport Council, 329
stores in, 527–528, 532, 533
house price index, 475–476
land transfers, 284–286
movement, 66–67
population, growth of, 66–67
renewal, 468, 477, 478, 695
section price index, 475
transport, 308, 313, 314–315, 318–319, 328–331, 693–697
transport boards, 773
Urbanisation—
effects of, 262–263, 266, 267
of population, 66–67, 69

V

Vacancies, employment, 774–775
Valuation Department, 286, 663, 864, 870, 875, 954
Valuation of land, 286–289, 691
Valuation roll, 286–287
Value added in manufacturing (net), 439, 443–444, 451–459, 460–463, 900
Valuers' Registration Board, 289
Veal—
consumption of, 623
export of, 506, 507–508, 572, 625, 904
production of, 366
Vegetable growing, commercial, 361, 362, 370, 371, 372, 375–376, 377, 379, 380
Vegetables—
and fruit, canned, 445, 452, 464
consumption of, 624, 626
exported, canned and frozen, 564, 566, 626
retail prices of, 609
Venereal diseases, 99, 123, 137
Vessels—
entered and cleared from ports, 299
fishing, 408
safety of, 809, 820
wrecked, 305–306
Veterans' allowances, 165
Veterinarians, training of, 194, 197
Vice-regal representatives, 851–852
Vineyards and grapes, 376, 381, 383
Visitors to New Zealand, 70–73, 831–833, 945
Visual aids, in teaching, 191
Vital statistics, 86–115, 888
Vocational guidance, 192, 769–770, 772
Vocational training, 163, 201, 240, 769–770, 771–772
Volcanoes, 1, 2–3, 9, 10–11, 12, 830, 918
Voluntary welfare organisations, 132–133
Volunteer Service Abroad (VSA), 40
Voting—
at by-elections, 850
at general elections, 49, 845–846
at licensing polls, 846
qualifications, 49

W

Wages (see also Salaries and wages), 786–797
Wages Tribunal, 786
Waitangi, Treaty of, 26, 54, 283, 917
War—
bursaries for ex-servicemen's children, 166
damage and earthquake insurance, 762–763
History Documentation Centre, 222
pensions, 150, 163–168, 674, 873, 911
veterans' allowances, 165
Warships, 256
Washing machines, 463, 481
Water—
accidents, 106, 107, 108, 140
boards, regional, 271
conservation, 271–272, 372
pollution, 271, 272–273
resources, 271–272, 372
subsidies, 695
supply boards, 51, 694, 773
Waterfront control, 810–811
Waterfront Industry, 810–811
commission, 811
Tribunal, 810–811
Weather, 12–21, 835
Weedkiller, aerial spraying of, 335–336
Welfare (See also Social Welfare)—
Maori, 162–163
maternal, 121, 129, 131
of children, 159–162
of workers, 808, 809, 810
organisations (voluntary), 132–133, 478
Pacific Islanders, 162–163, 821, 823, 827
services, 132
Western Samoa, 11, 27, 29, 31, 32, 38, 55, 74, 84, 191, 206, 549, 555, 919, 921
Westminster, Statute of, 26, 42, 227
Whales and whaling, 829
Wheat, 208, 375, 376, 377, 378
Board, New Zealand, 378, 897
imports of, 585, 589, 590
Research Committee, 378
Whisky, imports of, 589, 590
Whitebait, 414
Wholesale—
liquor licences, 844–845
prices, 611–613, 891, 892, 941–944
trade, 524, 533–537, 543
Widowers, remarriages of, 109–111
Widows—
benefits, 150, 151, 153, 154, 157
number of, 78, 82
remarriages of, 109–111
war pensions, 164, 167
Wildlife sanctuaries, 266, 267, 276–278, 279
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 839–840
Winds, 13–14
Wine, consumption of, 625
Wine licences, 844–845
Winemaking industry, 376, 381, 383, 445, 452
Women—
accident compensation, 814
criminal charges and convictions against, 236
deaths of, in childbirth, 99, 105
employment in industry, 439, 444–451, 764, 766, 767, 773
in Armed Forces, 257, 259
in labour force, 444–451, 459–462, 777–781, 782–783, 945
incomes of, 707
married, in the labour force, 783
offences by, 236
police, 248
wage rates of, 797
Wood and cork products industry, 440, 441, 443, 446, 454
Wood preservation, 402
Wood pulp—
exports of, 403, 404, 565, 566, 578, 908
imports of, 403, 404, 594
production of, 400–401, 433, 464
Wood-chip industry, 399, 567
Wool—
Board, New Zealand, 367, 368–369, 373, 516, 518
export, 304, 506, 507–508, 516, 558, 562–563, 565, 566, 570, 571–572, 731, 732, 903, 950, 959
export price index, 519
Income Retention Scheme, 369, 523
levy, 368–369, 518
Marketing Corporation, 367, 368, 516, 518, 523, 921
marketing of, 368–369, 508–510, 948
prices for, 369, 518–519, 753, 899, 948
production, 361, 362, 445, 453, 899
research, 208, 211, 213, 369
Research Organisation, 369
scouring, 273, 445, 453
Testing Authority, 369
Woollen mills, 445, 453, 753
Work permits, 74
Workers—
Educational Association, 204
safety and welfare, 808, 809, 810, 819–820
unions of, 800–803
Working—
conditions, 798–811
hours, 792–794, 808
life expectancies, 785
Works and Development, Ministry of, 158, 266, 272, 307, 314, 315, 428, 466, 667, 820, 864, 871, 875, 955
Works and trading account, 117, 176, 659, 665, 666–667, 668, 670
World Bank (see International Bank for Reconstruction and Development)
World Health Organisation, 35, 36, 99, 102, 103, 125, 197
World population statistics, 85
Wrecks, 305–306, 918, 919, 921, 923, 924

X

X-ray services, 129, 132

Y

Young Persons Courts, 160. 161–162, 227, 242–244, 250
Youth Aid Section, New Zealand Police, 160, 250
Youth hostels, 478, 768
Youth Hostels Association, 848
Youths, working conditions of, 809, 810

Z

Zinc, 424
Zoology, 929