THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1977


Table of Contents

PREFACE

The New Zealand Official Yearbook, of which this is the 82nd edition, was first compiled in 1875 as the Official Handbook of New Zealand. Three or four editions of the Handbook were published, but it was not (and was not intended to be) an annual publication. The first New Zealand Official Yearbook bearing the present title appeared in 1893. The Preface began "The Handbook published last year met with so favourable a reception that the Government decided on publishing a similar work annually, to be called the New Zealand Official Yearbook." In the 102 years since its inception the Official Yearbook has evolved from a handbook designed mainly "to give to those who may think of making the Colony their home or the theatre of business operations, an idea of New Zealand from the New Zealand point of view", into a standard reference work and something of a one-volume annual encyclopaedia. The Articles on Special Subjects, which made up the bulk of the early Handbooks, have either evolved into regular sections or been reduced to two or three special articles at the back of each Yearbook. The present aim of the Official Yearbook is to present annually a comprehensive statistical survey of the economy and population of New Zealand, with a background of text aimed primarily at the non-specialist.

As a series, Official Yearbooks are a rich source of material for research workers and students. Each section is revised annually, and (within the limits of space) every endeavour is made to give comprehensive and accurate information as fully and clearly as possible. However, in the nature of things, a Yearbook which takes almost 12 months to produce cannot be completely up to date. Additional and more recent information on many of the subjects mentioned in the Official Yearbook can be obtained from parliamentary reports, from the Information Service releases, bulletins, and other publications of the Department of Statistics, and especially from the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. With the Official Yearbook to give him background and historical perspective, and the Monthly Abstract to give him the latest figures, the student of the New Zealand economy is well-equipped.

The year 1977 saw the Silver Jubilee visit of Her Majesty the Queen to New Zealand, and it is fitting that the Yearbook should include a short description of the Royal Tour. Another special article in this edition Education in the New Zealand Community, originally produced as a background paper for the Educational Development Conference, is reprinted here to mark the 100th anniversary of State education in New Zealand. Another special article New Zealand at the Turning Point is a synopsis reprinted from the report of the Task Force on Economic and Social Planning, published in December 1976.

The Yearbook owes much to the assistance and co-operation of other Government departments, the producer boards, the Reserve Bank, and a considerable number of other official bodies, as well as to the compiling sections of this department. I would like to express my appreciation to all the people involved, and especially to the staff of the Government Printing Office, without whose work there would be no Yearbook. The volume was edited by N. G. Killick, B.A., who would also like to express his appreciation of the assistance and co-operation he has received.

E. A. HARRIS, GOVERNMENT STATISTICIAN.

Department of Statistics, Wellington, NEW ZEALAND.

September 1977.

SYMBOLS

The interpretation of the symbols used in the tables throughout this publication is as follows:

- nil or zero. . . not applicable
. . figures not available- - amount too small to be expressed
not yet available—space left blankx revised

METRIC SYSTEM

The conversion of the system of weights and measures used in New Zealand to metric units was substantially completed by the end of 1976.

As far as possible, statistics in this issue have been converted to the metric system, but for various reasons, this has to be a gradual process extending over a number of years.

CONVERSION OF BRITISH (IMPERIAL) AND SI (METRIC) UNITS

Some relationships between common British units and common SI units are shown in the following table.

Length

1 in. = 25.4 mm1 mm = 0.039 in.
    = 2.54 cm1 cm = 0.394 in.
1 ft = 30.48 cm1 dm = 3.937 in.
    = 0.305 m1 m = 39.37 in.
1 yd = 0.914 m= 1.094 yds
1 mile = 1.609 km1 km = 0.621 miles
Area 
1 sq ft = 0.093 m21 m2 = 10.764 sq ft
    = 929.03 cm2= 1.196 sq yds
1 sq yd = 0.836 m21 da = 0.247 acres
1 acre = 0.405 hectare (ha)1 ha = 2.471 acres
1 sq mile = 2.590 km21 km2 = 247.1 acres
    = 259 ha= 0.386 sq miles
Volume 
1 cu in. = 16.387 cm31 cm3 = 0.061 cu in.
1 cu f = 0.028 m31 m3 = 35.315 cu ft
1 cu yd = 0.765 m3= 1.308 cu yds
Capacity 
1 pt = 0.568 litres (1)1 litre = 1.760 pts
1 qt = 1.137 1= 0.880 qts
1 gal = 4.546 1= 0.220 gal
Weight 
1 oz = 28.35 grams (g)1 g = 0.035 oz
1 lb = 0.454 kilograms (kg)1 kg = 2.205 lb
1 cwt = 50.802 kg1 t = 2,204.62 lb
1 long ton = 1,016 kg= 0.984 long tons
    = 1.016 tonnes (t)= 1.102 short tons
Velocity 
1 mile per hour (mph)1.61 kilometres per hour (km/hr)
1 kilometre per hour (km/h)0.621 miles per hour (mph)
Pressure 
1 pound per sq in. (psi)6.89 kilopascals (kPa)
1 kilopascal (kPa)0.145 pounds per sq in. (psi)
1 ton per sq in. (ton/in2)15.4 megapascals (MPa)
1 megapascal (MPa)0.0647 tons per sq in. (ton/in2)
Temperature 
Degree Fahrenheit (°F)9x°C/5+32
Degree Celsius (°C)5/9(°F-32)

Chapter 1. Section 1 GEOGRAPHY

Table of Contents

New Zealand is in the south-west section of the Pacific, that great ocean stretching across one-third of the earth's surface. To the west, beyond the Tasman Sea, is Australia, 1,600 kilometres away. From its position on the rim of the Pacific basin, New Zealand is a little over 10,000 kilometres from San Francisco and Panama and a similar distance from Tokyo and Singapore. In area 26.9 million hectares, it is similar in size to the British Isles and Japan.

One of the chief charms of the New Zealand landscape is its infinite variety. Such level lowlands as exist are small in area; contrasts between coastal plain and bordering hard-rock mountains are abrupt. High mountains make up most of the South Island area—often stark and bare or mantled in permanent snow. By contrast, most of the North Island is weak-rock hill country. From Cook Strait to the Bay of Plenty a hard-rock mountain core dominates the North Island scene, forming an effective barrier between east and west; the only low level gap across it is at the gorge cut by the Manawatu River near Palmerston North.

A peculiar and special feature of the North Island is the volcanic country of the interior. Here are the largest North Island lakes and in a line from Ruapehu to White Island, most of the still active volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers.

The most spectacular mountains are in the South Island; high mountains, deep and narrow valleys, swift rivers, and glacial lakes, large and small, give infinite variety to the scene. It is in this high country that ice has left its special mark in glacial troughs and fiords and, above all, the noble southern lakes. There is little weak-rock hill country in the South Island; the lowlands are mainly bordering plains, basin plains, and valley plains. Of these the most extensive are the plains of Canterbury and Southland.

New Zealand has large areas of luxuriant forests which are the delight of trampers, campers, and hunters. Forests cover nearly a quarter of the total land area, of which national parks and scenic reserves set aside as permanent forest form 2.4 million hectares.

The indigenous forests may be grouped broadly into two main formations: mixed temperate evergreen forest and southern beech forest. The former is a mixed community of many species of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of southern beech. Generally, the mixed temperate evergreen forests are the forests of the north and of the warm, wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes. The beeches form the forests of the south, of the high mountains, and of the drier lowlands. But there are extensive areas where the types mingle in forests of extremely varied composition.

Mountains, forests, lakes, rivers, and beaches have influenced the characteristics of the people. New Zealand society has been shaped and subtly tempered by a number of factors—geographical, historical, social, and psychological during more than a century of growth as a nation. New Zealand today represents both an extension and a modification of the European tradition. In addition to its Maori population, New Zealand has experienced in recent years a considerable inflow of Polynesians from its associated territories and elsewhere in the Pacific. Auckland has become the major city of Polynesia, and as such a focal point of the South Pacific. The Polynesian (including Maori) population is of greater significance than its relatively small numbers would suggest. Outside the Pacific area New Zealand may present a basically European face to the world, but the preservation of distinctive life-style by the Maori, together with a close compatibility (extending to frequent intermarriage) between the two races, has doubtless been a determining factor in the evolution of New Zealand society.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION—The islands of New Zealand have been shaped from the projecting crests of earth folds which rise as broad ridges from the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, 1,600 kilometres east of the continent of Australia. There are three main islands—North, South, and Stewart separated only by relatively narrow straits—with adjacent islets and a small group called Chatham Islands, 850 kilometres to the east of Lyttelton. Dating from 1842 the administrative boundaries of New Zealand, including the minor islands, extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude and from 162 degrees east longitude to 173 degrees west longitude. Inhabited outlying minor islands are Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 930 kilometres north-east of the Bay of Islands, and Campbell Island, 590 kilometres south of Stewart Island.

New Zealand is also responsible for the administration of two island groups in the South-west Pacific—Niue and the Tokelau Islands. These are incorporated within the boundaries of New Zealand. Niue is 2,460 kilometres north-east of Auckland, while the Tokelau Islands are 1,130 kilometres further north. The territorial area reaches to within 8 degrees of the Equator.

The Ross Dependency, some 2,300 kilometres to the south, has been under New Zealand's jurisdiction since 1923 and comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160 degrees east and 150 degrees west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60 degrees south.

The administrative area of New Zealand can be classified as follows. In this Yearbook, in general, New Zealand refers to the group of islands shown in (a) only. Areas are calculated to mean high-water mark. Adjustments have been made to statistics published prior to 1974.

 Area in Square Kilometres
(a) New Zealand 
North Island114,453
South Island150,718
Stewart Island1,746
Chatham Islands963
Minor Islands— 
Inhabited— 
Kermadec Islands34
Campbell Island114
Uninhabited (Auckland and other offshore islands)676
Total268,704
(b) Overseas Territories 
Tokelau Islands, comprised of— 
Fakaofo Island, Nukunonu Island, Atafu Island10
Niue259
(c) Ross Dependency 
(Estimated)414,400

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: Coastline—Since the combined length of the North and South Islands extends over 1,600 kilometres, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 450 kilometres at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coastline in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand land mass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

In the North Island, Whangarei, Auckland, Tauranga, and Wellington are natural harbours which have been developed into ports for extensive use by overseas ships. At Napier and Gisborne artificial harbours have been made. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several other deep and sheltered harbours exist, but production from the hinterland is limited. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and Fiordland form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. By dredging and by breakwater construction, ports capable of accommodating overseas vessels have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff Harbours and on the coast at Timaru. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, although an overseas port has been developed at New Plymouth, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents.

Mountains—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 200 m contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (2,518 m), Ruapehu (2,797 m), Ngauruhoe (2,290 m), and Tongariro (1,968 m), they do not exceed an altitude of 1,800 m. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe have been particularly active from time to time. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Turakirae Head, and includes the following ranges from the north: Rau-kumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa Ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto Ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Moehau Range parallels the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only area above 1,200 m on the west coast of this Island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (3,764 m), while 19 named peaks exceed 3,000 m. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell Ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa Range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Richmond Ranges, while to the north-east are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

There are at least 223 named peaks of 2,300 m or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 2,740 m in the South Island.

Mountain or PeakHeight (metres)
NORTH ISLAND
Ruapehu2,797
Egmont2,518
Ngauruhoe2,290
Tongariro1,968
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges 
Tapuaenuku2,884
Alarm2,865
Southern Alps 
Cook3,764
Tasman3,500
Dampier3,440
Silberhorn3,279
Lendenfeldt3,201
Mt. Hicks (St. David's Dome)3,183
Malte Brun3,176
Torres3,163
Teichelmann3,160
Sefton3,157
Haast3,138
Elie de Beaumont3,109
Douglas Peak3,081
La Perouse3,079
Haidinger3,066
Minarets3,066
Aspiring3,036
Hamilton3,022
Glacier Peak3,007
De la Beche2,992
Aiguilles Rouges2,966
Nazomi2,961
Darwin2,961
Chudliegh2,952
Annan2,947
Low2,942
Haeckel2,941
Goldsmith2,905
Conway Peak2,901
Bristol Top2,898
Walter2,898
Grey2,893
Green2,836
Hutton2,834
D'Archiac2,828
Ronald Adair2,827
Earnslaw2,823
Hochstetter Dome2,822
Nathan2,804
Barnicoat2,799
Sibbald2,798
Arrowsmith2,795
Spenser2,794
The Footstool2,765
Rudolf2,755
The Dwarf2,751
Darran Range 
Tutoko2,756

Glaciers—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman Glacier has a length of 29 km and a width of 9 km. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (17 km), the Mueller (13 km), the Godley (13 km), and the Hooker (11 km), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is at an altitude of somewhat over 600 m. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 15 km and 13 km respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 200 m and 210 m.

Rivers—New Zealand rivers, owing to the high relief of the country, are mostly swift-flowing and difficult to navigate. As sources of hydro-electric power the rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. The Waikato and the Rangitaiki in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, Clutha, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes.

Following is a list of the more important rivers. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system, whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

RiverLength (kilometres)
*Cook Strait is defined as follows: northern limit is a line between northern point of Stephens Island and Kapiti Island: southern limit is a line between Cape Palliser and Cape Campbell.
NORTH ISLAND
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean 
Piako90
Waihou (or Thames)175
Rangitaiki193
Whakatane105
Waipaoa (from source, Mata River)121
Waiapu (from source, Waipapa Stream)113
Wairoa (from source, Hangaroa River)137
Mohaka (from source, Taharua River)172
Ngaruroro154
Tukituki113
Flowing into Cook Strait* 
Ruamahanga124
Hutt56
Flowing into the Tasman Sea 
Otaki48
Manawatu182
Rangitikei241
Turakina137
Whangaehu161
Wanganui290
Waitotara108
Patea143
Waitara98
Mokau158
Waikato (from source, Upper Waikato River)425
Wairoa (from source, Waiotu Stream)132
Hokianga (from source, Waihou River)72
RiverLength (kilometres)
SOUTH ISLAND
Flowing into Cook Strait 
Pelorus64
Wairau169
Awatere126
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean 
Clarence209
Conway48
Waiau-uha (or Waiau)169
Hurunui138
Waipara64
Ashley97
Waimakariri161
Selwyn95
Rakaia145
Ashburton90
Rangitata (from source, Clyde River)121
Opihi80
Pareora56
Waihao64
Waitaki (from source, Hopkins River)209
Kakanui64
Shag72
Taieri288
Clutha (from source, Makarora River)322
Flowing into Foveaux Strait 
Mataura240
Oreti203
Aparima (Jacobs River)113
Waiau (from source, Clinton River)217
Flowing into the Tasman Sea 
Hollyford76
Cascade64
Arawhata68
Haast64
Karangarua37
Cook32
Waiho (from source, Callery River)32
Whataroa51
Wanganui56
Waitaha40
Hokitika64
Arahura56
Taramakau80
Grey121
Buller (from source, Travers River)177
Mokihinui56
Karamea80
Heaphy35
Aorere (from source, Spee River)72
Takaka (from source, Cobb River)72
Motueka108
Waimea (from source, Wai-iti River)48

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the early economic development of the country.

With the very successful acclimatisation of freshwater fish, notably trout, many rivers now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while some of the larger ones of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, have their own particular beauty. As reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the rivers and streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, Manapouri, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect. A series of narrow man-made lakes have been produced in connection with hydro-electric development along some of the rivers. In 1965 Lake Benmore, New Zealand's largest artificial lake, was created. It lies on the Waitaki River in North Otago and covers 79 sq km in area and consists of two arms, the main arm being 30 km in length and the Ahuriri Arm 18 km in length.

Some particulars of the more important lakes are given in the following table.

LakeLength, in Kilometres*Greatest Breadth, in Kilometres*Area, in Square KilometresDrainage Area, in Square KilometresApproximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Metres per SecondMaximum Height Above Sea Level in Metres (Range in Brackets)Greatest Depth, in Metres

*1 kilometre equals 0.621 miles.

†1 square kilometre equals 0.386 square miles.

‡The range in lake levels is not available for all lakes.

NORTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Taupo40.227.46063,2891,271357 (1.5)159
Rotorua12.09.780526..280 (0.6)26
Rotoiti16.14.83464224279 (0.6)70
Tarawera11.28.9361868299 (0.6)87
Rotoaira4.82.8131297564 (0.9)..
Waikaremoana19.39.75442718614(13.7)256
Wairarapa19.36.4803,201..820
Rotoehu4.83.2844..295 (1.2)..
Rotoma5.23.61231..316 (1.8)..
Okataina6.44.81065..310(2.7)..
Okareka2.42.0321..354(1.2)..
Rotomahana6.42.8970..340 (6.7)..
Rerewhakaitu4.02.88....439 (1.2)..
Tikitapu1.61.21....416..
Rotokakahi4.01.65281396..
Artificial       
Ohakuri33.80.4144,791157287..
Atiamuri6.40.415,128165252..
Whakamaru21.70.885,581174226..
Maraetai7.20.846,190191188..
Waipapa9.70.416,475198127..
Arapuni16.10.8136,876207111 (0.6)..
Karapiro24.10.487,45922154..
Whakamarino0.80.4......274..
SOUTH ISLAND       
Natural       
Rotoiti8.92.81018412616 (1.8)76
Rotoroa14.53.22337627446 (1.5)152
Brunner8.98.939414..85109
Kaniere9.72.01628..131197
Coleridge17.73.236559..510207
Sumner9.72.414337......
Tekapo17.75.6961,42487715 (7.6)189
Pukaki15.38.0831,355128500 (9.1)..
Ohau17.74.8601,19165527 (1.7)..
Hawea30.68.01191,46963345 (16.2)392
Wanaka45.14.81922,543202279 (4.3)..
Wakatipu77.24.82932,978174310(2.1)378
Te Anau61.29.73443,302276209 (4.6)276
Manapouri28.98.01424,623386185 (6.4)443
Monowai19.31.62827214196 (4.0)..
Hauroko35.42.47158331156 (1.8)..
Poteriteri28.92.4474143029..
Waihola6.42.085,698..(Tidal)16
Ellesmere22.512.91811,930..(Tidal)2
Artificial       
Cobb4.80.42736808 (15.2)..
Waitaki4.80.869,712344230..
Roxburgh32.20.4615,571489131..
Mahinerangi14.51.6213117391..
Benmore—       
Ahuriri Arm18.5............
Main Arm29.84.4797,77034036096

GEOLOGY—The islands of New Zealand are part of the unstable circum-Pacific Mobile Belt. This is a region where volcanoes are active and where the Earth's crust has long been buckling and breaking at a geologically rapid rate. The interplay, in the past, of earth movements and erosion has made the sedimentary rocks that cover almost three-quarters of New Zealand. Land areas that the earth movements have raised have been attacked by erosion, and the sand, mud, shingle, and other debris thus formed has been carried away to the sea, where it has accumulated in great thicknesses to form rocks such as sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, and conglomerate; the shells and other skeletons of sea creatures have accumulated to form thick layers of limestone. Many of the sedimentary rocks are in distinct layers called strata. Earth movements have later raised them above the sea to form land, and the strata have in many places been tilted and folded by pressure. Seas have advanced and retreated over the New Zealand area many times and these sedimentary rocks represent almost every geological period since the Cambrian (see Time Scale). Their age is revealed by the molluscan shells, foraminifera, and other fossils that they contain, as well as by various radioactive techniques.

As well as sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure schist, gneiss, marble and other metamorphic rocks, and granite, diorite, gabbro, serpentine, and other intrusive igneous rocks. Most of these metamorphic and intrusive rocks are hundreds of millions of years old. They were formed at depth in the Earth's crust early in New Zealand's history, in the "roots" of ancient mountain ranges, long ago destroyed, and are visible at the land surface today only because erosion has removed thousands of metres thickness of other rocks that once covered them. The metamorphic rocks developed by the action of heat and pressure on the thick sediments (up to tens of thousands of metres) deposited in huge, elongated sea basins (geosynclines), which continued to sink as the deposits accumulated. When these geosynclines were slowly compressed during major mountain-building episodes the deeper sediments were subjected to great pressure and shearing stress, which caused new minerals and structures to develop, changing the sediments into metamorphic rocks. The granites and other intrusive rocks are coarsely crystalline, and are usually considered to have intruded into the outer crust in a molten state during mountain building; some, however, may be the products of an intense metamorphism of sediments.

GEOLOGICAL TIME-SCALE
ErasPeriodsApproximate Time Since Period Began (Years)
CenozoicHolocene (Recent)Quaternary10 thousand
Pleistocene2 million
PlioceneTertiary11 million
Miocene25 million
Oligocene38 million
Eocene60 million
Paleocene70 million
MesozoicCretaceous 135 million
Jurassic 180 million
Triassic 225 million
PaleozoicPermian 270 million
Carboniferous 350 million
Devonian 400 million
Silurian 440 million
Ordovician 500 million
Cambrian 600 million

Geological History—Evidence of the earliest-known events in New Zealand's history is given by ancient rocks in Nelson, Westland, and Fiordland that were formed in the early Paleozoic era, perhaps as long as 600 million years ago (some in Westland may be older). They include thick, geosynclinal sedimentary rocks. This suggests that a large land mass existed nearby at that time to yield the great volume of sediments, but little has been deduced about its shape or position.

The history of the later part of the Paleozoic era, and the Mesozoic era, is rather better understood. For a vast span of time from the Carboniferous period—probably until the early Cretaceous period—an extensive geosyncline occupied the New Zealand region. At first, during much of late Paleozoic time, huge quantities of submarine lava and volcanic tuff were included in the materials that accumulated in the geosyncline, but in the later Permian and Mesozoic times the sediments were mainly sand and mud, derived probably from some land west of present New Zealand; they were compacted into hard greywacke (a type of sandstone) and argillite (hard, dark mudstone).

In the early Cretaceous period one of the main mountain-building episodes in New Zealand's history took place. Although geosynclinal sedimentation continued through the Cretaceous period in eastern New Zealand, the geosyncline elsewhere was compressed, and the sediments were intensely crumpled and broken and raised above the sea, probably forming a large, mountainous land mass. Some of the geosynclinal deposits, now exposed over much of Otago, alpine Westland, and parts of Marlborough Sounds, were metamorphosed into schist and gneiss by high temperatures and the tremendous deforming pressures to which the geosyncline was subjected.

The time that has elapsed since the intense folding of the strata in the New Zealand geosyncline in the mid-Cretaceous period may be considered as the later geological history of this country, embracing roughly 100 million years.

During the early part of this late history, erosion slowly wore down the mountains that had risen, producing a land of low relief. Over these worn-down stumps of the Mesozoic mountains the sea gradually advanced, beginning its transgression earlier in some areas than in others. In the early Cretaceous period it began to submerge land in the region of present North Auckland and the eastern margins of the North and South Islands, and thick deposits of mudstone and sandstone accumulated in some parts of these areas. At the close of the Mesozoic era, and in the very early Tertiary, land became so reduced in size and relief that little sediment was formed, and only comparatively thin deposits of fine bentonitic and sulphurous muds, and fine, white, foraminiferal limestone accumulated. In some areas New Zealand's main coal deposits accumulated in swamps on the surface of the old land. These became buried by marine deposits as the sea continued its transgression in the Eocene period.

By the Oligocene period, most of the land was submerged, and in shallow waters free of land sediments, thick deposits of shell and foraminiferal limestone accumulated. (Scattered, remnant patches of this Oligocene limestone furnish most of New Zealand's cement and agricultural lime.)

After the Oligocene submergence earth movements became more vigorous; many ridges rose from the sea as islands, and sank or were worn down again; sea basins formed and rapidly filled with sediments. New Zealand's late Tertiary environment has been described as follows: "The pattern of folds, welts, and troughs that developed was on a finer scale than in the Mesozoic. . . the land moved up and down as a series of narrow, short, interfingering or branching folds . . . . We can think of Tertiary New Zealand as an archipelago . . . . A kind of writhing of part of the mobile Pacific margins seems to have gone on . . .". The thick deposits of soft, grey mudstone and sandstone that now make up large areas of the North Island, and some parts of the South Island, are the deposits that accumulated rapidly in the many sea basins, large and small, that developed in the later Tertiary.

Very late in the Cenozoic era—in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods—one of the greatest episodes of mountain building in New Zealand's history took place. Earth movements became intense, and slowly pushed up the Southern Alps and other main mountain chains, and determined the general shape and size of the present islands of New Zealand. Much of the movement during this mountain-building period (the Kaikoura Orogeny) took the form of displacement of blocks of the Earth's crust along fractures called faults. The total movements of the earth blocks adjacent to major faults amounted to thousands of metres. It must have been achieved very slowly, probably by innumerable small movements, each less than a few metres. The blocks adjacent to "transcurrent" faults moved not only vertically but also laterally along the faults. The New Zealand landscape today in some regions shows well preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault-scarps—steep faces hundreds or even thousands of metres high. Fault movements continue to the present day, and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century. Many minor but revealing landscape features such as scarplets, fault ponds, and shutter ridges show where movement has been occurring in recent centuries.

Erosion during this time has eaten into the major landscape forms that the earth movements built, carving detailed landscape patterns of peaks, ridges, valleys, and gorges, and the deposition of the debris has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans, and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have driven back the headlands and built beaches, spits, and bars. The Pleistocene period was the time of the Ice Age, and in the high mountains of the South Island glaciers carved deep valleys and carried huge loads of rock, dumping them in the lower parts of the valleys as moraines. The late Pleistocene glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the basins occupied by most South Island lakes; there were small glaciers also on Ruapehu, where remnants survive, and on Mount Egmont and the Tararua Range. Sea-level changes accompanied the formation and later melting of the land ice, affecting the erosion or deposition of the rivers and thus being responsible for the formation of the many prominent river terraces in this country.

Volcanic activity of the past few million years has played an important part in making the rocks and shaping the landscape of parts of the central and northern North Island. Banks Peninsula, a twin volcanic dome in Canterbury, also achieved much of its growth then. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times in New Zealand have been in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty Coast: andesite lava, scoria, and ash were erupted in the Pleistocene period and later to build the huge volcanoes, Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Ngauruhoe. More than 8,000 cu km of molten rhyclitic magma was erupted in the form of ignimbrite, pumice, and rhyolite lava, building up the Volcanic Plateau. This is one of the largest and youngest accumulations of acid volcanic rocks in the world.

Mount Egmont is a huge, conical, andesite volcano, with the remnants of two other volcanic cones nearby; all are of Pleistocene age. In the Waikato there are eroded Pleistocene cones of approximately basic andesite composition. The largest is Pirongia, some 900 m high. Auckland city and the area immediately to the south has been the scene of many eruptions of basalt lava and scoria in late Pleistocene and Holocene times; and many small scoria cones can be seen in the locality. Late Tertiary and Quaternary basaltic eruptions in North Auckland have built lava plateaus and many young cones.

EARTHQUAKES: Geophysical Background—An earthquake occurs when energy is suddenly released from a volume of rock within the Earth's outerlayers, and is radiated outwards in the form of elastic waves that can be felt at places near the origin, and detected by sensitive instruments at greater distances. Earthquakes are most common in certain geographically limited regions, one of which includes New Zealand. Within these disturbed zones, young fold mountains, oceanic trenches, volcanoes, anomalies in the Earth's gravitational field, and active geological faulting are also usual, and like the earthquakes have their ultimate cause in the internal processes incidental to the major structural development of the Earth, and as yet imperfectly understood.

The seismically active zones define the margins of a system of stable blocks or plates which are not completely inactive, but experience large earthquakes only infrequently, and are thought to be the primary units of the Earth's crust. Two of these units, the Pacific and Indian Plates, abut in the vicinity of New Zealand, forming a triple junction with a third, the Antarctic Plate, south of Macquarie Island. As a result of thermally generated convective movements in the deeper levels of the earth, relative displacement of the plates is occurring, and this provides the continuing source of the energy that is intermittently released as earthquakes.

Instrumental records have shown that at the time of an earthquake large shearing movements take place at the source. It seems probable that all major earthquakes are the result of the breakage of rock under strain, but other factors such as the presence or absence of liquid in the pores and fractures of the rock are also of primary importance in determining the time and place at which a shock occurs.

In large shallow earthquakes a rupture may appear at the surface, forming or renewing movement on a geological fault. In regions where the majority of earthquakes are very shallow, such as California, there is a tendency for the earthquake origins to cluster near geological fault traces, but in regions where there is deeper activity, such as New Zealand, this is not so. For example, there is little activity near the Alpine Fault, which stretches for some 500 km from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti, and is considered one of the world's largest and most active faults. Conversely, instances of fault movement that have not been accompanied by earthquakes are known. Practical assessments of earthquake risk must therefore be based upon the statistics of known earthquake distribution, and the broader geological setting of the origins.

New Zealand Seismicity—Compared with some other parts of the Pacific margin, such as Japan, Chile, and the Philippines, the level of seismic activity in New Zealand is moderate. It may be roughly compared with that prevailing in California. A shock of Richter magnitude 6 or above occurs on the average about once a year, one of magnitude 7 or above once in ten years, and one of about magnitude 8 perhaps once a century, but in historic times only one shock (the south-west Wairarapa earthquake in 1855) is known to have approached this magnitude.

Other natural disasters and accidents are together responsible for more casualties than earthquakes, the most serious seismic disasters in New Zealand having been the Hawke's Bay earthquake of 1931 in which 255 deaths occurred, and the Buller earthquake of 1929 in which there were 17. The total resulting from all other shocks since 1840 is less than 15. The last earthquake to cause deaths occurred at Inangahua in 1968, when 3 people died.

Regarded broadly, the zone of seismicity within which New Zealand lies extends continuously from the triple junction south of Macquarie Island to Samoa. When looked at more closely, breaks in continuity and changes in the character of the activity become apparent. There are changes in direction, in the positional relationship of the deeper and shallower activity, and in its association with the other geophysical and geological features of the region.

Within New Zealand itself, at least two separate systems of seismic activity can be distinguished. The main seismic region, which is the larger, covers the whole of the North Island apart from the Northland peninsula, and the South Island north of a line passing roughly between Banks Peninsula and Cape Foulwind. The southern, or Fiordland seismic region includes southern Westland, western Southland, and western Otago. Less clearly defined activity covers the remainder of the two main islands and extends eastwards from Banks Peninsula to include the Chatham Islands.

Shallow earthquakes, which are the most numerous, originate within the Earth's crust, which in New Zealand has an average thickness of some 35 km. These shocks are responsible for almost all damage to property, and now and in the past they have been widely scattered throughout the country. In historically recent times, the main and Fiordland seismic regions have been significantly more active than the rest of New Zealand, but neither the central seismic region that es between them nor the Northland peninsula has been free from damaging shocks. The details of the present pattern are not necessarily unchanging, and could alter significantly after the occurrence of a major earthquake. Because of this, because of the broader geophysical setting, and because of the distance to which the effects of a large earthquake extends, it would be highly imprudent to treat any part of New Zealand as free from the risk of serious earthquake damage.

Many active regions of the Earth have only shallow earthquakes, but in others shocks have been known to occur at depths as great as 700 km below the surface. It is thought that these deep shocks originate within the edges of crustal plates that have been drawn down or thrust beneath their neighbours. Such deep events are common in both the main and Fiordland seismic regions of New Zealand, but their relative positions with respect to the shallow activity and to other geophysical features are rough mirror images. This is believed to indicate that in the North Island, the edge of the Pacific Plate lies below that of the Indian Plate, while in the south of the South Island the Pacific is uppermost and the Indian Plate has been thrust beneath it.

The most important system of deep shocks in New Zealand lies in a well-defined zone beneath the main seismic region, stretching from the Bay of Plenty to Nelson and Marlborough. The maximum depth of occurrence is about 400 km at the northern end, and decreases smoothly to a depth of about 200 km before the southern boundary of the region is reached. Along the whole of the system, there is also a decrease in maximum depth from west to east. In northern Taranaki, near the western limit of this activity, a small isolated group of shocks at a depth of about 600 km has also been recorded. In the central seismic region only shallow shocks are known.

The maximum depth of the earthquakes in the Fiordland region appears to be only about 160 km, but it is only recently that instrumental coverage has been adequate for a proper study of this area. Here, the deep activity is more concentrated than in the north, lying close to Lakes Te Anau and Manapouri.

Both earthquakes occur and volcanoes are found in geophysically disturbed regions, but although small earthquakes usually accompany volcanic eruptions, large ones are rare. Regions of active volcanism are also subject to periodic outbreaks of small earthquakes, all of similar magnitude, and very numerous. These events are known as "earthquake swarms". Although the number of shocks may cause alarm, it is unusual for even minor damage to result. There is not often a simultaneous volcanic outbreak, but swarms do not seem to occur in non-volcanic regions. In New Zealand they have occurred in the volcanic zone that includes Mt. Ruapehu and White Island, in the Coromandel Peninsula, in parts of Northland, and near Mt. Egmont.

Seismological Observatory—Each year the Seismological Observatory, Wellington, a section of the Geophysics Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, publishes the analyses of several hundred earthquakes originating in the New Zealand region, using data obtained from its own network of recording stations, and from stations in other countries. The instrumental data are supplemented by information about felt effects, supplied by a large number of voluntary observers, who complete a standard questionnaire.

The network of recording stations controlled by the Observatory is now one of the world's largest and most extended, covering the main islands of New Zealand, a large part of the south-west Pacific, and the Ross Dependency. The 36 permanent stations now operating are:

Afiamalu, Apia (Western Samoa); Nandi (Fiji); Niue; Rarotonga (Cook Islands); Raoul Island (Kermadecs); Cape Reinga, Onerahi, Great Barrier, Auckland, East Cape, Karapiro, Whakatane, Gisborne, Wairakei, Tuai, Tarata, Chateau, Taradale, Mangahao, Castlepoint, Cobb River, Wellington, Kaikoura West, Kaimata, Christchurch, Gebbies Pass, Chatham Islands, Mount John, Milford Sound, Oamaru, Roxburgh, Monowai, Oban; Campbell Island; Scott Base (Antarctica).

At Afiamalu, Rarotonga, Wellington, and Scott Base the equipment includes instruments of internationally standardised pattern designed to record both local and distant activity. The stations at Karapiro and Roxburgh are also equipped to record both local and distant shocks. At the other stations, many of which record more than one component of the ground motion, the instruments are primarily intended for the study of shocks within about 1000 km.

Scott Base and several of the island stations provide preliminary readings by radio, but all final analyses are made at the Observatory in Wellington. Portable equipment is available for more intensive study of aftershock sequences, earthquake swarms, and micro-earthquakes, and for other research projects. In addition, the department's physics and engineering laboratory maintains a network of strong motion recorders intended to provide data on large shocks for engineering purposes.

The information collected and published by the Observatory covers all significant earthquakes in the New Zealand region. It is made freely available to the public and the press, as well as to seismologists, engineers, and other specialists. In addition, a very large number of distant earthquakes are recorded, and readings of these, as well as of the local activity, are regularly sent to international agencies and to overseas seismologists who have a need for them. The Observatory itself carries out a vigorous programme of research into problems of seismicity and earthquake mechanism, and into the structure and constitution of the earth's crust and its deep interior.

Earthquakes During 1976—1976 saw the largest New Zealand earthquake for 8 years and a variety of smaller shocks. Although the Seismological Observatory located several hundred earthquakes or magnitude 4 and greater on the Richter Scale, only a proportion of the larger ones, and those near centres of population were reported felt, and no earthquake caused serious damage.

The earthquake early on the morning of 5 May 1976 had a magnitude of 7.0, and was the largest since that at Inangahua in 1968, which had a magnitude of 7.1. It occurred near the coast of Fiordland, about 35 km west of Milford Sound. The earthquake was felt throughout the southern half of the South Island, and caused some landslides in the steep country near the epicentre, but because of its remoteness, it caused no significant damage and attracted little publicity. Other earthquakes felt in the far south of the country occurred to the southwest of Stewart Island on 8 January (magnitude 5.8) and near Solander Island on 5 March (magnitude 5.4).

Earthquake activity in the North Island was notable for a series of swarms of shallow earthquakes. The most significant occurred in Hawke Bay, about 20 km south of Wairoa. Two earthquakes 7 minutes apart on the morning of 21 March both had magnitudes of 5.6, and two others in the next 24 hours had magnitudes of 5.4 and 5.3. Within the following few days about 30 earthquakes of magnitude greater than 4, and an even larger number of smaller shocks. were recorded. Many chimneys were damaged at Wairoa, where there was also some minor structural damage. There were isolated instances of minor damage from as far afield as Napier.

The area around Tauranga and Te Puke was subject to swarms of small shallow earthquakes from late in August until the end of October. The largest shock of the sequence was that of 28 October, which although of magnitude only 4.75 caused some substantial damage in a small area near Roydon Downs about 10 km southeast of Te Puke. An even smaller earthquake (magnitude 3.8) is also reported to have caused some damage in the same area on 9 September. The strong effects of these small earthquakes in localised areas close to their epicentres may be attributed to their very shallow depth. On 5 April a similar swarm of very shallow shocks was felt at Atiamuri, where goods were dislodged from shelves although the greatest magnitude was only 2.6.

Individual shallow earthquakes in the North Island that were felt widely included a shock of magnitude 5.5 near Carterton on 30 January, and one of magnitude 5.0 near Te Awamutu on 5 December. The latter shock caused some minor damage. An earthquake of magnitude 5.1 in Westland on 18 July was felt strongly at Ross.

Deep earthquakes that were felt extensively occurred on 15 May (magnitude 6.1) and on 23 December (magnitude 6.3). Both occurred several hundred kilometres beneath the Bay of Plenty. The first was felt in the East Cape peninsula and parts of Hawke's Bay, and there were isolated reports of the second earthquake being felt as far south as the Wellington region. Because of the depth of these earthquakes, the intensities were not high.

An unusually situated earthquake occurred on 28 December about 450 km west of Westport This is the first earthquake definitely located in this region, but its position on the south-western flank of the Lord Howe Rise is not without parallel, for other earthquakes have occurred on marine ridges extending into the Tasman Sea to the north and west of Northland. The earthquake had a moderate magnitude (5.25), and was followed by some smaller aftershocks, but because of its distance from the coast was not reported felt.

A series of large earthquakes occurred in January near Raoul Island, about 1000 km northeast of New Zealand. A shock of magnitude 7.5 on 2 January was followed by two even larger earthquakes of magnitude about 7.75 on the morning of 15 January. These shocks generated a small tsunami, which was noticed on the east coast of Northland. There was damage to roading and water supplies at the Meteorological Station on Raoul Island: the station buildings were slightly damaged and some instruments put out of action, but there were no casualties. A further shock, of magnitude 6.75, occurred on 5 May.

The central North Island volcanoes were relatively quiet during the year, and no significant eruptions occurred from either Mt. Ruapehu or Mt. Ngauruhoe.

WEATHER INFORMATION—The New Zealand Meteorological Service maintains networks of meteorological stations within New Zealand, its island dependencies and, by arrangement, in the Cook and Gilbert Islands and in Tuvalu. The weather observations are transmitted regularly to Wellington for international exchange, for the preparation of weather forecasts and special warnings, for compiling climatological statistics, and for providing a general weather information service for Government departments, industry, and the general public. All weather observations are preserved in the Kelburn Meteorological Archives.

Observations recorded at a few selected stations in 1976 are summarised in tables which follow but for further detailed climatological statistics reference should be made to the annual publications of the New Zealand Meteorological Service: Miscellaneous Publications No. 109 Meteorological Observations, and No. 110 Rainfall Observations. Current statistics appear monthly in the New Zealand Gazette.

CLIMATE—Situated between 34°S and 47°S the main islands lie within the broad belt of strong westerly winds which encircles the hemisphere south of about latitude 35°S. Just to the north is the high-pressure ridge of the subtropics from which barometric pressure decreases southwards over New Zealand to the deep low-pressure trough located near latitude 70°S.

The weather pattern from day to day is dominated by a succession of anticyclones, separated by troughs of low pressure, which pass more or less regularly from west to east across the Australia-Tasman Sea - New Zealand area and beyond. In this region there is no semi-permanent anticyclone such as those found in similar latitudes over the Indian Ocean and eastern Pacific Ocean respectively. The troughs normally have a north-west to south-east orientation and are associated with deep depressions centred far to the south. A typical weather sequence commences with a low-pressure trough approaching from the west. Freshening north-westerly winds prevail with increasing cloud, followed by rain for a period during which winds may reach gale force. The passage of the trough, with its associated cold front, is accompanied by a change to cold south-westerly or southerly winds and showery weather, occasionally with some hail and thunder. Barometers then rise with the approach of the next anticyclone from the west. Winds moderate and fair weather prevails for a few days as the anticyclone moves across the country.

While the sequence just described is very common the situation is frequently much more complex. The troughs are very unstable systems where depressions readily form, some of which develop into vigorous storms that may pass over New Zealand at any time of the year. Occasionally in summer a cyclonic storm of tropical origin passes over or near New Zealand accompanied by gales and heavy rain affecting mainly northern and eastern districts of the North Island. The anticyclones vary in size, intensity, and rate of movement. Their centres, on the average, follow a track across the North Island but individual centres may pass either north or south of the country, the more northerly tracks being favoured in spring and the southerly tracks in autumn. At times when little development occurs within the troughs the anticyclones follow each other at intervals of about 6-7 days.

The other main factors which influence the climate of New Zealand are, first, its position in the midst of a vast ocean, and second, the shape and topography of the country itself.

Hot air masses from the interior of Australia in summer or freezing air masses from the Antarctic, which occasionally reach New Zealand, retain little of their original character after their long ocean passage. Thus, there is an absence of extreme variations of temperature. On the other hand, since abundant supplies of moisture are supplied by evaporation from the ocean, and depressions are frequent and vigorous, the average precipitation is high.

The chain of high mountains, which extends from south-west to north-east through the length of the country, rises as a formidable barrier in the path of the prevailing westerly winds. The effect is to produce much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east than in the north-south direction. In some inland areas of the South Island just east of the mountains the climate is distinctly continental in character, despite the fact that no part of New Zealand is more than 80 miles from the sea.

Winds—Winds from a westerly quarter prevail in all seasons, with a general tendency to increase in strength from north to south. However, considerable local modifications to the general air flow occur during its passage across the mountainous terrain. Approaching the main ranges the flow from the west turns towards the north-east and on descending on the eastern side swings towards the south-east. This results in an increased number of south-westerlies in Westland and a predominance of north-westerlies in inland districts of Otago and Canterbury, where strong gales from this quarter occur at times in the late spring and summer. Daytime sea breezes usually extend from the coast inland for 30 km or more during periods of settled weather in summer. On the Canterbury coast the wind comes most frequently from the north-east, partly because there is a persistent sea breeze from this quarter, but south of Dunedin south-westerlies predominate. Cook Strait, the only substantial gap in the main mountain chain, acts as a natural funnel for the air flow and is a particularly windy locality afflicted by gales from the south-east as well as the north-west. This "funnel" effect is also in evidence about Foveaux Strait. North of Taranaki the general air flow is more from the south-west, and there is a noticeable reduction of windiness in the summer.

An indication of the variation in the frequency of strong winds from summer to winter, and in different parts of the country, is given in the next table. These figures were all obtained by the use of anemographs at airports (except for Auckland where the site is at Mechanics Bay).

StationAverage Number of Days with Gusts ReachingYears of Data
40 mph or More60 mph or More
Nov-AprMay-OctYearNov-AprMay-OctYear
Kaitaia1632480.71.62.321
Whangarei1626420.81.42.28
Auckland2028480.91.62.524
Tauranga1523380.50.71.222
Rotorua1116270.30.20.59
Hamilton91322-0.60.68
Gisborne2127480.40.91.329
New Plymouth3348812.14.76.822
Napier1721380.60.51.123
Wanganui3742792.74.47.116
Palmerston North2622481.10.81.918
Wellington909818818.822.741.58
Nelson2014340.50.30.830
Blenheim2315380.70.51.230
Westport1420340.41.01.423
Hokitika1420340.31.31.68
Christchurch3123541.51.32.829
Timaru1512270.70.61.315
Dunedin2832602.62.85.411
Gore2920490.9-0.95
Invercargill5345985.85.010.827

Rainfall—The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rainfalls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall (see map) ranges from as little as 300 mm in a small area of Central Otago to over 7000 mm in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part it lies between 600 and 1500 mm, a range regarded as favourable for plant growth in the temperate zone. The only areas with under 600 mm are found in the South Island to the east of the main ranges. These include most of central and north Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are central and southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu where the average rainfall is 700-1000 mm a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 1500 mm. Over a considerable area of both Islands rainfall exceeds 2500 mm a year but, with the exception of Westland, this is mountainous and unoccupied, much of it being forest-covered.

For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. This predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards. It is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island but, over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. The rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased in and west of the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, while a complementary decrease occurs at the same time in the lee of the ranges.

Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island there are at least 150 rain days (days with at least 0.2 mm of rain) a year except to the east of the ranges where there are, in places, fewer than 125 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 600 mm generally have about 100 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply; in Stewart Island and Fiordland rain days exceed 200 a year. Over most of the country between 55 and 65 percent of the rain days also qualify as wet days (2.5 mm or more). The percentage increases to over 70 in Westland, but in the low rainfall area of inland Otago there are only about 40 wet days a year compared with 100 rain days.

On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, the reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agricultural purposes. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn, when very dry conditions may develop east of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay.

The highest daily rainfall on record is 582 mm which occurred at Rapid Creek Hokitika Catchment, where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 6000 mm. Other areas with considerably lower rainfall are also subject to very heavy daily falls; such areas are to be found in northern Hawke's Bay and in north-eastern districts of the Auckland Province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district and in Otago and Southland daily falls reaching 80 mm are very rare.

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL (MILLIMETRES)* (1941-70)
StationJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
*25 millimetres equal 1 inch.
Kaitaia Aerodrome799484119152157150165122112102941430
Kerikeri76124112142178178183196142114991041648
Dargaville6684791041321501321379710984791253
Auckland (Albert Park)6494861141271351371429410784841268
Tauranga Aerodrome8484114114137132137137107114841041348
Rotorua991141171171501501421371271221041321511
Taupo8194769110912211710984102841121199
Hamilton (Ruakura)718184991121321171179710791891197
Taumarunui8999841091321521351241171371241301432
New Plymouth Aerodrome1071021021171631681631471121351171321565
Masterton (Waingawa)645876711021071029174746976964
Gisborne Aerodrome74619191109112112117747158641034
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)1501401681802111881982261501501471522060
Napier515866618489798151534364780
Wanganui696461748691817658816989899
Palmerston North84697474869991846989791041002
Wellington (Kelburn)8184949713213514012410211284861271
Westport Aerodrome1551681571912011881831701701832011852152
Hokitika Aerodrome2312512392342722292412362392572772342940
Milford Sound5315696305264834193784245385466385546236
Nelson Aerodrome7474818911279919476817474999
Blenheim514351537658666153534851664
Hanmer Forest8681919911799104114899789991165
Lake Coleridge616158767971817974767671863
Christchurch514658588456585346464656658
Lake Tekapo514348535348534856515151606
Timaru585858484836413841485869601
Dunedin (Musselburgh)746176747166564648587171772
Queenstown746676717966646176767664849
Alexandra463838282820151520283330339
Gore766976797679564853698179841
Invercargill Aerodrome897994104911076966748694891042

Thunderstorms—Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and west where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year; east of the ranges (except in Gisborne) the figure is five or less.

Hail—Hail is most frequent in the south-west where it is reported on about 20 days a year, but for the greater part of the country it occurs on about 5 days a year or less. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally large stones cause local damage to glasshouses, and to orchards and market gardens, chiefly in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay.

Temperature—Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 15°c in the far north to 12°c about Cook Strait, then to 9°c in the south. With increasing altitude, temperatures drop about 2°c per 300 m. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature are the warmest months of the year; July is the coldest. Some temperature statistics for selected places are included in the table on climatological averages. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they exceed 30°c on a few afternoons in most summers, usually in association with a north-westerly Föhn wind. The extremes for New Zealand (measured in a standard thermometer screen) are 42°c. which has been recorded in three places: Jordan (Marlborough), Christchurch, and Rangiora (Canterbury); and -19°c at Ophir (Central Otago).

As is to be expected, there is a small annual range of temperature (difference between mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months). In Northland and in western districts of both Islands the annual range is about 8°c. For the remainder of the North Island, and east coast districts of the South Island, it is 9°-10°c. Further inland it exceeds 11°c in places, reaching a maximum of 14°c in Central Otago where there is an approach to a continental type of climate.

Temperatures in the preceding paragraphs are recorded on the Celsius scale (formerly called centigrade), and not the Fahrenheit scale. The degree Celsius (°c) equals (°f-32).

Frost—It is well known that local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. On a calm, clear night the cold air in contact with a sloping surface gravitates slowly downhill to collect in valleys and depressions, and it is these "Katabatic" drifts which are mainly responsible for local temperature variations at night. Gently sloping ground with a northerly aspect tends to be least affected by frost. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. At Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer (1 m above the ground) has registered below 0"c only once in 65 years, yet up the harbour at Whenuapai Aerodrome there are eight screen frosts per annum on the average. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the most severe winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island. Even in these areas night temperatures as low as -12°c are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild and pastures maintain continuous growth. In both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all the year round.

Snow—The majority of New Zealanders rarely see snow except on the mountains. The North Island has a small permanent snow field above 2,500 m on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 600 m even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts, and in some years may lie for a day or two even at sea level. In Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is around 2,000 m in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 300 m of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 300 m, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent and have caused serious losses of sheep during severe winters in the past. However, only rarely does the winter snow line there remain permanently below 1,000 m.

Relative Humidity—Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 percent in coastal areas and about 10 percent lower inland. It varies inversely to the temperature, falling to a minimum in the early afternoon when temperature is highest and frequently lying between 90 and 100 percent during clear nights. As the following table shows, the diurnal variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter.

StationMean Relative Humidity
JanuaryJuly
3 a.m.3 p.m.3 a.m.3 p.m.
 percent  
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)85639074
Gisborne85578769
Ohakea Aerodrome87628972
Wellington89718777
Christchurch83578870
Hokitika94768770
Invercargill87689077

Very low humidity—from 30 percent down to about 5 percent—occurs at times in the lee of the Southern Alps where the Fohn effect is often very marked. In summer the hot, dry "Canterbury Nor'-wester" is generally a most unpleasant wind. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be rather oppressive though temperatures rarely reach 30°c. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

Sunshine—The sunniest places are near Blenheim, the Nelson-Motueka area, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2,350 hours a year. The rest of the Bay of Plenty and Napier are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours. Even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1,800 hours. Southland, where sunshine drops sharply to 1,700 hours a year, lies on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. Four hundred miles further to the south at Campbell Island the sunshine has the extremely low value of 650 hours a year. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months. To eliminate the effect of varying day-length the summer and winter sunshine at a few selected stations has been expressed as a percentage of the possible sunshine.

StationSummerWinter
..percent
Auckland5447
Hamilton5443
New Plymouth5446
Napier5650
Wellington5341
Nelson5957
Hokitika4645
Christchurch4746
Dunedin4042
Invercargill4135

As these figures indicate, there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Climatological Averages—The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

StationAnnual AveragesAir Temperatures (Degrees Celsius)
Altitude (metres)Rain Days (1.0 mm or More)Wet Days (2.5 mm or More)*Bright Sunshine (Hrs)Days of Screen Frost (min. air temp. less than 0°c)Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumMeal Annual
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
*2.5 mm equals 0.10 in.
Kaitaia Aerodrome801381032,138015.52415158282
Kerikeri731351012,014115.12515136290
Dargaville201471082,011314.6231514729-2
Auckland (Albert Park)491401022,140015.42314168273
Tauranga Aerodrome4118902,285814.2241414529-3
Hamilton (Ruakura)40131992,0541713.2231312329-3
Rotorua307123971,9332512.5231212329-3
Gisborne Aerodrome4113812,224614.0241413432-2
Taupo376123872,0683911.8231111229-4
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)643164131-611.120911328-1
Taumarunui1711401111,7243912.9241312231-5
New Plymouth Aerodrome271421162,102013.12113135260
Napier292642,262614.1241314432-2
Wanganui22117872,092413.5221214529-1
Palmerston North34127911,8261513.0221213428-3
Masterton (Waingawa)114123882,0072912.2241211231-4
Wellington (Kelburn)126124952,014012.52011136261
Nelson Aerodrome296722,4034111.9221212128-3
Blenheim484582,4703612.6231212232-4
Westport Aerodrome21691401,937112.11912124250
Hanmer Forest387115881,9238510.12299-232-9
Hokitika Aerodrome391681441,8832511.3191111326-2
Lake Coleridge3649874-7010.121910-131-7
Christchurch785581,9853711.7221112132-4
Timaru1781551,8103911.0211011032-4
Milford Sound3183165-2710.318910225-3
Queenstown32993721,9315310.122810-130-5
Alexandra14164392,0478110.623711-232-8
Dunedin (Musselburgh)2119791,695810.9191011330-2
Gore72137931,6984010.12199031-5
Invercargill Aerodrome01571111,627489.61899028-5

NOTES: (1) Averages of rain days and wet days 1950-70; sunshine 1941-70; mean temperature, mean daily maximum and mean daily minimum 1941-70; other temperature data and days of screen frost, various periods—all exceeding 10 years.

(2) For normal monthly and annual rainfall for these stations, see table under subsection on Rainfall.

(3) At Hanmer, Queenstown, and Alexandra the possible sunshine is considerably reduced by hills or mountains, by amounts varying from 3/4 hour per day at Alexandra to 1 1/2 hours per day at Hanmer and 3 1/4 hours per day at Queenstown. The reductions in actual sunshine are less than this—mainly between half and three-fifths of the above amounts.

Brief Review of 1976—There was a high frequency of easterly winds from February to April and from August to November during 1976.

The amount of rainfall was near normal in most of the North Island though some isolated areas were above normal by up to 25 percent. In the South Island, parts of Nelson and Canterbury were above normal, although, on the West Coast, rainfall was below normal, in some areas by as much as 30 to 40 percent. At Milford Sound the 1976 rainfall was the lowest annual rainfall since records began in 1930.

Throughout the country temperatures were below average, with the exception of some areas in Auckland, Waikato, and Taranaki which were near normal. The average departure over the whole country was 0.3°c below normal. In parts of Hawke's Bay, Bay of Plenty, Manawatu, Wairarapa, Wellington, Nelson, Marlborough, and Canterbury temperatures were more than 0.5°c below normal and in some areas of Canterbury nearly 1.0°c below.

Some areas of Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Nelson were more than 200 hours below their normal sunshine total. Northland, South Auckland, Westland, Otago, and Southland were favoured with above-average sunshine in some districts.

Seasonal Notes—January was unusually cloudy and wet in the North Island and the northern half of the South Island. Rainfall was more than double the normal value over Northland, Auckland, northern Waikato, Nelson, and the Marlborough Sounds. In Northland considerable areas received four times the normal rainfall and Auckland's total of 237 mm was the highest for January in 124 years of records. In the month the majority of the rain fell between the 8th and the 15th. Although dairy production was good, many crops were affected by the rain and lack of sunshine.

February was a cold month over most of the country and in some places the coldest for 39 years. The month was also rather sunny and very dry in some areas. Rainfall was above normal over nearly all areas east of the ranges in both Islands. Farmers in Northland and Southland found conditions too dry, and some crops and stock were affected in these areas. During January and February the winds were more southerly than normal bringing almost wintry conditions to many places in both months.

March was a dry month and for a period of 6 weeks up to the 26th of the month the greater part of the country received less than 20 mm of rainfall. Considerable rain fell from the 28th to the 30th which brought some relief to farmers except in Otago where dry conditions persisted until the end of the month.

During April there was a high frequency of easterly winds causing cloudy, wet conditions in eastern and northern parts of the North Island. The dry weather which had affected Otago and Southland since the beginning of the year persisted, and parts of South Canterbury had also become affected. Rain during the last 2 days of the month did little to relieve farmers' problems in these areas.

In May rainfall was below normal over most of the country except in Southland and. Otago where it was above. In northern and eastern districts of the North Island temperatures were below the average by l-2°c, but in coastal districts of Otago and Southland it was warmer than average by 1°c. Growth was reported to be slowing up during the month, stock was in good condition.

June was a cold month with a high frequency of southerly to south-westerly winds, temperatures being below normal over the whole of the country. Although this was a cold month overall, during the first 3 days temperatures were unusually high, and Kaikoura recorded a maximum of 24°c, which was the highest temperature so far recorded in June anywhere in New Zealand. Some stations in the Bay of Plenty recorded new extreme minimum temperatures for June.

In July cloudy weather prevailed in the west, but unusually sunny conditions in most eastern districts of the country. The rainfall was above normal over the greater part of the country and in western Southland it was more than double the normal value. Snow was reported well down on the hills around Nelson, Wellington, and the Wairarapa.

August was a relatively mild month in the North Island with a high frequency of easterly winds, which brought considerable cloud and rain to eastern and northern districts of the South Island. Lambing losses were reported in the high country due to cold rain and snow.

September was the wettest since 1943 in Gisborne and Hawke's Bay; by contrast the weather in the southwest of the South Island was very dry for the second month in succession. Sunshine was below normal east of the ranges from Gisborne to Canterbury: the only area which had sunshine appreciably above normal was the West Coast. Temperatures were below normal except for areas in Nelson, the West Coast, and a few small areas of the North Island.

October was less windy than usual, with cloudy wet conditions prevailing in eastern districts. Temperatures were unusually cold in Canterbury, and in the Christchurch-Ashburton area they were below normal by more than 2°c, It continued to be particularly dry in Fiordland and the Southern Lakes district. In Dunedin the total sunshine of 90 hours for the month was the lowest recorded in New Zealand in October.

November was the fourth successive month with a high frequency of easterly winds. Cloudy cold conditions prevailed east of the ranges but there was a lack of rain in western districts of the South Island. East of the ranges in both Islands it was the coldest November since 1946. the coldest period being from 10 to 14 November.

In December cloudy conditions prevailed over most of the country and the rainfall was above normal throughout the whole of the South Island and parts of the North Island. Very heavy rainfalls of 200-300 mm were recorded in the Wellington - Hutt Valley area on 20 December. In 6 hours 85 mm of rain was recorded at Kelburn, Wellington and this is the highest value since measurements began in 1928. Damage caused by major flooding and many slips in these areas reached a total value of many millions of dollars. Hail storms on 22 December caused widespread damage to apple and pear orchards in the Nelson province.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1976—The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1976 were made at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time, i.e. 2100 hours Greenwich mean time.

StationRainfall (mm)Rain Days (1.0 mm or More)Bright Sunshine (hours)Screen Frost Days*Air Temperature (Degrees Celsius)
Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumExtremes
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum

*Minimum Air Temperatures less than 0.0°C.

†°C = 5/9 (°F-32).

Dargaville131116119950314.523.214.415.67.128.0-2.6
Whangarei201815620560114.824.514.715.86.428.5-0.4
Auckland146414721090015.323.014.516.68.026.72.6
Tauranga Aerodrome131012421790913.722.813.914.83.927.7-4.8
Rotorua, Whakarewarewa151512517921612.321.911.714.03.027.1-1.6
Taupo12241222013--21.810.712.81.929.8-
Hamilton, Ruakura146913220201513.322.913.114.34.128.1-4.3
Taumarunui157414817162912.23.511.813.33.531.2-3.9
New Plymouth Aerodrome153814521810413.120.613.113.85.624.8-1.1
Masterton116614518022611.721.712.111.91.231.1-4.5
Gisborne Aerodrome117413720501013.323.514.214.83.129.9-2.6
Onepoto, Waikaremoana2455185---19.710.211.72.2--
Napier95511120551413.723.814.315.13.031.0-3.0
Palmerston North DSIR122213516281412.720.911.714.04.626.0-2.5
Wellington, Kelburn146113519180012.018.811.212.85.022.7+0.2
Wanganui114512419210013.220.912.714.36.126.1+0.2
Westport Aerodrome232516518520212.118.912.112.34.022.3-1.2
Hokitika Aerodrome260516019172611.218.311.011.32.322.4-2.2
Milford Sound4244151-37-18.39.19.81.2--2.2
Nelson Aerodrome125911522462811.820.811.913.81.426.4-3.9
Blenheim7018923812912.121.912.612.81.633.6-2.9
Hanmer Forest14721321706879.420.89.59.4-1.233.1-7.0
Lake Coleridge733110-839.520.59.910.0-1.332.2-6.0
Christchurch7959119394511.020.111.511.70.330.7-3.7
Timaru4518316524210.519.611.710.80.430.2-4.0
Dunedin, Musselburgh72912816720810.517.710.610.43.130.0-1.4
Queenstown6099119005210.322.38.010.50.130.0-3.8
Alexandra3726521028410.323.48.310.1-0.634.0-6.4
Gore DSIR8451371805499.118.48.17.40.927.8-4.6
Invercargill Aerodrome9391561609419.517.69.38.81.926.3-4.0

For 1976 the mean sea level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time were: Auckland, 1014.5; Kelburn, Wellington, 1013.0; Nelson Aerodrome, 1013.2; Hokitika Aerodrome, 1013.1; Christchurch, 1012.4; and Dunedin Airport, 1012.1.

Chapter 2. Section 2 HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Table of Contents

EARLY HISTORY: General—When New Zealand was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had migrated to these islands at least 300 years previously. It is generally accepted that the Maoris came originally from South-east Asia, whence, as proto-Polynesians, they moved eastwards from island to island until they reached the eastern Pacific, where they settled the islands now known collectively as Polynesia. From Polynesia the ancestors of the Maori sailed south-west in ocean-going canoes to reach New Zealand and these voyages were probably spread over several generations, perhaps several centuries. Oral Maori history and genealogy support the view that there was a final wave of migration of considerable magnitude about A.D. 1350. Adapting themselves to a new physical environment, in isolation from the outside world, the Maoris produced forms of social and economic organisation and material culture which were significantly different from their Polynesian prototypes.

Coming from tropical latitudes, the Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island, and when discovered by Europeans were in a high state of neolithic civilisation, with marked superiority in the arts of wood carving and military engineering. Their principal social unit was the family group, and from combinations of the numerous groups were formed the subtribes and tribes. They had highly developed social and ritualistic customs, and their system of land tenure and methods of cultivation were communal within the subtribes. Inter-tribal and intra-tribal warfare was common, and as individuals Maoris displayed exceptional courage and intelligence.

From the early days of European settlement in the first half of the nineteenth century many Maoris believed that their interests were best served by co-operation with the settlers. For the most part the Europeans adopted a humanitarian attitude to the Maori people, who accepted their assurances and found a satisfactory safeguard for their interests in the exercise of their rights and privileges as British subjects. As the Europeans established a self-contained and aggressively growing society, there grew up a rivalry for land and a clash of power. In the 1860s Maori tribes in Taranaki, Waikato, and Bay of Plenty fought the settlers and Government troops in a series of sporadic campaigns based on loss of land rights and rising Maori nationalism. After 1870 there followed the development of a European colony of settlement with Maori people making further economic adjustments to European ways.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have need reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However, the virility of the race gradually asserted itself, and from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing though still forming a minority component.

Discovery by Europeans—On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as "Nieuw Zeeland". Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and, after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north, he had the misfortune to come into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain James Cook sighted land on 7 October 1769 near Gisborne. Cook and a party of men from the Endeavour landed at Gisborne on 9 October 1769. On his first voyage Cook spent 6 months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can best be described by saying "he found New Zealand a line on a map, and left it an archipelago". Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, 1774, and in 1777. His careful observations made New Zealand known to the western world; the accounts of his voyages were translated into a dozen languages.

The 15 islands forming the Cook Islands group were discovered piecemeal over a period of 240 years, the first by the Spanish explorer, Mendana, in 1595, several by Captain Cook during the period 1773 to 1777, and the last, Nassau, in 1835.

The European discovery of Niue Island was made by Captain Cook in 1774. It was formerly believed that the first recorded discovery of the Tokelau Islands was made by the Spanish explorer Pedro Fernandez de Quiros in 1606. However, it is now thought that it was one of the northern Cook Islands that he sighted, and that the first European to visit the Tokelaus was Commodore Byron, R.N., who sighted Atafu in 1765.

European Settlement and Colonisation—Whaling stations sprang up along the New Zealand coast from 1792 onwards and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, was responsible for the establishment of the first mission station in the Bay of Islands.

The growing white population in the Bay of Islands, and the lawlessness of crews of visiting ships led to the appointment by the British Government of James Busby as British Resident at Waitangi in 1833. The Governor of New South Wales in 1837 sent Captain William Hobson, in command of HMS Rattlesnake, from Sydney to the Bay of Islands to report on New Zealand. Among other things, Hobson suggested a treaty with the Maori chiefs and the placing of British subjects under British law. On 29 January 1840 Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty.

By 1840 numerous mission stations had spread through the northern half of the North Island. Conversion of Maori tribes to Christianity was accompanied by the introduction of new crops and methods of cultivation and pacification of the warring tribes.

The first body of immigrants to reach New Zealand under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived at Port Nicholson, Wellington, on 22 January 1840 to found the initial settlement of the New Zealand Company. The colonists were in the main sturdy resourceful people seeking a better future than was offering in nineteenth century industrial England.

The guiding genius of the company, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, aware of the intention of the British Government to annex New Zealand, had earlier (in 1839), dispatched his agents in order to purchase large areas of land from the Maoris before the Crown could assume a monopoly of land purchase.

Wakefield's scheme of colonisation was based on the sale of land to investors or men of wealth for development by labouring class immigrants. With the profit from land sales the company could bring out more immigrants. Wakefield aimed at a balance between landowners and labourers; in effect he aimed to transplant a cross-section of English society. But, ignorant of the system of tribal ownership of Maori land, the company had bought land from individual Maoris; then Hobson provided that all European land titles should derive from the Crown which would be the only purchaser of land from the Maoris. Title to land remained a difficulty for some years and was a cause of distress to the colonists and, combined with a considerable degree of absentee ownership and land speculation, made most precarious the existence of the early company settlements of Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson. The company had brought nearly 10,000 persons to New Zealand by 1848. The later settlements of Otago, in 1848, and Canterbury, in 1850, organised under the aegis of the New Zealand Company in co-operation with the Free Church of Scotland and the Church of England respectively, achieved a much greater measure of success owing to the absence of any large Maori population and to satisfactory land purchase arrangements.

The non-Maori population in the main settlements in 1842 totalled 3,801 in Wellington, 2,895 in Auckland, 2,500 in Nelson, 895 in New Plymouth, 380 in Russell, 263 in Hokianga, and 198 in Akaroa. By 1862 the non-Maori population had reached 125,000 (as against 55,000 Maoris) and by 1866 it had jumped to 200,000 with men from Australia joining in the gold rush to Otago. Migration then dropped away until 1874 when there was a high inflow for several years from Britain with the Vogel policy of public works development.

After the death of Hobson in 1842, subsequent governors, through lack of funds and weak administration, found themselves unable to protect the small and helpless settlements from threatening Maori aggression engendered by strong feelings on land ownership. The response of the Colonial Office was to appoint Captain George Grey as Governor and to provide him with adequate funds and troops so that he soon restored order and won not only the confidence of the Maoris but also for a time that of the settlers. Grey, through his chief land purchase officer, Donald McLean, endeavoured to buy up land in advance of the settlers' needs in order to prevent conflict between settlers and Maoris. By 1858 the census revealed that the settlers outnumbered the Maoris who, fearful that they were being swamped by the settlers, became increasingly reluctant to sell their land. At the same time the intensified settler pressure for more land led McLean to negotiate only with those Maoris still favourably disposed to land sales. This practice alarmed the other Maoris and finally the war broke out in 1860 over a land dispute at Waitara in Taranaki where settler demand for land was strongest. The return of Grey as Governor did not solve the problem for, as an autocrat, he could not work with elected ministers nor could he regain the confidence of the Maoris and finally he quarrelled with the commander of the Imperial troops. Widespread confiscation of Maori land by the settlers' government in order to pay the cost of the war included land belonging to friendly as well as hostile Maoris and aroused further resentment. The war had died down by 1870 and during the term of Donald McLean as Native Minister some measure of reconciliation began.

Public Works and Farm Development—The absence of hostilities and the discovery of gold there had allowed the South Island to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally but began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool.

By 1870 the gold boom had ended in the South Island. To remedy the situation of economic stagnation, Sir Julius Vogel began a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction and for immigrant labour. The results of this policy were to double the population to 500,000 by 1880, to immensely improve transport and communications, and to encourage industry in the towns where most of the immigrants had congregated.

With the introduction of refrigeration in 1882 and steam navigation in the late 19th century, the development of exports of frozen meat and dairy products assured the dominance of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's external trade. These developments, with a continued substantial investment of British capital, particularly in farming and food processing industries, established that degree of specialisation to meet the needs of the British market, which shaped the entire New Zealand economy during its first hundred years.

The depression of the 1880s, a consequence of a fall in world price levels, resulted in unemployment and large emigration but export prices recovered in the nineties. From 1880 onwards the natural increase of births over deaths exceeded the net inflow from migration.

In 1891 John Ballance, as leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier to be followed on his death in 1893 by Richard John Seddon, who remained Premier until his death in June 1906. The Government pursued a vigorous legislative programme in which the main emphasis was on social justice.

The expansion of the exports in dairy produce and frozen meat during the 1890s produced more intensive settlement and the rise of a new farming class in which the "cow-cockie" was the dominant figure. These farmers, having benefited by the spread of prosperity, were in 1911 mainly responsible together with the city businessmen for the overthrow of the Liberal regime. The new Reform Government under William Massey, in order to strengthen the primary producer, introduced measures of which the extension of rural credit was typical.

Three years after the advent of the Reform Party, the First World War, 1914-1918, broke out, leading to a coalition Government and an Imperial commandeer of exports which created the precedent for the establishment after the war of central boards to regulate the exports of pastoral products. War activities were marked by heavy casualties in proportion to the population while the landing at Gallipoli signified the growing awareness of a sense of nationhood.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921-24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reduction, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and on the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydro-electric schemes and highways.

Land values rose steeply, accelerated by Government efforts to settle returned servicemen on the land, and between 1915 and 1925 forty percent of the occupied land had changed hands. New Zealand was extremely vulnerable to the overseas price fluctuations of the pastoral products. With the advent of the depression by 1930, farmers, despite greatly increased production, were faced with a serious decline in income (over forty percent) together with heavy mortgage commitments on land bought at high prices so that many were faced with foreclosure. In the towns, tradesmen and shopkeepers faced bankruptcy, and wage earners unemployment or reduction in wages. A Coalition Government was formed in 1931 to meet the crisis. Partly as a result of measures taken by this government and partly as a result of a rise in overseas price levels a general economic revival was taking place by 1935.

DEVELOPMENT AS A NATION—The election of a Labour Government, under the leadership of Michael Savage, in 1935 led to changes in administrative policy and a renewed emphasis on social problems.

The financial needs of the Second World War from 1939 onwards were met with virtually no overseas borrowing. Financing the war by taxation and internal borrowing also assisted in the achievement of a successful stabilisation policy. Full employment in war was followed by full employment in peace. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force.

At the 1949 election the Labour Government was defeated after holding office since 1936. It was succeeded by a National Government, under the leadership of Sidney Holland.

During his time as Prime Minister, Holland initiated a constitutional change with the abolition of the Legislative Council on the grounds that it no longer possessed any effective function.

In 1957, the Labour Party gained a narrow victory at the polls under the leadership of Walter Nash. Budgetary policy to meet a recurrence of the balance of payments crisis proved unpopular and at the 1960 election, the National Party under the leadership of Keith Holyoake was returned to power, as it was in subsequent elections in 1963, 1966, and 1969. Early in 1972 John Marshall became leader of the National Party. At the 1972 election the Labour Party swept back into power under Norman Kirk; after his untimely death in 1974 W. E. Rowling became Prime Minister. At the 1975 election there was a dramatic reversal of the position 3 years earlier, and the National Party under Robert Muldoon was returned to power with a substantial majority.

International affairs have assumed growing importance in recent decades. It was evident when peace returned to the Pacific area in 1945 that New Zealand found itself in a different world, where its relations with the countries geographically closest to it would grow rapidly in importance. The course of New Zealand's international relations in recent years is dealt with in some detail later in this section.

Relations with Europe—For almost a hundred years the economy of New Zealand was shaped to supplying the needs of the British market. Farm production constantly expanded, so that New Zealand became one of the world's greatest exporters of pastoral produce. The bulk of this produce went to Britain. The decision of Britain to become part of the European Economic Community with effect from 1973 and thus subject to a new pattern of trading arrangements would have been disastrous for New Zealand's exports of dairy produce and lamb, but for the negotiating of special arrangements for continuing trade.

Pacific Orientation—Increasing interest has been taken in recent decades in the welfare and social development generally of both the rapidly growing Maori population and the inhabitants of the islands of the Pacific with New Zealand ties.

New Zealand has experienced in recent years a considerable inflow of Polynesians from its associated territories and elsewhere in the Pacific. One-tenth of the New Zealand population is Maori or Polynesian, and there are more Niue Islanders in New Zealand than in Niue. Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islanders are New Zealand citizens who freely move back and forth. These people have undoubtedly had a big influence on the character, attitudes, and behaviour of the rest of the New Zealand population—most have some understanding of the "Polynesian way". New Zealand has a number of other basic links with the South Pacific, due in part to the common colonial history shared with such nations as Fiji. This British heritage has given a common language and the democratic tradition. Today all the independent states of the South Pacific are associated in the British Commonwealth.

The most recent political development is the establishment of the South Pacific Forum. This group, comprising the leaders of the independent and self-governing nations of the South Pacific (Cook Islands, Niue, Western Samoa, Tonga, Fiji and Nauru), together with Australia and New Zealand, has had highly successful meetings in their respective capitals. The South Pacific Forum is a new concept in international relations—an exciting development. There is no constitution, there is no agenda, and there is no formality. The leaders come together in private sessions for frank and concentrated discussion on practical matters of direct relevance to the people of the Pacific. The island leaders themselves suggested the formula and proposed Australian and New Zealand participation. Clearly they saw the need to exchange views, discuss projects and priorities, and generally to secure on a regional basis effective collaboration and co-ordination at the highest level. A South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation has been established with a broad programme of trade, production, and economic development. It is based in Suva.

Expansion of overseas aid to the Pacific and to Asia from 1973 onwards has been a feature of the Labour Government under Kirk and subsequently under Rowling, and more recently of the National Government under Muldoon.

Sovereignty—On 29 January 1840 Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived in the Bay of Islands. His instructions from the British Government required him to take possession of the country with the consent of the Maori chiefs, this policy being designed by the Colonial Office strongly influenced by missionary opinion, to safeguard the well-being of the native people. Hobson read his commission at Kororareka on 30 January and on 6 February 46 chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, a compact whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights were secured to the chiefs and their tribes (with the Crown having the sole right of purchase) and in return the Queen extended her protection and all the rights and privileges of British subjects. Other chiefs throughout both Islands later adhered to this Treaty.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it, provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

One aspect, that of native affairs, was withheld from the responsible Ministers, and the Governor, as representative of the Crown, continued to act independently of his elected advisors in this sphere. In 1861 Grey attempted unsuccessfully to hand over this responsibility but the Ministers were unwilling to assume responsibility for the cost of the war. Finally in 1864 Sir Frederick Weld instituted the "self-reliant policy" whereby the colony accepted responsibility for the settlement of difficulties with the Maoris and consented to the withdrawal of troops by the Imperial Government.

In recognition of a nascent sense of nationality and of an increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters New Zealand was given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony, the new title taking effect on 26 September 1907.

Of the constitutional events in recent years the passing by the United Kingdom Parliament of the Statute of Westminster in December 1931 was of major importance. The draft of this statute was submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. In other words, its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the legislatures of those countries. It was not until 1947 that the New Zealand Government formally adopted the Statute of Westminster.

Development of New Zealand's International Relations—Until the early 1930s New Zealand's external interests were almost exclusively centred on its relationship with Britain. The British Navy protected New Zealand and Britain took the bulk of New Zealand's exports. Where Britain led, New Zealand followed, not blindly but with pride and conviction. Britain, as a great power, played a major role in world affairs. New Zealand's "foreign policy" consisted chiefly of seeking to modify British policy in those few cases where New Zealand had a strong interest or a viewpoint rather different from that of Britain.

The emergence of a distinctively New Zealand foreign policy is usually regarded as dating from 1935. The Labour Government strongly upheld the principle of collective security and pressed for vigorous collective action by the League of Nations against aggression in Abyssinia, Spain, and China at a time when the United Kingdom was pursuing the policy which came to be known as "appeasement".

There was, however, no suggestion that New Zealand was departing from its historically close association with Britain. The course it would follow in the event of war was never in doubt. When war broke out the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in these terms:

"Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear behind Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand."

But the Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world and made it necessary for New Zealand to adopt a more independent foreign policy. The New Zealand Government established (in effect from 1943) a career foreign affairs service, and made a beginning in stationing its own diplomatic representatives in countries where New Zealand's interests made their presence necessary. In particular, New Zealand sought to foster good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and Asia and to increase the measure of security and welfare in these areas.

Woven into post-war policy was the traditional New Zealand belief in the principles of collective security and international justice, which the United Nations was pledged to support. There was also the belief that the international community should give high priority to the welfare and political advancement of dependent peoples and to the elimination of poverty, disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

The wartime alliance of the two Pacific Commonwealth countries of Australia and New Zealand with the United States found expression in peacetime in the ANZUS Treaty, in which, for the first time, New Zealand and Australia entered into a security treaty with a foreign country. The ANZUS Treaty, which came into force in April 1952, gives an assurance of United States support in the event of an armed attack from any quarter in the Pacific and so constitutes New Zealand's major safeguard against aggression in the area. The signing of the Manila Treaty and the establishment of SEATO like the formation of the ANZUS alliance, took place in 1954, against a background of continuing instability and violence in South-east Asia.

The scope of New Zealand's interests in Asia widened considerably in the years following signature of the Manila Treaty. Diplomatic relations were established with a growing number of countries in the area, leading to increased co-operation in fields besides that of defence. By the mid-1960s New Zealand had more widespread representation in Asia than in Western Europe.

The political evolution of the South Pacific, with the emergence of Western Samoa, Nauru, Fiji, Papua New Guinea, and Tonga as independent states and the Cook Islands and Niue as self-governing countries in free association with New Zealand, has led to the development of a new pattern of relationships, bilateral and multilateral, between New Zealand and its South Pacific neighbours. In addition to its special relationship with Western Samoa (a former United Nations Trust Territory administered by New Zealand), the Cook Islands, and Niue (whose people retain New Zealand citizenship), New Zealand has close bilateral ties with Fiji, Nauru, Tonga and Papua New Guinea. A relationship is rapidly developing with other Pacific countries approaching independence, such as the Solomon Islands, the Gilberts, and Tuvalu.

New Zealand is co-operating with these countries at the regional level in the South Pacific Forum, where the independent and self-governing countries in the South Pacific, together with Australia and New Zealand, discuss their common problems.

The Forum, in 1973, established the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC) which is aimed at facilitating co-operation and consultation on trading, transport, and economic matters among forum members.

New Zealand is endeavouring also to promote the economic and social welfare of the South Pacific peoples and to foster an emerging sense of regional identity through its membership of the South Pacific Commission, an organisation whose members are not only the South Pacific's independent and self-governing countries but also those territories remaining under British, French, and American administration.

Her Majesty the Queen, in right of New Zealand, is responsible for the external relations of the former dependent territories of the Cook Islands and Niue, which are now self-governing. The Secretary of Foreign Affairs is the Administrator of Tokelau, which is a non-selfgoverning territory administered by New Zealand.

New Zealand has continued to place special importance upon its membership of the United Nations. It is an active participant in the work of the General Assembly, and has been a member of all Councils of the Organisation. In 1950 it provided troops to the United Nations Command in Korea and has contributed military observers and civilian police in various peace-keeping operations. It has sought to assist all efforts to attain the political and social objectives outlined in the Charter.

The historical links with Britain and with Western Europe and North America remain close, as does the economic relationship with Britain, New Zealand's largest single customer. Although New Zealand has been making satisfactory progress in diversifying her markets, especially within the Pacific Basin, her trading and other interests in the European Economic Community remain a major policy concern.

The Labour Government, which was elected in 1972, emphasised its wish to strengthen New Zealand's bilateral links with the nations of Asia and the Pacific as well as expand regional co-operation, its commitment to a vigorous programme of aid to less-developed countries, and its belief that the United Nations can and should do more to protect and advance the interests of its smaller members Successive governments have made clear New Zealand's total rejection of all doctrines of racial superiority and its determination to play a more independent role in world affairs. A new element in New Zealand's foreign policy in 1974-75 was the introduction of a Cultural Relations Exchange Programme. The Government, aware of the contribution cultural relations can make to the growth of better international understanding, set aside the sum of $50,000 annually to promote cultural exchanges. In 1975-76 emphasis was placed on exchanges with China.

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN RECENT YEARS—The Ministry of Foreign Affairs has the primary responsibility of advising and assisting the Government in formulating and executing decisions in the field of New Zealand's external relations. It is the agency through which other governments and their representatives in New Zealand communicate with the New Zealand Government. It operates New Zealand's aid programmes and maintains New Zealand's diplomatic and consular representation abroad. The ministry's overseas functions are discharged through a network of 45 diplomatic and consular posts consisting of embassies, high commissions, consulates-general, and other permanent missions. At home, the preparation and co-ordination of foreign policy recommendations is carried out in close association with a number of other Government departments.

The ministry has a substantive role in the formulation and execution of New Zealand's economic policies. In Wellington the ministry works closely on these questions with other departments such as the Treasury, Department of Trade and Industry, Customs Department, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Economic activity is as much part of an overseas mission's everyday work as its political, consular, and trade functions. Officers of the ministry have a major responsibility to inform foreign governments of New Zealand's policies, negotiate agreements, and keep the New Zealand Government informed of economic developments in the country to which they are accredited.

The ministry's involvement in the economic sphere was amply demonstrated in the events leading up to Britain's entry into the EEC. The negotiations in Luxembourg, that decided the terms of British entry and the special arrangement for New Zealand exports of butter and cheese to Britain, were preceded by an intensive campaign of publicity for New Zealand's case, continuous ministerial and official contacts in Britain and Europe, and a series of visits to New Zealand by British and European Ministers, officials and journalists directly concerned with Common Market affairs. In all this activity the ministry played a full part in Wellington, with other departments, and abroad where its officers were heavily involved.

Since British accession, New Zealand has pressed continuously for improvements in its terms of trade with Britain. As a result New Zealand's position post-1977 was strengthened by the Dublin Declaration, issued by the Community Heads of Government on 11 March 1975, following a British initiative to have the question considered.

The ministry has a special role also as a clearing house for material provided by New Zealand posts overseas for other departments, and through its posts it performs numerous services on behalf of departments without representatives abroad. It also works in close liaison with the Overseas Information and Publicity Section of the Tourist and Publicity Department to ensure that overseas posts are kept supplied with up-to-date information about New Zealand.

In the Official Section at the end of the Yearbook the diplomatic and other New Zealand representation overseas is listed.

New Zealand in the Commonwealth—As a member of the Commonwealth New Zealand is able to consult and co-operate with 35 other countries in a wide variety of activity, both governmental and non-governmental. The value to New Zealand of its Commonwealth links is derived not only from the practical benefits of what the Commonwealth does but also from the heterogenous composition of the association. Its 36 members take in the 6 continents and the 5 oceans of the world. The Pacific region is now fully represented in the Commonwealth. Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa and Papua New Guinea are full members along with Australia and New Zealand, and Nauru has special status.

As the Commonwealth has grown and changed, its relationships have taken on a new scope and emphasis. As Commonwealth heads of government affirmed in the Commonwealth Declaration adopted at their meeting in 1971, the association "provides many channels for continuing exchanges of knowledge and views on professional, cultural, economic, legal and political issues among member states. These relationships we foster and extend for we believe that our multinational association can expand human understanding and understanding among nations, assist in the elimination of discrimination based on differences of race, colour, and creed, maintain and strengthen personal liberty, contribute to the enrichment of life for all, and provide a powerful influence for peace among nations." New Zealand, itself a country where different races live in harmony, sees in the Commonwealth a special opportunity for multi-racial co-operation and understanding.

The value of the association in providing a forum for the exchange of views between a large number of diverse nations, as set out in the Declaration, was illustrated at the Heads of Government Meetings in 1973 in Ottawa and in 1975 in Kingston, Jamaica. Discussions were frank, informal, and private, ranging over topics which included changing power relationships, trade, monetary and other economic issues, security, nuclear testing, development assistance, foreign investment, international transport, and South African questions. The 1975 meeting paid special attention to the world economic situation, especially the problems of developing nations. Periodic meetings of Commonwealth Ministers of Finance, Trade, Health, Law, and Education promote the exchange of views and functional co-operation in diverse fields of national activity. Ministerial meetings are supported by conferences and seminars of officials and professional and technical specialists.

The belief of member countries in the potential of the Commonwealth led to the establishment of a permanent Commonwealth Secretariat in London in 1965 to be the main agency for multilateral communication among Commonwealth governments. The Secretariat promotes consultation and disseminates information on matters of common concern, organises meetings and conferences, and co-ordinates many Commonwealth activities. Prominent among these is the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation. The fund is financed by voluntary contributions from most Commonwealth countries. Its primary purpose is to promote economic development through self-help and mutual assistance.

Besides contributing to the budget of the Commonwealth Secretariat and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, New Zealand provides financial support to a number of other intergovernmental Commonwealth organisations which promote co-operation in specific areas. New Zealand also contributes to the Commonwealth Foundation, which was established at the same time as the Secretariat to promote close links in the professions throughout the Commonwealth. It has sponsored official and non-official Commonwealth professional organisations and strengthened the links between administrators, engineers, lawyers, accountants, scientists, and private individuals in the different Commonwealth organisations. Like the Secretariat it has provided a focus for Commonwealth activities and a basis for extending international co-operation.

New Zealand's Relations with Western Europe—Until recently New Zealand's dealings with the countries of Western Europe have tended to concentrate almost entirely on trade matters and particularly on the question of access to the European Common Market for New Zealand's agricultural exports, for this was, and still is, of crucial importance to New Zealand.

Inevitably, however, the wider political and economic aspects of New Zealand's relations with the states of Western Europe have come to assume greater significance, as we have acquired more knowledge and understanding of the issues affecting each other, and especially as the European Community begins to play an increasing role in international affairs.

New Zealand shares a great deal in common with the countries of Western Europe in terms of shared historical experience, democratic political systems, and lifestyles. New Zealand's membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the International Energy Authority (IEA) underlines the community of broad economic interests. The range of bilateral contacts between New Zealand and individual countries of Western Europe, in all fields, steadily expands, their continued development being one of the main aims of New Zealand's foreign policy.

New Zealand's Relations with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe—New Zealand's relations with the countries of Eastern Europe have developed considerably in recent years, especially in the field of trade. This growth has been reflected in the expansion of New Zealand's diplomatic representation in the area. Over the last 3 years New Zealand's Ambassador in Vienna has been accredited to four East European countries, Poland, Hungary, Romania, and Czechoslovakia. New Zealand's Ambassador in Rome is accredited to Yugoslavia.

Trade is also a major element in New Zealand's relations with the Soviet Union, which is now the fifth largest market for New Zealand's exports. The New Zealand Embassy in Moscow was re-opened in 1973.

New Zealand and the Middle East—New Zealand has developed its relations with countries in the Middle East since 1973 in response to the enhanced importance of the region in world political and economic affairs. The greatly increased price of oil and the possibility of a supply cut with renewed hostilities has made it important that New Zealand develop its relations with producing countries. The increased oil revenues have given greater purchasing power to the countries in the region which, with their development programmes and rising standards of living, have a rapidly growing demand for goods and services which New Zealand can provide.

Relations with Iran have developed quickly. In 1974 a number of ministerial and official visits were exchanged between the two countries, culminating in the visit to New Zealand in September 1974 of Their Imperial Majesties, the Shah and Shahbanou and the signing of a trade agreement. In early 1975 New Zealand opened an embassy in Tehran. Relations with other countries in the Middle East have been developed as a result of a goodwill mission visiting the major Arab countries in early 1974, and with ministerial visits between New Zealand and Saudi Arabia, Iraq, and Bahrain. New Zealand has accredited a non-resident Ambassador to Egypt and to Iraq. In 1975 an embassy under a Charge d'Affaires was opened in Baghdad, and both Egypt and Israel opened embassies in Wellington.

New Zealand and the Asian Area—Since the Second World War, and particularly since 1955, there has been a noteworthy growth in New Zealand's relations with the countries of the Asian/Pacific area. New Zealand has a direct interest in the maintenance of peace and the growth of prosperity in the area. It enjoys a close relationship with Japan, and with the countries which make up the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN): Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Thailand, and the Philippines. Since the normalisation of relations with the People's Republic of China in 1972, New Zealand's contacts with China, a dominant force in Asia, have been increasing, and contributing to a growing awareness within New Zealand of the Asian region.

Trade with Asia is becoming more and more important to New Zealand. Private initiative, with Government assistance, has been able to develop new markets, new products, new selling processes, and new economic and commercial relationships. A pattern of regular economic consultations with our main trading partners has been developed; bilateral economic agreements have been concluded.

Aid activities have been expanded. In the early 1950s aid programmes, except for assistance to New Zealand's own Pacific territories, were largely directed towards the Indian subcontinent in the form of capital grants, which called for little direct New Zealand participation. Since the mid 1950s, technical assistance programmes have been enlarged to bring students to New Zealand and send New Zealand experts into the area. Aid activities now utilise New Zealand's industrial and engineering skills as well as those in the more traditional agricultural and health fields.

New Zealand's growing interests and involvement in Asia are reflected in the changing pattern of its diplomatic representation. Prior to 1955, when New Zealand opened a post in Singapore, it had only one diplomatic mission in the region, in Tokyo. Representation has now been established in all of the ASEAN countries, in New Delhi, Peking, Hong Kong, and Seoul. Many of these missions are accredited to other Asian capitals. The network thus created enables New Zealand to assess external events in the light of this country's own interests and needs, and to work directly with other countries in areas of common concern. New Zealand has also developed its political contacts with countries of the area in other important ways. Exchanges of visits by Heads of State and Government Ministers and parliamentarians have increased, and the development of regular bilateral consultations has also been encouraged.

New Zealand has placed particular emphasis on supporting regional organisations for co-operation and consultation in both the political and development fields. It is one of a small group of nations closely associated with ASEAN, which it sees as a force for stability and economic development in South-east Asia. It has initiated a number of joint projects with ASEAN for development and trade co-operation. New Zealand is an associate member of the South-east Asian Ministers of Education Organisation (SEAMEO), and a member of the Ministerial Conference for the Economic Development of South-east Asia (MEDSEA), an organisation which is in the process of redefining its role following changes of government in the countries of Indo-China.

The degree of cultural interchange between New Zealand and the countries of Asia has expanded steadily. Where once New Zealanders looked largely to Britain for cultural inspiration and experience, now their horizons have broadened. Increased contacts with Asia have brought with them an awareness of what the cultural background of the countries there can offer New Zealand. Professional bodies, sporting associations, cultural groups, and universities today have links with similar organisations in Asia, as well as with more traditional partners such as Britain and Australia. The development of civil air links, and the concurrent growth of tourism, have also helped to bring a wider range of contacts.

Nowhere within the Pacific Basin has New Zealand's adaptation to changed circumstances been more complete than in its relationship with Japan. Today that association is one of the most important that New Zealand has and it is friendly and rewarding for both sides. Its elements are varied—trade, consultation, co-operation, and a growing range of cultural, educational, sporting, and personal ties. In many ways, the conditions for a developing trading relationship are ideal, for the two countries are located in different hemispheres, their economies are complementary, and each has in abundance some things that the other needs. Despite those advantages, commercial exchanges have not been completely straightforward, and over a number of years New Zealand has pressed (to little avail) for improved conditions of access for certain important commodities, including beef and dairy products. Even so, Japan today is New Zealand's second biggest market and its third largest source of supply For Japan, New Zealand does not occupy so important a place but on both sides there are expectations of continued and expanding trade and of closer involvement together in other settings.

New Zealand and the South Pacific—New Zealand has a long history of interest and involvement in the South Pacific. In the latter part of the 19th century Prime Minister Richard Seddon harboured ambitions of a South Pacific empire controlled by New Zealand, and as a result of pressure from Seddon the administration of the Cook Islands and Niue, which were British colonial possessions, was handed over to New Zealand in 1901. The number of New Zealand Pacific dependencies increased when, following the establishment of the League of Nations, Western Samoa, which had been occupied by New Zealand troops at the outbreak of the First World War, became a mandated territory under the administration of New Zealand. In 1925 the Tokelau Islands, part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, were ceded by the United Kingdom to New Zealand.

Despite its geographical situation, the acquisition of overseas dependencies in the South Pacific and the ethnic kinship of the Maori and the Polynesian peoples, New Zealand's present identity as a South Pacific country was slow in developing for a number of reasons. Culturally, New Zealand has been closer to Western Europe than to the Pacific. For many years almost all of New Zealand's exports went to the United Kingdom. Politically, New Zealand's outlook was oriented towards Europe and, more recently, South-east Asia. Also the Pacific Islands were, and in some cases still are, administered by other countries.

But during the 1960s there was a dramatic emergence of new nations in the South Pacific. New Zealand encouraged this development in its own territories.

In Western Samoa, which had become a United Nations Trust Territory administered by New Zealand, political and constitutional development was carried forward in accordance with the wishes of the Samoan people. This culminated in the establishment of the independent State of Western Samoa on 1 January 1962. On 4 August 1965 the Cook Islands became a self-governing nation in free association with New Zealand. In an exchange of letters between the New Zealand Prime Minister, the Right Honourable Norman Kirk, and the Premier of the Cook Islands, Sir Albert Henry, in April 1973 clarifying the special relationship between the Cook Islands and New Zealand, it was agreed that there were to be no legal fetters of any kind upon the freedom of the Cook Islands to make their own laws and control their own Constitution. Although New Zealand has a statutory responsibility for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands, it is intended that the Cook Islands be free to pursue their own policies and interests in these as well as other areas. Cook Islanders remain New Zealand citizens under the Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964.

Niue became self-governing in free association with New Zealand on Constitution Day, 19 October 1974. It is written into the Niue Constitution Act 1974 that New Zealand will continue to be responsible for the external affairs and defence of Niue, that Niueans will remain New Zealand citizens, and that New Zealand will provide necessary economic and administrative assistance.

The Tokelau Islands are still included within the boundaries of New Zealand and are administered under the authority of the Tokelau Islands Act 1948. Tokelauans are New Zealand citizens. By agreement with the Government of Western Samoa the office of the Tokelau Islands Administration is based in Apia and handles the Tokelau Islands transactions with the outside world, especially with New Zealand. Decisions about day-to-day living in the Tokelau Islands are made by the village councils.

The developments in New Zealand's territories are part of a wider pattern of political evolution in the region. In 1968 Nauru became an independent republic; in 1970 Fiji became independent; and in the same year Tonga rejoined the Commonwealth. In 1975 Papua New Guinea became fully independent after being self-governing since December 1973. In 1976 the Solomon Islands became self-governing, as did Tuvalu which came into existence when the British Government agreed to the separation of the Ellice Islands from the former Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony. Self-government for the Gilbert Islands is expected in 1977.

It is natural that New Zealand and its South Pacific neighbours should have become very closely associated. One important reason has been the movement of Pacific peoples into New Zealand. Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islanders are New Zealand citizens and move freely back and forth. New Zealand's historical association with Western Samoa, which is reflected in the Treaty of Friendship signed in August 1962 and its close association with the Kingdom of Tonga, has resulted in a steady flow of immigrants and visitors under work permit schemes from both countries.

New Zealand has also played an active role in building up regional co-operation in the South Pacific. A major step in this direction was the creation of the South Pacific Forum comprising the independent and self-governing countries of the South Pacific, Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands, Niue, and Papua New Guinea together with Australia and New Zealand which, at the invitation of New Zealand, met for the first time in Wellington in August 1971. Since then meetings have been held in Canberra, Suva, Apia, Rarotonga, Nuku'alofà, and Nauru. The Forum also has three observer countries; the Gilbert Islands, Tuvalu, and the Solomon Islands.

The South Pacific Forum provides the opportunity for the leaders of the South Pacific states to discuss common problems, exchange information, consider priorities, and plan programmes for mutual and regional benefit. The topics considered include such matters as regional trade, shipping, telecommunications, education, law of the sea, disaster relief, and nuclear testing.

At the Canberra session of the South Pacific Forum members agreed to establish the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC) to deal with trade and related matters. The main purpose of the SPEC is to advise Forum members on ways of promoting regional trade and free trade among Island members and to encourage collaboration in areas such as regional transport which will assist the economic development of the Island members.

The South Pacific Commission, created in 1947 by the Canberra Agreement of which New Zealand is a signatory, is the other major regional body. Representatives from 22 governments and territorial administrations from within the South Pacific Commission comprise the South Pacific Conference. The Conference which meets annually decides the work programme of the Commission. Since its establishment the Commission has helped to build up a sense of regional identity and it has accomplished much in promoting the economic and social welfare of the South Pacific peoples. It is primarily a technical assistance organisation and its budget in 1976 totalled A$2.5 million. The main regular contributors to the budget are the participating governments in the area—the United Kingdom the United States of America, France, Australia, Fiji, Nauru, Western Samoa, and New Zealand. Australia, France, Nauru, and New Zealand have in recent years made additional voluntary contributions to the budget, which has enabled the Commission to undertake a number of special projects of value to the region as a whole.

The United Nations and its specialised agencies are also an important source of technical assistance in the South Pacific. The independent countries of the region are members of various UN bodies, and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has a regional office in Fiji.

New Zealand and Australia—New Zealand's most comprehensive bilateral relationship is with Australia. Geographical proximity reinforces the important historical, cultural, and Commonwealth ties between New Zealand and Australia that have given rise to this unusually close and mutually beneficial relationship. New Zealand established a diplomatic office in Australia in 1943, very early in its diplomatic history, and in 1944 the Canberra Pact was signed. This paved the way for a tradition of joint consultation and co-operation that reflects the interdependence of the two countries' interests and the goodwill and friendship of their peoples. In matters of foreign policy, in defence and in the economic field, the degree of co-operation also reflects the importance of each country to the other and a need for continuing close working contacts. Regular and increasingly frequent ministerial and official meetings have taken place, with a minimum of formality, to cover almost the entire range of government activity. Moreover, the two countries are bound together by innumerable personal contacts, facilitated by freedom of travel across the Tasman, and by institutionalised links in business, finance, education, the professions, and in nearly all fields of national activity.

New Zealand and Australia share a foreign policy objective in acting to promote stability and development in the South Pacific and South-east Asian regions of their immediate vicinity, as well as a more general interest in co-ordinating their positions on major international political and economic questions of current concern, in the United Nations, the Commonwealth, GATT, and elsewhere. In the economic context, Australia is a major trading partner for New Zealand, Australia's largest single market for manufactured exports. Trade has significantly expanded and the two economies become increasingly related under the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), dating from 1965-66. The Agreement is at present being comprehensively reviewed in the interests of restoring a better balance to the relationship which has been sustained markedly in Australia's favour. In the defence field, the former ANZAC partners continue to co-operate closely, both in relation to training programmes and exercises and the provision of equipment and other supplies, and in terms of the broader issues of defence policy, especially in their common membership of ANZUS.

New Zealand and the Americas—Continuing and close contact with the United States is an essential part of New Zealand's foreign policy. The United States remains New Zealand's principal security guarantor, is a major trading partner, and has an important influence on the New Zealand way of life. The two countries share a common English-speaking heritage and a friendship of long standing, both in peace and war.

Since the opening in Washington in 1941 of New Zealand's second diplomatic mission, close consultations have been held with the United States on many bilateral questions and international issues of common interest. Basic similarities in political philosophy and social and economic processes have encouraged the development of close governmental relations, which have been supported by increasing contacts, both official and non-official, across a broad range of activities.

This comprehensive bilateral relationship finds expression in political, strategic, economic, and cultural fields. Under the ANZUS arrangements initiated in 1951, New Zealand looks to the United States for fundamental assistance in the maintenance of its national and regional security. In turn, where national interests coincide, New Zealand is able to offer the United States active support for its constructive international role and to provide a friendly and stable influence in the South Pacific. On the economic side, bilateral trade has expanded to the extent that the United States is now the fourth largest market for New Zealand's exports and the fourth largest source of imports. Regular intergovernmental consultations are held to review the trading relationship, which recently has been weighted in favour of the United States. Programmes for scientific and technical co-operation, and academic and cultural exchanges serve to maintain an awareness of New Zealand in the United States and to promote a vigorous and beneficial interchange of ideas and experience.

New Zealand and Canada, through a common British heritage and long association in the Commonwealth, have traditionally enjoyed a close and special informal relationship, with long-established bonds of friendship between the New Zealand and Canadian people. Since New Zealand established diplomatic representation in Canada in 1942, there have been many ministerial and official exchanges in a broad range of fields in which the two countries' basic compatibility and similarity of attitude have provided invaluable opportunities for bilateral consultation and co-operation. New Zealand and Canada have also built up a record of co-operation on many international issues, particularly in Commonwealth and United Nations contexts. New Zealand's particular interest and involvement in the South Pacific, and Canada's in the Caribbean, have provided a useful basis for the exchange of experience, and both countries share a presence and a direct interest in the affairs of the Pacific Basin.

Canada is one of New Zealand's major trading partners, being at present the second largest market for New Zealand beef and a growing market for lamb. Regular intergovernmental consultations help to keep the trading relationship under review and provide a basis for negotiation on specific difficulties. They also facilitate co-operation on economic and financial policy matters of wider international importance.

New Zealand's relations with the Caribbean have been concerned largely with mutual Commonwealth interests and with a substantial export trade, mainly in dairy products. Since September 1974, the New Zealand High Commissioner in Ottawa has been cross-accredited to Trinidad and Tobago, Jamaica, Guyana, and Barbados. The sole resident representation is in Port of Spain (Trinidad and Tobago). New Zealand assistance is being extended to these four Commonwealth countries and to the multilateral Caribbean Development Bank under a modest aid programme.

New Zealand's contacts with the countries of Latin America, limited in the past due to geographical orientation and widely different historical and cultural backgrounds, have developed considerably in the 1970s. A substantial growth in trade preceded the establishment of New Zealand representation in Chile and Peru in 1972, and in 1974 diplomatic relations were entered into with Mexico. Peru has in recent years been New Zealand's largest export market in Latin America, and a major market for New Zealand dairy produce. Other significant Latin American markets for New Zealand dairy produce are Mexico, Ecuador (from which New Zealand has imported bananas), Venezuela, and some of the Central American republics (notably El Salvador and Costa Rica). As part of the continuing process of diversifying its economic relations, New Zealand has recently devoted increased attention to exploring the possibilities for expanding trade with the countries of Latin America. In recognition of the growing political importance of the region as a whole and particularly of the largest countries, Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina, opportunities are also being taken to enhance bilateral relations. Several official visits have taken place in recent years. At the private level, New Zealanders have long been interested in and frequent travellers through the countries of South America.

In the field of overseas assistance, New Zealand maintains a modest but important technical co-operation programme in Peru, under which New Zealand experts are helping in the development of key areas of Peruvian agriculture. New Zealand is also assisting in the organisation of the Peruvian National Parks.

New Zealand in the United Nations—Successive New Zealand Governments have strongly supported the development of the United Nations as a major instrument for maintaining peace and security, for developing friendly relations among countries, and for achieving international co-operation in solving economic and social problems and in promoting respect for human rights.

New Zealand has consequently played an active and prominent role in the various areas of United Nations activity. In 1976 New Zealand contributed US$895,823 to the regular budget of the United Nations.

International Security—At San Francisco in 1945 the New Zealand Prime Minister, the Right Honourable Peter Fraser, argued forcefully but unsuccessfully to eliminate the Security Council veto and to strengthen the collective security provision of the Charter. Since then New Zealand has actively supported the development of the United Nations' capacity for peacekeeping activities and has been an outspoken proponent of international arms control and disarmament measures. New Zealand contributed forces to the United Nations Command in Korea, military observers to the United Nations Observer Groups in Palestine, Kashmir and the Lebanon, and a civilian police unit to the United Nations peacekeeping force in Cyprus. In recent years New Zealand has worked hard to promote the cessation of all forms of nuclear testing, as a key step towards halting the nuclear arms race.

New Zealand served on the Security Council in 1954 and 1955 and again in 1966.

Economic and Social Activities—There has been increasing emphasis in recent years on making use of the United Nations as a forum to help resolve the formidable economic and social problems that face the world. This has been done both in the regular organs of the United Nations, such as the General Assembly, the Economic and Social Council and its functional and regional commissions and in special conferences, such as those on the environment (at Stockholm in 1972), population (at Bucharest in 1974), food (at Rome in 1974), and the role of women (at Mexico in 1975). During 1974 and 1975 Special Sessions of the General Assembly were held specifically to discuss development issues. The former enunciated the Declaration and Programme of Action on the establishment of a new international economic order.

During 1976 New Zealand served on the Governing Council of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Statistical Commission, and the Governing Council of the United Nations Development Programme, and was elected to the Economic and Social Council and the Commission on the Status of Women. New Zealand also participated actively in two sessions of the Conference on the Law of the Sea and the fourth United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, which was held in Nairobi.

Specialised Agencies—New Zealand is a member of all the specialised agencies, except the International Development Association, and is also a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which, though not strictly a specialised agency, exists under the aegis of the United Nations. New Zealand's contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, which are based for the most part on a scale of assessment similar to that used in the United Nations itself, in total considerably exceed our contribution to the United Nations' regular budget. In 1976, for example, our contributions to the budgets of the ILO, the FAO, WHO, and UNESCO alone totalled US$1,144,799.

Convinced of the value of the form of international co-operation that the agencies represent, New Zealand participates actively in their work. In the case of the technical agencies, there are direct benefits to New Zealand in membership. Membership of the Universal Postal Union, for example, is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country; and the International Telecommunication Union works to promote the most rational and efficient operation of world-wide telecommunications services. The World Meteorological Organisation is the medium for establishing a world-wide network for the rapid exchange of meteorological information, which is of particular value to remote island countries like New Zealand. The ILO is concerned with protecting the basic dignities and freedoms of the wage earner and brings together representatives of governments, employers, and workers to frame international conventions on working and living conditions.

In addition to its contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, New Zealand gives voluntary assistance in the form of further monetary grants, the services of experts to developing countries (for example in agriculture, physiotherapy, police work, forestry, and education) and donations of equipment or commodities. In 1976 New Zealand served on the Executive Council of FAO and participated in most of the major meetings of the Agencies, including the General Conference of UNESCO, which was held in Nairobi.

New Zealand's membership of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation allows this country to participate in international efforts to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of the underdeveloped areas of the world. It also serves to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to more varied sources of capital for capital projects or for balance of payments purposes.

New Zealand is also a foundation member of the Asian Development Bank, established in 1967 under the auspices of ESCAP to foster economic growth and co-operation in the Asian/Pacific region.

New Zealand has supported United Nations agency activity which will help the social and economic development of the Pacific Islands. Examples of such projects are: the work of WHO in eradicating yaws and tuberculosis; FAO's efforts to control the rhinoceros beetle which ravages much of the islands' coconut crops, and its support for a regional fisheries development agency; the establishment by UNESCO of a curriculum development unit at the University of the South Pacific; the placement in Suva of a development assistance team, backed by ESCAP and the specialised agencies.

New Zealand has in the past served on the governing bodies of UNESCO and UPU, as well as FAO, and was a member of the Executive Board of WHO from 1972 to 1974.

New Zealand's Defence Policies—After the Second World War the international scene was clouded for many years by the Cold War. New Zealand was affected by the tensions of the period and took steps to provide for its defence in concert with its allies. As a small country with limited resources, New Zealand alone was not able to defend its extensive but isolated territory against aggression by any militarily significant power. It therefore supported efforts to give effect to the provisions of the United Nations Charter which looked to the creation of a universal system of collective security. In the meantime it accepted that it should act in concert with like-minded countries in order to strengthen its security in its own region.

Recent developments in international affairs—especially the improvement of the United States' relations with China, the ending of the war in Vietnam, the growth in the number of major power centres (multipolarity)—have led to a relaxation of tensions that has lessened the likelihood that New Zealand might be involved in war. Changes in United States policy, which now emphasises that the primary responsibility for long-term stability in Asia rests with the countries of the area, and the large reduction of the British defence presence outside Europe have given new impetus to regional initiative. The relaxation of cold war tensions has given New Zealand and other small nations greater freedom of action but it has also reinforced the requirement for closer collaboration on a regional basis. It has also meant that New Zealand's relations with the countries of South-east Asia are no longer to be regulated primarily by defence considerations.

By means of staff exchanges, exercises, training programmes, and the provision of facilities under its Defence Mutual Assistance Programme, New Zealand co-operates with several countries in South-east Asia and the South Pacific in building up one another's defence capacity, thereby contributing to regional stability. It is also a partner in the Five Power Defence Arrangements relating to Malaysia and Singapore, which, although ostensibly military in nature, are primarily a political instrument for fostering stability and co-operation and helping to preserve national integrity and independence.

The Five Power Defence Arrangements—The basis of the Five Power Defence Arrangements is not a formal treaty or arrangement but a statement incorporated in the communique of the meeting of Ministers of the five powers (Britain, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand) held in London in April 1971. At that meeting the Ministers declared, in relation to the external defence of Malaysia and Singapore, "that in the event of any form of armed attack externally organised or supported or the threat of such attack against Malaysia or Singapore, their governments would immediately consult together for the purpose of deciding what measures should be taken jointly or separately in relation to such attack or threat".

The Australian, New Zealand, and United Kingdom forces stationed in Malaysia and Singapore under the Five Power Defence Arrangements were grouped into an ANZUK Force. The Australian Government decided in 1973 to withdraw most of its ground forces by April 1975, while retaining two RAAF squadrons in Malaysia. The ANZUK Force was disbanded in early 1974 and the New Zealand contingent based in Singapore became known as New Zealand Force South-east Asia Later the United Kingdom Government announced, as part of its defence review, that it would withdraw its forces based in Singapore by April 1976, and this has been done.

In August 1975 the New Zealand Government announced that it had decided in principle that the New Zealand Force in Singapore should return home to New Zealand in the next 2 years or so. This decision was reviewed by the new Government in 1976 in the light of its own consultations with the regional countries. In announcing on 9 September 1976 that there would be no early return of the New Zealand Force stationed in Singapore, the Minister of Defence said that during a recent visit to Singapore he had been assured by its Prime Minister and Minister of Defence that the Force was welcome to remain.

SEATO—Eight governments—Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States—signed the South-east Asia Collective Defence Treaty, also known as the Manila Treaty, on 8 September 1954. The South-East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) established under the treaty, in addition to military planning, undertook activities intended to foster the security and stability of the regional member countries and to carry out, on a modest scale, projects designed to promote their economic and social development. For example, it sponsored research in the fields of tropical medicine, agriculture, and engineering.

The ending of the Vietnam war in 1975 and other developments in the region led Governments in South-east Asia to re-assess many of their attitudes and policies. On 24 July 1975 the President of the Philippines and the Prime Minister of Thailand—the two remaining regional members of SEATO after the withdrawal of Pakistan in 1973—reached agreement in principle that "the Organisation should be phased out to make it accord with the new realities in the region" After further consultations among members, the SEATO Council of Ministers decided at its annual meeting in New York on 24 September 1975 that, while the Organisation had over the years made a useful contribution to stability and development in the region, "in view of the changing circumstances it should now be phased out". It was subsequently decided that this process should be completed by 30 June 1977.

ANZUS—There is no direct threat to the security of the New Zealand homeland at present. In the unlikely event of such a threat materialising New Zealand would be able to turn for assistance to its partners in the ANZUS Pact. This tripartite security treaty between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States was signed at San Francisco on 1 September 1951 and came into force on 29 April 1952. It assured New Zealand and Australia of American support in the event of aggression in the Pacific.

In the absence of any foreseeable need to invoke the security provisions of the treaty, ANZUS can be seen as a durable expression of a strongly-based community of interest and attitude among the three democracies that are parties to it. The close relationship among the three countries is reflected in the informality and ease of their consultation under the ANZUS Treaty. Meetings of the Council of Ministers are generally held once a year to discuss matters of common interest.

NEW ZEALAND'S AID AND OTHER RESOURCE FLOWS TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES—During 1975-76 official development assistance (ODA) from New Zealand to developing countries around the world reached $59.7 million or 0.57 percent of GNP compared with $41.9 million or 0.45 percent of GNP in 1974-75. Such expansion of the overseas aid programme in recent years has enabled New Zealand to make the beginnings of a real impact on the living standards and development prospects of a number of developing countries. Particular emphasis is given to assisting the South Pacific (to which some 31.5 percent of 1975-76 ODA was allocated) with a lesser, although still substantial, concentration on South-east Asia. The skills of the many hundreds of New Zealand specialists supplied under the official aid programme, and also the capital, commodity, and training assistance made available, are carefully geared to aid partners' own development priorities, bearing in mind New Zealand's particular areas of expertise.

Total Resource Flow and its Components 1975-76—Official development assistance is but one part, albeit the major one, of New Zealand's total resource flow (the transfer of goods, services, and capital) to developing countries. Other resource flows are private flows and grants by voluntary agencies (GVA). Although the bulk of Government assistance overseas is in the form of ODA, support is also given to the efforts of private voluntary agencies.

For the year ended 31 March 1976 (1975-76) the estimated total flow of resources from New Zealand to developing countries was $66,247,242, comprising:

 $
Official development assistance (ODA)59,739,668
Private flows (provisional)1,029,295
Grants by voluntary agencies (GVA)5,478,279
Total resource flows66,247,242

Official Development Assistance—New Zealand's official development assistance consists of "bilateral" and "multilateral" aid. In 1975-76 the bilateral/multilateral mix of development assistance was in the ratio 73:27. Faced, however, with a serious deterioration of New Zealand's balance of payments position, the Government has felt obliged to delay progress toward attainment of the 0.7 percent of GNP international aid target. Accordingly, within an estimated ODA expenditure of $51 million in 1976-77, the bilateral/multilateral mix will be around 85: 15. This is a direct consequence of the Government's desire to protect growth in the South Pacific bilateral aid programme. Close to 60 percent of bilateral aid resources are being directed to the South Pacific in 1976-77 compared with just on 50 percent in 1975-76. Most multilateral contributions are being held at 1975-76 levels.

Bilateral ODA 1975-76—Under its bilateral aid programme, New Zealand has attempted, where possible, to draw up integrated country programmes containing capital, expert assistance, and training requirements. Capital projects range from a large-scale afforestation scheme in Fiji, through to geothermal exploration in the Philippines and Indonesia, and the provision of New Zealand-built vessels for forestry and fishing development in Papua New Guinea. In addition, a large number of New Zealanders are employed as advisors in various fields, particularly agriculture. This assistance, together with New Zealand's training programme, is linked to the specific requirements of developing countries. Although a number of students and trainees do come to New Zealand for practical or in-service training, training within the South Pacific region is generally favoured for both educational and social reasons, and awards are provided for this.

Direct bilateral programmes in the South Pacific and, to a lesser but increasing extent, in Asia, are supplemented by programmes promoting regional development co-operation, particularly in the fields of education, transport, and communication. Bilateral assistance also includes commodity aid and distress relief.

A country breakdown of bilateral ODA during 1975-76 shows the direction and scope of New Zealand's assistance during the year. On a regional basis, expenditure in the South Pacific was $22.8 million, or 51.9 percent of the bilateral programme, Asia $18.4 million $41.8 percent), and Africa $1.3 million (2.9 percent) with much of the remainder being directed to Latin America and the Caribbean. (These figures include expenses of students and trainees, aid administration expenses, and head-of-mission funds. These are not included in the following table.

In the following table, bilateral ODA is shown by country:

ODA: BILATERAL AID 1975-76
South and South-east AsiaNZ$(000)
Afghanistan5
Bangladesh285
Bhutan42
Brunei7
Burma21
India453
Indonesia4,939
Khmer Republic97
Korea327
Laos408
Malaysia1,896
Maldives Republic25
Nepal319
Pakistan400
Philippines4,318
Singapore275
Sri Lanka649
Thailand1,457
Vietnam916
Regional and others445
Total17,286
South Pacific 
Solomon Islands186
Cook Islands7,002
Fiji3,443
Gilbert Islands and Tuvalu91
New Hebrides182
Niue2,643
Papua New Guinea1,185
Tokelau759
Tonga871
Western Samoa2,476
Regional2,239
Total21,075
Africa 
Ghana5
Kenya26
Lesotho2
Mauritius5
Nigeria5
Sierra Leone26
Tanzania956
Zambia113
Regional and other133
Total1,271
Latin America and Caribbean 
Guatemala50
Guyana37
Jamaica252
Peru395
Regional and other14
Total749
Other483
Voluntary agencies205
Total bilateral aid41,069

Multilateral ODA 1975-76—The multilateral programme enables New Zealand to make a contribution to development work which would usually be beyond the scope of the bilateral aid programme, either in the terms of the scale of the projects or their location in developing countries beyond the regions of concentration of the bilaterial aid effort. Considerably expanded contributions were made by New Zealand in 1975-76 to a number of multilateral aid agencies, including the United Nations Development Programme ($2 million), the World Food Programme ($0.9 million), the United Nations Children's Emergency Fund ($0.7 million), the United Nations Fund for Population Activities ($350,000), and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation ($0.5 million). Development finance institutions to which New Zealand contributed in 1975-76 were the International Development Association ($1.4 million) and the Asian Development Bank ($2.2 million). A first contribution was also made to the World Bank Consultative Group in International Agriculture Research ($100,000).

ODA: MULTILATERAL AID 1975-76
 NZ$(000)
United Nations agencies and funds 
United Nations Development Programme2,015
United Nations Fertiliser Pool (including Fertiliser Subsidy Scheme)1,749
World Food Programme964
United Nations Children's Fund700
United Nations Fund for Population Activities350
United Nations Relief and Works Agency124
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees79
Other United Nations organisations26
Total6,007
Commonwealth programmes 
Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation524
Commonwealth Youth Programme37
Total561
South Pacific institutions 
South Pacific Commission (SPC)295
SPC Works Programme300
South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation89
Total684
Development finance institutions 
International Development Association: 
Fourth replenishment420
Voluntary contribution1,000
Asian Development Bank: 
Capital subscription2,153
Technical Assistance Fund75
Asian Development Fund2,706
Total6,354
Other contributions 
Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research100
International Committee of the Red Cross21
International Planned Parenthood Federation367
Reconstruction in Indo-China: 
Nam Ngum hydro-electric scheme250
UNICEF350
Red Cross51
UNHCR596
Unspecified270
Miscellaneous multilateral institutions86
ODA proportions of assessed contributions to other agencies155
Total2,246
Total Multilateral ODA15,850

Non-official Flows—The Government maintains a close association with private concerns interested in development assistance through both bi-monthly meetings with New Zealand voluntary agencies and also through the Advisory Committee on External Aid and Development established in August 1975 to examine, debate, and publicise New Zealand's assistance, public and private, to developing countries. Under its Voluntary Agency Support Scheme, the Government provides grants on a one-to-two basis for approved projects mounted in developing countries by New Zealand private agencies. Projects assisted in 1975-76 ranged from the provision of a truck for an agricultural college in Tonga to support for a pottery in a rural village in Peru. Annual grants were also provided to Volunteer Service Abroad (Inc.) and CORSO. Grants by voluntary agencies rose to $5.5 million in 1975-76. This figure is an estimate based on a survey conducted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and is probably understated, given the difficulty of covering all agencies which meet the primary criterion of development orientation and the probable exclusion of many ad hoc activities.

CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: General—New Zealand is a sovereign independent unitary state, being in form a constitutional monarchy with responsible government and a unicameral legislature.

In common with the United Kingdom, New Zealand has no single written instrument purporting to be its supreme or fundamental law. Its constitution is contained in the statutes of the Imperial and New Zealand Parliaments and the decisions of the superior courts of both jurisdictions. Some statutes have greater constitutional significance than others.

To the extent that its constitution is unwritten it is flexible, but restraints by way of conventions prevent, at least in normal circumstances, arbitrary or improper alteration of the constitution and the abuse or misuse of legislative or executive power.

Statutes such as the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 (United Kingdom) recite law which, by reason of political, legal, and social development, may appear obsolete. If the spirit of the law in such a case cannot readily be observed by the use and development of convention, the law may be repealed, cf. Constitution Amendment Act 1973 (New Zealand). On the other hand, some conventions may be translated into substantive law after a period of time. Thus, the Civil List Act 1950 provides that no person may be appointed or remain a Minister of the Crown unless concurrently, he is a member of the House of Representatives, thereby ensuring the continuation of the system of ministerial responsibility.

The fundamental canon of the constitution is that Parliament is supreme or "sovereign". The question as to where sovereignty lies does not arise in the sense of its vesting in the people or the legislature or the monarch. Nor can it be argued, except in a very loose sense, that the legislature reflects and executes the will of the people. Reality dictates that the will of the people is expressed through the ballot box in choosing its government and legislature. That is not to say that individuals and organisations do not express their views on measures which may become law but their voice and influence is limited, if only paradoxically, by the very nature of government which the country possesses, that is, representative and responsible.

The constitutional theory of the separation of powers does not operate fully in New Zealand. The Executive Government consists of members of the legislature who are appointed by the Governor-General as Ministers of the Crown but who are, in practice, those members of the Government party who are selected for office by the leader of the Government party or elected to the ministry by their parliamentary fellows through caucus. Strictly speaking, ministers, being members of the legislature, are thereby "responsible" to it for their actions and those of their departments. Moreover, the Executive Government, collectively, is held to be answerable in the same way for its policies and the means of implementation. However, for so long as the two-party system continues to operate in New Zealand so that one party, gaining a majority at the polls, becomes the government of the day, the quantum of responsibility will depend largely on that government's observance of the conventions surrounding the concept. The rigours of individual ministerial responsibility have been eroded to the extent that where it is a question of the appropriate Minister being in the position of respondeat superior for the acts or omissions of his officers or department, the convention that he should resign appears to have fallen into desuetude.

The Sovereign—The Queen, in right of New Zealand, is styled: "Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God Queen of New Zealand, and Her Other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth. Defender of the Faith", Royal Titles Acts 1953 and 1974.

Being a constitutional monarchy, the Sovereign's powers are defined and circumscribed, first by law and then by convention.

In the Sovereign's absence, most of the royal powers are exercised by her representative, the Governor-General, in terms of the 1852 Act and the Instructions and Letters Patent of 1917 (the latter are under revision at the present time and will be amended so as to reflect constitutional developments which have occurred since promulgation). It should be noted that the Governor-General is not a viceroy and it would therefore be possible but unlikely for him to act ultra vires. By convention, the Queen and the Governor-General avoid becoming embroiled overtly in the "politics" of government, although the Sovereign and Governor-General remain an integral part of the legislative process.

Many of the formal procedures associated with government and administration require the participation of the Queen or Governor-General, inter alia, summoning, proroguing, and dissolving Parliament; assenting to measures passed by the House so as to give them the force of law; appointing judges of the Supreme Court and senior officials of State; appointing ministries and individual Ministers; conferring knighthoods and other honours. Most of the royal functions will be performed on advice of the Executive Government and little, if any, information is available as to whether this advice has always been taken without demur within the last 70 years. To reject advice would place the Governor-General in a very difficult situation, his appointment and tenure being at the pleasure, ultimately, of the New Zealand Government. Learned writers have suggested that he would only refuse to act on advice were he reasonably certain that he could find another member of the legislature willing and able to form a government enjoying the confidence of the House or, if this were not feasible, that his rejection would be vindicated by the electorate were he to dissolve Parliament and cause a general election so as to break a deadlock in the House. To reject advice otherwise, or fail having tried the alternatives, would be to invite his own recall.

Speculation remains, of course, on whether the Governor-General would reject advice even in the circumstances outlined above. The question is to determine how much real power, active or residual, is now possessed by the Governor-General. Recent amendments* to the 1852 Act have shorn the Governor-General of the legal basis of powers which have lapsed already, in great part, by operation of convention.

Nevertheless it should not be supposed that the Sovereign or the Governor-General have become constitutionally redundant. Many of the powers held and exercised by the Executive Government arise by virtue of the royal prerogative, defined by Dicey as the "residue of discretionary or arbitrary authority, which at any given time is legally left in the hands of the Crown". While many of the prerogative powers have been superseded by statute (there is debate on whether the prerogative is thereby extinguished or continues to subsist), substantial areas remain untouched, the majority of prerogative powers being exercised by Ministers with or without reference to the Governor-General.

Although calls for its abolition are made from time to time, the Monarchy seems to be an accepted part of New Zealand's constitutional and political structure although overt involvement in the political arena whether by the Queen or the Governor-General might well have the effect of engendering substantial support for abolition.

Parliament—With the abolition of the Legislative Council (Upper House) in 1950, Parliament, for most purposes, has consisted of the Governor-General (the Queen when resident in New Zealand) and the House of Representatives. By convention, this has come to mean the House of Representatives—the Governor-General exercising only those constitutional powers which serve to confer on measures before the House and passed by it, the force of law.

The New Zealand Parliament is a creation of the United Kingdom Parliament and, unlike its creator, cannot claim to be a court of record. However, it has followed Westminster and acts as a court of equity in so far as it will hear petitions from individuals and groups. The basic rule is that the petitioner(s) must have exhausted all available legal and equitable remedies, if the subject matter of the petition is justiciable.

The question of parliamentary privilege escapes precise legal definition. The most that can be said is that the courts will define the ambit of the privilege and within those limits Parliament may do as it will. As yet, the matter has not been tested in a New Zealand court.

The New Zealand Parliament holds plenary power to make laws for New Zealand including those having extra-territorial effect (in this context section 49 of the New Zealand Loans Act 1953 is something of a curiosity). Plenary legislative power was not assumed until 1947 with the passing of the Statute of Westminster (Adoption) Act 1947.

*See New Zealand Constitution Amendment Act 1973 (N.Z.).

Any residual doubts about the power of the New Zealand Parliament were removed with the passage of the New Zealand Constitution Amendment Act 1973 (New Zealand).

The doctrine that one Parliament cannot bind its successor operates in New Zealand. It would seem therefore that those provisions of the Electoral Act 1956 relating to: (a) the constitution and order of the Representation Commission; (b) the number of General electoral districts, their boundaries based on the total population; (c) the tolerance (5 percent) within which the Commission must work in relation to (b): (d) the age of voting (18 years since 1974); (e) the secret ballot; (f) the duration of Parliament; while expressed as being entrenched by s. 189 of the 1956 Act, in that amendment to any of the above provisions must receive a majority vote of 75 percent or receive the consent of the electors by referendum, are entrenched in a moral sense only. It would be open to any Parliament to repeal section 189 and then proceed to amend or repeal the "entrenched" provisions by ordinary legislation. The same result would be achieved by repealing the 1956 Act in toto.

Meeting, etc., of Parliament—Parliament is summoned, prorogued, or dissolved by the Governor-General and lasts for a maximum of 3 years although there have been some exceptions. The 1852 Act provided for quinquennial Parliaments but this provision was abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act 1879 which substituted a 3-year term. Since 1881 elections have been held at 3-year intervals except that the term of the Parliament during the First World War was extended to 5 years by special legislation and that of the twenty-fourth Parliament to four by the Electoral Amendment Act 1934. The 3-year term was restored by a 1937 Amendment but the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to 5 years because of war-time conditions. The 3-year term was enacted in the Electoral Act 1956 and a referendum in 1967 favoured its continuation.

By convention, the Governor-General would accept the Prime Minister's advice to dissolve Parliament before expiry, as was done in 1951, unless the Governor-General were of the opinion that the Prime Minister no longer commanded a majority in the House and that a ministry could be formed without having to hold elections, a situation which would be unlikely to arise.

Until 1973, sessions (the period between summons and prorogation) usually covered the months June through to November. However, in 1974 Parliament met as early as February and sat until early November. The 1974 session lasted 119 sitting days (a record) compared with 96 in 1976. Strictly speaking, business introduced during a session and not completed at the time of prorogation, lapses and requires to be reintroduced during the next session, although it has become usual for some business to be carried forward to the next session.

House of Representatives—For all practical purposes "Parliament" is synonymous with "House of Representatives" but from the constitutional viewpoint distinctions need to be drawn.

The House comprises 87 members with 4 of the electorates being Maori. With certain exceptions, (the insane, for example), any person who is not an alien and who is 18 years of age or more may vote in a general election.

The Speaker is elected at the start of a new Parliament and presents himself to the Governor-General for confirmation. By Act, the House claims and possesses all privileges, rights, and immunities claimed and possessed by the House of Commons as at 1 January 1865. This claim is reiterated by the Speaker to the Governor-General at the time he presents himself for confirmation in his office. The act of claiming the rights, privileges, and immunities of the House and its members can only be described as historical re-enactment when real power has passed from the Monarchy to the Executive Government.

It is customary in New Zealand, unlike the United Kingdom, for the Speaker to change according to the government of the day. The Chairman of Committees is also elected soon after the start of a new Parliament. Though he performs the same functions as those performed by his seventeenth century predecessors, the original reason for the House having a Chairman of Committees has never arisen in New Zealand, but the manner and form of the Westminster Parliament has been carried over and maintained in this regard so as to form an integral part of the procedure of the House. That is not to say that the New Zealand House is an antipodean mirror of the Westminster Commons—the differences are many but the form of both Houses is not dissimilar.

The primary functions of the House are to vote supply; pass legislation; to exercise supervision and control of the Government; to consider petitions from individuals or organisations seeking redress for alleged grievances or changes in the existing law. The Opposition may, where necessary or desirable, seek to bring down the Government by a vote of no confidence, although within context of a two-party House the chances of a successful vote in this regard would be very few.

Financial control over the Government is exercised by the House in so far as expenditure of public money must be authorised in the form of an Appropriation Act. A more detailed examination of the Estimates is carried out by the Public Expenditure Committee. However, no appropriation can be made without the recommendation of the Crown (i.e., the Government).

Most Bills are introduced by the Government as a result of decisions made in Cabinet or the Government caucus or both. By convention, the procedure for passing a public Bill is: (a) on introduction, formal first reading; (b) some time after, a second reading which is a debate on the principles and policy underlying the Bill; (c) a clause-by-clause debate with the House sitting as a Committee of the Whole House; (d) the Bill is reported back to the House from the committee and later read a third time. Having passed the three readings, the Bill is printed in its final form incorporating amendments (if any) and sent to the Governor-General for the Royal Assent.

Any member may introduce a Bill. Of course, it is always open to a Government to defeat such a Bill at any stage of its progress. In 1976, the Government refused to allow two Opposition Bills to be introduced and given a first reading. A practice has arisen whereby a private member's Bill will sometimes be withdrawn and substituted by a Government measure incorporating all or some of the provisions in the former Bill although it cannot be said that this is done with every Bill.

Special procedures apply to local and private Bills. A local Bill is one which proposes to affect a particular part of the country and is sought, usually, by the appropriate local authority. Each local Bill stands referred to the Local Bills Committee after its first reading. Its recommendation carries weight with both the House and the Government.

A private Bill is one which applies to a person or group of persons and is introduced after public notice, by a member by way of petition on behalf of the Bill's promoters. It is then referred to a committee of members for consideration and report.

The relations of the House with its members and non-members and the relations of member with member within its precincts are contained in the Standing Orders and the rulings thereon of successive Speakers.

Legislation—It is rare for the Government to accept amendments to legislation from the Opposition although it may sometimes do so if the amendment is constructive and does not conflict overtly with the policy considerations (if any) underlying the measure. Much of the legislation is what might be described as "departmental" in that it is sought by a Government department or agency and does not necessarily affect or reflect the political views of either the Government or the Opposition.

With the increasing load thrust on the House it has become customary for the more controversial or complex pieces of legislation to be referred for further consideration to select committees which comprise usually between seven and nine members, the Government party being in the majority. During the 1975 session, there were some 24 select committees. The aim in using these committees is that it affords a chance for the members to consider the measure in a more detailed fashion and gives individuals and organisations whose interests may be affected, should the legislation become law, an opportunity to state and have their views considered. Changes, sometimes substantial, are made to legislation as a result of this procedure. This practice of lobbying, both by groups and individuals, pervades all facets of political life. It can be argued that those who are familiar with the select committee procedure and used to advancing a particular view are in a superior position in being able to make their views known to the members individually and collectively. While issue cannot be taken with this practice provided no element of bribery or corruption enters into it, nevertheless, it can be argued that those who stand to be affected most by law, whether directly or indirectly, do not have the same opportunity to make their views and ideas known. A number of reasons might be advanced for this contention but primarily it would seem to be a case of the greater bulk of people being unaware of how "to work the system". Although no empirical research has been done, it would be interesting to be able to isolate the extent to which the influence of lobbyists has or has not contributed towards the increasing use of select committees.

With the ever-increasing complexity and volume of legislation and the range of subjects which it concerns or touches, the House cannot exercise full and proper control over subordinate legislation authorised by statute. Although all Statutory Instruments* require to be laid before the House and are subject to review by the Statutes Revision Committee, in practice such control has not been exercised.

*Statutory Instruments include: Orders in Council, ministerial orders, proclamations, and departmental instructions.

Party System—The two major political parties are Labour and National (the latter comprising the Government since December 1975). The other principal parties putting forward candidates at the 1975 General Election were Social Credit and Values.

At a general election any person being qualified as an elector may offer himself for election but it seems that only those who are candidates proffered by a political party have more than a marginal chance of election. The party forming the Government is that which gains the majority of seats, not necessarily the majority of votes cast. Unlike Australia, New Zealand does not have a preferential system of voting nor does the law require everyone to vote, although each eligible elector must register as such. The convention operates that if a Government is defeated at a general election it resigns before the House meets and does not wait to be defeated on a vote in the House. The members for each party form their respective caucuses to which the policies and tactics of the party are submitted for discussion and, where necessary, decision. The discussions of caucus are never published.

Salaries, etc.—Until the making of the Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974, section 27 of the Civil List Act 1950 provided that on the recommendation of a Royal Commission the Governor-General might from time to time, by Order in Council, fix the salaries and allowances to be paid to the Prime Minister and other Ministers of the Crown or members of the Executive Council, to Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, and to the Speaker and Chairman of Committees and other members of the House of Representatives, and that a Royal Commission should be appointed for this purpose within 3 months after the date of every general election of members of Parliament. At April in the intervening years, adjustments were made on a basis matching that for the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969; the Government Statistician provided the Prime Minister with a certificate specifying the percentage movements in average weekly ordinary time earnings outside the State Services (as ascertained from the April half-yearly survey of industries in the private sector conducted by the Department of Labour) and adjustments might be made by Order in Council to the salaries of Ministers and members. The 1974 regulations suspend the operation of section 27 of the 1950 Act. The salaries and allowances of Ministers and members of Parliament are now considered and fixed by the Higher Salaries Commission established by the 1974 regulations.

The following table sets out the salaries and allowances payable as at the end of 1976.

OfficeSalaryExpense Allowance

*An additional allowance of $2,000 is paid to the Minister holding the portfolio of Foreign Affairs.

†Plus travelling allowance $1,275 and house allowance $600.

‡Plus electorate allowance.

§Plus $365 cost of living allowance.

 $$
Prime Minister29,6677,000
Deputy Prime Minister22,7553,010*
Minister with Portfolio19,5642,800
Minister without Portfolio16,9062,600
Parliamentary Under-Secretaries14,7792,240
Speaker17,969§2,100
Chairman of Committees15,311§1,260
Leader of the Opposition19,564§2,800
Deputy Leader of the Opposition14,799§1,120
Chief Whips13,7163,290
Junior Whips13,1843,290
Members12,121§3,290

There is an additional electorate allowance depending on classification of electorates: (a) electorates which are wholly urban, $110; (b) electorates which are substantially urban, $275; (c) electorates which are partially urban and partially rural, $625; (d) electorates which are ordinary rural, $1,650; (e) electorates which are predominantly rural, $1,930. The special additional allowance for Southern Maori electorate is $600 and for each of the other Maori electorates it is $300. The daily sessional allowance is $5 and the night allowance for members entitled thereto is $15.

In addition to the salary and allowances, members are entitled to certain travel concessions and a stamp allowance.

Former Prime Ministers receive an annual payment of $1,000 for each full year in office, with a maximum of $5,000 a year, after retirement, defeat at the polls, or when a member only. This is subject to a 2-year minimum period having been served as Prime Minister.

An amendment in 1973 to the Civil List Act provides that a defeated member of Parliament will continue to receive salary at the rate of an ordinary member for 3 months after the date of the election.

Under the Superannuation Act 1956 there is a compulsory contributory superannuation scheme for members of the House of Representatives. The scheme provides that a retiring allowance shall be payable to a member after 9 years service and the attainment of 50 years of age, and shall be calculated at the rate of one thirty-second of the basic salary for a member as at the date of his ceasing to be a member, for each year of service with a maximum of two-thirds of that basic salary, or alternatively the member may elect to take a variable retiring allowance so as to secure a level income or he may elect to receive a refund of his contributions. The annual contribution is 11 percent of an ordinary member's salary, and the Government subsidises the fund. The rate of contribution was increased by 1 percent from 1 April 1970 to provide for cost-of-living adjustments to be made to retiring allowances. In the case of a male member dying and leaving a widow surviving, she becomes entitled during her widowhood to receive an annuity of half of the retiring allowance to which her husband would have been entitled had he retired age 60 years at the time of his death, or $260 a year, whichever is the greater.

In addition to the foregoing a new member elected for the first time receives a grant of $100 which is a "once only" payment.

ADMINISTRATION AND EXECUTIVE RESPONSIBILITY—After the election of a new Parliament, it is the responsibility of the leader of the party, which is most likely to secure and retain the support of the majority of members in the House, to form a Government Although procedures for the selection of new Ministers have varied between the two principal parties, the Prime Minister has the final responsibility for allocating portfolios. A portfolio comprises a specific field of Government activity—for instance all matters relating to education will be allocated to one Minister who is henceforth known as the Minister of Education.

A Minister may have more than one portfolio and in addition responsibility for the supervision of one or more Government departments in which the activities carried out, though important, do not rank as portfolios. Occasionally, a Minister is appointed without portfolio, as, for example, a Minister of State. There are also Parliamentary Under-Secretaries without Ministerial rank who assist certain Ministers in the work of their portfolios; the Under-Secretaries are not members of the Executive Council or of Cabinet.

Executive Council—In the legal sense those members of Parliament who have been appointed Ministers comprise the Executive Council. The Governor-General normally presides over meetings of the Council. The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. The Royal Powers Act 1953 provides that the statutory powers conferred on the Governor-General may be exercised either by Her Majesty the Queen in person or by the Governor-General. In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council; but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

The Civil List Act 1950, in section 6, provided that no person shall be appointed a Minister or a member of the Executive Council unless he is a member of Parliament and that a person who ceases to be a member of Parliament cannot continue to be a Minister or a member of the Executive Council for more than 21 days. This gave statutory recognition for the first time to what had long been the convention.

After the General Election 1975 the newly-appointed Executive Council consisted of 20 members. Two members, exclusive of the Governor-General or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

The Governor-General receives a salary and an allowance which are determined from time to time by the Civil List Act 1950 for the salaries and expenses of his personal establishment, plus all expenditure incurred in respect of the transport to and from New Zealand and the travel within or outside New Zealand of the Governor-General and his family and staff.

Cabinet—The membership of the Executive Council and Cabinet is identical but Cabinet, unlike the Executive Council, is not a body created by any legal document. The existence of Cabinet was not recognised by statute until a passing reference was made in the Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962.

The fact that the Juridical Acts to give legal force to certain of the decisions of Cabinet are taken by others—the Crown, the Executive Council, a Minister of the Crown or a Statutory Commission—does not diminish the power and authority of Cabinet. Cabinet is the top committee of the administrative system, with responsibility for co-ordinating the work of the various Ministers and taking those decisions which largely determine the nature of the legislation put before Parliament and the regulations which the Executive Council is asked to approve.

Cabinet discussions are informal and confidential, anonymity being maintained as to the individual advocacy or opposition to particular proposals. The Cabinet system enables general agreement to be reached on any line of action proposed by either an individual Minister or by the Government as a whole. In Parliament a Minister can be confident that his legislative or other proposals will have the unqualified support of the Government no matter what divergences of opinion may have been apparent before general agreement was reached in Cabinet. A consistent and agreed course of action on any particular issue can be determined. The work of Cabinet thus exemplifies the concept of the collective responsibility of the Government.

Cabinet is assisted in its work by a number of Cabinet committees, the membership of which includes those Ministers principally concerned with the subject matters handled by the committee. These include committees covering Foreign Affairs, Economic Affairs, Expenditure, Communications, Government Works, Legislation and Parliamentary Questions. Social Affairs, the State Services and Transport. Some of the committees are supported by inter-departmental committees of officials. All Cabinet committees have delegated authority from Cabinet to make decisions within their terms of reference.

The Cabinet Office is responsible for the servicing and co-ordination of Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning as well as providing liaison and advice within the inter-Departmental framework. The Secretary of the Cabinet is also Clerk of the Executive Council.

Government Departments—The Minister as the political head of a department of State may in fact have several departments under his control. There are, however, some 40 different departments with separate functions in New Zealand. Each of these has a permanent head who is responsible for the work and administration of the department. He is of course responsible to the Minister in charge of the department, while he also acts as adviser to the Minister on all matters within his appointed competence. Besides ensuring that the ministerial policy and directions communicated to him are effectively put into practice, his functions as the adviser include assessing the consequences of any executive action resulting from his departmental activity, evaluating the merits and demerits, whether political, social, or financial, of various modes of action, and making suggestions for improvements and for new policy measures as derived from departmental experience in the day-to-day execution of policy.

Departments can be broadly classified according to the administrative or regulatory, developmental, or social nature of their activities. Within the first group are the servicing subgroup, such as the Legislative, Prime Minister's, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Printing Office, Crown Law, Valuation, Statistics, and Audit; the finance subgroup—Treasury, Customs, Inland Revenue; the regulatory subgroup—State Services Commission, Internal Affairs, Labour; the defence and law and order subgroup—Ministry of Defence, Justice, Crown Law, and Police; the research subgroup—Scientific and Industrial Research.

In the second group are the transport and communications subgroup, such as Ministry of Transport, Post Office Railways, and Tourist and Publicity; the developmental—Ministry of Works and Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Lands and Survey, Forest Service, Mines, Electricity, Energy Resources, Maori Affairs, Trade and Industry; The commercial—Public Trust, Government Life Insurance, Housing Corporation, Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, and State Insurance.

The third group comprises the Education, Health, and Social Welfare Departments.

This broad division serves merely to indicate the field of the dominant activity or purpose of the particular department. Most departments have servicing, informative, and regulatory functions and many are equally regulatory and developmental in nature.

In addition to the system of direct administration in the form of Government departments, there are other activities over which the State exercises some ultimate measure of control or ownership, though divorced in varying degrees from immediate supervision. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand (the central bank), and one trading bank, are entirely State-owned, although the actual administration is quite independent, subject in the case of the Reserve Bank to the proviso that it must give effect to the monetary policy of the Government, as communicated to the bank by the Minister of Finance, and to any resolution of Parliament in respect of Government monetary policy.

Further instances of this principle are shown by the National Airways Corporation, which, although owned by the State, is administratively self-contained, and by the Tourist Hotel Corporation. In certain other avenues the type of administration is in between the normal departmental form and that evident in the corporation type; of such is the National Roads Board, which, though determining policy to a large degree, yet makes use of departmental administrative structures for implementation of policy.

Some administrative organisations have also quasi-judicial functions. Examples of this class are the Price Tribunal, Transport Charges Authority, Licensing Control Commission, and Local Government Commission.

OMBUDSMEN—Since 1962 there has been an Ombudsman able to investigate, on complaint or on his own initiative, any administrative decision, recommendation, act, or omission of a Government department or related organisation as it affects any individual. The Ombudsman does not have power to reverse departmental decisions, but he may make his recommendations the department and to the Minister, and if, in his opinion, no appropriate action is taken he may report to the Prime Minister and then to Parliament. He has very wide powers to call for documents and files. The Government cannot refuse information, except in matters relating to the security of the State or to Cabinet proceedings.

Under the Ombudsmen Act 1975 jurisdiction was extended to local authorities and a range of specified national boards, councils, and other organisations. Provision was made for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and additional (including temporary) ombudsmen

An analysis of complaints made to the Ombudsmen and the resultant action is given in the Official section of this Yearbook.

JUDICIARY—The hierarchy of courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrate's Court. Apart from these courts of general jurisdiction there are other courts dealing with specific fields. In the latter category is the Industrial Commission concerned with awards and orders governing wage determination and conditions of employment in industry.

PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS—The law on elections is contained in the Electoral Act 1956 and its amendments. At every census the Chief Electoral Officer is to arrange with the Government Statistician to deliver to every occupier or person in charge of a dwelling forms of application for registration as an elector. This form is to be completed by every adult who is residing in the dwelling on the day of the census. Following the population census (every 5 years) the boundaries of General (formerly known as European) electorates are revised, and the new boundaries are to come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The Government Statistician is required to supply population figures to the Surveyor-General as soon as possible after the census.

The term "General population" means total population with the following exceptions:

  1. Maoris—defined in the 1975 Amendment as "a person of the Maori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person who elects to be considered as a Maori for the purposes of this Act";

  2. Persons residing on board ship, whether as passengers or members of the crew or otherwise;

  3. Persons residing temporarily as guests in any licensed hotel;

  4. Persons residing temporarily in any naval, military, or air force camp, station, or establishment;

  5. Persons residing as patients and inmates in any hospital.

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of the Representation Commission to define new General electoral districts. The commission comprises eight members. Five of these are official members; the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, the Director-General of the Post Office, and the Chairman of the Local Government Commission (who is without voting rights). Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government and one to represent the Opposition. The eighth member is appointed on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the commission or a majority of them, to be the chairman of the commission. The chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The number of general electorates is based on total population under a formula that allocates 25 seats to the South Island. The total South Island population (excluding those on the Maori roll) is divided by 25, and the quota thus obtained for each South Island electorate is then divided into the North Island population (again excluding those on the Maori roll) to give the number of electorates in the North Island.

The number of Maori seats is fixed at four. The total Maori population is the number of Maoris or persons of Maori descent who have elected to be considered as Maoris who have chosen to be registered as electors of Maori electoral districts and their children aged 18 years and under.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of 1 month is given during which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. These objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision reached on boundaries which then define the new electoral districts.

All general elections and by-elections are held on a Saturday. Polling hours in all electorates are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

Any serviceman aged 18 years or over serving overseas is qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which he last resided before he left New Zealand.

Franchise—Since September 1974, persons 18 years of age and over have had the right to vote in the election of members of the House of Representatives. (From 1893 onwards all persons aged 21 years had voting rights and the qualifying age had been lowered to 20 years in 1969.)

Registration of Electors—Registration as an elector is compulsory, although it is not compulsory to vote. To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 18 years and must (a) be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, (b) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year, and (c) except in special cases have resided continuously for 1 month or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for 1 month or more in any other electoral district. Broadly speaking the qualifications restrict the right to vote to permanent residents. Maoris and persons of part-Maori descent may elect to be included on either the General or the Maori electoral roll.

Voting at parliamentary elections is by secret ballot. In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the main and supplementary rolls of electors compiled prior to an election may vote at that election.

A vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his district. An elector may, however, vote as a "special voter", either at a polling booth outside his district or by post for reasons of distant travel on polling day, sickness, etc.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT: General—Since 1876, following the abolition of the provinces, the structure of territorial local government has been based on counties, boroughs, and town districts. Since then, however, there has developed a further structure, that of special purpose authorities. In this category there are such authorities as harbour boards, pest destruction boards, and electric power boards. Together, these two groups of local authorities (territorial and special purpose) form our local government system, a system to which, however, the Local Government Act 1974, amended in 1976, has brought some distinctive changes. Before these changes are described, the development of the present system is briefly outlined.

Boroughs—The Municipal Corporations Act 1876 provided for the incorporation of the 36 boroughs then in existence and for the creation of new boroughs. They are now governed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1954. Boroughs provide for the needs of concentrated populations and before they can be constituted there must be a population of at least 1,500 with an average density of population of at least one person per 4,000 sq. metres. A borough containing a population of 20,000 or more may be proclaimed a city, although the corporation remains unaltered.

Counties—Counties were originally introduced by the Counties Act 1876 which has now been superseded by the Counties Act 1956. Generally they cater for the primary needs of rural areas. Initially, there were 63 counties but with increasing settlement this number increased to 129 in 1920. Since then, the number of counties has been reduced by amalgamations and mergers and at 1 April 1976 there were 100 counties, of which 99 were actively functioning, Fiord being a sparsely populated county in which the Counties Act is not wholly in force.

County Towns and County Boroughs—Prior to the Local Government Act 1974 county councils could, under the provisions of the Counties Act 1956, declare areas within counties to be county towns. To qualify, the areas concerned must have had a population of at least 200, with an average density of not less than one person to the acre or not less than 60 houses with an average density of not less than one house to 3 acres.

Town Districts—The town district represents a form of local government intermediate between the county and the borough. It implies a certain concentration of population. There were two types of town districts—dependent and independent. On the enactment of the Local Government Act 1974 the four existing dependent town districts became community councils. Independent town districts do not form part of the county within which they are situated nor are they subject to any county council control.

Special-purpose Authorities—Special-purpose authorities differ from territorial authorities in that each is charged with only one major function. The need for the most efficient and economic discharge of the major function being the prime consideration, their boundaries may either extend beyond or fall within those of territorial authorities in the same geographical area. Only rarely do the boundaries coincide. Sometimes, as is the case with a number of pest destruction boards and hydatids control authorities, territorial authorities themselves are also constituted as, and perform the functions of, special-purpose authorities. The more important special-purpose authorities are those administering harbours, hospitals, and the retail distribution of electricity. Others are engaged in water supply, urban drainage and transport, soil conservation and rivers control, pest destruction, nassella tussock control, hydatids control, and land drainage.

Fire boards and urban fire authorities went out of existence as special-purpose authorities when on 1 April 1976 their functions and assets were taken over by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission (See Section 8B).

Number of Local Authorities—Local authorities actively functioning at 1 April 1976 were as follows: county councils 99; borough (including city) councils, 133; town councils (independent), 6; district councils, 3; regional authority, 1; river boards (2 boards also have the powers of land-drainage boards), 6; catchment boards, 13; catchment commissions, 4; land-drainage boards, 28; electric power boards, 39; water-supply board, 1; regional water board, 1; urban drainage boards, 4; transport board, 1; local railway board, 1; power and gas board, 1; nassella tussock boards, 2; harbour bridge authority; 1; road tunnel authority, 1; valley authority, 1; plantation board, 1; forestry corporation, 1; crematorium board, 1; wallaby board, 1; pest destruction boards (separately elected), 66; independent harbour boards, 16; hospital boards, 29. Borough and county councils also function as harbour boards in 8 cases, as county pest destruction boards in 39 cases, as hydatids authorities in 85 cases, as domain boards in 402 cases, and as scenic boards in 116 cases. There are 459 independent domain boards and 885 independent scenic boards. In addition, there were 22 district roads councils of the National Roads Board constituted under the National Roads Act 1953. Although these district roads councils are not local authorities in the strict sense of the term they are intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, providing an advisory service to the National Roads Board concerning the roading needs and the allocation of national roading funds within their respective districts.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT 1974—This Act, which came into force on 1 December 1974, provided the means for the establishment of a system of regional bodies to deal in a co-ordinated manner with all functions of a regional nature. It continued and improved the procedures of rationalisation of the local government structure in both the special purpose and territorial spheres and provided for the eventual phasing out of the existing dual system of territorial local government based on counties and boroughs. Furthermore, to encourage greater public involvement in local community affairs the Act provided for the establishment of community councils with varying degrees of authority. The responsibility for introducing and implementing the above changes was given primarily to a reconstituted and enlarged independent Local Government Commission.

Local Government Commission—The Local Government Act, which repealed the Local Government Commission Act 1967, set up a revised Local Government Commission. The Act provided that the minimum membership of the commission shall be five, one of which shall be chairman, and at least one member must have experience in urban territorial local government and at least one other must have experience in rural territorial local government.

The principal task of the commission is to prepare by 31 December 1979, or as soon as possible thereafter, schemes establishing regional authorities throughout New Zealand, These authorities will be called united councils or regional councils and their nature is described in more detail below.

Allied with the task of establishing regional authorities, the commission is to ensure that united councils or regional councils or territorial authorities (a borough, city, county, district, or independent town council) undertake those functions of special purpose authorities which in the opinion of the commission, should be performed by them. For this purpose, practically all types of special-purpose authorities, except for hospital boards and education boards, have been placed within the jurisdiction of the commission. Accordingly, the commission is also empowered to provide for any function undertaken by a territorial authority which, in the commission's opinion, would be more appropriately performed by a united or regional council to be transferred.

The commission will continue to carry out investigations, prepare reorganisation schemes, and make recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that the system of local government in any local authority will best provide for the needs and well-being of its residents and the continued development of the district, that local authorities have such district boundaries and such functions and powers as will enable them to provide most effectively and economically essential or desirable local government services and facilities, that local authorities shall have such resources as will enable them to engage adequate services and to obtain and operate adequate technical facilities, plant, and equipment, and that districts shall be of such a size and nature as will promote efficient local government and avoid the necessity of uneconomic expenditure.

United and Regional Councils—Apart from the Auckland Regional Authority, which has operated since 1963, the regional bodies to be established under the Act will be new to local government in this country. They will be determined by the commission and established by Order in Council giving effect to a final scheme of the commission. The commission will determine whether the governing body for each region is to be either a united council or a regional council. The essential difference between united councils and regional councils are that the former will be appointed by the constituent (territorial) authorities within the regions concerned while regional councils will be directly elected bodies. In both cases the membership of united and regional councils will be not less than 12. To obtain finance, united councils will make levies on their constituent authorities, while regional councils will have direct rating powers.

The united council concept is designed to meet the requirements of those regions where the range of functions, or the nature of the responsibilities involved, do not justify the setting up of an organisation of the scale inherent in a directly elected regional council.

The Local Government Amendment Act 1976 introduced criteria as to which type of regional body a region is to have. A region which is a metropolitan area, defined as being an area predominantly urban in character with a population of not less than 325,000, will normally have a regional council; in other regions—more rural in nature—a united council will be the rule. In either case, however, the converse type of regional body may be established by the Commission if two or more territorial authorities in the proposed region (having sufficient weighting in capital value, population and area) so prefer.

Functions of these authorities can be attained in several ways. First, the Act prescribes that every united council or regional council shall have two mandatory functions—that of regional planning and civil defence. Also, in the commission's scheme constituting a united or regional council the Commission may provide for it to undertake the functions of any territorial authority or (where a special purpose authority or the appropriate Minister concurs) special purpose authority. Furthermore, a united or regional council is empowered to undertake solely any new regional function which is not undertaken by any other local authority in its region. In this regard, the commission, by scheme, can provide that that function may be one that other local authorities are not empowered to undertake by any other statute. Besides the two mandatory functions, the Act provides that a united or regional council may undertake the functions of regional reserves, forestry, regional roading and community services. A united or regional council may enter into an agreement with a constituent authority to undertake any function of that authority where, in the opinion of either party, that function would be more effectively and economically undertaken by the regional body. Finally, united and regional councils may enter into agreements with the Crown whereby they may exercise any function or provide any service for or on behalf of the Crown.

District Councils—The Act empowers the commission when bringing down schemes affecting boroughs or counties to redesignate them as districts under the jurisdiction of "district councils". The rationale behind this provision is that, today, many territorial authorities are neither "boroughs" nor "counties" in the sense that they are neither wholly urban nor wholly rural. This provision, however, will not apply to the designations of "city" and "city council".

The Act also provides that where, as a result of amalgamations or unions the new boundaries of the district of a district council coincide with those of a region, the district council may undertake the functions of a regional body. In this case, no united or regional council need be established for the region.

District Community Councils and Community Councils—The Act provides for the establishment of "communities" within the districts of territorial local authorities. Each community will be administered by either a "district community council" or a "community council". These communities will not be local authorities in the true sense but will have councils of not less than 5 nor more than 12 who will be elected on a residential franchise for a 3-year term.

Except for certain reserved powers dealing with finance, staff, and planning, a district community council may exercise all the powers and functions of its parent territorial authority. Community councils, however, derive most of their powers by delegation from their territorial authority. Once again, powers dealing with finance, staff, and planning cannot be delegated.

As amended in 1976, the Act provides that the general purpose of a community council is to co-ordinate and express to the parent territorial authority the views of the community on any matter of concern to it and after consulting and obtaining the consent of the territorial authority, take appropriate action in the interests of the community. Statutory provision for communities has been modified by the 1976 Amendment so that no community shall now be constituted except in an urban area within the rural part of a territorial authority district that is predominantly urban in character, or in an urban area within a territorial authority that is predominantly rural in character, or in the whole of the area of one or more offshore islands forming part of a territorial authority district. This brings the position nearer to that existing prior to the enactment of the Local Government Act 1974, which superseded Parts III and IV of the Counties Amendment Act 1968 under which county towns and county boroughs were able to be constituted within counties. When the Local Government Act came into force all county boroughs were redesignated district community councils and all county towns and dependent town districts became community councils. At 1 April 1976 there were 13 district community councils and 103 community councils.

General Powers—Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Act under which they are constituted. In the case of territorial local authorities, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 and the Counties Act 1956 are the main governing Acts, while united, regional, district, district community, and community councils are under the Local Government Act 1974.

There are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act 1966 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. For most harbour boards there is, in addition to the general Harbours Act, a special Act for each board which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—urban drainage boards, transport boards, the Auckland Regional Authority, the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, the Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority, and the Waikato Valley Authority—derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

A local authority has no legislative powers beyond the authority to make bylaws within limits defined in its constituting Act, but it can promote legislation on matters which affect the government of the area under its jurisdiction and which it is not already empowered to deal with. If the subject is transient and not contentious and is approved by Government, it is usually dealt with by the inclusion of an appropriate section in the annual Local Legislation Act passed by Parliament for this purpose. If, on the other hand, the local authority seeks powers of a permanent or major nature additional to those conferred on it by general Acts it must submit to Parliament a special local Bill. The extent to which the foregoing privileges are used may be gauged from the fact that the annual Local Legislation Act usually contains 20 to 25 sections, while about 15 local Acts are passed each year.

Franchise—Under the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. The next triennial general elections are due in 1977. Enrolment of residential electors is compulsory. In a poll on any proposal relating to loans or rates, a rate paying qualification is necessary.

Apart from a few special-purpose authorities, some of whose members are appointed by other local authorities or by Government, members of local authorities are elected triennially, any qualified elector being eligible to seek election. In general the franchise extends to all persons aged 18 years or over who either possess a rating qualification or who possess a residential qualification in the district of the local authority concerned. The right to vote for members of land drainage and river boards is, however, restricted to those who possess rating qualifications. In the case of regional councils, district community councils, and community councils the right to vote is limited to those who reside in the region or community.

A person who is an alien (other than an enemy alien) may vote in local authority elections but is not capable of election or appointment as a member of any local authority.

Voting Procedures—Under the provisions of the Local Elections and Polls Act 1976, any local authority may determine whether an election or poll is to be conducted by personal attendance at a polling booth or by way of postal vote. Since 1970, county councils had been authorised by legislation to use postal voting but other local authorities had been able to employ this method only on approval being granted by Order in Council. Where the franchise is to be exercised by personal attendance at a polling booth, the local authority may decide to conduct the election or poll over a period of not more than eleven consecutive days instead of confining voting to a single day.

Remuneration of Members—The remuneration of members of local authorities is governed by the statutes constituting the various types of local authorities. Most special purpose authorities pay their chairmen an annual allowance with a maximum fixed for each type of authority. The maximum payable to mayors of boroughs and cities and county council chairmen varies according to the population of the local authority. The chairman and members of a united or regional council may be paid such annual allowances as may from time to time be approved by the Minister of Finance after consultation with the Minister of Local Government.

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING—The Town and Country Planning Act 1953 provides for the making and enforcement of regional and district planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1960. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works and Development who may delegate his authority to the Commissioner of Works.

This subject is further discussed in Section 10, Land Use and Development.

Chapter 3. Section 3 POPULATION

Table of Contents

GENERAL—By world standards, New Zealand's population is small—only an estimated 3.1 million at the end of 1976. Our rate of growth, however, is high, higher than in almost any other developed country. A main cause of this in recent years has been the relatively large gains from net migration. Because of the age structure of our population, our potential for growth will continue to be high for some time after the average family size has become small—as it is expected to do.

New Zealand's first million of population was recorded in 1908, 68 years after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. In 1952, 44 years later, the second million was reached, and the third million late in 1973.

POPULATION GROWTH—Population has two sources of gain—natural increase (excess of births over deaths) and net migration (excess of arrivals over departures). In the early years in New Zealand, the bulk of the increase was through migration. From the late 1870s natural increase permanently displaced immigration as the chief contributor to population growth. At the census of 1881 the percentages of the total population born in New Zealand and born overseas were approximately equal (50.2 percent New Zealand born to 49.8 percent overseas born), and each succeeding census until 1961 recorded an increased proportion of New Zealand-born. Since 1961 (when the New Zealand-born made up 86 percent of the population) the proportion has fallen slightly mainly because increased international travel and tourism have meant that at each census increased numbers of overseas-born tourists and travellers have been included in the population as enumerated on census date. At the 1976 census 83.3 percent of the population was recorded as having been born in New Zealand.

During the present century, natural increase has accounted for over three-quarters of the growth of population. New Zealand's rate of natural increase is relatively high compared with other countries whose population is predominantly of European origin.

The natural increase rate has, in the main, closely reflected the changes in the birth rate, with a low point of 8.63 per 1,000 in 1935 and high points of 18 per 1,000 in 1947 and 1961; in the 1960s the average rate was less than 14 per 1,000. Like the low birth rate of the thirties, the fall in the birth rate in the sixties and seventies is a feature that New Zealand shares with a number of other developed countries, and notably with Australia, Canada, and the United States.

The natural increase in recent years is shown in the following table. A 50-year series of vital statistics is included in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

PeriodMarch YearsCalendar Years
Births*DeathsNatural IncreaseBirths*DeathsNatural Increase

*Section 14 birth registrations excluded since 1966. These are "late" registrations. See Yearbook Section 4B Births.

 (thousand)
1946-1950239.988.0151.9244.988.1156.8
1951-1955258.593.1165.4263.694.2169.4
1956-1960295.0101.5193.5300.4102.9197.5
1961-1965320.0110.5209.5317.9112.1205.8
1966-1970306.0118.6187.4307.5120.2187.3
1971-1975307.9124.9183.0304.4124.8179.6
197656.325.331.055.125.529.7
Totals 1916-1976......2,720.31,089.11,631.4

Migration, however, has continued to add to the population quite substantially except during depression and war periods, the recession conditions of 1968-69, and the most recent period. Gains from external migration since the Second World War are shown in the following table. Movements of the armed forces are not included.

PeriodMarch Years* Migration GainCalendar Years Migration Gain

*March years ended in years listed.

†Excess of departures.

 (000)(000)
1946-195027.432.6
1951-195566.669.1
1956-196049.244.3
1961-196563.970.7
PeriodMarch Years* Migration GainCalendar Years Migration Gain
 (000)(000)
1966-19706.06.5
1971-1975107.8116.9x
19766.6-8.7
Total 1901-1976..547.6

Most of the inward migration has been from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Netherlands In more recent years increasing numbers have come from the Pacific Islands, notably Western Samoa. A changed economic climate in the country brought a net migration loss to population for the years ended March 1968, 1969, and 1970, but these losses were more than compensated for by relatively heavy gains to the population from net migration during the years ended March 1973,1974, and 1975. There was a sharp fall in the net gain from migration in the year ended March 1976 and a net loss of 13,727 in the following year.

CENSUS STATISTICS—Population statistics are based primarily on the five-yearly population census. Intercensal population estimates are based on the most recent census data available, adjusted in accordance with later figures of births, deaths, and migration. Estimates of the populations of particular localities, e.g., cities and boroughs, also take into account local economic developments, housing schemes, the numbers on school rolls, changes in boundaries, and any other factors leading to, or indicating, changes in population.

The basis adopted for the population census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of population physically present in the place of enumeration at the time of enumeration.

All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand, i.e., island territories are omitted except where their inclusion is specifically stated. Though Tokelau Islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons they are administered separately. The Cook Islands and Niue Island are self-governing but the islanders are New Zealand citizens.

The most recent Census of Population and Dwellings was taken on 23 March 1976.

PRESENT POPULATION—The following table gives a summary of population. A 50-year time series is given in the statistical summary towards the back of this Yearbook.

TerritoryDateTotal
*Includes population of Kermadec Islands 11 (males) and Campbell Island 7(males).
New Zealand*23 March 1976 (Census)3,129,383
Island Territory—Tokelau30 June 19761,558
Ross Dependency23 March 197679

At 31 December 1976 the population of New Zealand was provisionally estimated at 3,148,100.

INCREASE OF POPULATION—The growth of population has been substantial in each intercensal period. The lowest rates are those of 1926-36, which included some years of economic depression, and of 1936-45, which included 6 years of international war, and of 1966-71, mainly attributable to a marked change in migration patterns.

Census DatePopulation*Increase or Decrease
IntercensalIntercensalAnnual Average
*Numbers of persons in New Zealand armed forces overseas are excluded.
   Percent
25 September 19451,702,330128,5188.170.83
17 April 19511,939,472237,14213.932.37
17 April 19562,174,062234,59012.102.31
18 April 19612,414,984240,92211.082.12
22 March 19662,676,919261,93510.852.11
23 March 19712,862,631185,7126.941.35
23 March 19763,129,383266,7529.321.80

POPULATION POLICY GUIDELINES—Early in 1973 an Inter-Departmental Committee on Population Questions was established in recognition of the growing worldwide importance attaching to issues associated with population. Late in 1974 the Government directed the committee to prepare a paper discussing the main issues to be taken into account in formulating a specific population policy for New Zealand. The committee's report, published in September 1975, discussed the world population situation; New Zealand's population situation in relation to fertility and mortality trends and patterns, and both external and internal migration; and the implications of current and projected population trends in New Zealand, taking into account the relationship of population to physical resources, the economy, and society as a whole. It concluded by laying down broad guidelines for a population policy. (Future official machinery for the investigation of population policy issues was still under review at the time of going to press.)

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The annual average percentage increases of population for the period 1970-75, are given in the following table for certain selected countries. (Source: United Nations Demographic Yearbook 1975.)

CountryAverage Annual Percentage IncreaseCountryAverage Annual Percentage Increase
Australia1.5Netherlands0.9
Canada1.4New Zealand1.9
Denmark0.5Sweden0.4
France0.8Switzerland0.7
Germany, West0.4United Kingdom0.2
India2.1United States0.8
Japan1.2U.S.S.R.0.9

INTERCENSAL RECORDS—Intercensal estimates of total population are prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration. The figures in the table following have been revised in line with 1976 Census results and exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

YearPopulation at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
*Provisional.
Years Ended 31 March      
1972x1,452,9001,453,8002,906,70045,8271.62,875,500
1973x1,483,9001,483,2002,967,10060,4002.12,927,700
1974x1,516,3001,514,3003,030,60063,5002.22,986,500
1975x1,546,0001,543,0003,089,00058,4001.93,047,000
1976*....3,124,50035,5001.13,097,100
Years Ended 31 December      
1972x1,476,8001,477,5002,954,30055,2332.02,912,900
1973x1,508,2001,507,6003,015,80061,5002.12,970,800
1974x1,541,1001,537,9003,079,00063,2002.13,031,800
1975x1,564,3001,563,6003,127,90048,9001.63,087,000
1976*....3,148,10020,1000.63,116,200

The following table shows the New Zealand Maori population. Figures revised in line with the 1976 Census results were not available for this section but may be included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

YearNew Zealand Maori Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
Years Ended 31 March
1970112,322109,781222,1035,1342.4219,424
1971115,037112,537227,5745,4712.5224,718
1972118,390115,912234,3026,7283.0230,747
1973121,569119,107240,6766,3742.7237,547
1974124,200122,000246,2005,5242.3243,400
1975127,100124,500251,6005,4002.1248,600
Years Ended 31 December
1970114,340111,768226,1085,3542.4223,365
1971117,516115,010232,5266,4182.8229,104
1972120,814118,322239,1366,6102.8235,924
1973123,602121,192244,7945,6582.4242,017
1974126,200123,600249,8005,0062.0247,300
1975129,000126,400255,3005,5002.2252,700

POPULATION PROJECTIONS—An indication of possible future growth of the total New Zealand population (including Maoris) up to 2001 is given by the detailed alternative projections which follow. A later series of projections, based on the estimated population at 31 March 1976 and taking into account recent migration experience, is included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels and difficulties in forecasting the future behaviour of these components of population change.

It should be understood that, as with all demographic projections prepared by the Department of Statistics, these projections are not strict forecasts or targets, but conditional forecasts based on the stated assumptions. Presentation and use of the projections, therefore, cannot be divorced from consideration of the assumptions adopted.

These projections incorporate fertility assumptions relating to age-of-mother-specific total birth rates. Marital-status-specific birth rates were not used to project fertility because of their non-suitability in terms of the projection methodology. In the department's judgment this will not significantly impair the validity and utility of the projections. A full description of the projection assumptions is contained in the footnotes to the table.

Single-year-of-age-specific projections, equivalent to those in the table below are available on application to the Demographic Analysis Section of the Department of Statistics.

As at 31 MarchProjected Total New Zealand Population* Assuming Net Annual Immigration of
5,00010,00015,000
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*The base population for these projections is the estimated population at 31 March 1974. They are based on the following assumptions:

(a) That future fertility experience will be in accordance with the alternative trends in age-of-mother-specific birth rates described in (‡) below;

(b) That 1970-72 Life Table Mortality Rates (Total Population) apply throughout the projection period.

†The assumed net immigration is taken to commence from the projection base point of 31 March 1974.

‡The fertility variants inherent in these projections are based on extrapolation of the 1962-73 trends in age-of-mother-specific birth rates until 1974 with a subsequent divergence into three alternative assumptions designated "high", "medium" and "low". In general the "low" assumption is based on a continuation of the 1962-73 trend from 1974 to 1979 with an extension of this trend, somewhat flattened, until 1984 and a further extension, even more flattened, until 1989. The "high" and "medium" assumptions were then derived relative to the "low" assumption, using generally less extreme declining trends, with the further condition that the "medium" birth rate values were the average of the "high" and "low" values at any projection time-point. In the 10-14 and 15-19 maternal age groups the "high" assumption was the bench-mark, based on 1962-73 experience, and the "medium" and "low" assumptions were derived relative to this variant. Because of the uncertainty in projecting fertility experience for longer than 15-20 years ahead, birth rates which make up the above fertility assumptions have b kept constant from 1990 until 2001, at the levels projected for 1989.

(Thousand)
1974 (Base)1,5221,5203,0431,5221,5203,0431,5221,5203,043
High Fertility Assumption
19761,5701,5673,1371,5811,5763,1581,5921,5863,178
19811,6981,6933,3911,7381,7273,4651,7791,7603,539
19861,8361,8283,6651,9061,8873,7931,9771,9473,923
19911,9761,9663,9422,0772,0514,1282,1792,1384,317
19962,1152,1014,2162,2482,2164,4642,3842,3304,714
20012,2562,2384,4932,4232,3834,3072,5942,5295,122
Medium Fertility Assumption
19761,5681,5663,1341,5791,5753,1541,5911,5843,175
19811,6821,6773,3591,7221,7113,4321,7621,7443,506
19861,7951,7893,5841,8641,8473,7111,9341,9063,839
19911,9041,8973,8012,0031,9813,9842,1032,0654,168
19962,0102,0004,0102,1392,1114,2502,2712,2224,493
20012,1102,0994,2092,2722,2384,5112,4362,3784,815
Low Fertility Assumption
19761,5661,5643,1301,5771,5723,1491,5881,5813,169
19811,6661,6623,3281,7041,6943,3981,7441,7273,471
19861,7541,7503,5051,8211,8063,6281,8901,8643,754
19911,8331,8293,6621,9291,9103,8382,0271,9924,018
19961,9051,9003,8062,0302,0064,0362,182,1144,272
20011,9681,9633,9312,1232,0954,2182,2812,2304,511

The following diagram presented on a ratio scale shows the growth of actual population from 1882 to 1976 and projections through to 2006.

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and are published in Volume 1A, Location and Increase of Population, of the Census of Population and Dwellings.

North and South Islands—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of NZ Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands since 1901.

Census YearTotal PopulationTotalPercentages
North IslandSouth IslandNorth IslandSouth Island
1901431,471384,391815,86252.947.1
1911610,599447,7131,058,31257.742.3
1921791,918479,7501,271,66862.337.7
19361,018,038555,7741,573,81264.735.3
19451,146,315556,0151,702,33067.332.7
19561,497,364676,6982,174,06268.931.1
19661,893,326783,5932,676,91970.729.3
19762,268,393860,9903,129,38372.527.5

The 1976 Census revealed that the population of the North Island continues to increase at a greater proportionate rate than that of the South Island. At the 1976 Census the North Island population was 2,268,393, a 10.6 percent increase on the 1971 total of 2,051,363. At the same census the South Island total was 860,990, an increase of only 6.1 percent on the 1971 total of 811,268. However, between the 1971 and 1976 Censuses, births in the South Island totalled almost 78,000 and deaths over 38,000, giving a net natural increase of approximately 40,000. The fact that the total population increase was nearly 50,000 indicates a net migration inflow to the South Island during the inter-censal period. This is in contrast to the previous inter-censal period (1966-71) when a net migration outflow of approximately 16,000 was indicated.

Statistical Areas—In the following table are shown the areas and the populations of the statistical areas at the 2 most recent censuses.

Statistical AreaArea (Square Kilometres)Population Census 23 March 1971Population Census 23 March 1976
Northland12,63996,191107,013
Central Auckland5,569698,382797,406
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty36,744422,317472,083
East Coast10,87847,34248,147
Hawke's Bay11,033133,250145,061
Taranaki9,713100,895107,071
Wellington28,153552,986591,612
Totals, North Island114,7292,051,3632,268,393
Statistical AreaArea (Square Kilometres)Population Census 23 March 1971Population Census 23 March 1976
Marlborough10,93031,64235,030
Nelson17,89768,83875,562
Westland15,56622,86124,049
Canterbury43,431398,830428,586
Otago36,441182,749188,903
Southland29,681106,348108,860
Totals, South Island153,946811,268860,990
Totals, New Zealand268,6752,862,6313,129,383

Statistical Divisions and Main Urban Areas—Statistical divisions and Main Urban Areas are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. Statistical divisions are a new concept. The basic criterion for a statistical division is a population of 75,000 or more within the area of economic and social interests of a heavily populated centre. Seven statistical divisions have been established, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, Napier-Hastings, Palmerston North, Wellington (including Hutt), Christchurch, and Dunedin. The division, like the urban area, does not have any administrative functions, but embraces areas of unified community, economic, and social interests. In addition to the central city or borough, urban areas include neighbouring boroughs and town districts and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population. Maps of statistical boundaries are available at Government bookshops. Adjustments of Urban Area boundaries have been made because of the peripheral growth of population in some of the urban centres.

The populations of the 7 Statistical Divisions and the 24 defined Urban Areas are given below.

Statistical Division (S. Div.) and Main Urban Area (U.A.)1971 Population Census1976 Population CensusPercentage Increase
1966-19711971-1976
Auckland S. Div.—    
Northern Auckland U.A.107,977137,42125.127.3
Western Auckland U.A.89,948108,13918.720.2
Central Auckland U.A.286,785289,1252.00.8
Southern Auckland U.A.165,048208,10132.226.1
Sub-totals, Combined Auckland U.A.649,758742,78614.414.3
Remainder S. Div.48,62454,6206.912.3
Totals698,382797,40613.814.2
Hamilton S. Div.—    
Hamilton U.A.80,81294,77718.017.3
Remainder S. Div.55,19459,829-1.18.4
Totals136,006154,6069.413.7
Statistical Division (S. Div.) and Urban Area (U.A.)1971 Population Census1976 Population CensusPercentage Increase
1966-19711971-1976
Napier-Hastings S. Div.—    
Napier U.A.43,60150,16413.615.1
Hastings U.A.45,51250,81411.911.6
Remainder S. Div.7,8208,032-0.72.7
Totals96,933109,01011.612.5
Palmerston North S. Div.—    
Palmerston North U.A.57,06563,8738.911.9
Remainder S. Div.23,66724,8510.55.0
Totals80,73288,7246.39.9
Wellington S. Div.—    
Upper Hutt Valley U.A.30,98635,58413.214.8
Lower Hutt Valley U.A.92,01497,1944.35.6
Porirua Basin U.A.47,85855,69827.416.4
Wellington U.A.136,782138,9383.61.6
Sub-totals, Combined Wellington U.A.307,640327,4147.96.4
Remainder S. Div.16,39222,21418.935.5
Totals324,032349,6288.47.9
Christchurch S. Div.—    
Christchurch U.A.275,968295,2967.27.0
Remainder S. Div.26,64230,4146.814.2
Totals302,610325,7107.17.6
Dunedin S. Div.—    
Dunedin U.A.111,059113,2222.11.9
Remainder S. Div.6,6817,204-5.77.8
Totals117,740120,4261.62.3

Main Urban Areas Not in Any Statistical Division

Main Urban Area1971 Population Census1976 Population CensusPercentage Increase
1966-19711971-1976
Whangarei34,02939,0699.814.8
Tauranga40,34948,15319.319.3
Rotorua39,75246,65018.317.4
Gisborne30,16131,7907.35.4
New Plymouth38,78043,9148.713.2
Wanganui37,98239,679-0.54.5
Masterton20,14721,0015.44.2
Nelson37,99442,43310.311.7
Timaru28,95929,9583.63.4
Invercargill50,68153,7628.06.1
Totals, 24 Main Urban Areas1,930,2492,134,75510.410.6
Totals, 7 Statistical Divisions1,756,4351,945,5109.910.8

Cities and Boroughs—The population of cities and boroughs is now given.

City or BoroughPopulation Census 23 March 1976Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—  
Kaitaia4,243526
Kaikohe3,567544
Whangarei (city)34,9814,354
Dargaville4,5591,133
Helensville1,249532
East Coast Bays (city)23,4901,558
Takapuna (city)62,2208,610
Devonport11,003445
Northcote9,921540
Birkenhead19,6831,266
Waitemata (city)79,88337,550
Henderson7,076517
Glen Eden8,370503
New Lynn10,466564
Auckland (city)150,7087,472
Newmarket1,35374
Mt. Albert28,131983
Mt. Eden19,815598
Mt. Roskill34,6451,862
Onehunga16,655768
One Tree Hill11,711983
Ellerslie5,574301
Mt. Wellington20,5331,650
Howick13,949621
Otahuhu10,558558
Papatoetoe (city)22,864907
Manukau (city)139,05956,548
Papakura (city)21,4521,380
Pukekohe8,7701,405
Waiuku3,494593
Tuakau1,724442
Huntly5,559785
Cambridge7,8411,071
Ngaruawahia4,385450
Hamilton (city)87,9685,555
Te Awamutu7,619713
Te Kuiti4,840675
Taumarunui6,4791,815
Paeroa3,796574
Waihi3,415539
Te Aroha3,2021,126
Morrinsville4,783476
Matamata5,050533
Putaruru4,442395
Tokoroa18,6351,359
Mt. Maunganui10,1031,411
Tauranga (city)33,6723,828
Te Puke3,810532
Rotorua (city)37,2292,667
Taupo12,8981,446
Whakatane11,5421,688
Kawerau7,743923
Murupara2,961287
Gisborne (city)29,6982,628
Wairoa5,466649
Napier (city)46,9943,021
Hastings (city)33,9601,711
Havelock North8,348514
Waipawa1,827692
Waipukurau3,632420
Dannevirke5,638526
Woodville1,548427
Waitara6,036652
New Plymouth (city)37,7112,316
Inglewood2,595284
Stratford5,444816
Eltham2,334647
Hawera8,506514
Patea2,014575
Ohakune1,399841
Raetihi1,219388
Wanganui (city)37,3072,997
Taihape2,800778
Marton4,910573
Feilding10,893855
Foxton2,789306
Palmerston N. (city)57,9314,302
Levin14,7591,298
Otaki4,202666
Kapiti14,97317,428
Upper Hutt (city)30,61648,428
Lower Hutt (city)64,5538,967
Petone8,8831,044
Eastbourne4,7791,273
Porirua (city)42,8338,508
Tawa12,297550
Wellington (city)139,56626,343
Pahiatua2,618291
Masterton19,4601,799
Carterton3,985512
Greytown1,910442
Featherston2,532307
Martinborough1,389433
Totals, North Island cities and boroughs1,770,032310,356
City or BoroughPopulation Census 23 March 1976Approximate Area in Hectares
South Island—  
Picton3,276426
Blenheim17,1561,770
Nelson (city)32,7934,762
Richmond6,5871,052
Motueka4,3841,021
Westport4,988308
Runanga1,465487
Greymouth8,2821,068
Hokitika3,530273
Rangiora5,991357
Kaiapoi4,746318
Riccarton7,280339
Christchurch (city)171,98710,635
Lyttelton3,3271,036
Ashburton14,2251,226
Geraldine2,055301
Temuka3,711395
Timaru (city)29,2672,262
Waimate3,378312
Oamaru13,4801,161
Port Chalmers3,123410
Dunedin (city)82,54616,560
St. Kilda6,542249
Green Island6,979781
Mosgiel9,289787
Milton2,218204
Kaitangata1,120518
Balclutha4,740509
Tapanui934121
Lawrence585249
Roxburgh773208
Naseby12476
Alexandra4,137986
Cromwell1,176321
Arrowtown410134
Queenstown3,133416
Gore9,179946
Mataura2,421515
Winton2,004231
Invercargill (city)49,7385,574
Bluff3,016866
Riverton1,578403
        Totals, South Island cities and boroughs537,67360,573
        Grand totals, all cities and boroughs2,307,705370,929

District—A new concept in local government—the district—appears in the 1976 Census statistics in the form of the Thames-Coromandel District, constituted on 1 October 1975 and amalgamating the former Thames and Coromandel Counties and Thames Borough.

DistrictPopulation Census 23 March 1976Approximate Area in Square Kilometres

*Formerly Coromandel County.

†Formerly Thames County.

‡Formerly Thames Borough.

Thames-Coromandel—  
(Coromandel Division)*4,6121,160
Thames-Coromandel—  
(Thames Division)5,1971,041
Thames-Coromandel—  
(Urban Division)6,76911
Total16,5782,212

Town Districts—The population of town districts—i.e., those contained in the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located.

Town DistrictPopulation Census 23 March 1976Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—  
Hikurangi1,174389
Warkworth1,599577
Ohura469330
Manaia953206
Waverley1,146202
Totals, North Island5,3411,704
South Island—  
Wyndham732275
Otautau956198
Totals, South Island1,688473
Grand totals7,0292,177

Communities—The following table lists communities with populations of 1,000 or more at 23 March 1976. The parent county is shown in parentheses. The population of communities (previously known as county towns or dependent town districts) are included in the administrative county populations given in a later table.

CommunityPopulation Census 23 March 1976Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island  
Moerewa (Bay of Islands)1,35175
Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)1,624229
Paihia (Bay of Islands)1,495232
Raglan (Raglan)1,310372
Kihikihi (Waipa)1,253212
Whitianga (Coromandel Div.)1,427293
Whangamata (Thames Div.)1,168485
Waihi Beach (Ohinemuri)1,171209
Katikati (Tauranga)1,349960
Papamoa Beach (Tauranga)1,175253
Mangakino (Taupo)1,614261
Turangi (Taupo)5,496579
Edgecumbe (Whakatane)1,617172
Ohope (Whakatane)1,594544
Ashhurst (Oroua)1,590173
Foxton Beach (Manawatu)1,009397
South Island  
Kaikoura (Kaikoura)1,949283
Darfield (Malvern)1,007228
Halswell (Paparua)4,787204
Brighton (Taieri)1,104112
Fairfield (Taieri)1,667143
Wanaka (Lake)1,178309
Te Anau (Wallace)2,384395

District Communities—The following table lists the populations of district communities as at 23 March 1976. The parent county is shown in parentheses. The populations of district communities (previously known as county boroughs) are included in the administrative county populations given in the following table.

District CommunityPopulation Census 23 March 1976Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island  
Wellsford (Rodney)1,687554
Hibiscus Coast (Rodney)9,968633
Otorohanga (Otorohanga)1,965227
Ngongotaha (Rotorua)2,262513
Opotiki (Opotiki)2,623299
Bulls (Rangitikei)1,965405
Waikanae (Horowhenua)4,1841,060
Shannon (Horowhenua)1,649342
Heretaunga-Pinehaven (Hutt)5,8494,700
Wainuiomata (Hutt)19,1826,614
Totals51,47035,347
South Island  
Hornby (Paparua)8,679491
Sockburn (Paparua)6,3541,066
Totals15,0331,557
Totals, District Communities66,50336,904

Extra-county Islands and Shipboard Population—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, cities and boroughs, and independent town districts, the New Zealand totals include shipboard population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised a total of 4,352 persons at 23 March 1976.

Counties—The following table gives the population of individual counties at 23 March 1976 together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that "administrative counties" do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include district communities, and communities which form parts of counties.

Administrative CountyPopulation Census 23 March 1976Approximate Area, in Square Kilometres
North Island—  
Mangonui7,7342,481
Whangaroa2,068622
Hokianga4,3511,588
Bay of Islands16,6232,131
Whangarei15,8432,675
Hobson5,3571,929
Otamatea6,2431,109
Rodney28,5532,328
Waiheke3,164155
Great Barrier Is.373285
Franklin18,4611,477
Raglan9,8852,411
Waikato16,9201,655
Waipa15,7221,129
Otorohanga9,7821,976
Waitomo6,4783,375
Taumarunui5,5064,851
Hauraki Plains5,294603
Ohinemuri4,536624
Piako11,1251,168
Matamata13,1212,541
Tauranga18,8021,829
Rotorua19,0042,681
Taupo13,9237,244
Whakatane15,4914,191
Opotiki6,7303,124
Waiapu4,6062,818
Waikohu3,1932,650
Cook8,2452,841
Wairoa5,7014,128
Hawke's Bay21,0394,841
Waipawa3,4951,347
Waipukurau4,2412,027
Dannevirke3,6551,414
Woodville1,476404
Clifton2,0971,176
Taranaki10,512588
Inglewood2,911521
Stratford5,0842,157
Egmont5,605622
Eltham2,899534
Waimate West2,074215
Hawera4,551495
Patea2,8881,531
Waimarino1,3982,147
Waitotara2,9421,209
Wanganui2,8311,189
Rangitikei14,8604,489
Kiwitea1,823930
Pohangina1,028671
Oroua5,182492
Manawatu6,660692
Kairanga6,260461
Horowhenua14,3661,420
Hutt25,838429
Pahiatua2,178741
Akitio934831
Eketahuna1,958828
Masterton4,1122,386
Wairarapa South2,6171,140
Featherston3,0332,471
Totals, North Island counties473,381109,017
South Island—  
Marlborough9,6066,631
Awatere1,6113,878
Kaikoura3,5712,344
Golden Bay3,9372,618
Waimea16,6517,511
Buller3,5115,035
Inangahua2,2712,440
Grey4,7583,957
Westland6,01311,440
Amuri2,7744,273
Cheviot1,393875
Waipara2,6552,476
Ashley3,5061,241
Rangiora4,807263
Eyre3,136459
Oxford1,698814
Malvern6,7025,046
Paparua31,313445
Waimairi68,338115
Heathcote8,75834
Mt. Herbert869171
Akaroa1,594437
Chatham Islands615963
Wairewa713438
Ellesmere8,2441,200
Ashburton11,0916,174
Strathallan9,3972,675
Mackenzie8,7627,456
Waimate5,4573,558
Waitaki9,0966,236
Waihemo1,753878
Waikouaiti4,214826
Taieri8,3262,329
Bruce3,4461,344
Clutha5,6352,717
Tuapeka4,1233,585
Maniototo2,4233,471
Vincent4,1707,563
Lake4,39310,026
Southland25,9229,577
Wallace12,4959,656
Fiord787,861
Stewart Island5131,746
Totals, South Island counties320,338152,782
Grand totals, all counties793,719261,799

Urban Concentration of Population—The bulk of New Zealand's population is located in urban areas, where the most rapid growth rates are occurring. This is due largely to the development of both manufacturing and tertiary industries in urban areas, which provide employment for a growing labour force. Other factors, including better social, cultural, educational, and economic opportunities, serve to attract persons to these areas, while the majority of immigrants tend to settle in the larger urban centres. These factors, combined with amalgamation of farms, centralisation of dairy factories, and increasing agricultural mechanisation (resulting in less labour required), combine to produce a noticeable rural-urban drift. Urban concentration features are common to "developed" countries at advanced stages of economic development.

The 1976 Census figures showed that many rural areas and a number of small and intermediate sized towns are continuing to decline in population. Thirty-nine counties recorded smaller population-than at the previous census in 1971. Of 54 small towns (1,000 to 4,999 population) 12 had declined in population between 1971 and 1976 compared with 22 during the previous inter-censal period. Two intermediate towns (5,000 to 9,999 population, situated outside urban areas) showed decreases in population compared with six at the previous census.

The following table shows the urban-rural distribution of the population. Urban population has been defined as that of the 24 defined Main Urban Areas plus that of all boroughs, town districts, communities, district communities, and townships with populations of 1,000 or over.

CensusUrbanRural*
NumberPercentNumberPercent

*Excludes shipping.

†Urban-rural distribution for New Zealand Maori population not yet available from 1976 Census.

Total Population
1926x941,73167.2459,94332.8
1936x1,055,18267.2513,93132.8
1945x1,217,76271.7481,38328.3
1956x1,610,97874.3558,63625.7
1966x2,127,74879.6544,36020.4
1971x2,342,76682.0514,71918.0
1976x2,594,27083.0530,85317.0
New Zealand Maori Population
19269,81515.453,80484.6
193615,60619.066,69381.0
194524,80125.173,92374.9
195647,63034.789,45265.3
1966122,94261.178,15338.9
1971159,49770.267,80129.8

In the process of urbanisation some cities and areas have grown more quickly than others. There is a tendency towards concentration of population in the largest centres and also a drift of population from the south to the north. Where the two tendencies reinforce each other, as they do in the case of the combined Auckland Urban Areas the rate of growth has been very rapid. Likewise the Urban Areas of Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, and Rotorua, which had a combined population in 1926 of 40,164, in 1976 comprised 228,649 inhabitants.

The initial reason for the drift to the north lay in the change in emphasis of farming activities in which the development of dairying played an important part. The expansion of dairying in itself called for the development of factory processing facilities and service industries. These farming trends have been reinforced by the growth of forest processing industries in the North Island and compounded further by the general tendency for the large-scale manufacturing units to be located close to the biggest local markets.

In the larger cities a notable feature of recent decades has been a movement of population from the central or "inner" areas to the perimeter or "outer" areas as families in decayed areas have moved to State rental houses and as residential units in the city centres have been replaced by shops, offices, places of entertainment, and other commercial or industrial buildings. In recent years there has been an offsetting movement with the building of multi-storey flats in the inner areas.

The distribution of population by size of centres is shown in the following table.

Sizes of Centre (City, Borough, Town District, or Community)Number of CentresPercentage of Population in These Centres
19261961197119761926196119711976
*Includes Urban Division of Thames-Coromandel District.
1,000–2,499634543487.53.02.42.4
2,500–4,999234740396.27.25.04.7
5,000–9,99911343532*5.99.68.87.4
10,000-24,9991221232513.315.012.812.5
25,000 and over412222524.132.544.650.4
        Total11315916316957.067.373.677.4

In the South Island a higher proportion of the population is rural, that is, outside urban communities, than in the North Island, the proportion being 21.6 in the South Island against 15.2 percent in the North Island, at the 1976 Census of Population.

Males and Females—Provisional statistics from a representative sample of questionnaires from the census of 23 March 1976 showed that females outnumbered males by 21,680 in the total population. In the sample-based national population estimate of 3,136,300 (which compared with the final full census count of 3,129,383) there were 1,557,310 males and 1,578,990 females. Females per 1,000 males at recent censuses have been:

CensusExcluding N.Z. Armed Forces OverseasIncluding N.Z. Armed Forces Overseas
*Provisional.
19451,044991
1951991989
1956989987
1961990988
1966992991
19711,0001,000
1976*1,0141,013

There are marked differences in the sex distribution of the population of different parts of New Zealand. Females tend to outnumber males in urban areas and to be outnumbered in rural areas. One important reason is doubtless the generally better employment and educational opportunities for women and girls in the larger industrial and commercial centres.

DENSITY OF POPULATION—Generally speaking, a dense population must depend upon intensive land utilisation or industrialisation. In New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, and large areas of hilly country which cannot be closely settled, while the growth of mechanisation in farming tends to reduce the size of the labour force engaged in farming operations.

Nevertheless, economic development is providing employment for a growing labour force. More extensive mechanisation, further advances in science and technology, and increases in productivity, wealth, and consumption have paved the way for further specialisation of production and more concentrated urbanisation.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The following table provides comparative density figures on a statistical-area basis over a 50-year period from 1926 to 1976 censuses.

Statistical AreaArea in Square KilometresPersons Per Square Kilometre
192619451951196119711976
Northland12,6394.35.36.06.87.68.5
Central Auckland5,56942.459.668.692.4125.4143.2
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty36,7443.95.66.79.511.512.8
East Coast10,8783.13.53.84.34.44.4
Hawke's Bay11,0336.47.28.310.412.113.1
Taranaki9,7137.47.98.910.310.411.0
Wellington28,15310.012.413.916.819.621.0
Totals, North Island114,7297.810.011.514.717.919.8
Marlborough10,9301.71.92.12.52.93.2
Nelson17,8972.32.63.23.53.84.2
Westland15,5661.41.51.61.61.51.5
Canterbury43,4315.05.86.57.99.29.9
Otago36,4414.14.04.44.85.05.2
Southland29,6812.22.42.63.23.63.7
Totals, South Island153,9463.33.64.14.75.35.6
Totals, New Zealand268,6755.26.37.29.010.711.6

NEW ZEALAND MAORI POPULATION—For statistical purposes, all persons of half or more Maori ancestry have, in the past, been defined as Maoris. This definition differs from that used for electoral purposes, as introduced in the Electoral Amendment Act 1975. That Act states that ‘Maori’ means a person of the Maori race of New Zealand; and includes any descendant of such a person who elects to be considered as a Maori for the purposes of the Act.

The growth rate of the Maori population continues to exceed that of the population as a whole. The average annual increase in the Maori population of 2.5 percent during the 197-1-76 inter-censal period compared with a growth rate of 1.8 percent for the population as a whole.

The 1976 Maori population of 257,770 comprises 194,500 who specified half or more New Zealand Maori origin and 63,270 who indicated they were a person of the Maori race of New Zealand, or a descendant of such a person, but did not specify a precise degree of Maori ancestry.

The population growth rate among the Maoris is predominantly a result of natural increase, whereas in the total population natural increase is normally supplemented by sizeable increments from migration.

When studying growth rates of the Maori population, however, it should be noted that, as a result of intermarriage, there are increasing numbers of Maori children (half or more Maori) who have one parent not counted in the Maori population, i.e., if a full Maori male marries a full European female or vice versa, the resulting progeny are all counted in the Maori population; this undoubtedly contributes to the high Maori percentage increase.

The decline in the number of Maoris during the early years of European settlement and throughout most of the nineteenth century is a matter of history. The present century has witnessed a resurgence of vitality among the Maori people which has been reflected in a strikingly high birth rate.

A statement of N.Z. Maori population is now given for each census from 1901. Members of the Armed Forces overseas are excluded.

Census YearNew Zealand Maori Population*Intercensal IncreaseIntercensal IncreaseAverage Annual Increase

*Prior to 1976 comprises persons who specified themselves as half or more New Zealand Maori and in 1976 this group plus those who indicated they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand but did not specify the degree of Maori origin.

†Provisional.

 numberpercent
190145,5493,4368.161.59
190650,3094,76010.451.98
191152,7232,4144.800.96
191652,9972740.520.09
192156,9873,9907.531.62
192663,6706,68311.732.24
193682,32618,65629.302.62
194598,74416,41819.941.93
1951115,67616,93217.152.89
1956137,15121,47518.563.46
1961167,08629,93521.834.02
1966201,15934,07320.393.84
1971227,41426,25513.052.48
1976257,77030,35613.352.53

The increasing urbanisation of the Maori population as younger Maoris seek better job opportunities in the cities and boroughs is a population trend of considerable sociological significance. As late as the 1936 Census only 8,249 Maoris (10 percent) dwelt in cities, boroughs, or independent town districts. By the 1971 Census the comparative figure was 132,970 (58.5 percent): the largest concentration is in Southern Auckland Urban Area, where 20,675 Maoris were enumerated in 1971.

Of the 227,414 Maoris at the 1971 Census, 213,577 were in the North Island.

The Maori population, which until recently was not greatly affected by external migration, is a much younger population than the non-Maori.

The following table for 1976 shows the high proportion (44.8 percent) of Maori children under 15 years compared with the total population (29.4 percent), and the low proportion of people in the older age groups.

Age Group (Years)Percentage in Age Groups* (1976 Census)
New Zealand MaoriTotal Population

*Provisional.

†Comprises persons who described themselves as being half or more Maori, plus those who indicated that they were persons of the Maori race of New Zealand, but who did not specify the degree of Maori descent.

Under 1544.829.4
15–1913.29.6
20–4430.233.0
45–598.214.8
60 and over3.613.2
Totals100.0100.0

EXTERNAL MIGRATION—In recent years there has been a large increase in New Zealanders going overseas on business, on pleasure trips, and on working holidays, resulting in much higher levels of migration. The arrivals include many New Zealanders returning from travel overseas, as well as growing numbers of tourists from overseas countries.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the latest 5 years are given in the following table. Crews of vessels, through passengers, and members of the armed forces, have not been taken into account in this table. (Later figures are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of this Yearbook).

Year Ended 31 MarchArrivalsDeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
1972217,606190,675408,281211,048186,382397,43010,851
1973247,135222,247469,382233,721210,186443,90725,475
1974316,681281,418598,099298,474266,458564,93233,167
1975359,067319,588678,655343,489306,025649,51429,141
1976352,980325,684678,664351,950321,522673,4725,192

From 1968 to 1970 there was an alteration in the net migration flow. This is illustrated in the following diagram which covers all passenger migration, excluding through passengers and crews.

Long-term Migration—The following table gives an analysis of long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for March years. (Short-term migration is analysed in Section 36: Travel and Tourism.) In the year ended March 1977 (for which see Latest statistical Information) there was a net loss of 19,072 from permanent and long-term migration compared with a gain of 5,300 in 1975–76.

YearLong-term (Including Permanent) ArrivalsLong-term (Including Permanent) Departures
New Permanent ArrivalsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Arrivals (Immigrants)Permanent Departures or New Zealand ResidentsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Departures (Emigrants)
AssistedSubsidisedTotal (includes others)N.Z. Residents ReturningLong-term VisitorsN.Z. Residents DepartingLong-term Visitors Departing
*Arrivals: after absence of, or intending to stay, 12 months or more respectively. Departures: persons intending to stay away for, or after stay in New Zealand of, 12 months or more respectively.
1971–724834,18320,26114,57810,26045,0999,33922,9795,22837,546
1972–735063,03626,66616,69411,29154,6517,81821,8585,80735,483
1973–744504,83638,12117,12314,57169,8159,59126,8325,91542,338
1974–754377,67034,14217,56614,19265,9009,05027,6396,77243,461
1975–761093,39920,04616,83011,58448,4607,30827,3848,46843,160

The countries of origin and destination of these long-term (including permanent) migrants are shown in the following table.

YearAustraliaCanadaIndiaUnited KingdomCook Islands and NiueFijiWestern SamoaNetherlandsSouth AfricaUnited StatesAll Other CountriesTotal
Immigrants by Country of Last Residence
1971–7216,0832,13527315,2091,181784446495162,4135,41145,099
1972–7317,7302,05621921,6761,949970382196412,3095,90054,651
1973–7420,3192,12926731,8112,2801,1895537438472,4267,25169,815
1974–7521,4861,51721827,4862,2861,3247768607312,0407,17665,900
1975–7618,23496025014,5541,3321,2361,2627406202,0127,26048,460
Emigrants by Country of Next Residence
1971–7217,6308061709,384x4377584425797691,7374,834x37,546
1972–7315,2308321839,7573518716474846421,7174,76935,483
1973–7420,5001,17911610,8634407575836004931,8554,95242,338
1974–7519,3441,34416011,8545507288094605241,7395,94943,461
1975–7618,0901,26011612,1367968621,2324748122,0705,31243,160

Ages—The following table gives the age distribution of long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for the year ended 31 March 1976.

Age, in YearsLong-term ArrivalsLong-term DeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Under 155,4224,93210,3543,7443,5207,2643,090
15–192,0662,5064,5721,9142,7264,640–68
20–245,1365,26810,4047,0066,42213,428–3,024
25–4410,1948,06818,2628,1505,99214,1424,120
45–641,8961,8383,7341,5521,4022,954780
65 and over4926421,134320412732402
Totals25,20623,25448,46022,68620,47443,1605,300

The occupations of working persons in long-term (including permanent) arrivals and departures for the year ended March 1976 are given in the following table.

Occupation GroupLong-term ArrivalsLong-term Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Professional (including nurses and teachers)4,0943,5047,5983,5743,8167,390
Administrative and managerial1,2641621,4261,0842001,284
Clerical workers1,1544,1525,3061,1684,5945,762
Sales workers8724781,3508745581,432
Farmers and fishermen974741,048990901,080
Miners and quarrymen98986060
Transport and communications workers7781709488821981,080
Tradesmen, factory workers, labourers6,4224886,9106,8927167,608
Personal and other services6421,0101,6527141,0601,774
Not specified9401181,058814118932
Totals, actively engaged17,23810,15627,39417,05211,35028,402

Origin—The following table shows for the latest 3 years the birthplaces of long-term (including permanent) migrants.

Country of BirthImmigrantsEmigrants
1973–741974–751975–761973–741974–751975–76
Commonwealth Countries      
United Kingdom—      
England and Wales24,89220,1199,4504,6085,4715,722
Scotland2,6032,2351,258851842824
Northern Ireland841699284147178212
Other or undefined2,7633,1421,708563643740
Australia10,53911,3739,1023,0013,0623,924
Canada1,363877522482505590
India427349350126138126
New Zealand15,13615,72915,68627,94627,26025,486
Pacific Islands—      
Cook Islands and Niue2,0722,1141,156178339482
Western Samoa3995901,022351549858
Fiji542664794198213342
Other Pacific349388444282990326
Other2,0152,0631,704695694728
Totals, Commonwealth countries63,94160,34243,48039,42840,88440,360
Other Countries      
Austria706342402134
China117147148785146
Denmark967690533432
Germany391359216141130158
Greece68118901015444
Hungary464938362618
Ireland, Republic of1369950464326
Italy130110126846758
Indonesia97100112424532
Netherlands839943790490348370
Switzerland293263224102101110
United States1,5501,3161,292855808974
Yugoslavia12011782696134
Others1,9211,7981,680773788864
      Totals, other countries5,8745,5584,9802,9102,5772,800
          Grand totals69,81565,90048,46042,33843,46143,160

IMMIGRATION POLICY—Since the beginning of 1976 the Government has taken measures to reduce severely the number of immigrants coming into New Zealand, in an attempt to alleviate the pressures being placed on New Zealand's resources and services by the large number of immigrants in previous years. An annual net migration gain of about 5,000 is the goal, and permanent entry to New Zealand continues to be restricted to those persons who rove close family ties with New Zealand or who may qualify on other humanitarian grounds; and to those who have occupational skills and qualifications which are fully recognised and in high demand in New Zealand.

This area of demand is kept under constant review, to take account of changes in the employment situation in New Zealand. Generally, applicants for permanent entry are required to be between the ages of 18 and 45 years, and if married to have no more than 4 dependent children. All persons included in the application must be of good health and character, and Government must be satisfied that employment and accommodation will be available for applicants and their families on arrival.

Emphasis has moved away from financially assisting immigrants to come to New Zealand. The Assisted Passage Scheme (which until 1969 had been the main vehicle for assisting immigrants from the United Kingdom) was abolished in April 1975. Following the change in Government at the end of 1975, the Subsidy Scheme (which had operated to enable New Zealand employers to sponsor individual migrants from the United Kingdom, Western Europe, and the United States of America) was suspended, and is likely to be revived only if there is a substantial increase in demand for the import of skills.

The numbers of immigrants assisted or subsidised in recent years were as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchBritishDutchGermanSwissUnited StatesOtherTotal
19746,140493104159126,755
19758,18652242936108,787
19762,24046111203342,769

New Zealand recognises a special responsibility towards the territories and countries of the South Pacific. Persons born in the Cook Islands, Niue, or Tokelau are New Zealand citizens, and have unrestricted right of entry into this country. The policy adopted for permanent entry from other South Pacific countries places a high priority on family reunification and other humanitarian factors, as it is Government policy not to encourage the recruitment of skilled workers from countries which themselves have need of them. There is a special arrangement under which a quota of citizens from Western Samoa may enter New Zealand for settlement each year. This arrangement arose out of New Zealand's close historical associations with that country. Special work permit schemes are available to citizens of Tonga, Fiji, and Western Samoa. Under these schemes, agreed upon after negotiations with the respective Governments, workers may undertake employment in response to specific job offers from New Zealand employers. Employers are required to make financial and other commitments to ensure the welfare of workers while they are in New Zealand, and the Department of Labour checks that the accommodation offered is of a suitable standard. The maximum period of employment under the schemes is 11 months. The long-term intention is to supplement these schemes with schemes of training and employment aimed at improving the reserve of skills in the Island countries concerned.

In tandem with closer control on the numbers entering the country, the Government has taken initiatives to promote the satisfactory settlement of migrants in New Zealand. It is the task of an Interdepartmental Committee on Resettlement to keep under review the facilities already available to assist new arrivals, and to consider how best to ensure that existing agencies and services are related in a more direct and co-ordinated way to the resettlement objectives of Government policy. The committee, in consultation with other Government agencies and non-Governmental bodies, is working to identify any areas in which steps are not already being taken to meet the reasonable requirements of new migrants, and, as appropriate, to develop proposals to satisfy these requirements.

Refugees—New Zealand continues to accept a significant number of refugees who come within the mandate of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, particularly from South America and continental Europe. The programmes of resettlement assistance for refugee groups, instituted on a trial basis in 1975 as a co-operative effort between State agencies and private organisations represented by the Inter-Church Commission on Immigration, have proved to be successful and have been continued for recent arrivals.

Formalities—Except for New Zealand citizens, all persons entering New Zealand are required to obtain entry permits under the Immigration Act 1964. This legislation is administered by the Department of Labour. The actual permit to enter is issued at the New Zealand port of entry, in the form of an endorsement in the passenger's passport (or other travel document). All persons intending permanent residence in New Zealand require prior approval before setting out on their journey. Requirements for visitors vary according to the nationality of the traveller and the purpose of the visit. The following categories of travellers, however, are exempt from the prior authority and entry permit requirements (whether entering permanently or temporarily) under a special exemption.

  1. Australian citizens

  2. Citizens of other Commonwealth countries who have been granted the right to reside permanently in either Australia or New Zealand, provided they arc travelling direct to New Zealand from Australia.

This arrangement does not, however, exempt such persons from the provisions of the Immigration Act 1964 relating to prohibited immigrants. The following categories of persons are prohibited from entry to New Zealand whether for permanent or temporary entry:

  1. Mentally disordered persons, or people suffering from tuberculosis, leprosy, or syphilis;

  2. Persons who have been convicted of an offence and sentenced to a term of imprisonment or other form of detention for 1 year or more or to any form of indeterminate detention for which they may be detained for a period of 1 year or more;

  3. Persons who have been deported from New Zealand (except in a certain class of ship deserter), or deported from any other country.

Those within any of the above categories who enter New Zealand without first obtaining special permission to do so commit an offence which requires the Court to order deportation if conviction is entered.

To obtain permission to settle in New Zealand, intending immigrants, other than Australian citizens, should first write to the nearest overseas representative of the New Zealand Government or write direct to the Secretary of Labour, Private Bag, Wellington, New Zealand for the necessary application forms. Each application is considered on its merits.

PASSPORTS—Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued and renewed within New Zealand by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington, Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, at Rarotonga by the High Commissioner, at Niue by the New Zealand Representative, and overseas by the representatives of New Zealand at Apia, Athens, Bangkok, Bonn, Brussels, Canberra, Geneva, The Hague, Hong Kong, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New Delhi, New York, Noumea, Ottawa, Paris, Peking, Port Moresby, Rome, San Francisco, Santiago (Chile), Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington. United Kingdom, Canadian, Australian, Malaysian, Singapore, and Indian passports are issued and renewed in New Zealand by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

Entry into New Zealand—Apart from British subjects and the wives of British subjects arriving from Australia, no person 16 years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless he is in possession of a valid passport or other recognised travel document. Exemption from the passport requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Act and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act) may be granted in exceptional circumstances by the Minister of Internal Affairs. A British subject who is a master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives does not need to produce a passport.

With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, every alien landing in New Zealand requires a visa.

Departure from New Zealand—Every person leaving New Zealand, with the exception of a British subject travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALISATION—The basic nationality law is the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948. Citizens of all Commonwealth countries are recognised as British subjects.

New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways: (a) by birth in New Zealand; (b) by descent; (c) by registration; and (d) by naturalisation. Citizens of other Commonwealth countries and the Republic of Ireland acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration, as do alien wives and children of New Zealand citizens. Other aliens acquire it by naturalisation. To be eligible for New Zealand citizenship, an alien or a citizen of another Commonwealth country (other than a woman married to a New Zealand citizen, or a minor) must—(a) have resided in New Zealand for the prescribed period; (b) be of full age and capacity; (c) be of good character; (d) have sufficient knowledge of the English language, and of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship; (e) intend to reside in New Zealand, or to enter or continue Crown service under the New Zealand Government. The residential qualification for naturalisation is 5 years, for registration it is generally 3 years.

A person who acquires New Zealand citizenship by naturalisation must take the oath of allegiance, a person who acquires it by registration may be required to take the oath. Ceremonies are held at which applicants, in an atmosphere of dignity and solemnity, take the oath of allegiance and are presented with their certificates of naturalisation or registration as New Zealand citizens. During 1974–75 there were 193 ceremonies at which 1,204 candidates took the Oath, and during the 1975–76 year there were 194 ceremonies at which 1,113 candidates took the Oath.

New Zealand citizens may be deprived of New Zealand citizenship if they voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality by any formal act other than marriage, or if they voluntarily exercise the privileges or perform any of the duties of a foreign nationality possessed by them. Citizenship obtained by fraud, false representation, or the concealment of any material fact may be withdrawn.

The following table shows the number of persons, by country of birth, who were granted citizenship in the latest 2 years ended 31 March.

Country of Birth1974–751975–76
NaturalisationRegistrationTotalNaturalisationRegistrationTotal
Australia-6565-7474
Austria851315419
China453277232750
Denmark46109514
Fiji-103103-9898
Germany82331103141
Greece201636182442
Hong Kong-363633639
Hungary17102718422
India41071114127131
Indonesia9110232043
Ireland-8484-5151
Italy53812921
Kenya-1818-2222
Malaysia1404123739
Netherlands163135298166122288
Poland151025262147
Romania7512347
South Africa154257165672
Switzerland242549291039
Tonga1202122628
U.S.S.R.8715549
United Kingdom-3,2283,22813,2193,220
United States91827182038
Western Samoa71081151118119
Yugoslavia442367523991
Other countries3022325349268317
Totals4444,3934,8375054,4764,981

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS—The registration of aliens in New Zealand is provided for by the Aliens Act 1948, which is administered by the Department of Internal Affairs.

The number of aliens on the New Zealand register at any particular date does not constitute the total number in New Zealand, as certain classes are not required to register, including the following: (a) children under 16 years of age; (b) persons holding diplomatic status, consuls, or employees of embassies, legations, and consulates who are resident in New Zealand solely for the purpose of performing official duties; (c) certain temporary visitors to New Zealand. Under the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 a citizen of the Republic of Ireland, though not possessing the status of British subject (or, in alternative phraseology, Commonwealth citizen), is nevertheless not classed as an alien and is not required to register.

The following table shows, by country of nationality, the number of males and females on the register.

Country of Nationality1 April 19751 April 1976
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Afghanistan516516
Albania9-97-7
Austria348130478345128473
Belgium534093524092
Bulgaria6297160868
Burma2622820222
Chile232649485199
China8896621,5518896811,570
Czechoslovakia76431197539114
Denmark511293804518297815
Finland96831798783170
France135171306141181322
Germany6104631,0736374701,107
Greece5726121,1845806141,194
Hungary218114332208113321
Indonesia1478022713071201
Israel17825221234
Italy616230846665242907
Japan147204351168220388
Korea391453411758
Lebanon202545212344
Nepal1071712416
Netherlands7,4565,68413,1407,4395,71513,154
Norway1045816210956165
Philippines6134956243105
Poland362275637358265623
Romania161228181230
South Africa157177334172184356
Spain411960382159
Sweden90911819889187
Switzerland6864191,1057374471,184
Thailand6813820662129191
Turkey151732192140
United States2,7961,8764,6722,8802,0284,908
U.S.S.R.1541402948692178
Vietnam88561448461145
Yugoslavia8504971,3478494981,347
Other countries8747134157110267
Stateless401454411758
Totals17,70012,77130,47117,94013,08531,025

Gains in numbers on the register for any nationality occur for several reasons—mainly, (a) immigrants of 16 years of age and over who arrive during the year, (b) registration (on reaching the age of 16) of children whose parents may have arrived in previous years but are still registered aliens.

Reductions in the numbers of registered aliens in the main come from naturalisations, deaths, or departure overseas.

Five years residence in New Zealand is necessary before an alien can qualify for naturalisation.

CENSUS OF POPULATION AND DWELLINGS 1976—The series of tables on the following pages contain provisional statistics from the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings based on a representative sample of population and dwelling questionnaires. Where such statistics are not available, tables based on the 1971 Census have been retained.

MARITAL STATUS—The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the Census of 1976 is summarised in the following tables. All figures are provisional.

Age Groups (Years)Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedWidowedDivorcedTotal*
*Including persons not specifying status.
 Males
16–19117,0602,29030119,490
20–2481,45046,3101,04070280129,340
25–3439,320175,3804,9102302,820223,260
35–4412,750144,6104,1307203,130165,650
45–5412,470142,4703,6102,3103,790164,950
55–648,970108,1702,1905,3303,440128,310
65–745,57067,7201,0508,5801,99085,060
75 and over2,48022,3302209,86040035,420
Totals, 1976280,070709,28017,18027,10015,8501,051,480
Totals, 1971250,372632,10811,59826,79811,442937,954
 Females
16–19104,03011,63027010115,960
20–2448,60076,9403,140150470129,360
25–3421,600187,4107,7101,1503,850221,750
35–447,680142,9105,2203,1404,810163,800
45–548,170132,9603,8109,8905,170160,100
55–649,84098,0802,09025,2003,870139,190
65–749,61051,43092039,4002,420103,920
75 and over7,02013,77027040,63076062,510
Totals, 1976216,550715,13023,430119,56021,3601,096,590
Totals, 1971186,619637,92214,139104,53314,711959,378
 Total
16–19221,09013,92030010235,450
20–24130,050123,2504,180220750258,700
25–3460,920362,79012,6201,3806,670445,010
35–4420,430287,5209,3503,8607,940329,450
45–5420,640275,4307,42012,2008,960325,050
55–6418,810206,2504,28030,5307,310267,500
65–7415,180119,1501,97047,9804,410188,980
75 and over9,50036,10049050,4901,16097,930
Totals, 1976496,6201,424,41040,610146,66037,2102,148,070
Totals, 1971436,9911,270,03025,737131,33126,1531,897,332

The percentage distribution of the population aged 16 years or over according to marital status is given in the following summary.

Marital Status196619711976*
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
*Provisional.
Never married28.120.826.919.526.719.8
Married66.866.167.866.667.665.2
Legally separated0.81.01.21.51.62.1
Widowed3.110.92.910.92.610.9
Divorced1.11.21.21.51.51.9
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

HOUSEHOLDS—There was a provisional total of 939,340 households in permanent private dwellings at the Census in 1976. The following table analyses the type of household by the number of occupants. A one-family-only household consists of a husband and wife with or without unmarried children of any age who are living at home.

Type of HouseholdTotal House-holdsNumber of Households with Number of Members
1234567 or more
One-family-only—        
Complete550,360190,86095,050130,91079,77034,50019,270
Incomplete with children absent31,3407,2608,5007,0704,5201,9302,060
Incomplete with one parent absent53,160- –25,06015,1307,4003,4601,280830
Incomplete with one parent and child(ren) absent4,8202,2501,080710410230140
Totals639,680225,430119,760146,09088,16037,94022,300
Multi-person—        
One family plus other persons (non-family)76,95021,64017,32016,06010,52011,410
Multi-family with or without other persons15,6303,0203,1503,2206,240
Totals92,58021,64020,4019,21013,74017,650
Non-family56,41038,62010,6904,6601,720500220
One person150,670150,670
Totals939,340150,670264,050152,090171,090109,09052,18040,170

In the following table these complete one-family-only households are analysed by membership and the occupational status of the head of the household.

Occupational Status of HeadTotal HouseholdsHusband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
Actively engaged—       
Employer49,5709,9208,23013,66010,9004,5502,310
Own account51,33011,6608,55014,4209,9204,6702,110
Salary or wages362,94098,67068,45099,72057,43024,50014,170
Unemployed2,450730550500280190200
Relative assisting2201306030
Not specified610220110130705030
Totals467,120121,33085,950128,46078,60033,96018,820
Not actively engaged—       
Retired77,13066,4207,8301,780640220240
Student1,0707602107030
Housewife2,3201,240380310180110100
Other2,7201,110680290320210110
Totals83,24069,5309,1002,4501,170540450
Grand total550,360190,86095,050130,91079,77034,50019,270

The following table shows the composition of one-complete-family-only households in 1976 by the age group of the head of the household.

Age group of (in Years)Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and wife withTotal
1 Child*2 Children*3 Children*4 Children*5 or More Children*
 Numbers
Under 2069084090101,630
20–2418,42010,5606,1609201303036,220
25–4435,23036,84089,25059,57025,56012,610259,060
45–6473,35040,00034,10018,7508,7106,490181,400
65 and over63,1706,8101,31052010014072,050
Totals190,86095,050130,91079,7703450019,270550,360
 Percentages
Under 2042.351.55.50.6100.0
20–2450.29.217.02.50.40.1100.0
25–4413.614.234.523.09.94.9100.0
45–6440.422.118.810.34.83.6100.0
65 and over87.79.51.80.70.10.2100.0
All ages34.717.323.814.56.33.5100.0

The following two tables show, for one-complete-family-only households, the income group analysed by the membership of the household. The income given in the first table is the income of the head of the household, while in the second table the total household income is shown. In a considerable proportion of households, the total household income was substantially above the income of the head of the household, usually indicating at least one other income recipient in the family. The statistics are based on a representative sample of questionnaires.

Income of Head*Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife withTotal
One ChildTwo ChildrenThree ChildrenFour ChildrenFive or More Children
$ Number of Households     
Nil25,7403,9701,27069037039032,430
1–1,99927,1903,9901,9401,12061035035,200
2,000–3,99924,1909,3809,3605,9103,0402,12054,000
4,000–5,99948,97031,78038,63022,51010,8006,450159,140
6,000–7,99934,44023,50038,71022,7308,8704,290132,540
8,000–9,99914,48010,75020,74012,8605,0402,66066,530
10,000–14,99910,2008,04014,2509,4003,6801,95047,520
15,000–19,9992,3801,8302,9402,1701,02044010,780
20,000 and over2,1601,2502,4101,8908404008,950
Not specified1,1105606604902302203,270
Total190,86095,050130,91079,77034,50019,270550,360
Income of Household*Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife withTotal
One ChildTwo ChildrenThree ChildrenFour ChildrenFive or More Children
*Estimated income before tax, other than Social Welfare Benefits, for the year ended 31 March 1976.
$Number of Households   
Nil22,7001,02037022013011024,550
1–1,99923,5301,77089052029021027,210
2,000–3,99917,3306,0005,0203,4001,5001,09034,340
4,000–5,99925,88019,23024,06013,3205,8403,31091,640
6,000–7,99922,63018,26029,68017,4007,1203,40098,490
8,000–9,99922,59015,29023,94014,1605,4302,73084,140
10,000–14,99941,89022,23030,34018,5308,2004,320125,510
15,000–19,9998,6606,7509,6506,8503,0902,13037,130
20,000 and over3,9703,3505,5304,3402,2301,34020,760
Not specified1,6801,1501,4301,0306706306,590
Total190,86095,050130,91079,77034,50019,270550,360

The following table shows persons living alone in 1976 by age and marital status.

Age Group (in Years)Marital Status
Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedDivorcedWidowedTotal
  Males    
Under 2095020970
20–243,41063010020104,170
25–448,8402,4802,3101,3008015,060
45–647,9202,8201,9803,0702,94018,810
65 and over3,3001,8506001,0509,22016,100
Totals24,4207,8004,9905,44012,25055,110
Age Group (in Years)Marital Status
Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedDivorcedWidowedTotal
Females
Under 208104020870
20–241,920450210102,590
25–444,2607909506903907,090
45–646,7502,3201,6703,49014,95029,230
65 and over7,6202,1306801,91043,42055,780
Totals21,3605,7303,5306,10058,76095,560

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS—The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the 1961, 1966 and 1971 Censuses.

Religious ProfessionNumber of AdherentsPercentage
196119661971196119661971
Anglican (Church of England)835,434901,701895,83934.633.731.3
Presbyterian539,459582,976583,70122.321.820.4
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)364,098425,280449,97415.115.915.7
Methodist173,838186,260182,7277.27.06.4
Baptist40,88646,74847,3501.71.71.7
Protestant (undefined)45,10046,09037,4751.91.71.3
Christian (undefined)12,13021,54833,1870.50.81.2
Ratana23,12627,57030,1561.01.01.1
Latter Day Saints17,97825,56429,7850.81.01.0
Brethren25,76423,13925,7681.10.90.9
Salvation Army15,45417,73719,3710.60.70.7
Seventh Day Adventist8,2209,55110,4770.30.40.4
Jehovah's Witness5,9447,45510,3180.20.30.4
Agnostic2,2884,9609,4810.10.20.3
Atheist3,3595,4749,2910.10.20.3
Church of Christ10,48510,3018,9300.40.40.3
Congregational9,37712,1017,7040.40.40.3
Lutheran4,8175,7305,9300.20.20.2
Ringatu5,3775,6055,6350.20.20.2
Eastern Orthodox3,3283,6054,3190.10.10.2
Hindu2,0743,5993,8450.10.10.1
Hebrew4,0064,1043,8030.20.20.1
Undenominational1,5143,0693,7090.10.10.1
Assemblies of God1,0602,0283,599-0.10.1
Apostolic Church1,3991,8412,3610.10.10.1
Undenominational Christian2,1701,9681,9030.10.10.1
Christadelphian1,4981,6281,6670.10.10.1
Christian Scientist3,7191,1618160.2--
Rationalist9561,696779-0.1-
All other religious professions14,38623,49924,6940.60.90.9
No religion (so returned)17,48632,78057,4850.71.22.0
Object to state204,056210,851247,0198.47.98.6
Not specified14,19819,300103,5330.60.73.6
Totals2,414,9842,676,9192,862,631100.0100.0100.0

The category recorded as "Object to state" represents those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject.

AGE DISTRIBUTION—Census age-group figures are shown in the following table. Estimates of age distribution for inter-censal and later years are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Age (Years)1971 Census1976 CensusPercentage of Total Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal19711976

†Provisional.

*Under 20 years.

0–4151,916145,946297,862148,740144,700293,44010.49.4
5–9158,310151,494309,804159,930151,170311,10010.89.9
10–14154,286147,671301,957163,500154,740318,24010.510.2
1528,39027,28655,67633,66031,79065,4501.92.1
16–19104,726100,387205,113119,490115,960235,4507.27.5
20–24119,447115,512234,959129,340129,360258,7008.28.2
25–2994,62292,690187,312125,260123,520248,7806.57.9
30–3484,18182,509166,69098,00098,230196,2305.86.3
35–3976,99774,192151,18987,63088,350175,9805.35.6
40–4483,25178,445161,69678,02075,450153,4705.64.9
45–4980,87978,488159,36785,32080,620165,9405.65.3
50–5469,14171,658140,79979,63079,480159,1104.95.1
55–5965,26466,919132,18367,38072,000139,3804.64.4
60–6455,59758,260113,85760,93067,190128,1204.04.1
65–6942,70047,91490,61450,56059,050109,6103.23.5
70–7428,46237,22165,68334,50044,87079,3102.32.5
75–7916,75426,61243,36620,15030,90051,0501.51.6
80–849,92317,30127,224......1.0..
85–894,5428,20412,74615,27031,61046,8800.41.5
90 and over1,4683,0664,534......0.2..
Totals1,430,8561,431,7752,862,6311,557,3101,578,9903,136,300100.0100.0
Under 15 years464,512445,111909,623472,170450,610922,78031.829.4
15–64 years862,495846,3461,708,841964,660961,9501,926,61059.761.4
65 years and over103,849140,318244,167120,480166,430286,9108.59.2
Minors*597,628572,7841,170,412625,320598,3601,223,68040.939.0
Adults833,228858,9911,692,219931,990980,6301,912,62059.161.0

ETHNIC GROUPS—The following table gives the broad ethnic origins of the population.

Ethnic GroupCensus
196119661971
European2,216,8862,426,3522,561,280
Maori167,086201,159227,414
Other Origins—   
Pacific Islanders—   
Cook Island Maori4,4998,66313,772
Samoan6,48111,84222,198
Niuean and Tokelauan1,7282,8465,459
Tongan1,0431,3892,075
Other5891,5311,909
Sub-totals, Pacific Islanders14,34026,27145,413
Chinese8,52410,28312,818
Indian4,1796,8437,807
Fijian7461,3232,021
Syrian, Lebanese, and Arab1,1011,0991,126
Other ethnic groups2,1223,5894,752
Sub-totals, others16,67223,13728,524
Totals2,414,9842,676,9192,862,631

COUNTRY OF BIRTH—From 1945 to 1961 the New Zealand-born population remained at about 86 per cent of the total population: since 1966 the proportion has dropped slightly, mainly because increased numbers of New Zealanders have been overseas at census date and increased numbers of overseas tourists have been in New Zealand. At the 1976 Census, 83.3 percent of those enumerated gave New Zealand as their birthplace, 9.3 percent gave the United Kingdom, 2.0 percent Australia, 1.0 percent the Cook Islands and Western Samoa, and 0.7 percent the Netherlands.

The next table shows the duration of residence in New Zealand of persons born overseas.

Years of Residence1966 Census1971 Census1976 Census
NumberPercentages Specified CasesNumberPercentages Specified CasesNumberPercentages Specified Cases

†Includes overseas born short-stay visitors

*Including unspecified.

0–4103,06426.590,36022.3160,14031.6
5–956,87714.667,30416.659,96011.8
10–1461,35115.752,98113.163,67012.5
15–1938,95710.055,38713.749,8609.8
20 and over129,29733.2139,51134.3173,80034.3
Totals396,925*100.0418,462*100.0525,310*100.0

INTERNAL MIGRATION—The 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings included, for the first time, a question on internal migration. Respondents were asked to state their usual place of residence 1 year and 5 years prior to the census. Since the resulting data were based on recollections rather than enumeration in a particular locality, the detailed figures are subject to memory errors. Nevertheless, they provide valuable indications on trends in a field previously little explored.

The following table gives a summary by Statistical Areas of the percentages of the population who had changed or not changed their residences within the year prior to the 1971 Census. It will be seen that, in New Zealand as a whole, 83.59 percent of the population were living at the same address as a year previous. The greatest mobility of population was found in the two main concentrations—Central Auckland Statistical Area (in which 18.62 percent of the population had moved within the year) and Wellington Statistical Area in which 17.70 percent had moved.

Usual Residence on Census Night (1971)Residence One Year Prior to Census (1971)
UnchangedElsewhere* in N. Z.Pacific IslandsOther CountriesNot Specified or No Settled Abode
*Includes, in those local authority areas subdivided for statistical processing purposes, persons who changed residence between the subdivided portions.
 Percentage
Northland S. A.87.4411.560.020.760.22
Central Auckland S. A.81.3814.940.211.931.55
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty S. A.83.9513.790.071.921.28
East Coast S. A.85.8411.450.010.622.08
Hawke's Bay S. A.85.2012.890.030.731.15
Taranaki S. A.87.5511.09..0.730.63
Wellington S. A.82.3014.640.121.551.39
North Island83.0914.060.121.401.33
Marlborough S. A.86.7211.150.010.881.23
Nelson S. A.84.9312.450.021.680.92
Westland S. A.88.378.72..0.542.37
Canterbury S. A.83.8914.090.031.130.86
Otago S. A.85.8111.960.020.951.26
Southland S. A.85.6112.720.031.020.63
South Island84.8613.040.031.100.98
New Zealand83.5913.770.091.311.23

Data based on residence 5 years prior to the 1971 Census indicate that 61.31 percent of the total population were still at the same address in 1971 as they were 5 years previously, but that 38.69 percent—almost 4 in every 10—had moved at least once during the 5 years. In Central Auckland Statistical Area 43.49 percent and in Wellington Statistical Area 41.22 percent of the population recorded that they had been living elsewhere 5 years prior to the 1971 Census.

STATISTICS OF WORLD POPULATION—The area and estimated population of the major areas and selected countries at mid-year 1975 are shown in the following table. (Source: U.N. Population and Vital Statistics Report.)

Major Areas and CountriesAreaPopulation

†Includes Central America and the Caribbean

*World and major area figures are provisional totals for mid-1976.

 sq km 
Major Areas(000)million
Africa30,320412
America—North24,249348
America—Latin17,832224
Asia27,6552,306
Europe4,936476
Oceania8,51022
U.S.S.R.22,402258
World Total135,9064,045*
Selected Countries  
Africa  
Algeria2,38216.8
Angola1,2476.8
Egypt1,00137.2
Ethiopia1,22227.9
Ghana2399.9
Kenya58313.4
Morocco44717.3
Mozambique7839.2
Nigeria92462.9
South Africa1,22125.5
Sudan2,50617.8
Tanzania, United Republic of94515.2
Uganda23611.5
Zaire Republic2,34524.9
America—North  
Canada9,97622.8
United States9,363213.6
America—Latin  
Argentine2,77725.4
Brazil8,512107.1
Chile75710.3
Colombia1,13923.5
Peru1,28515.9
Venezuela91212.0
Asia  
Afghanistan64719.3
China9,597838.8
Hong Kong14.4
India3,280598.1
Indonesia1,492130.6
Iran1,64833.0
Iraq43511.1
Israel213.4
Japan372111.0
Jordan982.7
Korea—North12115.9
Korea—South9834.7
Lebanon102.9
Malaysia33011.9
Nepal14112.6
Pakistan80470.3
Philippines30042.5
Saudi Arabia2,1509.0
Singapore0.62.3
Sri Lanka6614.0
Syria1857.4
Thailand51441.9
Turkey78139.2
Europe  
Austria847.5
Belgium319.8
Bulgaria1118.7
Czechoslovakia12814.8
Denmark435.1
France54752.9
Germany—East10816.9
Germany—West24961.8
Greece1329.0
Hungary9310.5
Ireland, Republic of703.1
Italy30155.8
Luxembourg30.4
Netherlands4113.7
Norway3244.0
Poland31334.0
Portugal928.8
Romania23821.2
Spain50535.5
Sweden4508.2
Switzerland416.4
United Kingdom24456.0
Yugoslavia, Republic of25621.4
Oceania  
Australia7,68713.5
Fiji180.6
New Caledonia190.1
New Zealand2693.1
Papua New Guinea4622.8

Chapter 4. Section 4 VITAL STATISTICS

4 A—NATURAL INCREASE

The rate of natural increase (excess of births over deaths) is important to national planning; along with net migration it is the major component of population growth. While in recent years the natural increase rate in New Zealand has fallen, in line with the trend in the majority of developed countries, the New Zealand rate remains higher than for most other countries of predominantly European stock. The following table shows the numbers and rates of natural increase for the last 6 years, and emphasises the high rate for the Maori component of the population.

YearTotal PopulationMaorisNatural Increase Rates per 1,000 Mean Population
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseTotalMaori
197164,46024,30940,1518,3641,4216,94314.02x30.31
197263,21524,80138,4147,8701,3476,52313.19x27.65
197360,72725,31235,4157,3841,3806,00411.92x24.81
197459,33625,26134,0756,9831,2735,71011.24x23.09
197556,63925,114x31,525x6,7781,3335,44510.21x21.55
197655,10525,4529,6486,6261,3205,3069.51..

In the 5 years to 31 December 1975 New Zealand gained by natural increase of population a total of 179,580.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—An international comparison of birth and natural increase rates for certain countries is made in the following table. The rates, which are for 1975, are taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.

CountryRate per 1,000 of Population
BirthsDeathsNatural Increase
*Rates for 1974.
New Zealand18.38.110.2
Japan18.66.512.1
Australia18.48.79.7
France15.210.44.8
Italy15.79.56.2
Canada15.47.48.0
 Rate per 1,000 of Population  
CountryBirthsDeathsNatural Increase
Norway14.09.94.1
United States14.89.05.8
Netherlands13.08.34.7
United Kingdom12.411.90.5
Switzerland12.610.81.8
West Germany9.712.1—2.4

4 B—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION—The law as to registration of births is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. A birth is normally registered at the office of the Registrar nearest the place of birth.

Births statistics are compiled by the Department of Statistics from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year. The figures do not include still births, except where multiple births are discussed. A special classification of still births is given later in this subsection.

Under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, provision is made for births not registered in the ordinary way to be recorded at a later date in a special register kept by the Registrar-General. Such cases include elderly people requiring evidence of age for social security purposes. Until 1971 these late registrations were included in published live-birth statistics but they are now excluded. The numbers are normally relatively small; in 1975 they totalled 202.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The following table shows the numbers of births and the rates for the last 6 years. Late registrations (see above) have been excluded from all these figures. It will be noted that the birth rate, which fell in the early 1960s and then appeared to stabilise at 22 to 23 births per 1,000 of mean population in the later 1960s, has now resumed the decline.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean Population
TotalMaoriTotalMaori
197164,4608,36422.51x36.51
197263,2157,87021.71x33.36
197360,7277,38420.45x30.51
197459,3366,98319.57x28.24
197556,6396,77818.35x26.82
197655,1056,62617.68..

REFINED BIRTH RATE—"Crude" rates of the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age, do not take account of variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages. Refined rates are provided by computations of the nuptial birth rate per 1,000 married women of 16–44 years of age, or the total births per 1,000 of all women aged 15–44 years. The following table gives both rates for census years (on the basis of the births registered in that year and the population as at the census) together with the "crude" rate for the year.

Census YearBirth Rate per 1,000 Women"Crude" Birth Rate per 1,000 Mean Population
Married Women 16-44 YearsTotal Women 15-44 Years
*Provisional.
1956191.7128.125.93
1961199.3140.626.99
1966155.2114.422.44
1971173.3112.922.51x
1976131.6*83.2*17.68

The percentage of married women among women in the child-bearing age groups was 68.4 in 1971 compared with 51.6 in 1926. A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages; as the birth rate varies with age, the change in age constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

The following diagram shows numbers of births and deaths and indicates the relatively high rate of natural increase in New Zealand.

The period since, the Second World War was marked by a high birth rate until 1962, when the level dropped; this experience was also shared by Australia, Canada, and the United States. During the years 1962 to 1966 the crude birth rate fell from 26.16 to 22.37 per 1,000 of mean population. From 1966 until 1971 the crude birth rate remained relatively constant, but since 1971 the downward trend appears to have been resumed. In the following table the New Zealand crude birth rate is compared with that of Australia, Canada, and the United States.

CountryBirth Rate per 1,000 Mean Population
19681969197019711972197319741975

(Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics and Statistical Yearbook.)

New Zealand22.622.422.022.521.720.419.518.3
Australia20.120.420.621.720.518.918.418.4
Canada17.617.617.416.815.915.515.415.4
United States17.617.918.317.215.715.015.014.8

The decline of the birth rates over the period from 1961 has been the subject of discussion by demographers, notably at world population conferences. This change in fertility pattern has coincided in time with increasing use of oral contraceptives; their greater effectiveness in birth control appears to have had a significant influence on fertility. Demographers have emphasised the need for further research, stating that it is important to study demographic variables involved in the decline in the birth rate, including changes in age distribution, timing of marriage and birth, past success in achieving the desired family size, and changes in the desired number of children. It is important to determine the extent to which smaller families and postponed births are the result of changes in social attitudes and economic goals, and the extent to which they are the result of improved methods and knowledge of birth control having made possible a control of fertility previously considered desirable but largely unattainable.

REPRODUCTION INDEX—The reproduction index is based on the fact that the future size of a population is related to the number of women in the reproductive age groups at any given time. The gross rate is based on the number of female children born, and the average number of girls that will be born to a woman during her reproductive period, while the net rate takes into account fertility rates at different ages and the percentages of female survivors at those ages, obtained from life tables. A net rate of 1.0 indicates zero population growth, and a higher rate a rising population.

Reproduction rates during the latest 6 years were as follows.

YearGross RateNet Rate
19701.5441.500
19711.5511.507
19721.4681.426
19731.352x1.313x
19741.267x1.231x
19751.1791.146

SEX OF CHILDREN BORN—The numbers of boys and girls born during the latest 6 years are given in the following table.

In each year, more boys than girls are born, a disparity "explainable" on account of the higher death rates of males at every age level. The death rate per 1,000 live births for babies under 12 months of age in 1975 was 18.49 for boys and 13.33 for girls; for children of from 1 to 4 years of age it was 1.04 for boys and 0.91 for girls; for children aged 5 to 14 years it was 0.50 for boys and 0.30 for girls; and the pattern repeated itself with each age group through adolescence and adult life.

YearNumber of Births ofMale Births per 1,000 Female Births
MalesFemales
197132,99631,4641,049
197232,28830,9271,044
197331,09729,6301,050
197430,51128,8251,058
197528,87427,7651,040
197628,54426,5611,075

MULTIPLE BIRTHS—In 1975 there were 56,061 confinements which resulted in live births; of these 573 cases resulted in all live multiple births and 24 cases where one of twins was still-born. In five additional cases both twins were still-born.

The likelihood of still births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases.

YearSingle CasesCases of TwinsCases of TripletsTotal CasesStill Birth Rate per 1,000
LiveStillBoth LiveBoth StillOne Live One StillAll LiveTwo Live One StillSingleMultipleSingle CasesMultiple Cases
197163,1116246496249-63,7356889.843.6
197261,976609594111213-62,5856309.736.5
197359,5685265668143260,0945938.840.5
197458,2224705398233258,6925758.057.4
197555,4644385685245-55,9026027.848.2

AGES OF PARENTS—Information as to the relative ages of parents of nuptial living children whose births were registered in 1975 is shown in the following table for the total population.

Registrations of births under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 are excluded.

Age of Mother, in YearsAge of Father, in Years
Under 2020-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445-4950-5455-6465 and OverTotal Cases
*Including 4 cases of triplets and 18 cases where one of twins was still-born
Single Births
Under 208032,454365541315-1-3,696
20-241587,3707,7661,2152166820102-16,825
25-29108879,6335,3841,018237752511317,283
30-34-667533,0091,667439118512316,127
35-39-666237760491177422211,802
40-44-29126818114133113460
45 and over--12210168--39
Totals97110,78518,5939,9133,7441,42755216970846,232*
Multiple Births
Under 202303-------35
20-24-567912------147
25-29-9112641551---206
30-34-174225911--86
35-39--3588211-28
40-44----11-2--4
45 and over------1---1
Totals2962041234923541-507
Grand Totals97310,88118,79710,0363,7931,45055717371846,739*

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS—The following table gives for 1975 the number of previous issue, i.e., children born alive, in conjunction with the age of mother.

Age of Mother in YearsNumber of Previous IssueTotal Nuptial Cases
0123456-910-1415 and Over
*This number represents 46,232 single cases and 507 multiple cases.
Under 202,681973761-----3,731
20-247,7786,6242,03743778162--16,972
25-294,8836,6463,9741,33643115960--17,489
30-341,0651,5721,6879944532192158-6,213
35-3924331433731221215322831-1,830
40-44564764436456103292464
45 and over322525155-40
Totals16,70916,1788,1773,1281,24060962373246,739*

In the following table the total issue and average issue are shown for mothers by age groups where a birth occurred in 1975

Age of Mother in YearsTotal MothersTotal IssueAverage Issue
Under 203,7314,8931.31
20-2416,97229,5271.74
25-2917,48939,1942.24
30-346,21318,6673.00
35-391,8307,3073.99
40-444642,3985.17
45 and over402696.72
Totals46,739102,2552.19

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1975) born up to the present time to those mothers of nuptial children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years have been as follows: 1971, 2.36; 1972, 2.29; 1973, 2.30; 1974, 2.23; and 1975, 2.19.

FIRST BIRTHS—Statistics of nuptial first confinements show that in recent years there have been educed proportions occurring within 1 year after marriage and within 2 years after marriage.

YearTotal Nuptial CasesTotal Nuptial First CasesProportion of First Cases to Total CasesFirst Cases Within 1 Year After MarriageFirst Cases Within 2 Years After Marriage
NumberProportion to Total First CasesNumberProportion to Total First Cases
   percent percent percent
197053,32618,82835.317,79141.3812,45566.15
197154,87620,10136.638,37541.6613,25965.96
197253,27219,99137.537,67938.4112,52762.67
197351,04217,95835.186,39435.6111,65559.33
197449,49117,84536.065,77832.389,91955.58
197546,73916,70935.755,15330.848,92153.39

The following table gives the duration-of-marriage factor in first confinements over a longer time-series. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern births of non-Maoris only.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197319741975
Under 146.2538.4742.6449.8535.6132.3830.84
126.7926.3030.5626.4223.7323.2122.55
210.2411.2811.5611.4217.4218.4817.82
36.167.885.955.0710.8011.9212.90
43.967.183.302.826.086.947.40
5–95.497.365.053.565.906.528.02
10 and over1.111.530.940.860.460.550.47
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

In the following table first confinements occurring to mothers in different age groups are expressed as a percentage of the total first confinements. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern confinements of non-Maoris only.

Age of Mother, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197319741975
Under 208.907.339.0819.6419.3217.9616.05
20–2440.3941.7947.7152.6747.9748.1446.55
25–2932.7929.5427.7918.2825.5926.7429.22
30–3413.1014.6110.396.005.295.516.37
35–393.795.363.922.571.391.341.45
40–440.991.341.020.810.410.300.34
45 and over0.040.030.090.030.030.010.02
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child were as follows: 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; 1954, 25.32; 1964, 23.65; 1973, 23.16; 1974, 23.29; and 1975, 22.92 years.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS—The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the latest 6 years, with the percentages they bear to total births registered, are given in the following table. Comparisons of the ratio of ex-nuptial births to all live births (either on a year-to-year basis or on an international basis) should be made with caution. Some of the difficulties were discussed in supplements to the January 1967 and November 1975 Monthly Abstracts of Statistics. For example, the ex-nuptial ratio as a true indicator of ex-nuptial fertility is of limited value because it is influenced by extraneous factors. Ex-nuptial ratios may change not so much because of changing numbers of ex-nuptial births but because of a change in nuptial fertility experience as measured by nuptial birth numbers. This situation is well illustrated by experience during the 1962–75 period when ex-nuptial births increased from 5,227 to 9,407 while nuptial births showed an overall fall from 59,787 to 47,232, resulting in the ex-nuptial ratio exaggerating the "real" rise in the ex-nuptial fertility level. Again a, social factor to be borne in mind is that unmarried mothers are not infrequently de facto wives with comparatively stable relationships.

YearNumberRatio*
*Ex-nuptial births as a proportion of total births.
19718,98113.93
19729,39414.86
19739,20615.16
19749,370x15.79
19759,40716.61
19769,59717.42

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movement in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1,000 unmarried women–i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. The figures for census years are as follows. Up to 1961 the statistics relate to non-Maoris only; from 1966 Maoris are included.

Census YearUnmarried Women 15-44 Years of AgeEx-nuptial BirthsEx-nuptial Birth Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Women
*Provisional.
1945156,3261,82411.67
1951130,3431,93514.85
1956129,8772,31017.79
1961138,0183,33224.14
1966183,9966,94037.72
1971199,1478,98145.10
1976213,700*9,59744.90

In 1975 the total number of ex-nuptial confinements resulting in live births was 9,322. Of these, 9,232 cases were single births, 83 were twins and one case of triplets. There were six cases of twins in which one child was still-born. The total number of ex-nuptial live births was 9,407. From the following table, it will be seen that of the 9,322 mothers, 4,208 or 45.14 percent, were under 20 years of age.

AgeNumber of Mothers
11-
12-
135
1467
15290
16773
171,005
181,087
19981
20834
21678
22551
23452
24-291,749
30-34550
35-39235
40-4460
45 and over5
Total9,322

Reregistration—An ex-nuptial child whose parents have later married may be reregistered from birth by reason of such marriage. Applications for registration must be made within 3 months after the date of the marriage.

The number of reregistrations in each of the latest 6 years were as follows: 1971, 1,749; 1972, 1,619; 1973, 1,482; 1974, 1,517; 1975, 1,433; 1976, 1,478.

The Children and Young Persons Act 1974 requires that all ex-nuptial births be notified to a social worker so that inquiries may be made concerning the circumstances of each mother and child for the purpose of offering advice and assistance.

The following table shows the outcome of the inquiries made in recent years. Inquiries relate to some births from the preceding year and do not cover all births in the year stated.

Location of Infants197319741975
No.%No.%No.%
Re-registered after marriage of parents274426532783
Remaining with mother (parents cohabiting)2,037242,411272,75832
Remaining with mother (parents not cohabiting)2,455292,606292,94234
Placed with relatives298423432103
Placed with strangers with view to adoption1,883221,633181,32216
Placed with strangers, no expressed wish to adoption73169132-
In children's home or other institution on a long-term basis36-32-31-
Committed to care of Social Welfare34-50125-
Not traced1,210141,4481683910
Died137212521292
Totals8,4371008,8731008,566100

ADOPTIONS—The following table shows the number of adoptions which have been registered during the latest 4 years.

YearMalesFemalesTotal
19731,7491,7753,524
19741,7371,6293,366
19751,6751,6473,322
19761,4571,4852,942

Of the 3,322 adoptions registered in 1975, 1,176 were children under the age of 1 year, 1,269 were aged 1 to 4 years, 585 were aged 5 to 9 years, and 292 were aged 10 years and over.

In 1972, for the first time for many years, there was a substantial drop in the number of adoption orders made by the Court and this was followed by a further drop in 1973, 1974, and in 1975. Of the 3,322 adoptions finalised in 1975, social workers of the Social Welfare Department were concerned with 2,751 or 83 percent. Maori welfare officers handled most of the others.

The following table, which relates only to cases handled by the department, shows the number and status of children adopted over the last 4 years.

Status of Children Adopted1972197319741975
*These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Ex-nuptial2,7132,5512,3912,106
Nuptial498451506571
Not known*69867974
Totals3,2803,0882,9762,751

In 1975, 76 percent of the children adopted were born out of wedlock. Of these children born out of wedlock, 85 percent were aged less than one year at the time of placement for adoption. Fifty-seven percent were placed with strangers.

The next table shows the age at placement according to the status of the children adopted in 1975

AgeNuptialEx-nuptialNot KnownTotal
*These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Under 1 year2731,789142,076
1-5 years441081153
6 years and over2616042
Not known*22819359480
Totals5712,106742,751

The following table shows the original relationship between adopted children and their new parents.

Relationship1972197319741975
Strangers2,1362,0001,8211,581
One parent and spouse801770903877
Relative or close friend343318252293
Totals3,2803,0882,9762,751

STILL BIRTHS—Although it is compulsory to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. Particulars of causes of still births will be found in Section 4C relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one "which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue". Still births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths. The rate was 0.83 per 100 births in 1975.

The registration of still births during each of the latest 4 years were as follows.

YearMale Still BirthsFemale Still BirthsTotalMale Still Births per 1,000 Female Still BirthsPercentage of Still Births to
Living BirthsAll Births
19732842745581,0360.920.91
19742642475111,0690.860.85
19752242484729030.830.83
19762291944231,1800.770.76

The percentage of ex-nuptial birth among still-born infants in 1976 was 20.57, and among infants born alive, 17.42.

Of the total of 423 still births in 1976, 374 were non-Maori and 49 Maori; of the Maori total 28 were males and 21 were females.

4 C—DEATHS

NUMBERS AND RATES—The death rate (by which is usually meant the crude death rate, the number of deaths per 1,000 of total mean population) is less subject to fluctuation than the birth rate. In the absence of wars, epidemics, and other large-scale disasters, it changes slowly. The New Zealand crude death rate was 8.53 in 1924 and fifty years later, in 1974, it was 8.33. In between, it had reached a peak of 11.05 in 1942, during the Second World War, and the figure for the latest year (1975) is the low point. In contrast, the birth rate (21.63 in 1924 and 18.35 in 1975) had been as low as 17.38 in 1935 and as high as 27.64 in 1947. Depressions, wars, peace, prosperity, and the popularisation of improved methods of birth control have all left their mark on the birth rate.

Under normal conditions, the most important factor affecting the crude death rate is the age-structure of the population, which (like the death rate itself) changes slowly. An ageing population will tend to have a high death rate, while a young one (provided that infant mortality is not abnormally high) will have a low one.

The following table sets out the numbers of deaths and the crude death rates per 1,000 of mean population. (Maoris are defined as persons with half or more Maori ancestry and the term non-Maori covers all other persons.)

YearNumbersCrude Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
197223,4541,34724,8018.755.718.51x
197323,9321,38025,3128.745.708.52x
197423,9881,27325,2618.585.158.33x
197523,781x1,33325,114x8.345.288.14
197624,1371,32025,457....8.17

The chief merit of the crude death rate is that it is easily calculated, requiring only the number of deaths and the size of the population "at risk". However, it is very misleading when comparisons are being made between two or more populations with different age-structures, such as the Maori and non-Maori populations of New Zealand. The Maori population is a "young" one, with a high proportion of children and young people in those age groups in which the death rate is normally very low, and relatively few elderly people in those age groups in which the death rate is normally high. The non-Maori population is older, with a considerably smaller proportion of children and young people and a larger proportion of elderly people. The result is that a comparison of crude death rates gives a false picture of Maori mortality as compared with non-Maori.

In the following table for 1973 adjustments made to effect a truer comparison show that mortality for Maoris is relatively higher than for non-Maoris; in addition, a comparison is supplied in age-specific rates for the two races in each sex (age-specific rates are the number of deaths per 1,000 (or per 10 000, etc.) of the population in the specified age groups).

Ethnic GroupAll Ages Rates per 10,000 Mean PopulationAge-specific Rates per 10,000 of Population at Ages
Crude RateMaori Rate Adjusted to Non-Maori PopulationUnder 5 Years5-14 Years15-24 Years25-44 Years45-64 Years65 Years and Over
    Males    
Maori68.3152.460.16.529.547.3239.0943.1
Non-Maori95.6..44.14.816.917.3127.9741.9
    Females    
Maori47.0142.637.34.510.333.1178.3738.2
Non-Maori79.0..32.72.45.610.768.0552.5
    Both Sexes    
Maori57.0149.648.95.520.040.2209.1843.4
Non-Maori87.4..38.53.611.414.197.8632.9

For both Maoris and non-Maoris the death rate in males exceeds the death rate in females by a considerable margin. The following table sets out the number of deaths and the respective crude death rates for each sex separately for the latest 5 years.

 Deaths of MalesDeaths of FemalesTotal DeathsMale Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths
 NumberRate*NumberRate*NumberRate*
*Deaths per 1,000 of mean population.
197213,2929.13x11,5097.90x24,8018.51x115
197313,9299.37x11,3837.67x25,3128.52x122
197413,7569.07x11,5057.60x25,2618.33x120
197513,8038.93x11,3117.34x25,1148.14x122
197613,984..11,473..25,4578.17122

Deaths of Maoris, included in these figures, in 1976 totalled 1,320, of whom 755 were males and 565 females.

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR—In 1975 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were July, August, and June, with totals of 2,589, 2,450, and 2,313 respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January), February had the least number of deaths (1,720), followed by November with 1,786.

AGES AT DEATH—Deaths registered during the year 1975 are shown according to age in the following table.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1534370904
1-4131109240
5-99448142
10-146644110
15-1923171302
20-2420977286
25-2915789246
30-3413697233
35-39175121296
40-44251161412
45-49487252739
50-547374161,153
55-599415321,473
60-641,5218662,387
65-691,7931,0192,812
70-741,9741,4083,382
75-791,6401,5183,158
80-841,2911,6882,979
85-899421,4512,393
90-943887311,119
95-9996224320
100 and over91928
Totals13,80311,31125,114

The Maori population is a very young one compared with the non-Maori and as a result there is a considerable variation in the proportions of deaths of Maoris and non-Maoris which take place at various ages. The following table illustrates the position for the year 1975.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total DeathsPercentage of Maori Deaths in Total Deaths per Age Group
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
Under 59811634.1312.2314.25
5-14207450.873.3817.86
15-24516722.175.4012.24
25-441,0041834.2213.7315.42
45-645,27547722.1835.788.29
65 and over15,79839366.4329.482.43
All ages23,7811,333100.00100.005.31

In the following table is given a time series for rates of death per 1,000 of mean population by age groups. Health measures have achieved an immense saving of young life and a prolongation of life especially among elderly women.

YearUnder 1*1-45-1415-2425-3435-4445-5455-6465-7475 and Over

*Per 1,000 live births in this case.

†Non-Maori figures only as Maori deaths at ages not available for these years.

(Rates per 1,000 of mean population in each age group)
Males
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59141.67
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17128.60
194143.654.391.362.532.933.959.2021.1347.44140.27
196125.861.340.491.281.472.687.3919.6547.33126.31
197418.260.860.481.601.472.627.3719.8947.02134.05
197518.491.040.501.551.312.587.6319.9046.67129.98
Females
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
192142.314.491.312.343.384.468.0014.8836.81120.23
194137.753.841.201.942.443.506.9015.0438.60118.92
196119.501.160.350.530.871.954.5911.2229.89104.74
197412.660.800.330.610.702.074.7810.8526.3699.20
197513.330.910.300.550.851.774.3110.5525.4196.26
Both Sexes
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
194139.814.121.282.222.673.728.0218.1643.04129.15
196122.761.250.420.911.182.316.0015.4137.67114.01
197415.540.830.411.111.092.356.1015.2235.84111.91
197515.960.980.401.061.082.185.9915.0735.15108.65

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of the total population by sex is shown in the following table. Prior to 1974 the data relates to the non-Maori population only.

YearMalesFemales
 age (years)
190141.6437.68
192148.4546.97
194158.6559.60
196163.8067.32
197164.7570.04
197364.0670.63
197462.90x68.88x
197562.8769.00

The average age of death of Maoris in 1975 was 47.92 and 48.39 years for males and female respectively. The younger age composition of the Maori population is an important factor to be borne in mind.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE—Life tables, depicting the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for particular calendar periods for the non-Maori component of New Zealand's population, have been constructed at regular intervals since 1880. The most recent tables prepared by the Department of Statistics are based on the 1971 population census, together with mortality statistics for 1970–72.

Life tables contain a measure of the degree of longevity of the population called the "expectation of life". The expectation of life at any age is the average remaining lifetime for persons of this age, assuming that mortality rates at each age continue at the level shown by the life table. The life expectancy at selected ages at the present time, for the non-Maori population in New Zealand, is shown in the table below. The overall longer span of life enjoyed by females, compared with males, is evident. Further details concerning life table methodology and construction and trends in New Zealand life expectancies can be obtained from New Zealand Life Tables 1970–72.

Exact Age Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
069.0975.16
169.2775.15
268.3874.26
367.4573.31
466.4972.35
565.5371.38
1060.6666.49
1555.7861.59
2051.1656.74
2546.5351.89
3041.8047.03
4032.4037.46
5023.5228.37
6015.8219.91
709.8212.48
805.536.76
902.943.29
1001.231.31

The long-term trend since 1880 for non-Maoris has been a steady improvement in life expectancy for both sexes. The improvement has been striking for the younger ages but relatively small for the advanced ages. Progress in medical science, coupled with improved social conditions, has resulted in substantial reductions in mortality for all ages up to middle age. This trend has continued up to 1970–72 for females, but the decline in male mortality between 1965–67 and 1970–72 was not sufficient to offset the increase between 1960–62 and 1965–67, and male life expectancy has not returned to the 1960–62 level. The following table displays the life expectancy for non-Maoris revealed by each life table compiled during the past 60 years for the three exact ages of 0, 20, and 60 years.

Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
1911-1560.9647.6115.5463.4849.1416.72
1921-2262.7648.6616.0365.4350.3617.29
1925-2763.9948.9315.7966.5750.9617.23
193165.0449.6116.2267.8851.2817.30
1934-3865.4649.8916.0668.4552.0217.49
1950-5268.2951.1516.1972.4354.6418.53
1955-5768.8851.4416.1973.8855.8719.16
1960-6269.1751.5316.0974.5156.3319.39
1965-6768.6750.8915.8274.8456.4619.68
1970-7269.0951.1615.8275.1656.7419.91

The expectation of life at various ages for the Maori population is shown in the following table. These expectations are taken from New Zealand Life Tables 1970-72.

Exact Age Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
060.9664.96
161.5265.58
260.7964.80
359.8963.88
458.9662.94
558.0261.98
1053.2657.12
2043.9747.54
3035.1538.14
4026.5629.22
5018.9021.14
6012.9614.60
708.729.90
805.045.94

Life expectancy at birth for Maori males decreased by 0.48 years between 1965–67 and 1970–72 while that for Maori females increased by 0.18 years. This is the first time that a decline in Maori male life expectancy has been experienced in the history of Maori life tables—first produced in 1950-52. It can be attributed to increased mortality in most ages resulting from a greater number of fatal accidents and a higher incidence of cancer. A similar decline in life expectancy was experienced by non-Maori males between 1960-62 and 1965-67, while similar trends were evident in some other western countries about this time.

The expectation of life of Maoris is shorter than that of non-Maoris at all except the highest ages. A comparison at age 0 shows that life expectancy is 8.13 years greater for non-Maori males and 10.20 years greater for non-Maori females. For the period 1965-67, the differences were 7.23 years and 10.06 years respectively.

The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the total population of New Zealand, with that for selected overseas countries. Sources: United Nations Demographic Yearbook and Population and Australia.

CountryPeriodLife Expectancy at Birth (Years)
MalesFemales
Australia197268.1974.99
Canada1970-7269.3476.36
Denmark1971-7270.776.1
England and Wales1970-7268.975.1
France197268.674.4
Netherlands197371.277.2
New Zealand1970-7268.5574.60
United States197267.475.2

REGISTRATION OF DEATH, BURIAL AND CREMATION—Deaths are required to be registered by the funeral director within 3 days after the day of burial. The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Burial and Cremation Act 1964. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision exists for the disposal of the dead. Cremation may be carried out if the deceased is not known to have left any written direction to the contrary.

The rate of cremation for every 100 deaths registered has more than doubled since 1950. The following table relates cremations to the number of deaths since 1950. Prior to 1970 the statistics concern deaths of non-Maoris only.

YearDeaths RegisteredCremationsRate per 100 Deaths Registered
MalesFemalesTotal
195016,7151,7991,4543,25319.46
196019,5242,9582,5825,54028.38
197024,8405,4184,4749,89239.82
197425,2616,0735,19511,26844.61
197525,1146,0865,15811,24444.77

DEATHS BY CAUSES—The selection of cause of death recommended by the World Health Organisation's International Classification of Diseases is based on the concept of selecting the underlying cause of death.

The certifier's statement largely determines the cause, but to obtain more accurate data the nosologists also refer to all autopsy reports received, cancer case registrations, coroners' reports, and hospital case summaries.

Medical practitioners certified 82 percent of deaths registered in 1975 and 18 percent were certified by coroners. Of the deaths certified by doctors, 16.4 percent were subject to autopsy whilst 96 percent of deaths certified by coroners were subject to autopsy. Overall, 31 percent of all deaths had autopsies performed.

Detailed information about causes of death is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre in New Zealand Health Statistics Report—Mortality and Demographic Data.

The following table is a summary of causes of death, numbers and rates per million of mean population for the years 1973 to 1975.

Cause of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
197319741975197319741975*
*Provisional rate based on 1974 mean population.
Enteritis and other diarrhoeal disease374053121317
Tuberculosis of respiratory system33263211911
Other tuberculosis including late effects555142181714
Infectious hepatitis101317346
Syphilis and its sequelae693231
All other infective and parasitic diseases778093262631
Malignant neoplasm4,7084,9665,0071,5811,6311,645
Benign neoplasm and neoplasm of unspecified nature24323781112
Diseases of thyroid gland3228251198
Diabetes mellitus467475472157156155
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency1268423
Anaemia454958151619
Alcoholic psychosis and alcoholism497381162427
Meningitis2735279119
Multiple sclerosis252618896
Paralysis agitans9110692313530
Epilepsy374729121510
Chronic rheumatic heart disease212233240717779
Hypertensive disease426377379143124125
Ischaemic heart disease7,1137,0786,9652,3882,3252,288
Other forms of heart disease629638656211210215
Cerebrovascular disease3,5133,4583,2351,1791,1361,063
Diseases of arteries, arterioles, and capillaries741801823249263270
Acute respiratory infections including influenza139128152474250
Pneumonia935828888314272292
Bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma1,1171,0561,072375347352
Other diseases of respiratory system243230239827679
Peptic ulcer159165149535449
Appendicitis131313444
Intestinal obstruction and hernia8490106283035
Cirrhosis of liver143165191485463
Diseases of gallbladder565365191721
Nephritis and nephrosis146130117494338
Infections of kidney826761282220
Hyperplasia of prostate645535211811
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium141013534
Rheumatoid arthritis716360242120
Congenital anomalies342331342115109112
Birth injury, difficult labour, and other anoxic and hypoxic conditions173135149584449
Other causes of perinatal mortality252234227857775
All other diseases805782812270257267
Motor vehicle accidents837730689281240226
All other accidents914980989307322325
Suicide and self-inflicted injury261273293889096
All other external causes718961242920
Totals25,29025,25425,1158,4908,2968,250

PRINCIPAL CAUSES OF DEATH—Heart disease, malignant neoplasms (cancer), and cerebrovascular disease were again the leading causes of death in 1975 (the latest year for which data are available).

Death rates per million of mean population from leading causes of death are shown in the following table and graph.

 Years
 197319741975*
*Provisional, based on 1974 mean population.
All heart disease2,7812,7012,681
Malignant neoplasms (cancer)1,5811,6311,645
Cerebrovascular disease1,1791,1361,063
Accidental causes581553540
Pneumonia314272292

Heart Disease—Heart disease as a group of diseases is still the leading cause of death in New Zealand but death rates from this cause have fallen in recent years. The standardised mortality ratios show that for males, the rates have fallen by 8 percent between 1969 and 1975 and for females, the rates have fallen by 10 percent in the same period.

The numbers of deaths and standardised mortality ratios for heart disease, excluding acute rheumatic forms and congenital malformations, for the latest available 10 years are shown below.

YearAll Forms of Heart DiseaseCoronary Heart Disease
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*

*Base years 1950-52 = 100.

†Provisional.

19634,6281003,302803,4951531,980156
19644,7371023,322793,6371572,082161
19654,7101003,394793,6191542,159163
19664,9411043,496793,8931642,275169
19674,8511003,446763,8451592,254164
19685,2171063,506764,3721782,581183
19694,9191003,500744,1501672,549178
19704,886993,405724,2281692,560177
19714,938983,413704,3131722,619176
19724,784933,515704,2621642,838187
19734,922953,361664,4351682,678173
19744,795913,427664,3201612,758175
19754,845923,315644,2941602,671169

The standardised mortality ratio shows the number of deaths registered in the year of experience expressed as a percentage of those which would have been expected in that year had there operated the sex-age mortality of a standard period (the 3 years 1950-52 were chosen). The standardised mortality ratio has been adopted to eliminate the distorting effect of the changes which take place over a period in the age-structure of the population.

Coronary (ischaemic) heart disease showed small decrease in crude rates during the 3 years since 1972. The standardised mortality ratios for both sexes are subject to fluctuation. During the period 1959 to 1975, female standardised mortality ratios for coronary heart disease exceed the male rate at each year.

Cancer—In New Zealand one death in five in 1975 was caused by cancer. The cancer crude death rate has increased in each of the past 4 years (for which figures are available) from 155.2 per 100,000 population in 1972 to 164.5 in 1975

A detailed report on cancer mortality and morbidity in New Zealand is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. These reports cover mortality from cancer and also survey all cases reported to the National Cancer Registry by hospitals, and by the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the Cancer Society of New Zealand.

A summary of numbers of deaths from cancer, crude death rates, and standardised mortality ratios is provided in the following table.

YearNumber of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Mortality Ratios*Number of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Mortality Ratios*

*Base years 1950-52 = 100.

†Provisional.

  Males  Females 
19501,431148.2991,286134.697
19601,724144.31011,566132.592
19702,436173.01262,024143.599
19712,479175.21262,007142.396
19722,411165.41212,115145.099
19732,567172.31262,141143.899
19742,682176.11292,284150.2103
19752,726179.0..2,281150.0..

The standardised mortality ratio for males has increased steadily from the 1960 level of 101 to 129 in 1974. This would indicate that there has been a real increase in the death toll in the male sex and this, as discussed later, is mainly attributable to the rise in lung cancer. The standardised mortality ratio for females remained fairly constant at around 93 from 1960 to 1969, but has risen in recent years. The 1974 ratio of 103 is the highest recorded since 1943. This increase can also be attributed to a steep rise in lung cancer among females.

A classification of cancer deaths during 1974 according to age and sex is now given. Ninety-two percent of deaths from cancer during 1974 were at 45 years of age or above, and 59 percent were at 65 years of age or above.

Age Group in YearsDeaths of MalesDeaths of Females
NumbersRate per 100,000 of Population at Ages givenPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages givenNumbersRate per 100,000 of Population at Ages givenPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages given
*All ages crude rate.
Under 5138.32.0128.02.5
5-14257.816.3134.313.0
15-24269.45.9259.515.6
25-4411831.215.915542.333.0
45-64844299.623.4816285.937.8
65 and over1,6561,477.320.41,263837.815.8
All ages2,682176.1*19.52,284150.2*19.8

The upward trend of deaths from cancer of the lung for both males and females continued in 1975. There were 989 deaths from this cause, an increase of 39 deaths over the previous year. One death in twenty-five registered in 1975 was caused by cancer of the lung. Cancer of the breast accounted for 18 percent of all female cancer deaths making this the principal primary site of cancer in female deaths.

Other sites for which upward trends were recorded are oesophageal cancer in males, and cancer of the large intestine in females.

The following table shows deaths from cancer (malignant neoplasms) by sex and selected sites, registered in New Zealand during 1974 and 1975.

SiteSexNumbersRates per Million Mean Population
1974197519741975*
*Provisional rate based on 1974 mean population.
Buccal cavity and pharynxM42572837
 F24251616
OesophagusM86825654
 F43432828
StomachM227215149141
 F15413510189
Large intestineM247248162163
 F338326222214
RectumM1501439894
 F1261308385
Bronchus, trachea, and lungM762789500518
 F198200130132
BreastM1312
 F447422294277
Cervix uteriF95896259
Corpus uteriF63534135
Ovary, fallopian tube, and broad ligamentF1231518199
ProstateM281265184174
Bladder and other urinary organsM83765450
 F26381725
Skin, all formsM65834354
 F55493632
BrainM71774751
 F56673744
Lymphosarcoma and reticulum-cell sarcomaM53533535
 F29351923
LeukaemiaM1091157276
 F86865757
All other and unspecified sitesM505520332341
 F421432277284
Total cancer deathsM2,6822,7261,7611,790
 F2,2842,2811,5021,500

INFANT AND PERINATAL MORTALITY—The following table shows New Zealand infant and perinatal mortality numbers and rates for 1968-75. An infant death is defined as a liveborn infant dying before the first year of life is completed. A neonatal death is defined as the death of a liveborn infant before the 28th day of life; a post neonatal death as the death of a live-born infant between the 28th day and the first year of life.

Perinatal Mortality—Perinatal deaths comprise stillbirths and deaths in the first week of life. The late fetal death (stillbirths) and the perinatal mortality rate are calculated per 1,000 total births (stillbirths plus live births), while the death rate for neonatal and infant deaths is calculated per 1,000 live births.

DeathYearMaoriNon-MaoriTotal Population
No.RateNo.RateNo.Rate
Late fetal1968-7249212.02,85410.33,34610.5
 1973628.34899.15519.0
 1974689.64368.35048.4
 1975487.04238.44718.2
Early neonatal1968-7243010.62,5129.22,9429.4
 1973598.04628.75218.6
 19747510.74067.84818.1
 1975639.34098.24728.3
Perinatal1968-7292222.45,36619.46,28819.8
 197312116.395117.71,07217.5
 197414320.384216.098516.5
 197511116.383216.594316.5
Neonatal1968-7250512.42,87310.53,37810.8
 1973679.15279.95949.8
 19748311.94769.15599.4
 19757611.24749.55509.7
Post neonatal1968-7253013.01,4105.21,9406.2
 19738010.83105.83906.4
 1974699.92975.73666.2
 1975639.32945.93576.3
Infant1968-721,03525.44,28315.75,31816.9
 197314719.983715.798416.2
 197415221.877314.892515.6
 197513920.576815.490716.0

The explanation of the higher rate for Maoris between the twenty-eighth day and the end of the first year is the susceptibility of the Maori baby in its home environment to forms of infection such as gastro-enteritis and pneumonia.

In a review of neonatal and postnatal deaths, issued by the Health Department in November 1976, it was shown that eight countries, selected on the basis of then having one million or more population and on their reporting of data regarded by World Health Organisation as complete, had a lower infant mortality rate than New Zealand. These eight were Sweden, Finland, Japan, Denmark, the Netherlands, Norway, France, and Switzerland. The following table shows infant mortality rates for selected countries (including some of the eight) during the years 1971 to 1973. The figures represent deaths per 100,000 live births.

  Age of Child
CountryYearUnder 1 YearUnder 1 Day1 and Under 7 Days7 and Under 28 Days1 Month and Under 1 Year
Sweden19711,10935742596231
 19721,079331423111213
 197398533734896203
Japan19711,240213420189418
 19721,166215395166390
 19731,132214367159392
Netherlands19711,214317437151308
 19721,170330413135291
 19731,153277451118306
  Age of Child
CountryYearUnder 1 YearUnder 1 Day1 and Under 7 Days7 and Under 28 Days1 Month and Under 1 Year

Source: World Health Statistics Annual, 1971, 1972, 1973.

France19711,415121555227512
 19721,330109522214485
 19731,25899460221478
New Zealand19711,660538386140596
 19721,561489386131555
 19731,620538319120642
Australia19711,729690406122511
 19721,672726360112474
 19731,649694364124468
England and Wales19711,752598392174588
 19721,723576409170568
 19731,688552400161574
United States19711,910819461138491
 19721,847787428149483
 19731,772722421153476

Because the Maori post-neonatal rate is about double that for non-Maoris, it is sometimes stated that New Zealand's infant mortality rate is as a consequence inordinately high. In 1973 the infant mortality rate for Maoris was 1,991 per 100,000 live births and for non-Maoris it was 1,569. Even if the non-Maori rate were used, New Zealand's international ranking would remain unchanged.

The following diagram illustrates infant mortality rates in New Zealand.

Causes of Infant Mortality—Deaths from the principal causes of infant mortality, and the rate per 1,000 live births, are shown for the latest available 3 years in the following table.

 Number of DeathsRate per 1,000 Live Births
Cause of Death197319741975197319741975
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis1151231111.92.12.0
Gastro-enteritis, diarrhoea, also dysentery1811150.30.20.3
Congenital anomalies2132272143.53.83.8
Neonatal disorders arising from certain diseases of the mother6055571.00.91.0
Birth injury, difficult labour, and other anoxic and hypoxic conditions4443440.70.70.8
Asphyxia of newborn unspecified3429390.60.50.7
Haemolytic disease of newborn11580.20.10.1
Hyaline membrane disease4336370.70.60.7
Immaturity and multiple pregnancy5457580.91.01.0
All other causes3923393246.55.75.7
Total infant deaths98492590716.215.616.0

MATERNAL DEATHS—The Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968 defines a maternal death as "a death that occurs during pregnancy or within a period of three months after the date of termination of a pregnancy". Deaths from complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium numbered 10 in 1974 with a rate of 1.7 per 10,000 live births. Deaths occurring during pregnancy or within 3 months of delivery but not due to complications of pregnancy or childbirth or the puerperium numbered 15 in 1974 with a rate of 2.5 per 10,000 live births

DEATHS OF PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN—A review of the mortality rates of children aged between one and under five years in New Zealand and in selected countries in 1972 was prepared by the Department of Health in 1976. The data, abstracted from the World Health Statistics Annual, revealed New Zealand as having a relatively poor record in this field among the developed nations of the world. The Department of Health stated that the purpose of the review was "to identify those causes of death which need special study if New Zealand's sorry performance in caring for its pre-school children is to be improved".

The table following lists the 25 countries which had lower mortality rates for pre-school children in 1972 than did New Zealand.

CountryDeath Rates per 100,000 Population Aged 1-4 Years

*1971. (Source: World Health Statistics Annual 1972.)

Note: Countries with less than one million population have been excluded from table.

Sweden47.6
Denmark63.5
Finland66.2
Israel71.6
Norway73.2
England and Wales74.8
France75.2
Czechoslovakia77.5
Hungary78.8
Netherlands79.3
United States*79.6
Scotland80.5
Ireland80.8
Greece81.7
Italy83.0
Switzerland84.0
German Federal Republic86.4
Australia*87.2
Canada87.7
Northern Ireland88.1
Belgium*89.9
Austria90.8
Spain90.8
Hong Kong95.0
Puerto Rico95.2
New Zealand95.3

Principal causes of deaths among New Zealand children aged 1 and under 5 years of age in 1972 are shown in the next table, together with the death rates from these causes in Sweden (which had the lowest child-mortality rate of any country), England and Wales, and Australia.

Cause of DeathNumber of Deaths per 100,000 Children aged 1-4 Years
SwedenEngland and WalesAustralia*New Zealand
*1971.
Infective and parasitic diseases17118
Malignant neoplasm6545
Leukaemia2354
Meningitis11..2
Epilepsy..112
Acute respiratory infections1426
Viral and other pneumonia1786
Bronchitis, emphysema and asthma..112
Spina bifida..2..2
Congenital anomalies of heart4656
All other congenital anomalies5469
Motor vehicle accidents461115
Accidental drowning and submersion63119
All other accidents59911
All other causes1015149
All causes48758795

This review was based upon one year's deaths only. The question of how representative the 1972 figures are of each country's mortality experience may be a matter open to discussion. Nevertheless, the difference between the New Zealand and the Swedish mortality rates among pre-school children is so large that some direct comparison is justified. If New Zealand is to approach the mortality rate of Sweden, five disease groups could well receive close attention, for each of which the New Zealand rate is substantially higher than that for Sweden. The groups are: infective and parasitic diseases; acute respiratory infections: viral and other pneumonia; motor vehicle accidents; and other accidents.

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES—Accidents, poisonings and violence caused approximately 8 percent of the total deaths in each of the years 1973 to 1975.

The following table shows deaths from external causes for the latest 3 years. In this table, falls on board ship and from horseback are classified as transport accidents.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
197319741975197319741975

*Includes drowning from water transport.

†Provisional.

Motor-vehicle accidents837730689281240226
Other transport accidents315341101713
Accidental poisoning31264410914
Accidental falls486524496163172163
Accidents caused by machinery25353681112
Accidents caused by fire and explosion of combustible material483848161216
Accidents caused by firearms201110743
Accidental drowning and submersion*121127121414240
Suicide and self-inflicted injury261273293889098
Homicide25443181410
All other external causes198211223666973
Total deaths from accidents, poisoning, or violence2,0832,0722,032699681668

An analysis of deaths by the principal external causes during 1975 is given by sex and age-group in the following table and in the notes following it.

Age group (in years)Motor Vehicle AccidentsAccidental DrowningsAccidental PoisoningsAccidental Falls
MFMFMFMF
Under 15544034153-165
15-242274521-10192
25-34581921-24101
35-4432181315183
45-5436184-32113
55-6437127123172
65-74301922232734
75 and over2519--1292256
Totals499190102192816190306
Age GroupSuicide and Self-inflicted InjuryHomicideAll Accidents, Poisonings and Violence
MFMFMF
Under 151-5116093
15-2437155335178
25-342615--16350
35-4434152212042
45-5433176-12945
55-6433213112648
65-741911-29982
75 and over124-1143303
Totals1959821101,291741

Motor Vehicle Accidents—Fatality rates from motor vehicle accidents fell again in 1975. The 1973 peak rate of 281 per million decreased to 240 in 1974 and to 226 in 1975. The previous table illustrates the extent to which young men aged 15-24 were involved in motor vehicle fatalities. Although representing only 9 percent of the population this group accounted for 33 percent of all deaths from motor vehicle accidents in New Zealand. The male death rate from motor vehicle accidents has been approximately two and a half times greater than the female rate over the latest 5 years compared with a difference of three and a half times greater in the latter half of the nineteen-fifties.

Accidents with tractors are the main feature of fatalities on farms. Later sections deal with statistics of industrial and farm accidents.

Accidental Drowning—Of the 121 deaths from accidental drowning and submersion registered in 1975, 35 (29 percent) were as a result of water transport accidents. Those under 15 years of age accounted for 40 percent of drownings. There is a greater toll from drowning among males than among females as is the case in most external causes of death. In 1975 male deaths accounted for 84 percent of all deaths from drowning.

Accidental Falls—There were 496 deaths from accidental falls in 1975. This is one accident area in which the total female mortality exceeds the male. However, as shown in the preceding table there is an excess of male deaths over female deaths at each age group under 65 years. At ages 65 years and over female age specific death rates from falls were 81 percent higher than male age specific death rates. In 1975, at ages 75 years and over, the female age specific death rates were 60 percent higher,

In 1975 the home was the place of occurrence of 45 percent of fatal accidental falls and, in fact, falls are the chief cause of death in home accidents.

Suicide and Self-inflicted Injury—The 1975 suicide rate of 96 per million mean population is the highest rate recorded since 1970. The male rate of 128 per million is exactly double the female rate. The previous table shows the lower numbers of deaths by suicide among women at all ages.

Site of Non-transport Accidents—The place of occurrence of fatal non-transport accidents (excluding surgical and medical misadventure and late effects of accidental injury) is shown in the following table. As mentioned previously, falls are the chief cause of accidental fatalities in the home, exacting a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. Accidents occurring at home and in residential institutions (rest homes, hospitals, etc.) accounted for 61 percent of all fatal non-transport accidents in the 3-year period 1972 to 1974.

Place of OccurrenceNumberRate per Million of Mean Population
197219731974197219731974
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)392376373134126123
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)375040131713
Mine and quarry62121-
Industrial place and premises304249101416
Place for recreation and sport122218476
Street and highway162423588
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)171413654
Residential institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)142147163494954
Other specified places113118126394041
Place not specified687693232631
Totals833871899286292295

Approximately 43 percent of fatal non-transport accidents occurred in or about the home.

Water Accidents by Location—The following tables show drownings during 1975 and 1976 by location. It may be noticed that the figures of drownings in this table differ from those in a previous table in this section. Figures in the earlier table, supplied by the National Health Statistics Centre, represent deaths registered as drownings following the results of inquests. The table following, supplied by the New Zealand Water Safety Council, includes persons known (or almost certainly known) to have been drowned although the bodies have not been recovered.

The following table shows drownings during 1975.

LocationAge in Years
Under 55-1516-3031-50Over 50Total

*Includes victims of unspecified ages.

†Public and private.

‡Includes 8 in private swimming pools.

Boating accidents22249748*
Rivers and streams67104330
Seas and beaches-41010428
Harbours--11-2
Tanks, ponds, troughs, sump holes61---7
Lakes, lagoons, and reservoirs51-1-7
Swimming pools and baths11211-15
Other2----2
Totals, 19753217462614139*

Provisional figure of drownings during 1976 are shown in the following table.

LocationAge in Years
Under 55-1516-3031-50Over 50Total

*Includes victims of unspecified ages.

†Public and private.

‡Includes 11 in private swimming pools.

Boating accidents1413201755
Rivers and streams7666127*
Seas and beaches-287220*
Harbours-12216
Tanks, ponds, troughs, sump holes-21--3
Lakes, lagoons, and reservoirs112--4
Swimming pools and baths131-1116
Fishing off rocks----11
Other1-12-4
Totals, 19762317333823136*

4 D—MARRIAGES

GENERAL—Marriage may be solemnised in New Zealand either by a celebrant included in the list of marriage celebrants under the Marriage Act 1955, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. A licence must be obtained from a Registrar of Marriages before a marriage by a marriage celebrant can be solemnised. Marriage by a marriage celebrant may be solemnised at any time between 6 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be solemnised at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business; notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage.

The Marriage Amendment Act 1976 extended the right of solemnising marriages to nominated members of approved organisations of a non-religious character.

In the case of a person under 20 years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parents or guardian is necessary. Consent of a Magistrate may be sought in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

Since 1933 the minimum age for marriage has been 16 years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to be void, however, by reason only of an infringement of the minimum age.

Since 1 April 1952 it has been required under the Maori Purposes Act 1951 that every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be solemnised in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a non-Maori.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The numbers of marriages and rates during recent years are shown below. The marriage rate, like the birth rate, has been declining in recent years.

YearNumberRate per 1,000 of Population
197127,1999.50
197226,8689.22x
197326,2748.84x
197425,4128.38x
197524,535x7.95x
197624,1547.75

Comparison with Other Countries—Marriage rates for certain countries for 1975 are given below. (Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.)

CountryRate per 1,000 Mean Population
*1974 rate.
Australia8.0
Belgium7.3
Canada9.1*
France7.6*
Germany, West6.2
Italy6.7
Japan8.5
Netherlands7.3
New Zealand7.9
Sweden5.3
United Kingdom7.8*
United States10.0

MARITAL STATUS PRIOR TO MARRIAGE—The following table gives marital status prior to marriage for the latest 5 years.

YearSingleWidowedDivorcedTotal Persons Married
BridegroomBrideBridegroomBrideBridegroomBride
197124,01424,1951,0001,0492,1851,95554,398
197223,60723,6611,0171,0812,2442,12653,736
197322,76822,9701,0201,0392,4862,26552,548
197421,70521,9629721,0352,7352,41550,824
197520,86320,9658909582,7822,61249,070

The nature of the marriage according to marital status of persons prior to marriage is given next.

YearMarriages Between Bachelors andMarriages Between Widowers andMarriages Between Divorced Men and
SpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced Women
197122,8142559452485022501,133292760
197222,3102631,0342185292701,133289822
197321,4262531,0892445262501,300260926
197420,3462501,1092234952541,3932901,052
197519,3382501,2751784362761,4492721,061

During the years 1938-40 there were 95 male divorcees who remarried for every 100 female divorcees who remarried. In the period 1971-75 more male divorcees than female divorcees remarried.

The number of widows per 100 widowers who remarried was 67 in 1938-40, but with a changed social outlook the position in 1971-75 was that 105 widows remarried for every 100 widowers.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED—The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period of years but now appears to be levelling off. On 1 January 1971 the age of majority was lowered from 21 to 20 years of age. In 1975 one bride in every three was under 20 years of age, the proportion of grooms being one in thirteen.

Of the persons married in 1975, 9,058 or 18.46 percent were under 20 years of age; 22,798 or 46.46 percent were returned as 20-24 years; 8,574 or 17.47 percent as 25-29 years; 4,419 or 9.01 percent as 30-39 years; and 4,221 or 8.60 percent as 40 years of age and over.

The following table relates to the 1975 calendar year.

Age of Bridegroom, in YearsAge of Bride, in YearsTotal Bridegrooms
Under 2020-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445 and Over
Under 201,537312274---1,880
20-244,7666,58057176174512,019
25-297183,0121,417280541655,502
30-341155946163179331111,777
35-39261742432361305726892
40-447521191051159679573
45 and over955791431802471,1791,892
Total brides7,17810,7793,0721,1615894511,30524,535

The following table shows since 1965 the proportions of men and women who married at each age group for every 100 marriages.

PeriodUnder 20*20-24*25-2930-3435-3940-4445 and OverTotals
*Under 21 and 21-24 respectively before 1971.
    Males    
1965-6915.2344.7921.246.313.462.346.63100.0
19738.6552.5519.886.243.042.387.26100.0
19748.3150.9720.896.623.432.317.47100.0
19757.6648.9922.427.243.642.347.71100.0
    Females    
1965-6945.3333.629.083.052.101.815.01100.0
197332.2244.4910.633.801.991.675.20100.0
197431.6943.0211.754.152.261.655.48100.0
197529.2643.9312.524.732.401.845.32100.0

The average ages (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females are shown in the following table.

YearAverage Age at Marriage
BridegroomsBrides
197026.3623.45
197126.2523.40
197226.3823.54
197326.5423.68
197426.7823.94
197527.0524.16

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the latest 5 years according to marital status were as shown in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
BachelorsDivorcedWidowersSpinstersDivorcedWidows
 Age in Years
197123.6640.3357.6421.1936.0250.91
197223.7340.0657.6421.2035.8050.67
197323.7639.2957.4521.3035.1251.39
197423.8439.1557.4521.4435.0651.04
197524.2138.7856.7321.5935.0950.54

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides in 1975 was 20 years. In the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied and for recent years it has been 21 to 24; in 1975, it was 21 years.

Marriage of Minors—Of every 1,000 men who married in 1975, 77 were under 20 years of age, while 293 in every 1,000 brides were under 20, Since 1 January 1971 the age of majority has been 20 years. In 1,880 marriages in 1975 both parties were given as under 20 years of age, in 5,641 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 343 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

As already stated, the proportion of minors among persons marrying now appears to be levelling off or even falling. The main reason for this is the changing age structure of the population, with a slowly diminishing proportion consisting of minors of marriageable age.

In the table below figures are given for the last 5 years.

YearAge in YearsTotal Minors and 20 Year-olds
161718 2016-20 Years16-19 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16-20 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16-19 Years
Bridegrooms
1971342517181,4582,5525,0132,46118.439.05
1972402297111,3922,6044,9762,37218.528.83
1973302466791,3182,5354,8082,27318.308.65
1974311916271,2642,4254,5382,11317.868.31
1975371645421,1372,2074,0871,88016.667.66
Brides
19716971,6072,7563,6574,16912,8868,71747.3832.05
19727481,4942,7323,7124,11412,8008,68647.6432.33
19736931,4452,6803,6473,88912,3548,46547.0232.22
19746111,2812,5833,5773,66711,7198,05246.1231.69
19754951,1522,2523,2793,47010,6487,17843.4029.26

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES—Of the 24,535 marriages performed in 1975, Anglican clergymen officiated at 5,551, Presbyterian at 5,273, Roman Catholic at 3,356, Methodist at 1,646, and clergymen of other churches at 2,260, while 6,449 marriages were solemnised by registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before registrars in each of the 6 latest years.

ChurchPercentage of Marriages
197019711972197319741975
Anglican26.3925.6425.0724.4523.7722.62
Presbyterian23.5222.5522.6521.7321.4521.49
Roman Catholic15.2415.4415.1314.7814.3513.68
Methodist7.697.396.857.226.896.71
Others7.207.447.607.788.359.22
Before Registrars19.9621.5422.7024.0425.1926.28
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population at the general census of 1971, 31.3 percent were recorded as adherents of the Anglican Church, 20.4 percent Presbyterian, 15.7 percent Roman Catholic, 6.4 percent Methodist, and 26.2 percent were of other religion or of no religion, or objected to stating their religious profession.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS—The number of names on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act was 4,478 in March 1976. The principal churches to which they belonged are shown hereunder. The term "officiating minister" in the Marriage Act has now been replaced by "marriage celebrant" since, under the latest Amending Act a celebrant need not necessarily be a minister of religion.

ChurchNumber
Roman Catholic Church916
Anglican (Church of England)755
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand663
Methodist Church of New Zealand342
Baptist235
Salvation Army241
Ratana Church of New Zealand137
Brethren159
Latter Day Saints160
Ringatu Church89
Assemblies of God72
Associated Churches of Christ44
Jehovah's Witness121
Seventh Day Adventist52
Apostolic Church33
Liberal Catholic Church20
Congregational Church of Samoa21
Others418
Total4,478

DIVORCE AND OTHER MATRIMONIAL PROCEEDINGS—From 1 January 1969, some important changes applied in the principal legislation on grounds for divorce; the period of 3 years was reduced to 2 years for separation by agreement and decree of separation or separation order, and in cases living apart and unlikely to be reconciled the period of 7 years was reduced to 4 years.

Divorce—A petition for divorce may be presented to the Supreme Court on one or more of several grounds, which include adultery, desertion, separation by agreement for not less than 2 years, separation by decree of separation or separation order for not less than 2 years, and the parties living apart for 4 years and not likely to be reconciled. Where the parties are separated or living apart one of the parties must have been resident in New Zealand for at least 2 years immediately preceding the filing of the petition. The Court is required to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation of the parties to the marriage.

Petitions filed for dissolution or nullity of marriage and decrees granted by the Supreme Court in recent years are shown in the following table.

YearPetitions FiledDecrees NisiDecrees Absolute
Number GrantedRate per 100 Marriages During YearRate per 10,000 of Mean Population
19714,0723,5223,34712.3111.68
19724,2693,3873,47112.9211.80
19734,8303,9503,61613.7612.14
19745,3684,6294,45717.5414.64
19756,2305,3984,76119.4115.42
19766,1535,6155,40122.3817.33

The next table gives the grounds of petitions and decrees during the two years, 1974 and 1975.

GroundPetitions FiledDecrees Absolute Granted
Husbands' PetitionsWives' PetitionsHusbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions
19741975197419751974197519741975
Adultery715829535603555575354401
Desertion113155144135104112128104
Separation by agreement1,2431,4491,3541,4371,1021,1821,1831,155
Separation by Court order220375352470133218257365
Having lived apart for 4 years or more326351333392310296307327
Non-consummation or non-co-habitation86576956
Other26181533108
Totals2,6273,1712,7413,0592,2132,3952,2442,366

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year. A decree nisi normally applies for at least 3 months before a decree absolute is granted.

In 1,029 of the 4,761 cases where decrees absolute were granted during 1975 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 854 cases, 2 in 1,344 cases, 3 in 763 cases, and 4 or more in 771 cases.

The number of living issue affected by the decrees absolute of their parents during each of the last 6 years were as follows: 1971, 6,635; 1972, 6,872; 1973, 7,457; 1974, 8,722;, 1975, 9,556; and 1976 10,548.

The following table shows the duration of marriage by ages of husbands and wives at the time of marriage, for cases in which decrees absolute were granted in 1975.

Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age (in Years) at Marriage
Under 2020-2425-2930-3435-3940-4445 and over (Including not Stated)Total
Husbands (All Petitions)
Under 5692799143131138544
5-9174847231735316681,462
10-14123574198652419421,045
15-19563401774321167660
20 and over51554298803910181,050
Totals4732,594995304150721734,761
Wives (All Petitions)
Under 5235200431716726544
5-96965438944249571,462
10-1446742467252313261,045
15-1926429451231855660
20 and over28455213348301121,050
Totals1,0462,013383157101351264,761

Dissolution of a Voidable Marriage—A decree of dissolution of a voidable marriage puts an end to the marriage from the date of the decree. On average there are only about 40 such decrees in New Zealand each year. The principal ground is non-consummation.

CONCILIATION PROCESSES—Under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, the principle was introduced of having specialist magistrates to exercise jurisdiction in domestic matters, although this has not generally been possible in practice. The Act aims to encourage by all practicable means the reconciliation of married couples who institute court proceedings, unless the court is satisfied that an attempt at reconciliation would be inexpedient. Domestic proceedings became a separate division from civil and criminal proceedings in Magistrates' Courts. (See Section 8A, Justice).

In 23 centres local Marriage Guidance Councils provide trained conciliators and in addition to this the Court Conciliation Centre in Auckland, using counsellors trained in a marriage guidance setting, provides a full time service.

In 1974-75 1,906 couples were referred by the Court and were dealt with by Marriage Guidance counsellors. In 33 percent of these cases conciliators were successful in helping clients to a resumption of the marriage or a better understanding of their difficulties, with a resultant simplification of the work of the Courts. When the contribution of the Court Conciliation Centre in Auckland is added, it appears that specialist help is being offered to about 70 percent of those whose applications for separation are heard by the Courts.

MARRIAGE GUIDANCE—A National Marriage Guidance Council was established in 1950 as a voluntary agency to assist with social problems arising from unhappy or maladjusted marriages. From 1959 to 1968 an adviser in marriage guidance was attached to the staff of the Justice Department. An advisory committee was also set up to keep Government informed and to organise, with the assistance of appropriate professional groups, a programme for the selection, training, and accrediting of voluntary marriage counsellors. Although the training system is kept under constant review, the procedures followed have become well established and administration has now been taken over largely by the National Council with the support and advice of the department.

There are now 24 councils affiliated to the National Marriage Guidance Council and these provide counselling centres staffed by some 200 accredited counsellors, Accredited counsellors, in many centres, assist the courts by serving as conciliators under the Domestic Proceedings Act. (See also Section 8A, Justice.)

The National Marriage Guidance Council employs a full-time director to organise and co-ordinate the work of affiliated councils. At the local level the work of 500 trained volunteers in the fields of counselling and marriage education is supported and co-ordinated by 8 local directors and 34 receptionists or secretaries.

The council maintains statistical oversight of the nature and extent of marriage counselling case work, which has yielded significant results. Of the 6,082 cases referred, over half were initiated in the first 10 years of marriage and a further 30 percent in the second 10 years. There were over 10,000 children of these marriages. In 47 percent of the cases the husbands occupation was described as "skilled, semi-skilled, or unskilled worker". In 25 percent, husbands were in "minor business, clerical, shop assistant, foreman type" occupations, and 11 percent were in the "professional, managerial" class. Some 59 percent of the clients reported that they had been helped. In 18 percent of the cases, there was a negative result; in 8 percent of the cases, clients were referred for help elsewhere, and in 14 percent the cases were uncompleted for a variety of reasons.

A ‘high proportion’ (69 percent) of clients seek marriage guidance and counselling only when they are either contemplating separation or actually living apart, and the service is now training more people to act as tutors in marriage education and seeking other means of making better contact with married people before marital difficulties become too severe.

Educational work includes the conducting of courses for young couples in preparation for marriage, and parent groups. Since 1971, the number of adults taking advantage of educational programmes has multiplied thirteen times to total 25,300 in 1975-76. A significant proportion of this work is in the parent education field, and complements the traditional provision of courses in human relations in primary, intermediate, and secondary schools.

In those centres where the council is established, marriage guidance service is readily available to those whose marriages are in difficulty. There is a growing recognition by the public of the importance of this service and a greater readiness of people in trouble to make use of it.

Chapter 5. Section 5 HEALTH AND HOSPITALS

5 A—HEALTH AND MEDICAL SERVICES

GENERAL—The nation's health is the responsibility of a partnership of central and local government, private medical practitioners, para-medical workers, charitable and religious organisations and private citizens, with the Central Government providing encouragement, financial assistance and incentives, and assuming final responsibility. This has been a deliberate policy of successive Governments, although emphases have varied from time to time according to political and economic conditions and demands for specific services. Growing urbanisation and industrialisation, with consequent intensification of the problems of pollution of water, air, and land, are imposing a current emphasis nationally and locally on environmental health.

Public health services have to do with environmental health, communicable diseases and quarantine, occupational health and toxicology, radiation protection, food and nutrition, health education, family health, dental services and certain aspects of nursing. In the case of environmental health the concern of the Department of Health and local authorities is with matters such as the provision and protection of public water supplies, sewage treatment and disposal, food hygiene and housing standards. Its objectives are the maintenance of a healthy environment by the application of the principles of preventive medicine.

ADMINISTRATION—The functions of local authorities are defined by statute and regulation. Elected local authorities must appoint a sufficient number of health inspectors qualified under the Health Inspectors Qualifications Regulations 1975. Where a local authority is too small to need a separate, full-time inspector, the Act permits two or more to combine to share the cost. In some smaller sparsely-populated districts where a local authority does not employ its own inspector, the departmental inspectors of health do the work and the authority pays for it. Only 25 percent of inspectors are employed by the department.

In each of the 18 health districts, the medical officer of health, who is a medical practitioner with special qualifications in public health, is the adviser to all local authorities in his district; in some cases his approval is required before action can be taken by a local authority, and in others he is the first line of appeal against its decisions. He is required to keep the Director-General of Health and the Board of Health informed of local authority deficiencies in their responsibilities under the Health Act.

Diseases which are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 must be notified by doctors and hospitals to the medical officer of health who is responsible for control measures; within this area the local authority health inspector is subject to his direct supervision and control. New programmes of immunisation are undertaken by the department and, when established, vaccines are provided free and the general practitioner encouraged in this work. Quarantine arrangements for both aircraft and ships comply with obligations under the International Health Regulations. Medical officers of health administer this service. The broad objective is the control of communicable and chronic diseases in man and the keeping of New Zealand free of quarantinable diseases.

Accident prevention and the health of industrial and agricultural workers is the care of the Department of Health in conjunction with the Department of Labour. The aim is to prevent occupational disease, control toxic hazards, raise standards of first-aid services, and ensure the safe use of agri cultural chemicals.

Food and nutrition standards aimed at protecting the consumer are laid down. An extensive programme, backed by legislation, governs the packaging, labelling, storage, and sale of poisons. Special environmental problems, such as radiation protection, occupational health, and atmosphere pollution, are also the responsibility of the Department of Health.

The objectives of health education programmes are to increase understanding of the value of health, to inform people of health services available, and to equip them with knowledge and skills they can use to solve health problems.

Family health responsibilities include medical and nursing supervision of infant, pre-school, and school children; inspection of schools and child care centres; immunisation of infants against poliomyelitis, etc.; and the administration of regulations bearing on home safety.

A dental service, directed by dental officers and staffed by dental nurses, provides regular dental treatment for all pre-school, primary, and intermediate school children. Arrangements with private dental practitioners ensure similar treatment for adolescents up to the age of 16 years and for dependants up to the age of 18 years. Dental Health education is also undertaken.

The Department of Health is responsible for the organisation and control of nursing services to the public in general; in hospitals (public or private); in homes for the aged, incapacitated, or infirm or in any other places where the Department of Health has responsibility. Considerable delegation has taken place, mainly to hospital boards whose chief nursing officer is responsible to the chief medical officer for the administration of the services provided. The department reviews its nursing services and those provided by hospital boards. Basic nursing education is provided in 27 hospital schools of nursing and 4 technical institutes. Post-basic nursing education is available from New Zealand School of Advanced Nursing Studies (which is controlled by the Department of Health) and from Victoria and Massey Universities. Post-basic courses in teaching methods are available from teachers' colleges in Hamilton and Wellington, and 3 technical institutes have courses in Community Health Nursing.

Within its public health nursing service, the department employs over 300 well-qualified nurses. Their work includes supervising the health of babies and small children, taking part in child health (including health education) programmes, providing a service to small industries and people in "at risk" occupations, taking part in disease control programmes, and assisting elderly people and people with mental health problems.

The Department of Health works closely with and seeks the advice and help of boards, committees, and councils such as the Board of Health, the Medical Research, Dental, Hospitals Advisory, Pharmacy, Nursing, and Radiological Advisory Councils, the Hospital Works, Medical Services Advisory Committees, and the Dietitians, Physiotherapy, Occupational Therapy, Opticians, and Plumbers and Gasfitters Boards. In all, officers of the department serve on over 100 boards, committees, and other organisations concerned with health.

In addition, there are very close working relationships with professional and other associations, voluntary health and welfare agencies, the universities, and other Government departments.

The department is responsible for the administration of a number of Acts dealing with health and social welfare. These will be found listed under Public General Acts in the Official section of this Yearbook.

A detailed report of the activities of the Department of Health is given in the annual report of the Director-General of Health (parliamentary paper E. 10).

A general history of public health services may be found in A Health Service for New Zealand (parliamentary paper H. 23, 1974). Expenditure of the Department of Health in the 3 latest years is given in the following table.

Activity Programme1973-741974-751975-76

*Mostly grants to hospital boards. Total grants in the three years above amounted to $269,632,258; $328,929,256; and $401,563,582 respectively.

†Mostly grants of Medical and Pharmaceutical Benefits, etc., under the Social Security Act 1964 for which expenditure in the three years above was $75,170,332; $91,372,514; and $116,023,408 respectively.

‡The Government provides a subsidy of $1 for $2 on the total cost of approved works for main water supply facilities, sewerage reticulation, and sewerage disposal schemes which have been put into effect by local authorities. Expenditure in the three years above was $5,064,589; $8,599,401; and $11,489,488 respectively.

§Previously included in Welfare Services.

 $(000)
Administrative services3,1643,6084,429
Dental services11,83716,46918,222
Hospital services*282,106343,387419,476
Family health services5,7837,7888,682
Grants to Medical Research Council2,5112,6092,825
Medical and pharmaceutical services76,63493,261118,123
Public health and environmental protection10,24014,67918,725
Welfare services6,7694,6693,784
Data processing services--1,035
Housing for the elderly and youth hostels.-4,897§7,245§
Funded from Consolidated Revenue Account399,044491,367602,546
Psychiatric hospital buildings2,7772,0303,403
Public buildings construction59201455
Funded from Works and Trading Account2,8362,2313,858
Totals401,880493,598606,404
Less departmental receipts7851,292796
Net expenditure401,095492,306605,608

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH: Local Authority Control—The provision and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises in which food is manufactured and sold, including eating houses, are primarily the responsibility of local authorities, but the Department of Health exercises general supervision. In the case of some of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental inspectors on behalf of and by arrangement with the local authorities. The department undertakes the basic training of health inspectors employed by local authorities and conducts specialist and refresher courses for health inspectors.

Department of Health Control—The objectives of the Department of Health in environmental health control are: (a) to create and maintain a healthy environment for the general public by the application of principles of preventive medicine and the administration of legislation directly and indirectly related to this end; (b) to control air pollution; (c) to provide physical services and undertake research on all aspects of the use of ionising radiation with special emphasis on the medical applications and public health aspects. To monitor radiation exposure of the population from all sources and to take action to reduce this where necessary. To promote general understanding of the nature of the hazards involved in radiation exposure in their current perspective; and (d) to conserve hearing and detect its early deterioration.

Air Pollution Control—Air pollution, once accepted as the natural accompaniment of city dwelling and industrial production, has been widely recognised in recent decades as a health problem, especially in view of the growing scale of urbanisation and industrial activity.

The Clean Air Act 1972 provides for the control of all sources of air pollution, both existing and potential. It places considerable emphasis on co-operation between the Central Government, local authorities, industry, and the public, and in effect places on every person an obligation to keep air pollution to a minimum.

The provisions of the Clean Air Act 1972 include the following:

  1. standards can be prescribed limiting the emission of air pollutants and failure to observe them made an offence;

  2. the Clean Air Council was set up to give advice, co-ordinate activities, promote research and evaluate control equipment, and publish reports, advice and information on the prevention and control of air pollution;

  3. a wide range of industrial processes are required to be licensed under the Act;

  4. clean air zones can be established, and local authorities are authorised to advance to house-holders the cost of converting domestic fires to comply with the Act;

  5. certain sections of the Act can be applied (so far as they are applicable) to motor vehicles, aircraft, hovercraft, and locomotive engines, and power is given to make regulations governing necessary modifications, the use of particular fuels, and the concentration or rates of emission of air pollutants.

The Clean Air (Licensing) Regulations 1973 came into force on 1 April 1974. In 1975-76, 425 licences were issued by the Department of Health to industrial works requiring category A licences, i.e., works using processes subject to licensing by the department. An additional 525 industrial works were licensed by local authorities under category B.

The first clean air zone under the Act is being established in Christchurch.

CONTROL OF DRUGS—The definitions of "drug" in the Food and Drug Act 1969 established groups to which differing provisions apply. Therapeutic drugs, that is those substances or mixtures whether used internally or externally for the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of any illness or injury of the human body or for modifying any physiological process or desires or emotions, and chemical contraceptives are required, before being introduced commercially, to be "acceptable", according to a procedure under the Food and Drug Act. No new therapeutic drug may be distributed in New Zealand without the consent of the Minister of Health, under sections 12 and 13 of the Act.

This Act also requires that any drug which has been changed in any way, in use, strength, or labelling must not be distributed until 90 days after notice of the change has been given to the Director-General of Health, who may consent to earlier distribution of a changed drug if he is satisfied of the drug's safety. If the Director-General considers the change to be of such character or degree that the drug ought not to be distributed without the consent of the Minister, the drug is referred to the Minister and may not be distributed until the Minister's specific consent has been obtained. A therapeutic drug is also restricted to sale from pharmacies only, unless special authority is given for general distribution in a schedule to the Therapeutic Drugs (permitted sales) Regulations 1970.

A cosmetic, dentifrice, detergent, disinfectant, or antiseptic does not have to be "cleared" for marketing unless claims in labelling or advertising bring it within the definition of a "therapeutic drug".

As in the case of food, the Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any drug intended for sale. Measures provide for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where drugs are manufactured or packed. Control over medical advertisements is also incorporated in this legislation.

Under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964, certain drugs may not be sold to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. This legislation also requires specific warning statements to be included in the labelling of certain drugs such as the antihistamines, aspirin, phenacetin, paracetamol, and hexaclorophane.

Narcotics—Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 the import, export, cultivation, production, possession, distribution, supply, and administration of a wide range of narcotic and other drugs is strictly controlled. Except for medical practitioners, dentists, pharmacists, veterinary surgeons, those having the care of patients being lawfully supplied with drugs, the patients themselves, and other specified persons, or those who have been issued with a licence under the Act, the procuration, manufacture, possession, consumption, supply, or offer to supply controlled drugs is a serious offence.

Controlled drugs are divided into three classes. The heaviest penalties are for offences involving drugs in Class A, which include heroin, lysergide, desomorphine, and cantharidin. Offences involving the possession or use of drugs in Class C, which include cannabis plants, fruit, and seeds, are to be punished with fines but not by imprisonment unless by reason of previous convictions or exceptional circumstances.

Dealing in narcotics is subject to heavy penalties.

To curb illicit drug abuse, a National Drug Intelligence Bureau has been set up jointly by the Departments of Health, Customs, and Police.

FOOD AND NUTRITION—The Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act of any articles of food or drink which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food intended for sale. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where food is manufactured or packed. Regulations lay down minimum standards for many classes of food, control additives of all kinds, and deal with labelling of food packages. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food. Regular sampling of foods is undertaken by departmental inspectors and the samples are analysed in the Chemistry Division (DSIR) or its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity concerning any food whereby a purchaser would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of such food, whether or not it is standardised by regulations.

A Food Standards Committee, with a membership of highly qualified persons, meets regularly to discuss the latest technical advances in food production and to make appropriate recommendations for amendments to the legislation.

The nutrition section of the Department of Health provides advice on nutrition and dietetics to dietary departments of hospitals, and food service departments of welfare and other institutions. It is responsible for nutrition education programmes and provides a nutrition information service for Government departments, organisations concerned with production and marketing of food, and the public. The section also carries out dietary research projects, generally in liaison with medical research teams concerned with nutrition research.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY—Since 1957 medical officers of health have had responsibility for occupational health. The objective of the occupational health programmes is to work with labour, management, the medical profession, and other groups to assist in improving the health of the worker.

The Department of Labour, which is responsible for accident prevention, hours of work, employment of women, and children etc., calls to the attention of the Department of Health any health problems which the factory inspectors may encounter. The Factories Act 1946 gives to medical officers of health or other authorised officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authorities as inspectors of factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. The suspension of workers on health grounds, approval of respirators and similar protective equipment, and the arrangements for medical examinations are undertaken by the Department of Health. A series of regulations deal with health hazards, many of them being administered by the two departments, each in its own sphere.

A similar understanding has been established with the Waterfront Industry Commission and New Zealand Railways, and illustrates the general pattern of arrangements between the Department of Health and other Government departments or agencies concerned with particular aspects of workers' health. An occupational health laboratory was established at Wellington in 1964.

Occupational Diseases—The notifiable occupational diseases are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 and details of diseases notified are published annually in the report of the Director-General of Health.

Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons—The advertising, distribution, use, labelling, and packing of all poisons and toxic substances is controlled under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964. A manufacturer or importer must notify the Registrar of Poisons before importing or putting on the market any new substance which might be toxic, be it a chemical, household preparation, cosmetic, or drug. Special safeguards are provided for certain hazardous chemicals, used in agriculture or horticulture. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. Labels for "Restricted Poisons" must bear statements of the precautions to be taken in use, the symptoms of poisoning and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Registrar of Poisons. This legislation is at present under extensive review.

Control of Health Hazards—An increasing number of specific health hazards are coming under formal control, namely, lead processes, electroplating, spray painting, sand blasting (siliceous blasting agents in factories are prohibited), fumigation, aerial application of poisons, where in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport a special rating is required by pilots, and agricultural chemicals. The organisation of radiation protection is dealt with by the National Radiation Laboratory, while a number of other specific hazards are currently receiving consideration.

Medical, Nursing, and First-aid Services—Minimal first-aid requirements have been laid down by the Department of Health, which generally endeavours to encourage both the development of medical and nursing services and the raising of first-aid standards throughout industry generally. While there are no statutory obligations on industry to provide medical and nursing services, an increasing number of factories do provide such services. To meet the needs of small plants the department has developed industrial health centres with financial support from the Waterfront Industry Commission in the case of harbour areas, and the Accident Compensation Commission in the case of general industry.

Pre-employment Examinations—Pre-employment medical examinations are required for young workers before entering factory employment.

National Audiology Centre—The National Audiology Centre assists with the early detection of deafness and conservation of hearing. The centre conducts and promotes research into noisy industries, occupational deafness, and other forms of deafness. An advisory service is provided for those working with deaf people and training is given to those responsible for testing groups for hearing loss.

Radiation Protection—The National Radiation Laboratory provides the administrative and technical services required by the Radiation Protection Act 1965 and Regulations 1973 and the Transport of Radioactive Materials Regulations 1973. Prior approval must be obtained for the import or export of any radioactive material. Each owner of irradiating apparatus (source of X-rays) or radioactive material must ensure that they are used only under the control of a person specifically licensed for the purpose.

The laboratory provides the licensees with free monitoring, advisory, calibration, or other services which will assist in achieving radiation safety. Trained officers regularly visit all places where sources of ionising radiation are used. A service is available for measuring the exposures received by radiation workers.

The laboratory advises the requirements for the transport and disposal of radioactive materials and is responsible for monitoring a wide range of environmental samples for natural or man-made radioactivity.

FAMILY HEALTH—Medical practitioners give ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention under the Social Security Act. Free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with the St. Helens Hospitals, all public maternity hospitals and maternity wards. Ante-natal classes to prepare mothers for the baby's arrival are also being developed, and doctors can refer patients to these to supplement their own ante-natal instructions. In the case of women living far away from the main centres of population, ante-natal work is supplemented by the public health nurses employed by the Department of Health, or by district nurses employed by hospital boards.

Approximately 99 percent of confinements take place in maternity hospitals or in maternity units of public hospitals. The medical care of the mother and child is based on co-operation between the Department of Health, hospital boards and the medical and nursing professions. All private maternity hospitals are licensed under the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Department of Health has responsibility for ensuring that regulations regarding buildings, equipment, and staff are observed. Medical officers of health, through their senior nursing staff, exercise general supervision over the work of private hospitals in the local areas.

Family Planning—General practitioners provide the major portion of family planning services. Contraceptives are provided free for those who need them for medical reasons, where cost would be a barrier. Since 1971 priority has been given to family planning as a health measure. In addition to the private doctor service 33 Family Planning Association clinics are now in operation in various centres of the country. The Government provides a grant to meet the cost of salaries of doctors, nurses, and health assistants (clinical) employed by the association in approved clinics.

A number of hospital boards have established family clinics within their obstetrics and gynaecology departments to provide additional facilities for the public and training for doctors, medical students, and nurses, and other boards are being encouraged to provide these facilities.

Child Health—The Department of Health provides a preventive child health service. Babies are normally examined at about 6 weeks of age and again at 9 months. Additional examinations are given whenever there is anxiety over physical, mental, or emotional development. Public health nurses undertake supervision of infants and pre-school children although the major proportion of this service is provided by the nurses of the Plunket Society. Where necessary the children are referred to family doctors or medical officers of the Department of Health.

A consultative service is provided for schools, with special emphasis on the health supervision of handicapped children, both in the normal schools and in special education classes. Nursing staff make regular visits to all schools and from pre-school record cards and by consultation with teachers and parents refer children for examination by medical officers. Correspondence School children are kept under health supervision as necessary and any school child requiring treatment is referred to the appropriate family doctor. Vision and hearing testing is carried out y trained staff for pre-school children, and again in Junior I and Form I. Tests are also offered to pupils in secondary schools where it is known that parents of pupils with difficulties are not taking any action.

The Government supports the Children's Health Camps Board which maintains six permanent camps for the short-stay placement of children convalescent after illness, for those whose physical health is unsatisfactory, and for those suffering from minor emotional disorders. Medical officers select children for admission and undertake general health supervision of the camps. Children derive benefit from the ordered routine of camp life which provides a diet designed to improve nutrition and a balance of free activity, rest, and sleep. The Department of Education maintains school classes with emphasis on remedial teaching.

Immunisation Programme—Protection by two doses of the oral vaccine for poliomyelitis is available to all infants. Protection against diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus is a routine procedure and a triple vaccine is used. It is preferable that immunisation be done by the family doctor, and the course of injections should be commenced as soon as possible after babies are 3 months old. Arrangements can be made for mothers who are unable to have the immunisation done privately to attend with her child at a departmental clinic. If necessary in country areas the public health nurse will visit the home to immunise the child. Booster doses (against diphtheria, tetanus, and polio) are given at 18 months and after the child's fourth birthday or as soon as possible after the child commences school. Further booster doses (against tetanus only) are recommended at 10-yearly intervals and on injury. Measles vaccination is available from family doctors for infants from 10 months of age onwards. Rubella vaccination is available from family doctors for pre-school children.

HEALTH EDUCATION—Medical and dental officers, public health nurses, dental nurses, and inspectors of health all devote some of their time to health education. The health education officer acts as a co-ordinator and stimulates and extends health teaching and health programmes in the district. Most health education officers are women and the majority hold the diploma in health education issued by the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health. Advertisements on health subjects are screened on television and published in national periodicals. Leaflets, pamphlets, and posters are available on many health topics from district health offices.

The Department of Health's official bulletin Health has a circulation of over 78,000 and is issued free to the public 4 times a year. It gives health information and publicises various aspects of the department's work.

Officers are available for lectures and discussions on health with schools and community groups.

DENTAL HEALTH—New Zealand's dental health service combines a school dental service for children, dental benefits for adolescents, and private practice for adults. There are 14 dental districts, three schools for dental nurses in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, and the dental school at the University of Otago.

School Dental Service—The objective of the service is to improve the dental health of the pre-school and school children by regular and systematic treatment at 6-monthly intervals, commencing at the age of 2 1/2 and continuing through the highest class at primary or intermediate school.

The school dental nurse, after completing the two-year training course, is posted to a school dental clinic where she provides routine dental care for children. A school dental nurse has a patient group of about 450 in a non-fluoridated area and up to 650 where the water is fluoridated. Regular visits are made to the clinic by the Principal Dental Officer and the Dental Nurse Inspector, who assist the dental nurse to maintain a high standard of performance in all aspects of the work. The School Dental Service Gazette is published bi-monthly as a media for continuing education.

The dental care comprises examination, cleaning, application of sodium fluoride, fillings in temporary and permanent teeth, extraction of deciduous teeth, and dental health education. Some children are referred to dentists for additional care.

In 1976, 1,319 school dental nurses provided dental care for 622,160 children. The treatment included 2,202,169 fillings and 58,296 extractions. Indicators of the success of the service are the acceptance—65 percent of pre-school children aged 2 1/2 to 4 and 95 percent of the primary school children are enrolled, and the small number of extractions—less than 3 for every 100 teeth saved by fillings.

Adolescent Dental Service—Dental care for adolescents up to 16 years of age and, if dependent, up to 18 years of age is provided by private dentists as a dental benefit under the Social Security Act, the dentist being reimbursed on a fee-service basis. Children who remain at school after their sixteenth birthday and qualify for the extended family benefit, or who are otherwise dependent upon parents for support, continue to receive the dental benefit to their eighteenth birthday.

Eligibility for dental treatment as an adolescent is contingent upon a person's having undergone regular dental care, either at a school dental clinic or from a private dental practitioner.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at 6-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

The treatment (other than treatment requiring special approval) which may be provided as dental benefits, and the fees payable, are set out in the Schedule to the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960.

Dental Health Education—Dental Health Education is an integral part of the school dental service and includes activities in the clinics and the classroom. Educational materials are produced by the Department of Health for the school dental service and for general use in the community. Materials specifically for dentists are produced by the Dental Health Committee of the New Zealand Dental Association.

Dental Research—The Dental Unit of the Medical Research Council carries out research in a wide range of dental problems. Further research is undertaken by the Dental School of the University of Otago and there is also a small research unit within the Division of Dental Health of the Department of Health.

Fluoridation—Approximately 64 percent of all persons living in water-reticulated areas are drinking fluoridated water, which reduces the need for dental treatment.

REHABILITATION OF DISABLED CIVILIANS—The rehabilitation of disabled and handicapped persons has received increasing emphasis over recent years in New Zealand. Public hospitals are the hub for development of an adequate medical rehabilitation service, with co-operation from Government and voluntary agencies in furthering the medical, social, and vocational welfare of the disabled.

Rehabilitation centres for the treatment of the severely disabled are established at Otara, under the Auckland Hospital Board's administration, and Palmerston North under the Palmerston North Hospital Board's administration. For the rehabilitation of persons suffering from spinal injuries and paraplegia, specialist spinal injury centres are in course of development at Auckland and Christchurch. Rehabilitation activities are also being carried out in the physical medicine departments of most general hospitals, at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Rotorua, and in many of the psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

The Rehabilitation League is the principal agent of Government in vocational rehabilitation. The main function of the League is to provide facilities for work assessment and work experience for the disabled. Policy is decided by a central board of management and district committees administer the centres which are established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Napier.

A National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, comprising representatives from the Departments of Labour, Social Welfare, Health, and Education, and the Accident Compensation Commission, advise the Government on steps to co-ordinate and promote rehabilitation in New Zealand.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE—Physical medicine is concerned with potentially disabling conditions such as rheumatic diseases, cerebral palsy, and other disorders of the locomotor system.

The national centre for the treatment of rheumatism is established at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which has approximately 100 beds set aside for diagnosis, research, and treatment of these diseases. Full physiotherapy and occupational therapy facilities are provided and active steps towards rehabilitation of patients are carried out. A large number of outpatients referred from all parts of New Zealand and a few from overseas are seen every year.

Physiotherapists and occupational therapists work together in preventing and controlling deformity, and teaching people how to overcome their disabilities. Social workers assist in bridging the gap between habilitation and vocational and social resettlement.

A cerebral palsy unit is situated at Queen Elizabeth Hospital providing residential accommodation for 20 children. At this unit the activities of a team of physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists are co-ordinated by the supervisor of the unit working under a physician. Patients can be referred by their doctors to the physician in charge of the unit for assessment only, or for admission and treatment. Cerebral palsy visiting therapist services are operating under hospital boards. Post-graduate courses are given to physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists.

Cerebral palsy day schools have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and invercargill. Parents of cerebral palsy cases who seek their children's admission first apply to the appropriate medical officer of health or education board. The schools are administered by the education boards, but close liaison exists between the schools, the Rotorua unit, and the visiting cerebral palsy therapists.

HEALTH STATISTICS—The National Health Statistics Centre is responsible for the annual publication of Health Statistics Reports on mortality, morbidity, mental health, cancer, and hospital management as well as the publication of Trends in Health and Health Services every two years.

The Centre also prepares special statistics for the various divisions of the Department and for research workers in different fields both in New Zealand and overseas. A constant liaison is maintained with the World Health Organisation, which is supplied with statistical material giving a picture of health trends in New Zealand. In addition, from time to time, special statistical investigations are made into important aspects of public health and diseases that warrant specific study.

Since July 1975 the Centre has been monitoring the incidence of selected congenital malformations reported by medical practitioners to the Health Department.

NATIONAL HEALTH INSTITUTE—The Institute is the Department of Health's centre for the scientific study of public health problems. It contains an epidemiology section and public health laboratories (microbiology, virology and environmental health).

The epidemiology section conducts field research into matters of public health interest.

The public health laboratories provide diagnostic and reference services in bacteriology and virology for medical officers of health, hospital and private laboratories, and general practitioners, as well as for the other sections of the institute. The Institute is the national centre for those reference services which are organised on an international basis, such as salmonellosis, leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis, influenza, and staphylococcal phage typing.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL—The Medical Research Council of New Zealand has the following functions:

  1. To initiate, foster, and support medical research;

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons ad organisations concerned with medical research;

  3. To collect and disseminate scientific information, including the publication of reports.

At the end of 1976 research was in progress in most fields of medicine including the pre-clinical, clinical, and para-clinical sciences. Increased emphasis was also being placed on the fields of social medicine and community health, and the earlier work of the council on medical research in the South Pacific through its South Pacific Medical Research Committee was being continued.

The council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by private medical research foundations and societies such as the Cancer Society of New Zealand, and regional medical research foundations established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Palmerston North, Hawke's Bay, Otago, and Southland.

The council administers the Medical Research Endowment Fund, from which an annual expenditure of $3.2 million is incurred in supporting research projects at the University of Otago, the University of Auckland, the Christchurch and Wellington Clinical Schools, Massey University, and the institutions of the Auckland, Wellington, North Canterbury, Palmerston North, and Otago Hospital Boards.

The council employs a staff of about 50 full-time workers. A further 250 workers are employed by other institutions under project grants from the council.

The council awards scholarships and fellowships to selected graduates and undergraduates who wish to engage in medical research.

The council is empowered to receive bequests and donations to the fund for furthering the objects of the council as set out in the Medical Research Council Act 1950.

MEDICAL COUNCIL—The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, consists of the Director-General of Health, the deans of the faculties of medicine in the Universities of Otago and Auckland, and eight registered medical practitioners appointed on a representative basis.

The council deals with all applications for registration under the Act. Until an applicant is able to satisfy the council that he has obtained house officer experience, in a resident medical capacity, of not less than 12 months or has otherwise obtained comparable experience, registration is on a conditional basis. Persons registered conditionally may practise only in an approved hospital. A medical education committee responsible to the council exercises general supervision over the training of persons conditionally registered. The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1976 was 6,535, but not all are in active practice in New Zealand.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided

DOCTORS AND DENTISTS—The following table, based on figures in the World Health Statistics Annual 1972, shows for selected countries the numbers of doctors and dentists per 10,000 of population.

 Per 10,000 Population
CountryDoctorsDentists
New Zealand11.83.5
Australia13.94.1
England and Wales13.12.8
Denmark16.37.6
France14.14.4
West Germany18.45.1
Italy19.3..
Netherlands13.62.7
Sweden14.78.2
Norway15.29.2
Canada15.83.5
United States16.55.0
Japan11.63.7
U.S.S.R.25.63.9
India2.20.1
Mexico6.91.0
Iran3.30.6
Bangladesh1.0..

Between 1959 and 1972 the population per active general practitioner in New Zealand increased from 1,780 to 2,256. During the period 1972 to 1975 there was a slight improvement; population per active practitioner fell to 2,022.

While there has been some improvement in recent years in the distribution of doctors in rural and semi-rural areas, the position in many urban areas remains unsatisfactory. There remains the intra-urban maldistribution, where well-established, middle-class areas tend to be relatively overprovided with general practitioners, while some other areas suffer from a shortage of general practitioners.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS: Dentists—Under the Dental Act 1963 there was constituted a Dental Council, the functions of which are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists.

The number of practising dentists holding annual practising certificates at 31 May 1976 was 1,117. Under provisions of the Dental Technicians Regulations 1968, a Registration Board for Dental Technicians was constituted. In 1975 there were 380 registered dental technicians.

Nurses—The Nursing Council of New Zealand was constituted under the Nurses Act 1971. Its functions include making recommendations on nursing programmes to be undertaken by candidates for examinations in relation to minimum standards required for registration; the conduct of examinations; the granting of approval of Schools of Nursing, subject to Ministerial concurrence; the registration of overseas nurses; and the exercise of disciplinary powers.

The Nurses Regulations 1966 provided for 3-year hospital-based programmes for registration as general/maternity nurses, male nurses, psychiatric nurses, and psychopaedic nurses. They also provided for the registration of community nurses from 18-month courses, maternity nurses from 6-month courses (provided the nurses already hold general registration) and the 6-month programme for registration as midwives of nurses previously registered as maternity nurses.

The Nurses Amendment Act 1975 provided for the registration of Comprehensive Nurses from a student-based 3-year course conducted at four Technical Institutes.

During 1975-76 there were 23,730 registered nurses holding a current annual practising certificate. The council's register shows total registrations in excess of 85,000.

Physiotherapists—The New Zealand Physiotherapy Board is constituted under the Physiotherapy Act 1949. The board's functions are the examination and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, the issuing of special licences, and the conduct of those registered under the Act.

The training period for physiotherapists is 3 years. Full-time training is conducted at the Physiotherapy Department, Auckland Technical Institute, and at the School of Physiotherapy, Otago Polytechnic, Dunedin. From 1 February 1976 the control of this school was transferred from Otago Hospital Board to Otago Polytechnic Council. All students are required to pass the State Examination in Physiotherapy to qualify for registration.

During 1976, 120 physiotherapists were registered, bringing the total on the register (which includes some no longer practising) to 2,775.

Occupational Therapists—Under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949 is constituted the Occupational Therapy Board. The board is concerned with the registration and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy.

The Central Institute of Technology, Wellington, conducts the 3-year course of training and clinical experience is gained at hospitals. Students who successfully complete the course are awarded a diploma in occupational therapy and then registered. There are some 250 occupational therapists in active practice.

Dietitians—Under the Dietitians Act 1950 is constituted the Dietitians Board, which is concerned with the training, examination, and registration of persons engaged in the practice of dietetics.

The training period for a dietitian is, in the case of the holder of a degree of bachelor of home science conferred by the University of Otago or of the holder of a diploma in home science of the University of Otago, 12 months in a hospital training school.

Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians—The Optometrists and Dispensing Opticians Act 1976 provides for the Constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of four registered optometrists to be appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Optometrical Association Incorporated, one registered optometrist who is actively engaged in teaching optometry to be appointed on the nomination of the Council of the University of Auckland, two registered dispensing opticians to be appointed on the nominations of the Association of Dispensing Opticians and Optical Dispensers of New Zealand Incorporated, two ophthalmological specialists who are registered in respect of that speciality under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, to be appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Medical Association, ad one other person being an officer of the Public Service employed in the Department of Health.

Two hundred and seventy-six Annual Practising Certificates were issued for the year ended 31 March 1977.

Chiropodists—The Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966 provided for the constitution of a Chiropodists Board. The Chiropodists Regulations 1967 specify that the board shall consist of one officer of the Department of Health, three persons entitled to registration as chiropodists who have been nominated by a society representing the interests of chiropodists, and a medical practitioner who has been nominated jointly by the Medical Association of New Zealand and the Executive Committee of the New Zealand Orthopaedic Association. The board's functions include the promotion of high standards of education and conduct among persons engaged or intending to become engaged in chiropody, the exercising of disciplinary powers in accordance with the Act in respect of registered chiropodists and the conducting of special examinations. The board also deals with all applications for registration under the Act.

There are approximately 249 registered chiropodists, but not all are engaged in active practice. A significant number of those in active practice work only part time.

Plumbers—The Plumbers and Gasfitters Board consists of 13 member/representatives from the Municipal and Counties Association, the Gas Association, the New Zealand Drainlayers Association, an engineer employed by a local authority or drainage board, the Master Plumbers Society (2), the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Related Trades Industrial Union of Workers (2), Department of Labour, Department of Education, Department of Health, and one other person, to be appointed by the Minister.

The board is concerned with the registration of plumbers, gasfitters, and drainlayers. It issues annual licences to craftsmen and registered plumbers and gasfitters, and limited certificates. It has also authority and responsibility for disciplinary action against craftsmen, plumbers, and gasfitters if it is established they have done unsatisfactory work.

In New Zealand, except in specially exempted areas, all sanitary plumbing defined in the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Drainlayers Act 1977 can only be performed by craftsmen and registered plumbers and holders of limited certificates working in the employment or under the supervision of craftsman plumbers.

Specifications and standards of workmanship and materials in plumbing work are prescribed in the provisions of the Drainage and Plumbing Regulations enacted under the Health Act.

Pharmacists—In 1976 there were 2,628 names on the Pharmaceutical Register in New Zealand. All registered pharmacists, except those who notify the registrar that they have conscientious objection to membership, automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the society's affairs being managed by a council constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1970.

The council consists of 12 members, 11 being pharmacists, and 1 a barrister appointed by the Minister of Health. Seven members are elected on a district basis by registered pharmacists who are proprietors of pharmacies and four by members of the Pharmaceutical Society who are not in the previous category. The main function of the council of the Pharmaceutical Society is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the public interests.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered pharmacist.

The present system for pharmacy education requires a minimum of 3 years' attendance at the School of Pharmacy, Central Institute of Technology, Upper Hutt, at which the diploma in pharmacy is obtained. There is also a 4-year degree course in pharmacy at the University of Otago. Graduates from both courses are required to gain 12 months' pre-registration experience before becoming eligible for registration as pharmacists.

Any pharmacist or company in which not less than 75 percent of the share capital is owned by a pharmacist or pharmacists may establish one pharmacy. Unqualified persons or companies in which less than 75 percent of the share capital is pharmacist-owned must, however, secure the consent of the Pharmacy Authority, set up under the Act, before commencing business, and in all cases the establishment of more than one pharmacy under the same ownership, or the holding of an interest in more than one pharmacy by any person, is subject to the consent of the authority. All pharmacies must be registered with the society. There are about 1,155 pharmacies in New Zealand. A survey in 1973 showed that on average there were 1.56 pharmacists per pharmacy; about 200 pharmacists work outside the retail trade in hospitals, Government departments and the pharmaceutical industry.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS—Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, administered by the Department of Health and dealing with medical and like benefits, is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Medical Benefits—Medical benefits apply to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, these being principally:

  1. Medical services in maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading.)

  2. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate.

  3. Medical services other than anaesthetic services, involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner.

  4. Medical services in respect of which fees are payable under the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951, and Social Security (Laboratory Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1946—see later headings.

  5. Medical services afforded by means of advice given by telephone, telegram, or letter except under circumstances specifically approved by the Director-General of Health and medical services not rendered by a medical practitioner in person.

Every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services is entitled, on behalf of the patient, to receive from the Department of Health a fee of $1.25 for a service provided in normal hours and up to $4.00 for a service rendered at night or on Saturdays, Sundays, or holidays; for social security beneficiaries, including those for whom the family benefit is payable and for patients approved as "chronically ill", the benefit ranges from $3 to $7. The department pays a fee of $5 for an initial consultation with a recognised specialist physician, psychiatrist, neurologist, neurosurgeon, or paediatrician, and of $3.50 in the case of other recognised specialists. These rates apply only to the first occasion on which a patient is referred by a general practitioner to a specialist and, in the case of inter-specialist referral, with the prior concurrence of the original doctor. For subsequent visits, the fee paid by the department reduces to $1.25 for each visit, except in the case of social security beneficiaries and pensioners and their dependants for whom the fee is $3. In designated rural areas, an incentive bonus is payable. In 1972 immunisation benefits were introduced; they apply to children and adolescents up to their sixteenth birthday; the benefit is $1.85 if the vaccine is administered by a doctor, or $1.55 if administered by a registered nurse in his employ. The immunisation benefit is in full settlement, and no extra charge should be made.

Most doctors (91 percent) make a claim directly from the Department of Health and ask patients for the balance of their fees. A minority require their patients to pay the whole fee and make personal claims on the Department of Health.

The number of medical practitioners providing general and specialist medical services in 1975 was 2,867 and the cost per head of population in the year ended 31 March 1976 was $10.60. The average population per active practitioner providing medical care in 1975 was 2,022.

Pharmaceutical Benefits—Persons receiving medical attention under the Act are entitled, generally without cost to themselves, to those medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials, prescribed by their medical practitioners and which are included in the Drug Tariff.

Prescriptions passed for payment in the year ended 31 March 1976 totalled 26,933,659 or 8.7 per head of population. The average cost per prescription was $2.67, the cost per head of population being $22.58.

Hospital Benefits—Treatment is provided free by public hospitals where a patient is entitled to hospital benefits under the Act. In the case of private hospitals and other approved institutions benefits paid are in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients. The rates from 1 October 1975 are as follows:

  1. For surgical treatment $12.00 a day, with a minimum of $24.00.

  2. For medical (including psychiatric) treatment $9.00 a day (from 1 January 1976).

  3. For geriatric treatment $11.00 a day (from 1 January 1976).

  4. Hospital treatment for maternity patients $12.00 a day.

Free treatment is accorded outpatients at public hospitals; this also covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses, hearing aids, artificial limbs, surgical footwear, wheelchairs, orthopaedic implants in private hospitals, ileostomy and colostomy appliances, and urinals. It does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. In respect of surgical footwear, part payment by the patient is required.

Psychiatric Hospitals—Treatment of patients in public psychiatric hospitals is also free. A licensed (private) psychiatric hospital may be recognised and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment are payable accordingly.

Maternity Benefits—Maternity benefits cover ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere. Recognised specialists may make a charge on the patient over and above the benefit. Licensed maternity hospitals are entitled to receive fees of $12.00 in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding 14 days.

X-ray Diagnostic Services—These X-ray diagnostic services on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, attract a health benefit:

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen.

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs.

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance, visas, emigration permits, and examinations for the sole or primary purpose of obtaining medical certificates for production to some other person, are not included in the free services. Eligible X-ray examinations at public hospitals are free, but those undertaken by private radiologists are limited to a specified benefit. Additional charges are the patient's responsibility.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services—The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and associated medical services.

The following services are not included:

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

Physiotherapy Benefits—Physiotherapy treatment afforded by contracting physiotherapists is the subject of a benefit under the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The standard benefit is $1 for each recommended treatment, but a higher rate of $1.50 is payable for beneficiaries and their dependants who qualify for the higher medical benefit. Where patients are treated in groups the universal benefit is 40 cents per patient.

To qualify for the benefit, physiotherapy treatment must in all cases be recommended by a registered medical practitioner. Treatment is limited to 6 weeks on a single recommendation but in the case of certain specified illnesses the Director-General of Health may extend the period of treatment on any one recommendation up to 6 months.

Home-nursing Services—Under the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944. home-nursing services are provided free where the services are afforded by a registered nurse, midwife, or maternity nurse in the employ of the Department of Health, a hospital board, or an organisation recognised for the purpose.

Domestic Assistance—Monetary assistance is given to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic help in the home, where it is required because of age and infirmity, or to support family situations in which the mother is incapacitated or needs help on account of family commitments.

Dental Services—The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960 provide for free dental treatment. These benefits are confined to persons who are under 16 years of age or under 18 years if still attending school or otherwise dependent. Treatment may be provided in a State dental clinic, by a contracting dentist for whom there is a prescribed scale of fees, or in the dental department of a public hospital.

Artificial Aids—The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, such as artificial limbs, hearing aids, and contact lenses.

Breast Prostheses—Women undergoing a mastectomy on or after 29 July 1976 are entitled to a benefit of up to $30 to meet the cost of an initial breast form. Patients entitled to the benefit are issued with a certificate of eligibility prior to discharge from hospital for presentation to the supplier

Contact Lenses—These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities: (a) conical cornea, (b) high myopia, where the degree of myopia present in the greatest axis of the better eye is not less than—10 diopters, (c) monocular aphakia, if the restoration of binocular vision is highly desirable by reason of the patient's occupation or other circumstances and binocular vision cannot be restored without the use of contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an approved ophthalmologist.

Lenses may also be supplied in respect of any other ocular condition which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacles; in these cases recommendation by two ophthalmologists is necessary.

Hearing Aids—A free aid may be supplied, or a subsidy of $45 is payable towards the purchase of a hearing aid where the patient suffers a hearing loss which renders the use of an aid necessary. A subsidy of up to $70 is payable towards the cost of an aid for a patient under 16 years of age.

Eligibility on medical grounds for the provision of a hearing aid is to be determined by an otologist employed or engaged by a hospital board or the Department of Health.

Normally a patient will be eligible for the payment of the full benefit only once every 5 years. However, if in the opinion of the authorising otologist, a patient's existing aid is inadequate after less than 5 years from the date of its issue, and a new aid is required to improve hearing ability, the hearing aid benefit at full rates is to be payable.

Artificial Limbs—The free supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1956 or under the provisions of the Accident Compensation Act 1972.

  2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an approved orthopaedic surgeon.

  3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser, be satisfactorily fitted.

For the purposes of the regulations "artificial limb" includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes limb socks for such limbs and for female amputees, replacement understockings.

Orthopaedic Implants—Artificial hips and similar implants also qualify for benefit under the arrangements for artificial aids.

Wheelchairs—Manually operated wheelchairs are available through hospital boards on a free loan basis to disabled persons who require them on medical grounds. Motorised wheelchairs are the subject of a 50 percent benefit towards their cost. The balance of the cost may be assisted with grants from lottery funds.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of health benefits during five financial years.

Item1971–721972–731973–741974–751975–76
 $(thousand)
Maternity Benefits—     
Medical practitioners' fees3,3173,3643,2694,8325,148
Medical practitioners' mileage fees105101101145152
Obstetric nurses' fees42248
 3,4263,4673,3724,9815,308
Medical benefits—     
General medical services9,69211,82017,37819,90228,180
GMS mileage159151137128125
Specialist medical services1,2861,7212,1482,2532,635
Rural practice bonus and other incentives337405545425587
Immunisation benefit-127407433457
Practice Nurse Subsidy---269649
 11,47414,22520,61423,41032,633
Private practice and post-graduate grants3224273821
Special area and other arrangements—section on 117 Social Security Act117164153161152
 149189180199173
Hospital Benefits—     
Treatment in private hospitals—maternity benefits394397388368336
Treatment in private hospitals—medical, surgical, and Karitane5,9157,0167,5416,7083,261
Treatment in private hospitals—geriatric benefit---2,3848,589
Treatment in approved institutions526626700687825
 6,8368,0398,63010,14713,011
Pharmaceutical Benefits—     
Drugs supplied—     
By chemists32,48039,32344,39755,72768,916
By medical practitioners and Department of Health206181207148164
To institutions and private hospitals550515562604787
 33,23640,02045,16656,47969,867
Supplementary Benefits—     
Dental services2,7992,8493,1354,4045,334
Laboratory services6,5847,3557,8609,16910,728
Artificial aids1821243537
Physiotherapy services2422462516131,001
Radiological services7577881,1841,6001,706
Specialist services (neurosurgery)322--
 10,40311,26212,45715,82118,806
Totals65,52477,20290,418111,037139,798

WELFARE SERVICES—Government assistance is offered to religious and voluntary organisations and local authorities in providing housing, accommodation, and services for elderly people and others whom it is considered are in special need. Under this partnership with Government, the social service agencies of all the major religious bodies, as well as other welfare organisations, have established additional accommodation for the aged, frail, and sick who need residential care in either an old people's home or a geriatric hospital. Where it is not possible to meet the need of elderly people through these agencies, the provision of residential care for the aged becomes a hospital board responsibility. At 31 March 1976 religious and welfare organisations provided 7,351 home and hospital beds for the elderly. Hospital boards maintain 885 old people's home beds, while approximately 4,700 of their hospital beds (42 percent) are required for care of the elderly sick, either on a short-stay or long-term basis.

Other measures which are of importance in assisting elderly people to remain in their homes as long as possible are receiving increased attention. Chief amongst these are the provision of district nursing services, home aid, meals-on-wheels, laundry services, and occupational therapy. In general the services are provided by hospital boards with voluntary organisations and old people's welfare councils assisting in various ways. The importance of old people's clubs and social centres, with an adequate range of services, is also receiving increasing recognition. Government lottery funds are being used to assist in providing suitable premises and assisting welfare councils with administrative costs. At 31 December 1975 the number of meals delivered daily by the meals-on-wheels service was 4,822; the service is operated by 28 hospital boards.

Old People's Homes and Hospitals—Subject to maximum subsidies of $12,000 per bed for old people's homes and $16,000 for geriatric hospital beds, and certain other conditions, religious or welfare organisations providing accommodation for old people may be granted 100 percent of the approved building cost. In addition, a subsidy of up to $500 per bed is available towards initial land and land development costs. Since October 1974, the policy has been widened to provide an 80-percent subsidy towards the cost of approved improvements and the upgrading of existing accommodation, and 100 percent for fire protection work as required by the local authority. The administration of policy is a Department of Health responsibility.

During the year 1975–76, subsidies amounting to $5,787,554 were approved to assist in the provision of accommodation for 446 old people. From April 1950 to 31 March 1976, subsidies totalling $43,904,988 have been approved, and buildings erected as a result will accommodate 7,098 old people.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS—Over the years voluntary welfare organisations have made valuable contributions to certain aspects of the field of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from the public funds. Among the more important are the Royal N.Z. Society for the Health of Women and Children (Plunket Society), the New Zealand Red Cross Society, the St. John Ambulance Association, the New Zealand Society for the Intellectually Handicapped, the Cancer Society, and the National Heart Foundation. A fuller list of voluntary organisations in the field of health was published in the 1976 and earlier editions of the Yearbook.

5 B—HOSPITALS

GENERAL—The Hospitals Act 1957 requires the Minister of Health to ensure the provision and maintenance by hospital boards of hospitals and hospital services and to encourage the provision and maintenance of private hospitals. The Department of Health advises the Minister on, or determines in respect of boards, the extent and standard of hospital and allied services, the building requirements to provide these services, the numbers and levels of the main groups of professional staffs to be employed, the appropriate annual financial grants, the salaries and conditions of employment of about 60 percent of staff and the measure of financial assistance to be given to private hospitals, including loan finance. The department also licenses and supervises private hospitals, inspects the work of all hospitals and compiles financial and statistical data about them. There are 29 hospital boards and 154 private hospitals.

Since 1 April 1958, the cost of hospital treatment in public hospitals has been borne entirely by the State. Private hospitals, which provide about one-sixth of the available beds, receive payment from the Government for hospital treatment of patients; additional fees may be claimed from the patients.

Hospital and home nursing services involve the Department of Health in establishing and assisting to maintain minimum standards of nursing service in general hospitals, in homes for the aged, etc., in advising, inspecting and reporting on such services in hospitals; and generally advising the Minister on nursing.

Experience has been that, generally speaking, boards, committees and councils play a most valuable part in helping to formulate health policies and programmes, and, in certain cases, in administering policies or programmes laid down by Government. The setting-up of such agencies enables the Minister and the Department of Health to draw upon expert advice and wide experience and ensures that non-departmental people with up-to-date knowledge, day-to-day working experience and responsibility in particular areas of health play a worthwhile part in health administration. A partnership of this kind is particularly important in the case of public hospitals, which are run by democratically elected boards. Recognition of this is seen in the requirements of the Hospitals Act that the Minister of Health may not act in certain public hospital matters without a recommendation from the Hospitals Advisory Council.

The department's objectives in the case of physical medicine and rehabilitation are to stimulate interest and co-ordinate treatment of diseases such as chronic arthritis, poliomyelitis, and cerebral palsy; to promote and maintain a unified rehabilitation service and to maintain and develop physiotherapy and occupational therapy services. It supervises physiotherapy and occupational therapy training, licensing and services, and supervises the provision of rehabilitation services in public hospitals. (See Section 5A.)

The welfare services involving the department include the medical and social care and general welfare of the aged. The department advises the Minister on subsidies to be paid to religious and welfare organisations which provide homes and hospital beds for the elderly, and administers legislation governing the standards and oversight of old people's homes.

HOSPITAL BOARDS—General and psychiatric hospitals are controlled by locally elected hospital boards. A hospital board of 8 to 14 members is elected every 3 years for each hospital district. It is the duty of every hospital board to provide, maintain and staff such institutions, hospital accommodation, and medical, nursing, and other services as the Minister of Health considers necessary.

In recent years there has been a pressure of activity, replanning, and development in all medical services for which hospital boards are responsible. This replanning of medical services has been undertaken against a background of sharp population increases in most urban areas. More rapid and comfortable transport is encouraging the build-up of specialist diagnostic and therapeutic resources in regional centres. The Management Services Research Unit, headed by a medical practitioner in the Department of Health, has the task of applying techniques such as operational research and work study to problems of management in the health services, particularly in hospitals, and ascertaining in what ways efficiency can be improved.

The Director-General of Health is authorised to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint assistant inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

Hospital boards are required to operate their own ambulance services unless they enter into some arrangement with a subsidised voluntary agency. In this regard the Order of St. John and organisations such as the Wellington Free Ambulance perform valuable services.

HOSPITAL ACCOMMODATION: Public Institutions—The number of beds in public institutions available at 31 March 1976 and the average number occupied during the year are set out in the following table. These statistics relate to patients and inmates in all institutions (general, maternity, special hospitals, old people's homes, and psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals) including institutions under the control of the Department of Health.

Type of BedBeds AvailableAverage Number of Occupied Beds per Day
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
General14,6804.711,455.53.7
Maternity2,8730.91,492.60.5
Psychiatric and Psychopaedic9,6563.18,489.32.7
Total hospital beds27,2098.721,437.46.9
Non-hospital beds8370.3825.60.3
Totals28,0469.022,263.07.1

In addition to the 27,209 hospital beds in public institutions there were 4,704 (4,526 general and 178 maternity) in the 154 licensed private hospitals. If the beds in licensed private hospitals are included, the ratio of beds per 1,000 of population becomes 6.1 for general beds and 1.0 for maternity beds.

The average number of occupied hospital beds per 1,000 of population in hospital districts varies from 6.3 to 24.7. This variation can be accounted for in the main by the fact that many hospitals to a varying extent draw patients from other districts. Other factors which influence the figures are the availability of medical practitioners and their habits in sending patients to hospital or retaining them for home treatment, the availability of private-hospital beds, housing facilities, domestic assistance, private or district nursing assistance, and the efficiency of the outpatient departments.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public institutions for the year ended 31 March 1976 was 204, comprising 103 general hospitals, 66 maternity hospitals, 19 old people's homes, and 16 psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

A total of 386,395 persons were treated or maintained in public hospitals or similar institutions during the year ended 31 March 1976. This figure, which included persons in maternity beds, psychiatric and psychopaedic beds, and non-hospital beds in old peoples homes but not hospital outpatients, was equivalent to 12.3 percent of the population. The 1974–75 figure was 375,371.

Outpatient attendances at public hospitals (including dental but excluding X-ray, laboratory, and pharmacy) totalled 3,187,254 during the year ended 31 March 1975, compared with 2,980,842 the previous year.

Waiting Lists—At 31 March 1975 there were 32,948 names on waiting lists for admission to public hospital, a rate of 10.53 persons per 1,000 residents.

STAFF—Non-Psychiatric and -Psychopaedic Hospitals—The number of staff employed by hospital boards in non -psychiatric and -psychopaedic hospitals for the latest 2 years are as follows:

Category of StaffAs at 31 March
19751976
Professional staff—  
  Medical1,7651,867
  Dietitians117117
  Medical laboratory workers461505
  Occupational therapists138151
  Physiotherapists338351
  Radiographers331340
  Other810905
Social workers111122
Nursing staff10,64411,319
Students7,7207,870
Clerical3,4633,732
Domiciliary808824
Other10,45310,715
Totals37,15938,818

Psychiatric and Psychopaedic Hospitals—The number of staff employed by hospital boards in psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals for the latest 2 years are as follows:

Category of StaffAs at 31 March
19751976
Professional staff—  
  Medical122123
  Dietitians1312
  Occupational therapists5557
  Physiotherapists1515
  Radiographers11
  Other187198
Social workers3648
Nursing staff2,8533,036
Students727821
Clerical387402
Domiciliary1514
Other2,3892,487
Totals6,8007,214

FINANCE: Loans—Boards have been authorised by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme. The position of loan liability is set out in the following table.

YearAmount UpliftedRepayment*Balance Owing
*Includes payments from sinking funds.
  $(000) 
1973–7424,08314,453162,783
1974–7531,69117,603179,217
1975–7641,32715,787204,376

Payments—Hospital board expenditure is subject to control by the Minister of Health. The sum provided by Government for public hospital maintenance expenditure is allocated to the individual hospital boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of known increases in commitments plus an allowance for normal growth. A portion of the total is, however, held in reserve, to enable special allocations to be made to boards having to meet the cost of commissioning major capital works reaching completion during the year. Additional grants are also made for general wage increases which may be approved after the basic allocation has been made. Grants for minor capital works and equipment are made to boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of price increases plus an allowance for growth. Major works over $20,000 are financed by loans raised by hospital boards, interest and principal repayments being met by Government grants.

Expenditure for both public and psychiatric hospitals is as follows:

Grants to hospital boards—1974–751975–76
Capital—$(000)$(000)
Special capital516689
Health centres591533
Repayment of loan principal and payments to Sinking Fund13,49914,524
Works and Equipment6,9327,818
 21,53823,564
Operating costs—  
Basic operating costs297,739367,099
Interest on loans9,05510,173
E.D.P. reserve124122
Commonwealth medical co-operation scheme6021
P.A. management consultants7154
Special items342380
Special employment-150
 307,392377,999
 328,929401,563

PRIVATE HOSPITALS—At 31 March 1976 there were 154 licensed private hospitals, providing a total of 4,704 beds. Private hospitals are shown by type and by number of beds in the following table as at 31 March of the years stated.

 Number of HospitalsLicensed Beds
Type of Hospital197419751976197419751976
*Included with other entries.
Maternity121210111102x178
Medical and surgical3736361,1601,1771,557
Medical9494972,2312,3972,726
Medical and children's (Karitane)666255255210
Maternity, medical, and surgical333460466x*
Psychiatric222333333
Totals1541531544,2504,430x4,704

Hospital benefits are paid to patients in registered private hospitals according to the nature of the treatment given; for surgical and maternity treatment, $12 per day, and for medical (including psychiatric) treatment, $9.00 per day. A benefit for geriatric patients of $8 per day was introduced in 1974. This was increased to $11 in 1976.

The Government assists in the development of private hospitals by the provision of loan money at low interest rates. However, during 1974–75 this assistance was restricted to proposals for alteration and upgrading work. Amounts paid by way of private hospital loans during the latest 3 years were as follows: 1973–74, $387,607; 1974–75, $167,291; and 1975–76, $201,203.

PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—The total expenditure on psychiatric hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions) and particulars of receipts during 5 recent financial years are shown in the next table. This expenditure was incurred by the Department of Health until 31 March 1972, since which date psychiatric hospitals, with the exception of the Lake Alice Hospital, have become the responsibility of hospital boards.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal ExpenditureReceiptsNet ExpenditureAverage Cost per Occupied Bed
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$
197230,06758529,4813,034
197334,39712734,2693,660
197442,28943141,8584,625
197548,54080247,7385,582
197661,8161,04460,7727,381

PUBLIC HOSPITAL PATIENTS: Principal Diseases and Disabilities—Detailed statistical information is supplied to the Department of Health about every patient, except normal maternity cases, discharged from or dying in public hospitals in New Zealand.

The following summary shows the principal diseases and injuries treated, together with the number of deaths and the fatality rate percent of total cases, in public hospitals in 1973. The disease headings are the subtitles of the International Classification of Diseases. More detailed information is available in Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data, Health Statistics Report.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in mortality statistics. Congestive heart failure, for instance, is comparatively highly ranked in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some underlying disease, which would take precedence over congestive heart failure in the statistics of causes of death. Hospital returns show each disease for which the patient was treated while in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which the patient was admitted, regardless of what other unrelated diseases may have been present or developed during the stay in hospital. In mortality statistics, on the other hand, the underlying cause of death is of paramount importance. In the summary below a patient admitted on account of an injury is classified according to the nature of the injury. Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the injury, e.g., motor-vehicle accident, accidental fall, etc.

DISEASES AND DISABILITIES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1973 (INCLUDES READMISSIONS)
Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsDeaths in Public HospitalsFatality Rate Percent
Intestinal infectious diseases2,969260.9
Tuberculosis999313.1
Zoonotic bacterial diseases34--
Other bacterial diseases428378.6
Poliomyelitis and other enterovirus diseases of central nervous system42610.2
Viral diseases accompanied by exanthem781111.4
Arthropod-borne viral diseases7867.7
Other viral diseases1,72030.2
Rickettsioses and other arthropod-borne diseases9--
Syphilis and other venereal diseases20510.5
Other spirochaetal diseases56--
Mycoses8322.4
Helminthiases10133.0
Other infective and parasitic diseases26831.1
Malignant neoplasm of buccal cavity and pharynx3313911.8
Malignant neoplasm of digestive organs and peritoneum3,13884326.9
Malignant neoplasm of respiratory system2,16456626.2
Malignant neoplasm of bone, connective tissue, skin, and breast3,4712416.9
Malignant neoplasm of genito-urinary organs3,65641711.4
Malignant neoplasm of other and unspecified sites2,60863924.5
Neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue2,46431212.7
Benign neoplasms4,578130.3
Neoplasm of unspecified nature29872.3
Diseases of thyroid gland916111.2
Diseases of other endocrine glands3,1501795.7
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency48471.4
Other metabolic diseases735212.9
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs1,937492.5
Psychoses3,0661073.5
Neuroses, personality disorders, and other non-psychotic mental disorders4,902330.7
Mental retardation22620.9
Inflammatory diseases of central nervous system405358.6
Hereditary and familial diseases of nervous system1922412.5
Other diseases of central nervous system3,2741925.9
Diseases of nerves and peripheral ganglia1,34680.6
Inflammatory diseases of the eye80720.2
Other diseases and conditions of the eye4,589110.2
Diseases of the ear and mastoid process3,74720.1
Active rheumatic fever54991.6
Chronic rheumatic heart disease903667.3
Hypertensive disease1,9381407.2
Ischaemic heart disease10,1771,67916.5
Other forms of heart disease4,38072616.6
Cerebrovascular disease6,5432,17433.2
Diseases of arteries, arterioles and capillaries2,86547316.5
Diseases of veins and lymphatics, and other diseases of circulatory system6,8901221.8
Acute respiratory infections (except influenza)5,177170.3
Influenza51681.6
Pneumonia6,2885979.5
Bronchitis, emphysema and asthma7,6863835.0
Other diseases of upper respiratory tract10,3142- -
Other diseases of respiratory system1,5321288.4
Diseases of oral cavity, salivary glands, and jaws2,32020.1
Diseases of oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum2,8331284.5
Appendicitis5,451130.2
Hernia of abdominal cavity5,610370.7
Other diseases of intestine and peritoneum4,3681703.9
Diseases of liver, gall bladder, and pancreas4,9931773.5
Nephritis and nephrosis1,0291029.9
Other diseases of urinary system4,3411022.3
Diseases of male genital organs3,757551.5
Diseases of breast, ovary, fallopian tube, and parametrium2,60560.2
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs10,8063- -
Complications of pregnancy2,525--
Urinary infections and toxaemias of pregnancy and the puerperium1,32010.1
Abortion5,5462- -
Delivery1,83820.1
Complications of the puerperium59810.2
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue3,17980.3
Other inflammatory conditions of skin and subcutaneous tissue1,000101.0
Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue1,63330.2
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever4,6781082.3
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint5,230280.5
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system2,792110.4
Congenital anomalies6,6321852.8
Certain causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality3,6772336.3
Symptoms referable to systems or organs13,79090.1
Senility and ill-defined diseases2,2871597.0
Fracture of skull, spine, and trunk5,1461723.3
Fracture of upper limb4,245120.3
Fracture of lower limb7,0723194.5
Dislocation without fracture1,37320.1
Sprains and strains of joints and adjacent muscles1,189--
Intracranial injury (excluding those with skull fracture)9,4511141.2
Internal injury of chest, abdomen, and pelvis1,010807.9
Laceration and open wound of head, neck, and trunk2,25040.2
Laceration and open wound of upper limb2,74920.1
Laceration and open wound of lower limb1,66040.2
Laceration and open wound of multiple location285--
Superficial injury527--
Contusion and crushing with intact skin surface2,719--
Effects of foreign body entering through orifice1,04040.4
Burn2,058241.2
Injury to nerves and spinal cord47010.2
Adverse effect of medicinal agents3,647300.8
Toxic effect of substances chiefly non-medicinal as to source1,343201.5
Other adverse effects2,136301.4
Special admissions without sickness5,692160.3
All conditions287,29912,7974.5

Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals—The average duration of stay in public hospitals in 1973 was 13.9 days. Among sufferers from specified diseases and disabilities, the longest average stays were made by those with cerebrovascular disease (63 days) and tuberculosis (52 days), followed by patients with other diseases of the nervous system, together with arthritis and rheumatism (36 days each).

Accident Cases—A summary is given below of accident cases treated as inpatients in public hospitals during 1973 (figures include readmissions).

Type of AccidentTotal CasesPercentage of All Accident CasesAverage Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay as Percentage of Total
Transport—     
Railway610.121.51,3090.2
Motor-vehicle traffic12,68023.711.5145,67923.3
Motor-vehicle non-traffic4280.88.43,5800.6
Other road vehicles1,9683.76.112,0341.9
Water1710.311.21,9260.3
Aircraft550.115.68600.1
Total transport15,36328.710.8165,38826.4
Non-transport—     
Accidental poisoning2,0513.92.85,7630.9
Accidental falls12,04922.518.8226,72536.1
Other accidents13,56525.38.1110,10317.6
Total non-transport27,66551.712.4342,59154.6
Surgical and medical complications and misadventures3,9227.315.460,3989.6
Late effects of accidental injury1,5893.020.933,1455.3
Suicide and self-inflicted injury2,9125.45.014,4632.3
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons1,8013.45.39,4961.5
Legal intervention2- -14.529- -
Injury undetermined whether accidentally or purposely inflicted2640.55.21,3620.2
Injury resulting from operations of war15- -10.1151- -
Grand totals53,533100.011.7627,023100.0

The largest group comes under the heading "Non-transport—Other accidents", which includes accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments, machinery, falling objects, fire and hot objects, and so on.

About a quarter of all accidents came in this group. The two next largest groups comprised motor-vehicle traffic accidents and accidental falls. Victims of accidental falls had the longest aggregate stay in hospital. This was due to the long periods spent in hospital by elderly people who have sustained fractures of the femur in falls. Almost one in every four patients had been injured in a fall of some kind.

Motor-vehicle traffic accidents comprised the second largest group, and had the second largest aggregate stay. Traffic accidents on roads are analysed in tables in Section 11D Roads and Road Transport.

Accidents in the Home—A high percentage of non-transport accidents, especially those involving young children and elderly people, occur in the home. Accidents in the home in 1973 are included by type of accident in the previous section, but they are not separated out from accidents sustained elsewhere. The following table shows the number of patients discharged from, or dying, in public hospitals after treatment for accidents sustained in the home. It includes only inpatients in public hospitals; not, of course, the large numbers of home accident cases treated in outpatient departments, doctor's surgeries, and in the home itself.

Cause of AccidentTotal PatientsAggregate Duration of Stay in Hospital (Days)
Accidental poisoning by—  
Drugs and medicaments8681,994
Petroleum products and other solvents343677
Pesticides, fertilisers, and plant foods151276
Noxious foodstuffs and poisonous plants84102
Other solid and liquid substances2891,336
Gases and vapours26385
Accidental falls5,255107,644
Struck by falling objects1522,078
Accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments1,5328,690
Accidental burns1,02817,605
Accidents caused by foreign bodies6741,447
All other and unspecified accidents1,99318,533
Totals12,395160,767

Deaths in Public Hospitals—The percentage of deaths in public hospitals to all deaths are shown in the following table.

YearDeaths in Public HospitalsTotal DeathsPercentage of Deaths in Public Hospitals to Total Deaths
196812,25424,46450.1
196912,02624,16149.8
197012,29124,84049.5
197112,27324,30950.5
197212,44524,80150.2
197312,79725,31250.6

Age and Sex of Patients—The age and sex of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1972 are shown below.

Age GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1 year7,8125,85313,665
1–4 years11,6878,42420,111
5–9 years10,7547,76918,523
10–14 years8,3066,34014,646
15–19 years10,63111,59122,222
20–24 years9,41313,20722,620
25–29 years5,96510,56916,534
30–34 years4,9578,50713,464
35–39 years4,6046,82911,433
40–44 years5,3287,01012,338
45–49 years6,1307,29413,424
50–54 years6,7607,03213,792
55–59 years7,7486,53714,285
60–64 years8,2326,46514,697
65–69 years7,9596,17914,138
70–74 years6,5825,94612,528
75–79 years4,6575,0889,745
80–84 years3,0894,0877,176
85 years and over2,2363,4095,645
 132,850138,136270,986

PATIENTS IN PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—Under the Mental Health Act 1969 the control of psychiatric hospitals (with the exception of Lake Alice Hospital, Marton, which will continue to make national provision for security patients) was transferred from the Department of Health to local hospital boards from 1 April 1972.

A detailed report Mental Health Data is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. The report contains administrative and clinical data about first admissions and readmissions (including replacements from leave), transfers, discharges, and deaths for all inpatients under psychiatric care. The report also presents information about psychiatric disorders in terms of age and sex, domicile, race, and length of stay.

In 1967 the statistical system was enlarged to include, in addition to people treated as inpatients in psychiatric hospitals, people treated in psychiatric inpatient units in public hospitals. The system was further enlarged in 1969 and 1972 with the inclusion of alcoholics treated in Salvation Army institutions. These developments provide more comprehensive data about treatment of people with psychiatric disorders in the community, but the greater coverage prevents strict comparability with statistical data published for earlier years.

At the end of 1974 there were 9,824 people on the registers of psychiatric hospitals of the Department of Health, 184 in psychiatric units of public hospitals, and 180 in Salvation Army institutions, a total of 10,188. There were 13,128 registrations during the year (excluding transfers and changes of status), of which 10,807 or 82 percent were voluntary patients. The average number of occupied psychiatric hospital beds was 8,930, which was 210 fewer than in 1973. The average number of resident patients per 100,000 mean population has declined steadily over the last 30 years.

The following table gives the annual averages and the rates per 100,000 mean population for those in psychiatric hospitals and public hospitals.

YearResident in Psychiatric HospitalOn Leave from Psychiatric HospitalTotal for Psychiatric HospitalsPatients in Public Hospitals
Average NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRate
All Patients
197010,169360.61,66359.011,832419.61545.5
19719,807342.41,44450.411,251392.81314.6
19729,398322.21,49851.410,896373.61625.6
19739,140306.81,65855.710,798362.51635.5
19748,930293.41,80159.210,731352.51846.0

First Admissions—In 1974 there were 3,190 first admissions (1,764) male and 1,426 female) to psychiatric hospitals, 1,767 (629 male, 1,138 female) to psychiatric inpatient units, and 35 males to Salvation Army institutions, a total of 4,992. The number of informal patients (4,141) exceeded the number of non-voluntary patients (851) by more than five to one.

The numbers and rates per 100,000 of mean population of first admissions together with the percentage of first admissions in total admissions and the percentage of informal patients in first admissions, are shown in the next tables.

YearsInformal PatientsNon-Voluntary PatientsAll Patients
TotalRateTotalRateTotalRate
*Average over 5 years.
1965–69*3,626133.397635.94,602169.2
19704,127146.486930.84,996177.2
19713,869135.180328.04,672163.1
19724,035138.486529.74,900168.0
19734,370146.78592.85,229175.5
19744,141136.085128.04,992164.0

NOTES—Since 1967 the figures include psychiatric inpatients in public hospitals. The figures from 1969 include patients in Rotoroa Sanatorium and the figures from 1972 include those in The Bridge in Wellington.

Admissions to psychiatric hospitals for alcoholism and drug addiction under the Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act 1966 are shown in the following table. The 1975 figures are provisional.

 Section 8Section 9Total
Hospital197419751974197519741975
*Figures include Carrington.
Oakley*61394882109121
Kingseat422857329960
Tokanui162331264749
Porirua71135154226
Sunnyside7912181927
Cherry Farm132417123036
..146134200185346319
Rotoroa443917146153
The Bridge (Wellington)16138152428
Totals206186225214431400

Readmissions are not included in the above table.

Admissions under section 8 of the Act are made as a result of applications from the patients themselves; applications under section 9 are a result of applications made on the patients' behalves by reputable persons. Rotorua Sanatorium and The Bridge, Wellington, are conducted by the Salvation Army.

On the preliminary figures for 1975 the average number of occupied beds in psychiatric hospitals was about 2.7 per thousand of population. This is the lowest figure recorded since 1907. No absolute conclusions can be drawn from a low bed-occupancy rate; but a consistently falling rate, despite substantial admission rates, can fairly be assumed to indicate an active philosophy of treatment and successful therapeutic programmes.

Diagnosis—The three leading diagnoses in 1974 were: depressive neurosis, 812 cases; alcoholism (all forms), 686 cases; and schizophrenia and paranoid states, 611 cases. These three diagnoses accounted for 42.2 percent of first admissions.

Readmissions—A readmission is a person admitted as an inpatient for psychiatric care who has previously received psychiatric care in a New Zealand hospital.

Readmission rate is not necessarily an indication of therapeutic failure and may in many respects be a more accurate index of therapeutic vigour. It is still possible to encounter grossly over-simplified ideas with regard to the operations of psychiatric hospitals. For example it is sometimes assumed that discharge from hospital is, or should be, an indication of final and complete cure.

In certain respects the long-established practice of publishing readmission rates for psychiatric hospitals (no similar figures appear for general hospitals) seem to perpetuate this misconception. Readmission figures are sometimes quoted as evidence that psychiatric hospitals "do not actually cure people." As with many other types of illness psychiatric disorders may require more than one hospital admission before the condition is stabilised.

Discharges—There are three principal ways of being discharged from psychiatric hospital: (a) outright discharge, which means being formally discharged at the time of leaving hospital; (b) discharge on leave; and (c) discharged "not committed", which means being discharged from a psychiatric hospital on the grounds that the patient's mental condition does not warrant his being detained. All people discharged from a psychiatric unit of a public hospital are discharged outright.

There were 14,048 discharges in 1974. Of these, 11,332 were outright discharges, 2,359 were discharges on leave, and 357 were discharged "not committed".

The principal diagnoses were: schizophrenia and paranoid states, 2,930 cases; all forms of alcoholism, 2,437 cases; and depressive psychosis, 1,629 cases.

Duration of Stay—Over half (56.7 percent) of those discharged left hospital within a month of admission, 27.0 percent left in the next 2 months, and a further 7.5 percent were discharged in the subsequent 3 months. The average stay of all discharges was 30 weeks.

Numbers and rates of first admissions, readmissions, and discharges of patients under psychiatric care during 1974 are shown by diagnosis in the following table.

DiagnosisFirst AdmissionsReadmissionsDischarges
No.Rate*No.Rate*OutrightLeaveNot CommittedTotal
*Per million of mean population.
Senile and pre-senile dementia2558410835134381173
Alcoholic psychosis752513444118584180
Other organic psychoses20868255842791123394
Schizophrenia and paranoid states6112012,2687451,942970182,930
Depressive psychosis5801911,0223361,51610941,629
Other functional psychoses224747032317341696909
Depressive neurosis8122678212701,5383761,581
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders2407919765430144448
Alcoholism6112011,6965571,830407202,257
Other personality disorders5601849893251,1991611681,528
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children22975135443192313355
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition1043412541151438202
Mental retardation26687894294882217101,109
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)2177115049260192353
All cases4,9921,6409,4973,12011,3322,35935714,048

Deaths—In 1974 there were 539 deaths in psychiatric hospitals, and 8 in psychiatric units of public hospitals. In addition 71 died while on leave.

The principal diagnosis was senile and pre-senile dementia, 179 cases. Next were schizophrenia and paranoid states, 86 cases, and mental retardation, 83 cases.

In 1974, 70 people died during the first month in hospital, and a further 63 deaths occurred in people who had been in hospital for over 1 month but under 3 months.

The provisional total of deaths in psychiatric hospitals in 1975 was 509.

5 C—HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS OF NEW ZEALAND CHILDREN

GENERAL—In recent years increased interest has been shown in the heights and weights of New Zealanders—adults as well as children. Medical and health experts have formed the impression that the heights of persons in New Zealand have increased significantly over the past 50 years. It is likely that weights have also increased.

Most recent New Zealand figures certainly show that the above impression is justified, at least as far as school children are concerned. They also show that maturity judged by the development of secondary sex characteristics in both male and female children occurs on the average at an earlier age.

Surveys of the heights and weights of primary school children in New Zealand were made in 1913, 1925, 1934, 1954, and (most recently) in 1969. In 1973, for the first time, a survey was made of the development of pre-school children.

The various surveys of New Zealand school children have revealed a pattern of growth similar to that of children in other developed countries. The growth spurt appears between 11 and 12 years in girls and between 12 and 14 years in boys, and in both sexes is associated with early maturation. It is probable that in line with other countries the development of secondary sex characteristics are occurring earlier than in past years. Causes of earlier physical development are likely to have been multifactorial and to include better housing and education, improved nutritional standards, fewer debilitating diseases, and the effects of measures taken to prevent deficiency diseases.

New Zealand figures suggest that significant changes in height, which have been a feature of the past half-century, will not continue. There is reason to believe that the continued weight increases are indicative of an emerging problem of overweight for height at all ages. This suggests that in New Zealand obesity may become the main nutritional problem. In view of its relationship to cardiovascular and other diseases in the adult, obesity requires greater attention when the health and physical development of New Zealand children are considered.

PRE-SCHOOL CHILDREN—In early 1973 the Department of Health joined with the Plunket Society in the first national survey of the growth and development of pre-school children. Supine height, weight, chest, and head circumferences were measured. The age groupings as plotted consisted of one group for each month in the first year of life, and one group for each quarter year of life, and one group for each quarter year following. The sample consisted of 4,951 girls (of whom 570 were Maoris and 114 Pacific Islanders) and 5,161 boys (of whom 593 were Maoris and 123 Pacific Islanders).

The following table shows smoothed mean measurements for New Zealand pre-school children in 1973.

AgeLengthWeightChestHead
YearMonthBoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirls
  cmkgcmcm
01 1/256.0555.624.804.6437.2436.7338.6238.02
0257.7457.155.245.0138.4337.7339.4938.89
0361.2660.056.145.7340.2939.2741.0540.17
0464.3462.526.986.4041.7340.5242.3541.23
0566.4164.547.677.0442.9341.6543.4442.24
0668.0866.318.257.6443.9842.7544.3243.10
0769.6267.928.758.1444.9443.7245.0443.82
0871.0869.449.198.5545.7544.5245.6744.44
0972.4770.889.588.8946.4245.1846.1944.96
01073.8072.259.939.2046.9745.7246.6445.40
01175.0873.5410.259.4847.4446.1647.0445.78
1076.3274.7810.549.7447.8346.5247.3946.12
1379.7478.2111.2910.4548.7647.3448.2046.91
1682.8081.3111.9111.0849.4748.0048.7947.52
1985.5684.1612.4511.6850.0548.5849.2348.00
2088.0786.7412.9212.2450.5549.1549.5948.41
2390.3689.1213.3812.7951.0349.7049.9148.74
2692.4991.3313.8813.3351.4950.2450.1949.04
2994.4693.4114.3813.8551.9450.7550.4149.29
3096.3495.4014.8714.3952.3951.2450.6449.52
3398.1397.3115.3514.9152.8551.7350.8449.72
3699.9099.1615.8315.4253.2952.2051.0249.90
39101.63100.9316.3215.9253.7252.6751.1950.06
40103.39102.6916.8016.4254.1253.0951.3550.25
43105.13104.4017.2816.9254.5053.5051.5050.36
46106.84106.0817.7817.4354.8753.9051.6450.49
49108.49107.7618.3517.9755.2154.2851.7850.61
50110.09109.3818.9318.5555.5454.6451.8950.72

The growth patterns for length, as indicated by the quarterly increments, showed for both boys and girls a very rapid growth in the first year followed by a gradual decline to approximately 1 centimetre per quarter, the rate of growth which was maintained for the remainder of the child's early years until the growth spurt at the onset of puberty.

The pattern of growth for weight resembled that for length, a swift increase declining in rate to about 2 to -3 kilograms per year. This rate of gain stayed fairly constant from just under 2 years of age until the age of 8 to 9 years.

As a general statement, it can be said that the pattern of physical development of pre-school children in New Zealand is virtually identical with that observed in children in affluent communities in other countries. Most authorities now agree that little difference exists between the height-weight patterns of well-nourished children regardless of their ethnic origins.

A comprehensive report on this 1973 survey has been published by the Department of Health in its special report series under the title Growth of New Zealand Pre-School Children.

PRIMARY SCHOOL CHILDREN—Each successive survey of primary school children has shown general increases over the preceding survey in heights and weights at all ages, in some decades more marked than others. The 1969 survey shows that the very marked gain in both heights and weights which occurred between 1934 and 1954 now tends to be slowing down, especially at the lower age levels, although a significant gain in weights at the higher age levels still seems to be continuing.

In the 1969 survey the total number of school children included in the sample was 24,852, taken from 19 health districts in proportion to the populations of the districts. Approximately equal numbers, about 2,000, were sampled from each age group from 5 to 15 years. Roughly one-sixth of the children were Maoris and five-sixths were, in the main, Europeans but included small numbers of Indians, Chinese, Samoans and other Pacific Islanders of the same Polynesian stock as the Maoris themselves. The number of Maoris was chosen again in relation to the total Maori population in each district.

As previous surveys had shown little significance in the difference of heights and weights between urban areas and rural districts no attempt was made during the 1969 survey to obtain separate figures for geographical groupings although, in selecting schools, allowance was made in the choice so as not to overload the figures in the direction of either urban, rural, or socio-economic groups.

Information from the surveys is related in the following tables.

MEAN HEIGHTS (cm)
Average Age (Years)19131925193419541969
BoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirls

NOTE: 1934 values are converted from whole inches.

5    109.2109.2    
5 1/2      112.75111.68112.23111.51
6112.1112.6  114.3114.3    
6 1/2      118.72117.81118.34117.61
7117.8117.4  119.4119.4    
7 1/2      124.61123.60124.62123.87
8123.8123.4  124.5124.5    
8 1/2      130.20129.03130.09128.87
9128.7131.1  129.5129.5    
9 1/2      135.31134.42135.27134.28
10132.5132.5134.2134.4134.6134.6    
10 1/2  136.8135.8  140.46140.31140.10140.03
11136.5136.7138.9138.2137.2139.7    
11 1/2  141.0141.0  145.03146.35145.38147.66
12141.1141.8142.5143.9144.8144.8    
12 1/2  144.5147.6  150.47152.48151.26152.95
13145.6148.0146.8150.1149.9149.9    
13 1/2  149.4151.9  156.79156.92157.48158.02
14150.6152.1151.9153.8154.9154.9    
14 1/2  154.4155.7  162.94159.51164.56160.45
15155.2152.6  157.5157.5    
15 1/2      168.00161.16169.18162.21
MEAN WEIGHTS (kg)
Average Age (Years)19131925193419541969
BoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirlsBoysGirls

NOTE: 1934 values are converted from whole pounds.

5    19.118.6    
5 1/2      20.7220.0620.3319.93
620.420.7  20.920.4    
6 1/2      22.9222.4822.6422.30
722.422.1  22.722.2    
7 1/2      25.4625.0225.3525.30
824.824.3  24.924.5    
8 1/2      28.1327.8128.2227.73
927.126.6  27.727.2    
9 1/2      31.3230.9830.8730.77
1028.928.630.129.529.929.5    
10 1/2  31.430.4  34.4934.9633.9734.60
1131.431.432.632.232.733.1    
11 1/2  33.433.7  37.4939.3737.8840.49
1234.234.634.735.935.437.2    
12 1/2  36.238.4  41.7344.6442.3745.05
1337.639.938.140.939.942.6    
13 1/2  39.842.9  47.0249.8547.9350.69
1442.743.441.945.344.045.8    
14 1/2  44.047.4  53.2854.3354.5254.55
1545.445.5  46.749.0    
15 1/2      58.6756.6560.1358.16

A detailed report on the 1969 survey was published in the special report series of the Department of Health entitled Physical Development of New Zealand School Children 1969.

International Comparison—In the following table New Zealand figures of height are set alongside those of other national surveys. A similar comparison of weights was given in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

In height New Zealand school children of 1969 compared very closely with Canadian children of the same year; the only marked difference was that New Zealand girls weighed consistently more than their Canadian counterparts. American children in 1963 do not appear to have differed greatly in height from New Zealand children in 1969, but were heavier, the difference being greater in boys. Comparison with the United Kingdom 1965 figures showed only slight differences in weight but New Zealand girls tended to be heavier.

The results of surveys will be affected to some extent by the time of the year at which they were made; growth in height is greater in the spring whereas weight tends to show a spurt in the autumn months.

Average Age (Years)BoysGirls
U.S. 1963Canada 1969N.Z. 1969U.K. 1965U.S. 1963Canada 1969N.Z. 1969U.K. 1965

NOTE: New Zealand figures are interpolated median heights.

Median Height (Inches)
646.045.045.445.045.545.045.144.6
748.547.547.847.548.047.047.546.9
850.749.550.149.550.149.049.749.1
952.851.552.251.852.351.551.751.3
1054.654.054.253.754.553.553.853.6
1156.556.056.255.856.557.556.556.0
1258.558.058.358.059.058.559.258.5
1360.860.560.760.361.661.061.361.0
1463.663.563.562.963.062.562.762.8
1565.966.065.965.963.763.063.563.6

Chapter 6. Section 6 SOCIAL WELFARE

6 A—SOCIAL SECURITY AND SOCIAL WORK

GENERAL—Social services and the whole concept of state-supported or state-subsidised social welfare are continually evolving in response to the changing needs of society and the greater recognition of the responsibilities of that society towards its less-fortunate or more-vulnerable members.

The New Zealand social security system has grown pragmatically to meet local needs, and in the light of local experience, rather than under the influence of social or political theories. Even the 1938 Social Security Act, rightly regarded as a landmark in the history of social welfare in New Zealand, did not introduce any sweeping theoretical changes, and since then ideas have been refined and enlarged rather than radically altered.

Nowadays the Department of Social Welfare, formed in 1972 from an amalgamation of the Social Security Department and the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education, is the main Government agency in this field.

Also involved in social welfare are the Departments of Health, Education, Justice, Labour, and Maori Affairs.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are to:

  1. Administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Children and Young Persons Act 1974; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; the Rehabilitation Act 1941; and the Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies for New Zealand.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities in Government or voluntary organisations.

  5. Maintain close liaison with and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among any organisations and individuals (including departments of State and other agencies of the Crown) engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

  7. Provide administrative services to boards, councils, committees, and agencies.

The objects of the department's administrative services are to provide such administrative support, advisory, training, and research services as necessary for the efficient and effective administration of the department's functions. The department is a principal adviser to Government on matters of social welfare policy. It also has particular responsibilities to private and voluntary organisations. Units with special responsibilities for liaison with such organisations and for publicity and information have been established so that the public are kept abreast of developments.

The objectives of the policy for benefits and pensions are:

  1. To safeguard individuals in the community against loss of income or reduction in income brought about by age, incapacity, widowhood, orphanhood, unemployment or other circumstances by providing income security at a level which will enable them to belong and participate in the community; and benefits for children as a contribution towards their maintenance.

  2. To provide assistance towards housing finance for families of moderate means by way of an advance of family benefit.

  3. To provide additional benefits for those whose income and financial resources are insufficient to meet their living costs and other commitments.

  4. To provide pensions on the death or disablement of members of the forces as recompense for physical loss, at a level reviewed and set each year at 1 April in accordance with movements in the Consumers Price Index; and to provide other allowances and concessions according to the nature and extent of disablement.

  5. To provide and maintain a service to ensure the rehabilitation and resettlement in civil life of former members of the forces.

The objectives of the policy for social work services are:

  1. To make better provision for the maintenance, care, and control of children who are under the protection of the State and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, maltreated, and delinquent children.

  2. To establish and maintain institutions, or arrange foster homes, for the care and control of children committed to the guardianship of the State.

  3. To promote and maintain a preventive work, social work, and general counselling service for persons and families facing social and economic difficulties.

  4. To promote and maintain an effective rehabilitation service to ensure that disabled persons are given encouragement, counselling, and assistance to restore them to a fuller and more meaningful life.

The social work services involve individual and family casework and general welfare work. Emphasis is given to the care and control of children including those with emotional or behavioural problems.

The residential programme includes the inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and the licensing and supervision of child care centres in order to ensure satisfactory standards are maintained. This division also has a responsibility for children in licensed foster homes.

Added emphasis is to be given in the programme to the rehabilitation of disabled persons. Coordination with other agencies which also have responsibilities in this work, such as the Department of Health and Department of Labour, is achieved through representation of the department on the National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, which also acts as an advisory body to Government on rehabilitation.

MAIN FEATURES OF SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM—The present system cannot be characterised according to any single principle, theory, or formula. As already stated, it has evolved from changing needs and experience in dealing with them. For example, it looks like a form of community insurance, but is not financed, funded, or administered on an insurance basis. It is financed from general taxation; but a person's benefit bears no relation to his tax contribution. While basically income-tested and selective as to need within classes of benefit, it is also universally applied without regard to other income or means in three main cases (superannuation, family, and medical benefits) and in the lesser miners' benefit. It transfers income from the more to the less affluent mainly on the basis of greatest help for those in greatest need. It reflects the traditional humanitarian, egalitarian, and pragmatic approach of New Zealanders and, most importantly, reflects an acceptance of community responsibility for social welfare.

The main features of the system are:

  1. Eligibility for benefits (other than emergency) is based on residence for varying qualifying periods and not on the amount of tax paid.

  2. Benefits (other than family, miners', superannuation, and medical benefits) are subject to an income test with the amount of benefit being reduced if other income is over a prescribed level. Emergency benefits and additional benefits are subject to tests of both income and property.

  3. In paying superannuation and family benefit without any tests of income or need it is assumed that for everybody over 65 years (60, under the new national superannuation scheme) and for all families with dependent children, a community-financed income supplement is necessary and desirable, irrespective of actual financial need or resources. Miners' benefit is not income tested, on the accepted assumption that if a person is disabled by disease arising from mining he needs to be compensated for losing income and enjoyment of life and that the income loss does not require to be established or tested.

  4. The concept of the family as the fundamental economic and social unit is recognised by the payments made in respect of the otherwise ineligible but dependent wife and children of a beneficiary; and the taking into account of the income of the husband or wife (legal or de facto) of a beneficiary when assessing the amount of those benefits subject to an income test.

  5. Contribution under a graduated income tax system and payment of benefits at a flat rate irrespective of contributions (that is, taxes paid) distinguishes the New Zealand system from many of those of other countries.

  6. The cash and medical benefits give a comprehensive coverage of need.

  7. Beneficiaries are given incentives to self-help and to work. From the start, amounts payable from standard benefits have been set below the average wages of low-earner groups; and small incomes, and most property, have been disregarded in assessing an individual's benefit. Conversely the income-tested age benefit for men over 60 years and some women over 55 years, superannuation for people over 65 years, and the benefits for widows with dependent children or over a prescribed age recognise these people's right to stop working if they want to.

  8. Funding is through taxation. The right to "contract out" on the grounds that the individual may not need, or qualify for, public aid is denied in the community interest, as it is with other State services such as education, defence, police.

  9. The Social Security Commission has wide discretionary power to grant, withhold, or reduce benefits, and a general power of direction is given to the Ministers of Health and Social Welfare.

  10. With certain exceptions no person is entitled to more than one analogous benefit from either New Zealand or overseas.

  11. Standard rates with supplements, rather than differential rates according to the class of benefit, relate benefits to need rather than to the cause of need.

ADMINISTRATION—The Social Security Commission in the Department of Social Welfare administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Welfare, Part I of the Social Security Act 1964 dealing with cash benefits, while matters concerning medical, hospital, and other related benefits are administered by the Department of Health under the direction of the Minister of Health (see Section 5A).

The War Pensions Act 1954 is also administered by the Department of Social Welfare, which likewise handles ex-servicemen's rehabilitation.

Child welfare activities are governed by the Children and Young Persons Act and other legislation detailed later in this section.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS—From 1 April 1964, when the Social Security Fund was absorbed into the Consolidated Revenue Account, the payment of medical benefits has been made by the Department of Health from money appropriated by Parliament for this purpose. From 1 April 1958, the cost of public hospital administration has been borne directly by general taxation; treatment in public hospitals is free. Details of medical benefits are set out in Section 5A—Health and Medical Services.

Payments—The New Zealand system has developed the following types of social security assistance.

Cash benefits as of right for those eligible by category, residence, and income, paid at flat standard rates (plus allowance for dependants) without regard to taxes paid.

Emergency benefits for those who need help but who are not, for any reason, eligible for standard benefits.

Additional benefit is available to beneficiaries who have limited income and assets, and replaced supplementary assistance from July 1975.

Medical and pharmaceutical benefits for all members of the community; free public and subsidised private hospital care.

Universally applied benefits (with no means test) for dependent children, and for those over 65 years of age.

From 9 February 1977 Age and Universal Superannuation benefits have been replaced by National Superannuation. National Superannuation is available to all permanent residents aged 60 or over who meet a 10-year residential qualification. There is no income test on national superannuation but it is subject to income tax.

Particulars of payments under the Social Security Act during the last 5 financial years are contained in the following table.

Item1971–721972–731973–741974–751975–76

*A considerable number of superannuation beneficiaries transferred to age benefits during the year following changes in tax law for those over 65 years of age.

†Expenditure for emergency benefit now included in expenditure for related benefit.

‡Expenditure on additional benefit, which replaced supplementary assistance from July 1975, is included with expenditure for the related standard benefit.

Cash benefits—$(thousand)
Superannuation114,575133,236*135,681140,950165,781
Age88,441115,840*169,583224,853311,795
Widows18,02621,15824,82127,96734,428
Domestic purposes---30,15648,903
Orphans213235295381400
Family73,886128,733160,103153,175164,695
Invalids8,0179,83011,71013,66518,146
Miners9493928485
Unemployment2,6835,0343,4625,1558,493
Sickness8,33311,36514,59015,88618,467
Emergency8,61314,12519,526
Benefit on death----2,598
Supplementary assistance4,1714,1513,9125,4202,045
Advances for repairs to homes6171101180276
Aid to families caring for disabled persons----8
Employment subsidy for disabled civilians68463
Capitalisation of family benefit6,6196,3327,1146,3298,161
Total cash benefits333,737450,211550,994624,207784,284
Health benefits—Maternity3,4263,4673,3724,9815,308
Medical11,62314,41320,79523,60932,806
Hospital6,8368,0398,63010,14713,011
Pharmaceutical33,23640,02045,16656,47969,867
Supplementary10,40411,26212,45715,82018,805
Total medical benefits65,52477,20290,418111,037139,798

About one-half of the total expenditure on cash benefits (including supplementary assistance advances for repairs to homes, and employment subsidy for disabled civilians) is paid without an income test.

The following table summarises social security expenditure according to type of benefit and per head of mean population, and also relates expenditure to national income.

Year Ended 31 MarchNational Income at Factor CostExpenditure*
Health BenefitsFamily BenefitsOther BenefitsTotalPer Head of Mean Population
*Excluding capitalised family benefits.
   $(million) Amount  $
19725,540x65.573.9253.2392.6136.59x
19736,481x77.2128.7315.1521.0178.02x
19747,494x90.4160.1383.7634.3212.45x
19758,184x111.0153.2464.7728.9239.23x
19769,522139.8164.7611.4915.9295.73
Percentage of Expenditure to National Income
1972...1.21.34.67.1...
1973...1.22.04.98.0...
1974...1.22.15.18.5...
1975...1.41.95.78.9...
1976...1.51.86.59.8...

Government expenditure on social services (including health and education) is shown in relation to total Government expenditure in a table in the Statistical Summary at the back of this Yearbook.

Benefits and Pensions in Force—The total number of persons in respect of whom social security cash benefits were payable at 31 March 1976 was 827,549. Particulars of the various social security benefits in force at 31 March for the 5 latest years were as follows:

Class of Benefit19721973197419751976

*About 25,000 superannuation beneficiaries transferred to age benefit during the year following changes in tax law for those over 65 years of age.

†Figures for emergency benefit now included with related benefit.

‡Supplementary assistance was replaced by additional benefit from 2 July 1975. Figures are included with related benefits.

Superannuation149,190126,581*119,025114,834111,738
Age106,681140,719*160,137174,514188,459
Widows'16,54016,96216,85416,73816,726
Domestic purposes---17,23123,047
Orphans'306316387376411
Family420,961429,804445,040452,389463,006
Invalids'8,6868,8429,1309,4149,917
Miners'7766524541
Unemployment2,9351,7824832,8945,127
Sickness6,8638,1627,3057,809,077
Emergency8,17711,36714,661
Supplementary assistance17,12017,76418,26019,480
Totals737,536762,365791,334815,745827,549

In addition there were 1,178 pensions at 31 March 1975 classed as "sundry pensions and annuities". This class covers ex-officers of the Legislative Department, ex-members of the defence forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others, by way of compassionate allowance, etc.

Relationship to Wages—In the following table, based on one compiled originally for the Royal Commission on Social Security 1972, standard weekly benefit rates are related to nominal award wages and average weekly earnings.

YearStandard Benefit Rate*Percentage of Nominal Award WagePercentage of Average Weekly Earnings
UnmarriedMarriedUnmarried BenefitMarried BenefitUnmarried BenefitMarried Benefit

*Standard rate includes age, widows', miners', invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits (except that a lesser rate is payable to unmarried invalids and sickness beneficiaries under 18 years and unemployment beneficiaries under 20 years). Superannuation benefit became payable at half the shown married rate from 30 March 1960, while the higher rate for unmarried beneficiaries was extended to superannuation beneficiaries from 12 October 1960. A married superannuation beneficiary receives half the married rate.

†Relates to adult males only and is the average of a comprehensive survey of the wages of occupational groups used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index compiled by the Department of Statistics. The average is determined after occupations are "weighted" according to their relative importance in the survey.

‡In the half-yearly survey, weekly wage payout and hourly earnings relate to all employees, males and females, adult and juvenile combined. Salaried executives are included but no working proprietors. Earnings include overtime, bonuses, and all allowances and special payments.

 $$%%%%
197323.7039.5032.954.731.652.7
197426.8544.7032.654.430.350.5
197530.7551.2632.954.932.153.5
197636.2260.3634.357.233.656.0

CASH BENEFITS—The rates of benefits have been increased from time to time, mainly as a result of the increased cost of living. More recent increases for age, invalids', widows', and miners' benefits are shown in the following table.

Date of IncreaseAmount of Increase per Week
Married CouplesUnmarried Beneficiaries
 $$
13 Feb 19741.200.80
3 Jul 19744.002.35
15 Jan 19753.201.90
2 Jul 19753.362.00
14 Jan 19764.072.45
28 Jul 19765.043.02

The list below gives a summary of the weekly rates for cash benefits. The term Unmarried includes those widowed or divorced. Later rates are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

BenefitWeekly Rate
14 Jan 197628 Jul. 197612 Jan 1977

†Subject to withholding tax for income-tax purposes.

‡Age benefit and superannuation benefit were not included in the 12 January, 1977 increase on account of the introduction of national superannuation from 9 February 1977.

Age, Invalids* and Sickness*—   
Unmarried—   
 $$$
18 and over33.2036.2238.40
Under 18 without dependants25.3527.6529.30
Married—   
Husband or wife separately27.6630.1832.00
Husband (wife included)55.3260.3664.00
Widows*33.2036.2238.40
Domestic purposes—   
Solo parent or woman alone33.2036.2238.40
Caring for sick or infirm—   
Unmarried and 18 or over33.2036.2238.40
Unmarried and under 1825.3527.6529.30
Married27.6630.1832.00
Unemployment*—   
Unmarried person—   
Twenty years and over33.2036.2238.40
Under 20 years without dependants25.3527.6529.30
Married man (wife included)55.3260.3664.00
*ANY OF THE ABOVE BENEFITS WITH DEPENDENT CHILDREN   
Solo parent and 1 child52.3257.3661.00
Solo parent and 2 children55.3260.3664.00
Increased by $65 a year ($1.25 p.w.) for each subsequent child   
Married couple with 1 child58.3263.3667.00
Increased by $65 a year ($1.25 p.w.) for each subsequent child   
Superannuation—   
Unmarried person33.2036.22
Married person27.6630.1
Miners—   
Unmarried person33.2036.2238.40
Married man (wife included)55.3260.3664.00
Miner's widow31.6034.4236.80
Orphans16.6518.1519.20
Family—   
Each dependent child3.003.003.00
Additional benefit is available to beneficiaries with limited incomes and assets and may include an allowance in respect of accommodation costs and any special needs.   
Emergency Benefits—According to circumstances.   

Standard Hospital Rate—The usual rate of benefit for a person whose benefit is reduced while in hospital is $9.00 a week, but this may be increased if necessary to meet continuing expenses.

Basic Income Exemptions—Superannuation, family, and miners benefits are paid regardless of the financial circumstances of the beneficiary. Other benefits are reduced if the income of the beneficiary and spouse is more than the income exemption. The basic income exemptions at the end of 1976 were as follows:

Widows Benefit and Domestic Purposes Benefit for solo parents and women alone—$884 a year increased to $1,092 a year if the applicant has a dependent child.

Invalids Benefit and Domestic Purposes Benefit for person caring for sick or infirm—$884 a year. Sickness and Unemployment Benefits—$17 a week (but see below regarding unemployment benefits and personal earnings).

Orphans Benefit—$260 a year.

Adjustment of Benefit for Income Above Exemption—Age, invalids, widows, and domestic purposes benefits are reduced by $1 for every complete $2 a year of income over the appropriate income exemption and up to $1,300 a year, then $3 for every $4 a year.

Sickness benefits are reduced by 10c for every 20c over $17 a week up to $25 a week, then 15c for every 20c a week of income.

Unemployment benefits are reduced by 10c for every 10c of personal earnings in excess of $10 a week. The first $10 a week of personal earnings (if any) is added to other income and the benefits are reduced by 10c for every 20c of other income over $17 a week up to $25 a week, then 15c for every 20c a week.

Orphans benefits are reduced by $3 for every complete $4 a year of income over $260 a year.

National Superannuation—National superannuation, for persons aged 60 or over, replaced age and superannuation benefits from 9 February 1977. The first fortnightly payment was made on 17 February 1977.

It is subject to a 10-years residence test and is taxable, but is not subject to an income test unless payment is claimed for an unqualified spouse.

The rate of national superannuation, which is fixed by Order in Council, is based on the average ordinary-time wages and salaries as disclosed by the latest Department of Labour half-yearly survey of wages and salaries. There are no special contributions required as national superannuation is financed from ordinary government revenue.

Upon introduction, the gross rate was $76.84 per week for a married couple, and $46.10 for a single person. These rates were increased to $82.72 and $49.64 respectively in July 1977.

More details as to rates are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

Widows' Benefits—Subject to an income qualification every widow who is the mother of one or more dependent children under 16 years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of a dependent child under 16 years of age who satisfies certain conditions is also entitled to the benefit.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' benefits in force at 31 March 1976, according to the number of dependent children. (Deserted wives (793) are also included.)

Number of Dependent ChildrenWidows' Benefits
Nil10,337
13,072
21,772
3855
4410
5 or more280
Total16,726

Domestic Purposes Benefits—Persons who qualify for domestic purposes benefit are:

  1. A woman with a dependent child or children who is living apart from and has lost the support of or is inadequately maintained by her husband, or who is divorced from her husband, or whose husband has been a mental patient for 6 months or a prisoner;

  2. An unmarried mother of one or more dependent children;

  3. A father of one or more dependent children who has lost his wife by death, divorce or some other cause.

  4. Women without dependent children who come within the definition of "a woman alone", which is a woman who has never been married or who has lost the support of her husband, and who has cared for dependent children or for incapacitated relatives.

  5. Other persons qualifying for the domestic purposes benefit are those required to give full time care and attention at home to a person who would otherwise have been admitted to hospital.

In the case of both a solo parent and a woman alone de facto marriages are considered as marriages.

Orphans' Benefits—A benefit in respect of orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under 16 years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was ordinarily resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than 3 years preceding the date of his or her death.

The number of benefits in force at 31 March 1976 was 411 (in respect of 503 children).

Family Benefits—The rate of the benefit is $3 a week for each child, until he or she reaches 16 years, or, if a full-time school pupil, the end of the year in which 18 years is reached.

A family benefit or portion of a family benefit may be paid in a lump sum in advance for a period not exceeding 52 weeks in respect of the first child or a child who has commenced his first year of intermediate or secondary education.

A family benefit may be paid in cash, or to the credit of the Post Office Savings Bank account of the mother. The number of family benefits being paid to Post Office Savings Bank accounts at 31 March 1976 was 167,811. The total number of benefits in force at 31 March 1976 was 463,006 covering 1,040,525 children, compared with corresponding figures of 452,389 and 1,031,757 at 31 March 1975. At the end of the 1975 school year there were 76,900 children over 16 at school in respect of whom benefits were being paid.

The average number of children in respect of whom benefits were paid was 2.25 per family at 31 March 1976.

Under the provisions of the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964, family benefits may be capitalised and paid in advance to assist parents with the erection or purchase of house properties, whether previously occupied or not, additions or alterations to existing homes, or in certain circumstances the repayment of mortgages and other obligations on family homes. In outline, the measure provides for the capitalisation of up to $1.50 of the weekly family benefit in respect of each of one or more children from the age of 1 year up to the age of 16 years, provided that the total of the advance or advances in the case of any one family is not less than $400 nor more than $2,000. The maximum income limit for eligibility is $75 a week for a family with one child, rising by $5 a week for each additional child.

Details of family benefit capitalisation are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchApplications for Capitalisation ApprovedNumber of Children ConcernedCapitalised Value of Benefits
   $(000)
19676,62111,2838,238
19686,55310,8117,901
19697,70812,7449,212
19708,37314,88910,696
19717,89514,43510,370
19725,3089,9207,031
19737,165..6,332
19745,980..7,114
19756,565..6,329
19767,816..8,161

Invalids' Benefits—An invalids' benefit is payable if a person is—(a) is totally blind; or (b) is permanently and severely restricted in his capacity for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

In computing the income of any blind person no account is taken of his personal earnings. In addition, the benefit of a totally blind person may within certain limits be increased by up to 25 percent of his personal earnings. The personal earnings of a severely disabled beneficiary may be disregarded in whole or in part in computing his benefit.

Miners' Benefits—A miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted pneumoconiosis or any other occupational disease and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, provided that compensation in respect of the same disability is not being received.

Unemployment Benefits—An applicant for unemployment benefit is required to satisfy the Commission: (a) that he is unemployed; (b) that he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work; (c) that he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment; (d) that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months at any time.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first 7 days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. The Commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding 6 weeks, the commencement of the benefit if the applicant: (a) has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason; or (b) has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker. The benefit may be terminated if the beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit—e.g., an age benefit.

If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a wife, an allowance may be paid in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

Benefits were granted to 11,920 persons in 1974-75 and to 30,240 persons in 1975-76.

The rates of benefit may be reduced having regard to the income received by the applicant or his wife in excess of $17 a week. For personal earnings of the applicant exceeding $10 a week the deduction is 10c for 10c of the excess. For income which is not earnings in excess of $17 a week the deduction is 10c for 20c up to $25 a week and thereafter 15c for every complete 20c.

The number of applications for unemployment benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1974 and 1975 were 12,281 and 17,378 respectively, 8,184 persons being granted a benefit in 1973-74 and 11,920 in 1974-5. At the end of March 1975, 2,894 benefits were in force compared with 483 at the end of the previous year. Payment of additional benefit for a dependent wife was included in 157 of the benefits in force at 31 March 1974 and in 698 of the benefits in force at 31 March 1975.

Sickness Benefits—A person over the age of 15 years who is incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and as a result suffers a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, may apply for a sickness benefit.

The number of persons granted sickness benefit was 33,020 in 1974-75 and 36,062 in 1975–76.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1975 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit (based on a 10 percent sample of the estimated 35,000 benefits which ceased).

 Number of Benefits
Period on Benefit (Weeks)MalesFemalesTotal
Up to 58,4803,02011,500
5- 84,8902,0306,920
9-122,5901,2903,880
13-253,5304,2407,770
26-381,2801,6502,930
39-51510170680
52-77460120580
78-10326030290
104 and over37080450
Totals22,37012,63035,000

The following table gives a classification of sickness benefits according to the disease suffered by the beneficiary. The data were obtained from an analysis of a sample of 10 percent of the benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1975.

Disease CategoryMalesFemalesPercentage of Total
Infective and parasitic diseases1,4204905.5
Neoplasms8901603.0
Endocrine system, metabolic, and nutritional diseases6601902.4
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs60600.3
Mental disorders3,3901,93015.2
Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs8503303.4
Diseases of the circulatory system2,7106009.5
Diseases of the respiratory system2,4107909.1
Diseases of the digestive system3,37077011.8
Diseases of the genito-urinary system4703502.3
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the Puerperium-5,07014.5
Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue1,0701803.6
Diseases of the musculoskeletal system and connective tissue1,1303004.1
Congenital anomalies240800.9
Symptoms and ill-defined conditions2,2609509.2
Accidents, poisonings, and violence1,4403805.2
Totals22,37012,630100.0

Benefit on Death—As from 1 April 1975, a lump sum benefit is payable following the death of persons under 65 years of age, who leave dependants not entitled to lump sum payment under the Accident Compensation Act. A dependent widow or widower (including a party to a de facto relationship) will receive $1,000, and subject to a maximum of $1,500 for children, each dependent child will be paid up to $500.

Emergency Benefits—An emergency benefit may be granted on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit other than family benefit.

Additional Benefit—Additional benefit is available to social security beneficiaries and others who have limited income and assets.

Married couples may receive up to $10 a week, and single persons may receive up to $6 a week. Either may receive up to a further $6 a week for accommodation costs, and up to $2 a week for special needs (e.g., costs associated with health). Under special circumstances, lump sum payments may be authorised.

Since 1973 a telephone rental concession equal to one-half of the amount of the rental may be granted to persons in receipt of age, invalids', widows', or related benefits. Since 1 January 1975 a concession equivalent to one-half of a television licence fee has also been available for these persons.

Disability Allowance—A disability allowance of up to $8 a week was introduced from 10 October 1975 for disabled persons receiving an income tested benefit or for persons whose income is such that they could qualify for an income tested benefit. The allowance can also be paid in respect of the disabled wife or child of such a person. The purpose of the allowance is to meet special expenses arising from the person's disability, such as transport costs, special diet, domestic help or medicines not on free list, etc.

Reciprocity with Australia—The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948, provided for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. (A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.)

For the purpose of any application for a benefit (except the New Zealand superannuation, miners, orphans or domestic purposes benefits) residence in Australia or birth in Australia is regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for age, invalids' or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive an age benefit unless he has attained the age of 65 years. The Act also provides that the department shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1976 comprised 578 age benefits; 50 widows' benefits; 47 invalids' benefits; 2 sickness benefits; and 5 unemployment benefits—a total of 682, compared with 715 a year earlier.

Reciprocity with United Kingdom—The Social Security (Reciprocity with United Kingdom) Act 1969 provides for reciprocity in a comprehensive range of benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The general principle of the agreement is that persons migrating from one country to the other will be taken into the social security scheme of the receiving country and paid benefits by the receiving country under the laws and conditions applicable to other residents of that country.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1976 comprised 4,465 superannuation benefits; 8,661 age benefits; 232 widows' benefits; 7 orphans' benefits; 136 invalids' benefits; 10 sickness benefits; and 5 unemployment benefits—a total of 13,516, compared with 13,362 a year earlier

New Zealand Residents in the United Kingdom—In the United Kingdom the agreement applies to former residents of New Zealand who claim retirement pensions, widows' pensions, widowed mothers' and guardians' allowances, family allowances, sickness and unemployment benefits under the National Insurance Act.

The qualifying age for retirement pensions under the National Insurance Act is 60 years for women and 65 years for men.

It is to be noted that, although a man may have been in receipt of an age benefit when he left New Zealand, he is not entitled to retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless he is 65 years of age. Special provisions apply to married women arriving in the United Kingdom from New Zealand as far as entitlement to the United Kingdom retirement pension is concerned.

Persons in receipt of social security benefits in New Zealand otherwise than by virtue of the Reciprocal Agreement, who leave New Zealand wholly or mainly for a visit to the United Kingdom, will normally have their benefits suspended on departure, but if they return to New Zealand within 12 months they will be paid arrears of their social security benefits for the period of their absence.

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES—Friendly societies or lodges had a membership of 58,000 in 1975 compared with 113,000 in 1938 before the introduction of social security. They provide sickness and death benefits for members. The funds of the lodges totalled $42.2 million as at 31 December 1974.

Specially Authorised Societies—The majority of new societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act in recent years have been specially authorised societies in the form of credit unions; the number of such societies registered is now 168 and their funds totalled $27.2 million in 1974.

Medical Care Societies—The provision of benefits to provide part or all of the costs of medical or surgical attendance in return for voluntary contributions may be administered through a separate fund of a traditional friendly society or through a society providing only such benefits, including the costs of private hospital treatment. The latter type of society may be registered under the Friendly Societies Act 1909, but at least two are known not to be so registered. It is, therefore, not possible to give comprehensive statistics of either membership or funds related to such benefits. The number of individuals covered for such benefits is approximately 400,000 in societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act solely for the purpose and could be in excess of this figure in respect of traditional societies.

SOCIAL WORK—The establishment of the Department of Social Welfare from 1 April 1972 resulted in a widening of the scope of social work formerly undertaken by the Child Welfare Division of the Department of Education and the Social Security Department. Although much of it is still concerned with the care, protection, and control of children and young persons, it now includes counselling work with the mentally and physically disabled, solo parents and their children, and the aged. The department now maintains a team of social workers and other staff who provide a general, individual, and family welfare counselling and guidance service for all age groups as well as undertaking general field investigation and inquiry work.

Services For Community Care—Assistance is given to community organisations providing care and training in the community for the handicapped, both physically and mentally, and for socially deprived children and pregnant women.

Financial assistance is given by way of subsidy to establish and operate residential homes, day care centres and sheltered workshops. At 1 April 1975 the range and levels of available subsidies were as follows:

  1. Socially deprived children (i) 50 percent of capital cost of establishing residential accommodation and $7 per week for each child in residence, (ii) 66 2/ percent of capital cost of establishing day care centres and $4.50 per week per child attending.

  2. Mentally handicapped persons: 100 percent of capital cost of establishing residential accommodation (with a limit of $8,000 per bed), and $3.50 per day for each child in residence.

  3. Physically and/or mentally handicapped persons: 66 2/3 percent of capital cost of establishing day care, sheltered workshop, and training facilities and 75 percent of cost of staff salaries.

  4. Unsupported pregnant single women, and women with young children: 70 percent of capital cost of establishing residential accommodation (with a limit of $2,400 per bed).

Other assistance to organisations in this field include:

  1. An advisory service covering a wide range of activities from forward planning to details of administration and design;

  2. The engagement of Ministry of Works in the search for, inspection of and purchasing of suitable properties, on behalf of any organisation wishing to establish a subsidisable social welfare facility.

Standards of care and training are set by regulations, requiring residential and day care centres to be registered, and by periodic inspections to ensure that the standards are being maintained.

Social Work with Children and Young Persons—Besides clerical officers, social work services involve over 570 social workers and over 580 institution workers. Casework duties include preventive work; investigations and reporting for the Children's Court; supervision of children in their own homes; foster home, institution, and work placement; adoption and ex-nuptial birth inquiry work; the licensing of foster parents defined in the Act; reporting to courts on matrimonial proceedings affecting custody of children; registration of child care centres; inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and examination of requests made by them for financial subsidies; the oversight of immigrant and refugee children. Social workers receive assistance in many of these duties from about 100 honorary social workers, who are people of integrity and local standing in their communities.

Institutional care facilities include long-term training centres for difficult and delinquent children, short-term facilities providing classification, emergency, and temporary care for both infants and older children, and family homes which provide care for children of all ages either on a short-term or long-term basis.

Social workers undertake a wide variety of miscellaneous investigations and inquiries concerning the welfare of children. Cases may be referred by neighbours, police, teachers, employers, doctors, solicitors, etc., or by parents themselves who are seeking advice and guidance. Some of these cases will respond quickly to help. Others may need preventive oversight and guidance over several months or even 2 or 3 years. Financial help can be given in special cases. In a relatively small number of cases preventive help is not sufficient and court action is the outcome of inquiries.

Social workers, on receiving from the registrars notifications of ex-nuptial births, make confidential inquiries and assist the mother as necessary in making provision for her child. From figures in the Births section of this Yearbook, it will be seen that about 60 percent of children born ex-nuptially remain with their mothers, whether or not she is living with the father, and only 16 to 18 percent are made available for adoption. Placements in adoption homes are made by social workers for those children (about three-fifths) for whom placements have not been made by private persons and other organisations. The smaller proportion of children being offered for adoption is thought to reflect the beginnings of a changing pattern in society, with an increase both in de facto liaisons and in the proportion of mothers wanting to undertake the sole care of a child.

Under the Adoption Act 1955 a social worker must give prior approval to the placement for adoption of a child or young person under 20 years of age, or alternatively, the applicants must apply for an interim order of adoption from the court. The court is required to obtain a social worker's report on such a placement before granting an order. A waiting period of at least 6 months is normally required, during which the placement is supervised by a social worker, before a final order can be made.

Any person who is not a close relative and who undertakes to care for a child under the age of 6 years apart from its mother for a period of more than 28 consecutive days for payment or reward must have her home licensed by a social worker. At 31 December 1975 social workers were visiting 136 children so placed.

Inspecting children's homes operated by private organisations and administering schemes of Government financial assistance to these homes is another important social welfare function. Financial assistance is given by payments of $11 per week for each child in care and subsidies of up to 50 percent on expenditure for extension or replacement of buildings or additions to facilities. A similar capital subsidy is available for private organisations to help in providing accommodation for unmarried mothers and their children.

Regulations for the registration and licensing of child care centres (e.g., day nurseries, creches, etc.) have been in force since 1961.

The Department of Social Welfare has built up a considerable body of knowledge on new trends and methods in the fields of both residential and day care for children. As a result, it has become an important point of reference for information and advice.

Children and Young Persons Proceedings—The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, which came into effect on 1 April 1975, introduced substantial changes in the procedures under which the department carries out its functions in relation to juvenile offending and other problems concerning the welfare of children.

The main thrust of the Act is to extend the provisions for young offenders to be dealt with through care, protection, and control proceedings rather than through criminal prosecutions and to provide for such proceedings to be dealt with by newly-created children's boards rather than by courts.

Prior to the new Act, children or young persons coming to the notice of the police for offending were dealt with either by the Youth Aid section of the New Zealand Police or by prosecution in the Children's Court. Children and young persons considered to be in need of care, protection, or control were generally dealt with by way of complaint to the Children's Court under the provisions of the Child Welfare Act 1925.

Under the provisions of the Children and Young Persons Act 1974, a legal distinction is made between children (defined in the Act as persons under the age of 14 years) and young persons (defined as persons aged 14 years but less than 17 years).

Where a young person comes to notice for offending, the matter may be dealt with by the Youth Aid section of the New Zealand Police by way of consultation between the police and a social worker.

Children's boards deal with children coming to official notice either for offending or because they are considered to be in need of care, protection, or control.

The Youth Aid section and the children's boards can deal with cases coming to their attention in several ways. These include warnings by the board or Youth Aid section, oversight by a social worker or Youth Aid officer, counselling of the child or young person, and counselling of the parents or guardian.

Both the children's board and the Youth Aid section have the option of referring any matter to a Childrens and Young Per Court

Children's and Young Persons Courts—The Children's and Young Persons Courts were established by the Children and Young Persons Act 1974. These Courts began operation on 1 April 1975. Figures in the following table for the period ended 31 December 1975 are for 9 months of the year and should be read in conjunction with the figures for the first 3 months of the year. During the first 3 months of the year any person up to the age of 18 years could be brought before a Children's Court under the provisions of the Child Welfare Act 1925.

CourtNumber of Appearances
Children's Courts (1 January 1975 - 31 March 1975)— 
Appearances involving complaint under Child Welfare Act 1925480
Appearances involving charges for offences3,711
Total appearances4,191
Children's and Young Persons Courts (1 April 1975 - 31 December 1975)— 
Appearances involving complaint under Children and Young Persons Act 19741,721
Appearances involving charges for offences6,848
Total appearances8,569

Total Cases Coming to Notice—The procedural changes introduced part-way through the 1975 statistical year make it impossible to produce juvenile offending rates which could be compared with those presented in previous Yearbooks. The table below simply gives total numbers of cases coming to official notice each year during the period 1970 to 1975.

YearYouth Aid Cases Not Referred to CourtChildren's Board Cases Not Referred to CourtCourt AppearancesTotal NumberPercentage Increase on Previous Year
19708,707..10,66519,37225
197110,978..12,79423,77223
197212,435..13,04925,4847
197311,570..12,97124,541-4
197412,588..13,28725,8755
197512,6792,25112,76027,6907

The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, by making legislative provision for the youth aid scheme and by creating the children's boards, has increased the range of formal provisions by which cases can be resolved without court action. It might be expected, therefore, that virtually all disposals not involving court action will now appear in the statistics while in the past there were undoubtedly a number of informal disposals which escaped the statistical net. Thus, even in the absence of any increase in the number of cases being dealt with, the new procedures might be expected to produce an increase in the statistics for disposals not involving the courts. This in fact is what is observed: while the number of court appearances remained essentially static (12,760 for 1975 compared with 13,287 for the previous year) the number of non-court disposals increased from 12,588 in 1974 (the number of youth aid non-prosecution cases for that year) to 14,930 in 1975 (comprising 12,679 youth aid non-prosecution cases and 2,251 children's board non-prosecution cases).

Disposal of Court Referrals—Because of the change in the decisions available to Magistrates, two separate sets of statistics have been produced for the year under review. There were 4,191 appearances finalised in the Children's Court up to 31 March 1975. Corresponding material for the appearances finalised in the Children's and Young Persons Court up to 31 December 1975 show 8,569 appearances.

Decisions of the Children's Court and the Children's and Young Persons Court during 1975 are summarised in the following table.

Court and DecisionNumber
Children's Courts (1 January 1975 - 31 March 1975)— 
Admonished and discharged850
Admonished and some other penalty (fine, costs, restitution, driving licence)1,191
Placed under supervision of a social worker1,147
Placed under guardianship of Director-General262
Admonished and returned to care of Director-General153
Placed on adult probation311
Sentenced to periodic detention58
Sentenced to borstal, detention centre132
Other order made87
Children's Court totals4,191
Children's and Young Persons Courts (1 April 1975 – 31 December 1975)— 
Discharged, or admonished and discharged1,310
Admonished with some other penalty (fine, costs, restitution, forfeiture, driving licence, etc.)2,374
Admonished and returned to the care of Director-General234
Order that the Director-General arrange for the parent or guardian to receive counselling6
Placed under supervision of a social worker2,378
Placed under guardianship of Director-General723
Referred to Magistrate's Court or Supreme Court for decision or sentence1,196
Other order made348
Children's and Young Persons Court totals8,569

It can be seen from the table that the combined operations of the Children's Court and the Children's and Young Persons Court resulted in a total of 985 children and young persons being placed under the guardianship of the Director-General during 1975. The corresponding figure for 1974 was 1,028. Further, a total of 3,525 children and young persons were placed under the supervision of a social worker compared with 3,637 in 1974.

State Wards—State wards are children and young persons who, for a variety of reasons, have been subject to an order made by the Children's and Young Persons Court placing them under the guardianship of the Director-General of Social Welfare. The events leading to the making of such orders are as diverse as the people concerned, but they can be roughly divided into two broad categories. The first is parental inability or failure to provide a stable, permanent home or to meet a particular child's special needs. This would include cases of neglect, ill-treatment, and desertion as well as serious family problems beyond parent's control.

The second category is that of seriously disturbed or anti-social behaviour on the part of children and young persons which is beyond the capacity of their parents to amend or control.

The placement and oversight of State wards is a major responsibility of social workers acting on behalf of the Director-General, and it is no light task. In addition to children placed under the Director-General's guardianship or in his temporary custody by court order, there are increasing numbers coming into care by way of voluntary agreement with parents. Such children are treated in almost every way as though they were State wards. Parents seeking the department's help in this way do so for a variety of reasons, such as their own serious ill health, family break-up, and other pressures within the family or their desire to seek special care for a disturbed or difficult youngster. In 1975 there were 6,319 state wards and 519 children in care under voluntary agreements.

At 31 December 1975 a total of 6,838 children and young persons were under the care and control of the department. The reasons for their being placed in care were as follows;

ReasonNumber
Placed under the guardianship of the Director-General by court order5,978
Under control by virtue of an agreement with parents519
On court remand, postponement, warrant, etc.341
Total6,838

Children and young persons may come into care at any time from soon after birth to the age of 16 years. (Guardianship orders under the Children and Young Persons Act 1974 are not made in respect of young people over the age of 17 years.) State wards are automatically discharged at the age of 20 years but in practice, and depending on their circumstances, most are discharged with the approval of the Director-General at a much earlier age. Many return, after a period away from home, to the care of parents or members of their extended family and are discharged as soon as the Director-General is assured that they are no longer in need of supervision.

The majority of State wards are cared for in the community and in 1975, 54 percent were living in foster homes, departmental family homes, or in the homes of relatives and friends. Fifteen percent were with their own parents as a trial prior to possible discharge. Of the remainder, 11 percent were at work.

A proportion of wards, especially those in older age groups, come into care because of anti-social, even criminal behaviour. With help and guidance, some of these settle in the community but some have to be admitted to the department's various training institutions, usually after assessment and trial in boys and girls' homes. A proportion go on to institutions under the control of the Department of Justice. In all, 20 percent of the wards in care are in institutions.

Details of children and young persons under the control and supervision of the department at 31 December 1975 are shown in the following table.

Placement of ChildrenNumber
In foster homes2,938
Placed with parents for trial period997
Living with and supported by relatives204
In employment (excluding those with relatives, etc.)705
In residential colleges78
Receiving tertiary education3
In Government short-stay homes381
In Government family homes544
In private institutions344
In Department of Education special schools127
In hospitals24
In psychiatric hospitals73
On probation33
In Social Welfare and Department of Justice residential training centres373
Absent without leave14
Total6,838

WELFARE OF MAORI PEOPLE AND PACIFIC ISLAND POLYNESIANS—The legislative basis of the Maori welfare programme is the Maori Welfare Act 1962 and the aim is the social and economic advancement and the promotion and maintenance of the health and general well-being of the Maori community and the facilitation of full integration of the Maori race into the social and economic life of the country. An important feature of the programme is that it does not seek to impose standards from without; rather, it calls upon the Maori people to exercise control and direction of their own communities in the essentials of good citizenship and civic responsibility.

The Maori welfare organisations consist of two statutory groups and various voluntary groups. The statutory groups are:

  1. Maori associations comprising the New Zealand Maori Council, the district Maori councils, Maori executive committees, and the Maori committees. All are democratically elected and work independently of the department.

  2. The Maori Affairs Department, which works closely with all Maori groups as it realises that its main objectives cannot be achieved without full acceptance and participation by the people themselves.

The Maori Affairs Department through the activities of its social services division in particular, collaborates with and gives Maori associations and other groups such assistance and advice as may be necessary or helpful so that the members themselves may find and apply their own solutions to their problems and develop and achieve the utmost satisfaction from their own culture. The department also collaborates with appropriate social welfare agencies, State and voluntary, in helping individuals and families who are experiencing difficulties in adapting themselves to their social and economic environment, accepting the full responsibility where a need is not being met. The department actively encourages these State and voluntary organisations to understand and to communicate successfully with the Maori so that they can work more effectively with him.

The Maori Affairs Department again primarily through its social services division, assists Pacific Islanders of New Zealand nationality to adjust to the New Zealand situation and provides advisory services to individuals or groups facing difficulties. Special responsibilities are accepted for the housing, employment, educational, and welfare needs of Tokelau Islanders.

The primary function of the New Zealand Maori Council is to encourage Maoris as individuals and in groups to take the initiative in matters affecting their own welfare and that of their kinsfolk, to be a forum of discussion in which they can crystallise their ideas and gain the co-operation of others in actively pursuing mutually agreed objectives and eventually achieving progressive improvement in the various spheres of welfare. By its own request it is charged with the duty of maintaining and promoting harmony between Maori and non-Maori.

Maori wardens carry out special functions. They are appointed by the Minister at the initiative of Maori committees to whom they are responsible. Their function is to assist in the maintenance of order and in stamping out mischief before it becomes crime. Wardens do not usurp the duties of the police but are an influence among the people in maintaining law and order.

The Maori Women's Welfare League was formed in 1951 and has branches throughout the country. Its membership approximates 3,000. Special tribal groups, social, sports, and cultural clubs, church groups, women's and other organisations are some of the many other groups which have their own spheres of action promoting and furthering the physical, social, spiritual, and moral well-being of the people.

The primary function of the Maori Women's Welfare League is to educate the mothers of the race to an appreciation of higher standards of attainment on the home front. It also interests itself actively in education, particularly at the pre-school level.

The Act provides for subsidies to be paid on moneys raised by the Maori people through their associations for the promotion of welfare. The subsidy granted in the financial year ended 31 March 1976 amounted to $150,000.

An inter-departmental committee fosters and finances research into social and educational aspects of Maori and Islander welfare.

Maori community officers are intended to carry out quite a different range of functions from those of other social workers. They are not intended to replace child welfare officers, probation officers, truant officers, and so on. Although they are available when other social workers encounter problems which are peculiarly Maori, their primary function is to work with groups rather than individuals

For example, it is not strictly a Maori community officer's duty to deal with a Maori child playing truant from school, but if truancy is a common problem amongst Maori students in any locality, it is the community officer's duty to hold discussions with parents and try to convince them of the importance of ensuring that their children attend school regularly. A great deal of the time of the welfare staff is occupied in informing Maori and Island parents of vocational opportunities open to their children, in recruiting and organising vocational training groups for school leavers, stimulating the formation of play centres and other pre-school groups, and in dealing with youth problems in the cities.

6 B—WAR PENSIONS AND REHABILITATION

GENERAL—The war pensions programme is largely the outcome of New Zealand participation in two world wars in which large numbers of citizens served as members of the forces. It applies also to service in Korea, South-east Asia, and in any emergency, including obligations undertaken under the charter of United Nations.

The war pensions scheme has developed from one which initially gave limited compensation for those returned from active service to one of comprehensive coverage for ex-servicemen who are disabled or incapacitated at any time of their lives as a result of their service, and for their dependants and also for the dependants of those who have died as a result of war service.

The war pensions legislation is designed to provide (a) basic pensions to compensate for disablement or death, which provide for physical loss and are therefore compensatory in character, and (b) supplementary pensions, in appropriate cases, to meet loss of income. The latter depend on the means of the pensioner and are economic in character, acting as income maintenance and being therefore similar to social security benefits.

ADMINISTRATION—For many years social security monetary benefits and war pensions have been administered by the same department.

The authority for paying war pensions is vested in the War Pensions Board, an independent body appointed by the Minister in Charge of War Pensions, with a chairman, a medical member, and a representative of the members of the forces appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Returned Services Association. The administration of the War Pensions Act is, however, the responsibility of the Secretary for War Pensions who acts under the general direction and control of the Minister.

It is laid down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first 2 months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The boards are not bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

RATES AND ALLOWANCES—The list below summarises the rates of war pensions and allowances. The pensions for war disablement and war widows are now adjusted annually on a cost of living basis.

 Weekly Rate
Pension14 January 197628 July 197612 January 1977

*Adjusted annually at 1 April in relation to movements in the consumers price index. The increase at 1 April 1974 was $1.80, at 1 April 1975 $2.60, at 1 April 1976 $3.80, and at 1 April 1977 $3.55 for total disablement pension.

†Subject to means test on income.

 $$$
Disablement pension*   
Total disablement22.1025.9025.90
Special additional pension for blindness or serious disablement13.3015.5515.55
Economic pension   
Unmarried person33.2036.2238.40
Married person27.6630.1832.00
Wife's pension27.6630.1832.00
War widow's pension—   
Basic pension*16.3019.1019.10
Economic pension33.2036.2238.40
Mother's allowance—   
One dependent child19.1221.1422.60
Two dependent children22.1224.1425.60
Increased by $1.25 a week for each subsequent child   
Orphan's pension17.7019.2020.25
Child's pension3.003.003.00
Widowed mother's pension (totally dependent)—   
Basic pension16.3019.1019.10
Economic pension33.2036.2238.40
Widowed mother's pension (partly dependent)—   
Basic pension4.004.004.00
Economic pension30.9533.9736.15
War service pension and war veteran's allowance   
Unmarried33.2036.2238.40
Married male27.6630.1832.00
Married female27.6630.2832.00
Age supplement (each)1.501.201.50
Gratuity (veteran's widow)49.5055.3257.50
Dependent children (replacing the rates shown where there are dependent children)   
Solo parent and one child52.3257.3661.00
Solo parent and two children55.3260.3664.00
Increased by $1.25 a week for each subsequent child   
Married couple and one child58.3263.3667.00
Increased by $1.25 a week for each subsequent child   

Economic pensions, war service pensions, and war veterans' allowances are subject to a means test on income and are reducible if income from other sources exceeds $17 a week or $884 a year. In the case of a widow supporting a dependent child or children the allowable income without reduction in pension is, however, $21 a week. In the computation of a wife's pension, the income of the husband only is taken into account.

Travel grants and other concessions may be made to severely disabled persons.

The social security legislation permits basic war disablement and war widows' pensions to be paid concurrently with any social security benefit and to be entirely disregarded for income tests.

Pensions for Dependants—From 1 April 1971 wives' pensions have not been payable in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 unless such pension was already payable at that date. From 1 April 1971 the wife of a member of the forces pensioned for total blindness in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 may receive a war service pension but not an age supplement. In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family.

Economic Pensions—An "economic pension" is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension a War Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disablement do not receive economic pensions.

Servicemen pensioned in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 have not, from 1 April 1971, been eligible to receive an economic pension unless already in receipt of an economic pension at that date. At 31 March 1976 there were 4,116 economic pensions in force.

War Veterans' Allowances—These make provision on economic grounds for ex-servicemen, mainly of the First World War, who have become unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical incapacity. At 31 March 1976 there were 7,580 allowances in force.

War Service Pensions—From 1 April 1971 the war service pension is payable on economic grounds in respect of overseas service in the Second World War or any subsequent war or emergency in which members of the New Zealand forces have served. Payable subject to an income test, the pension is designed for disabled or prematurely retired ex-servicemen who saw service overseas after 3 September 1939. Ex-servicemen of other Commonwealth countries may also qualify as applicants for the pension.

An applicant must also fulfil one of the following conditions: (a) be in receipt of a war disablement pension of not less than 70 percent of the maximum pension payable for total disablement; or, (b) being in receipt of a war disablement pension of less than 70 percent, unable by reasons of physical or mental infirmity to undertake permanent employment.

There are residential qualifications of 5 years for an ex-member of New Zealand forces, or an ex-member of other Commonwealth forces, who was a bona fide resident of New Zealand at the commencement of the war or emergency in which he served, and 20 years for other applicants.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pension in determining the amount of the basic war service pension. A war service pension cannot be paid concurrently with a social security benefit other than a family benefit.

The war service pension will ultimately be the only war pension paid for economic reasons. The rates and income exemption for this pension are similar to social security benefits and, by agreement with the War Pensions Board, the same general rules of treatment of income and assets are applied. In most respects, therefore, the war service pension is similar to its civilian counterparts, the age, sickness, or invalids' benefit as appropriate.

Where any war service pensioner and/or his wife has attained the age of 65 years, an age supplement of a maximum of $78 a year each is added to the basic war service pension. At 31 March 1976 there were 5,396 war service pensions in force.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS—These pensions are payable where death or disablement was suffered by a member of the Emergency Reserve Corps in the course of service (including training), or was directly attributable to such service.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS—Pensions and allowances are paid in respect of death or disablement of members of the mercantile marine as a result of the Second World War.

ADDITIONAL BENEFIT—Additional benefit, which replaced supplementary assistance from 2 July 1975, is available to recipients of income-tested pensions and allowances, on a similar basis to social security additional benefit. At 31 March 1976, 4,454 additional benefits were being paid to recipients of war pensions.

WAR BURSARIES—Bursaries for educational purposes are available to children of ex-servicemen in receipt of war service pension or 70 percent disablement pension and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose deaths war pensions are paid.

During 1975-76, 1,030 bursaries were granted, expenditure being $150,000 for the year. The 1974-75 figures were 1,100 bursaries and $182,040.

WAR PENSIONS MEDICAL RESEARCH TRUST BOARD—When a pensioner dies, any unpaid pension money not paid to dependants in the normal way may be paid to the War Pensions Medical Research Trust Fund for research into mental disorders or other fields of medical research beneficial to former members of the forces. This Medical Research Trust Fund is administered by a trust board which ensures that the money is applied to research beneficial to former members of the forces.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS, ALLOWANCES, ETC.—During the year ended 31 March 1976, the department dealt with 3,121 applications for war pensions. Of these, 829 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, war veterans' allowances, war service pensions, and pensions in respect of peacetime forces. The total for the previous year was 2,932. Of these, 750 were in respect of the applicant's own disability.

The number of appeals to the War Pension Board deal with in 1975-76 was 366, of which 138 were upheld.

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force, except peacetime forces and war service pensions, at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the years given.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914-18)Second World War (1939-45)K ForceWar VeteransSouth AfricanMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsSupplementary Assistance*Total
*Supplementary assistance has been replaced by additional benefit from 2 July 1975. Expenditure for additional benefit is included in expenditure for the related standard benefits.
    Number in Force     
19746,46722,7652349,175220547139,139
19755,91322,3862328,391221463037,579
19765,35922,2852337,5802204..35,483
    Expenditure $(000)     
19747,06917,4259617,794219513142,541
19757,45221,57910918,627222515047,946
19767.77623,84912118,623320518050,577

The foregoing figures of expenditure include the following:

  1. Travelling allowances of $2.60 a week, paid to 760 pensioners at 31 March 1976.

  2. Clothing allowances, of which 1,088 were being paid at 31 March 1976.

  3. Gallantry awards of which 192 were being paid at 31 March 1976.

The following are not included.

  1. Costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security, amounting to $210,671 in 1975-76.

  2. Railway and bus concessions to pensioners with severe disablement and locomotive disabilities, costing $36,292 in 1975-76.

  3. Funeral grants which cost $81,557 in 1975-76.

  4. Loans towards the purchase of motor vehicles by certain seriously disabled pensioners (26 loans in 1975-76 totalling $34,640).

Administration costs in connection with war pensions and allowances are included in the administration costs of the Department of Social Welfare which are given in Section 6A.

Pensions paid in respect of all wars and types of service are shown by class in the following table.

At 31 MarchDisablement PensionsDependants of Disabled Ex-membersOn Account of DeathTotal
WidowsParents and Other Dependants
  First World War, 1914-18   
19752,9421962,76965,913
19762,5321442,67675,359
  Second World War, 1939-45   
197519,4903132,38519822,386
197619,3752802,45517522,285
  K Force   
1975225322232
1976227321233
  Vietnam Force   
1975136241143
1976166132172
  Peacetime Forces   
19751,039465131,121
19761,102463121,181
  Other   
197540112154
197641112155

All forms of rehabilitation assistance available to ex-servicemen of the Second World War and K force ceased on 31 March 1965.

Resettlement assistance is available to men who have served in South-east Asia for 6 months prior to 1 April 1972 and for 12 months after that date.

Application for housing loans, which attract a 3 percent concession rate of interest, and interest free furniture loans of $400, must be lodged within 5 years from the date of return to New Zealand after qualifying service or 2 years after discharge from the forces whichever is the later.

Applications for subsidised trade training, and education assistance must be lodged within 2 years of return to New Zealand. Limited preferences in farm ballots are also available to ex-servicemen with a farming background.

Special provisions exist to ensure that rehabilitation assistance will continue to be available to all ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be interrupted or become necessary as a result of disability arising from service.

Expenditure—Rehabilitation expenditure (including loan authorisations) for the 3 latest years ended 31 March was as follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 March 1974Year Ended 31 March 1975Year Ended 31 March 1976
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance171818
Trade training—   
Salary subsidy13108
Training of blinded ex-servicemen191920
Loans—   
Interest concessions761716842
Loans authorised4,7815,3136,950
Reserve Fund contribution78103121
Totals5,6696,1797,959

6 C—SUPERANNUATION

GENERAL,—For many years the Government, local authorities, and increasing numbers of employers have operated superannuation schemes to enable employees to make provision for their retirement in addition to the benefits provided under national schemes.

The Government Superannuation Fund in its present form was established on 1 April 1948, amalgamating funds which had been in existence since the early 1900s. Its revenues consist of member's contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated Revenue Account, trading departments, and other bodies, and interest earned on investments.

The National Provident Fund was established on 1 March 1911, with the object of providing a superannuation scheme for the general public. It also provides superannuation for the employees of local authorities and other approved bodies, and maintains an investment pool in which local bodies invest their surplus funds and which provides an important source of their loan finance.

Following the passing of the New Zealand Superannuation Act 1974, the New Zealand Superannuation Fund came into existence on 1 April 1975. How the New Zealand Superannuation Scheme operated was described in the 1975 Yearbook. However, the change of government in December 1975 was followed by the abolition of this scheme and its replacement by a new scheme, operative from 9 February 1977. National Superannuation is payable to all New Zealanders over 60 years of age. It is taxable, but not subject to an income test. The rates are based on the national average wage and, initially, married couples received 70.1 percent of the average wage, and single persons 60 percent of the married rate. The initial monetary rates as laid down by the Social Security (National Superannuation). Order 1977 and its amendments, were as follows:

  • Married couples—$76.84 a week.

  • Unmarried persons or married persons whose spouses are not entitled to receive national superannuation—$46.10 a week.

Fuller details of rates are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

GOVERNMENT SUPERANNUATION FUND—The Government Superannuation Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as statutory chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury as deputy chairman, the Chairman of the State Services Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Director-General of Education, and the Post Office, the Commissioner of Police, and five members appointed on the nomination of various employee organisations and one on the nomination of the Minister of Defence.

Membership—All State employees may belong to the fund and this covers those in departments under the control of the State Services Commission, the Education Service, the New Zealand Railways, and the Post Office. Membership is compulsory for permanent members of the armed forces, the Police, the Prison Service, judges of the Supreme Court, Maori Land Court judges, magistrates, members of Parliament, and members of the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau Islands public services. In addition, from 1 January 1964 membership has been compulsory for permanent employees of the Government, except married women, from age 17 to age 24 years.

Contributions—Deductions are made from basic salary on a sliding scale according to the age from which membership of the fund dates. These are at the rate of 6 percent to age 29 years increasing by 1 percent steps each succeeding 5 years of age until a maximum rate of 11 percent is payable from age 50 years. From 1955 contributors have been able to elect to contribute at 60 percent of normal rates and be eligible for only that proportion of the standard benefits.

Credit may be purchased in certain circumstances for periods of Government service not currently ranking and for full-time study or periods of training outside Government service and which resulted in a qualification being gained. Certain intervals in Government service may also be purchased for superannuation purposes. The costs of buying credit for these periods varies according to age and salary at the time of purchase.

Benefits—The principal objective of the fund is the payment of an allowance on retirement, which is usually between ages 60 and 64 years, but may be earlier with the consent of a contributor's controlling authority and of the board where retirement is because of medical unfitness for further duty. Standard retiring allowances are calculated at one one-hundred-and-twentieth of the average of a contributor's salary over the final 5 years of service, for each year of contributory service, plus an equal amount for the first 40 years of service. In some cases of short service the average of the salaries over the final 3 years of service is used. Up to a quarter of the annual allowance may be surrendered on retirement in return for a cash payment of nine times the amount commuted. Those reaching normal retiring ages may also elect to receive a higher rate of allowance to age 65 years in return for a lower rate thereafter when they qualify to receive the social security universal superannuation benefit.

On death before or after retirement an allowance at the rate of half the allowance a contributor would have received had retirement occurred on the date of death, or half the allowance actually being paid at the time of death, is payable to any surviving spouse, for life or until remarriage. To this is added $78 a year for children to age 16 or 18 years where schooling is extended, or possibly to a higher age in the case of inability to earn a living because of physical or mental reasons.

All allowances are paid in advance in instalments each 28 days and no recovery is made where an entitlement ceased during a benefit period.

A cost-of-living adjustment scheme was introduced in 1969 providing for allowances to be increased relative to movements in the Consumers Price Index. Existing and future contributors pay an extra 1 percent of their salaries to participate but those already retired at the time the scheme was introduced receive an ex gratia adjustment based on 70 percent of price movements. Those who were already contributors in 1969 receive the basic 70 percent adjustment plus the proportion of the remaining 30 percent that the period paying the extra contributions bears to their total superannuation service. The adjustments reflect price rises that occur from age 60 years for superannuitants and age 55 years for widows.

Special Conditions—Armed forces contributors may qualify for a retiring allowance after completing their engagements with not less than 20 years' service, whatever their age at the time. In 1972 a special variation of the cost-of-living adjustment scheme was introduced allowing this group to pay an additional 0.7 percent of salary additional to the rates payable under the main adjustment scheme, in return for which they now receive adjustments after age 60 years for price movements since retirement.

Female contributors who were employed before the introduction of equal pay for women in the State Services in 1962 still retain some special conditions related to the former entitlement of women to retire on completion of 30 years service or on reaching age 55 years, but those joining the fund since 1962 have the same conditions as males.

Judges of the Supreme Court contribute at the rate of 8 percent of their salaries and their retiring allowances are based on a varying formula which produces a maximum of two-thirds of the final salary after 20 years' service. They normally retire on attaining age 72 years and with service up to 10 years they are paid the appropriate proportion of an allowance of a quarter of their salary. Each year of service beyond 10 attracts an addition to the allowance of one twenty-fourth of salary up to 20 years. A widow of a judge receives half her husband's entitlement with a minimum of 15 percent and a maximum of 25 percent of his final salary.

Magistrates and judges of the Maori Land Court contribute at the rate of 9 percent of their salaries for retiring allowances based on one thirty-sixth of their final salary for each year of service, up to a maximum of two-thirds after 24 years' service. They normally retire at age 60 years and the widow's benefits are calculated as for judges.

Members of Parliament contribute at the rate of 11 percent of an ordinary member's salary for an allowance based on one thirty-second of an ordinary member's salary at the point of retirement for each year of service, up to a maximum of two-thirds after approximately 21 years' service. They qualify for an allowance from age 50 years on retiring from Parliament after not less than 9 years' service or not less than 8 years if this covers the duration of at least three sessions. The standard provisions for spouses and children apply.

Police and Prison Service contributors are obliged to retire at age 60 years and to enable older entrants to attain additional superannuation service their service is counted as 1 year and one-seventh if they join the fund after age 25 years. A lesser fraction is added for those joining between 20 and 24 years. Increased rates of contributions are payable by those whose service is scaled up. The standard benefits apply.

Statistics—As at 31 March 1976 there were 133,834 contributors to the Government Superannuation Fund who paid $54,524,829 into the fund during the year. At the same time there were 29,959 Superannuitants who were entitled to $50,539,190 a year, made up as follows:

Qualification for AllowanceMalesFemalesTotalAnnual Allowances
    $(000)
Retired for age or length of service15,7243,36519,08941,526
Retired for ill health8151881,0031,299
Widows..8,6258,6257,618
Children6745681,24297
Totals17,21312,74629,95950,539

Total assets at 31 March 1976, which amounted to $360,138,697 included investments in Government stock, $351,886,600; interest due and accrued, $4,915,133; contributions in course of transmission, etc., $630,790; and cash in hand and at the bank, $2,096,516.

The average effective interest earning of the fund for the year ended 31 March 1976 was $5.56 percent.

As at 31 March 1976, contributors to the Government Superannuation Fund were distributed as follows:

Branch of ServiceNumberPercentage of Total
Armed Services12,1009.1
Education Service36,66327.4
Police4,6923.5
Post Office23,16117.3
N.Z. Railways12,9739.7
Public Service40,85030.5
Other employers3,3952.5
Total133,834100.0

The following table gives a summary of financial statistics, together with the numbers of contributors, for the latest available 3 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of ContributorsAnnual Contributions*Interest Received From InvestmentsSubsidy From Government Trading Departments, and OthersAnnual Value of AllowancesAccumulated Fund

*Includes transfers from National Provident Fund.

†Based on retiring and other allowances at end of year. Actual total paid during year ended 31 March 1976 was $48,727,137, plus $8,359,720 for retiring allowances capitalised.

    $(000)  
1974114,98437,23713,16332,24339,094267,244
1975120,04244,02315,21837,80644,526305,610
1976133,83454,52517,93547,25650,539357,618

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND—The National Provident Fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as statutory chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and up to three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The fund now provides services in five separate areas:

  1. Public Fund—The two oldest pension schemes have catered for the general public on an individual basis, sometimes with encouragement from their employer or as members of a group.

  2. Local Authorities Superannuation—Three schemes cover employees of all local bodies, quasi-government and other approved organisations, firemen, and nurses.

  3. National Superannuation Schemes—Two employer subsidised schemes are available, one for farm employees and the other for any employees of companies, firms, Government departments, or local authorities willing to become contributing employers. A further scheme is available for the self-employed.

  4. Supplementary Scheme—This scheme offers a choice of benefits beyond the minimum requirements of compulsory superannuation.

  5. Local Authorities Investment Pool—This ancillary activity enables local authorities to invest surplus funds at interest.

The State guarantees the benefits payable under all the schemes and meets all administration expenses. There are some elements of State subsidy in the public fund and local authority schemes, and a guarantee of minimum interest earnings in the national schemes.

Public Fund—Membership was available to any resident of New Zealand from age 15 to age 59.

The first scheme of the fund, the Level Premium Scheme, available since 1911 and now closed to new members, enables contributors to purchase a pre-determined weekly pension from age 60 years by paying fixed regular contributions according to age on joining. For the first $20 per week a State subsidy of 25 percent is built into the contribution rates and after 5 years' membership contributors qualify for incapacity, widows', and dependent children's allowances.

The Annual Single Premium Scheme, which has been available to individuals and the self-employed since 1958, accepts contributions of any amount from members at any time. The contributions paid during each year are applied at the end of that year towards the purchase of a pension from age 60 years according to the contributors' then age. Only the first $1,000 contributed each year attracts State subsidy and this ceases once the aggregate pension purchased reaches $20 per week. There is a widow's benefit.

In both schemes contributors may defer for up to 5 years the start of their pensions, which then increase by 10 percent each year of deferment and contribution may continue. On accepting the pension, or at age 65 years, contributors may vary the amount payable by surrendering up to a quarter in return for a lump sum equal to nine times the annual amount foregone. Level Premium Scheme members may choose a joint and survivorship option, which is a reduced pension payable for a life to either the beneficiary or their surviving spouse. The Annual Single Premium Scheme offers the choice of surrendering part of the pension entitlement to purchase an annuity for an approved dependant or an additional entitlement for a widow.

Local Authorities Superannuation—The schemes provide superannuation with the contributions and benefits related to salaries and service for local government employees, with schemes to suit the special needs of firemen and nurses and variations for the aircrew of the National Airways Corporation and Air New Zealand.

The standard conditions are substantially the same as those for the Government Superannuation Fund set out in the section on that fund. As there is provision for transfer to and from that fund, State and local authority employees have a wide range of employment possibilities open to them without loss of accrued superannuation rights.

A scheme for adjusting allowances in accordance with rises in the cost of living was introduced on 1 April 1971 for the contributing employees and superannuitants of contributing authorities which agreed to pay the extra subsidies involved. This was almost 2 years later than the cost-of-living adjustment scheme of the Government Superannuation Fund. Similarly the increase in the basic rate of adjustment to 70 percent took effect from October 1974, 6 months after the Government scheme but otherwise the adjustment schemes are similar.

National Superannuation Schemes—The national scheme for farm employees was originally prepared at the request of the Federated Farmers of New Zealand to assist in retaining farm employees. Contributions may be from 50c per week up to 5 percent of gross earnings and are subsidised by an equal amount from the employer. These aggregate payments accumulate at compound interest until retirement, normally between ages 60 and 65 years, when the credit may be used to purchase an annuity for life, or up to half may be used to purchase an annuity for a wife. Up to a quarter of the credit may be taken as a lump sum or a greater proportion where there is a demonstrated housing need. Pensions paid to members age 66 years or older, or widows age 56 years or older, are adjusted annually as reserves allow and when cost-of-living increases are warranted. If a contributor dies before retirement his widow is entitled to the benefit of his credit in the fund immediately, or she may defer her election. A contributor may withdraw his personal contributions plus 3 percent compound interest after a minimum period of 10 years from joining, or may cease to contribute temporarily or permanently but still retain his accrued rights with his credit continuing to earn interest and bonus until retirement. The scheme is now closed to new members as an approved restricted scheme.

The National Superannuation Scheme is a general extension of the farm employees' scheme and any employee is eligible to join, provided his employer is willing to subsidise contributions on a dollar-for-dollar basis. The two schemes were similar except for the right to take more than a quarter of the credit at retirement in a lump sum. The National Superannuation Scheme for the Self-employed is similar to the national scheme, except that contributions of any amount may be made at any time and there is, of course, no employer subsidy.

Investment Pool—The Local Authorities Investment Pool continues to be the main avenue for the temporary investment by local authorities, and other approved bodies, of surplus loan moneys and reserve funds. Significant deposits into the pool by other approved bodies, and in particular the Accident Compensation Commission, accounted for the overall balance of $156.7 million as at 31 March 1976, compared with $143.1 million as at 31 March 1975.

During the year ended 31 March 1976 the fund was able to continue its high lending to the local authority loan market because of the increase in deposits to the pool. The local authority balances of deposits at 31 March 1976 were $112.8 million, compared with $118.5 million for 1974–75. A general shortage of loan moneys available to individual authorities meant excess withdrawal over deposits during the year, which was fortunately compensated by other investors increasing their funds held in the pool by $22.4 million.

The following table shows the various terms for which money is deposited and the different classes of organisations supporting the pool as at 31 March 1976.

Class of Local AuthorityAt Call3-6 months6-12 Months1 and Under 2 Years2 and Under 3 Years3 and Under 5 YearsSpecial TermSinking FundsTotal
     $(million)    
Cities and boroughs17.6522.3703.4525.0001.7627.340-6.03643.612
Counties3.9100.3060.7520.7480.3471.767-1.7849.614
Electric power boards1.2740.1180.1920.1510.1664.171_3.6029.674
Fire boards0.5190.0160.0320.0920.0800.110-0.2581.107
Harbour boards2.4850.3141.6411.8820.2463.978-1.13111.677
Hospital boards3.6300.5592.3622.1890.6011.488-11.91622.745
Sundry local authorities2.3180.2651.6613.0051.2343.873-1.93114.287
Other approved bodies19.3142.7600.2930.2170.4570.28420.630-43.955
Totals51.1026.70810.38513.2844.89323.01120.63026.658156.671
Comparative figures for 1974-75 were44.1295.07215.23314.0854.52824.59211.63223.811143.082

Investments by Fund—During 1975-76 the level of demands made on the fund by local authorities for loan assistance totalled $134.6 million, of which the amount approved by the investment committee totalled $117.5 million. In its role as a lender of last resort to local authorities, and in its endeavour to ensure that any urgent or essential works were not unnecessarily deferred or delayed because of a lack of loan finance, the fund's lending for 1975-76 once more exceeded the moneys available for investment. It was necessary therefore for the fund to realise $30 million of its holdings in Government securities. Had it not been for substantial deposits made to the investment pool during March by "approved investors" the fund would have been forced to further reduce its reserves of Government stock

The growth in the fund's lending to local authorities in recent years is shown below:

Year Ended 31 MarchNo. of ApplicationsAmount Considered $(million)Amount Approved $(million)
197244038.034.9
197351250.347.5
197453852.247.6
197567891.383.2
1976876134.6117.5

Comparative Survey—The following table provides a survey of financial and other statistics of the National Provident Fund for the latest available 3 years.

Item..1973-741974-751975-76
New contributors during yearNo.15,73357,070123,736
Total contributors at end of yearNo.63,431115,788235,082
Local authority scheme—    
ContributorsNo.17,21317,55020,036
Contributions$(000)18,03420,73128,571
Public Fund—    
ContributorsNo.46,21898,238215,046
Contributions$(000)8,12412,13428,773
Pensions and allowances at end of yearNo.8,9199,3919,916
Income—    
Contributions$(000)26,15932,86557,344
Interest$(000)13,26915,77019,759
Government subsidy$(000)4,5914,9176,042
Total income$(000)44,01853,55283,146
Outgoings—    
Pensions and allowances$(000)6,9857,3229,487
Other benefits$(000)2,8593,6224,502
Total outgoings$(000)9,84410,94413,989
Investment pool at end of period$(000)140,615143,082156,671
Funds at end of period$(000)227,677270,147338,822

PRIVATE SCHEMES—There is a great diversity in the pattern of benefits and scheme design generally in existing private schemes even though substantial numbers do fall into broad categories.

Numbers of funds or employers at 31 March 1973 covered by a survey of staff superannuation funds are shown in the following table, along with members.

Type of FundNumberMembers
*Including approximately 5,000 Government and local authority employees.
Private lump sum funds3,994110,834
Private pension funds45950,917
Employers participating in the National Provident Fund schemes (including Govt. and Local Auth.)1,19112,960*
Totals5,644174,711

Thirty-six self-superannuation schemes had a membership of approximately 60,000.

Chapter 7. Section 7 EDUCATION, SCIENCE, AND THE ARTS

7 A—EDUCATION

Public discussion of education has often been spirited and controversial. What people care about they are prepared to argue about. But on one matter of fundamental importance there has been broad, if often implicit, agreement. It has long been accepted by New Zealanders of all ages and in all walks of life that, whatever else it should or should not do, the public system of education should provide opportunity for all children, regardless of background, ability, and promise, to develop their abilities so that their lives may become personally satisfying and socially useful. The continuing thrust of policy has been towards the creation of opportunity through education (Public Education in New Zealand, Department of Education, 1973.)

GROWTH OF EDUCATION—Since 1945 education in New Zealand has been marked by extensive growth. In 1945, school, college, and university enrolments combined were 328,000 or 19.3 percent of the population but by 1975 the combined enrolments had risen to almost 966,000 or 31 percent of the population. This growth is accounted for by increased births for the major part of the period; a marked tendency for pupils to stay on longer at school and also to undertake further education after leaving school; and the development of new educational services. In the last 25 years pupils in primary schools have almost doubled and pupils in secondary schools have increased almost fourfold, while the number of students in universities has more than trebled and students receiving technical education quadrupled.

At the same time education has grown more intensive and education expenditure has expanded from 6 percent of total Government expenditure in 1945-46 to 16.9 percent in 1974-75.

The strongly egalitarian temper of New Zealand society—a product of historical, geographical, and economic factors—is reflected in education administration by the policy of making education at all levels freely available. In few other countries is there closer approximation to equality of educational opportunity—and few countries have a larger proportion of their populations in schools, colleges, and universities.

ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION—The Education Act 1964 provides for free and secular education in State primary and secondary schools, and compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 and 15 years. University education is provided under the Universities Act 1961, and funds for universities are distributed by the University Grants Committee.

The central administrative body directing education is the Department of Education, whose permanent head is the Director-General of Education. The department consists of professional and administrative officers with its head office in Wellington. To bring administration closer to schools and institutions in the system the department has regional offices in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, each under the control of a superintendent.

The Department of Education, in discharging its responsibility to the Minister for administration of the system, advises the Minister on policy and development, controls the expenditure of money voted, ensures that schools are built and equipped when and where required and that teachers are recruited and trained, checks that standards are maintained in all schools, both State and private, and assesses the efficiency of teachers. An important professional function of the department is to conduct curriculum revision and development and to recommend curriculum changes to the Minister.

Machinery for planning in the broadest sense as it affects national development is the concern of the Educational Development Council. It also considers the establishment of priorities in educational development.

The control and management of State primary schools is the responsibility of the 10 education boards, and local secondary school boards control State secondary schools. These boards are responsible for the schools in their area. They are the employing authorities of the teachers. They disburse the grants received from the Department of Education for the maintenance of schools and building of new schools, and for equipment and teaching materials. No local rates are levied for education either by municipal or local education authorities.

The Department of Education directly administers the Correspondence School and State special schools. It controls the inspectorate, supervises the staffing of schools, and conducts the School Certificate Examination. All State and registered private schools are visited regularly by inspectors who give assistance and guidance to teachers in educational matters. The department also administers the capital expenditure voted for school buildings.

There are a number of private primary and secondary schools in New Zealand conducted either by religious bodies or private individuals. These schools are required by the Education Act 1964 to comply with defined standards of accommodation and teaching as a pre-requisite for compulsory registration under the Education Act.

The Department of Education has official contacts with the National Council of Adult Education and the University Grants Committee but the universities are independent in their educational activities.

Education Boards and School Committees—The members of education boards have in the past been elected solely by members of school committees on a ward system, but provision has now been made for the appointment to each board of a teacher to represent all teachers employed by the board.

Each State primary school controlled by an education board has its school committee, elected by the parents of pupils and adults resident in the school district. It is a statutory body charged with management of property and other matters on behalf of the board. The members of school committees form the electorates for electing education board members.

A school committee's essential function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide, along with voluntary parent-teacher associations, a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters.

Secondary School Boards—Secondary schools are controlled and administered by their own boards of governors. The local boards controlling secondary schools (either singly, or several schools in the same town) are made up of representatives of the parents of pupils, of the education board of the district, and of other local groups and organisations and provision has recently been made for the election of teacher representatives. The boards are constituted by the Minister and published in the New Zealand Gazette. In some metropolitan areas, groups of secondary schools have been linked together for administrative purposes under secondary school councils but each school still retains its own board of governors which has a large measure of autonomy in the control and management of its own school.

Technical Institute Councils—Technical institutes, including the Technical Correspondence Institute are controlled by councils with members representing business and industry, local authorities, the university, and governing bodies of secondary schools.

Community Colleges—Amendments to the Education Act in 1974 created a new category of institution "Community Colleges" designed to meet continuing education needs in provincial centres particularly. They are governed as Technical Institutes.

Teachers' College Councils—Teachers' college councils have the usual administrative functions, combined with some professional responsibility for the training of teachers. They include representatives of education boards, of the Department of Education, the university, and of the teachers' organisations.

Educational Development Conference 1974—Wider facilities for pre-school education, greater community-school participation and more flexibility in the school curriculum were among the major recommendations made in a top-level report to the Government in December 1974. The 140-page 110-recommendation report came from the Advisory Council on Educational Planning, and represented the outcome of the Educational Development Conference held throughout New Zealand earlier in 1974.

This conference and its working parties and associated study groups represent easily the biggest study of education ever undertaken in New Zealand, with some 60,000 people taking part, mainly in study groups throughout the country.

The council said there should be five main thrusts in education development:

  1. There should be much greater attention to pre-school facilities which should be doubled over a five to 10-year period;

  2. Although educational opportunity is available to all, many fail to take advantage of it. There should be a wide-scale attack on this problem, with special attention to "under-achievers", and to more flexibility in the whole system;

  3. More positive efforts should be made to ensure realistic parent and community participation in education, beginning with the early childhood years;

  4. There should be continuing education for all, with an open-door policy wherever feasible. The philosophy of "second chance" education is strongly supported; and

  5. Delegation of authority and responsibility is clearly desired, together with strengthening and reorganising the Department of Education.

Private Schools—There are a number of private primary and secondary schools conducted by religious bodies or private individuals. Financial assistance is provided by the State subject to certain conditions. Academic bursaries, secondary school bursaries, and Maori scholarships may be tenable at private secondary schools. Assistance for transport by rail and road and (in some cases) a boarding allowance may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or secondary. School publications are supplied to private schools. From February 1970 Central Government has made grants to independent schools on the basis of teachers' salaries. For the first year the proportion was 20 percent and the estimated cost $2.5 million; the proportion rose by stages to 37 1/2 percent in 1975. Associated government controls are applied before new independent schools can be built, and there is a requirement that after a transitional period, new teacher entrants to independent schools must possess certain minimum qualifications.

In October 1975, the Private Schools Conditional Integration Act was passed to enable the voluntary integration of private schools into the State system.

Co-education—Co-education applies at all stages of the school system. All State primary schools and some private primary schools teach boys and girls together. At the secondary level all district high schools and three-quarters of the State secondary schools have both boys and girls on their rolls, whilst the remaining quarter of the State secondary schools and nearly all of the private secondary schools are single-sex schools. A comparison of the total enrolment of all secondary schools (State as well as private) shows that over the last two decades, there has been a trend toward the provision of more co-educational than single-sex schools.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION—The following table shows the net expenditure from public funds on each branch or service of education for the latest March years.

Item1974-751975-76
Programme—$(000)$(000)
I—Administration and General9,0489,760
II—Pre-school Education5,1628,556
III—Primary and Secondary Education  
Administration and support services77,70097,315
State primary education152,442175,720
State secondary education102,607117,101
Assistance to private schools11,66812,455
Special education6,2937,276
Sub-total350,710409,867
IV—Higher Education—  
University education90,400104,250
Teacher training39,75146,896
Senior technical education28,52843,805
Sub-total158,679194,951
V—National Library3,0313,871
Totals526,630627,005

The foregoing figures do not include revenue received by universities from endowments, fees, etc., which are available for educational purposes.

The following table gives Government net expenditure on education and relates it to total Government expenditure in national accounting terms. The share of public expenditure devoted to education has increased significantly in relation to other forms of Government expenditure in recent decades. Most of the increased spending has, of course, been a direct consequence of roll growth.

 Net Education ExpenditureAs Percentage of Total Government Expenditure
Year Ended 31 MarchCurrent (Salaries, etc.)*BuildingsTotalCurrent Education ExpenditureTotal Education Expenditure
*About 66 percent of current expenditure is on salaries of teachers and other staff.
  $(million) percent 
1972284.750.4335.115.117.8
1973315.661.2376.813.916.6
1974375.065.2440.214.717.3
1975440.086.6526.612.9x15.4x
1976505.3121.7627.011.514.3

Over the years 1965–71 spending on education was divided as follows: State primary education, 40 percent; State secondary education, 24 percent; universities, technical institutes, teachers colleges, 27 percent; other spending, 9 percent.

A fuller breakdown of net expenditure on education in 1975-76 is given in the following table.

 $(000)Percentage of Total Expenditure
Administration and general9,7601.6
Pre-school education8,5561.4
Primary and secondary education409,86765.3
University education104,25016.6
Teacher training46,8967.5
Senior technical education43,8057.0
National Library3,8710.6
..627,005100.0

The following figures relate Government net expenditure on education to gross national product and mean population.

Year Ended 31 MarchExpenditure from Public FundsExpenditure as Percentage of Gross National ProductExpenditure per Head of Mean Population
*Provisional.
 $(000)percent$
1971265,5544.893.79
1972335,0515.2116.48
1973376,8395.0128.51
1974440,2075.1146.96
1975526,6305.6172.08
1976627,0056.1*203.18*

An international comparison of public expenditure on education as a percentage of gross national product is given in the following table for selected countries. Educational expenditures in many countries have been rising twice as fast as national income. These figures, which refer mostly to the year 1973, are taken from the U.N. Statistical Yearbook 1975.

-Public Expenditure on Education as Percentage of G.N.P.
Australia5.0
Austria6.2
Canada8.1
Denmark7.4
France3.6
Germany, Federal Republic of4.1
Italy5.4
Japan4.3
Netherlands7.8
New Zealand5.2
Switzerland4.7
United States6.7

International comparisons need to be treated with reserve because of the differing education systems and expenditure measures.

EDUCATION BUILDINGS—The increases in school population coupled with the increasing urbanisation of the population and the development of new housing areas has led to a continued expansion of the school building programme. Figures for additional classrooms completed in recent years are shown below. The figures do not include classrooms to replace obsolete accommodation.

YearPrimarySecondary
1971666451
1972847570
1973810551
1974888434
1975780480
1976979551

The year 1975-76 was one of considerable activity in education building. Four new secondary schools, 10 new primary schools, 8 new intermediate schools, and 6 Form I-VI1 schools were opened at the beginning of the 1976 school year.

Building expenditure for 1975-76 was as follows:

 $(m)
Universities (including equipment)26.4
Education buildings72.8
Technical institutes13.6
Teachers colleges7.3
Pre-school buildings1.7

Most new secondary school building work since 1971 has been carried out to the S68 standard plans. The plans provide for flexibility of usage and a good standard of teaching amenity. During 1974 work was started on a new prototype design for secondary schools. The details of this new school, the "Whanau school", were announced by the Minister of Education in September 1975. A period of relative stability in primary school rolls has been used to introduce progressively the smaller class programme. This has accelerated the need for extra classrooms.

The period since the Second World War has been one of remarkable growth in secondary school enrolment. In part this results directly from increases in child population, which are known well before the pupils reach the secondary school level. Not so firmly predictable, however, is the length of stay of pupils at secondary school. The present trend towards longer stay has been unexpectedly accelerated or retarded from year to year according to conditions prevailing at the time. In these circumstances accurate planning schedules, in curriculum and in teaching methods have required additional or modernised accommodation. In urban areas particularly, where it is seldom easy to procure the large block of land (some 20 acres) needed for buildings and recreation, schools have tended to become very large and large schools require specialised accommodation.

Proposals prepared in the Department of Education for building and other capital requirements of technical institutes and teachers' colleges are considered, before submission to the Government, by special works committees representative of the Department of Education, the Ministry of Works and Development and the Treasury. Major capital works undertaken in recent years have included 2 new primary teachers colleges (North Shore and Hamilton) and major additions made to the existing permanent colleges following the introduction of 3-year training for primary teachers. A college for the secondary division of the Christchurch Teachers College has been built on a new site adjacent to the University of Canterbury. Senior technical education has also required substantial new buildings or additions to existing buildings, the biggest single project being the Central Institute of Technology.

University Buildings—University buildings in use in 1965 had an area of 2 million sq ft; estimated requirements for 1980 are 8 million sq ft for teaching, library, administration, and student union buildings. Building and other capital requirements of universities are handled through the University Works Committee. This committee prepares for the approval of the Government an annual programme of projected expenditure on university capital works–buildings, land purchase, furniture and equipment, and subsidies on halls of residence. Expenditure in recent March years has been: 1970–71, $11.5 million; 1971–72, $14.6 million; 1972–73, $20.1 million; 1973–74, $18.6 million; 1974–75, $19.8 million; and 1975–76, $26.4 million.

During 1974, the Government approved a building programme for the 5 years ending on 31 March 1979 setting out the University Grants Committee's latest assessment of the needs of the universities for capital works. Including the balances still to be spent on jobs under construction the total of the 5-year programme was over $148 million. New works included in the programme were teaching buildings for the growth of the existing universities and for the expansion of medical education.

Technical Institute Buildings—The current 5-year building programme for technical institutes which is kept under review by the Technical Institutes Works Committee is estimated to amount to $87.7 million, with $14.1 million allocated during 1976–77.

Teachers Colleges—The current 5-year building programme for teachers colleges is estimated to cost $28.99 million, with $6.4 million allocated for expenditure during 1976–77.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS—The numbers of scholars and students receiving instruction in educational institutions are shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers at 1 July.

Type of Institution197419751976
Pre-school   
Playcentres21,64322,40024,056
Kindergartens30,17132,35734,075
 51,81454,75758,131
Primary   
Primary schools under board control389,319390,444390,350
Intermediate schools77,41277,31677,315
Forms 1 and 2 at Form 1 to 7 schools4,7995,0155,615
Chatham Islands schools127155146
Correspondence school7999631,021
Departmental special schools475587571
Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind1689895
Private primary schools50,57450,74549,899
 523,673525,323525,012
Secondary   
State secondary schools173,909184,225193,894
District high schools and area schools3,0873,0162,856
Correspondence school586709762
Private secondary schools31,01431,80432,379
 208,596219,754229,891
Technical   
Technical Correspondence institute18,74919,63421,712
Other technical institutes—   
Full-time students3,3533,6664,260
Part-time students33.996x33,09135,192
Technical classes at other institutions—   
Full-time students208174253
Part-time students51,26059,32462,497
 107,566x115,889123,914
Teacher training   
Teachers colleges7,6167,2117,000
Kindergarten training centres388568521
 8,0047,7797,521
University institutions   
Full-time internal students25,06125,87526,144
Part-time internal students10,43811,05612,361
Extra-mural students4,1135,1916,314
Agricultural short courses229280173
Medical short courses1083440
 39,94942,43645,032
Totals939,602x965,938989,501

TEACHING STAFF—Statistics of full-time teaching staff at all educational institutions are shown in the following table.

Institution19741975
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
*Includes 610 manual training assistants employed at manual training centres in 1974 and 621 in 1975.
Kindergartens..7427421835836
Primary—      
State*7,20011,20018,4007,40012,10019,500
Private2841,4021,6862701,4171,687
 7,48412,60220,0867,67013,51721,187
Secondary—      
State6,0303,4709,5006,5904,07010,660
Private7657151,4807737141,487
 6,7954,18510,9807,3634,78412,147
Technical institutes and New Zealand      
Technical Correspondence Institute8801401,0201,2322311,463
Teachers colleges426111537468142610
University institutions2,4492302,6792,5012562,757
Totals18,03418,01036,04419,23519,76539,000

The levelling-off in the growth of primary school rolls which, on the basis of known births, is expected to continue until at least 1979, combined with a higher retention rate of teachers in the service, has resulted in a favourable staffing situation in primary schools. This enabled all primary schools from 1974 to be staffed on a ratio of 1 teacher to every 35 pupils. In 1977 new staffing ratios will be introduced on a 1:31 ratio.

Improved pupil-teacher ratios have also been approved for secondary schools.

The growth in school and university student population is illustrated by the diagram below, which is drawn on a logarithmic scale.

Overseas Students—Overseas students attending New Zealand institutions at 1 July 1975 totalled 4,176, of whom 1,248 were from the South Pacific area (excluding Australia) and 2,436 from South-East Asia.

Projected Students—A projection of education rolls, made in 1974 by the Department of Education and based on policies and trends at the time, is set out in the following table.

  Rolls
 PeriodPre-School KindergartenTotal PrimaryTotal SecondaryTertiary*
*Equivalent full-time students.
Actual197532,360525,000219,80054,600
Projected—198043,600520,500229,10062,700
 198555,600526,200238,70063,900

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS: School Certificate—A School Certificate Examination conducted by the Department of Education is taken by the majority of pupils at the end of three years of secondary education. The course of each candidate must include English, history or geography or a foreign language, mathematics or science. A candidate may enter the examination in any number of subjects up to six and is credited with passes in the individual subjects in which he is successful.

Sixth Form Certificate—A new certificate was introduced in 1969 to replace the Endorsed School Certificate. Sixth Form Certificates are awarded to pupils who have satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year on a single-subject basis—to a maximum of 6 subjects—beyond the level of School Certificate.

University Entrance—Pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a four years' secondary school course. Pupils not accredited for entrance to university may qualify by passing the University Entrance Examination which is conducted by the University Entrance Board.

The University Bursaries examination and the University Entrance Scholarship Examination, taken by secondary school pupils usually in Form VII, are also conducted by the University Entrance Board; they are competitive examinations for supplementary awards for study at a university.

Higher School Certificate—Higher School Certificates are awarded after a 5-year course to pupils who have been accepted for entry to the Sixth Form and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 2 years; and to pupils who have obtained a qualification recognised by the University Entrance Board for admission to a university in New Zealand and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year.

Examination passes at other than university examinations are set out in the following table.

YearSchool Certificate*OtherUniversity Entrance*University Entrance ScholarshipUniversity Bursaries A and Q

*Includes Certificate of Attainment.

†The number includes Trained Teachers Certificate, Diploma of Teaching, Technical Teachers Certificates, City and Guilds of London Institutes Examination. Technological, Engineers, and Surveyors Assistants and Public Service Shorthand Typists Examination are not now administered by the Department.

197145,0781,04713,7541203,460
197246,98792514,2911313,588
197347,6651,20314,4291333,600
197449,200x854x14,5171393,731x
197552,34684415,3341383,858
YearTechnician Certificate 3-year CourseN.Z. Certificate 5-year CourseCertificates Issued
IntermediateFinalTradeAdvanced TradeIndustrial Practice
19711458576062,73367118
19722469646472,38463628
19732941,2007192,51074720
19743341,434x882x2,11564516
19753187529742,241621125

For undergraduate study, 138 university junior scholarships and 3,858 bursaries were awarded in 1975.

Comparative figures for the number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination and the number of passes by accrediting and by examination are given in the following table.

YearCandidatesPasses
AccreditedBy Examination
197123,61511,3722,382
197224,57211,9652,326
197324,84012,3902,039
197424,84912,2002,317
197524,40712,5162,318

SPECIAL EDUCATION—Whenever possible, handicapped children are enrolled with other children, at ordinary pre-school services and in ordinary classes at their local primary or secondary school. When necessary, buildings are modified, special equipment is provided, and ancillary staff are appointed to assist their teachers, who are advised on suitable teaching programmes by the Department of Education inspectors of schools and psychologists, and by other specialist advisers.

A comprehensive range of special education services has been developed for those handicapped children whose special needs cannot be met in ordinary classes through these measures. Small part-time groups for handicapped pre-school children are attached to selected kindergartens and playcentres. Education boards provide special classes and resource centres at primary schools or separate special schools for pupils who are backward (mildly or moderately mentally-retarded), intellectually handicapped (more seriously mentally retarded), deaf, visually handicapped, physically handicapped or maladjusted.

The education boards also administer special classes in hospitals, special schools in psychiatric hospitals, speech clinics and reading clinics, and employ itinerant teachers to assist children in ordinary classes who have a hearing handicap or serious reading difficulties.

Special classes for deaf, backward, and maladjusted pupils are provided at selected secondary schools.

The Department of Education itself administers 6 residential schools–2 for deaf children (which also admit day pupils), 2 for backward children and 2 for maladjusted children. The Department also provides the teaching services in Department of Social Welfare institutions for socially maladjusted children, and the education service in penal institutions administered by the Department of Justice.

This network of special schools and classes is supported by 3 specialised guidance services which also assist children in ordinary classes. The Hearing Assessment and Guidance Service offers guidance to the parents and teachers of deaf children. The Visiting Teacher Service provides liaison between teachers and the parents of pupils whose progress at school may be hampered by home difficulties. The Psychological Service provides a comprehensive diagnostic and advisory service for children who have learning or social difficulties. It maintains a close liaison with all secondary school guidance staff and with all health, education, and welfare services for children. These three services assisted approximately 30,000 pre-school and school age children in 1975.

In 1975 some 1,368 teachers were employed in the special education and guidance services. A total of 14,800 children was enrolled in special classes and schools, and 5,600 children received part-time assistance at speech or reading clinics.

The following table shows the number of pupils receiving special education at primary and secondary schools (including intermediate, correspondence, and special schools) at 1 July 1975.

GroupBoysGirlsTotal
Visually handicapped137128265
Visually and hearing handicapped443377
Hearing handicapped487376863
Speech handicapped3,6201,6105,230
Physically handicapped198124322
In health camps148131279
In hospitals381289670
Intellectually handicapped9917381,729
Backward2,3781,3993,777
Home emergency10919
Maladjusted398246644
Educationally retarded431177608
Correspondence school:   
Individual programme10674180
Home training section9789186
Totals9,4265,42314,849

In addition, 472 male and 197 female adults received special education in 1975.

The Department of Education co-ordinates the administration and development of the special education services for handicapped children through the district senior inspectors of primary and secondary schools.

PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION—Children below the age of 5 are not enrolled in State primary schools except in a very few areas. Pre-school education is provided mainly by 2 national voluntary organisations which receive support from the State. Some assistance from Government is also available to voluntary educational organisations for handicapped pre-school children, and to voluntary social welfare agencies for children needing full day care. Other institutions include informal family play groups, private and community kindergartens, and play centres which operate independently and receive no direct Government financial assistance.

The Government pays the full cost of new sites for free kindergartens and recognised playcentres, a subsidy of $4 to $1 for buildings, and a subsidy of $2 for $1 for equipment. The maintenance of the buildings is the financial responsibility of the Government. In areas of special need, the cost of buildings and equipment may be met in full by the Government. Grants are made available to both organisations for administration and day to day running costs.

In July 1975 there were 32,357 children enrolled at 401 free kindergartens and 22,400 children at 697 recognised playcentres. About 13,000 children below 5 years of age were enrolled in other pre-school groups.

Kindergarten teachers are now trained in the 7 teachers colleges and the Government gives training and student allowances on the same basis as primary and secondary teachers. Playcentre supervisors are trained part-time within their own associations and work on a part-time voluntary basis.

PRIMARY EDUCATION—At the age of 5 years a child may enter, and at 6 years must enter, a primary school or, if living in an isolated area, must enrol with the primary department of the Department of Education's Correspondence School. The top 2 years of the primary course, Forms I and II, may be taken at an intermediate or a Form I-VII school. On completing instruction in Form II, usually after 8 years' school attendance, a child normally enters Form III of a secondary school, or alternatively the secondary department of a district high school. All children are required to attend school until they reach the age of 15 years.

The curriculum of the primary and intermediate schools, as set out in the syllabuses of instruction, covers oral and written language (including reading and handwriting), mathematics, social studies, art and crafts, science, physical education (including swimming), health education, music, and, for some children in Forms I and II, French. At the Forms I and II levels, creative crafts such as woodwork, metal work, homecraft, and sewing are available to both girls and boys.

Teachers have the assistance of specialist teachers in a variety of fields, including science, physical education, art and crafts, reading, mathematics, music, Maori language programmes, and language programmes for Maori children. Itinerant specialists are also available to help teachers in small rural schools and teachers of infant classes. Specialist assistance in helping children with special needs is provided by the psychological service, speech therapists, visiting teachers, and advisers on deaf children.

The Basic Equipment Grant enables all schools to build up an adequate supply of teaching equipment and is supplemented by free textbooks, basic primer readers, art, craft, and physical education equipment. Schools also receive a book grant to purchase additional textbooks and other reading materials.

State Primary Schools—The figures set out in the following table refer to all pupils in state primary schools and intermediate schools and departments, including Chatham Islands schools.

YearSchools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments)Pupils at 1 JulyPupils at 30 SeptemberPupils at End of Year
19712,268462,866479,531487,926
19722,250464,310480,836490,002
19732,234465,773484,350495,961
19742,218466,858485,360496,442
19752,215467,915484,058498,434

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the State primary schools, Chatham Islands schools, and Forms I and II at intermediate schools at 1 July in each of the years shown.

Age, in Years19741975
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
*Includes 55 under 5 years of age.
529,51927,77957,29829,83028,48158,311*
628,49027,41055,90029,54527,99157,536
728,53527,49556,03028,59027,68056,270
827,61626,54954,16529,06527,92256,987
928,41226,63255,04427,18226,12553,307
1029,39528,03857,43327,52525,78853,313
1128,94927,49656,44529,11528,02257,137
1228,19826,57754,77528,27026,49754,767
1310,6747,88018,55410,8908,11519,005
14517323840541345886
1586591458866154
16 and over117112229104138242
Totals240,508226,350466,858240,745227,170467,915

Size of Classes—The size of classes at State primary schools at 30 September are shown in the following table.

 Pupils in Class
Year19-20-2425-2930-3435-3940+Totals

*Figures not available, included under 25-29.

NOTE—Prior to 1970 special classes were excluded from this table, but from 1970 onwards special classes are included in the official size of class statistics. The table includes intermediate schools and departments and Chatham Islands schools.

1972**6,5414,3854,27947615,681
1973**7,4715,2443,26026116,236
1974**9,0445,8951,8972316,859
19752,1192,2623,7976,0472,8614917,135

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1975 there were 71,355 Maori children attending State primary schools and 3,027 attending private primary schools. Staffing is more liberal in schools with a large proportion of Maori or other Polynesian children.

Intermediate Schools—Pupils on the rolls of the 133 intermediate schools and 1 intermediate department at the end of 1975, numbered 77,316. Of all children in Forms I and II at State primary schools at 1 July 1975, 69.7 percent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the latest 3 years were as follows.

Age, in Years197319741975
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
10 and under363441804280458738284401685
1111,47612,42923,90512,53513,48926,02412,62813,47326,101
1217,41716,73634,15319,10918,17437,28319,23417,99537,229
136,9745,20212,1767,3675,49612,8637,3855,57112,956
14345229574303174477184144328
151462014102410717
16 and over---123-- 
Totals36,58935,04371,63239,60937,80377,41239,72537,59177,316

Private Schools—The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools, including primary departments in private secondary schools.

YearNumber of SchoolsPupils atTeachers
1 July30 SepEnd of yearMaleFemaleTotal
197133951,00951,86352,5872421,3851,627
197233150,85952,12452,3732531,4071,660
1973325x-50,71151,86151,8752751,3851,660
1974325x50,57451,49551,6042841,4021,686
197532850,74552,02552,6262701,4171,687

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic Church schools, of which there were 255 in 1975 with 44,308 pupils. The remaining private schools comprised 49 church schools of other denominations with 5,836 pupils and 23 undenominational schools with 2,482 pupils.

SECONDARY EDUCATION—The secondary syllabus is based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialisation within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate stage. All types of secondary schools are required to give all pupils during the first 2 years of their secondary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

The following table shows the number of secondary schools in existence during each of the latest 5 years.

YearState Secondary SchoolsSecondary Departments of District High Schools and Area SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsTotal
197121957115391
197222355114392
197322950114393
197423348112393
197524142109392

District high schools are State primary schools with a secondary "top" and the basic course is academic, as in the normal secondary school. Where staffing and equipment allow, special courses are provided in agriculture, commercial practice, and domestic science. In 1975, 25 of the State secondary schools enrolled only boys and 25 schools only girls, with 191 schools co-educational. Most of the private schools are single-sex schools. There were 76 State secondary schools with over 1,000 pupils.

The inspection of secondary schools is carried out by inspectors of secondary schools attached to the Department of Education. In 1975 there were 60 inspectors. The entitlement is 69. The numbers of each sex attending schools providing secondary education at the end of 1975 were: State secondary schools, 90,762 boys and 86,780 girls; secondary departments of District High Schools, 1,284 and 1,268; private secondary schools, 15,644 and 15,661; full-time pupils in the secondary department of the Correspondence School numbered 246 boys and 521 girls.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1975, 23,869 Maori pupils were receiving secondary education. This number comprised 21,685 pupils attending State secondary schools and 2,184 pupils attending private secondary schools.

About 1 in 6 secondary pupils in the North Island is now Maori. There is a steady improvement in the number of Maori pupils passing the School Certificate Examination and progressing to Forms VI and VII.

Secondary School Hostels—In 1973 there were 37 hostels for State secondary schools. A programme for 5-day hostels at certain rural secondary schools is being developed to strengthen rural secondary education.

Attainment Levels of State and Private Secondary Schools—The following table gives particulars of pupils who left schools providing secondary education, classified according to years of attendance and attainments.

Year of Attendance19741975
First1,4641,125
Second8,2797,049
Third17,41517,092
Fourth16,99617,596
Fifth10,64710,976
Sixth and over391395
Totals55,19254,233
Attainments19741975
University scholarship138138
University bursary3,4953,707
Higher School Certificate2,9672,980
University Entrance7,3047,633
Sixth Form Certificate6,0636,782
School Certificate (three or more subjects)6,0935,959
School Certificate (one or two subjects)7,3377,061
No attainments21,79519,973
Totals55,19254,233

Probable Destination of State and Private Secondary Pupils—An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils who left secondary schools during 1975 is contained in the next table.

Probable DestinationBoysGirlsTotals
Further full-time education at:   
University3,6632,1095,772
Teacher training:   
Attending university full-time181323504
Others (including kindergarten)2341,2471,481
Technical institutes8932,0142,907
Other full-time education110269379
To join labour force:   
Professional, technical and related workers—   
Technicians9904151,405
Health services862,7382,824
Others333315648
Clerical work1,5146,2297,743
Sales work1,1222,4133,535
Service work (including Armed Forces)—   
Entering apprenticeships2,2125152,727
Others8441,0461,890
Agriculture, fishing, hunting—   
Entering apprenticeships949721,021
Others2,2583752,633
Production, transport equipment operators, and labourers—   
Entering apprenticeships4,4022134,615
Others3,0731,4464,519
No occupation or unknown5,0864,5449,630
Totals27,95026,28354,233

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT—The Curriculum Development Unit, established in 1963 following a recommendation by the Currie Commission on Education, has an essentially co-operative role in New Zealand education. The principal functions of the unit are to prepare, co-ordinate and revise curricula and syllabuses at all school levels; to provide handbooks and resource materials for teachers; to initiate pilot schemes of new courses and methods; to bring new or revised methods to the attention of teachers; and to assist teachers themselves in developing curricula at the local school level. Professional officers in the unit have responsibility for development in areas including science, mathematics, English, social studies, Maori language and studies, foreign languages, music, libraries, audio-visual media, drama, physical education, reading, and examinations and tests.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools—In order to give children in country districts the advantage of special equipment and more specialised teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been a feature of the last 25 years. Three types of composite schools have been developed in recent years to bring together larger concentrations of children from Form I and above: Form I-VII schools; area schools; and district high schools (reorganised type).

The first Form I-VII school was opened in 1962 and by 1976 there were 36 of these schools. This type of school usually developed from the translation of the secondary department of a district high school with the addition of Form I and II pupils from neighbouring primary schools. They receive improved staffing, accommodation, and equipment in the endeavour to promote equality of educational opportunity for country children.

However, a large number of Form I and II children remain in the country districts too small to support a Form I-VII school.

In these districts, area schools and district high schools (reorganised type) have been established.

The area school is a unified school providing education from the infant stage to Form VII for all children in the immediate vicinity, and from Form I upwards for children from contributing schools over a wider area. The first area school was opened in 1969, and there are now 4 of these schools. More recently, 13 district high schools have been reorganised and are operating on the same basis.

Transport and Boarding Allowance—In recent years school transport facilities have been steadily developed until now over 16 percent of the total school population receive assistance in one form or another. Most of these pupils are conveyed by buses under contract to education boards or operated by the Department of Education.

The trend towards consolidating small country schools and improving educational facilities in larger rural centres has been paralleled by the continuing movement of families into provincial towns and cities. These factors are resulting in only a relatively small increase in transport services.

Pupils carried by the school transport services have increased from almost 113,000 (including rail transport) in 1971 to 116,930 in 1975, while the number of separate transport services has increased from 2,550 to 2,569. These services covered a total of over 36,150,000 kilometres for the year, at a cost of over $12 million.

School boarding bursaries were increased in 1976 from $300 to $400 a year. The number of pupils receiving boarding bursaries increased slightly to 3,673 in 1975 compared with 3,629 the previous year.

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding allowances as at 1 July 1975, according to the type of school attended.

Type of SchoolPupils on RollPupils Transported to SchoolPupils Receiving Boarding Allowance
State primary schools467,76064,07377
State secondary schools (including district high schools)192,25647,0652,082
Private primary schools50,7452,155133
Private secondary schools31,8043,6371,381
Totals742,565116,9303,673

Correspondence School—Correspondence classes are conducted for the education of children in very remote areas and for those unable to attend school because of lengthy illness or other causes. A corporate school spirit is developed through the school badge and uniform, daily radio lessons, club activities, the publication of a school magazine, periodical exhibitions of work, and by parents' and ex-pupils' associations. The personal link between the pupil and the school is strengthened by a number of teachers visiting pupils in their homes. At a district level, school day and school week gatherings are held in order to enable pupils to gain the opportunity of social education by working in the classroom.

Young persons in employment, including uncertificated teachers of small State primary schools, inmates of Department of Justice institutions, pupils of secondary schools who require examination subjects which their own schools cannot provide, officers of Government departments, and others who are unable to attend classes at secondary schools, also receive tuition as part-time students of the Correspondence School. In addition, the school enrols teachers for the Diploma in Teaching courses.

In 1975 there were 8,539 pupils on the roll of the Correspondence School, 1,326 being in the primary division, 810 full-time and 5,324 part-time students in the secondary division, 819 students taking the Diploma in Teaching course, and 203 students studying for Trained Teachers' Certificates. The staff of the school consists of the principal, deputy principal, 223 teachers, 26 tutors, and 45 clerical personnel.

A new building to house the school was completed in 1977.

Agricultural Clubs—More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in livestock rearing and crop growing which are judged annually on the club field day, usually held at the school or local centre.

The agricultural instructors and advisers on school science employed by the education boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the farmers' organisations.

HEALTH SERVICES—Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Health and Medical Services) of this Yearbook.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS—In 1975 there were 9 teachers colleges (North Shore, Auckland, Auckland Secondary, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch (Primary and Secondary), and Dunedin), with staffs totalling 603 (481 males and 122 females). At 1 July 1975 there were 9,574 students in training. This number includes 1,823 holders of secondary teacher studentships (Division U) and 230 holders of primary teachers studentships (Division S) who were attached to teachers colleges while attending universities as full-time students as part of their training for teaching and 728 graduates undertaking training for secondary teaching.

The minimum entry qualification for admission to primary teacher training (Division A) and for entry to the secondary 3-year commercial course and the 3-year home-economics course, is Sixth Form Certificate with acceptable grades in four subjects. University Entrance is required for the 3-year Division B course in general secondary subjects, and the 1-year Division C course is for graduates. Other specialist secondary training courses of 1 year's duration for adults include woodwork and metalwork, commercial, music, and Maori language and these courses have various minimum entry requirements.

The following table shows the number of students in these three divisions at 1 July.

YearDivision ADivision BDivision C
 MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
19721,4414,997289223325396
19731,4934,671243183448371
19741,5214,358252200317400
19751,4144,186244195319409
19761,3064,188215189332344

The normal course of training for Division A students is a period of 3 years at a teachers college, followed by a further period of 1 year as a probationary assistant attached to a State primary school. The primary teachers' studentship scheme which was introduced in 1965 enables a number of selected students to attend university full time as part of the primary teaching course. Specialist studentships are available to selected students who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of deaf children.

The normal period of training for teaching is 3 years. Courses may be shortened to 2 years for students partway through degree courses and to 1 year for university graduates and specialists courses such as are mentioned above for secondary teaching as well as those courses for speech therapists or teachers of the deaf or children with handicaps.

A concurrent secondary teacher training course (Division B) was introduced in 1966. The course provides for up to 3 years of concurrent training at a university or a technical institute and at a teachers college, and is available at Auckland Secondary Teachers College and at the secondary division of Christchurch Teachers College.

Successful Division B students may complete the teachers college course with six units of a degree or equivalent and apply for a Teachers University Studentship for a year of full-time university study in order to complete a degree. Under the provisions of this concurrent course a successful student may commence his career of teaching as a teacher-trained university graduate in 4 years. This is the same period of time taken by students who are awarded a studentship for 3 years full-time university study (Division U) followed by the 1-year course of teacher training for graduates in Division C.

A total of 1,611 students were admitted to secondary training courses in 1975 compared with 1,564 in the previous year.

The ages and classification of students at teachers colleges at 1 July 1975 are shown in the following table. For the first time Division E students are included in this table; Division E is a 2-year course for kindergarten student teachers.

CourseUnder 17 years17 Years18 Years19 Years20 Years21–24 Year25 years and OverTotal
 MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMFCombined

NOTE—In addition the following students on studentships and bursaries were enrolled at teacher colleges in 1975:

Division A—                 
First year..9415051475701021455350724329554441,3771,821
Second year---14515031455071061171249825444511,2831,734
Third year-1133256312245421820952474251,2861,711
Specialist-714114102131257398
Graduate (1-year course)112240108283669167236
Totals..9415191991,0932791,2302826544584681552131,4144,1865,600
Division B—                 
First year-1-71115144317146393574
Second year-....1161315111028151046351114
Third year-------3102011984132142109251
Totals-1-81221272224311541002712244195439
Division C Totals-------113020931910959319409728
Division E                 
First year---86-94-361201181193273276
Second year---3-106-102-37220-222290292
Totals---89-200-1381573381415563568
Other courses-3-35-81-94-372035756495349444
Totals 1975-13416512111,3953061,4853088098449603673892,0775,7027,779
 MFT
Division S (primary teacher studentship)74185259
Division U (secondary teacher studentship)9509541,904
Division Bs (secondary bursar studentship)392059
Secondary teacher bursaries4913

FREE TEXTBOOKS IN SCHOOLS—Free textbooks are supplied to all primary and secondary pupils in both State and private schools. Under the free textbooks scheme, the books remain the property of the school controlling authorities and are issued on loan to pupils. The school authorities have a wide discretion in their choice of suitable books.

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE—This service, which is financed by the Department of Education and administered by the National Library of New Zealand, aims at giving children access to the best literature. Books for children and young people are sent on repository loans or on exchange to approximately 2,960 schools. The schools served are primary, both public and private, intermediate, and district high schools. Pupils of the Correspondence School also receive books regularly.

All schools, including secondary schools, receive additional books on request. Some 2,178,000 requests were filled during the year ended 31 March 1976.

AUDIO-VISUAL TEACHING AIDS—A varied series of programmes linked with the curriculum are broadcast each school day from all main national radio stations. Special lessons are also broadcast each day for Correspondence School pupils.

The National Film Library lends 16 mm educational films to schools and to community organisations through its 3 branches located in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. A small annual membership fee is charged. In addition, the Wellington office also offers a service to Western Samoa, Tokelau, Niue, Pitcairn, and the Cook and Chatham Islands.

The library has over 40,000 prints of some 10,000 titles, and each week over 12,000 films are issued to some 3,000 educational institutions and over 4,000 community organisations. Each year substantial sums of money are spent by the Education Department to add new prints and to support the direct service provided by the library.

In addition to films the Wellington branch also offers an audio-disc loan service, an audio-tape reel/cassette copying service, and a sample sheet music service. These services are available to educational institutions only.

The disc library has in stock over 9,500 discs, comprising 4,560 titles, and issues during 1975-76 totalled 13,943.

The tape duplicating section each year sends out 26,000 copies of the 3,000 masters at present held by the library and sells recorded cassettes to schools at cost.

Museums—To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers training college in each of the four main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

School Publications—The School Journal, an illustrated paper, is published in four separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. Parts 1 and 2 are published 5 and 6 times a year, while Parts 3 and 4 for the senior classes appear four times a year. Bulletins dealing mainly with literature and language, social studies, science, history and geography, particularly of New Zealand, are published every year for primary and secondary schools. These and other publications are prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private.

A wide range of syllabuses, textbooks, and handbooks is published for secondary and primary schools.

Te Wharekura, a bulletin in the Maori language published three times a year, and Te Tautoko a supplementary textbook, are issued free to secondary pupils studying the Maori language.

The Education Gazette is published by the department twice a month. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State and private schools.

Education, a magazine for teachers, is published 10 times a year.

A number of publications are issued for the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation to accompany the broadcasts to schools, and for the Vocational Guidance Office; and the department also publishes occasional reports and studies.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE—Assistance with careers, and with occupational and educational choices, is offered through Vocational Guidance Centres in Auckland, Papatoetoe, Hamilton, Napier, Wellington, Lower Hutt, Christchurch and Dunedin. An information service about occupations, training, entry requirements, etc. is available to members of the public, who may make appointments with vocational guidance staff for individual assistance or to discuss the vocational plans of their children.

Vocational guidance officers also provide a support service to secondary schools and encourage them to develop vocational programmes for their students. Within the schools, either careers advisers or, in a growing number of schools, guidance counsellors, are responsible for helping students with their vocational plans. Vocational guidance personnel assist by visiting the schools in the district and interviewing young people the school staff feel need extra help. They provide the schools with up-to-date information about training, employment and occupations. Seminars for school personnel are arranged to help keep them informed.

School work is supplemented by careers exploration courses of various kinds which enable young people to gain a more realistic understanding of the opportunities available to them.

Adults wishing or needing to change their occupation, and who are seeking second chance training or education, can also be assisted by vocational guidance officers.

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION—The system of university education in New Zealand has evolved in recent years from a federal university with constituent colleges to a system of separate universities and a university college of agriculture. These are the University of Auckland, the University of Waikato (at Hamilton), Massey University (at Palmerston North), the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury (at Christchurch), and the University of Otago (at Dunedin), with Lincoln College a constituent agricultural college of the University of Canterbury.

At the centre there is the University Grants Committee which functions under the Universities Act 1961. The primary function of the University Grants Committee is to advise the Government of the needs of New Zealand for university education and research. It determines the allocation of grants of money which it recommends for appropriation by Parliament to meet these needs, and reviews the expenditure by the universities of money appropriated by Parliament. The University Grants Committee is also responsible for the award of scholarships, and through its statutory subcommittee, the Research Committee, for the distribution of a Government grant for research. Another statutory subcommittee of the University Grants Committee, the Curriculum Committee, has responsibility in respect of regulation of courses for degrees and diplomas. In the performance of its duties it is required to have regard to the comparative equivalence of courses.

The Universities Entrance Board was established on 1 January 1962 to maintain a common educational standard for admission to the universities. The board prescribes the conditions of examinations for University Entrance, Entrance Scholarships, the University Bursaries Examination, and Fine Arts Preliminary.

The special problems of legal education are the province of the Council of Legal Education which prescribes the examination requirements of candidates for admission as barristers and solicitors of the court.

The characteristics of university systems vary from country to country. They show marked differences in levels and sources of finance, public or private; in the constitution of the student population and the means adopted to support it; and in the relationships of the universities to other forms of tertiary education. The characteristics of the New Zealand university system are distinguishable from those of other national systems and may be partly explained as reflecting the New Zealand point of view. Thus, in our welfare state, there has arisen a public expectation that most of the finance required for the capital and running needs of the universities, and for a contribution towards the support of students by bursaries, will come from the public purse.

The test which applies for entrance to university is not financial but achievement at secondary school. In a country where equality of opportunity for self-improvement still counts for much, the right to a university education is conferred by qualifying for University Entrance. It is true that the relatively open system of admission entails some uncertainties about student numbers and planning university facilities for them. It also leads to higher failure rates arising from the mixed quality of the first-year intake; but this situation is improving in some respects without depriving the universities of their characteristics of open entry. Seventh Form work is now taken by the majority of entrants to the universities, and the fees charged and bursaries paid are now more closely geared to successful study after entry. It is likely, too, that the strengthening and diversifying of courses offered in the technical institutes will enable them to cater better for some students and improve the efficiency of tertiary education as a whole. In the meantime, however, relatively ready access to university education associated with flexible degree structures meets the national needs well and at a cost which is modest by overseas standards.

Apart from the income from students' fees and the relatively small amounts now available to some of the universities from endowments, the block grants from the Government determine the income of the universities to meet their running costs for each 5 years. Under the block grant system that has been in operation since 1950, grants have been calculated and approved 5 years in advance to enable the universities to plan their activities ahead in the knowledge of what their income from the Government will be. They are block grants in the sense that they are not itemised and their detailed calculation is not disclosed to the universities. This has the effect of making the governing bodies—the university councils—not only responsible for arranging their budgets within their incomes, but also free to make their own decisions about the allocation of new expenditure among the many competing academic proposals which arise within the institutions. With these grants the university councils have an obligation to expand existing classes as necessary where student numbers increase and, subject to the scrutiny of the Curriculum Committee, to offer such courses as they see to be warranted by the demands put on them by the students and by the New Zealand community in which they exist.

The universities regard as their primary function the pursuit and dissemination of knowledge through study, teaching, and research. They have always endeavoured to perform this function with due regard to the specific needs of New Zealand, through their professional schools and through the general disciplines.

The universities in Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago, besides offering courses in the faculties of arts, science, commerce, law, and music, specialise in certain fields. The University of Otago provides courses in medicine and dentistry, mineral technology, home science, and physical education; the University of Canterbury provides courses in engineering (mechanical, electrical, civil, agricultural, and chemical) and fine arts; the University of Auckland provides courses in architecture, fine arts, engineering (mechanical, chemical and materials, electrical, engineering science, and civil), and medicine; and the Victoria University of Wellington provides courses in architecture, public administration, and social science. Massey University provides courses in agriculture, horticulture, food technology, and veterinary science, as well as courses in arts and science, and also provides extra-mural tuition in a number of subjects to students throughout New Zealand. The University of Waikato offers courses in the schools of humanities, social sciences, and science and, in association with the Hamilton Teachers College, offers courses in its School of Education leading to a Diploma in Education and the degree of Bachelor of Education.

Free University Education:Scholarships—The most important awards for those entering university are the University Junior Scholarships. These scholarships are tenable for 3 to 6 years, depending upon the minimum time in which the holder, studying full time, could complete the recognised course taken under the scholarship. The University Junior Scholarship provides a scholarship allowance of $300 a year and is tenable with a tertiary bursary (see Bursaries below). These scholarships together with privately endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Scholarships awarded during degree courses include Senior Scholarships awarded by the individual universities and Lincoln College (and of a value to be determined by them). The various university institutions also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The scholarships awarded at the end of the university course, which are listed in full in the university calendars, include the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarships, post-graduate scholarships, and post-doctoral fellowships, the Macmillan Brown Agricultural Scholarships, the Shirtcliff Scholarships, the Gordon Watson Scholarship, the Shell Post-graduate Scholarship, the Michael Hiatt Baker Scholarship, the Rutherford Scholarships, and the National Research Scholarships. Most of the post-graduate scholarships and post-doctoral fellowships are tenable in New Zealand. The other awards are in general tenable overseas.

Bursaries—A new system of bursaries for students entering upon a university course was introduced in 1976.

Fees Bursaries are awarded to students following part-time or full-time courses who have qualified for entrance to the university. These bursaries provide payment for tuition fees.

Tertiary Bursaries are awarded to students who hold University Entrance and Higher School Certificate, or certain Sixth Form qualifications, and are tenable for any recognised course at a university in each year of the bursary. Also, a student who is credited with 2 units in any year or 3 units over a period of years will qualify for a tertiary bursary.

A tertiary bursary may be held with a fees bursary. It allots $24 per week for a full-time student, increasing to $27 a week in the fourth and subsequent years. The allowance is abated by $11 if the student is not required to live away from home to attend university. Special rates are available for married students with dependants.

The tertiary bursary is also tenable for full-time courses at technical institutes and teachers colleges.

Supplementary Allowances of $150 or $100 a year are awarded to students who gain A or B passes in the University bursaries examinations.

All these bursaries are subject to strict rules as to terms and suspension. A student who in any year does not pass in a prescribed number of units or subjects will have his bursary suspended and it will not be reinstated unless in a subsequent year of study he is credited with a prescribed number of passes.

Further details of the amounts payable and other conditions for these bursaries are available from university liasion officers and from the Head Office of the Department of Education, Wellington.

Students—In 1975 there were 36,931 students actually in attendance at the seven universities; 3,959 were graduates, 32,972 undergraduates (1,304 were enrolled in more than one course). In addition, there were 5,191 students attached to the various universities, but exempt from lectures, and 314 students who were taking short courses. Comparable figures for the latest 5 years are given in the following table. Students now exceed 1 percent of the population.

YearStudents Attending LecturesExempt StudentsTotal
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
197123,23410,8551,7551,41337,257
197223,47711,5751,7991,37838,229
197322,97512,2481,8851,66438,772
197422,68512,8142,0232,09039,612
197523,13013,8012,4772,71442,122

The following table gives particulars of internal students who were taking definite courses at universities, including agricultural college, during 3 recent years. Additional information is published in Education Statistics of New Zealand available from the Department of Education, Wellington.

Course197319741975
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture1,3501461,4961,1321621,2941,8082722,080
Architecture4315748846876544599599714
Arts and music5,1206,78111,9014,9346,88811,8224,7596,88211,641
Commerce3,1665083,6743,5535514,1043,5126914,203
Divinity1321551960461359
Education6481,1251,7737331,3182,0517611,4962,257
Engineering2,376442,4202,274692,3432,160432,203
Fine Arts7576151135154289369330699
Technology328613893166638217664240
Home Science-240240-210210-198198
Law1,9764182,3942,0955232,6182,0686582,726
Medicine and Dentistry1,2743661,6401,2995121,8111,4255681,993
Physical Education119166285138157295168148316
Science4,6071,5186,1254,8511,7926,6434,7061,8586,564
Surveying114111582284135II146
Veterinary Science323723953017637715760217
Others1,9229852,9071,2235541,7771,1877921,979
Totals23,84212,56636,40823,58513,11936,70424,03614,19938,235
Adjustment for students enrolled in more than one course8673181,1859003051,2059063981,304
Totals22,97512,24835,22322,68512,81435,49923,13013,80136,93

Students on the books of the university institutions in 1975 are shown in the following table.

AucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Universities
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMF
Internal students                
Full-time4,4452,1609815072,0209222,6421,4813,3771,3428431103,2091,83617,5178,358
Part-time1,6921,4094477355448461,22091098987661116606565,6135,443
All internal students6,1373,5691,4281,2422,5641,7683,8622,3914,3662,2189041213,8692,49223,13013,801
External students                
Taking courses at Massey University848419261,8602,2621021016169--33472,1592,589
Taking courses at own university1233781--3618153--13666318125
All external students20712127271,8602,2621381197672--1691132,4772,714
All students6,3443,6904551,2694,4244,0304,0002,5104,4422,2909041214,0382,60525,60716,515
Overseas students included in totals4911301234218770471195469114679284952,092655

Internal students by years of university study in 1975 are shown in the following table.

Year of University StudyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Internal StudentsOf these, Overseas Students numbered
MFTotalMFTotalMFTotalMFTotal
First4,7942,4587,2528111,9102,7215,6054,3689,973500207707
Second3,8362,0655,9015791,0541,6334,4153,1197,534384123507
Third3,1861,8014,9876466601,3063,8322,4616,29331288400
Fourth2,3161,0403,3567225991,3213,0381,6394,67726592357
Fifth1,5414682,0097704841,2542,3119323,26328671357
Sixth or later1,8445262,3702,0857362,8213,9291,2625,19134574419
Totals17,5178,35825,8755,6135,44311,05623,13013,80136,9312,0926552,747

The ages of internal students at universities in 1975 are shown in the following table.

Age in Years at 1 JulyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Internal Students
MenWomenTotalMenWomenTotalMenWomenTotal
Under 18370436806684224904388581,296
182,8301,8104,6402127901,0023,0422,6005,642
193,3061,8715,1773146619753,6202,5326,152
202,8771,5834,4603824528343,2592,0355,294
212,5279303,4575664139793,0931,3434,436
221,7584812,2395363188542,2947993,093
231,1362931,4294732417141,6095342,143
246701658354312076381,1013721,473
25–291,4413961,8371,3267342,0602,7671,1303,897
30–343401554955643999639045541,458
35–39132102234319275594451377828
40 and over1301362664225319535526671,219
Totals17,5178,35825,8755,6135,44311,05623,13013,80136,931

Holders of bursaries in 1975 by year of bursary, are shown in the following table.

Year of BursaryFees BursariesFees and Allowance Bursaries
Full-time StudentsPart-time StudentsBursariesBursaries and Boarding Allowances
First1,5065212,2752,777
Second3552011,8622,658
Third1241581,6082,308
Fourth631169351,454
Fifth33124435714
Sixth1976126243
Totals2,1001,1967,24110,154

The nature of residence of full-time students at universities in 1975 is shown in the following table.

Nature of ResidenceAucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Full-time StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered
MFTotalMF
Living at home3,8155364781,9791,8721606706,3423,1689,5105215
In halls of residence5354458024757623791,3843,1551,6274,782491193
Boarding484144269195385411661,2364481,68420980
Sharing flat or house with other students1,6247871,1781,2501,6953732,3186,1053,1209,225955214
Other, and not known147242152245-5077893331,12211841
Totals6,6051,9362,9424,1234,7199535,04517,6278,69626,3231,825543

Occupations of part-time university students in 1975 are shown in the following table.

OccupationMalesFemalesTotal
No occupation other than study641342983
University staff548287835
Teacher5785041,082
Teachers college student9032,2673,170
Government employee8214491,270
Local body employee152137289
Private employment1,5745312,105
Self-employed person15864222
Housewife3772775
Full-time student at technical institute71421
Other occupations194193387
Totals5,5795,56011,139

Totals of assisted overseas students at New Zealand universities in 1975, by the nature of the assistance, are shown in the following table.

Nature of AssistanceMalesFemalesTotal
*Includes MARAC, bilateral aid, Western Samoa exchange students, MARA, and Commonwealth Education Scheme.
Assisted by the New Zealand Government—   
Colombo Plan23090320
Island Territories Scholarships141024
Commonwealth Scholarships17623
Aid to Africa Scholarships14216
Others*22830
 297116413
Other assistance from—   
Fijian Government35237
Tongan Government3-3
Other Governments (Malaysia, Perak, Hong Kong)8210
WHO, UNESCO, Fulbright, CORSO9615
MARA Awards1-1
Other45651
 10116117
All assisted overseas students398132530

Graduates—The numbers of degree graduates from New Zealand universities for the year ending with the graduation ceremony in 1974 and 1975 are shown in the following table.

CourseFirst DegreePost Graduate
1974197519741975
Arts1,7561,681503435
Music3329105
Law3363351614
Science1,2641,129219227
Commerce5265454639
Philosophy--18148
Divinity11864
Architecture415219
Engineering:........
Civil137146....
Electrical1009545..
Mechanical104109-..
Chemical6551-51
Science107....
Agricultural54-..
Agriculture7951--
Horticulture-6--
Forestry Science2423-5
Agricultural Science105912426
Horticultural Science262356
Medicine and Surgery158152-5
Medical Science72--
Dental Surgery43454326
Veterinary Science3746-1
Social Science8374615
Home Science211613
Pharmacy181721
Technology354452
Education6010946
Fine Arts12831
Totals5,0884,9069161,009

Time Taken to Complete First Degrees—The following table shows the time taken to complete first degrees for the year ending with the graduation ceremonies in 1975.

DegreeMinimum TimeMinimum Time + One YearMinimum Time + Two YearsMinimum Time + Over Two YearsAll Students
TotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomen
Bachelor Honours          
Arts432542--315028
Law559914---6810
Science125315-11--13132
Engineering167113-2---1821
Other56103---1-6010
Totals44676343714149181
Bachelor          
Arts6724304292502551363041471,660963
Commerce16128172201096100254256
Law90161192035323526744
Science64421131169114198151,150304
Engineering114181-25-10-2301
Medicine and Surgery17038334813-21443
Agriculture and horticulture69759312-3-14310
Other96384725271139620980
Totals2,0167691,2513915851765631654,4151,501

Staff—The staffing of university institutions in 1975 is shown in the following table.

PositionFull-time StaffPart-time Staff
MFtotalMFTotal
Teaching posts—      
Full professor36373701919
Senior lecturer, associate professor, reader, lecturer-in-charge1,232901,32212214136
Lecturer7168780328739326
Junior lecturer, assistant lecturer1576322073982
Instructor and demonstrator, engaged in teaching33942652136788
Totals, established teaching posts2,5012562,7571,1531981,351
Other staff—      
Technician, research assistant, and other technical staff not engaged in teaching8682641,132203555
Library staff843063905875133
Administrative staff, clerical and office staff3028741,17611117128
Groundsmen, tradesmen, cleaner, etc.47715262987192279
Totals, non-teaching staff1,7311,5963,327176419595

Of the full-time teaching positions, there were 77 positions filled temporarily and 100 not filled, and of the part-time positions 11 were filled temporarily and 2 not filled.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION—In 1945 technical education was a varient form of secondary education. It was provided by separate technical high schools and technical departments in other secondary schools, and was avowedly vocational in purpose. During the past 15 years technical education has been transferred from the secondary to the tertiary sector of the educational system. Technical high schools as such no longer exist. Vocational education and training is now provided by 13 technical institutes and one community college, supported by apprentice and other tertiary vocational courses provided in 6 secondary schools.

This transformation is the result of a number of policy decisions which have created a demand for types of education and training in the post-secondary phase of a person's career.

The passing of the Apprenticeship Act 1948 made it compulsory for apprentices to undertake technical classes; the establishment, in 1949, of the Trades Certification Board and of national trades examinations gave point and direction to apprentice studies; the passing of the Technicians Certification Authority Act 1958 and the introduction of New Zealand Certificates gave encouragement to technician studies; the approval by the Government, in 1969, of the establishment of technical institutes in centres where there is sufficient technical work to occupy 10 tutors full-time advanced the opening of minor institutes in provincial centres by several years; the approval by the Government, in 1972, of the establishment of community colleges allows traditional technical education to be provided in conjunction with other educational services meeting the specific circumstances of the local community, particularly in the non-metropolitan provincial centres. There has been increasing investment in technical institute buildings: more than $14.7 million was spent in the 1975–76 year alone. Technical institute bursaries, which were introduced first in 1965, have now been discontinued and from 1976 technical institute students on full-time yearlong courses are eligible, along with university students and teacher trainees, to receive the Standard Tertiary Bursary.

Technical education in New Zealand is still developing and expanding at a very rapid rate. It is being developed through national and regional technical institutes as well as smaller technical institutes or community colleges in provincial centres. The Central Institute of Technology, which gives a predominantly national block course service but also provides some special courses of a national character such as pharmacy, chiropody and occupational therapy, opened in 1960. In 1972 the institute moved to its permanent accommodation at Heretaunga—a building project costing $5.5 million. Included in this contract is a 500-bed hostel.

Technical institutes have been opened in the 6 main centres of population, and, with the opening of Manukau Technical Institute in 1970, the first of a number of suburban institutes was opened to serve the greater Auckland area. The second, Carrington, opened in 1976. Since 1971, institutes have also been opened in the provincial centres, Invercargill, Nelson, and New Plymouth.

The full list of technical institutes is as follows; Auckland, Manukau, Carrington, Waikato, Taranaki Polytechnic, Palmerston North, Central Institute of Technology, Petone Technical Institute, Wellington Polytechnic, Nelson Polytechnic, Christchurch, Otago Polytechnic, Southland Polytechnic, and the New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute. In addition, the Hawkes Bay Community College, which has enough technical education courses to justify calling it a small technical institute, opened in 1975. More community colleges or technical institutes are likely to be opened in the next 10 years in Northland, Rotorua, Porirua, Wanganui, Timaru, and Tauranga.

A standing committee on relationships in tertiary education has been set up to consider the problems of placement of courses and the rationalisation of tuition in the technician, semi-professional, and professional fields.

Trade and Technician Courses—The beginnings of technician training date from the early 1950's and were a result of the efforts of the engineering profession to specify a role for a highly-trained person whose qualifications were derived, not from study in a university school of engineering, but from theoretical studies taken in conjunction with industrial experience. The New Zealand Certificate of Engineering was introduced in 1954. This led, in 1960, to the establishment of the Technicians Certification Authority to prescribe courses and syllabuses and conduct examinations for technicians, and to grant diplomas or certificates.

The term "technician" covers a wide field, but national New Zealand Certificate courses have been devised for engineering, draughting, draughting (architectural), science, building, land surveying, quantity surveying, and commerce. In addition, there is a certificate in garage management, and courses leading to technicians' certificates in radio telegraph and telephone engineering, surveying, automotive engineering, electricity, and civil draughting, and for forest rangers and hospital officers. The instruction for New Zealand Certificate courses is part-time, or by regular intermittent periods in full-time classes, or by correspondence from the Technical Correspondence Institute supplemented in science and workshop subjects by short practical courses at an institute. In a few cases, study can be taken at full-time courses in a technical institute, but for the first 2 or 3 years only. All New Zealand Certificates require students to be suitably employed during the last 2 stages of the course.

During the last 15 years there has been a spectacular increase in the range of technician courses and the number of students studying for New Zealand Certificates. New Zealand Certificates awarded annually have increased from 29 in 1960 to 974 in 1975.

Apprenticeship training accounts for over 40 percent of the enrolment load of technical institutes. Examination prescriptions for a full range of trade courses and shorthand typing are prescribed by the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, which conducts 2 qualifying and trade certificate examinations for apprenticeship, and usually an advanced trade certificate examination to be taken at about the end of the apprenticeship. Up to 31 March 1975, this Board has issued 41,881 New Zealand trade certificates and 11,135 Advanced Trade Certificates.

Apprentices in almost all trades are obliged to spend at least 3 years in vocational part-time studies. However, the long established pattern where apprentices attend evening theory classes and short block or day release courses for practical training, is undergoing a radical change. An incentives scheme, approved by Government in 1974, subsidises the wages of apprentices on block training and encourages the adoption of lengthened block courses, particularly in the first year of training.

In addition to the national trade and technician courses, there are a large number of courses available which have been organised regionally to meet local demands. These include courses in commerce, work study, electronic data processing, journalism, and in industrial and commercial design. In addition, instruction is given on the examination syllabuses devised by independent organisations such as the New Zealand Society of Accountants, the Chartered Institute of Secretaries, and New Zealand Institute of Valuers.

Statistics of students taking full-year courses in technical education at 1 July 1975 are shown in the following table. Courses are classified according to the International Standard Classification Level of Education.

Full-time Courses: As at 1 July 1975MalesFemalesTotal Students
Level 3   
  Fine or applied arts159172331
  Commercial and business211,3091,330
  Medical and paramedical69283352
  Trade, craft, and industry23873311
  Other courses352863
Level 5   
  Commerce and business studies219128347
  Science241236
  Medical and paramedical146443589
  Engineering32731358
  Trade, craft, and industry25227
  Other courses276996
Totals1,2902,5503,840
Part-time Courses: As at 1 July 1975Day or Day and Evening CoursesEvening Courses OnlyCorrespondence CoursesMaleFemaleTotal
Level 3      
Technicians' Certification Authority courses80651,4621,566411,607
Apprentice4,1998,44911,47223,25586524,120
Vocational5,51817,1414,37311,88015,15227,032
Level 5      
Technicians' Certification Authority courses4,7091,6052,6967,4671,5439,010
Professional and advanced technical3,6934,8642,4488,5902,41511,005
Level 9      
Non-vocational4,04241,2481,38613,30733,36946,676
Total22,24173,37223,83766,06553,385119,450
Block Courses Held During 1975Student-weeksMalesFemalesTotal Students
Trade courses74,10319,90564820,553
Technicians Certification Authority courses and N.Z. Certificate courses11,2872,2102262,436
Other courses18,1902,7466223,368
Totals103,58024,8611,49626,357

New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute—The Department of Education established the Technical Correspondence School (now the Technical Correspondence Institute) in 1946, and from small beginnings, with a staff of a half dozen or so, this institute now employs over 450 full-time staff. With over 20,000 students on the roll, the Technical Correspondence Institute is easily the biggest single educational institution in the country. It teaches one-third of all students enrolled at technical institutes in New Zealand. The Institute writes, illustrates, and prints the material for all the courses offered by it, as well as writing and publishing authoratitive textbooks on technical subjects with accent on New Zealand law, practice, and conditions. The eight text books at present in print are widely used not only by Technical Correspondence Institute students but also by all other technical teaching institutions, tradesmen and technicians, and even the general public.

The Technical Correspondence Institute parallels the teaching standards of other technical institutes, and also provides instruction in many subjects not taught elsewhere. Of the apprentices who sit the annual examinations of the Trades Certification Board, some 40 percent are directed to enrol at the Technical Correspondence Institute.

The Institute also prepares a large percentage of candidates for the Technicians Certification Authority examinations in engineering, building, commerce, draughting, and science as well as for other professional and industrial examinations. Voluntary students studying for advanced trade, technician or professional qualifications comprise about two-thirds of the roll The Technical Correspondence Institute offers over 900 subjects, from ladies' hairdressing, plumbing, and agriculture to airline pilots' licence and professional accountancy. To enrol at the Technical Correspondence Institute students must be engaged in the vocation relevant to their course of study, hence their correspondence studies are supported by practical experience. In some cases, laboratory work or practical instruction is required as part of the course. In such cases students attend short block courses at the Central Institute of Technology or other institute.

Vocational Training Council—This council was established by the Vocational Training Act 1968. Its responsibilities and activities are set out in Section 32, Employment. There are 26 industry training boards set up under the council.

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS OF LABOUR FORCE—The Census of Population and Dwellings includes a question on the highest educational and vocational qualifications obtained. An analysis concerning persons in the labour force in 1971 is set out in the following table; where persons have more than one qualification they have been included only once in the higher academic qualifications, for example, certificated teachers with a university degree are included in the university qualification group.

QualificationMalesFemalesTotal

*Includes nursing, commercial, engineering, draughting, etc.

†Includes electricians', plumbers', carpenters', joiners', radio and T.V. servicemen's, and motor mechanics'. The labour force at the 1971 census comprised 784,969 males and 333,866 females.

University—   
Doctorate1,3441161,460
Master's degree4,8741,2276,101
Bachelor's degree23,1324,91928,051
Diploma8,2931,79110,084
Other78482
Teacher's Certificate15,0681,73634,804
Secondary—   
Higher School Certificate or equivalent, University Scholarship8,5244,26812,792
University Entrance48,86225,40774,269
School Certificate67,14951,244118,393
Other32,81618,26251,078
Professional certificate*28,71031,12759,837
Trade certificate87,3241,76289,086
Other vocational19,8745,71525,589

NEW ZEALAND COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH—The Carnegie Corporation of New York was instrumental in founding the New Zealand Council for Educational Research in 1933 and supported it with grants for 10 years. Since 1945 the council has been supported principally by State funds, the remainder coming from contributions from educational bodies, philanthropic foundations, business organisations, and its own trading operations. It has remained, however, under independent control as provided for in the New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1945 (updated in 1972).

In its research programme, the council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and its main publications (55 research reports and 25 shorter studies in education) include critical surveys of major policy issues in New Zealand education and accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. These have brought about or helped reshape major developments in such areas as secondary, university, and adult education, intermediate schools, consolidation of rural schools, and care of children with special needs. The Council also publishes a number of periodical publications, news-letters, the New Zealand Journal for Educational Studies, and a special research information package for teachers.

Since the 1930s, the council has served as the main source of supply for overseas and locally standardised educational and psychological tests used by universities, Government agencies, hospitals, business firms, and schools. In 1965 the council established a special Test Development Division to produce achievement tests designed specifically to suit the curriculums of New Zealand schools. Known as the Progressive Achievement Tests, they are now used extensively in schools throughout this country, and also in Australia.

The council employs its own permanent research staff as well as temporary research fellows or project assistants, and it also assists honorary research workers in other institutions such as universities, teachers colleges, and schools. Its current research programme includes major projects related to educational planning, the supply of qualified people in the community, teaching practices, Maori and pre-school education, and services for children with special needs. The council also acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters and maintains seven local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Palmerston North, Hamilton, and Suva (Fiji).

MAORI EDUCATION FOUNDATION—The Maori Education Foundation Act 1961 established the Maori Education Foundation for the general purpose of promoting and encouraging the better education of Maoris and of providing financial assistance for that purpose. The capital resources of the foundation are $2,304,000. Some of the principal purposes for which the Board of Trustees is empowered to apply the income of the foundation include the educational and vocational training of Maoris; the provision of bursaries to assist Maoris attending secondary schools or any New Zealand or overseas university, agricultural college, or institution of similar status; the provision of post-graduate scholarships for Maoris holding university degrees or diplomas; and the making of special research or study grants to Maoris undertaking special research or study projects. The bulk of the foundation's income is expended on grants to individuals. During the 1976 academic year, assistance totalling $697,000 was granted to 1,450 pupils and students. The bulk of the grants were towards the cost of board and tuition of secondary boarding school pupils. In a number of cases, Foundation grants are a necessary supplement to other scholarships and awards. Financial assistance towards the cost of tertiary studies was made to 217 students in 1976.

POLYNESIAN EDUCATION FOUNDATION—In 1972 a Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation was set up on similar lines to the Maori Education Foundation. The aim is to assist New Zealand resident Pacific Islands families to further the education of their children.

EDUCATION OF MAORI AND PACIFIC ISLAND CHILDREN—During 1970 the National Advisory Committee on Maori Education, a body representative of the Departments of Education and of Maori Affairs, Maori leaders throughout the country, controlling authorities and teachers' organisations, held a number of meetings and study courses to establish priorities in the many proposals advanced by the department, the advisory committee, and teachers to improve the education of Maoris. The report of the committee was published in 1970, and during 1970 and 1971 action was taken to put many of the recommendations into effect, or to amend or accelerate moves already under way. The main recommendations concerned the pre-service and in-service training of teachers, the strengthening of the advisory service, extended provision for pre-school children, additional staffing for schools with a high proportion of Maori and Pacific Island pupils, the teaching of Maori language in schools and the introduction of studies in Maori in past and present New Zealand society as a part of the Forms I-IV social studies syllabus.

Policies have been introduced to meet these recommendations, especially through teacher training. All teachers' colleges now have courses in Maori language and Maori studies, and a special one-year course to train Maori-English speakers to teach Maori in secondary schools, began in 1974. Recently emphasis has been placed on educational provision for Pacific Islanders living in New Zealand. The establishment of a Pacific Islanders Educational Resource Centre, an English language teaching unit, and a supplementary training course for Pacific Island-trained teachers are evidence of this.

The educational performance and progress of Maori and Pacific Island children as a whole group has not equalled that of other New Zealand children for a variety of complex reasons, largely linguistic and cultural. Generally, Maori and Pacific Island children have not stayed on as long at secondary school and relatively few of those doing so have continued their education at the tertiary level. In some cases, this has not been possible economically. Strenuous efforts have been made, particularly in recent years, to encourage Maori children to continue their education by increasing the appreciation of their problems on the part of teachers, by creating school situations conducive to a desire for further education, and by involving parents more closely in their children's education. Practical assistance has been given by increasing the number and value of scholarships awarded each year by the Department of Education. The Maori Education Foundation has also given valuable help to Maoris, at the senior levels of education particularly. The importance of, and the opportunities available in, vocational education beyond the secondary school level have been brought to the notice of young Maoris through the schools and through vacation courses. Special trade training courses for Maori boys have been set up and extended.

If the efforts to upgrade the education of Maori and Pacific Island children are measured solely in terms of the proportion who pass subjects in the School Certificate examination, who obtain a trade certificate or a New Zealand certificate at the technician's level, or who complete a university degree, it is obvious that there is still much room for improvement. But it is fair to state that a good deal has been achieved at all levels of education and that there is a greater awareness of the value of education on the part of children and parents. In the whole country, too, there is a better informed appreciation of Maori and Pacific Island Polynesian society and culture and of the need for special measures so that all children of these races in New Zealand receive the maximum benefit from the opportunities offered them.

CONTINUING EDUCATION—Under the Education Amendment Act 1974, a new definition of "continuing education" was introduced which, among other effects, removed a previous legal distinction between non-vocational and vocational education.

In 1973 a feasibility study was published on the setting up of a community college in Hawke's Bay and the college opened in 1975. Further studies have been conducted and one on Northland has been completed.

National Council of Adult Education—The functions and powers of the National Council of Adult Education are set out in the Adult Education Act 1963. The council advises the University Grants Committee, the Director-General of Education and other bodies on adult education, co-ordinates and conducts pilot projects and experiments, maintains a national library and documentation centre on adult education, and publishes occasional papers and reports as well as a periodical entitled Continuing Education in New Zealand.

University Extension—Although full responsibility and control of their continuing education activities rests with the universities, they use various systems to ascertain the views and in some cases to seek advice from various community interests.

The typical extension department in each university has a director in charge and a staff of lecturers in a range of academic disciplines. In addition to teaching, the lecturers may plan and develop sections of the department's programme or have special responsibility for a geographical area and its programme. All 6 universities now carry out extension work, and show marked differences in their approaches and systems of organisation. A large number of part-time lecturers supplement the activity of the full-time staff (numbering about 40). The work is carried out by various methods—lecture courses, study conferences, seminars, schools of varying length (both residential and non-residential), and correspondence courses. While most universities continue to provide substantial extension programmes of liberal studies for the general public, there has been a rapid increase in programmes designed for specialised groups, largely occupational. Some of these are national in scope.

Secondary Schools—Most organised adult education is being done by evening classes in secondary schools. Since the revision of the School Certificate regulations to allow single subject passes, there has been some increase in adult classes leading to the School Certificate Examination, but there is a very wide range of other examinable and non-examinable courses. A new provision to the Education Act in 1975 allows adults to return full-time or part-time to secondary schools, in day classes. There has also been an increase in the number of technical institutes which cater for a wide variety of education interests.

Correspondence Education: Main agencies are the Correspondence School (about 5,500 adult students), the extramural studies of Massey University (4,300), and the Technical Correspondence Institute (20,000).

Voluntary Agencies—Many voluntary organisations make some provision for continuing education. For most of them, such as the Play Centres Federation, continuing education is incidental to other purposes. The following two organisations, however, have continuing education as their primary purpose.

Workers' Educational Association—District councils of the Workers' Educational Association exist in Auckland, West Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Canterbury, Otago, and Southland, and are now funded annually through the Department of Education. In Auckland and Canterbury there is a full time organising tutor provided by the technical institute. District councils, in their own right, organise additional courses, summer schools, public forums and seminars. The co-ordinating body is the New Zealand Workers' Education Association which also publishes the WEA Review.

Countrywomen's Co-ordinating Committee—This national liaison committee of the Country-women's Institute and the Women's Division of Federated Farmers has regional committees at Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin and over 50 district committees. The organisation co-operates with other adult education organisations and also arranges classes of special interest to women.

Community Centres—Community centres on an experimental basis were opened some 20 or more years ago at Feilding, Christchurch and Westport. These centres received some assistance, directly or indirectly, from public funds. A new "Community Action Programme" in the Wairarapa region is being supported by Government under the provisions for community centres.

INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION—A new division in the Department of Education, the International Education division, has recently been set up. This division, in liaison with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, organises training programmes in New Zealand for trainees from other countries, answers inquiries from overseas about the New Zealand education system, arranges for the placement of Colombo Plan students, administers the Commonwealth Education Scheme, the New Zealand-Japan exchange programme, and other matters on international education.

In the Pacific, the Department of Education on request fills about 130 teaching and educational administrative positions. Officers and teachers serving in the Islands have their service, grading and superannuation rights protected. Advisory visits are made to most of the Islands, and supplies of resource material and apparatus are sent regularly to some countries. The division is continuing to print books in the vernacular for some areas.

The International Education Division operates a scholarship system giving Island students education and training not otherwise available. In 1976, 305 students attended New Zealand schools, trade centres, teachers' colleges, universities, Government departments, private firms, and (abroad) the University of the South Pacific, Fiji School of Medicine, Fiji School of Nursing, and the Honiara Technical Institute. The same year, 19 teachers from the Pacific attended a 3-month in-service multiple class course at Napier. The numbers of students in Island schools sitting New Zealand examinations continues to increase; in 1975 there were 7,492 candidates from 84 Island schools for the New Zealand School Certificate compared with 6,116 from 76 schools in 1974, and 1,566 candidates from 38 schools fro the New Zealand University Entrance Examination compared with 1,403 from 37 schools in 1974.

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development—Membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development in 1973 enabled New Zealand to participate in the activities of its Education Committee. In 1975 New Zealand also became a member of OECD's Centre for Educational Research and Innovation and the programme on educational building.

7 B—SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC SERVICES

"Science, as a dominant factor in determining the beliefs of educated men, has existed for about 300 years; as a source of economic technique, for about 150 years. In this brief period it has proved itself an incredibly powerful revolutionary force. When we consider how recently it has risen to power, we find ourselves forced to believe that we are at the very beginning of its work in transforming human life. What its future effects will be is a matter of conjecture . . ." (The Impact of Science on Society, Bertrand Russell, 1952.)

At the time this statement was made, there was little general concern about the future effects of science, but 20 years later the Club of Rome published a scientific report, The Limits to Growth, which had an unprecedented influence on world political thought. It is still being debated, not only by scientists but also by politicians, economists, and industrialists. In New Zealand one repercussion has been the setting up in mid-1976 of a Commission for the Future, with a brief to study population patterns, pressures on world resources, long-term implications of communications and transport requirements, social development, and the role of science in influencing the future.

The UN Conference on Human Settlements in Vancouver in 1976 attracted an unusually large contingent from New Zealand, having been preceded by scientific studies and close co-ordination of effort among New Zealand scientists, some of whom are associated with the UNESCO Man and Biosphere (MAB) project. This, too, showed a preoccupation with the future, MAB being conceived for the purpose of designing rational management systems able to maintain the capacity of the biosphere to sustain life and resource production.

The world energy crisis has also had its repercussions in New Zealand, one being the recognition by the National Research Advisory Council that "energy" deserves a place in their science activity classification. The New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee in its second year of activity initiated a study of alternative energy scenarios and these have now been published. The policy options chosen were: continuation of present trends of energy usage; a low-pollution moderate-growth society; and a limited-growth society. One possible source of energy for New Zealand is nuclear power, and a Fact-Finding Committee and Royal Commission on this subject are both reporting in 1977.

Another Royal Commission reporting in 1977 on scenarios for the future was that on Contraception, Abortion, and Sterilisation. Although much of the public debate has been narrowly based, scientific submissions on the broader demographic issues have been considered too.

A corollary to these official manifestations of concern for the future has been the extensive coverage of scientific topics in the media. Newspapers have suddenly found a need to employ science reporters. There has been an increased readiness of scientists to express in public their concern for the social consequencies of scientific and technological development. Pressure groups have been particularly active over environmental issues, including the destruction of native forests and the introduction of nuclear power. Because much of their technical information has been supplied unofficially by scientists, many of whom work in Government departments, secrecy has also become a public issue. Several of the Government departments most affected have made it clear that their normal policy is to publish the results of their scientific investigations.

New Zealand was recently a signatory to the UNESCO International Instrument on the Status of Scientific Researchers, which encourages public authorities to allow scientists to express themselves freely on the human, social, or ecological value of projects, to help define the aims of programmes on which they are engaged, and to contribute constructively to the achievement of national goals and the enhancement of people's well-being.

The lively intellectual atmosphere now seen to surround science holds many advantages for Government departments and for New Zealand. For example the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, in staging a mobile display of its activities and a series of open days at each major research centre to commemorate its 50th anniversary, has been overwhelmed by the support for its work shown by the public and reflected in generous coverage in the newspapers and on local radio programmes. A spin-off has been that many young people have shown a keen interest in the possibility of a scientific centre to commemorate its 60th anniversary, has been overwhelmed by the support for its work shown science courses. Radio New Zealand, in collaboration with the Royal Society of New Zealand, has organised a series of popular science programmes, and some of the value of these has shown itself in the breadth of interest and the inventiveness shown by school children in submitting projects to science fairs sponsored by the Royal Society and other organisations and supported by the government, local authorities, and science-based industries. Inventiveness in adults has been supported by awards from television authorities, and finance and industrial companies. A wide range of inventions has been sponsored by the Department of Trade and Industry through the Inventions Development Authority, the Industrial Research and Development Grants Scheme, and the National Research and Development Scheme (all administered by the Development Finance Corporation). Scientists brought up in the present atmosphere are likely to be more aware of social and environmental problems that unwise exploitation of their talents can bring, and one might expect that whatever transformations to human life arise in the future, they will not harm the quality of life.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—With a view to the future, the department has been exploring the possibility of using operational research techniques, as applied in industry, to problem-solving in scientific research. The complex problems arising in science involve interaction between technology and economics on the one hand and environmental and social effects on the other. Because the customary single-discipline approach in science has failed to account for the side-effects of science applied in technological advances, the DSIR decided to test "think tank" techniques such as "brainstorming" and "lateral thinking" as a means of evolving socially responsible scientific research programmes. In the first instance the techniques were applied to molecular biology—a project resulting in the publication of a bulletin, Creative Thinking at Cellular Level—but they have also been used on technology transfer, and on a regional model for the future to fit the world model commissioned by the Club of Rome.

Agricultural Production and Processing—Much of the creative thinking about molecular biology was biased towards agricultural production, as is appropriate for a department which uses over one-third of its staff on agricultural research. The matters thought to be of greatest future concern in agriculture included: establishing the limits to productivity; evaluating existing native and exotic plants for more productive use of particular environments, especially difficult environments such as hill country, erosion scars, wetlands, salt marshes, and aquatic environments; breeding new species and varieties, but conserving genetic variability; making greater use of by-products and organic wastes; investigating the efficiency of the use of fertilisers, especially phosphates, particularly in connection with mycorrhizal fungi (i.e., fungi involved in a beneficial intimate relationship with the roots of higher plants); and elucidating the defence mechanisms of plants against insects and microbes.

As indicated in last year's Official Yearbook (p. 223-5), considerable research is already being done on many of these topics. Aspects of productivity are being investigated by the Crop Research, Grasslands, and Plant Diseases Divisions in field trials over the country and by the Plant Physiology Division in the controlled-climate laboratory at Palmerston North.

A basic prerequisite in suiting plants to particular environments is to demarcate and classify the environments and conduct an inventory of plants occupying them. The Physics and Engineering Laboratory is collaborating with the US National Aeronautics and Space Administration in their Landsat-II satellite remote-sensing programme. An agreement was signed recently under which DSIR acts as the central clearing house for both receipt of data from NASA and input of New Zealand data to the pool of earth resource information.

As well as covering specialist disciplines of plant ecology, physiology, breeding, and nutrition in relation to pasture plants. Grasslands Division has five research committees to deal with projects for specific regions and their particular farming systems. These committees integrate the research findings of this division with those of other DSIR divisions (such as Plant Physiology, Applied Biochemistry, and Entomology) and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and elsewhere. For high-country farming, prospects for irrigation, production of seeds of clovers, and broadening the range of pasture species are being developed. In other regions, research is concentrated on filling feed ‘gaps’, in winter for dryland and hill country, and in late summer for Northland. There is intense effort on ameliorating wintering systems for sheep.

Considerable effort has been devoted to using clovers for nitrogen fixation in pastures, and this has become even more important with recent concern over the side-effects of fertiliser nitrogen on the environment and the rapidly increasing cost of this fertiliser. At Applied Biochemistry Division, integrated studies involve nitrogen fixation, photosynthesis, and mineral cycling in the soil-plant-animal system.

New Zealand is particularly active in developing alternative methods of pest control that will reduce the use of toxic chemicals, because insecticide residues in exported animal products are now required to be absent or extremely low. Work at Entomology Division towards control of the grass grub, our most economically harmful pest, includes basic research on the chemicals in pastures which attract it, as a preliminary to pasture breeding studies or for formulation of poisoned baits, and research on bacterial or virus diseases that specifically attack the pest. Another aspect of biological control is the elimination of weeds, and experimental work is being done on the suitability of various insects for controlling thistles in pastures and arable land.

Breeding of new varieties of plants with improved resistance to pests or diseases or with improved yields can result in big increases in production without the need for greatly increased input, and this is a major objective of Crop Research Division. Some success has been had in producing varieties of peas resistant to wilt, and ryecorn resistant to rust, and work continues on brassicas resistant to aphids and viruses, and potatoes resistant to viruses. Several high-yielding cereals have been produced, for example, varieties of barley, maize, and semi-dwarf wheats. Sorghums and various subtropical grasses are being evaluated as forage crops. Increased emphasis is placed on crops for processing, and work is being done on potatoes for canning, instant mash, and crisps, and on peas and tomatoes that can be harvested mechanically. New types of oilseed crops are being evaluated for a vegetable-oil industry, peppermint is being developed for its essential oil, and wild Solanum species are being developed as a new drug-producing crop.

Soil-borne diseases of crops are difficult to control, and, as well as breeding for resistance, work is being done at Plant Diseases Division on other means of overcoming these diseases. Work is also being done on fruit, both with a view to preventing problems such as bitter pit in apples and frost damage to apricots, and on developing less well known fruits such as kiwifruit and tamarillos for overseas markets.

As well as giving high yields, wheat varieties must have improved milling and baking qualities. At the Wheat Research Institute fundamental work on the milling process is being done, partly with the aim of simplifying testing for milling quality.

The nutritive value of the proteins in foods and feeds is investigated at Applied Biochemistry Division, particular emphasis being given to leaf protein concentrate as a food for animals and, ultimately, for humans. Special effort is devoted to the flavour of mutton. Studies also include the possibility of using other natural resources such as seaweeds and wood wastes.

Most of the other agricultural processing work is done in support of work at research associations to which DSIR contributes finance, such as the Dairy Research Institute, the Meat Industry Research Institute, the Wool Research Organisation, and the Leather and Shoe Research Association. A noteworthy current project at the Dairy Research Institute is the attempt to produce a butter that will spread easily when taken from the refrigerator, and the low-melting butter that has been marketed in New Zealand is being superseded by an improved type with more of the spreading characteristics of margarine. At the Meat Industry Research Institute work is being done both on speeding up conditioning time by high-voltage stimulation immediately after slaughter and on improvements to tenderness by hanging carcasses in the squatting position. Expansion of facilities and staff, for studies on hygiene of meatworks and diversification of products and markets, is completed.

Part of the work of the Wool Research Organisation has been devoted to improving the acceptability of New Zealand crossbred wool for yarns. A range of acceptable semi-worsted hand-knitting yarns has been produced, and the self-twist spinning machine has been found to be adaptable to these slightly coarser wools. A new method of making yarns with variegated colours has been patented.

At the Leather and Shoe Research Association, Palmerston North, studies are continuing on the prevention of grain defects in sheepskins.

The Logging Industry Research Association undertakes research into all aspects of logging, from extraction from the forest to semi-processing and transport to the factory or dockside.

Other Primary Production—Other work on forestry is done, in consultation with the Forest Service, by Ecology Division and Soil Bureau, both dealing with aspects of the ecology of native forests. Ecology Division's main interest in this respect is in the food and population changes of opossums in the Orongorongo Valley.

Staff at Chemistry Division are investigating the chemical composition of radiata pine wood and bark, and the possibility of commercial production of tall oil, and the Physics and Engineering Laboratory is studying wood structure using the scanning electron microscope and has produced original and attractive books on the subject.

Geological Survey has intensified the search for exploitable industrial minerals and rocks (see Minerals section). The survey is also the permanent repository for all earth science information, including oil prospecting done by private groups.

The Soil Bureau has surveyed peat deposits from Chatham Island, Chemistry Division is investigating the potential of peat for yielding wax similar to montan wax, and the possibility of using peat after wax extraction for fuel, fertiliser, or plant growth medium is also being examined. Chemistry Division has set up a pilot plant for producing titanium dioxide from West Coast ilmenite. The Institute of Nuclear Sciences has found that the Waikato River has a potentially useful content of heavy water.

In collaboration with the Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association, considerable work is being done on means of producing usable fertilisers from Christmas Island "B" and "C" phosphates

Energy—The department deals with all aspects of prospecting for coal, natural gas and oil, and geo-thermal steam. Mathematical models of the extent of the geothermal resources and suitable rates of exploitation have been developed, and gas fields are also modelled to give a closer idea of the extent of resource available. In addition sources of uranium, such as phosphate fertilisers, have been investigated.

As well as production of energy sources, advice on conversion and distribution of energy is given, mainly to other Government departments and local authorities. For example, advice is given about corrosion prevention in turbine and other equipment in geothermal power stations, in electrical conductors, and in underground gas pipelines. Mathematical assistance has been given in computer modelling of the electricity supply system, and geological advice has been given on the siting of power stations, a topic with heightened emphasis in the fact-finding that is being done on the potential for nuclear power in an earthquake-prone country.

One of the most productive lines of research is on district heating schemes. More energy is lost in cooling water that is discharged as "waste heat" from thermal power stations than is generated in electricity, a considerable proportion of which is used to heat domestic water to the same temperature as that discharged from the power station to pollute the adjacent waters. The department is hoping to transfer overseas technology to New Zealand conditions. It is also looking into the possibility of recharging geothermal sources with waste hot water.

The Physics and Engineering Laboratory has patented a domestic solar heater which subsequently has been licensed for commercial production. Heat pumps, which are like a refrigerator in reverse, giving about three times as much domestic space heating energy as is put into the pump from the electricity supply, are also being tested, together with combined solar heater/heat pump and solar heater/district heating schemes.

One of the most urgent needs is for assurance of supplies of liquid fuels for motor vehicles. The concept of "energy farming", that is, production of energy sources from crops, is promising, and both methyl alcohol for addition to petrol, and petroleum hydrocarbons themselves can be obtained from wood. Oil production from coal is being investigated, as is the extraction of liquid fuels from municipal wastes.

Manufacturing—A Science in Industry Unit co-ordinates and facilitates liaison with industry through the various divisions dealing with industrial problems, and advises the department on how to match its allocation of resources to the needs of industry. One result of this has been the establishment of a Testing Laboratory Registration Council (TELARC), under which laboratories have their testing facilities certified. This enables companies to adhere more closely to standards of machining strength, safety, and so on required of exported manufactured goods. The standards of any laboratory must be calibrated periodically against the national standards held at the Physics and Engineering Laboratory. The need for making accurate and reproducible measurements becomes greater as industrial technology increases in sophistication.

The Auckland and Christchurch Industrial Development Divisions and the Physics and Engineering Laboratory (in Wellington) between them provide an extensive liaison service for all kinds of industry in all parts of New Zealand. Each has its own staff of liaison officers who make contact and pass on information about industrial needs to appropriate expert consultants in their industrial division or in other industrially oriented divisions, such as Chemistry Division and Institute of Nuclear Sciences. In all the help to industry, close collaboration is maintained between several divisions, the research associations, and university engineering departments.

The Physics and Engineering Laboratory has a management advisory service, consisting of scientists with direct working experience in industry who advise on production control and costing so that technical advice offered is used most effectively. The group advises firms on use of computers, and has published a directory of all known computer installations in New Zealand.

Other experience with computers, in control of laboratory experiments, is also being applied in industry, for example in process control for milk-powder drying and in electronic weighing and grading of sheep carcasses.

Advice has been offered on various aspects of automation, particularly on numerical control of machine tools, a procedure well suited to short-run production of precisioned equipment.

Equipment now in use at Auckland Industrial Development Division enables production machining problems to be reproduced in the laboratory, and there is a "quick-stop" facility so that equipment is used to show where improvements can be made in minimising cutting forces, in optimising tool type and drill speeds, in lubrication, and so on. A widespread cause of lowered machine performances is incorrect balancing and excessive vibration, and advice on routine balancing has been successfully applied in industries ranging from papermaking to power generation.

This division has designed and built a carbon dioxide laser primarily in response to industrial inquiries about the use of lasers for cutting and drilling materials that are difficult to deal with by conventional methods.

Apart from standards testing and advisory work, the Christchurch Industrial Development Division has designed and built prototype industrial machinery, for example a knotting machine for producing string loops for holding lamb carcasses in position in the freezer, and a hydraulically operated wool-coring machine, for extracting samples from the highly compressed wood-hard bales used in recent years.

Projects tackled range from developing strong light plastic sheeting to replace glass in glasshouses, to trials in impregnating wooden golf-club heads with plastic (in collaboration with the Institute of Nuclear Sciences).

Apart from pilot-plant and other studies towards development of new products in the way of minerals, fertilisers, and fine chemicals already mentioned and work on aspects of energy production, especially from geothermal sources, Chemistry Division is involved in helping industry control its undesirable by-products. A noteworthy project, in combination with the Wool Research Organisation, is the cleaning of woolscour effluents; this has the added advantage that the lanolin removed from the effluent is marketable. The Institute of Nuclear Sciences also is actively involved in pollution control studies and uses radioactive tracers and mathematical models to simulate tidal motion and predict sewage dispersion.

Building and Construction, Transport—Most of the work of DSIR in these spheres is done in support of various research associations and other Government departments. A wide variety of building materials, such as paints and wood finishes, adhesives, and plastics, metal, plaster, and stone components is tested for suitability for the job, strength, permanence, and the presence of undesirable chemicals.

A special study in DSIR is the design and construction of buildings to resist earthquake damage. A design in which load-bearing and vibration-damping structures are separated, leading to more efficient functioning of each, has been patented. The Building Research Association has been studying timber house framing with a view to revision of the code of practice, and has done considerable work towards preparation of a New Zealand code for fire resistance of buildines.

The Concrete Research Association, in collaboration with Chemistry Division, has been studying the behaviour of aggregates in relation to dimensional stability of concrete, and the use of pumice as a concrete aggregate. Work at the Pottery and Ceramics Research Association has dealt with bond strength between mortar and brick, and the testing of structural strength of brick masonry walls.

A problem that is becoming increasingly recognised is that of noise, the main source of which is road traffic, and DSIR has surveyed various urban and suburban areas to help specify requirements for insulation against noise. Studies have also been made of airport noise.

The Physics and Engineering Laboratory has constructed a portable light-meter for use in assessing the influence of inadequate street lighting on traffic accidents.

Natural Environment—A large part of DSIR's work concerns provision of information about the environment, and this work has been extended by the need for specialised comment on environmental impact reports. The information should help to minimise environmental deterioration and be a guide to the wise management of natural resources. Many projects are handled in co-operation with other Government departments, and several are done on a contract basis by university departments.

Geophysics Division is investigating a possible physical basis for earthquake prediction and a warning system for volcanic activity. The Seismological Observatory maintains a network of recording stations throughout New Zealand and extending to the islands of the southwest Pacific and to Antarctica.

Of continuing importance is the regional surveying of geophysical properties, geological strata, and soil parent materials. The Geology of New Zealand, recording in two volumes 100 years of geological observation, has been published, and recently completed work means that comparable sets of maps on geology, soils, and parent rocks on a scale of 1: 1,000,000 are available.

A network of stations attached to Physics and Engineering Laboratory studies various aspects of the upper atmosphere, such as its physical properties, and electromagnetic and corpuscular radiation streaming through. They also provide information to help correlate conditions in the ionosphere with meteorological phenomena. In a joint project with the Meteorological Service, acoustic radar equipment has been built to provide knowledge of changes in structure of the lower atmosphere. This will also provide information about atmospheric "inversions" that trap gaseous pollutants over industrialised areas. Precise measurements are being made of the increases in carbon dioxide in the atmosphere resulting from combustion of fossil fuels.

The Oceanographic Institute is well on the way to completing its survey of the ocean floor around New Zealand on a scale of 1: 1,000,000 and is carrying out more detailed seismic and magnetic surveys. Studies are being made of the sediments on the continental shelf and the slope, a practical outcome of this work being provision of guidance on the siting of oil and gas pipelines and power cable on the sea floor. The off-shore sea current circulation has been defined in general terms, and detailed surveys of particular areas such as the Foveaux Strait - East Cape region have begun. Marine minerals, such as manganese nodules, have been investigated with a view to commercial exploitation. Bathymetric surveys of major lakes have been made.

Additions to the series of monographs on the marine fauna of New Zealand are continually being produced as a basis for ecological studies concerned mainly with fish that feed on the sea floor and with all species in the food chain. A great deal is known now about diatoms and copepods in the plankton, which forms the first part of the food chain on which all life in the sea depends, but studies continue on the effects of variability of the environment and productivity of species themselves.

Part of Ecology Division based at Lake Taupo has started detailed studies of the lake and its catchment area and of other lakes in the Rotorua area. A complete registry of the nutrient status of lakes is being compiled. Ecology Division is also mapping the distribution of birds, lizards, frogs, and bats, and making complete studies of the ecology of various islands, e. g., Campbell Island and the Auckland Islands. Effects of birds and mammals on agricultural land and their ecology in forests are being studied.

Botany Division is completing a survey of all reserves and some national parks. Volumes 3 and 4 of Flora of New Zealand, dealing with grasses and monocotyledonous weeds respectively, are being compiled, and work continues on production of publications in the series Chromosome Atlas of the New Zealand Flora.

Work in the Antarctic is described in the Overseas Territories section.

Scientific Services—Chemical work in the investigation of crime and toxicology, and chemical and bacteriological examination of food, pharmaceuticals, and water supplies form a large part of Chemistry Division's service to other departments. The department undertakes blood alcohol analyses on behalf of the Ministry of Transport and the Police department. Chemistry Division is also called on to advise on safe handling of toxic chemicals, and there have been several occasions when a harbour board or a fire service has asked for help in dealing with a chemical spillage.

The Science Information Division edits and publishes all the DSIR publications and maps mentioned and many others, and offers a publication service to all New Zealand scientists in its research journals, New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, New Zealand Journal of Experimental Agriculture, New Zealand Journal of Botany, New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics, New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, New Zealand Journal of Science, and New Zealand Journal of Zoology.

The department's reputation for expertise and standards of service is high with the general public and overseas, as well as in scientific circles in New Zealand. Its activities, achievements, and organisation are described in detail in the annual publication DSIR Research, available from the department, and its annual report to Parliament, available from the Government Printer.

Grants paid in 1975-76 to research and allied institutions by DSIR are shown in the following table.

InstitutionAmount
 $(000)
Universities (Auckland, Canterbury, Lincoln, Massey, Otago) and University Grants Committee217
Research associations— 
Building Research Association357
Coal Research Association141
Concrete Research Association65
Dairy Research Institute601
Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association118
Launderers, Drycleaners, and Dyers Institute32
Leather and Shoe Research Association71
Logging Industry Research Association20
Meat Industries Research Institute488
Pottery and Ceramics Research Association57
Wool Research Organisation397
New Buildings175
Overseas institutions— 
Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux96
International Atomic Energy Agency65
Others23
New Zealand institutions— 
Carter Observatory53
Cawthron Institute152
Royal Society of New Zealand107
Testing Laboratory Registration Council56
Energy Research and Development Committee499
Total3,790

Staff numbers and expenditure by DSIR for 1975-76 in scientific activity classifications are given in the following table.

ActivityStaff as at 31 March 1976Departmental ExpenditureGrantsTotal
  $(000)$(000)$(000)
Agriculture—Production7768,3053328,637
Agriculture—Processing757721,5642,336
Building and construction869576311,588
Manufacturing2913,2122303,442
Minerals1281,4871931,680
Natural environment4305,2831905,473
Energy research--499499
Public building construction-2,241-2,241
Other activities2983,4141513,565
Total2,08425,6713,79029,461

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—Almost all agricultural research within the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is now conducted by the Research Division, which has a staff of approximately 260 scientists and 540 technicians. The headquarters is at Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre, Hamilton.

Some servicing activities are carried out for farmers and advisory personnel. Chief among these is soil-testing. Each year in two soil-testing laboratories about 60,000 samples of soil from farms and experimental areas are analysed for pH and major elements as a basis for fertiliser recommendations by farm advisers.

Research is carried out at seven main stations, at some smaller experimental stations and areas, and on farmers' properties throughout the country. Major work areas of the seven stations are: animal and plant production (Invermay); animal production and some local diseases (Ruakura Animal); animal health (Wallaceville); hill country (Whatawhata); soil fertility and plant production (Ruakura and Rukuhia Soil and Field); irrigation (Winchmore); and horticulture (Levin). In addition, field research staff investigate local problems throughout the country and test, on experimental areas and farms in a range of environments, the findings of research stations. A biometrics unit provides statistical services for research workers.

Major Agricultural Research Projects—Because of the vital importance of fertilisers to agricultural production, considerable work continues to be done on the fertiliser requirements of soils throughout New Zealand. Most major soil groups are being studied in detail. There are few, if any, soils or areas where it has not been possible to establish pastures satisfactorily with suitable fertilisers, seed, inoculants, and in some cases drainage. Problem areas such as sands, peats, gumlands, pakihi soils, and high country (up to about 900 m) have been successfully and profitably improved, using specialised techniques and often specialised equipment.

From animal production research, targets have been set which are acting as a spur to producers. Six hundred to seven hundred kilograms of milkfat or beef per hectare; 340 kg of lamb and over 110 kg of wool—these are the levels of production which have been achieved from selectively-bred animals grazed on productive, well-utilised pastures. Studies of different classes of sheep in relation to beef cattle have provided valuable information on the most profitable type of stock to run.

Major sheep and cattle breed evaluation and improvement projects, in which both local and exotic stock are represented, fall into two groups: collaborative studies on properties administered by other Government departments, and integrated breeding studies on research stations in both the North and South Islands.

Animal health research is concerned with the diseases which afflict sheep and cattle. Internal parasites, mastitis, salmonellosis, facial eczema, bloat, tuberculosis, brucellosis, and hypomagnesaemia are all being investigated with the aim of finding more effective methods of prevention and control.

As farming becomes more intensive, diseases can have much greater effects, and science must continue to find answers to existing problems, and to new ones as they arise.

OTHER GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries are responsible for nearly 73 percent of the total Government science expenditure. An increasing number of other departments do, however, undertake or sponsor research. The departments concerned and the expenditure involved are listed in the table on page 215, and more details of their research activities are contained in the appropriate departmental sections.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH OUTSIDE GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS—The bulk of university funding comes direct from the Department of Education's Vote but university research is funded through the University Grants Committee. A number of Government departments are, however, substantially increasing their contact with the universities by granting research contracts for specific programmes of research.

There are 11 industry research associations which are funded jointly by Government and the industry they serve. The present associations are the Building Research Association, the New Zealand Coal Research Association, the New Zealand Dairy Research Institute, the New Zealand Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association, the Research Institute of Launderers, Drycleaners and Dyers, the New Zealand Leather and Shoe Research Association, the Logging Industry Research Association, the Meat Industry Research Institute of New Zealand, the New Zealand Concrete Research Association, the New Zealand Pottery and Ceramics Research Association and the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand. The total cost of the government funding for 1975-76 was $2,522,400. A new scheme which involved the classification of the associations into categories, with differing dollar-for-dollar subsidies, was introduced from 1 April 1975.

The only major endowed research organisation in New Zealand is the Cawthron Institute at Nelson which was established in 1920 with a bequest of $500,000 under the will of Thomas Cawthron. As the value of the investment of the bequest has declined the institute has received increasing income from other bequests, chemical services earnings, and from a Government grant which comprises about 46 percent of the institute's income.

The organisation of medical research is described in Section 5A, Health and Medical Services, under the headings Medical Research Council and National Health Institute.

THE PRESENT ORGANISATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH—Decisions on national scientific policies are made by the Minister of Science and Technology and the Cabinet, subject to the guidance and control of parliament during the annual consideration of the Estimates.

Scientific research in New Zealand is carried out by the research divisions of 14 Government departments, universities, joint Government/industry-funded research associations and private organisations, such as the Cawthron Institute, which receive government assistance. Accurate statistics on proportionate expenditure on research are not yet available but means of obtaining the necessary information are being studied, as the data is needed both for internal use and for OECD comparative purposes. It is certain, however, that the majority of research in New Zealand is funded by Government departments, of which 72.6 percent is expended by DSIR and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Advising the Government on a co-ordinated national policy for scientific research, which takes into consideration the work of all these agencies, is the role of the National Research Advisory Council (NRAC), which was established on 1 April 1964 to advise the Minister of Science and Technology on:

  1. the promotion and development of scientific research in New Zealand;

  2. the planning and co-ordination of scientific research and services in New Zealand, including:

    1. the determination of priorities among research activities of Government departments having regard to research done by other organisations;

    2. the provision of scholarships and fellowships and the promotion of the training of research workers;

    3. the association of Government with industry in the promotion of fundamental and applied research, including the promotion of research associations;

    4. the collection and dissemination of scientific information including the publication of reports and journals;

  3. the promotion of co-operation with the governments of, or organisations in, other countries, or with international organisations, in scientific matters;

  4. any other matters that are appropriate for the carrying out of any of the above-mentioned functions, or that are referred to it by the Minister.

The National Research Advisory Council Act 1963 provides for six members, including the chairman, to be appointed by the Governor-General and for three ex-officio members, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Director-General of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Secretary to the Treasury. The council is assisted by four advisory committees (each chaired by a council member), covering the fields of primary production, manufacturing and processing, environmental and energy research, and social services research.

By Government directive, all departmental proposals involving the establishment of new scientific activities or the major expansion, reduction, or modification of existing activities are referred to the council for evaluation, as are proposals likely to make substantial demands on scientific manpower or other scientific resources.

All Government science activities and science groups are dealt with in one forward programme, the Science Budget, which is prepared annually to assist the council in advising government on the appropriate allocation of resources to various areas of scientific activity. The Science Budget is an accumulation of the portions of the votes of Government departments expended on scientific research.

The following tables show the Government expenditure and manpower by department and scientific activity. Expenditure on public buildings is excluded.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY DEPARTMENT
DepartmentGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants*
1973-741974-751975-761973-741974-751975-76
*Included in gross expenditure in previous columns.
  $(000)  $(000) 
Agriculture and Fisheries10,71212,84914,802705593671
Defence1,0267841,214311
Education1,0051,1201059351,0331,084
Electricity1218247646
Forest Service3,3334,0705,165212952
Internal Affairs335460507-1-
Justice283648--1
Labour183242285766
Lands and Survey1516-151629
Maori Affairs21-214
DSIR18,92422,48223,4302,2192,7363,291
Social Welfare77121125459
State Services Commission435368---
Transport4,0944,3235,23426--
Works and Development2,1051,4531,705180186232
Total41,89448,02852,7124,1244,6135,426
GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY SCIENCE BUDGET ACTIVITIES
ActivityGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants
1973-741974-751975-761973-741974-751975-76

*The activity "Fundamental Research" has been deleted and the expenditure allocated to other activities.

Note—Government expenditure on buildings solely for scientific use is not included in the above tables. The figure for 1975-76 was $5,301,792.

  $(000)  $(000) 
Agriculture18,28921,25422,1872,1292,2372,569
Forestry3,8834,3485,481253273
Fisheries1,0321,2621,692172425
Minerals1,3471,4921,487149193193
Manufacturing2,2602,7723,212110119230
Building and construction1,2031,6561,410251450677
Transport83078393053574
Natural environment10,03110,84713,354352362440
Social sciences675870658264314379
Human health677838961161933
Fundamental research22-*-*11-*-*
Other scientific services1,6451,9061,340747806803
Total41,89548,02852,7124,1244,6135,426

SCIENCE BUDGET MANPOWER: STAFF CEILINGS 1975-76

Activity 
Agriculture2,031
Forestry489
Fisheries116
Minerals132
Manufacturing295
Building and construction137
Transport75
Natural environment1,065
Social sciences90
Human health85
Other scientific services120
Total4,635

GOVERNMENT RESEARCH EFFORT

Year Ended 31 MarchGross Expenditure on Science*Percentage of Total Government ExpenditureTotal Staff Employed
*Including expenditure on public buildings for science.
 $(000)  
197550,3731.204,379
197660,8081.134,583

One scheme which until 31 March 1977 was outside the Science Budget was that operated by the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee, which made grants totalling $498,900 during 1975-76. The Committee's operations are now within the Science Budget and will be recorded in future under a new Energy activity.

The Industrial Research and Development Grants Advisory Committee recommended grants totalling $1,622,743 during 1975-76. A new scheme of assistance for industrial research and development administered by the Development Finance Corporation was introduced in April 1977, Expenditure under this scheme ($2.5 million in 1977-78) will be included in the Science Budget under the vote: Trade and Industry.

In a recent study OECD has calculated civilian research and development expenditure as a percentage of gross national product to give the following country comparison. (This omits military and defence expenditure which inflates the expenditure unevenly for many countries.)

Source: OECD. Member Countries, 1976.

CountryYearPercent of GNP
Australia19741.2
Austria19721.0
Belgium19731.2
Canada19741.1
France19731.7
Japan19741.7
Netherlands19741.8
New Zealand19730.9
Norway19721.1
United Kingdom19732.1
United States19732.4
West Germany19732.0

Bibliography—Further information on New Zealand scientific services may be obtained from: National Research Advisory council: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper G.20. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper G.21, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper C.5. Medical Research Council: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper E.11. Industrial Research and Development Grants Advisory Committee: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper G.19.

7 C—SUPPORT OF THE ARTS AND CULTURAL ACTIVITIES

The quality of life depends not only on economic and material considerations and a pleasant unpolluted environment, but also on social and cultural advances. In other words, on the development and appreciation of literature and the arts.

Patronage has always been part of the history of the arts. In less egalitarian times it was usually royalty or a wealthy aristocracy that provided this; in modern times it is the State that must increasingly provide assistance if the arts are to flourish.

In New Zealand, as in most other countries, both the Government and local authorities have recognised the importance of the arts in the life of the community and have provided increasing support.

The traditional sources of assistance to the arts in New Zealand are the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, which had its origins in 1947 as a cultural fund; the New Zealand Literary Fund, administered by the Department of Internal Affairs, which was established in 1946; the New Zealand Historic Places Trust; and the National Art Gallery and Museum. Recently established are the New Zealand Authors' Fund, which compensates authors for the loss of royalties through having their books loaned out by libraries; a fund to assist art galleries and museums; and a lottery profits scheme to assist art organisations with capital projects. All three are administered by the Department of Internal Affairs.

The following table shows grants made in 1975-76 by the Government and from the lottery profits scheme.

GroupGovernment AssistanceLottery Grant
 $$
Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council1,500,000285,000
New Zealand Literary Fund35,0004,200
National Art Gallery and Museum210,000-
New Zealand Historic Places Trust65,000120,000
New Zealand Authors' Fund160,000-
Theatres, auditoria, and art centres-250,000
Museums and Art Galleries Fund300,000-
Total$2,270,000$659,200

The Department of Education has also played an important role in the support of cultural activities, given new impetus through community colleges and such schemes as "Performers in Schools", which is operated jointly with the Arts Council. The other major contributor to cultural activity in New Zealand is the Broadcasting Corporation, the most notable contribution being made by the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra.

The financial contributions made to arts organisations through the Ministry and Council of Recreation and Sport are also a significant item.

In addition, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is involved in fostering the arts through its Cultural Exchange Programme, which was established in 1974. Much more attention is being given in present-day conditions to cultural exchange as an arm of foreign policy, reflecting the increasing interdependence of the world as well as detente. Modest in financial terms, the programme's objective is to facilitate exchanges in all branches of the arts, including music, theatre, painting, crafts, sculpture, and writing, so as to enable New Zealanders to gain a closer first-hand knowledge of the culture of other countries. At the same time, it is hoped that the programme will stimulate the already active cultural scene in New Zealand and through tours and exhibits abroad extend overseas knowledge of New Zealand's cultural achievements. In planning and implementing the programme the Ministry of Foreign Affairs works closely with such organisations as the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, art galleries, and other groups and individuals.

Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council—To commemorate the visit of Her Majesty the Queen to New Zealand in 1963, the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council was formed the following year. The Arts Council was charged to encourage, foster, and promote the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, to make accessible to the public of New Zealand all forms of artistic and cultural work, to improve the standard of execution of the arts, and to foster and maintain public interest in the arts and culture of New Zealand.

In pursuit of its principal objective of raising the standard of both the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, the council assists individuals working in the arts, and incorporated and non-profit making organisations, which have the capacity to work at a consistent level of artistic achievement so as to maintain sound standards of management and promotion, and which can offer career opportunities to trained and gifted people. Activities which are professional in character and standard thus receive priority of consideration for financial support.

During 1975-76 the council assisted over 200 individuals, as well as organisations or programmes. This assistance included training awards, maintaining training schools, annual grants for theatre, ballet, opera, and orchestral activity, film projects, assistance with touring exhibitions, aiding arts festivals, fostering experimental work in the arts, and assisting national arts organisations. The council maintained its policy of encouraging professional activity in the arts as a matter of priority. With this assistance, the country's professional theatres continued to maintain their high standards of performance; separate seasons of opera were presented in both Auckland and Wellington; the New Zealand Ballet Company continued to tour throughout the country with programmes that included new ballets by New Zealand choreographers; and the council was able not only to assist in the development of orchestral activity of a high standard in each of the main centres but also to finance the establishment of Auckland's first full-time professional orchestra.

The Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council Act 1974 provides for greater emphasis on regional development of the arts through three regional arts councils and through community arts councils.

The Government grant to the Arts Council for 1976-77 was $1,500,000. The Lottery Profits Board of Control grant for the same year was $285,000. An additional $250,000 was allocated by the Board of Control to the Minister of Internal Affairs to be used for capital projects; this fund was distributed by the Minister on the advice of the Council.

A number of working parties have been looking into changes that could be made in areas with which the Arts Council is concerned. They have included a film industry working party, and a working party considering the conservation of a New Zealand's cultural property. Recommendations have covered preservation of items such as works of art, manuscripts, books, paintings, sculpture, and other objects of artistic, historical, or archaeological origin.

ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS—In 1973 a fund was set up to subsidise capital works of art galleries and museums. Subsidies are made available by the Minister of Internal Affairs on the recommendation of an Advisory Committee. A small proportion of the fund is made available each year to the 6 major metropolitan art galleries and museums in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, to enable them to assist smaller art galleries and museums in their areas with approved non-capital expenses.

AWARDS IN LITERATURE AND ARTS—The following awards are available:

  1. New Zealand Literary Fund—This fund is financed by a yearly appropriation on the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs. Assistance from the fund is granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs, who is advised by the Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

  2. Scholarship in Letters—The scholarship of $6,000 is awarded annually to an established New Zealand writer by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. Applications are made to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

  3. Writing Bursary—The bursary is awarded annually to a New Zealand writer with potential by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. It is of the value of $4,000.

  4. Robert Burns Fellowship in Literature—This fellowship in literature is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. The fellow shall be resident for the academic year. The fellowship is open to New Zealand writers, preferably under 40 years. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

  5. Maori Writers' Awards—The Maori Purposes Fund Board annually makes available one award of $1,000 for creative writing in the English language, and another of $1,000 for creative writing in the Maori language. Applications from persons of Maori descent should be sent to the Secretary of the Maori Purposes Fund Board, Box 2390, Wellington.

  6. New Zealand Book Awards—Annual awards of $2,000 are made by the Minister of Internal Affairs with the support of the Literary Fund and the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, for the best books published each year in the categories of poetry, prose fiction, and prose non-fiction.

  7. Award for Achievement—The award for Achievement, of $500, recognises the contribution of one person to New Zealand literature. The award is granted each year by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

  8. Esther Glen Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually to the author of the most distinguished children's book written by a New Zealander. (Applications are not called for.)

  9. Russell Clark Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually to the illustrator responsible for the most distinguished illustrations for a children's book. The illustrator must be a citizen or resident of New Zealand. (Applications are not called for.)

  10. Hubert Church Prose Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, is available annually for the best first book of prose writing by a New Zealand author. (Applications are not called for.)

  11. Jessie Mackay Poetry Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund is available annually for the best first book of poetry written by a New Zealand author. (Applications are not called for.)

  12. Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award—The Bank of New Zealand, in association with the New Zealand Women Writers' Society (Inc.), sponsors a biennial prestige memorial award for the short story. For 1977 the award will be for an unpublished short story.

  13. Bank of New Zealand Young Writers' Awards—Concurrently with the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award, the Bank of New Zealand sponsors two awards for young writers. These are—the senior award, for entrants aged 24 years and under; and the junior award for secondary school students. Both awards are for the short story.

  14. Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship (Winn-Manson Menton Trust)—The fellowship is to allow a New Zealand writer to write and study at Menton in the South of France. Applicants must be serious writers who would use the fellowship to further their literary studies and endeavours. For 1977 the fellowship will consist of an award of $3,500 and return passage. Applications should be made to the Hon. Secretary, Katherine Mansfield Memorial Fellowship, P.O. Box 10-256, Wellington.

  15. Young Writer's Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, the New Zealand Book Council, and the Department of Education, is available annually for writing by people under 20 years of age. There are categories for prose and poetry. Applications should be made to the Secretary, P.O. Box 2283, Wellington.

  16. James Wattie Book of the Year Award—This award is made each year by Wattie Industries Limited. Full conditions of entry for the James Wattie Book of the Year Award, which is aimed mainly at encouraging the growth of publishing in New Zealand, are available from the Secretary, NZBPA, care of P.O. Box 11005, Wellington.

  17. One-act Playwriting Competition—In this annual competition the winning play is workshopped and produced with the Theatre Federation assistance. Applications should be made to the Secretary, New Zealand Theatre Federation, P.O. Box 6158, Wellington.

  18. Biennial Playwriting Competition—This competition is for full length plays. For 1976 the winning play was workshopped and produced with Theatre Federation assistance. Applications should be made to the Secretary, New Zealand Theatre Federation, P.O. Box 6158, Wellington.

  19. Professor J. C. Reid Annual Award for Excellence in Arts Criticism—The Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council of New Zealand sponsors an annual award to journalists for excellence in arts criticism in conjunction with the New Zealand Journalists' Union. The competition is administered by the New Zealand Journalists' Union, Box 6545, Te Aro, Wellington 1.

  20. Frances Hodgkins Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand painters and sculptors preferably under 40 years. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

  21. Mozart Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand musicians who are serious composers. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Applicants should be at least 27 years old. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August.

PROTECTION OF ANTIQUITIES AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES—The Antiquities Act 1975, which came into force on 1 April 1976, includes provisions controlling the sale of Maori artifacts within New Zealand, and all artifacts found after 1 April 1976 are deemed to be prima facie the property of the Crown. In addition, there are export controls on a wide range of items of historical significance: Maori artifacts; chattels relating to the European discovery, settlement or development of New Zealand; certain written and printed matter; certain works of art, reproductions, prints, films and sound recordings; type specimens of animals, plants and minerals; meteorites; remains of extinct fauna; and certain items of shipwreck.

Whereas the Antiquities Act is essentially concerned with "portable" objects, a companion measure, the Historic Places Amendment Act 1975, deals more specifically with the protection of archaeological sites. This also came into effect from 1 April 1976. From that time, it is necessary to obtain the consent of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust before damaging, destroying, or modifying any archaeological site or undertaking a scientific archaeological investigation of any site.

To enable the purchase of Maori artifacts and historic paintings, the Government continues to make grants to the National Museum and to the National Art Gallery.

NATIONAL ARCHIVES—The Archives Act 1957 established a National Archives to provide for the custody and preservation of the public archives of New Zealand. The Chief Archivist, appointed under the Act, has certain statutory powers. No public archives, as defined in the Act, can be destroyed without his approval and he has powers of inspection and direction in respect of the keeping of public records. Government records of permanent value are deposited with National Archives, and are widely used for original research by scholars, students, officials, and the public. As well as the public archives (i.e., public records out of current use) there are small holdings of semi-official and private papers of Governor Sir Thomas Gore Brown and some political figures, including Sir Frederick Weld, W. P. Reeves, Sir James Allen, W. Lee Martin, C. F. Skinner, and T. P. Shand. The papers of the New Zealand Company, R. J. Seddon, Sir Walter Nash, and Norman Kirk provide larger collections. The Nash collection is one of great significance covering his life and times. Some of the more note-worthy public documents are to be found amongst the archives of the Governor, Colonial Secretary, Maori Affairs Department, Samoan administrations, the armed forces both in peace and war, and Legislative Department papers, 1854-1969.

National Archives has a records centre in Lower Hutt and one in Auckland. These provide storage for semi-current Government records as well as public archives. The total staff, including that of records centres, is 18. Officers of the National Archives collaborate with departmental records officers and occasionally with the State Services Commission on assignments on the management of current records. Some public archives of regional interest are deposited with certain non-government repositories approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs, such as the Hocken Library in Dunedin, the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch, the Hawke's Bay Art Society Gallery and Museum in Napier, the Auckland Institute and Museum, the New Plymouth Public Library, and the Marlborough Historical Society Museum in Blenheim.

During 1974 Government approved the transfer of Cabinet Office papers to National Archives on a regular basis. The regular transfer of this group of papers is considered to be of great significance for the future of archives and historical research in New Zealand.

National Archives and the Alexander Turnbull Library have joined in establishing a War History Documentation Centre to gather and preserve documentary material about New Zealand's part in the two World Wars.

National Archives publishes an annual Summary of Work, including a list of new accessions to its holdings.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST—The New Zealand Historic Places Trust was created by the Historic Places Act of 1954 to foster public interest in places and objects of national or local interest, and to assist and undertake their preservation, maintenance, and restoration. The Trust consists of 15 members, and has the support of a growing associate membership (3,654 at 31 March 1976). It operates locally through regional committees.

The Trust's main concern is to preserve sites and buildings. It has restored a number of properties, and has also assisted in preserving many others by financial grants and technical advice. Nine properties which are open to the public are administered; the Mission House at Waimate North, Kemp House at Russell, Cledon House at Rawene, Alberton, Ewelme Cottage and the Melanesian Mission Museum at Auckland, Hurworth House at New Plymouth, and Old St. Paul's in Wellington. The Trust also owns other properties and is involved in the administration of some which are owned by other organisations.

The Trust has marked many historic places with plaques and noticeboards, and historic sites are sometimes protected by some form of reservation (although this is not yet on a scale to satisfy the Trust). The accelerated loss of New Zealand's early historic heritage has always worried the Trust, and the Historic Places Amendment Act of 1975 is now doing much to protect archaeological sites. No person may lawfully investigate, damage, destroy or modify any archaeological site more than 100 years old except under a permit from the Trust. The Trust collaborated with the Ministry of Works and Development to survey areas affected by the Clutha power development, and the Maui gas pipeline, and to rescue and record the field monuments threatened by these projects.

The Trust publishes booklets and leaflets, usually about buildings and sites in which it has been actively interested. It also has a growing photographic collection.

7 D—LIBRARIES

GENERAL—In general, New Zealand is well served with libraries and the book stocks and circulation figures compare favourably with those of other English-speaking nations. In most centres the local authority maintains a public library.

Under the auspices of the New Zealand Library Association, a comprehensive system of inter-library co-operation has been developed, particularly in the use of resources by means of inter-library loans.

NATIONAL LIBRARY OF NEW ZEALAND—By the National Library Act 1965, the Alexander Turnbull Library, the General Assembly Library, and the National Library Service were combined to form the National Library of New Zealand.

A comprehensive collection of New Zealand material within the requirements of the Act is maintained by the Alexander Turnbull Library.

The National Library is responsible for maintaining and developing a central reference and lending collection, and for making its resources available to other libraries. On 31 March 1976 this collection comprised nearly 400,000 volumes together with 62,000 volumes of periodicals.

The library also acts as purchasing agent for most Government department libraries operating within the Public Account and provides a cataloguing, reference, and library advisory service for departments.

The library has facilities for the preservation and restoration of items of intrinsic value. Microfilming and photographic programmes ensure preservation of items primarily of information value.

General Assembly Library—The General Assembly Library was established in 1858 and provides library services for Parliament. The chief librarian is guided by a committee of members of Parliament headed by the Speaker.

Since 1903 the library has been the depository for books, periodicals, etc., published in New Zealand. It receives regularly copies of all New Zealand newspapers and about 1,700 New Zealand periodicals. Back files of both are very extensive. It also has one of the largest collections in the country of books or pamphlets relating to New Zealand. Several New Zealand newspapers are indexed daily.

The library has its strongest collections in subjects necessary to provide information for members of Parliament in their legislative duties. These include economics, politics, administration and law, biography and history. It has a good collection of Government documents, mainly from English-speaking countries—particularly parliamentary papers and debates—as well as publications of international organisations such as United Nations and its subsidiary organisations, the OECD, and the EEC.

During the parliamentary recess, the library, which holds about 400,000 volumes, is open to the public on the recommendation of a member of Parliament.

Alexander Turnbull Library—The Alexander Turnbull Library is a research library responsible for maintaining a comprehensive collection of library material relating to New Zealand, together with other specialist research collections. The original collection of 55,000 volumes bequeathed by Alexander Horsburgh Turnbull (1868-1918) has been increased to approximately 200,000 volumes of books and periodicals, 1,000 metres of manuscripts, 22,000 pictures of which 10,000 are original paintings and drawings, 17,000 maps, 290,000 photographic prints and negatives, and 8,000 reels of microfilm. The collections are augmented regularly by purchases, bequests, and donations from individuals and organisations.

The Trustees of the National Library in 1966 designated the Turnbull as the national collection of printed materials relating to New Zealand, and the Library now receives all New Zealand publications under the compulsory deposit provision of the Copyright Act and prepares the current and retrospective New Zealand National Bibliography. Supporting the collections of printed books, periodicals, and newspapers are extensive collections of private papers and archives, paintings, drawings and prints of historical and topographical interest, maps, photographs, and sound recordings. The Library also possesses research collections on the Pacific and the Antarctic with particular emphasis on history, early voyages, and ethnology. The general collections are strong in English literature, early printed books, and the development of the art of printing. The collection on John Milton and the mid-seventeenth century, a particular interest of Alexander Turnbull, is of international standing.

Extension Division—This division has two parts:

  1. Country Library Service—The Country Library Service, founded in 1938, has been extended through regional centres in Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch for closer contact with participating libraries. Bulk loans of books are made free of charge to libraries controlled by local authorities, both borough and county, which operate a free library service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. To towns where the population is less than 15,000, loans are made from book vans, special subject collections are sent, and thousands of books are supplied in response to requests for information and for individual titles. Libraries in towns with a greater population, excluding the main centres, also receive assistance. Their bulk loans are made direct from regional centres instead of, or in addition to, loans from book vans. Outside the boundaries of boroughs and town districts, groups of people may have books at the rate of $10 for 50 changed at regular intervals. Nine specially equipped vans, each carrying over 2,000 books, travel over the whole territory.

    Libraries obtaining books from the Country Library Service on 31 March 1976 included the following: local body free public libraries, 157; small community libraries and groups, 767; other libraries and institutions, 167. The number of books lent to these libraries totalled 458,295 and 131,673 books were lent on request and in loan collections during the year.

  2. School Library Service—The School Library Service, established in 1941, is responsible for providing a wide and varied choice of books of high imaginative quality or technical excellence for children at all levels of ability and stages of development. The bookstock at 31 March 1976 totalled 2,632,005.

    General exchanges of books for recreational reading are made by 13 district centres to State and private primary schools from Standard 1 upwards. An information and request service is available to teachers and pupils of primary and secondary schools. Public libraries which give free service to children and young people also receive circulating loans of books. Services to pre-school groups are given through local public libraries or direct from district offices.

    For the year ended 31 March 1976, books in exchanges and repository loans totalled 901,842 and 1,276,164 books were provided through the information and request service.

Library School—Since 1946 the New Zealand Library School has offered to university graduates a full-time, 1-year course. It leads to a diploma and to library posts at the professional level. Some 728 students had successfully completed the course by the end of 1975 and in 1976 there were 40 New Zealand students. Students doing this course receive the same allowances as do students at teachers colleges. The school also conducts the block course for library assistants with University Entrance leading to the New Zealand Library Association Certificate and to library posts at the intermediate level. Students attend on a full-time basis, usually on leave with pay from their libraries, for three blocks of tuition spaced at intervals of about 9 months and each taking 4 weeks.

CENSUS OF LIBRARIES, 1974—The 5-yearly census of libraries for the year ended 31 March 1974 covered a total of 1,703 libraries, including 268 public libraries (of which 77 were suburban branches), 34 tertiary education libraries, 1,067 school libraries, the National Library, 98 libraries of learned societies and major commercial interests, and 76 libraries of government departments and associated organisations.

Tertiary education libraries comprised the libraries of the 6 universities and 3 libraries closely associated with them; libraries of 9 teachers' training colleges; 1 agricultural college library; 6 libraries of theological colleges; and 9 libraries of technical institutes. Book stocks increased by 50 percent in tertiary establishments between 1969 and 1974.

In the period 1969 to 1974. public library membership increased by 21 percent and circulation by almost 17 percent—a sign of renewed interest in the library services despite a marked increase in the sale of television sets in the same period. In the public libraries there were 4.48 books to each member and, on average, these books circulated 4.79 times annually. The numbers of public library staff remained almost constant between censuses but the numbers holding library qualifications rose by 39 percent.

School libraries were last surveyed in 1938 when a total of 114 district high and secondary schools were included. The average number of books per user was 7. In 1974, 360 district high and secondary schools were surveyed and the average number of books was 10 per user. The book stocks available increased by 51 percent. Primary (581) and intermediate (126) schools were also surveyed and library stocks surveyed for all schools included tapes, cassettes, gramophone records, films, and film strips as well as books.

A new survey held in 1974 was a census of bookshop or commercial libraries which numbered 159. Book stock numbered 487,365 and membership was 43,833—an average of 11 books a member. Of these libraries, 109 were in the North Island and only 50 in the South Island.

The following tables summarise the results of the 1974 Census. The full results are given in a report Census of Libraries 1974 available from the Government Printer.

SPECIALIST LIBRARIES
Class of LibraryBook Stock at 31 March 1974Circulation During Year ended 31 March 1974
Number of LibrariesBooksPeriodicalsTotalItems lent outside LibraryItems lent to other LibrariesItems borrowed from other Libraries
*Excludes armed forces and penal institutions which are included under public libraries.
    (thousand)   
National Library14,0262194,2452,761183
Libraries in Universities, etc.342,1396042,7431,5382633
Other Libraries—       
Learned Societies and commercial interests987224431,165171813
Government departments and associated organisations76*4759121,3871772929
Totals2097,3622,1789,5404,6478178
PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AT 31 MARCH 1974
Class of LibraryNumber of Library SystemsOwn StockTotalFor Reference Only (Included in own Stock)Country Library Service Stock
AdultJunior
RentalFree FictionFree non-FictionFiction and non-fictionAdultJunior

*Incorporates 15 Christchurch suburban libraries.

†191 library systems covering 268 libraries.

In centres with an estimated population served of—    (thousand)    
50,000 and over9*3223471,2245052,39974132
20,000-49,9991824311335421692736358
10,000-19,999331098917916254065916
5,000-9,999359972969636252911
3,000-4,99925622328321451207
Under 3,00045924620221791277
Sub-Total1659286891,9021,0334,55312318350
Armed forces and penal institutions261861253107181
Grand totals1919467501,9271,0374,66012419152
PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOKS: CIRCULATION AND USE
Public LibraryNumber of LibrariesIssues from Own StockIssues from Country Library Service StockInter-library Loans
AdultJuniorTotalAdultJuniorLent to Other LibrariesBorrowed from Other Libraries
RentalFree FictionFree Non-fictionPeriodicals

*Incorporates 15 Christchurch suburban libraries.

†191 library systems covering 268 libraries.

In centres with an estimated population served of—     (thousand)     
50,000 and over9*5,0022,0671,0381581,98710,25211-310
20,000-49,999182,1827439461601,4755,50610839-13
10,000-19,999331,0086566531021,0693,48820660-24
5,000-9,99935607333354655611,92011946-18
3,000-4,999252511091017159627842416
Under 3,0004521370302934085523-7
Sub-total1659,2633,9793,1224935,34422,201583192478
Armed forces and institutions2641562211213293-7
Grand totals1919,3034,0353,1444945,35622,333593195486

NOTE: Because of rounding, totals in the previous two tables may differ slightly from the sum of the individual items.

International Statistics on Libraries—The following tables compiled from published UNESCO and other statistics show New Zealand's position in relation to other English-speaking countries as regards library resources, borrowers, and book circulation.

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, SPECIAL AND SCHOOL LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation in year of Library Census (million)YearType of dataLibrary Category
NationalUniversitySpecialSchool

*In 1961.

†Federal Government only, in 1965.

New Zealand3.01974Libraries1341741,067
 ....Volumes (000)4,2452,7432,5524,829
Australia11.61966Libraries115....
 ....Volumes (000)1,0004,241....
Canada21.81971Libraries1269580*3,271
 ....Volumes (000)20128,4185,61312,513
South Africa22.91968Libraries347244..
 ....Volumes (000)........
United Kingdom53.71963Libraries34781,177..
 ....Volumes (000)11,00027,68814,850..
United States208.81971Libraries32,535354..
 ....Volumes (000)23,603371,38926,794..
PUBLIC LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation in year of Library Census (million)YearNumber of LibrariesBook Stock Number of VolumesBorrowersCirculation Number of Volumes

*191 systems covering 268 libraries.

†519 systems covering 660 libraries.

‡Public library systems with over 400,000 service points including school libraries (18,199), hospital and prison libraries, but not including 327 book mobiles or 131 gramophone record libraries.

    (000)(000)(000)
New Zealand3.01974191*4,6601,03221,839
Australia11.619665229,5471,888..
Canada21.8197173226,160..62,162
South Africa22.91968519..1,2756,450
United Kingdom53.7196356277,200....
United States208.8196850,479191,079..421,236

Chapter 8. Section 8 LAW AND ORDER, AND PUBLIC SAFETY

8 A—JUSTICE

SOURCES OF LAW—The law of New Zealand consists of the common law, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament, statutes of the New Zealand Parliament, and regulations, bylaws, and other forms of subordinate legislation made under statutory authority.

The Common Law—The common law, sometimes referred to as case law or judge-made law, has been built up over the centuries by the courts in England and, later, in New Zealand and other countries where it was introduced. Like any living law, the common law continues to develop.

In New Zealand the policy of the courts has been to preserve uniformity with the common law in England. This is partly for reasons of convenience and partly because of the assumption prevailing in New Zealand that there is a single common law, the law of England, and that there are not separate, though similar, common laws in different countries.

United Kingdom Statutes—United Kingdom statutes in force in New Zealand comprise those passed before 1840 which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date, and those passed between 1840 and 1947 which extended to New Zealand expressly or by necessary implication. Many of these statutes have, of course, since been repealed.

New Zealand Statutes—In 1947 New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster, and our Parliament has since been the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country. There are no constitutional restrictions on the laws Parliament can pass.

LAW REFORM—In any progressive society the law requires alteration from time to time if it is to reflect the life of the community and adequately give effect to the needs of the people. As in other countries in modern times, legislation is by far the most important means by which the law of New Zealand is adapted to changing circumstances. The responsibility for bringing before Parliament proposals for the revision of the common law and that part of the statute law not administered by other departments of State is in the hands of the Minister of Justice. The Minister is assisted in carrying out his responsibilities by five standing committees each specialising in a particular area of the law. These committees consider topics referred to them by the Minister and report thereon to him. Until recently the Law Revision Commission, a large advisory body, also assisted the Minister of Justice. In 1975 it was replaced with a smaller and more informal Law Reform Council. The Council comprises the Minister of Justice, the chairmen of the 5 standing committees, and the permanent heads of the State agencies involved in law reform. Its aim is to provide a means of communication among the committees and with those involved in the implementation of their reports.

Public Acts and regulations are drafted in the Parliamentary Counsel Office. The ordinances of the 1840s issued when New Zealand was a Crown colony began a tradition of good drafting that has continued to the present. Allowing for the inescapable complexity of much modern legislation, New Zealand statutes are distinguished by a clarity, accuracy, and simplicity that has been equalled in few other countries.

COURTS—The hierarchy of courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Courts. All exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, particular magistrates are appointed by the Governor-General to exercise the domestic jurisdiction of the Magistrates' Courts. Children's and Young Persons' Courts hear cases against those under 17 years of age.

As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1957 the Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice by virtue of his office as head of the judiciary and of a president and two judges of the Court of Appeal appointed by the Governor-General. An additional judge or judges of the Supreme Court may be nominated by the Chief Justice to sit on the Court of Appeal. The judges of the Court of Appeal are also judges of the Supreme Court, but have seniority over all other judges of that court except the Chief Justice or the acting Chief Justice.

The Court of Appeal may from time to time appoint ordinary or special sittings and may make rules in respect of places and times for sittings and similar matters. This court, unlike other courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. In addition to ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings in inferior courts may, on an order from the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. The Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Crimes Act 1961.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final except where an appeal lies to Her Majesty in Council (the Privy Council). In cases where the amount at issue exceeds $5,000 there is an appeal as of right. In other cases leave to appeal is required. This leave may in most cases be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final court of appeal in almost all civil cases and may also occasionally hear appeals in special criminal cases.

The Supreme Court, which was first established by the Supreme Court Ordinance 1841, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The members of the court are a Chief Justice and 19 other judges, the number being fixed by statute. An additional judge or judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. The fixing of the number of judges, together with the provision that the salary of a judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, who must retire at 72 years, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives.

In 1968 a separate Administrative Division of the Supreme Court was created. It consists of not more than four judges of the Supreme Court assigned to the Administrative Division by the Chief Justice. The Administrative Division determines disputes over the valuation of land and hears claims for compensation when land is taken for public purposes. It hears appeals from administrative tribunals under the following Acts: War Pensions Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Cinematograph Films Act, Animal Remedies Act, Land Act, Medical Practitioners' Act, Pharmacy Act, Nurses Act, Trade Practices Act, Distillation Act, Mining Act, Coal Mines Act, Town and Country Planning Act, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, and Clean Air Act. Other classes of applications may be referred to it by the Chief Justice.

Magistrates' Courts are set up under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 and possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases and domestic proceedings. The jurisdiction of the court is exercised by stipendiary magistrates, whose number is limited by statute to 60. Justices of the Peace can sit as a Magistrate's Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges. Justices of the Peace now deal with many prosecutions brought under the minor offences scheme. This is limited to offences that do not carry any liability to imprisonment, nor to a fine of more than $500.

Stipendiary magistrates must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the Supreme Court for at least 7 years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at 68 years of age.

Apart from these courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several courts with specialist functions. These include the Maori Land Court and Maori Appellate Court, which have jurisdiction in respect of questions relating to Maori land.

There are also numerous administrative tribunals exercising functions of a judicial nature and performing an important and increasing role in the legal system.

JURIES—The institution of the jury is regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1908. Subject to certain exceptions, every British subject between 20 and 65 years of age and resident within 30 km of a Supreme Court centre is liable to serve on a jury. The former right of women to exemption on request was removed in 1975, but there is a new exemption available to persons with continuous responsibility for the day-to-day supervision of a child under 6 years of age.

The list of exempted persons is contained in the Juries Amendment Act 1951. The following is a summary of the persons now exempted from jury service:

Members of the Executive Council and of the House of Representatives; judges of the Supreme Court; judges and members of the Industrial Court; judges and commissioners of the Maori Land Court; magistrates; visiting prison justices and members of parole boards; coroners; the chairman of the Local Government Commission; the chairman and members of the Licensing Control Commission; officers of Parliament; clergymen; members of religious orders; persons wholly engaged in teaching and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners, nurses, ambulance drivers, and dentists; registered chemists; members of the armed forces; Police and traffic officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels; members of fire brigades; certain Civil Defence personnel; members of an Inland Revenue Board of Review and certain officers of the Department of Justice, including those engaged in court or prison work, and wives of prison officers.

Special juries are provided for in section 71 of the Juries Act. That section provides that in a civil action in the Supreme Court triable by jury either party may, by leave of the court or a judge thereof, procure trial by a special jury instead of a common jury. Except with the consent of all the parties, however, no action may be tried with a special jury unless in the opinion of the court or a judge difficult questions in relation to scientific, technical, business, or professional matters are likely to arise.

LEGAL PROFESSION—In December 1976 there were 3,518 members of the New Zealand Law Society holding practising certificates.

PENAL SYSTEM—The penal system exists to protect the community against those who would break the laws which are laid down so that citizens may live harmoniously together and the common good be promoted. This purpose is achieved principally through the processes of deterrence and reformation; in modern times in New Zealand as in other countries an increasing emphasis is being placed on the reformation and rehabilitation of the offender.

The paramount policy is to ensure first that those who, by reason of the nature of their offences or character of their offending, are a serious danger to society are removed from the community. Subject to that, the goal is to deal with offenders within the community wherever possible—that is, to impose sanctions that do not involve imprisonment. Where prison or other forms of detention are necessary the aim is to do as much as possible during the sentence to rehabilitate the offender and to bridge the gap between institution and free society. The interest of the community as well as of the offender is promoted by his reformation.

Treatment of Offenders Within the Community—The principal penalties available to the courts in dealing with offenders outside a prison are fines, probation, and periodic detention.

Fines—Fines are by far the most common sentence imposed by the courts in New Zealand, even if traffic offences are not taken into account. For very minor offences the imposition of a fine is the only sanction available to the courts, but even where there is power to sentence the offender to a term of imprisonment the courts often content themselves with fining him.

Probation—The legislation on probation is contained in Part I of the Criminal Justice Act 1954. The court may release on probation any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily. Probation is a conditional suspension of punishment and provides the opportunity for an offender to rehabilitate himself in the community. An offender may be released on probation for a period of not less than 1 year or more than 3 years and during this time he must accept the supervision of a probation officer and observe conditions imposed regarding employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. These conditions are automatic, but the courts have power to impose further conditions at their discretion on granting probation. This power makes probation a very flexible type of treatment and it is coming to be more freely and imaginatively used. Where the offence consists of the destruction or damage of property, restitution of the whole or part of the loss is commonly required as a condition of probation. Some courts have in suitable cases made it a condition of probation that the offender do particular work of value to the community in his spare time. The probation method is widely used.

Persons on probation at 31 December were as follows: 1968, 4,318; 1969, 4,868; 1970, 5,204; 1971, 5,878; 1972, 5,837; 1973. 6,305; 1974, 6,602, and 1975, 7,268. In December 1975, of all offenders on probation and in penal institutions, 73 percent were on probation.

Periodic Detention—The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962 made provision for sentences of periodic detention. Pursuant to this legislation residential work centres have been set up in Auckland, Otahuhu, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. These are available for offenders under 20 years of age. Where the Act applies, any person of the ages specified who is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment or who wilfully refuses to pay a fine may be sentenced to periodic detention for any term up to 12 months. Under the sentence he is required to attend a work centre on a certain number of occasions each week and while in custody must attend classes or groups, undergo physical training, or perform work either in the centre or outside it. Work outside a centre may be at a hospital or school, at the home of an elderly or infirm person, or on Crown or local authority property. Work centres for young people provide sleeping accommodation as well as other facilities, and in practice such offenders sentenced to periodic detention are usually required to attend during the whole of a weekend. Non-residential centres have been opened at Auckland, Christchurch, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, New Plymouth, Otahuhu, Papakura, Wellington, Whangarei, Tokoroa, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Palmerston North, Wanganui, Tauranga, Nelson, Dunedin, and Invercargill. At 31 March 1976 there were 1,650 detainees reporting.

Other Powers of the Court—Although not sentences in the strict sense, various other means are available to the courts in dealing with offenders whose offences are not serious. They include conviction and discharge, the effect of which is that the offender has a conviction recorded against him but no sanction is imposed, and conviction coupled with an order that the offender come up for sentence if called upon within a specified period. This is a suspension of punishment conditional upon good behaviour but is not subject to the positive conditions of a probation order.

Finally the court, although it may find an offender guilty, may discharge him without conviction if it considers the offence to be of a trivial or technical character.

Detention in Penal Institution—The sentences of detention which the courts may now impose are as follows—

  1. Borstal training, which means detention in a borstal institution for an indefinite period not exceeding 2 years. The offender must be at least 17 years (in special cases 15) but under 21 years. The time of his release is decided by the appropriate Borstal Parole Board, which must consider his case from time to time. After his release he is on probation for 12 months.

  2. Detention in a detention centre, the term fixed by statute being 3 months. The offender must be at least 16 but under 21 years of age, and he may earn up to 1 month's remission of his sentence by good conduct. After his release the offender is on probation for 12 months.

  3. Imprisonment for a stated number of years or for life. An offender sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term may earn remission of up to one-quarter of his sentence, or, in exceptional circumstances, up to one-third.

  4. Preventive detention, which means detention in prison for an indefinite term to be decided by the Prisons Parole Board, but in any event not less than 7 years. This sentence may be imposed on conviction for certain sexual offences if the offender has been convicted for a sexual offence on at least one previous occasion. The offender must be 25 years of age or over. After serving 7 years of his sentence the offender may be released on probation on the recommendation of the Parole Board, provided the board is of opinion that he is not likely to resume his criminal career. The period of probation in each case extends for life. Preventive detention was restricted to sexual offenders by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967. Hitherto, it had been available for persistent offenders in a number of other cases.

Restrictions on imprisonment—The policy is to restrict the use of detention of offenders in an institution as far as is practicable, consistent with the protection of the community from dangerous criminals. In particular, short-term imprisonment is usually open to objection on several counts. The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967 accordingly provided that no court was to sentence any person to imprisonment for a term of less than 6 months unless, having regard to the nature of the offence and all the circumstances of the case, the court was of the opinion that no punishment other than imprisonment was appropriate. This provision was replaced in 1975 with one having wider application. A court in dealing with any one convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment is now required in each case to have regard to the desirability of keeping the offender in the community so far as is practicable and consonant with the safety of the community.

In 1975 a further restriction on detention was introduced which prohibits a sentence of detention (other than a sentence of periodic detention) being imposed on any person not legally represented at some time before conviction unless he had the means to pay for legal representation but declined to employ a solicitor, or he was offered legal aid and refused it.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Court of Appeal—The law relating to criminal appeals from the Supreme Court is contained in the Crimes Act 1961.

If it allows an appeal, the Court of Appeal may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried in the Supreme Court.

Applications filed in criminal cases and the results of the appeals are shown in the following table.

YearApplications FiledSentence VariedAppeal Dismissed or Disallowed
197111110101
19721021785
197314919130
19741011883
197513227105

Supreme Court—Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes—those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the Magistrate's Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence or has been committed for trial and subsequently changed his plea to guilty, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

YearTried in Supreme CourtSentences in Case of Committal for SentenceTotal SentencesTotal
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMFMFMF
    Total Cases     
19711,0596450831604101,112411,153
19721,2918675239576141,328531,381
19731,3337381041393141,203551,258
19741,39716286248745101,607581,665
19751,9562011,227124387931,6142171,831
    Distinct Persons     
19713633123616147538321404
19724293029120156944729476
197345229296201511244732479
1974587444283577550540545
1975749585473283763039669

Of the 807 distinct persons indicted during 1975, 579 were convicted, 8 were still awaiting trial at the end of the year, 171 were acquitted, 5 were found insane, and the prosecution was not proceeded with in the remaining 44 cases.

The next table summarises the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years.

 Total Convictions and SentencesDistinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
YearOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property and ForgeryOther OffencesTotalOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property and ForgeryOther OffencesTotal
19712697701141,15316418060404
19723109471241,38119521467476
1973472694921,25824217463479
19744341,0791521,66526220875545
19754741,0912661,831270223176669

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence19711972197319741975
*Includes persons charged with murder but convicted of manslaughter.
Murder52958
Attempted murder1332
Manslaughter*612101515
Traffic offences involving death or injury15823
Assaults and wounding81109117113153
Sexual offences64578611677
Other offences against the person6712812
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering7573567975
Theft, receiving, and fraud8411090114126
Other offences against property1923261319
Forgery and uttering28223
Other offences60676375176
Totals404476479545669
Per 10,000 mean population1.411.631.611.792.17

Sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

Sentence1971197219731971975
*Also includes persons committed into the care of the Department of Social Welfare.
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)4063528960
Ordered to come up for sentence1316281220
Discharged991045
Fined5444627293
Imprisoned243291267284383
Detention centre (includes periodic)1732385965
Borstal training2420201733
Preventive detention412
Detained in mental institution11610
Totals404476479545669

In 1961 the death sentence for murder was abolished. On conviction for murder a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment is imposed.

Magistrates' Courts—Magistrates deal with the majority of indictable offences. They have jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, rape, and perjury. A magistrate may, however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the Supreme Court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he is charged with any offence, indictable or summary, punishable by imprisonment for more than 3 months.

The following table classifies the convictions in Magistrates' Courts into more common offences or groups of offences for the latest 5 years. The figures refer to total charges, with the corresponding number of distinct cases following the totals in each year. There were 37,102 convictions against females in 1975 out of a total of 314,024 convictions, and 32,034 females were included in the 257,209 distinct cases.

Type of Offence19711972197319741975

*Excludes driving with excess blood alcohol. This is included in Other offences against good order, together with convictions for failing to take breath or blood tests. Convictions for these offences totalled 9,162 in 1975.

†Excludes offences of negligence or drunk in charge causing death or injury; conversion; drunk in charge including excessive blood alcohol; failing to take breathalyser or blood tests: failing to stop after accidents involving injury.

‡From 1 April 1969 excludes overparking offences and from 1 July 1971 some speeding offences, both handled by traffic controlling authorities and previously dealt with as court cases.

§Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.

Common assault3,0853,4053,7613,6433,719
Sexual offences638693704628576
Other offences against the person1,7221,8742,5572,8543,472
Theft7,3897,4567,8458,3759,461
Wilful damage1,4801,7512,0222,1272,195
Other offences against property (including forgery)11,76712,32111,88412,27215,804
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)*3,7583,1113,0214,4886,138
Offensive conduct or language, and vagrancy6,0395,3285,4446,7407,581
Other offences against good order6,2477,4728,7959,69011,120
Breach of probation937819811819951
Offences relating to narcotics4815321,0961,6411,948
Failing to pay maintenance1,3181,5101,3011,3391,597
Other offences relating to administration of justice, drugs, etc.1,2911,1231,5361,5921,490
Failing to furnish return and making false return of land and income1,7133,3023,6822,159x1,566
Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing and Sale of Liquor Acts7,2547,0286,2937,0806,853
Deserting merchant ships9552373842
Other offences6,4877,4977,6887,277x8,143
Sub-totals61,70165,27468,47772,76282,656
Minor traffic offences179,230166,457193,886219,395231,368
Totals240,931231,731262,363292,157314,024
Distinct Cases§199,732190,019213,945238,572257,209
Rate per 10,000 mean population for convictions, excluding minor traffic offences and applications215.4224.2230.6x240.0x267.8

The next table classifies the result of hearing in all distinct cases heard in 1975.

Result of HearingOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, Forgery and CurrencyOffences Against Good OrderOffences Affecting Administration of Justice, etc.Other OffencesTotal

*Minor traffic offences accounted for 190,937 of the cases where fines were imposed.

†Mostly orders made.

Committed for trial or sentence261368491578843
Imprisonment5501,3551,156474363,571
Detention in detention centre803071386811604
Periodic detention4471,1951,193170323,037
Detention in borstal institution, etc.96497104896792
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)6492,3729552381164,330
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence if required488679394216701,847
Fined*3,6716,384209,0831,97211,952233,062
Convicted and discharged (or pay costs)2375346,6293795508,329
Suspended imprisonment (maintenance cases)960960
Miscellaneous488667170324695
Dismissed, withdrawn, or struck out1,2982,06214,8622,3061,55422,082
Discharged under section 42 of Criminal Justice Act280715980682092,22
Total distinct cases8,10516,554235,6107,26714,868282,404

Traffic Offences—Traffic offences form a large proportion of summary convictions. The most frequent traffic offences dealt with are breaches of parking regulations and excessive speed. Since 1 April 1969 parking infringements which result merely from overstaying a time limit have been dealt with outside the criminal law and from 1 July 1971 some local authorities and the Ministry of Transport have imposed speeding infringement penalties.

The following table analyses all traffic convictions dealt with in Magistrates' Courts for the latest 5 years.

Offence19711972197319741975
*Excludes trailers and caravans.
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing death949810891114
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing injury206215221240301
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing death4919146
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing injury86202025
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury156242349303236
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use1,8031,8981,8791,8782,246
Driving, or in charge of, motor or other vehicle under the influence of drink or drug5,7366,6367,8978,7029,589
Exceeding speed limits47,90232,80839,06842,51155,968
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle33,42833,13835,76139,16534,155
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of other vehicle139111898389
Incorrect lighting of vehicles5,6755,8416,0546,5185,957
Offences relating to the registration, etc. of motor vehicles9,0419,68511,90612,83911,088
Offences relating to driver's licence19,37717,59720,56123,36325,683
Breaches of parking regulations34,35534,07239,25343,90243,285
Other traffic offences29,30233,20541,19451,01455,143
Totals187,226175,561204,379230,643243,885
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population65.39x60.30x68.82x76.08x79.01
Convictions per 1,000 motor vehicles*147.14130.14142.13152.20154.90

The previous table excludes charges for which persons were sent up from the Magistrates' Courts to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. In 1975 there were 10 such charges for driving offences causing injury or death, 24 for converting a motor vehicle, and 13 for other traffic offences.

Disqualifications of drivers by length of disqualification are shown in the following table.

Period for which Driver Disqualified19711972197319741975
*Amended procedures for the processing of 1975 data have resulted in more accurate statistics. Short-term disqualifications for earlier years have been overstated.
Under 3 months2,5622,1183,1923,6871,984
3 months and under 6 months4,5814,636,8776,4443,328
6 months and under 1 year4,6635,4117,2307,6177,785
1 year and under 2 years4,095,0267,0997,3767,450
2 years and under 3 years1,0451,1281,3921,8671,982
3 years and under 4 years513408431553488
4 years and under 5 years3334315153
5 years and over165140162213173
Total disqualifications17,65718,90326,41427,80823,243*

Drunkenness—The following table shows the number of convictions for all types of drunkenness (except driving with excess blood alcohol), together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population, for each of the latest 5 years. Children's Courts, in which there were 66 convictions for drunkenness in 1975, are not included in this table.

YearConvictions for DrunkennessPer 1,000 of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
19713,6021563,7582.520.111.31
19722,9441673,1112.020.111.07
19732,8891323,0211.940.090.97
19744,2832054,4882.810.131.47
19755,8323066,1383.780.201.99

Repeated (or duplicate) convictions against the same person are included in the statistics shown in the preceding table.

In 1975 there were 8,319 distinct case convictions for driving with excess blood alcohol concentration, compared with 7,490 cases in 1974. In addition, 550 distinct case convictions were recorded for failing to take breath analyser or blood tests.

Offences by Women—Of the 350,586 charges dealt with in the Magistrates' Courts in 1975, 40,997 or 11.69 percent, were preferred against females. This figure showed an increase of 3,533 from the 1974 total of 37,464.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women are of a relatively trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations.

Convictions for more serious offences are set out in the following table.

Offence1971x1972197319741975
Common assault104134138141151
Drunkenness156167132205306
Burglary, breaking and entering, etc.104109157141147
Theft1,7711,8842,0552,2242,473
Fraud and false pretences5344628017031,120
Offensive conduct or language273245257333448
Vagrancy259148808092

Women received into prison under sentence during 1975 numbered 240 compared with 208 in 1974. The more prevalent offences concerned were (with the previous year's figures in parentheses); robbery and stealing from the person, 12 (10); burglary, breaking and entering, etc. 28 (16), theft 45 (47); fraud and false pretences, 23 (20); failing to pay fine, 22 (26); breach of probation, 9 (12); and common assault, 7 (4).

Assessment of Crime—One important index of crime in the community is the number of those who are convicted of offences. This gives a useful guide to the amount of crime, providing the proportion of crime reported and the proportion of known crime whose perpetrators are detected remains more or less constant. This, of course, may not be a justified assumption. A greater number of court convictions might mean merely more efficiency by the police and a greater willingness on the part of the public to report offences that previously went unreported. Care should therefore be taken to avoid reading too much into figures for court convictions.

Over the 10 years 1966 to 1975, the number of convictions in the Magistrates' Courts (excluding minor offences), increased from a rate of 15.7 per 1,000 mean population to a rate of 26.8. Most categories of serious crime show an upward trend. Total convictions for offences against the person (of which common assault and assaulting, resisting or obstructing the police form the major proportion), increased by 114 percent, property and forgery convictions increased by 99 percent.

History and current experience alike testify that crime almost invariably flourishes in large cities, particularly those that are growing rapidly and drawing large numbers of young people from a less sophisticated environment. This is less a penal problem than a social one. In New Zealand it has occurred to a marked degree only recently.

The following table gives an annual comparison by ages of the persons sentenced to penal institutions. In 1965, 32 percent of persons sent to penal institutions were 20 years of age or younger; in 1975 the proportion had risen to 43 percent. Similarly, 65 percent of those imprisoned in 1965 were under 30 years of age, in 1975 the proportion had risen to 78 percent.

Age in Years196519701972197319741975
15285669828460
16117223321289301309
17228380485430440454
18267454490532437486
19241427464403423393
20238437442426369444
21–247221,0441,1139799331,091
25–29459600702667590686
30–34313387436384348363
35–39271253296252278242
40–44227222239194222179
45–49158196199137173145
50–541269512912711388
55–59685853496044
60–64381639262233
65–6912121991313
70 and over715434
Totals3,5204,8615,5014,9904,8095,034

PROBATION—The following figures show the number of persons placed on probation during each of the latest 6 years.

YearNumber
19714,274
19724,687
19735,311
19745,647
19756,769
19766,569

The next table gives the number of offenders in each age group placed on probation during 1976, together with the period of their probation.

Age in YearsPeriod of ProbationTotal
MonthsYears
1214–151823
   Males   
Under 1724465233743619
17–1847364246962881
18–206911404449151,371
20–25810984378361,434
25–3027528163413510
30–4023131131416440
40–501081446344206
50 and over555217391
Total males2,8874451,721467325,552
Age in YearsPeriod of ProbationTotal
MonthsYears
1214–151823

*Includes 12 males on less than 12 months probation.

†Includes 40 males and 1 female on 16 or 17 months probation.

‡Includes 7 males and 2 females on 20 or 21 months probation.

§Includes 2 males and 2 females on 2 1/2 years probation.

   Females   
Under 174614414105
17–1893551251175
18–201151265202214
20–251551758322264
25–3067632184127
30–40395271586
40–502129133
50 and over111113
Total females5474828712691,017
Total, both sexes3,434*4932,00859341§6,569

PRISONS AND PRISONERS—The New Zealand prison population is accommodated in 30 institutions comprised of 17 prisons, 5 borstals, 3 detention centres, and 5 police jails. Any person serving a sentence of not more than 8 days may be detained at any police station, which is also deemed to be a prison for that period.

The prison population during the year 1975 is shown in the following table.

CategoryMalesFemalesTotal
Persons in prison at 1 January 19752,355852,440
Receptions during the year (including multiple receptions of the same person, but excluding transfers)9,82257510,397
Discharges during the year (including multiple discharges of the same person, but excluding transfers)9,54154410,085
Persons in prison at 31 December 19752,6361162,752
Daily average number of prisoners2,530912,621

Not all prisoners received were actually persons undergoing sentence on conviction for criminal offences. Many, for example, are in custody awaiting their trial. In 1975, 126 debtors were released after being detained or imprisoned for non-payment of debt following a court order, and 34 were transferred to mental institutions.

Of the 10,397 receptions, 4,746 referred to persons who were remanded in custody pending a court hearing and who were later released after acquittal, a sentence not involving custodial detention, or a successful application for bail.

The following table analyses the ages and offences of distinct persons received into penal institutions under sentence during 1975.

Age, in YearsOffences Against the PersonBurglary, Theft and FraudConversion, Wilful Damage, etc.Vagrancy and Drunkenness§Other OffencesTotal
Sexual OffencesAssaultsOther*

*Includes wounding with intent and robbery. Aggravated robbery is included with assaults.

†Includes forgery and currency offences.

‡Includes all other property offences.

§Includes driving with excess blood alcohol concentration.

Under 214223163938290785042,146
21–24251213034755764371,091
25–292361241873069292686
30–393742916418117218605
40–491411682910696324
50–598622915927132
60 and over6319121950
Totals1554751351,7564045261,5835,034

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of distinct persons received into penal institutions under sentence during 1975.

Age, in YearsLength of Sentence
Under 1 Month1 Month* and Under 3 Months3 Months* and Under 12 Months1 Year and Under 3 Years3 Years and Under 5 Years5 Years and OverOtherTotal

*Includes detention in a detention centre.

†Includes life imprisonment.

‡Includes borstal detention and one prisoner sentenced to preventive detention.

Under 217415888514731178342,146
21–24132221412268371831,091
25–29891562771173413686
30–3910917319696265605
40–49997589381661324
50–59373936173132
60 and over2010136150
Totals5608321,908689148598385,034

The special type of detention (or imprisonment) imposed during 1975 are included in the previous table. The following table gives these special types of detention by age of detainee at the time when received into custody.

SentenceAge in Years
15161718192021–2425–5455–59Total
Borstal training—          
Males5313123020594332748
Females622341691189
Detention centre1501551558837585
Preventive detention11

Of the total of distinct persons received into penal institutions in 1975, 79 percent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 48 percent had been convicted more than six times.

The number of prisoners received to serve a sentence imposed during the year 1975 for criminal offences was 5,477 but deducting multiple receptions of the same prisoner, the number of distinct persons was 5,034 (4,794 males and 240 females). The corresponding total for 1974 was 5,326, and there were 4,809 distinct persons (4,601 males and 208 females).

An analysis is given below for the 5 latest years of distinct persons received into penal institutions according to nature of sentence.

Nature of Sentence19711972197319741975
Imprisonment4,2444,1253,7063,4993,611
Detention centre558563558545585
Borstal training889813725763837
Preventive detention4121
Totals5,6955,5014,9904,8095,034
Rate per 10,000 of mean population19.89x18.89x16.80x15.86x16,31

The next table shows the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the latest 5 years.

At 31 DecemberPersons in PrisonProportion per 10,000 of Population as at 31 December   
Undergoing SentenceOn Remand and Awaiting Trial, etc.TotalUndergoing SentenceTotal in Prison 
19712,544922,6368.78x9.10x
19722,447842,5318.28x8.57x
19732,3711962,5677.86x8.51x
19742,2951452,4407.45x7.92x
19752,5931592,7527.978.80

Classification—The key to successful penal work lies in understanding the individual prisoner, and in order to assist the prisons administration to this end classification boards operate in the main reception prisons, Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch. Similar boards also function at the main reception Borstal institutions.

A census of convicted persons under the jurisdiction of the Department of Justice was taken as at midnight on 4 July 1972. This included persons sentenced to probation, periodic detention, and all forms of custody (borstal, detention centre, and prison).

The census revealed that a high proportion of persons included had had previous penalties As would be expected this was most marked among prisoners. Seventy-two percent of male prisoners and 42 percent of females had been in penal custody before the present sentence. (Penal custody included prison, borstal, or detention centre). Comparable figures for males in other treatment categories were 31 percent of borstal trainees, 24 percent of probationers and parolees, 23 percent of periodic detainees, and 2 percent of detention centre detainees.

The great majority of persons in the census were aged 24 years or less—72 percent of the total.

In general the level of education reached by the persons in the Department of Justice census was low. Only 22 percent of male and 24 percent of female sentenced persons remained at school beyond Form IV.

An ethnic breakdown of sentenced persons showed that of the males 57 percent were New Zealand-born of non-Polynesian stock, 35 percent were Maoris, 2 percent were immigrant Polynesians, and 6 percent were other immigrants. The figures for females were 51 percent New Zealand-born of non-Polynesian stock, 42 percent Maoris, 2 percent immigrant Polynesians, and 5 percent other immigrants. Of those males in penal custody, 50 percent were New Zealand-born of non-Polynesian stock, 41 percent were Maoris, 2 1/2 percent were immigrant Polynesians and 6 percent were other immigrants.

Measures Employed in Treatment:Vocational Training—Prisoners are put to work on some form of constructive employment, whether it be industrial production in a secure institution or food production on a prison farm. In addition, and particularly for the younger offender, an attempt is made to teach some trade skills.

Non-vocational Training—A variety of evening activities have been introduced into the prisons and training benefit is derived from these activities, whether they be recreational, educational, cultural, individual, or collective.

There are 18 full-time teachers serving in Auckland Prison, Mount Eden Prison, Christchurch Prison, Tongariro Prison Farm, Waikune Prison, Christchurch Women's Prison, Rolleston Prison, Wellington Prison, Wi Tako Prison; Waikeria and Waipiata Youth Institutions; and in Arohata and Invercargill Borstals. Part-time teachers provide a service for all other institutions. Teachers seek to help those prisoners whose educational attainment is such that they are disadvantaged in the community. They also assist those who are undertaking further education or technical courses either by correspondence or in prison classes. Such courses may be at any level ranging from illiteracy to university degree work. The interest thus shown by prisoners is encouraging, as in many cases it gives a prisoner better social and employment skills thereby reducing the chances of further offending.

All institutions receive at regular intervals a supply of well-chosen books from the National Library Service and, in addition, inmates are permitted a free use of the library's request service.

Psychological Services—Psychologists from the Department's Psychological Services are available to provide assessment and treatment and to assist the administration with decisions relating to an inmate's rehabilitation.

Not all assessments lead to psychological treatment. Of those that do, some will result in direct treatment by the psychologist in the form of counselling, psychotherapy, group therapy, or behaviour therapy. Others are dealt with by the combined efforts of the institution staff and psychologist to improve the offender's behaviour.

Referral may be through a classification or other committee of which a psychologist may be required to be a member but many inmates seek referral themselves.

Professional staff may be required to assist in developing programmes dealing with groups of offenders and in the psychology in-service training courses for prison officers.

Earnings—All prisoners are credited with modest earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to diligence and conduct. A portion of the earnings may be spent on tobacco, confectionery, and toilet necessities in a prison canteen, and this provides an incentive to good work and conduct. At the same time the loss of this privilege is a useful disciplinary measure.

Punishments—An inmate charged with one of the less serious offences against discipline appears before the superintendent, who may impose a penalty or in his discretion refer the case to a visiting justice or to the court. A visiting justice may deal with all cases of offences against discipline and must deal with those which are outside the jurisdiction of the superintendent, unless he thinks they should be brought before the court. His powers of punishment are wider than those of a superintendent. The provisions as to offences and punishments are the same for both prisons and borstals.

Pre-release Hostels—The setting up in 1961 of the first pre-release hostel at Invercargill for male borstal inmates was an important step forward toward the goal of bridging the gap between the wholly controlled life of the penal institution and the responsibilities and temptations of free society. Further pre-release hostels have been established for male borstal inmates at Auckland, Hamilton, and Wellington, and at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch for adult male inmates. Selected inmates are sent to these hostels during the last part of their sentence. They live at these hostels and spend their leisure time there under supervision while working in the community.

Release to Work—Under the Penal Institutions Amendment Act 1961, inmates may be released during the day to engage in private employment. The selection of inmates for this privilege is made on the recommendation of the superintendent of a penal institution, by a special committee chaired by a magistrate. The inmates are required to contribute part of their wages towards the cost of their maintenance in the institution and part may also be withheld in satisfaction of outstanding fines or debts. The balance is made available to their dependants or is held by the Department of Justice for payment upon final release.

Post-release Care—Offenders serving a sentence of borstal training, preventive detention, or imprisonment for 12 months or more are discharged on probation. For a period of time they must be under the supervision of a probation officer and, during any part of that period falling within the maximum period they could have been detained in an institution, are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is not satisfactory. Offenders sentenced to detention in a detention centre are also subject to probationary supervision for 12 months following release. The period of supervision has a dual purpose—it is the protection of the community against further offending and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and guidance during this period.

An offender serving a sentence of imprisonment of less than 12 months is on probation after release if the sentencing court so orders.

Parole System—The introduction of types of sentences designed to encourage the rehabilitation of an offender or to protect society against the hardened criminal, rather than merely to inflict punishment for an offence which has been committed, has created the need for a procedure to enable a person serving one of these sentences to be released as soon as he shows that he is fit to be returned to society.

This need is filled by the parole boards which have the responsibility of reviewing the cases of all persons sentenced to borstal training, preventive detention, or life imprisonment, and of recommending, or in the case of borstal trainees directing, release on probation at the appropriate time.

There are at present five parole boards: the Prisons Parole Board, which deals with all offenders except those sentenced to borstal training, and four Borstal Parole Boards which between them have jurisdiction over all borstal trainees. The Prisons Parole Board is now required to consider the case of every offender sentenced to a finite term of imprisonment for 5 years or more (thus excluding those sentenced to preventive detention or to life imprisonment, whose cases are dealt with under separate previsions) after the offender has served one half or 3 1/2 years of his sentence whichever first occurs and annually thereafter until the offender is released.

The Prisons Parole Board consists of a judge of the Supreme Court as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, and at least one but no more than five other members, all except the Secretary for Justice being appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and being eligible for reappointment.

Each Borstal Parole Board consists of a magistrate as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, the superintendent of the local borstal institution in respect of which the board is appointed, and two residents of the locality in which the institution is situated. All the members except the Secretary for Justice and the superintendent are appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and are eligible for reappointment.

Categories of persons whose cases were considered by the Prisons Parole Board and the Borstal Parole Boards during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

YearBorstal DetentionImprisonmentPreventive DetentionPersons on ParoleTotal
19712,084259162,134
19721,794421361,855
19731,732345111,782
19741,710338281,779
19751,897387381,980

Of the cases coming before the boards in 1975, there were 833 recommendations made for release on probation and 10 persons on parole were favourably recommended for discharge.

JUVENILE OFFENDERS—Children's Courts were originally established in New Zealand under the Child Welfare Act 1925. The Children and Young Persons Act 1974, which came into force on 1 April 1975, renamed these Children and Young Persons Courts.

All offences, except murder or manslaughter on the one hand, and certain traffic offences not punishable by imprisonment on the other, committed by children under 17 years are dealt with in Children and Young Persons Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary courts. In addition, when an offender between 17 and 18 years comes before a regular court, the court may order his case to be heard in the Children and Young Persons Court.

Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children and Young Persons Court are not held in a courtroom. Proceedings in Children and Young Persons Courts are not open to the public and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding magistrate.

When a child is brought before a Children and Young Persons Court and charged with any offence, it is not necessary to record a conviction even if the charge is proved. The court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction has been recorded.

The cases heard by Children's Courts in the latest 3 years resulted as follows:

DecisionTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
197319741975197319741975
*Includes periodic detention.
Dismissed or withdrawn1,8631,7952,1921,0849761,175
Admonished and discharged5,0145,3864,3542,9342,9002,546
Committed to care of Social Welfare Department2,9882,8772,1171,1341,102896
Placed under supervision7,7857,4156,1623,4573,2092,886
Committed to an institution*2,2832,7332,428665739700
Fined4,2304,6854,4493,0863,2423,299
Otherwise dealt with2,8343,1263,4861,2441,3971,566
Total cases26,99728,01725,18813,60413,56513,068

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in Childrens' Courts during each of the latest 5 years. It is shown in two ways: i.e., total charges (meaning each offence counted once irrespective of the number with which a person is charged at the one time); and distinct cases (meaning only one charge, the most serious, is counted, irrespective of the number a person is charged with at the time). All the Children's Court tables are shown in this way.

YearTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
197121,2344,40425,63810,5542,83513,389
197222,1664,27626,44210,3422,63212,974
197322,8144,18326,99710,9942,61013,604
197423,6034,41428,01710,8382,72713,565
197520,6794,50925,18810,3372,73113,068

Detailed statistics for Children's Court cases during each of the latest 5 years are as follows:

Type of Offence19711972197319741975

*Includes forgery and uttering.

NOTE—Distinct cases figures are included in those for total charges.

  Total Charges   
Sexual offences185153182196161
Assaults7838181,0601,012964
Other offences against the person59678511372
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering6,5016,2526,2946,2075,343
Theft, receiving, and fraud7,5908,1627,5127,8927,023
Unlawful conversion of vehicles3,2713,9604,2864,5793,736
Wilful damage8129041,0221,150836
Other offences against property*207255295319370
Offences against good order2,2402,2662,5922,9362,835
Indigent or delinquent child1,9221,5901,5721,4411,629
Other offences2,0682,0152,0972,1722,219
Totals25,63826,44226,99728,01725,188
  Distinct Cases   
Sexual offences139113130146113
Assaults632678851841759
Other offences against the person4957778053
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering2,7672,6082,6082,5652,193
Theft, receiving, and fraud3,5293,5603,4233,6133,134
Unlawful conversion of vehicles1,2331,3051,5761,4761,513
Wilful damage399436461476420
Other offences against property*3381839899
Offences against good order1,4421,3641,5881,6661,788
Indigent or delinquent child1,7711,4371,4591,2551,438
Other offences1,3951,3351,3481,3491,558
Totals13,38912,97413,60413,56513,068

CIVIL JURISDICTION: Supreme Court—The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior Courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other Courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the Supreme Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a lower Court. An appeal to the Supreme Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exceptions, all cases determined in the Magistrate's Court are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the latest 5 years.

YearNumber of Actions CommencedCases TriedJudgments Recorded (Entered or in Cases Tried)
With JuryWithout JuryNumberAmount ClaimedAmount Recovered
     $(000)$(000)
19713,8491203936394,4602,569
19723,9031083495374,7512,484
19733,8651002923874,1762,527
19744,571x71x340x465x5,0963,142
19755,056713965287,8935,392

Court of Appeal—During the 5 years 1971 to 1975 there were 320 civil appeals, of which 117 were allowed, and also 6 cases removed to the Appeal Court, 3 resulting in judgment for the plaintiff, and 3 for the defendant.

Magistrates' Courts—Magistrates' Courts may now hear all claims up to $3,000, but if the parties agree in writing that the court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the Supreme Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the Magistrates' Courts during the latest 5 years.

YearPlaints EnteredCases Disposed of
NumberTotal Amount Sued for $(000)NumberTotal Amount Claimed $(000)Total Amount for which Judgment Entered $(000)
1971120,38815,32675,0357,5976,663
1972132,03620,12677,0579,5018,009
1973115,30519,66270,2679,5718,450
1974125,19224,11775,95111,1459,459
1975144,93829,92479,66313,57112,072

The average amount claimed in each plaint was $102 in 1965 and $206 in 1975.

COMPENSATION FOR VICTIMS OF CRIME—The Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963 introduced the first statutory scheme in the world for compensation by the State to persons injured by crimes of violence and to the dependants of persons killed by such acts. The scheme is now administered by the Accident Compensation Commission by virtue of section 12(4) (a) of the Accident Compensation Amendment Act 1974 in place of the Crimes Compensation Tribunal.

The availability since 1 April 1974 of compensation under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 has had a significant impact on the criminal injuries scheme, which should phase itself out. The accident compensation scheme caters for all personal injury by accident in New Zealand, and thus covers the whole range of listed criminal injuries, with the exception of pregnancy by rape and criminal infection with disease. The accident compensation scheme is designed as a fund of first resort and in practice the two schemes have merged in all but the exceptions mentioned and the residual area of property damage caused by escapers.

The following table gives details of proceedings under the Act.

Action19711972197319741975
Applications filed6776875511
Cases in which an award made4648454434
Amounts of awards$28,156$18,902$18,570$23,718$20,545

LEGAL AID—The Legal Aid Act 1969 introduced from 1 April 1970 a scheme of legal aid in civil proceedings for persons of small or moderate means, and gave effect to the principle that no persons should be prevented by lack of means from having his grievances heard and determined fairly by the courts of the land. The scheme applies to practically all civil proceedings other than divorce. In order to receive legal aid the applicant must have a sufficiently meritorious case. Except in special cases of hardship, every aided person is required to make a contribution of $15 towards the cost of proceedings, and he will be liable to make an additional contribution proportionate to his income and capital resources.

Of the applications received by the 19 district legal aid committees during the year ended 31 March 1976, 10,637 applications were granted, 717 were refused, 2 were withdrawn, and 210 lapsed.

The amount paid out in legal aid in the year ended 31 March 1976 was $1,028,987; set off against this were contributions of $120,385 from legally aided persons and recoveries of costs of $71,806. The net cost was $837,791.

Comparatively few problems have been presented to district legal aid committees. Such problems as do arise are referred to the Legal Aid Board which gives advice or makes a ruling as required in the particular case. It is expected that legal aid applications will continue to increase as the legal aid scheme becomes more widely known.

The Social Welfare Department is responsible, in accordance with the Act, for investigating the resources of persons applying for legal aid; for assessing their "disposable income" and "disposable capital" within the statutory limits and reporting to district committees on the maximum contribution, if any, that applicants should be expected to pay towards the cost of the proceedings in respect of which legal aid is sought.

THE LAW AND T FAMILY—The work of Magistrates' Courts used to be classified as civil and criminal. Domestic proceedings were procedurally and administratively an uneasy appendage of the criminal side. Following the passing of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, the domestic side of the work of Magistrates' Courts ranks as a separate division alongside the civil and criminal divisions. There is, for instance a separate domestic record book, separate domestic statistics, and, wherever practicable, special courtrooms designed for the hearing of domestic cases. The aim here is to achieve a procedure which, though informal, still preserves dignity.

Domestic Proceedings—The basic objects of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968 are fourfold.

The first is to empower the court to ensure that a greater measure of justice is received by parties to domestic proceedings. The court is given much greater powers to ascertain the truth. It may call any person as a witness, and may require a lawyer to be provided—at public expense—to assist the court.

The second major aim of the Act is to encourage by all practicable means the reconciliation of married couples. A duty is imposed on the court, and on the lawyers acting for each spouse, to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation, and to take all proper steps towards assisting a reconciliation. It is now possible to institute special legal proceedings for conciliation, quite separately from other proceedings under the Act. On the other hand, the Act acknowledges as a fact of life that reconciliation procedures may fail, or be obviously hopeless. In such circumstances, separation orders are made available on broad and untechnical grounds. Legal recognition (in the form of a separation order) is now given to the fact that a relationship has actually and permanently broken down.

Third, the Act seeks to ensure that parents have an equal legal responsibility to provide for all their children, whether born in or out of wedlock. As an extension of this principle, the Act for the first time places on the father of ex-nuptial children a limited legal responsibility to maintain their mother. He may be required to maintain her for up to 5 years after the birth of such a child—in other words, till the child reaches school age. Previously, such men were liable to maintain the children only, leaving the mother to fend for herself.

The last major object of the Act is to deal with the perennial problem of maintenance, in such a way that both husbands and wives are dealt with as fairly as possible, and also to ensure that the person liable to pay such maintenance does not escape that obligation.

The basis for the making of maintenance orders has been much simplified and the courts have been given clear guidelines on the principles to be followed when making them. Also, the procedure for enforcing maintenance orders has been considerably tightened up.

The following tables give statistics for the year ended 31 December 1975 of applications and orders made under the provisions of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968.

Nature of OrderApplicationsOrders Made

*Custody, 1,882; guardianship, 32; Custody order in favour of mother, 1,694; in favour of father, 120; in favour of the parties and divided, 68.

†Maintenance also granted in 1,097 cases.

Separation5,3421,922
Maintenance5,9022,185
Custody or guardianship5,4111,914*
Non-molestation2,326214
Tenancy496150
Matrimonial home2,996635
Paternity3,4831,202
Consent to marry6140
Minor's contracts..120

The following were the grounds for the separation orders: serious disharmony, 1,746; defendant's conduct, 113; assault, 4; disharmony and assault or sex offence, 2; disharmony and conduct, 57. Eighty-five of the applicants were husbands.

Relative ages of parties when separation orders were made in 1975 are given below.

Age of Husband (in Years)Age of Wife (in Years)
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and overNot KnownTotal
16–1910515
20–24561993032290
25–2981922042151431
30–3421136115185295
35–391540989919271
40 and over31854102343520
Not known22490100
Totals74437430293226372901,922

The next table shows, in the case of separation orders for 1975, the age of wife at separation and duration of marriage.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsAge of Wife (in Years) at date of separation order
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and overNot KnownTotal
Under 11214
122177745163
22861183252119
32286307552157
41072911471159
57238113104138
651529566129
7286112455115
8106416917107
9471342470
10–1482160493721349
15–1942114596221
20–24191164139
25 and over1103113
Not known241442439
Totals74437430293226372901,922

Numbers of children involved in custody orders granted in 1975 are shown below.

ItemNumber of Children InvolvedTotal
123456789
Numbers of orders58163936917772241371,882
Total children5811,2781,10770836014491564,325

8 B—POLICE AND FIRE SERVICE

NEW ZEALAND POLICE—New Zealand's national police service dates, as a civil law-enforcement body, from the passing of the Police Force Act in 1886. Previously, police work had always been combined with other duties. The Armed Constabulary, raised in 1867, had had to fight in the Maori Wars as well as maintain civil order. But, from 1886 onwards, the New Zealand Police has been a civil force, normally unarmed, carrying out its duties in a community which has, broadly speaking, respected the law and its guardians.

The Police Service is a national organisation maintained by the Central Government. The law relating to its establishment and control is the Police Act 1958. Under this Act, the word "force" was discarded. The correct title of the service is The New Zealand Police.

Organisation—The national administrative and operational control of the Police Service is vested in a Commissioner who is responsible to the Government through a Minister of Police.

Apart from criminal investigations and the normal police duties under the statutes, other functional responsibilities include crime prevention, youth aid, training, and search and rescue operations.

For operational purposes New Zealand is divided into 16 police districts. Auckland district, by virtue of its greater population, is controlled by an assistant commissioner. Other districts, because of their varying size, are commanded by officers ranging in rank from chief inspector to chief superintendent.

Policing is maintained by a system of mobile patrols and foot ‘beats’ co-ordinated by an effective communications net which permits cohesion and direction of operations.

In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the Police Offences Acts, there are various statutes of a regulatory nature which the members of the Police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Gaming Act, Misuse of Drugs Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, and the Secondhand Dealers Act. They also undertake certain inquiries and other duties on behalf of other departments of the Government service.

Police in country districts in some cases hold such additional appointments as registrars and bailiffs at Magistrates' Courts, probation officers, and honorary fishery officers.

Recruiting—Recruit applicants for the Police who enter as constables must be between 19 and 34 years of age. Cadet applicants must be between 17 1/2 and 19 years of age. All applicants must meet strict educational, character, physical, and medical standards designed to ensure only the best and most suitable personnel are recruited.

On appointment, recruit trainees attend a 14 1/2-week training course and cadet trainees undertake a 12-month course at the Police College, Trentham, where they receive instruction in their powers and responsibilities as police officers.

Examinations for promotion to non-commissioned and commissioned ranks are aimed at selecting members who have shown the necessary potential to become effective supervisors and administrators.

Members who show a particular aptitude for the various specialist sections within the Police receive specialist training at the Police College and in the field.

Strength—The effective strength of the Police at 31 Marsh 1976, inclusive of 190 women police, was 4,332. This gave a ratio of 1 police officer to every 721 members of the public. Women police are called upon to perform similar duties to male staff and have equal pay, status, and opportunity. In addition to members of the Police Force, the Police Department employed 520 civilian staff.

Transport—At 31 March 1976 the Police vehicle fleet totalled 742, including 586 cars, 99 vans of various types, and landrover-type vehicles, estate cars, omnibuses, trucks, motor cycles, and other vehicles.

Crime Situation—During the past 10 years the number of offences reported to the police has increased by 76.6 percent. Annually, increases have been of varying magnitude, ranging from 1 percent to 13.4 percent. Despite additions to police staff this has meant that every policeman today must accept a 12.5 percent increase in the offences he handles. Yet these figures tell the story in part only. More than half of his time is spent providing community service type activities which are unrelated to actual breaches of the law.

Public demands for this service have greatly increased and will continue to do so while a 24-hour, 7-days-a-week service is provided by the Police. While this has been happening, a new sophistication in crime has meant that crime investigations have become both more difficult and often more protracted.

Today's criminal takes full advantage of modern technology, organisation, and transport in the commission of crime and also in circumventing detection.

Crime statistics do little to reveal the very substantial profits the criminal element extracts from the community by way of illegal drug trafficking or in the promotion of vice or in gambling. Profits from these sources provide the base for highly organised and lucrative criminal ventures. Again, where large amounts of money are the prerequisite to a successful criminal operation, there are those in the community who are prepared for large profits to make finance available, providing their remoteness from the more-obviously criminal aspects of the activity is assured.

Coincidental with the duties crime imposes upon the police, the ebb and flow of quite normal public activity produces added pressure for police services. A decade ago a more leisurely social pace required a concentration of police effort mainly in major centres.

Today the need for police service is far more widespread and general. Rural areas which were formerly free from the scourge of lawbreakers can no longer accept with certainty their remoteness as a guarantee against offenders.

Police presence is required at holiday resorts, at numerous sporting fixtures such as cricket, football, boxing, car rallies, golf matches, horse racing, motorcar and motor cycle events, pop concerts, and many other promotions. Roving gangs must be kept under surveillance and public demonstrations need to be supervised.

The pattern of criminal behaviour in New Zealand is changing.

There is clear evidence that crime is becoming organised and that the organisers are rapidly establishing themselves in legitimate or pseudo-legitimate enterprises which provide an ideal cover for their operations. These range from the disposal of all types of stolen goods to the more sinister trafficking in a variety of drugs.

So called "white collar" crime has escalated in recent years calling for new dimensions in police professionalism to deal with it. This aspect of police work is occupying more and more time.

To all these and other criminal activities must be added the overt challenge that violence and some "bikie" and kindred gang activities pose to social peace and tranquility.

Crimes and Offences During 1975—Crimes and offences reported to the Police during 1975 totalled 233,644, an 8 percent increase on the previous year's total of 216,416. Offences against property, a category which includes thefts, wilful damage, burglaries, unlawful taking of vehicles and thefts from vehicles contributed 160,745 to the total of 233, 644.

The apparent spectacular drop in reported traffic and motoring offences is explained by the fact that changed legislation now provides that action in respect of motor vehicle accidents involving injury, but not death, may be attended to by officers of the Ministry of Transport. Previously all such action was the responsibility of the Police.

 Calendar YearPercentage Change
Offences19741975
Offences against the person10,67111,758+10.2
Offences against rights of property139,954160,745+14.9
Offences against morality and public welfare5,1155,282+3.3
Offences against public order11,99514,340+19.5
Offences affecting the administration of justice1,2381,305+5.4
Threatening offences504616+22.2
Drug offences2,3552,893+22.8
Traffic and motoring offences28,10718,867-32.9
Liquor and licensing offences9,47310,844+14.5
Gaming offences531495-6.8
Shipping and seamen offences212240+13.2
Offences against Arms Act2,0641,893-8.3
Other offences4,1974,366+4.0
Totals216,416233,644+8.0

Crime Prevention—The Crime Prevention Section of the New Zealand Police is engaged in advising sections of the community on methods of preventing crime. It maintains a close liaison with the private security industry.

During 1975 TV2 introduced a special five minute Police 5 weekly programme on all aspects of police work, and the Lions Clubs of New Zealand initiated a nationwide "SPEAK UP" campaign aimed at making members of the public more aware of how they can prevent crime and assist the Police.

Youth Aid—The establishment of the Youth Aid Section of the New Zealand Police in 1959 has been mentioned in the Social Welfare section of this Yearbook. During 1975, new impetus was given to the law-related education programmes being developed in close co-operation with the Department of Education and teachers' training colleges. Members of the Youth Aid Section gave talks to 403,465 children in schools, at outside meetings, or at police stations. In addition, in order to obtain the co-operation and interest of parents, members spoke to over 25,000 adults.

There was an overall increase in the number of persons, cases, and offences dealt with by the Youth Aid Section during 1975. However, these increases did not necessarily indicate an increase in offences by juveniles. They may well have been an indication that the additional man-power directed to street and patrol work had resulted in more offences attributable to children and young persons being satisfactorily cleared. The number of cases handled increased by 6.43 percent to 27,581. Of these, 14,902 were handled formally, mainly through the Children and Young Persons Courts, and 12,679 were handled informally, mainly by police warnings.

Search and Rescue—The number of police-controlled search and rescue operations rose from 602 in 1974–75 to 770 in 1975–76. This was despite the increased efforts of the New Zealand Mountain Safety Council and the New Zealand Water Safety Council. Of these 770 operations, 485 were on water and 285 on land. Volunteers contributed 45,871 man-hours to assisting the Police in these operations.

NEW ZEALAND FIRE SERVICE—The Fire Service Act 1975, which came into force on 1 April 1976, established an integrated fire service controlled directly by the New Zealand Fire Service Commission in place of the multitude of fire authorities. One of the main aims of the integration was the removal of the fire service's greatest problem—divided control spread unevenly over 277 fire districts administered by almost as many diverse local authorities, fire boards, and fire committees. However, the retention of the volunteer system is a central feature of the reorganisation.

The New Zealand Fire Service is organised in a 4-tier structure as follows:

  1. The New Zealand Fire Service Commission: The successor of the Fire Service Commission has 3 members, one (the chairman) is to have a special knowledge of administration, while the other 2 are to have had senior operational experience in the fire service. The term of office is not to exceed 5 years, but Commissioners may be re-appointed.

  2. Fire Regions: There are 6 administrative regions based on Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Their primary task is to co-ordinate their operational units to work in a close-knit organisation.

  3. Fire Areas: The fire regions are divided into fire areas, of which there are 22 in all. They are responsible for developing the fire fighting resources of their areas and for the training and operational efficiency of the 277 brigades.

  4. Fire Districts: Every united urban fire district, urban fire district, and secondary urban fire district which existed immediately prior to the commencement of the Fire Service Act 1975, was declared a fire district under the new Act.

The New Zealand Fire Service Since 1 April 1976—From 1 April 1976 the 277 fire authorities throughout New Zealand ceased to exist except for the purposes of transferring their assets and liabilities to the Commission. The operation and administration of the New Zealand Fire Service became the total responsibility of the New Zealand Fire Service Commission dealing through duly appointed commanders of regions, areas, and districts. Twenty-six of the 277 fire districts are served mainly by permanent firemen but with a leavening of nearly 1,000 volunteers. The remaining 251 fire districts are manned by volunteer firemen who are an essential, integral part of the newly-constituted New Zealand Fire Service.

The assets being taken over by the Commission during the year comprise some 376 fire stations, some 375 houses and fiats, and 743 assorted fire appliances deployed throughout New Zealand.

The Fire Service Act 1975 revised the apportionment of costs for the annual estimates of the New Zealand Fire Service between the insurance industry (including the levy on fire insurance policies) and the Government in the ratio of almost 3:1. The estimates of the New Zealand Fire Service for the current financial year 1976–77 amount to $30 million.

Fire Calls—The total number of calls attended by brigades throughout New Zealand during 1975 was 38,580 made up as follows:

Property fires10,465
Rubbish, grass, and scrub fires7,603
Special services6,011
Chimney fires2,234
False alarms (total 12,273) 
Good intent3,982
Accidental2,107
Malicious2,094
Defective apparatus4,084
 38,580

Loss of Life—Fifty-nine lives were lost by fire during 1975 compared with 38 the previous year and 48 in 1973.

The following table shows the causes of fires in which loss of life occurred.Death
Smoking in bed1
Careless disposal of smoking materials8
Children playing with matches3
Cars igniting as a result of accidents9
Electric heater igniting clothing1
Electric heaters igniting room contents5
L.P.G. in caravan ignited by electric heater2
Aircraft igniting after crash2
Electric blankets2
Saucepans on stove2
Explosion1
Other9
Unknown14
 59

Of the 59 fatalities reported in 1975, 37 occurred in private dwellings or residential flats.

Chapter 9. Section 9 DEFENCE

Table of Contents

DEFENCE POLICY—The maintenance of defence forces and a defence potential in New Zealand are related to the support of broad national objectives. Some of these objectives are relatively fixed because they reflect unchanging basic factors, such as resources, geographical remoteness, and dependence on overseas trade. Others are the products of history or circumstances. The objectives of New Zealand's defence policy may be summed up as the preservation of the security, national interests, and independence of New Zealand; the provision of assistance to maintain the stability and security of New Zealand's partners; and the provision of material backing to political efforts to preserve peace through the United Nations or through regional arrangements. Defence policy has been elaborated in parliamentary papers A.19 in 1961, A.8 in 1966, and A.5 in 1972. International relationships are discussed in Section 2 of this Yearbook.

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION OF DEFENCE—The Governor-General as Commander-in-Chief is empowered to raise and maintain the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. These forces, together with public servants appointed under the State Services Act 1962, constitute the Ministry of Defence, which is responsible under the Minister for the central control of the whole field of national defence.

The Secretary of Defence is permanent head of the ministry and principal civilian adviser to the Minister, responsible in particular for co-ordinating the business of the ministry as a whole, including long-term financial planning as well as supervision of defence expenditure. In accordance with the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, the Secretary of Defence prescribes the pay, allowances, expenses, and other conditions of employment of all servicemen.

The Chief of Defence Staff is principal military adviser to the Minister; he is convenor and chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and conveys its advice to the Minister. Like the Secretary of Defence, he carries out inspections of the services and reports to the Minister.

Command and Administration—The Defence Council is responsible for the administration and, through the officers appointed for the purpose, the command of the New Zealand armed forces. The Defence Council consists of the Minister as chairman, the Secretary of Defence and the Chief of Defence Staff as deputy chairmen, and the Chiefs of Staff of the 3 services, The Secretary to the Treasury and the Secretary of Foreign Affairs are associate members. In addition, the council may from time to time co-opt officers of other departments of State. Without limiting the duties of the Secretary of Defence or the Chief of Defence Staff, the Defence Council is responsible for advising the Minister of important matters of defence policy.

Roles of the New Zealand Armed Forces—The roles and missions of the New Zealand armed forces are related to the following tasks:

  1. To provide regular forces for low intensity ground/air/naval operations in a variety of situations in our area of direct strategic concern.

  2. To provide regular forces for maritime reconnaissance/surveillance patrols over New Zealand territory and the surrounding waters.

  3. To maintain forces trained and available for use in a major emergency.

In addition, they discharge, wherever possible, a number of secondary roles, including:

  1. Assistance to the New Zealand community.

  2. The provision of mutual assistance including technical aid, to certain countries in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific.

  3. Contributions to United Nations peace-keeping operations

Co-operation With Other Countries—To facilitate exchanges on military matters New Zealand defence liaison staffs are maintained in London, Canberra, Washington, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Jakarta, and Bangkok. In addition some members of these staffs are duly accredited to other countries. The United Kingdom, Australia, and Malaysia have service representatives attached to their respective High Commissions in Wellington and there are service attaches on the staffs of the French, Indonesian, and United States Embassies in Wellington. Several other countries have service attaches accredited to, but not resident in, New Zealand.

DEFENCE SCIENCE—The Defence Scientific Establishment is at Auckland and is particularly involved in research in fields of concern to the Royal New Zealand Navy and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. The establishment also carries out metallurgical and other specialised studies related to the adaption of equipment to the New Zealand environment.

Co-ordination of defence science policy is achieved through the Ministry of Defence, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the National Research Advisory Council. Commonwealth and allied co-ordination is achieved by membership of specialised bodies.

The Defence Scientific Establishment has been responsible for useful savings of foreign exchange, both in the rejection of faulty equipment as a result of metallurgical testings, and in enabling tasks previously carried out overseas to be undertaken in New Zealand. Electronic equipment produced by the Defence Scientific Establishment which has commercial potential has been made available to New Zealand industry for development and production and the work of defence scientists could result in the introduction into industry of new techniques bringing more economical production.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY FOR THE ARMED FORCES—The principal statute governing the armed forces is the Defence Act 1971. The present Acts dealing with the maintenance of discipline in each Service will be repealed when the Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971 comes into force and provides the Services with a common disciplinary code.

DEFENCE EXPENDITURE—Expenditure on defence in the 3 latest years ended 31 March was made up as follows.

Item1973-741974-751975-76
 $(m)$(m)$(m)
Personnel89.72101.60114.19
Travel, transport, and communications5.266.526.70
Maintenance, operation, upkeep, and rental8.7410.7312.48
Materials and supplies17.7126.9532.20
Services2.993.343.38
Other operating expenditure1.251.171.39
Grants, contributions, subsidies0.050.060.16
Capital works2.002.995.99
Capital equipment12.7813.4916.98
Totals140.51166.85193.47

About 75 percent of the Defence Vote is spent within New Zealand, mainly on salaries, capital works, servicing, and general operating costs, so that there is an important feedback into the economy. Attempts are being made to become more self-supporting logistically.

Defence expenditure is related to Government expenditure and gross national product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchDefence ExpenditurePercentage of Government Expenditure*Percentage of Gross National Product
*Excludes repayment of public debt.
 $(m)percentpercent
1972121.176.01.9
1973129.825.11.8
1974140.514.71.6
1975166.854.51.7
1976193.474.11.8

STRENGTH OF ARMED FORCES—The following table gives the strengths of the regular forces of the three services over the last 6 years.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceTotal
19712,9415,6384,41312,992
19722,9665,4494,22212,637
19732,9725,4984,31912,789
19742,8455,5534,23212,630
19752,8505,5234,29712,670
19762,7345,4324,25412,420

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY—The Government in New Zealand has since the earliest days made provision for naval forces in its defence measures. Royal Navy vessels regularly visited New Zealand waters, but these were soon supplemented by a number of Government-owned vessels, the first of which was the Australia, a schooner purchased from India in 1842. In addition, in 1877 the New Zealand Government began regular financial contributions towards maintaining Royal Navy ships in New Zealand waters. In 1921 the naval forces became the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy, and in 1941 they became the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Naval Staff exercises command and control of the Royal New Zealand Navy assisted in the performance of his functions by the naval staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

State of the Navy—Her Majesty's New Zealand ships, as at 30 September 1976, were:

*On loan from U.S. Navy 
Frigate (Leander class)WaikatoOne frigate on station in the Malaysia/Singapore area as part of the NZFORSEA national force. The remaining ships in commission are normally employed on exercises in New Zealand and overseas and undertake visits around New Zealand and the South Pacific, and to foreign ports.
 Canterbury 
Frigates (Otago class)Otago 
 Taranaki 
Survey shipMonowai 
Research shipTui* 
Patrol craftFourFishery protection.
Motor launchesSevenRNZNVR Divisions, survey work.

The naval base at Devonport, Auckland, consists of the office of the Commodore Auckland (the administrative authority of the RNZN), HMNZS Philomel (the naval barracks and base support establishment), HMNZS Tasman (specialist training schools), the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital, the Naval Supply Depot, and the Dockyard.

The dockyard is under the charge of a Captain Superintendent and is capable of refitting all units of the RNZN. The RNZN Armament Depot is situated at Kauri Point and the RNZN Hydrographic Office is at Takapuna.

HMNZS Tamaki is the new entry seamanship and artificer apprentice training establishment for the Navy and is located at Narrow Neck, Devonport, Auckland. HMNZS Irirangi is the naval radio receiving and transmitting station and is situated at Waiouru.

HMNZS Wakefield is the administrative unit for RNZN personnel in the Wellington area.

Training—In May 1975 a specialised Naval Training Group was established in Auckland to implement and co-ordinate training. Consisting of a small headquarters and the training establishments HMNZS Tamaki and Tasman (a new unit formed from the training department of HMNZS Philomel, which continues in its base support and barracks role), the Group's main objective is to streamline naval training by the elimination of low priority training content, by greater emphasis on leadership and management training, and by careful management of resources available for training.

Strength of the Navy

CategoryAt 31 March 1974At 31 March 1975At 31 March 1976
Regular Forces   
      Officers (male and female)299308309
      Ratings2,4462,4422,308
      WRNZNS ratings100100117
Total2,8452,8502,734
Non-regular Forces   
      Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve officers555
      Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve all ranks363314287
      Royal New Zealand Naval Fleet Reserve ratings2,4012,5442,703

Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service—The Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service was first formed in 1942 as a wartime service. In 1949 the WRNZNS became a permanent part of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Employment of members of the WRNZNS is varied and includes duties as stores assistants, cooks, stewards, writers, shorthand typists, motor-transport drivers, teleprinter operators, and medical assistants.

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve—There is a division of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve in each of the 4 main centres—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—where reservists are given the basic elements of naval training.

THE NEW ZEALAND ARMY—The Army is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the Defence Act 1971, and the policy outlined in the Defence White Paper 1972. It comprises a Regular Force, Territorial Force, and the Army Reserves.

New Zealand has maintained militia forces since the passing of the Militia Act of 1845. The first regular forces were the Armed Constabulary formed in 1846. The oldest continuously serving unit in the Army traces its history to February 1864.

Formed Army units have been dispatched overseas on active service in the Boer War, World War I. World War II, occupation forces in Japan, plus Korea, Malaya and Borneo and subsequently Malaysia, and Vietnam. Units have been stationed in Malaysia and subsequently Singapore since the termination of active service in Malaysia in 1966.

Personnel are posted to one of the following corps: Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery; Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps; Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers; Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals; Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment; New Zealand Special Air Service; New Zealand Army Air Corps; Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps; Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps; Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps; Corps of Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers; Royal New Zealand Dental Corps; Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department; New Zealand Army Pay Corps; New Zealand Army Legal Service; Royal New Zealand Provost Corps; Royal New Zealand Army Education Corps; Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps; or the New Zealand Women's Royal Army Corps.

Command and Administration—The Chief of General Staff exercises command and administration of the Army, assisted in the performance of his functions by the General Staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—In New Zealand the Army is organised into two commands, each with a functional responsibility nationwide, and is directly responsible to Defence Headquarters for the performance of its functions:

  1. Home Command—Provides the home base support for the Army in peace and war. This involves acting as the mounting agency for the deployment overseas of the Field Force and providing the machinery needed for mobilisation of the Army; the administration, maintenance, development and control of all Army land, buildings, equipment, vehicles, and training facilities; the preparation and conducting of training courses, promotion courses and examinations for all Army personnel; recruiting; development of a progressive welfare policy for the Army; and the provision of financial support and advice.

  2. Field Force Command—Commands and administers those elements of the Army in New Zealand which have an operational role in the event of mobilisation, i.e., 1 Infantry Brigade Group, 3 Infantry Brigade Group, and Logistic Support Group.

Units and staff deployed overseas remain under national command.

Manning—Manpower for the Army is provided from the following sources:

  1. Regular Force Enlistment—Servicemen who volunteer to serve in the Regular Force, normally on a standard engagement under which they are offered career service. Those with specialist applications who are not required to serve on a career basis are enlisted on fixed-term engagements.

  2. Territorial Force Enlistment—Men between the ages of 18 and 44 are accepted for service in the Territorial Force providing that they are British subjects, are medically and dentally fit, and, if Pacific Islanders, have been granted permission to reside permanently in New Zealand. Women who are single and between the ages of 18 and 35 (nurses to 40) and who meet the above requirements are also acceptable. In all cases voluntary service is to retiring age for rank with right of release at any time during service.

Strength of the Army

CategoryAt 31 March 1974At 31 March 1975At 31 March 1976
*Reduction due to phasing out of National Service.
Regular Forces   
Officers (male and female)733739721
Other ranks4,6124,5734,484
RNZNC and NZWRAC (other ranks)208211227
Total5,5535,5235,432
Non-regular Forces   
Territorial Force (all ranks)4,9035,6186,171
Officers Reserve616566561
Class A Reserve Other ranks2,75597*12*
Class B Reserve2,0481,9281,753

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE—The Royal New Zealand Air Force was constituted as a separate armed service by the Air Force Act 1937 and its administration was vested in an Air Department which was responsible for military aviation and the regulation of civil aviation in New Zealand. With the passing of the 1964 Defence Act the Air Department was absorbed into the Ministry of Defence.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Air Staff exercises command and administration of the Royal New Zealand Air Force assisted in the performance of his functions by the air staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—The RNZAF in New Zealand is divided into two Groups; and one squadron with fixed and rotary winged aircraft forms a part of the New Zealand forces based in Singapore. Operations Group, with Headquarters at RNZAF Base Auckland, is responsible for all operational functions and advanced pilot flying training, and Support Group, with Headquarters at RNZAF Base, Wigram, is responsible for all formal individual training (except advanced pilot training) and certain support functions.

The RNZAF provides support for the search and rescue organisations in New Zealand and the South Pacific area, and for the New Zealand civil defence organisation. In addition, the RNZAF provides support to civil and government agencies, which cannot be provided by civil aviation facilities.

The operational units of the RNZAF comprise: a medium/short range transport squadron based in Singapore as part of the New Zealand Force, South-east Asia; maritime, long- and medium-range transport and helicopter squadrons based at RNZAF Base, Auckland; and offensive support and medium-range transport communications squadrons at RNZAF Base, Ohakea.

Engineering—Direction of RNZAF engineering services is co-ordinated by Air Staff, Defence Headquarters. Specific levels of aircraft maintenance are assigned to bases and squadrons. A range of overhaul and repairs and some manufacture of aeronautical equipment is carried out at a No. 1 Repair Depot, RNZAF Base, Woodbourne. A proportion of repair and overhaul work is contracted to civil industry in New Zealand and overseas.

Strength of the Air Force

CategoryAt 31 March 1974At 31 March 1975At 31 March 1976
Regular Forces   
Officers (male and female)704701682
Airmen (male and female)3,2253,2543,250
WRNZAF—airwomen303342322
Totals4,2324,2974,254
Non-regular Forces   
Territorial Air Force142139146
Active Reserve442413357
General Reserve849807725

ARMED FORCES OVERSEAS: Five Power Defence Arrangements—The Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement under which New Zealand had maintained forces in Malaysia as part of a Commonwealth Strategic Reserve, was terminated in October 1971. It was replaced by the 5 power defence arrangements, effective November 1971 by which Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom separately concluded agreements with Malaysia and Singapore. Within the framework of these arrangements, and at the request of the governments of Malaysia and Singapore, the three first-mentioned nations agreed to station elements of their armed forces in these countries. These elements were initially grouped into an ANZUK force, but the decision by Australia in 1973 to withdraw a substantial portion of its ground forces from the region led to New Zealand and the United Kingdom's deciding to establish separate national command arrangements. Accordingly, with effect from 31 January 1974, command of the New Zealand elements of the ANZUK force was transferred to the Commander, New Zealand Force South-East Asia. This New Zealand contribution to stability in the area currently comprises a frigate on station for a part of each year, an infantry battalion, an air transport squadron, a headquarters, periodic deployment of RNZAF st aircraft to the area, and sundry supporting units. The withdrawal of British Forces from the area was completed in 1976.

United Nations Observers—At the request of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, New Zealand has provided military observers in United Nations truce supervisory operations in Kashmir since 1951 and in the Middle East since 1954. The number of observers in Kashmir has been four, except for the period of hostilities in mid-1965 when, for a short time, New Zealand provided nine officers. The number of observers in the Middle East has varied between two and seven. During 1976 New Zealand withdrew all observers from Kashmir and reduced the number of observers in the Middle East from five to four.

Mutual Assistance Programme—Since 193 bilateral military assistance and co-operation activities, which had been conducted with several countries over a number of years, have been developed and administered as a mutual assistance programme involving now the ASEAN countries (Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia) plus Papua New Guinea, Fiji, and Tonga. The main aim of the programme is to help the countries concerned to improve the capability of their armed forces and at the same time to provide New Zealand with training experience and deployment opportunities in the countries concerned. Activities within the programme include training in New Zealand for personnel on an individual basis, or for small groups or, upon occasion, for units up to company size. Courses given range over a wide spectrum of military training limited only by the availability of places on particular courses and by the requirements of the countries to whom the assistance is available. Small numbers of New Zealand personnel are sent to these countries as instructors or on appointments arranged by way of interchange with officers coming to New Zealand. Senior officers are invited to this country on familiarisation and planning visits and as opportunity offers gifts of equipment are made.

Antarctica Support—New Zealand activities in Antarctica rely heavily on logistic support coordinated with the United States. The main defence contribution is related to the provision of RNZAF transport flights to McMurdo assisted by a mobile air movements team and Army cargo handlers. Both helicopter and transport aircrew are also assigned for duty with the United States forces and two physical training instructors have been assigned to Scott Base to assist in Antarctic survival instruction to both US and NZ personnel.

Community Assistance: Hydrographic Survey—During 1976 three survey motor launches, together with two shore-based boats, completed the re-survey of those areas in the northern Hauraki Gulf which were dependent on old Admiralty lead-line surveys. In September 1975, HMNZ Monowai arrived in Scotland for conversion to a surveying ship as a replacement to Lachlan. Conversion work was scheduled to be complete in June 1977.

Fishery Protection—In 1975 four new patrol craft were formally commissioned into the RNZN and are now employed, in co-operation with the RNZAF and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, on fishery protection patrols around the New Zealand coast.

Search and Rescue—All 3 services support the civil defence and search and rescue organisations. During the year 1 April 1975 to 31 March 1976 the three services participated in 140 search and rescue/medical evacuation incidents involving 355 flying hours, 380 ship hours, and 4,270 man-hours.

Miscellaneous—Other assistance provided to the community ranges from airborne surveillance of foreign fishing vessels to fire-fighting and co-operative tasks with the Forest Service, NZR, NZED, and Meteorological Service; explosive ordnance disposal; assistance in civil emergencies; and participation in pageantry and ceremonial occasions.

New Zealand Cadet Forces—The Defence Act 1971 established the New Zealand Cadet Forces, in their own right and not as parts of the armed forces as before.

The Act authorises the Defence Council to raise and maintain elements of the sea cadets, school cadets and air training corps and also to allocate funds exclusively for the support of cadet activities. Civil sponsoring bodies for the cadet forces recognised by the Act as sharing responsibility for the corps with the Ministry of Defence are the Navy League of New Zealand, the Air Cadet League of New Zealand, and the Dominion Council of the Returned Services Association.

The strength of the New Zealand Cadet Forces during 1976 included 740 Sea Cadets led by 90 Sea Cadet Corps officers in 15 towns and 6 school units; 4,700 School Cadets led by 85 School Cadet Corps officers in 18 school units; and 2,000 Air Cadets led by 165 Air Training Corps officers in 43 towns and 7 schools.

STRENGTHS OF ARMED FORCES IN WAR: South African War—Approximately 6,500 troops from New Zealand served in the South African War.

First World War, 1914-18—A total of 124,211 persons (including 91,941 volunteers) were called up for overseas and home service prior to 12 November 1918. Of these, 100,444 went overseas.

Second World War, 1939-45—The net intake of men to the armed forces—i.e., exclusive of transfers between the services and of re-entries—during the Second World War was 194,000, equivalent to 67 percent of the male population between the ages of 18 and 45 years. In addition, approximately 10,000 women served in the forces. It is estimated that approximately 140,000 persons served overseas.

CIVIL DEFENCE—In 1959, a Ministry of Civil Defence was established within the framework of the Department of Internal Affairs, and three regional commissioners were appointed to implement Central Government policy within their regions. For civil defence purposes, the North Island was divided into two regions and the South Island formed a third region.

The Civil Defence Act 1962 put into legislative form the concept and machinery of a national civil defence scheme. It provided for the formation of national and regional civil defence committees, advisory planning committees, the appointment of a secretary for civil defence, and a director and deputy director of civil defence.

Various planning committees have been established and are responsible for formulating national civil defence plans for consideration by the National Civil Defence Committee prior to being submitted to the Minister of Civil Defence, who is given power under the Civil Defence Act to approve them as national plans.

These national plans indicate resources available, the particular requirements to be incorporated in regional and local authority plans, and basic procedures for action in a civil defence emergency for communications, fire fighting services, law and order, medical arrangements, public relations, supply and services, traffic control, transport, and welfare and evacuation. A plan for Government Action in Major Disaster outlines the role of Central Government and of individual Government departments.

The preparation of local civil defence plans and the establishment and training of an organisation to implement such plans and make them functional is the responsibility of local authorities. Every local authority is required by the Civil Defence Act to have an operational civil defence plan. The plan must be approved by the Ministry of Civil Defence and up-dated as changes in national plans or conditions in the area affect it.

The Ministry of Civil Defence assists local authorities by conducting training and other courses for their key personnel and also makes officers available to help them run their own courses. Training manuals and operational forms for use by local authorities are supplied by the ministry. The Government pays a $1 for $1 subsidy on certain categories of civil defence expenditure by local authorities. Examples are salaries of civil defence staff and cost of radio equipment, erection of civil defence headquarters, training equipment, first aid training, etc.

There is provision in the Civil Defence Act for the recruitment and training of civil defence police and traffic officers. During a civil defence emergency these recruits are employed on the more routine duties thus releasing the highly trained permanent personnel for more important duties related to the situation. The establishment of civil defence police and traffic officers are 3,500 and 2,000 respectively.

Chapter 10. Section 10 LAND DEVELOPMENT AND USE

10 A—PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

GENERAL—Planning for economic development and growth is the concern of a wide range of sectors, including agriculture, manufacturing, transport, forestry, building, mineral development, and energy production. Economic development in New Zealand is at present undergoing complex structural change with the rapidly growing manufacturing sector of increasing importance. This has led to an increased demand for land, both for industry and the associated urban development, a demand increasingly in conflict with agricultural use. Within the urban areas themselves, competing demands for industrial, commercial, residential and recreational land have arisen as proponents of each particular use have sought their most suitable available location. Left unchecked, these conflicts of interest could lead to unsatisfactory and uneconomic patterns of development. This has necessitated a planning framework within which competing demands can be resolved.

In recent years, world opinion has had forced upon it an appreciation of the damage to the environment, in the form of pollution and the destruction of natural resources, that can result from uncontrolled economic development. New Zealand, during the early years of the last century, suffered what is now recognised to have been irreparable damage from the destruction of native forests and wildlife. However, during the last decade New Zealand has taken warning from the unfortunate experiences of some more highly developed countries. Concern for possible future effects of economic growth on the environment led to the holding of the Physical Environment Conference in May 1970 and has resulted in the enacting of what is, by world standards, advanced environmental legislation.

LAND USE—With almost 27 million hectares of land and a population of just over 3 million, New Zealand has not in the past been conscious of the problems of resource utilisation experienced in the more closely settled countries. An extensive coastline (approximately 15,000 km), great variety of landscape and responsive soils, and a generally favourable climate at lower altitudes are some of the assets which, because of the small population, have been utilised without any serious detrimental effects on the social and economic fabric. In retrospect, however, it is apparent that some of the land and other resources have been wastefully exploited. Maori settlement brought significant ecological changes, largely through fires and hunting. The impact of European settlement was much greater, measured by the large areas of indigenous forest cover destroyed, the extensive native grasslands burnt for sheep grazing and ploughed for crops and sown pasture, the wetlands drained and reclaimed, the unsightly tailings left after gold mining, the increase in soil erosion, and the general loss of wildlife habitats.

The growth and changing distribution of the population have been strongly influenced by the distribution of the most productive soils. In the nineteenth century, when the population was small, the ultimate results of preferential settlement of the best agricultural land were not appreciated. Generally, the most productive areas became the most prosperous when the towns within them grew, and it was at the expense of the most productive soils. Later, manufacturing and tertiary industries tended to be located in these towns because of the labour, markets, and services they offered.

Between 1949 and 1964 urbanisation claimed about 15,800 hectares of good farming land, and expansion up to 1984 will require another 30,000 hectares of land. Considering that the total area of good farming land includes approximately 8,300,000 hectares of first-class pastoral land and 500,000 hectares of first-class cropping land and that agricultural production derives benefits from urbanisation, this is not considered a serious problem on a national scale. In certain localities, however, unrestricted urban expansion could have serious limiting effects on agricultural production in the future. The problem is most acute around Auckland, the population of which is now over 800,000, increasing at 2.5 percent a year, and likely to double in under 30 years. It is not possible to reverse the historical factors that have determined the present population distribution, but a national policy for the protection of the soils potentially most productive may be necessary. In the past, economic growth has been pursued with scant regard for its impact on the environment. Single and immediate use rather than balanced long-term use of resources has been the common practice, and has tended to place the advocates of exploitation and protection in opposing camps.

The problem now is how to combine the economic and social pressures on soil, water, plant, and fauna resources with the maintenance of ecological and aesthetic qualities.

In New Zealand a traditional, and still largely current, attitude is to emphasise the desirability of preserving, at least in selected areas, the characteristic beauty of the landscape and providing access and facilities for recreation and enjoyment of such natural features. This emphasis has resulted in provision of extensive national parks and smaller reserves.

Development schemes causing modification of natural features can, in the planning stage, make provision for restraint, restoration, and even the addition of compensating amenities. The rate of development in New Zealand must make this an essential ingredient of planning. But it must be stressed that there will be no more completely unmodified or true wilderness country. Once it is destroyed, wilderness is gone forever. Wilderness is extremely fragile, and soil erosion, degradation of vegetation, and destruction of animal species can come about through any alteration of the environment, even the most innocent access road.

Scientific investigations and research have reinforced the validity of the beliefs based on sentiment and aesthetics that there are dangers in any disturbance of natural equilibrium of air, water, soil, plants, animals, and stabilised land-forms, or in the pollution of any of them. Changes in the balance of dominance of even obscure organisms or a slowly declining water-table can be factors in the deterioration of countryside. It is essential to retain reference areas from which the changes in soils, plants, and animals resulting from man's activities can be assessed. A whole catchment will usually be the desirable minimum effective area.

Conservation, however, means much more than the preservation of scenic and scientific values. It implies the maintenance without diminution of the basic land resources on which New Zealand's economy and way of life are so largely based. Of these resources the most important are soil, water, and vegetation, the last both natural and induced, and both forests and grasslands. The concept of conserving soil, water, forest, and grassland resources is dynamic rather than static, and embodies the principle of preservation through wise use.

The problems are capable of solution provided there is a sufficient understanding by administrators and by the public of the importance and often the interdependence of the different values involved and of the ecological implications of any decision affecting land use. Conflicts between different demands on the countryside are inevitable, but with adequate planning and management they are mostly capable of resolution. For example, an agriculturally productive landscape can provide such rich and satisfying contacts with the diversity of nature that in many ways the man-made landscape based on agriculture or forestry need be little less interesting and satisfying than the wild one. Likewise, soil conservation practices not only restore vitality and health to the soil but also create pleasing patterns in the landscape.

Conservation thus viewed becomes more than a matter of mere aesthetic preference, and demands a more complex approach than the isolation of a few areas. If this basis is accepted the principles and practice of conservation as management of the total environment must have high priority in any plans for national development.

The total area of New Zealand, excluding the island territories in the Pacific, but including the minor islands, is estimated to be 26,870,000 hectares.

The broad grouping of land use in 1975 is shown in the following table.

Land UseHectares (million)

*Including some areas of State Forest land.

†Includes relatively small areas in cities and boroughs.

Occupied farm land— 
Improved grassland9.23
Tussock and other native grassland used for grazing4.71
Total grassland13.94
Land in field crops, gardens, and orchards0.41
Plantations of exotic trees0.70*
Land in fern, scrub, and second growth5.90*
Standing bush5.90*
Barren and unproductive land5.90*
Native timber5.90*
Total occupied farm land20.94
Land in cities and boroughs0.37
National parks, reserves, and domains2.65
Other land, including waste land such as mountains, bare rock, water surfaces, roads, etc.2.90
Total land26.87

Land can now no longer be considered an abundant resource in New Zealand. Because this is so, there is increasing acceptance that where other compatible uses are feasible, it is not necessarily sound policy to devote land to a single or restricted use. However, the need is also becoming recognised to identify the dominant purpose for which land is most suited, so that the pressure for comprehensive land use does not negate the principle that land should be used basically for its most suitable purpose with other uses being encouraged only to the extent that they are compatible.

Land Use Advisory Council—The Land Use Advisory Council was established in 1972 with the task of developing criteria on which sound land use decisions can be made; and its order of reference requires it to have regard to physical, ecological, economic, social, environmental, and other relevant factors, and to determine means by which these factors may be more precisely defined.

The council includes departmental, farming, economic, scientific, and geographic interests, and although its decisions are primarily intended to guide the use of lands of the Crown, it is hoped that the criteria it lays down will be of assistance to all who are required to make land use decisions.

The Council has concerned itself with urban sprawl and its effect on rural land, the problems of the 10-acre subdivision, the protection of prime agricultural and horticultural land, the availability of basic land resource data for planning purposes, and the measures adopted by the Government for determining the use of its land. The experiences of a number of overseas countries in planning land development, use and management have been studied. Consideration has been given to the various legitimate uses of the nation's land, including such non-producing use (in terms of food or goods) as recreation, soil conservation and water management, the preservation of wildlife, and historic and ecological management; and some thought has gone into the means for determining which use shall take priority in the event of there being two strong competing claims.

Too often land use has been determined on the basis of expediency, tradition, short-term economic considerations and other factors often unrelated to the real concerns of a sound national land use policy. Too often also, sufficient recognition has not been given to the need for preserving and enhancing the environment and for maintaining the conditions capable of supporting a quality of life, while providing the material means necessary to improve the national standard of living. New Zealand's economy and way of life are so largely based on the use of land that the maintenance of this resource is a matter of national concern.

Land Inventory—The Department of Lands and Survey is building up a land inventory. The object of the inventory is to identify land tenure, land use, and land cover; and for other contributing agencies to produce more detailed data relating to other basic issues such as soils and geology as will enable a more realistic appraisal of the resources of an area to be achieved. The existence of this data should enable both local and national Government to plan with greater confidence.

The regular coverage of aerial photography by the Department of Lands and Survey provides a useful monitoring tool for changes in land use. New Zealand is hoping to participate in the Earth Resources satellite programme both as a monitor and a means of upgrading mapping data on small scales. The 5-yearly 1:100,000 urban flying programme will also assist local authorities to keep abreast of developments.

FRAMEWORK FOR PLANNING—Legislation for maintaining a balance between economic growth and the pattern of land use is contained in a number of enactments administered by various agencies.

Planning Legislation—The Physical Environment Conference in May 1970 concluded that the town and country planning legislation affords greater opportunities of control over the pattern of land use and development. The Town and Country Planning Act 1953 provides for the making and enforcement of regional and district planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1960. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works and Development who may delegate some authority to the Commissioner of Works.

Regional Planning—Regional planning authorities may be established under the Act and consist of representatives of the several councils whose districts are wholly or partly within the region. These authorities are now operating in the four main centres and in Northland and Hamilton.

Regional planning schemes must be preceded by a comprehensive survey of the natural resources of the areas concerned and of the present and potential uses and values of all lands in relation to public utilities or amenities. Regional schemes envisage the conservation and economic development of natural resources by classification of lands according to their best uses and by the co-ordination of all such public improvements, utilities, and amenities as are not limited to the territory of any one local authority.

Considerable work has been undertaken on natural and regional planning policies by the Ministry of Works and Development in association with the Department of Trade and Industry and the Treasury.

During 1974-75 the Government endorsed as the objectives of its regional development strategy:

  1. To achieve a more even distribution of development having regard for regional aspirations;

  2. To foster an appropriate level of development in regional areas with a rate of growth substantially below the national average, expecially where this results in adverse social and economic effects.

  3. To consider alternatives to the growth of the Auckland and Wellington metropolitan areas in order to reduce the adverse social and economic effects of large-scale migration to those areas and to enable growth to be spread to other regions;

  4. To enhance the quality of life in both urban and rural areas by increasing opportunities for employment, and improving housing, educational, social, cultural, and recreational amenities; and

  5. To improve the quality of urban development, particularly in areas of major population growth.

The Government has established a small committee to examine the regional development implications of major investment programmes and to work out in more detail measures to achieve these objectives.

Examples of areas or projects in which a substantial increase in Government investment and activity has demanded more co-ordinated planning on a regional scale are the Maui project in Taranaki and the Clutha Valley power scheme.

District Planning—Every district scheme under the Act is required to have for its general purpose the development of the area to which it relates (including where necessary the replanning and reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as will most effectively tend to promote and safeguard the health, safety, and convenience, the economic and general welfare of its inhabitants, and the amenities of every part of the area. The council of every city, borough, county, and independent town district must provide and maintain a district scheme whether or not a regional planning scheme including its district has been prepared or become operative. More than 90 percent of the population are living in areas where councils have brought down recommended, proposed, or operative district schemes.

National Planning—The Town and Country Planning Act Review Committee, in its report of September 1973, noted that the legislation made no reference to planning at the national level, and recommended that the revised legislation should ensure that national policies are taken into account at all levels of planning.

In November 1973, the Town and Country Planning Act was amended as follows, to give effect to this:

"2B. The following matters are declared to be of national importance and shall be recognised and provided for in the preparation, implementation and administration of regional and district schemes:

  1. The preservation of the natural character of the coastal environment and of the margins of lakes and rivers and the protection of them from unnecessary subdivision and development;

  2. The avoidance of encroachment of urban development on, and the protection of land having a high actual or potential value for the production of food; and

  3. The prevention of sporadic urban subdivision and development in rural areas."

National planning for the preservation of the natural character of the coastal environment and of the margins of lakes and rivers and the protection of them from unnecessary subdivision and development involves the Department of Lands and Survey and the Ministry of Works and Development. Since 1966 the Department of Lands and Survey has been involved in coastal reserves acquisition which has increased with development of the coastal reserves surveys. These are carried out on a county basis and classify areas on the basis of their importance into areas of national, regional, or local significance. The Coastal Review Committee, which includes both departments, makes the final decision as to the selection and financial responsibility for particular reserves. In April 1973 the Government approved the terms of a national policy on coastal land as follows:

  1. Recognition that coastal land is a resource of national importance but of fixed quantity justifying, firstly, central as well as local government interest in how it is used; secondly, Central Government intervention when it is being misused; and thirdly, provision by Central Government of professional planning advice and funds for reserves;

  2. Provision of as wide a variety of active and passive recreational opportunity and experience as the coast is able to offer now and in the future including a wide range of types of recreational reserves and holiday accommodation;

  3. Retention in sufficient quantity of the native coastal flora and fauna in its natural state as well as the unique and the typical in coastal scenery;

  4. Establishment of a pattern of future land use which clearly defines the land needed for urban development in the next two decades and the land that should never be used for urban purposes;

  5. Ensuring that any development of coastal land for urban and holiday purposes is in sympathy with the landscape and makes the most of each site's natural characteristics;

  6. Recognition that the stability of a large proportion of coastal land depends on the efficiency of sand dune fixation and that unstable dune areas should not be subjected to a high level of recreational use.

The second matter of national importance in town planning is the avoidance of encroachment of urban development on, and the protection of, land having a high actual or potential value for the production of food. It has been estimated that about 9 percent of New Zealand's total land area, 2.4 million hectares, is suitable for arable farming and of this, 800,000 hectares comprise soils capable of sustaining a high production of a wide range of crops. In 1972 cities, boroughs, town districts, and county towns covered an area of approximately 288,000 hectares, of which 165,000 hectares were in actual urban use. As has been noted above, most of New Zealand's towns are in areas of productive soils.

The third matter is the prevention of sporadic urban subdivision and development in rural areas. This is indicative of pressures which are now leading to a need for a more sophisticated approach to rural planning. Appropriate changes will include different methods of farming operation, increasing importance of commercial forestry, increases in tourism and recreation, mineral exploitation, and demand for some form of rural living.

RECREATIONAL LAND—Existing national parks and reserves are, for the most part, close to the centres of greatest and most rapidly growing population. Until recently little was done to secure in public ownership those areas where most New Zealanders take their holidays—by the water. Along the north and north-east coasts, where the climate is best and the population densest, many of the most desirable areas of coastline have already been subdivided, notably on the North Auckland, Bay of Plenty, and Coromandel coasts. Besides limiting public access, this can destroy scenic values. Similar considerations apply in respect of lakes, rocks, and offshore islands. In recent years the Crown has purchased a number of islands or parts of islands for reserve purposes. Some of these are grouped in the Hauraki Gulf and Marlborough Sounds Maritime Parks. Moves are being made to control subdivision in coastal and lakeshore areas.

Access along rivers 3 metres wide, lakes in excess of 8 hectares, and foreshores has usually been provided: on all alienations of Crown land since 1886, on private subdivision for towns near rivers or the sea coast since 1923, and on partitions of Maori land in counties since 1967.

The Land Act has provided since 1948 that around every lake with an area of 8 hectares or more there shall be laid off a strip not less than 1 chain in width.

New Zealand has some 24 percent of its land under forest. It is important that a forest cover should be maintained wherever it constitutes the most desirable form of land use. Forests meet a wide range of basic human needs—social, recreational, and spiritual, as well as economic.

New Zealand is fortunate in that a large area of native forests was set aside in the early days in reserves of various types (State forests, climatic reserves, scenery preservation reserves, reserves for the preservation of flora and fauna, and reserves for the growth and preservation of timber). As a result New Zealand is well endowed with forested wilderness and with other native forests having scenic, recreational, and wildlife values. Per head of population New Zealand probably has a larger area of forests of this type than any other developed country. Early land administrators laid the basis for a national park, a forest park, and a protection forestry system which is widely envied.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for leisure pursuits in surroundings of great natural beauty—for the study of wildlife (plant and animal); for walking and tramping; and for shooting and fishing. Most of the attractive forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation; recreational use can be allowed in almost all such protection forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting can be of benefit through its contribution in destroying wild animal pests. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes the improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining shelter huts, assets also of use to Forest Service personnel. Entry is unrestricted except that, in the interests of safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

The older exotic forests also offer the attractions that only a sylvan setting can provide and have the advantage of accessibility. In many places, walks and picnic spots have been prepared for use by the public, and selected areas will be preserved from felling for their scenic value.

A related topic is the protection and conservation of bush and trees within urban areas. Not only do trees and areas of bush provide beauty and additional amenities in urban surroundings, but they provide habitats for birds and other wildlife, encourage the cycling of water and nutrients, and assist with erosion control. Local authorities have the power to require that, when land is subdivided, trees and bush areas shall be preserved.

PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF MAJOR PARKS AND RESERVES—Planning of and for natural areas is proceeding at a far greater pace than ever before. The New Zealand Forest Service produces working plans for all State forests including forest parks; national park boards are preparing management plans for individual parks and a number are being produced for other reserves; coastal areas and scenic and allied reserves are being reviewed by the Department of Lands and Survey; and local and regional planning authorities are producing district or regional schemes.

In order to avoid the mistakes inherent in haphazard development, the National Parks Authority has for some years been encouraging national park boards to prepare management plans for their respective parks. These plans establish concepts and guidelines for the preservation and use of national parks, and afford the means by which park use and management can be reconciled with the preservation in perpetuity of the park's scenic beauty, and natural and historic features.

The concept of management planning is not confined to national parks. The Department of Lands and Survey is also applying the concept to reserves, domains, and recreation areas of all types. Major management plans and planning reports have been completed for the Waitangi National Trust and for Mount Maunganui, while work of this type continues for the country's two maritime parks, the Far North Coastal Park at Te Paki, and major areas of public recreation such as Lake Taupo, the Wanganui River, the Waitaki Lakes, and Rotorua, etc.

ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES—In addition to the Government departments with responsibilities for administering the diversity of legislation for the protection of the physical environment, there are several authorities with responsibilities for the physical and social environment. Some of the more prominent of these are discussed below.

The Commission for the Environment—The ministerial portfolio for the environment and the Commission for the Environment were established in 1972. The Minister's role is to ensure that in all areas of Government activity at least equal attention is given to environmental as to economic or other considerations. To achieve this it is the Minister's responsibility to ensure that the Government has before it the best information available on the environmental aspects of projects and policies under consideration.

The Commission functions as a small investigatory and advisory agency without executive or management responsibility. It undertakes studies for the Minister and makes recommendations. It co-ordinates the activities undertaken by other Government departments with responsibility for environmental issues, and in this capacity aims to assist in the development of policies designed to lead to sound physical and social environmental management.

A major responsibility of the Commission is to audit environmental impact reports. These are written appraisals of the environmental consequences expected from new developments or policies. The Environmental Protection and Enhancement Procedures which have been in force since 1 March 1974 require environmental impact reports for all major projects of the Central Government and for all other projects that need Government approvals or funds. Power stations, harbour reclamations, and forestry developments have been among the projects so far reported on.

The procedures which the Commission administers provide for the critical examination of environmental effects expected from these projects or alternatives to them and include provision for public submissions to the Commission, which produces a written audit of the environmental impact report and the project. The audit is sent to the authority promoting the project and is published before a decision is taken on the proposal.

Aside from its role under the impact reporting procedures, the Commission is also able to draw attention to the need for research and action, in areas where environmental implications might otherwise be overlooked. This brings it closely into contact not only with other Government departments but with statutory bodies and citizen environmental groups. Subjects on which the Commission has worked include Northland forestry exports, population policy guidelines for New Zealand, and future energy options. In some of this work the Commission has been closely associated with the Environmental Council.

The Commission for the Environment also services the independent guardian groups established to advise the Government on the ways in which areas of important environmental interest should be safeguarded. Three such groups have been appointed—the Guardians of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, the Guardians of the Rotorua Lakes, and the Guardians of Lake Wanaka (for the latter there is statutory authority in the Lake Wanaka Preservation Act). The objective of the guardian policy is to provide greater opportunities for local people to influence developments which could adversely affect significant natural assets. The membership of the groups also includes technical people who are able to make an expert contribution to the guardians' work.

The Environmental Council—The Environmental Council was established in 1970 following the Physical Environment Conference held in May of that year. The Council was originally set up as a sector council of the National Development Council; as a result of the reorganisation of the planning machinery, the council now reports to the Government through the Minister for the Environment.

The constitution of the Council provides for 15 members, including the chairman who is not a serving Government official. Five Government departments are represented—Treasury, Health, New Zealand Forest Service, Works and Development, and Lands and Survey. Three positions are drawn from those with experience in municipal and county local government, and regional planning; the remaining six positions are filled by private citizens with knowledge and experience in environmental matters or appropriate qualifications.

The Council has no executive powers. Its terms of reference are:

  1. To advise the Minister for the Environment on such matters as he may refer to it and on such matters as the Council may raise itself on the state and trend of the environment and on measures to be taken to manage it.

  2. To publish from time to time such information upon environmental problems as the Council considers necessary to serve the public interest.

The main role of the Council is to advise on general matters of policy and principle rather than to examine the environmental consequences of specific projects. It has, however, alluded to specific developments to illustrate its concerns. Examples of the policy issues in which the Council has been involved are the need for national policies on the subdivision of coastal land, the use and management of coastal waters and the seabed, and the use and preservation of wetlands. Currently, the Council is involved in questions relating to the formulation of a population policy and the environmental effects of energy production. It is producing an Urban Objectives Programme which is designed to provide guidelines for use by Central and local government in the planning and development of urban areas.

Nature Conservation Council—The Nature Conservation Council was set up by statute in 1962. It can enquire into the effects of any proposed public or private works in areas of scenic, scientific, or recreational interest, and it makes recommendations to the Government through the Minister of Lands. The Council's concerns include electric power schemes, location of power and telephone lines, roading, harbour reclamations, native forests, mining applications, air and water pollution. recommendations for reserves, and aspects of town and country planning. Although it has access to Government information, it speaks with an independent voice, and is able to make public any of its reports or recommendations.

The Council frequently advises non-Government conservation groups and co-ordinates their views. It also keeps the general public informed through its environmental publications, and through its sponsorship of the National Conservation Week each year.

CONTROL OF MINERAL EXPLOITATION—Mining has in the past left small portions of the landscape so scarred that their visual impact today suggests that mining in general produces only perpetual devastation. In fact most areas where mining has ceased need show no sign that they were ever mined.

To ensure that the land is maintained in a suitable condition, the Minister of Mines is empowered under the Mining Act 1971 to impose whatever conditions he thinks fit on a mining licence, and he may impose or vary these conditions at any time, even after the grant of the licence. Over public reserves and foreshore a condition may be attached in exchanging a prospecting licence for a mining licence that the licensee should provide a contribution towards a community asset.

Problems can occur where mineral exploitation takes place on freehold land. Local authorities have the necessary power to make regulations to control these activities, and they may use this power to maintain the long-term quality of the environment.

RE-AFFORESTATION MEASURES—In recent years the encouragement of afforestation on private land by loans and grants has begun to restore the balance of forests on induced grasslands. In addition the Forest Service has embarked on a large programme of revegetating eroded upland areas in important river catchments and also establishing dual-purpose forests where production of wood may be complementary to the protective nature of forests, for example, in East Cape-Poverty Bay where over 100,000 hectares will be planted over the next 40 years.

The New Zealand Forest Service prepares regional development plans for major timber supply regions throughout New Zealand, covering all forestry sectors. These plans set out the potential of the regions. For those forests under State control the Forest Service prepares regional management plans which describe and prescribe State forest activities in both indigenous and exotic production forests as well as protection forests in the mountains.

From the work of the national forest survey, the ecological survey now being carried out by the Forest Research Institute in the North Island, and the catchment condition and trend surveys carried out by the Protection Forestry Branch of the Forest Research Institute throughout New Zealand, the Forest Service has a good knowledge of the composition of State forests and of most major river catchments in all tenures.

SCIENTIFIC STUDY—About one-fifth of the staff of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is engaged on research on physical environment matters including ecological studies of national parks, investigations into beech forest ecosystems, and identification of marine animals and plankton. The department has undertaken bathymetric studies of lakes and the ocean floor around New Zealand. Basic geological, soil, and botanic surveys provide information for the land use surveys which guide urban development. Further information is given in the Science and Scientific Services section.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION BY INDUSTRY—Statistics of expenditure on environmental protection have been obtained in the annual census of manufacturing industries and are shown in the following table for 1973-74. The expenditure shown below is that incurred directly on processes or operations which are for the benefit or protection of the general public, such as the disposal, eradication, or cleansing of effluents, wastes, poisons, vapours, or similar obnoxious matter; protection from radiation; land stabilisation or beautification; the replacement of overburden; and similar work designed to protect or restore the environment.

Industry GroupExpenditure on Environmental ProtectionPercentage Environmental Expenditure of Net Output
 $(000)percent
Food1,3250.41
Beverages
Tobacco--
Textiles890.05
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods
Wood and cork products1520.11
Furniture and fixtures
Paper and paper products2.0621.24
Printing, publishing, etc.
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)800.19
Rubber products
Chemicals and chemical products930.13
Petroleum and coal products1250.14
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.
Basic metal manufactures6810.37
Metal products
Machinery1880.11
Electrical machinery and appliances
Transport equipment120.01
Miscellaneous products370.05
Totals4,8440.32

PROTECTION OF WATER RESOURCES—New Zealand uses about 400,000,000 gallons of water a day but requires even more to cope with the increasing demands of population and industrial growth.

Industrial use far exceeds domestic use: about 1,400 gallons of water are required to make steel worth $1, and 200 gallons are needed to produce paper worth $1. In order to get the large quantities of water demanded by our present way of life water supplies may need to be reused. Wastes must be so treated and purified before discharge into a river that the diluted effluent conforms to the standard required by water users closer to the river mouth.

The deterioration of the natural quality and the disturbance of the natural pattern of flow of water could limit utilisation for some purposes. To ensure that the quality of natural waters is maintained as a source of supply for human and animal consumption and as wildlife habitats and recreational areas, it is necessary that sedimentation, pollution and eutrophication be minimised. These problems have been particularly noticeable in the Taupo area. Preservation of the quality of water is crucial to the Taupo fishery, and to recreational and scenic values of the lake surroundings. In recent years, large-scale land development and increased population in the Taupo basin have sharply accelerated the rate of eutrophication of the lake. In an effort to reduce the nutrient inflow to a minimum, large reservations of peripheral land in natural cover have been proposed and generally accepted. As a further means of countering erosion and the inflow of nutrients, studies are being undertaken to establish guidelines for farming, forestry, and other uses.

The National Water and Soil Conservation Authority is a central policy-making body and, with the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council and the Water Resources Council, comprises the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation. The authority is responsible for formulating general policy guidelines concerning water and soil conservation and each council has certain functions delegated to it.

Representation on the authority and council includes counties and municipalities, catchment authorities, regional water boards, drainage and river boards, farming, manufacturing, and recreational interests, and appropriate Government departments.

Regional water boards and catchment authorities have been formed over much of the country. These local government bodies are responsible for putting the authority's policies into action. The allocation of water is the responsibility of the authority and the water boards. Broadly, the authority's functions involve developing and co-ordinating a national policy to ensure that the greatest local and national benefits are obtained from the use of the water.

The Water Resources Council, established in April 1972, is responsible for maintaining the quality of water at a satisfactory level. The council is classifying all rivers and coastal waters throughout New Zealand. These classifications are declarations of the minimum standards of quality at which the water is to be maintained in order to promote the conservation and best use of the water in the public interest.

The high rainfall and run-off factors in New Zealand have created drainage problems in many areas, particularly in low-lying sections of valleys, where river gradients are flat, and coastal areas. Drainage works are often carried out in conjunction with river-control schemes, in which case they must be properly co-ordinated with the river works, and may include floodgates and pumping stations. In the North Island, particularly, there are large areas of peat swamps that pose a special problem in development because of the danger of excessive shrinkage with overdrainage.

The topography and soils over most of the country generally favour high run-off as shown by both total annual river flows and peak flood discharges. There are, however, some areas in the North Island where flood peaks are greatly reduced by porous pumice soils, while on some river systems natural lake storage in headwaters helps to control flooding.

Since 1941 with the setting up of catchment authorities with their specialist staff, great progress has been made with river-control work throughout the country. Action was naturally focused first on the major river valleys where there has been a history of severe flood damage and where the property owners have been able to meet their share of the cost. Schemes are now in hand, or planned, for controlling the lower reaches of most of the major problem rivers.

There are still many rivers in New Zealand where major control schemes cannot be justified at the present time, but where a great many smaller, individual works are being carried out. Such works primarily serve to hold the river in check and prevent serious deterioration until such time as more comprehensive planning can be justified. Many schemes have been advanced or are being prepared for more comprehensive soil conservation and water management measures over whole catchments.

Most river-control works are carried out by catchment authorities or river boards, but some smaller works are also carried out by Ministry of Works and Development, counties, and drainage boards. The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council seeks to develop complete catchment control schemes where possible, to integrate river control work with water and soil conservation practice on the land area on individual river catchments.

The effective use and control of water depends on the availability of accurate long-term data on water movement. A regional system for collecting comprehensive data was initiated in 1959. The country is divided into 91 regions, based on similarity of slope, rock type, and precipitation. The data is collected and published by the representative catchment and the information is then used when applications for water rights are being considered.

The problem is one of restoring an erosion-resistant and water-absorbant combination of soil and vegetation, while ensuring that maximum permanent production is maintained or achieved under various systems of land use.

CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION—The changes in vegetation consequent on land development have been reflected in disturbed soil conditions in many parts of New Zealand. The protective, stabilising, and water-controlling combination of vigorous native vegetation, litter, and spongy soil has given way to a shallow-rooted, less protective carpet of grass on a compacted, impervious, and often exhausted soil. Soil erosion now occurs on more than 8 million hectares of hill country and mountain land, about one-third of the total area of New Zealand.

Successful techniques that have been developed to control erosion include spelling, control of burning and animal pests, oversowing, topdressing, strict grazing control, soil conservation fencing, stock-water ponds, gully control, contour ploughing, terraces, grassed waterways, and open and close tree planting. Cost-sharing rates are available to farmers carrying out these control practices.

Land classification is extensively used in New Zealand. Initially this technique involves making an inventory of the physical factors of slope, soil type, climate, vegetation, and erosion types and severity existing, either over a whole catchment or over an individual farm. This basic information then allows soil conservators to recommend the best treatment (conservation practices) and use of particular areas of land so as to ensure maximum permanent production from any one area.

Water and soil conservation farm plans are a vital means of helping landowners make the best use of their land and water resources. These plans involve the integration of conventional farm practices with those recommended under the land classification system.

A plan is formulated by a soil conservator and then discussed with the landowner concerned. The plan may then be adjusted to suit the landowners' ability to carry it out over several years.

A valuable aid in promoting water and soil conservation practices on farms has been the setting up of reserves and demonstration areas throughout the country. These areas are used to show local farmers in particular just how their problems can be overcome by the use of correct practices. Many of these areas also serve as research centres.

POLLUTION—Public concern for the preservation of the environment and for the recycling and conservation of resources has grown noticeably during recent years. Along with this the awareness of pollutants which affect the enjoyment of both the urban and rural areas has also increased. The problems of water pollution are being tackled by the Water Resources Council and the regional water boards; those of air pollution are being met by the provisions of the Clean Air Act 1972, while many local authorities have introduced bylaws to control noise problems in their areas. Within the territorial sea and harbours the Marine Pollution Act 1974 control, the discharge or dumping of oil or any other substance declared a pollutant.

Pollution of our rivers and lakes can be caused by soil erosion, farm run-off, industrial waste, or municipal sewage. The Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 provides for the control of waste discharges but other forms of pollution require different approaches such as through changing land use practice. Sewage and farm run-off add nutrients to the water which, in some lakes, slow rivers or sheltered estuaries, has caused the excessive growth of microscopic and larger plants to the detriment of the water quality.

Waste disposal from cities, forestry, and the meat industry are the major contributors to pollution of the land. Urban waste disposal is largely by the sanitary land fill technique and most major cities are establishing tip sites planned to last up to 50 or 100 years several miles from the closest housing areas. Until recently large amounts of wood were left in the forest during logging or dumped near sawmills. Now much of this waste wood is chipped for use in pulp mills either within the country or overseas. Some effort is made to transform the waste from the 35 million livestock slaughtered each year into fertiliser but considerable quantities of it are still buried.

Organic chemical pesticides and herbicides are widely accepted as essential for efficient agriculture. Some 80 different herbicides and fungicides and 40 insecticides are in common use in New Zealand. The use of DDT on pastures has been banned and in 1973 the restrictions on the use of 2, 4, 5-T tightened in areas where there could be a danger of exposing the public to it.

Several divisions of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research are concerned with monitoring pollution. The Chemistry Division conducts surveys of mercury contamination of fish and water, arising from geothermal outflows. Nitrate concentration in ground waters, and insecticides in water are measured, and checks are kept on heavy metals in foods. The Oceanographic Institute traced the biological effects of heated water discharges from thermal power stations. The Physics and Engineering laboratory participates in the Earth's Resources Technology Satellite programme. The department also assists such organisations as the Dairy Research Institute, the Meat Industry Research Institute, the Wool Research Organisation, and the Leather and Shoe Research Association, which are industrial research groups all supporting projects to reduce pollution and increase the use of by-products from their industrial processes which have in the past been wasted.

New Zealand's geographical shape and location is favourable to the dispersal of air pollutants. Some areas, such as Christchurch, do suffer from air pollution problems. The Clean Air Act 1972, the first part of which came into effect on 1 April 1973, establishes the principle of air pollution control on industry by the best practicable means. Provision is also made for the establishment of smokeless zones.

The Clean Air Council was established under the Clean Air Act 1972 to advise the Minister of Health on all aspects of air pollution. It advises local authorities on their work under the Act and co-ordinates the work of control authorities and voluntary organisations. It can publish reports from time to time, and is undertaking research work through four committees studying respectively clean air zones and domestic heating, motor vehicles and air pollution, rural pollution, and planning co-ordination.

MARGINAL LAND DEVELOPMENT—The Marginal Lands Act 1950 assists farmers to restore, maintain, and increase production on marginal lands, by providing finance where it is not available through normal lending channels. It also provides help in amalgamation of uneconomic units either by financing farmers into additional land, or by purchase of land and allocation to adjoining holdings.

The Act is administered by the Marginal Lands Board comprising the Minister of Lands (Chairman), the Director-General of Lands (Deputy Chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, and four other persons appointed by the Minister.

To assist the board at local level, committees have been established in each land district consisting of a representative of the Department of Lands and Survey and of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, and a private farmer selected from a panel of such members appointed for each district by the board.

The pattern of the board's lending during 3 recent years is shown in the following table.

Purpose of LoansYear Ended 31 March
197419751976
  $(000) 
Development (including stock, plant, and seasonal)807682818
Purchase of additional land1,0591,0221,277
Refinance552371926
 2,4172,0753,021

10 B—PUBLIC LANDS

CROWN LAND—There are 5.8 million hectares of Crown land which are held under lease or licence by individuals for farming or other purposes. Land permanently set aside for national parks, reserves, and domains comprises 2.7 million hectares. The Department of Lands and Survey is also developing 0.74 million hectares of land of which 0.48 million hectares is intended for subdivision and settlement as individual farms.

Administration—Crown land is administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948. The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands. New Zealand is divided into 12 land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands.

The central authority under the Land Act is the Land Settlement Board consisting of the Minister of Lands (chairman), the Director-General of Lands (deputy chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Valuer-General, a representative of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, and not more than four other persons appointed by the Minister.

The Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more land settlement committees for each land district, and 20 of these committees have been set up. Each committee consists of three members with the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as chairman and two private farmer members.

The Land Settlement Board, through the Department of Lands and Survey, disposes of Crown land for farming, residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. The demand for this land, particularly farm land, is considerable.

DISPOSAL OF CROWN LAND—Crown land is normally offered to the public at valuation and the successful applicant decided by ballot, although in certain circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Any land may, however, be offered for disposal by tender at a minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an upset price.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

  1. Farm land, urban land, commercial, or industrial land—(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple. Annual rent is reviewed at 11-yearly intervals.

  2. Pastoral land—(a) On pastoral lease for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding 21 years, with no right of renewal or of acquiring the fee simple.

  3. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding 5 years.

Selections—The following table shows details of selections during the year 1975-76.

TenureNumber of SelectionsTotal Area SelectedPurchase Price or Annual Charges
  hectaresS(000)
Freehold3433,2751,843
Renewable leases5310,11351
Pastoral leases and licences210,314-
Deferred-payment licences791,49658
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)3771214
Licences to occupy5827,041139
Leases of endowment and other lands966,42239
Totals 1975-761,19239,3732,144
Totals 1974-752,24656,1841,783

Leases and Licences—The following table shows the total number of leases and licences current as at 31 March 1976.

TenureLeases and LicencesAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalment*
*Including improvement roading.
  hectares$$
  (000)(000)(000)
Renewable leases8,0369171,06220
Leases in perpetuity6,1744983081
Pastoral leases and licences5323,0532034
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)7701143138
Deferred-payment licences12,961918-5,272
Misc. leases and licences99824-
Licences to occupy4,444155361-
Leases of endowment and other lands2,9131602174
Totals 1975-7636,8285,8172,4685,309
Totals 1974-7538,0255,8702,4824,882

Freeholdings—The following table shows the number of leases and licences freeholded, either for cash or on deferred payments.

Method of PaymentCrown LandsEndowment and Other LandsAreaPurchase Price
 No.No.hectares$(000)
Cash224-2,089323
Deferred payments384152,9984,953
Totals 1975-76608155,0875,276
Totals 1974-751,3111202,46014,546

Further details on leases and licences may be obtained from the annual report of the Department of Lands and Survey, parliamentary paper C.1.

Land Development—The Land Settlement Board was constituted in 1948 to administer land policy and land development through the Department of Lands and Survey.

Development of land for settlement of farms includes clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, erection of buildings, installation of water supplies and completion of essential soil conservation measures. To consolidate pastures and to control regrowth of scrub and weeds, the land is farmed as part of the development process.

The major development districts are Southland with 138,890 hectares under development at 31 March 1976, Rotorua 73,372 hectares, North Auckland 69,864 hectares, and Te Kuiti 52,248 hectares. Marlborough (185,946 hectares) includes the Molesworth Station, comprising 182,100 hectares.

An estimate 1,163 farms could eventually be made available from the 522,414 hectares on hand for development at 31 March 1976. A programme of development is undertaken annually aimed at preparation of individual farm units for settlement by landless farmers.

The department has a policy of heavy culling of stock to improve stock quality. Breeding programmes aimed at stocking farm settlement blocks with first-class herds and flocks have been set up. The main concentration on breeding is at Waihora Farm Settlement near Rotorua and results achieved to date justify the department's involvement in this field. The Waihora programme has proved to be of considerable interest to the farming industry generally both in this country and abroad

During the past 3 years the department, in association with the New Zealand Forest Service, has carried out investigations into the possibility of forestry/grazing propositions. Finality has been reached on a number of areas where such operations will be carried out, the first of which is on Woodstock Farm Settlement in Hawke's Bay. This is a new concept in New Zealand, involving grazing of stock among widely spaced trees, and indications are that it could be a profitable one.

NATIONAL PARKS AND RESERVES: History—From the founding of the colony, land has been the raw material used in the creation of a basic economic and social structure which forms part of our way of life. Royal Instructions issued to New Zealand's first governor—Captain William Hobson—who reached this country in 1840, included the concept of reserving land for public use and enjoyment. Under various pieces of general and special legislation a progressive policy of preserving and maintaining open natural and recreational areas for the people has been a facet in the land use policy and administration of the Central Government. Natural areas retained at a time when much of the country was relatively unmodified are still available today in the form of National Parks, and scenic and allied types of reserves.

The national park system in New Zealand had its origin in 1887 when Te Heuheu Tukino and other Maori chiefs gifted to the Crown the summits of their sacred mountains of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The gifted area provided the nucleus of our first national park—Tongariro—which was formally constituted by Act of Parliament in 1894. Special legislation in 1900 established Egmont as our second national park while Fiordland had its beginning in 1905 with the reservation of over 800,000 hectares as a public reserve for "a national park".

General legislation for national parks was incorporated in the Public Reserves, Domains, and National Parks Act 1928, but following World War II, increased interest by a growing population in national parks and outdoor recreation generally, paved the way for one general law governing the administration of all national parks—the National Parks Act 1952.

The 1952 Act established the National Parks Authority as an independent statutory body comprising 11 people representative of both Government and private organisations. Six of them are ex-officio members—the Director-General of Lands (who is Chairman), the Assistant Director-General of Lands (who is deputy Chairman), the Secretary for Internal Affairs, the Director-General of Forests, the General Manager of the Department of Tourist and Publicity, and the General Manager of the Tourist Hotel Corporation. The other five members are appointed by the Minister of Lands for terms of 3 years on the recommendations of the Royal Society of New Zealand, the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society, and the Federated Mountain Clubs, plus two to represent the 10 National Park Boards. The Authority is serviced by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Each national park is under the control of a National Park Board, chaired by the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district most concerned. Boards comprise up to eight other members appointed by the Minister of Lands on the recommendation of the Authority, one of whom is a nominee of the Federated Mountain Clubs and the New Zealand Ski Association where the nature of the park is such that the Authority considers it desirable for mountain climbers and skiers to have representation. Egmont and Tongariro retain historical variations in Board membership. Where the Tourist Hotel Corporation administers land, or controls any tourist facility on land, in or adjacent to a park, an additional member is appointed to the Board by the Minister of Lands on the recommendation of the Minister of Tourism. Salaried rangers in the Public Service are responsible for development, protection, interpretation, and management in each park and their work (chiefly in the area of park protection) is supplemented by the voluntary help of suitable persons appointed by boards as honorary rangers.

The status of National Park land cannot be changed except by Act of Parliament.

The main pieces of current legislation providing for the setting aside of land for public use, e.g., for the preservation of flora and fauna, scenery preservation, or recreation, are the Land Act 1948, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, and the Counties Act 1956. The Land Act enables land owned by the Crown, including foreshore areas, to be reserved for any purpose desirable in the public interest, while under the latter two Acts local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision is made for public reserves on subdivision of land.

The current legislation governing the administration, management, and control of scenic, historic and allied reserves, bird sanctuaries, and all other public reserves is the Reserves and Domains Act 1953, which is administered by the Department of Lands and Survey. Once land has been reserved for a specific purpose, the reservation can be changed or revoked only by the Minister of Lands. Scenic, historic and other reserves, domains, and maritime parks are controlled and managed either by boards, by local authorities, or by the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district in which the area is located. In some instances, the Department of Lands and Survey also provides the necessary staffing and back-up servicing of some of the boards. A large number of honorary rangers help in the supervision of these reserves.

Description—New Zealand's 10 national parks, covering 2,165,240 hectares (or one-thirteenth of the country's land area) of beautiful or unique natural features and scenery, steeped in Maori legend, offer many alternative opportunities for enjoying open air recreation and the contemplation of nature and wildlife. Mountains, glaciers, forests, lakes, rivers, fiords, and beaches offer opportunities for people to tramp, climb, ski, fish, hunt, camp, and picnic. There are pleasant drives for motorists, short nature walks, alpine gardens, visitor centres and, during holiday periods, nature programmes. Accommodation, transport, and other services in or near the parks are provided by park boards, Government agencies, private enterprise, and voluntary organisations. Although the National Parks Act provides for freedom of entry and access by the public, this is subject to conditions and restrictions "necessary for the preservation of the native flora and fauna or for the welfare in general of the Parks". Access to "special areas" constituted under the Act is (if the circumstances warrant) by permit only. The Act also requires parks to be administered and maintained so that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state; that their value as soil, water, and forest conservation areas is maintained; and that as far as possible, native flora and fauna is preserved and introduced flora and fauna exterminated.

Development permitted by the National Parks Act includes the erection of houses for rangers and park staff, the provision of camping grounds, huts, hostels, accommodation houses and other buildings, ski tows and similar facilities, parking areas, roading and tracks. In "wilderness areas", established in terms of the Act, development is restricted to foot-track access. Authority policy and park management plans provide guidelines and criteria for the extent of acceptable development in national parks.

Virtually all the finance for national parks is provided by the Government but cash donations by private individuals and organisations are encouraged: these earn a $2 for $1 subsidy from the Government.

Of the 10 national parks, the first three listed below are in the North Island and the remainder are in the South Island.

Urewera National Park (205,852 hectares, established in 1954), surrounds the beautiful Lakes Waikaremoana and Waikareiti. As the traditional home of the Tuhoe, "the Children of the Mist", it is rich in Maori history. The park protects the largest remaining area of native forest in the North Island and provides a home for many species of native birds.

Tongariro National Park (75,248 hectares, established in 1894), includes the three active volcanic cones of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. Ruapehu's snowfields are the winter playground of the North Island. Lake Rotopounamu, still free from exotic fish, and Mount Pihanga are two other focal points of the park.

Egmont National Park (33,529 hectares, established in 1900), contains one of the world's most symmetrical mountains, known to the Maoris as "Taranaki", and preserves magnificent scenery and vegetation within a 9 kilometre radius of the summit. Dominating Taranaki province in the west of the North Island, the near perfect cone varies from heavily-forested lower slopes to the bare scoria, rock, snow, and ice at the upper levels.

Abel Tasman National Park (20,648 hectares, established in 1942), with a broken coastline and rich in historical significance, has numerous tidal inlets and beaches of golden sand fronting Tasman Bay. Botanically, the park is unique as its bush-clad slopes show a blending of the natural cover of both the North and South Islands, a phenomenon of nature not found elsewhere in the country.

Nelson Lakes National Park (57,442 hectares, established in 1956), is named after the chief focal points for visitors, the beautiful lakes Rotoiti and Rotoroa. These nestle in rugged mountainous country with extensive beech-forest clad lower slopes. The Mount Robert area, with its magnificent views provides visitors with winter recreational opportunities on its ski fields.

Arthur's Pass National Park (98,402 hectares, established in 1929), is a rugged and mountainous area straddling the main divide of the Southern Alps. It is an area of high peaks (at least 30 over 1800 metres), snowfields, deep-cut valleys, snow-grass clad ridges, forest-clad hillsides, high waterfalls, wide shingle riverbeds, and rushing torrents, all providing endless scope for physical endeavour or quiet appreciation.

Mount Cook National Park (69,957 hectares, established in 1953) and Westland National Park (88,608 hectares, established in 1960), share a common boundary along the main divide of the Southern Alps. Their magnificent alpine scenery containing almost all of the 27 peaks over 3,050 metres includes New Zealand's highest, the 3,764 metre Mount Cook, known to the Maoris as "Aorangi"—freely translated as "Cloud Piercer". Their attractions are as varied as their altitude, ranging from well known glaciers such as Tasman (at 29 km long one of the longest outside polar regions), Franz Josef, and Fox, to hot springs, placid lakes, and the sub-tropical luxuriance of the rain forests.

Mount Aspiring National Park (287,206 hectares, established in 1964), is a complex of impressive glaciated mountain scenery which includes the headwaters of seven major rivers. The park's distinctive character is enhanced by bush-covered mountainside and pleasant river flats and valleys. Its focal point, often referred to as the Matterhorn of New Zealand, is the 3,036 metre Mount Aspiring, a four ridged peak rising from the Bonar Therma-Volta ice shelf, and the country's highest peak outside Mount Cook National Park.

Fiordland National Park (1,288,348 hectares, established in 1952), is one of the larger national parks in the world, and is renowned for the rugged grandeur of its scenery which includes fiords, mountains, forests, waterfalls, and lakes. The better known lakes are Manapouri, backed by snow-capped peaks, and Te Anau. The park is the only known habitat of two flightless birds, the takahe (notornis) and the kakapo.

Scenic Reserves—Scenic reserves, of which there are 1,001 with an overall area of 277,781 hectares, are set aside to preserve qualities of scenic interest such as native forest, limestone and glow-worm caves, thermal areas, sea coasts, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, scenic vantage points, and forested areas with considerable conservation value. Some of these reserves are mainly of local or regional significance while many of the larger ones, which are in the nature of junior or mini national parks, are of national importance. Public use of scenic reserves varies greatly, ranging from off-road parking and picnicking to camping, tramping, and hunting (subject to written permit).

Scenic reserves in excess of 2000 hectares include Lewis Pass, Wanganui River, Buller Gorge, Rakeahua, and South Cape (Stewart Island), Lake Kaniere, Gouland Downs, Glenhope, Lake Brunner, Rahu (Reefton), Mangamuku Gorge, Tangarakau, Te Tapui (Cambridge) and Waioeka Gorge.

Improved maintenance, management, and control of scenic reserves has been accomplished through the classification of their principal values and most appropriate usage. The appointment of salaried reserves rangers in the Public Service to ensure that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state "in the national interest" and for the "benefit and enjoyment of the public" has also been of considerable assistance. In addition, native trees and shrubs are being propagated at the Department of Lands and Survey's Taupo Nursery to promote scenic restoration activities in reserves throughout the North Island but with particular emphasis on the Taupo basin in the wake of power scheme works.

Land with acceptable scenic interest, while remaining in private ownership, may receive the benefits of preservation and protection of the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 through being declared private scenic reserve. Areas with private scenic reserve status include White Island in the Bay of Plenty, where petrels and gannets nest in large numbers annually, and a large area of the Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust property, near New Plymouth, and adjoining Egmont National Park, which is in native bush.

Historic Reserves—Eighty areas of historic interest totalling 1,655 hectares are set aside as historic reserves and the Department of Lands and Survey co-operates closely in the administration and investigation of historic sites with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Historic reserves mark the landfall and landing places of early voyagers such as Tasman and Cook, the site of missionary Samuel Marsden's first sermon on New Zealand soil, sites of early fortifications, of engagements during the Maori wars, and buildings of historic value. (The Treaty House area at Waitangi, administered by the Waitangi National Trust, is not a historic reserve in the strict sense.) Sites of Maori rock drawings and places of significance in New Zealand's early constitutional history are also preserved.

Reserves for the Preservation of Flora and Fauna—Land is reserved for bird sanctuaries, for the preservation of flora and fauna, or some similar purpose in cases where the land provides a habitat for bird or plant life of such importance that some control on public access is desirable. Such areas are reserved under the Reserves and Domains Act 1953. In all there are 77 reserves in this category with a total area of 190,235 hectares. Some of them are mainland areas, but most are off shore and outlying islands. Major areas of particular public interest include Little Barrier Island in Hauraki Gulf, the only known habitat of the stitch bird, and now part of the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park: Cape Kidnappers gannet colony in Hawke's Bay; Kapiti Island off Wellington's west coast; the white heron colony in South Westland; and the Taiaroa Head albatross colony near Dunedin.

All of New Zealand's subantarctic islands, except for a small area surrounding the meteorological station on Campbell Island, are reserved for the preservation of flora and fauna and provide a habitat for marine mammals and millions of sea birds. As well as Campbell Island, the reserves include the Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, and Snares Islands. To the north of New Zealand, most of the land in the Kermadec Islands is similarly reserved.

Generally, access to these reserves is by permit only, a policy followed solely in the interests of preservation of the plant and animal life to ensure an absolute minimum of human interference to anything living and growing naturally there. The reserves are administered by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park—This park was established under the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act in 1967. The park may include reserves of any type on or off the east coast of the North Island from Whangamata Harbour to Home Point at the northern end of Bland Bay. It includes such well-known islands as Motuihe, Rangitoto, Browns, Motutapu, Motuora, Poor Knights, Little Barrier, and part of Kawau containing the historic Mansion House. The park is controlled by a board of 10 members.

Marlborough Sounds Maritime Park—This park was established under the provisions of the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 and is administered by a 13-member board. The park provides for co-ordinated management of existing scenic, historic, recreation, and other public reserves located within the coastal region stretching from Cape Soucis in the west to Rarangi in the south-east. Appropriate island reserves are also included.

Wildlife Refuges and Sanctuaries—The Wildlife Act 1953 provides for the constitution of wildlife sanctuaries, these being areas devoted primarily as habitat areas for wildlife where the maximum degree of protection can be afforded. Restrictions are imposed on entry into the sanctuaries and certain prohibitions dealing with killing or disturbance of wildlife are imposed. The former game sanctuaries, which serve the very important function of providing protection to native wildlife, are now termed wildlife refuges. Occupiers of any land in wildlife refuges can be authorised to carry out certain operations necessary for the normal use of land.

Public Domains—Domains, of which there are 861 covering 21,943 hectares, provide districts with land for the recreational needs of the people as a whole. Many domains are designed primarily to provide for organised sport but there are a large number which preserve for public use attractive natural areas, particularly along the coastline, and provide facilities for camping. Some outstanding examples of coastal domains are Orewa, near Auckland, Ohope Beach, near Whakatane, Queen Elizabeth Park, near Wellington, Momorangi Bay in the Marlborough Sounds, Kaiteriteri and Pohara in the Nelson district, and Waikuku Beach in Canterbury. Universally known city domains are the Auckland Domain and Hagley Park, Christchurch. Native bush is protected on domain land.

Summary of Areas Reserved—The following table records the main classes of reservations at 31 March 1976.

Type of ReservationNo.Hectares

*Includes 18 scenic and historic reserves totalling 241 hectares and 2 historic and recreation reserves of 5 hectares.

†Excludes bed of Lake Waikaremoana (5,210 ha) leased from Maori owners.

National parks102,165,240
Scenic reserves (public)1,001277,781
Historic reserves (public)86*1,655
Reserves for the preservation of flora and fauna (public)77190,235
Public domains86121,943

10 C—MAORI LANDS

USE OF MAORI LAND—The term Maori land is a technical one, denoting ancestral land that has always been owned by Maori people. All except an insignificant portion of it is owned by defined people in defined proportions. All sales and some leases of such land still require ratification by the Maori Land Court.

In 1975 it was established that the area of land in New Zealand still designated Maori land comprised some 1,323,404 hectares.

Many Maori people own their own homes in urban areas and others own farm land purchased from non-Maoris that is designated, for record purposes, as "General" land.

The Maori Land Board has been constituted under the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1974 to promote greater involvement in, and identification of the Maori owners with, land development activities. The board is assisted by district Maori land advisory committees.

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT—Although owners of Maori land have access to the usual lending institutions, it is not easy to borrow money for land development unless mortgage security can be given, and multiplicity of ownership often prevents this. Under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 the Maori Land Board, through the Department of Maori Affairs, may lend money for the development and settlement of Maori land. This procedure does not affect the legal ownership, but the rights of the owners are suspended and the board has the right to exclusive occupation of the Land.

The Act was amended in November 1974 to allow loans to be made on the security of livestock alone.

Policy is directed towards the settlement of Maori farmers on farms which will provide an adequate standard of living. Twenty-three farmers were settled in the year ended 30 June 1975.

At 30 June 1975 there were 107,598 hectares in stations farmed by the Department, of which 65,620 hectares were in grass. In addition, the Department of Lands and Survey was developing 38,795 hectares as agent of the Maori Land Board. The total annual grassing programme is approximately 1,600 hectares.

There is a trend towards incorporation control of developed land; instead of the land being sub-divided and settled, management is placed in the hands of an owners' committee and the land is farmed as one large station. The owners then receive an annual dividend payment according to the profitability of the undertaking.

Schemes for afforestation of Maori land unsuitable for development are also being implemented.

MAORI TRUSTEE—The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves and the administration of the estates of deceased Maoris and those under disability. The Maori Trust Office now forms part of the Department of Maori Affairs and is headed by the Maori Trustee, comparable in status and functions with the Public Trustee. The control of most Maori Trustee activities has been decentralised by the delegation of wide powers to the District Officers of the Department of Maori Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts.

The following table is a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March in the latest three years.

ItemAs at 31 March
197419751976
Assets—$(000)
  Cash461910560
  Investments—   
    Government securities6,8845,1262,245
    Local authority debentures6561,9293,698
    Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft4,8035,5726,483
  Land, buildings, and miscellaneous339336359
Totals13,14313,87313,345
Liabilities—   
  Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositors8,1068,5728,208
  Reserves and Appropriation Account4,7454,9954,683
  Sundry creditors, etc.292306454
Totals13,14313,87313,345

10 D—SURVEYS

GENERAL—The Department of Lands and Survey is the national survey and mapping organisation. Its major functions include the extension of the survey control system, examination of all land title surveys, regulation of survey standards, provision of the survey, planning and aerial photography requirements of the Government, and the publication of all topographic, cadastral, and special maps of New Zealand.

SURVEYING—The New Zealand survey control system, in the form of triangulations and other geographically located stations, provides for the effective integration of surveys executed by all sectors for the purposes of land title definition, land development and utilisation, engineering project and communication constructions, mapping production, and navigational aids fixation.

Examination by the Department of all land title surveys ensures the security of tenure essential to development, and the maintenance of all survey records on a microfilm system provides for ready access and utilisation of data. The control of survey standards, maintenance of discipline and training of professional surveyors is effected through the statutorily constituted Survey Board under the chairmanship of the Surveyor-General.

Other departmental services provided to Government include surveys for land title, land development, navigational purposes, earth deformation studies, administration of justice, and land and environmental planning.

The practising surveyors in the private sector play a major role in surveys of private lands under the Land Transfer Act 1952, the planning and development of housing projects and the execution, under contract, of some government surveys.

AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY—Extensive use is made of aerial photography in the production of photogrammetric mapping and in the annual provision of basic physical resource and planning data. Photography is undertaken by private aerial survey firms under contract to Department of Lands and Survey which maintains a complete library of air photos for all national purposes and general public usage.

Under agreement with the authorities in the USA the Department now receives and holds multi-spectral imagery collected by earth resources satellites, for use in studies associated with land use and management, regional planning, and scientific research in New Zealand.

MAPPING—Both the recently completed mile to an inch maps and the new basic metric topographical and cadastral maps now under production provide a reliable inventory of physical resources and an up-to-date identification of land parcels and legal situations. They are in heavy demand for housing, constructional and farm planning and development, extension of public and social services, protection of the environment, the general use and guidance of the public, and the administrations of Central and local Government.

Regularly updated street maps cover all towns.

The Department of Lands and Survey also produces and publishes a wide range of other maps for various purposes including recreational maps, maps of National Parks, and miscellaneous and general maps of New Zealand, the Pacific, and Antarctica. In addition, as the mapping agency for Government in New Zealand, the Department produces maps needed to service the activities of other Departments, particularly aeronautical charts for military and civil use; meteorological maps and charts, maps for the Ministry of Works and Development and the New Zealand Forest Service, etc.

Project and special mapping executed at larger scales provides an essential base for investigation and design of energy, irrigation, forestry and communications projects.

Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices except Wellington and at the Head Office of the Department of Lands and Survey. In addition, a large number of private selling agents have been appointed throughout New Zealand and overseas. All maps for sale are listed in the Catalogue Of Maps published by the department.

10 E—REGISTRATION OF TITLES AND TRANSFER OF LAND

REGISTRATION OF LAND OWNERS—Title to land in private ownership in New Zealand is a matter of public record. The keeping of these records is the function of the Land and Deeds Division of the Department of Justice.

Almost all privately owned land in New Zealand is held under the land transfer system, presently embodied in the Land Transfer Act 1952. The system was introduced to New Zealand by the passing of th Land Transfer Act 1870. This Act was based on legislation enacted in South Australia in 1858, largely at the instigation of Sir Robert Torrens. Today the principles enunciated by Torrens are the basis of land registration throughout Australasia. The principal features of the system are registration of title and guarantee of that title by the State.

The objects of the Land Transfer Acts since 1870 have been to provide security of title by means of state guarantee, simplicity by use of standardised forms in language readily understood by the layman, accuracy by the use of precise survey data, the reduction of costs by simplification of conveyancing procedures, expedition by streamlining and constantly revising recording procedures, and suitability to circumstances by relating our land registration system directly to our social and economic structures.

Under the land transfer system, land and interests in land do not pass by the execution of an instrument of transfer but by the registration of that instrument. A person acquires a legal interest in land not because he has entered into an agreement to purchase the land, but because he has registered the instrument of transfer and it is recorded on the register that he is the owner.

The certificate of title is the pivot on which the whole land transfer system turns. A certificate of title is issued under the hand and seal of the District Land Registrar which guarantees to the registered proprietor of the land described in that certificate his rights of use, occupation, and enjoyment, the extent and position of his boundaries, and the nature of any encumbrances of interests affecting his land, such as mortgages of rights of way. Two copies of the certificate of title are issued; one copy forms the Land Transfer register, and the duplicate is held by the owner. This duplicate must be presented to the Land Registry Office for noting whenever documents affecting the estate for which it was issued are submitted for registration. Any change in the registered proprietorship which occurs through transfer, death or other devolution, and the encumbrances to which the land is subject may be entered on the register by the registration of the appropriate documents in the manner prescribed by the Land Transfer Act.

Interests in, and charges against, land arising from many other statutes may be noted against the Land Transfer register. Successive governments have charged the Land and Deeds Division with duties of surveillance under the laws relating to the subdivision and aggregation of land, disposition of public reserves, anti-slumming requirements of local authorities, and many other aspects of land use and occupation.

Certain leases and licences of Crown land may be registered under the provisions of the Land Transfer Act, and Maori land when vested in any person for a freehold estate comes automatically under the land transfer system.

Settlement of matrimonial homes as joint family homes has been a widely used procedure since its inception over 25 years ago and since that time there has been a steady increase in the number of settlements registered (see section 18).

Certificates of Title Issued—The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the latest 6 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotalYear Ended 31 MarchTotal
197141,639197445,932
197239,270197552,196
197344,779197657,008

MAORI LANDS—Before European settlement, all the land in the country was held by the various groups and tribes of the Maori people in accordance with their traditional customs and usages, and the land so held was described as Maori customary land. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive rights to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown. Practically all of the land which was formerly Maori customary land has now been converted to other forms of title by one or other of the following processes:

  1. Purchase or other acquisition by the Crown (from whom in turn the European colonists obtained land for farms, etc.).

  2. The issue of a Crown grant to a Maori owner on the recommendation of the Maori Land Court.

  3. The issue of a freehold order by the Maori Land Court in favour of the Maori or Maoris found entitled upon an investigation of title. This process was used instead of process (b) after the introduction of the land transfer system into New Zealand.

Land which was included in titles issued under processes (b) and (c) became known as Maori freehold land.

Maori freehold land becomes Crown land if all interests in it are purchased or otherwise acquired by the Crown, or becomes General land when bought or inherited by a person of less than half Maori blood or is declared to be so by the Maori Land Court.

Maori Land Court—The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other judges as the Governor-General may from time to time appoint. It is a Court of Record and its general function is to deal with problems peculiar to multiple ownership of Maori lands including the partitioning and combining of titles for better utilisation, the effecting of exchanges, directing the holding of meetings of owners, and confirming or disallowing resolutions passed by such meetings, confirming sales, and making other miscellaneous orders.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the court. With certain exceptions, the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

During 1975-76 the Maori Land Court conducted 92 sittings throughout New Zealand and dealt with some 8,490 applications, from which a total of 25,891 orders were made.

ACQUISITION OF LAND—Safeguards have been made for long-term planning in the use of land, whether publicly or privately owned, in order to ensure that it and its resources are used to the best advantage of the community as a whole. Legislation introduced in 1968 and 1969 (by amendment to the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952) prevents, where there is an operative regional planning or proposed or operative district scheme, the acquisition by overseas interests of land of 4,000 sq metres or over designated or zoned as reserves for recreation or other purposes, and all islands or parts of islands within 150 kilometres of the mainland, and the Chatham Islands. The legislation covers rural and farm land of 2 hectares or over. Here a purchase may be approved if specified conditions, directed to ensuring beneficial use of the land from a national viewpoint, or permanent future residence, are met.

The court shall grant its consent where the purchaser or lessee is a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand, i.e., who has resided in New Zealand for 2 1/2 years and the court is satisfied that he intends to continue to reside in New Zealand. Where the purchaser or lessee is not a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand or is an overseas company, the court shall not grant its consent unless it is satisfied that the land is not required for any reserve purpose and that the land is not an island or forms part of the Chatham Islands. In the case of farm land, the court must be assured that the purchaser or lessee intends to conduct experimental or research work on the land which will benefit agricultural industries in New Zealand or the community generally, or that the land will be used for purposes other than agricultural with greater advantage to the community, or in the case of an individual that he intends to reside permanently in New Zealand and farm the land exclusively for his own use and benefit and has the ability and means to do this.

Part I of the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act authorises the Minister of Lands to take in certain circumstances any farm land that is suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production

Part II deals with the control of sales and also leases (for 3 years or more) of farm land to prevent undue aggregation. The consent of the court is required unless the purchaser or lessee owns no farm land, has no interest in any estate or trust owning farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land to any person as trustee or created any trust in respect of farm land, and has entered into the transaction solely on his own behalf.

The Act prevents the purchase of farm land, without the consent of the court, by a trustee for any pen under the age of 17 years, or the purchase by a company or trustee for a company to be formed wi the shareholders are fewer than 10 in number and any member of such company is under the age of 17 years (or where shares will be held in trust for any person under that age at the date of the transaction).

LAND TRANSFERS—The following table shows property transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during the latest available years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal TransfersTotal Consideration
NumberPercentage Change*AmountPercentage Change*
*On the previous year's figures.
   $(m) 
197286,042+2.9985.4+ 7.2
1973105,193+22.31,339.9+36.0
1974125,796+19.62,133.0+59.2
197597,334-22.62,135.1+0.1
197698,003+0.72,202.8+3.2

The continued rise in both the numbers of land transfers and the total consideration involved which characterised the early 1970s reached a peak in 1973-74, when there was an increase of nearly 20 percent in the number of transfers and one of nearly 60 percent in the consideration involved. The following year witnessed a sharp fall in the number of land transfers, although the consideration involved was almost the same. The latest available year, 1975-76, showed very moderate increases in both the number of land transfers and the consideration involved.

The following table shows all land transfers by consideration group for the year ended 31 March 1976. The division into freehold and leasehold demonstrates the relatively small percentage of land transfers involving leasehold property.

Consideration GroupFreeholdLeaseholdAll Transfers
NumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage Consideration
$ $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000)
Under 2,0004,9105·21.03730.41.25,2835.61.1
2,000-2,9992,9076.92.41620.42.33,0697.32.4
3,000-3,9993,16610.73.41020.33.33,26811.03.4
4,000-9,99918,295121.36.64282.86.518,723124.16.6
10,000-19,99920,424306.315.074611.515.421,170317.815.0
20,000-49,99939,2431,109.128.31,29034.426.740,5331,143.528.2
50,000-199,9995,263432.282.127424.188.15,537456.482.4
200,000 and over400130.6326.6206.6329.3420137.2326.7
All groups94,6082,122.322.43,39580.623.798,0032,202.822.5

Land transfers by size groups during 1975-76 are shown in the following table for both Islands and for New Zealand as a whole.

Size Group (hectares)North IslandSouth IslandNew Zealand
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares (000)$(m)hectares (000)$(m)hectares (000)$(m)  
Under 266,25181,359.623,6453417.189,896101,776.7
2 and under 61,859756.3650215.62,509971.9
6 and under 11555422.625328.0808630.7
11 and under 20502721.914224.7644926.7
20 and under 501,1803967.73281011.61,5085079.3
50 and under 755013036.513887.66393844.0
75 and under 1003062524.5127117.34333631.8
100 and under 2004716638.83154224.378610863.0
200 and over48622951.829414926.878037878.7
Totals72,1114161,679.825,892229523.098,0036452,202.8

This table includes both urban and rural land transfers. The majority of the urban transfers will be in the Under 2 hectares size-group, which includes 92 percent of the total number. Besides normal residential properties, this size-group will include many business, commercial, and industrial properties and high-density residential properties (such as blocks of flats) in urban centres.

A final table shows all land transfers during the 2 latest available years by land registration districts. The urban areas of Auckland are in the North Auckland Land Registration District.

Land Registration District1974-751975-76
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares (000)$(m)hectares (000)$(m) 
North Auckland35,681152836.230,44390.7740.9
South Auckland12,924121297.814,83095.8332.0
Gisborne1,0753720.599535.522.5
Hawke's Bay4,0215387.53,70245.684.7
Taranaki3,0975263.13,17739.666.3
Wellington14,779102335.118,964108.6433.4
Marlborough1,3332925.21,16021.622.1
Nelson1,8472035.02,70023.654.6
Westland52597.16236.27.2
Canterbury12,608107275.313,12086.7290.2
Otago6,0255592.35,18445.888.0
Southland3,4194559.93,10545.761.0
Totals97,3347812,135.198,003645.32,202.8

Figures of average consideration, and indeed all land transfer data, should be used with caution owing to the great diversity of property transactions covered by the figures. These transactions include, for example, sales of residential properties, farms and farmland, all classes of commercial, industrial, and business properties, sections, and parcels of land bought for such purposes as large-scale manufacturing, forestry, recreation, reserves, and later sub-division. Movements in prices of individual types of properties are better indicated elsewhere. The Building and Construction section of this Yearbook includes an urban house property and section index, compiled by the Department of Statistics and designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for house properties and sections sold during each half-year. Recent annual figures from a farmland sale price index, compiled by the Valuation Department, are shown below. Family sales are excluded, as are sales of land having a significant potential for urbanisation or any purpose other than farming The base is calendar year 1960 (= 1000).

Year Ended 31 DecemberIndex NumberPercentage Change from Previous Year
19711754+2.3
19721880+7.2
19732346+24.8
1974478+48.2
19753999+15.0
19764404+10.1

10 F—VALUATION OF LAND

GENERAL—Equitable land values are a basis for many of the relations of the Central Government and local authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following: (a) the levying of land tax; (b) the apportionment of rating levies over contributory local authorities; (c) the levying of rates by local authorities; (d) the advancing of money on mortgage by Government departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act; (e) the assessing of stamp, estate, and gift duties; (f) the fixing of prices payable to the Crown or by the Crown for transfers of land.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE—The Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Government department charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the Central Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1951, and in the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by district valuers and valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate (a) the value of the land; (b) the value of the buildings (if any) and other improvements (if any) upon such land; and (c) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, not to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law, the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the "land value".

"Improvements" on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land. With the introduction of land value in 1970 (in place of unimproved value) the term "improvements", correctly speaking, includes only those items of work done or material used which result in structural additions to the property.

The "capital value" is, broadly speaking, the unencumbered market value of the land at date of valuation, and the "value of improvements" is the added value given by the "improvements"

THE VALUATION ROLL—A valuation roll is prepared for each district over which a territorial local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth the ownership, description, and valuation of each property, including rates postponement and special rateable values where these are required to be determined.

Revision of Rolls—District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at intervals of not more than 5 years unless for good reason he decides otherwise.

The Supplementary Roll—There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes—e.g., the granting of loans by Government departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and estate duties—form the supplementary roll.

Objections to Valuations—In the case of a revision of a district valuation roll, the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, only the owner has a right of objection. If, after the Valuer-General has reconsidered the matter, the objector is still dissatisfied he may ask for the objection to be heard by the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION OF THE SUPREME COURT—The Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948 as amended in 1968, provides for objections under the Valuation of Land Act to be determined by the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court. In addition to its jurisdiction under the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948, the Division hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952. Land valuation committees for particular localities operate under the general jurisdiction of the Division. There is a right of appeal from a committee's decision to the court with a further right of appeal to the Court of Appeal in certain cases.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Division's order, he may, within 14 days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Division at less than the capital value, he may, within 14 days after the sealing of the Division's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within 30 days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING—The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the land value is framed.

The third major rating system is the annual (rental) value system, where the annual values are assessed by valuers appointed by the local authorities concerned. The Valuer-General may be so appointed. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 percent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 percent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 percent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

Parts IV and V of the Rating Act 1967 provide for local authorities to grant applications for rates postponement in respect of certain residences in commercial and industrial zones and for farmlands in counties with valuations reflecting potential use for urban development. Rates postponement values are determined either under the Valuation of Land Act or the Rating Act, according to the system of rating in force. Special rateable values for non-conforming commercial or industrial land in residential or rural zones are also provided for in order that these classes of properties will not enjoy a rating advantage. Likewise special rateable values may be determined for rural or residential land or commercial or industrial areas, for single-unit dwellinghouses in areas where values are influenced by demand for multi-unit housing, and for "existing use" properties within the meaning of Section 36 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1953.

Part VI of the Rating Act provides for rating relief for farmlands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town councils, and county councils in respect of county towns. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farmlands lower than the normal rateable values.

Equalisation of Values—The Rating Act, Part IX, provides for an equitable adjustment of rates and of levies based on rateable values as between the several constituent districts comprising the district of an ad hoc local authority where those constituent districts have been revalued by the Valuer-General at different times. Provision is also made for equalisation to be done where the several ridings of a county have been revalued at different dates.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND—The figures in the following table show valuations over a period of years for the whole of New Zealand; they are gross values and include the value not only of rateable properties but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating. Valuation figures back to 1878 were given in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

At 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land*

*Included in previous column.

†Includes the districts revalued after 1 March 1971 on the "land value" basis provided for by the Valuation of Land Amendment Act (No. 2) 1970, which came into effect on that date.

 $(million) 
19606,132.51,779.6
19616,497.41,905.7
19626,945.72,061.1
19637,373.62,212.1
19647,760.42,345.8
19658,459.22,644.5
19669,085.02,865.5
19679,836.13,184.2
196810,631.63,487.0
196911,349.73,705.2
197012,515.64,170.7
197113,305.74,489.0
197214,331.35,046.3
197315,657.25,704.1
197417,871.76,778.3
197524,383.510,433.6
197630,011.513,386.7

In the following table the gross values and rateable values for the latest years are analysed in more detail.

 Gross ValuesRateable Values
As at 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land*Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land*

†Included in previous column.

*In interpreting these figures it is essential to realise that substantial boundary changes take place from time to time.

  $(million)  
  Counties  
19747,014.13,123.16,584.23,011.3
19757,972.64,206.97,396.94,056.1
197610,190.25,645.79,465.65,445.5
  Cities and Boroughs  
197410,830.23,648.19,932.13,376.4
197516,379.86,219.115,115.65,717.3
197619,784.27,731.418,307.17,096.0
  Independent Town Districts  
197427.37.024.86.5
197531.07.527.97.1
197637.09.533.58.8
  Grand Totals  
197417,871.76,778.316,541.26,394.3
197524,383.410,433.622,540.59,780.6
197630,011.513,386.727,806.312,550.4

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up-to-date has the effect in the preceding tables of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes.

With the present resources at the Valuation Department's disposal, an up-to-date revaluation of all properties in New Zealand would be a impossible task but by using the principle of valuation equalisation mentioned earlier, it is possible to compile up-to-date gross values by local body districts for the whole country. The gross capital value figures shown below have been compiled on the level of values as at 31 March 1976.

Territorial AreasGross Capital Value
 $(million)
Counties14,952.3
Cities and boroughs27,223.9
Town districts55.2
 42,231.4

A comparison of these figures with the gross values shown for the year ended 31 March 1976 given previously, illustrates the point that valuation statistics tend to have the effect of delaying the appearance of current movements in the property market.

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 31 March 1976, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts, also as at 31 March 1976.

Local Authority DistrictAreaPopulationRateable Property Values
Capital ValueUV/LVValue of Improvements
*Balance made up of persons on shipboard and extra-county islands.
Percentage Distribution
Counties98.525.334.143.426.3
Cities and boroughs1.473.865.856.573.5
Town districts (independent) and District Council-0.70.10.10.2
Totals100.0100.0*100.0100.0100.0

Particulars of values for each county, borough, and independent town district in considerable detail are contained in the annual report, Local Authority Statistics, published by the Department of Statistics.

VALUERS' REGISTRATION BOARD—The Valuers Act 1948 provides for the registration of land valuers and for some control of their work. There is a Registration Board under the chairmanship of the Valuer-General, which issues certificates for registration to all valuers and annual practising certificates to public valuers. The main objects of the Act are to secure a high standard of valuation work throughout the country and to encourage competent valuers. There were 1,218 registered valuers at 31 March 1976.

Chapter 11. Section 11 TRANSPORT

11 A—GENERAL

Throughout the world the social and economic significance of transport services has established a strong public interest in transport. This interest has frequently been reflected in extensive Government participation in transport operations.

New Zealand has become increasingly dependent on good communications links. Transport as a service industry is the largest single expenditure element in our economy. Since early colonial days transport has always been a major area of Government responsibility. Harbour construction and the building of roads and railways were carried out and transport services operated not only as part of the process of colonisation and development but also because there were no private agencies capable of undertaking the work. There was either inadequate finance available, or the services were likely to be unattractive to private investors due to unprofitability, although they were considered desirable for economic or social purposes.

The State then, either directly or through subordinate agencies, builds and maintains the roads, harbours, airports, and railway network which decide the nature and extent of the transport available to the people of New Zealand; it operates road, rail, and sea and air services itself; it regulates competition within and between the various modes of transport; and it imposes and enforces detailed and extensive safety regulations.

New Zealand, as a nation dependent on overseas trade and geographically remote from many of its trading partners, relies more heavily on transport than do many other countries. During recent years its transport industry has been the subject of a comprehensive examination and review by the Government. Transport ha far-reaching effects on the economy, on society, and on the environment, and it was the recognition of the close link between transport and the general welfare of the community that highlighted the need to establish a transport policy as an integral part of New Zealand's broad development strategy.

Transport in New Zealand is complicated by the geographic configuration of the country, the separation into two main islands, the location of the main urban areas, the number and situation of the main ports, the seasonal nature of much of the production, and the large proportion of one-way loading in the internal transport system. In its overseas trade the country is mainly dependent on overseas shipping companies to carry its exports to distant markets and bring in imports.

TRANSPORT AND THE ECONOMY—The significant influence of transport on all sections of the economy can be shown in a number of ways.

Relationship with Economic Development—One of the key elements in the attainment of a high standard of living in this country has been the development of an efficient internal transport system. There is no doubt that the establishment of rail and road links from the interior to the coastal ports was a prerequisite to the large-scale development of New Zealand's primary industry during the last century, and that it was the growth of international sea-transport and of a fast, regular service of refrigerated cargo ships that enabled New Zealand to evolve from a subsistence economy to one of the world's major exporters of meat and dairy produce.

The priority given today by the international financial institutions to transport development in the less economically advanced countries of the world is further recognition of the importance of an adequate transport system as one of the foundations for national development.

Relationship with Industry—Transport is also an integral part of the production process. It supplies the factories with raw materials, and carries away the manufactured goods. It supplies the transport services by which the men and women who work in the factories travel to and from their homes. The efficiencies which have been achieved as a result of the greater concentration of industrial plant in recent years can to a certain extent be attributed to the development of technologically advanced and efficient transport services.

Relationship with Distribution—Transport, as a key means of the mass distribution of goods, ensures that ample supplies and a wide variety of goods are readily available within all centres of population. The standard of living enjoyed by people living in the ever-growing urban concentrations that are a feature of developed countries depends ultimately on efficient national and international transport systems. Additionally, ready transport availability from the point of production to the points of consumption reduces the need for large warehouse holdings of goods. The reduction in warehouse costs can assist in the lowering of retail prices.

Relationship with Costs—Transport costs make up a substantial part of the price of a product. The cost of transport as a portion of the total cost of a product varies from a small percentage to the major portion. Obviously, transport costs make up a greater proportion of the cost of a bulky raw material than of a sophisticated manufactured item.

Relationship with the Economy—It is estimated that the transport industry provides employment for over 11 percent of the labour force, and that the cost of moving goods and people is over $2,000 million each year. This figure provides an indication of the substantial sums spent on transport annually by private motor-vehicle owners, road carriers, bus operators, rental vehicle firms, taxi proprietors, freight forwarders, shipping companies, and aircraft operators as well as the considerable amount of expenditure on our roads, ports, airports, and railways by both central and local government. In addition, the Central Government, through its ownership of Air New Zealand Ltd., the National Airways Corporation, Safe Air Ltd., the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand and the New Zealand Railways Department, has acquired assets valued at over $550 million in transport services in this country. As well as contributing to the provision of transport facilities through the payment of certain road, air, and sea user charges, the transport industry, through the payment of income tax, customs duties, sales tax, local body rates, the local authority petroleum tax and various registration and licence fees, contributes a significant amount to the annual taxation revenue of the country. Furthermore, transport is a major consumer of industrial goods. It utilises large portions of the country's rubber, lead, zinc, steel, copper, and aluminium needs for instance, and its high consumption of imported oil products has been a matter of national concern in recent years. Finally, as a major consumer of industrial products and as a means of distributing exports to our distant and diverse markets, transport has a significant effect on the country's balance of payments.

Relationship with the Physical Environment—The roads, airports, ports, railways, and pipelines of this country have an effect on the communities surrounding these facilities. They affect the location of manufacturing, retailing, and the distribution industries and influence the character of an area. On the other hand, they can divide communities and create noise and aesthetic problems as well as problems of pollution. Environmental and aesthetic considerations have received increased attention in recent years. For example, the environmental aspects of major roading schemes are carefully considered in relation to their purpose, need, design, benefits, and detractions.

TRANSPORT AND SOCIETY—Apart from the various considerations outlined in the previous paragraphs which closely affect the quality of life in this country, transport has numerous other effects on our society. For instance, the availability, type, and extent of transport can influence the character of a city or suburb. A city or town can be dominated by its port or its rail facilities just as a suburb can become, owing to its transport system, largely a "dormitory" suburb of a distant commercial area.

An efficient network of roads and other transport services both serves to knit together a community and discourages narrow parochialism by providing the means of cheap, convenient, and comfortable travel by which mental horizons are widened and the bonds of family or friendship kept strong. If the economic life of a country is heavily dependent on its transport system, so too is its social and cultural development.

The effect on a community of a change in transport policy must therefore be carefully evaluated by those responsible for running the country.

11 B—SHIPPING

PORT DEVELOPMENT—In recent years the development of the container ship, the unitised cargo ship, the roll-on roll-off ship, and barge-carrying systems such as the "lash" (lighter aboard ship) system have brought about a world-wide revolution in the handling of maritime cargoes, and a new concept of the co-ordination of transport through the substitution of capital-intensive for labour-intensive operations. In this revolution New Zealand is fully involved.

A cargo-handling co-ordination committee serviced by the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport is affiliated to an international association with a control office in the United Kingdom.

To ensure the control of harbour development a New Zealand Ports Authority has been established. Amongst its several functions is the fostering of an efficient and integrated ports system and, to that end, the preparation of a national ports plan.

Under this plan, harbour authorities must obtain the authority's approval for major capital projects, e.g., container cranes, storage sheds, tugs. Consents granted during the year ended 31 March 1976 involved developments costing $48.64 million.

A feature in port development in recent years has been the introduction of offshore loading terminals (for bulk loading of ironsands) at Waverley near Wanganui, and Taharoa near Raglan.

During 1975 there were 18 shipments of ironsand totalling 1,132,188 tonnes from Waverley, and 25 shipments totalling 1,181,582 tonnes from Taharoa. The ironsand is exported to Japan.

The New Zealand Ports Authority designated Auckland and Wellington as the first container ports and both have installed containerised cargo facilities. Subsequently Lyttelton and Port Chalmers were designated as the South Island container ports. A container service to the United States began in August 1971 and to the United Kingdom in September 1972 from the ports of Auckland and Wellington. Port Chalmers is also included as one of the New Zealand container ports in one of the New Zealand - United States container runs.

CONTAINER TRAFFIC—Cellular container ships working at container terminals made 117 1/2 ship voyages for the year ended 30 September 1975 compared with 119 the previous year. They handled 896,128 tonnes of cargo and averaged 5.84 gross days on the coast.

U.K./Europe Trade—Associated Container Transportation (A.C.T.) in conjunction with the Australian National Line (A.N.L.) operate six vessels (five A.C.T. and one A.N.L.) which serve both New Zealand and Australia. These vessels call at Auckland and Wellington. The Hamburg Sud Line also operates two small container vessels between New Zealand and Europe. These vessels call at the above two ports and Port Chalmers.

East Coast-North America Trade—This trade is almost completely containerised. A.C.T. and A.N.L. have combined to form the PACE Line which operates six vessels (five A.C.T. and one A.N.L.) in similar fashion to their combined U.K./Europe service. The Columbus Line operates three vessels which call at Auckland, Wellington, and Port Chalmers. Farrell Lines operate three vessels which call only at Auckland and Wellington.

West Coast-North America Trade—This trade is also served by cellular container vessels. The Columbus Line operates three vessels on the trade and they call at Auckland and Wellington. Farrell Lines operate three container/"lash" vessels. These ships call at Auckland, and occasionally a vessel calls at Lyttelton.

Japan Trade—A container service was introduced late in 1976 by joint Japanese and British shipping interests. Initially one vessel called at Auckland, Wellington, and Port Chalmers. A second vessel was added early in 1977.

Trans-Tasman—The Union Steam Ship Company, the largest shipping company in the trans-Tasman trade, operates both roll-on roll-off vessels and conventional cargo ships. Roll-on roll-off ships on the regular trans-Tasman run during 1975-76 included the Maheno, the Marama, the Union Sydney, and the Union Melbourne. Conventional cargo ships included the Union Aotearoa, the Union Australia, the Union New Zealand, and the Union Auckland.

During 1975 the Union Steam Ship Company began implementing its decision to replace existing conventional vessels (almost all of which have now been disposed of) with roll-on roll-off and bulk carrier vessels. The Union Hobart and Union Rotorua commenced service during 1976.

Pacific Islands—Regular shipping services between New Zealand and the Pacific Islands in 1975-76 were mainly provided by the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, with the Toa Moana and the Lorena, and by the Union Steam Ship Company, with (among other ships) the container ship Union South Pacific, and the Luhesand.

In 1974 the South Pacific Forum established a Regional Shipping Council, the task of which was to organise studies and investigations as a basis for deciding on the establishment of a regional shipping venture of some type, and to improve shipping services throughout the region. New Zealand is a member of the Regional Shipping Council.

At its meeting in Nauru in July 1976, the South Pacific Forum adopted the recommendation of the South Pacific Regional Shipping Council that the Pacific Forum Line should be established. A memorandum formally establishing the Line was signed at a meeting in Suva in June 1977. It is hoped that the line will commence operation during 1977.

Inter-island and Coastal Services—A regular ferry service across the Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton, at the head of the Marlborough Sounds, is provided by rail ferries operated by the Railways Department. The ferries Aramoana and Aranui, which carry passengers and freight, normally make 25 round trips per week throughout the year. Two other ferries, the Arahanga and the Aratika, were designed to carry freight but, in addition, to have limited accommodation for truck drivers and others whose vehicles were being carried. The Aratika has now been converted to carry passengers and freight. The conversion has given the vessel a capacity of 800 passengers and 70 motor vehicles in addition to the normal rail freight capacity. The Aramoana will be withdrawn for an extended survey in 1977.

During the year ended March 1976 the four ferries in service carried 622,809 ordinary passengers, 38,862 excursion passengers, 134,378 passengers motor vehicles, 6,724 trucks, vans, or trade cars, and 1,353,076 manifest tonnes of other goods. Gross revenue from the ferry service amounted to $15,611,778, resulting in a loss for the year of $3,180,126.

In September 1976, the inter-island passenger service between Wellington-Lyttelton was terminated because of financial losses and a decreasing demand for the service. A freight-only service has been introduced between the two ports. This is provided by the Coastal Ranger, owned by the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, running three return trips a week.

Most of the ships engaged in the coastal trade are relatively small, exceptions including the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand's Coastal Trader and Coastal Ranger, and the occasional coastal voyages of the Union Steam Ship Company's trans-Tasman vessels carrying cars, sugar, or other cargoes. Coastal shipping trade includes the shipment of coal from Westport to Portland, the movement of newsprint from Mount Maunganui to the South Island, the cartage of cement, the Onehunga-Nelson trade, and shipping bulk cargoes out of Nelson.

Additional information to that contained in this section on port, cargo, and shipping statistics may be found in the Report on Transport Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics.

SHIPPING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—In 1974 a Government-owned shipping corporation was set up to establish and operate shipping services as empowered by the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973. The Shipping Corporation of New Zealand formed a subsidiary called the New Zealand Line which (from, and in conjunction with, the Shaw Savill and Albion Company) purchased two ships of 12,227 tons, now known as N.Z. Waitangi and N.Z. Aorangi which carry 24 and 18 containers on deck respectively. These are engaged on New Zealand - United Kingdom trade.

The Corporation itself operates a number of ships engaged in the coastal and Pacific Islands trade. They include the Coastal Trader, a roll-on roll-off vessel on the Auckland-Lyttelton-Dunedin run; the Coastal Ranger, a roll-on roll-off vessel on the Wellington-Lyttelton run; the Toa Moana and the Lorena, both trading with the Pacific Islands; and the Bulknes, carrying aluminium ore for the Bluff smelter. In addition, the Corporation acts as managing agents for Shaw-Savill's N.Z.-West Indies-U.S. Gulf Service.

In 1978, the Corporation will introduce its 42,000 ton container vessel, now on order from a West German shipyard, to the United Kingdom and Continental service, giving New Zealand the capacity to lift a substantial proportion of the New Zealand - United Kingdom trade.

During 1975, a new company (Container Terminals Ltd.), in which the Shipping Corporation has a majority shareholding, was formed to operate the Wellington container terminal. The minority shareholders comprise the other shipping lines which use the terminal.

In addition to the proposed entry into the U.K. container trade the Corporation is also exploring a number of other areas. Negotiations are in train for Corporation entry into the Japan container service; a feasibility study is being carried out on involvement in the Arabian Gulf; and involvement in the trade to the East and West coasts of North America is being considered.

SHIPPING ON NEW ZEALAND REGISTER—At 31 December 1975 there were 933 ships on the New Zealand register, the total gross tonnage being 192,226 and net tonnage, 95,683. (Gross tonnage is defined by Lloyds as the capacity in cubic feet of spaces within the hull and of the enclosed spaces above the deck available for cargo, stores, passengers, and crew, with certain exceptions, divided by 100. Thus, 100 cubic feet of capacity is equivalent to 1 gross ton. Net tonnage is derived from gross tonnage by deducting spaces used for the accommodation of the master, officers, crew, navigation equipment, propelling machinery, and fuel).

Most of the vessels on the register are relatively small. Vessels not exceeding 15 net tons, employed in trade solely on the coast or inland waters, are not required to register under the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952. These small trading vessels, along with yachts and other pleasure craft, may be registered at the request of the owners.

The following table shows registered trading vessels. Ships in overseas trade are mainly engaged in trans-Tasman and Pacific Islands trading movements.

YearNumber of VesselsNet Registered Tonnage*Number of Crew
*1 ton equals 2.83 cu metres.
Coastal Trade
19742516,279600
19752215,245500
19761914,554504
Overseas Trade
19742854,068876
19751956,931641
19761764,954575

PORT STATISTICS—Demands made on ports by overseas and coastal vessels are illustrated in the following table, which gives the total number and tonnage of all calls made each year.

YearOverseas VesselsCoastal VesselsTotal
Number of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet Tonnage
*Provisional.
  tons(000) tons(000) tons(000)
19723,77018,9677,9809,77911,75028,746
19734,03021,0348,73610,99212,76632,027
19743,83120,5368,39011,28112,22131,817
19753,69220,0988,25711,08111,94931,179
1976*3,76220,8867,77811,30311,54032,189

All Calls of Overseas Vessels—The following table shows for 3 recent years the number of calls and net tonnage of overseas vessels arriving at New Zealand ports, either direct or coastwise.

Port197419751976
Number of CallsNet Tonnage (000) of VesselsNumber of CallsNet Tonnage (000) of VesselsNumber of CallsNet Tonnage (000) of Vessels
Bay of Islands251991913422182
Whangarei1311,7631251,5881131,574
Auckland1,1006,2181,0645,9531,1366,155
Onehunga512830183315
Raglan------
Taharoa282372723025209
Tauranga4651,9874031,8454692,178
Gisborne291232612220116
Napier2241,0172411,114215967
Taranaki136665132673109564
Waverley212141924414311
Wanganui12----
Wellington5443,2764992,9734603,033
Picton241282917622121
Nelson105600111576136553
Westport811111299
Greymouth213211
Lyttelton4891,9214601,9964272,033
Timaru91429100505142680
Oamaru1-----
Otago1988942321,0692241,164
Bluff1588221618681851,020
Totals3,83120,5363,69220,0983,76220,886

CARGO STATISTICS—With cargo statistics it should be noted that the term "tonne" does not invariably denote a weight of 1,000 kg. It is practicable to obtain the actual weights involved for only a portion of the goods handled. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulas as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the tonne. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in measurement tonnes, 1 cubic metre of space being regarded as the equivalent of a tonne. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in measurement tonnes, direct comparisons of tonnages of imports and exports are not always valid.

The following table gives a summary of the tonnage of cargo passing through all ports for the latest 3 calendar years.

YearInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

*Excluding transhipments.

†Transhipments included twice.

manifest tonnes (000)
19748,32112,0261547,8697,45635,981
19757,75510,2271117,1886,73332,126
19768,33110,0381497,9778,21934,863

With the rise of ports handling specialised cargoes and major ports mechanically handling bulk loads and goods in containers on and off cellular container ships, the pattern of cargo movements has changed rapidly. Technical developments in packaging (containers, pallets) and transport (bulk loading) has tended to concentrate mechanised handling of cargo through a few ports with the consequent displacement of the manual labour of waterside workers.

The total tonnage of cargo handled by waterside workers in the year ended 30 September 1975 amounted to 11.8 million tonnes, a decrease of 1.9 million tonnes from the total of 13.7 million tonnes handled in the previous 12 months. The reduction was due to a decrease of 1,202,000 tonnes of cargo handled in the overseas category and a decrease of 654,000 tonnes in the coastal and trans-Tasman category.

In the overseas category the largest single variation was the decrease of 702,000 tonnes of logs loaded. Other significant reductions were in conventional ships' general cargo unloaded (down 392,000 tonnes), bulk sulphur and phosphates unloaded (down 163,000 tonnes), and conventional ships' dairy produce general loaded (down 116,000 tonnes).

Within the coastal and trans-Tasman category, unloaded and loaded general cargo decreased by 328,000 tonnes on conventional ships and 153,000 tonnes through roll-on/roll-off terminals, whilst timber loaded decreased by 107,000 tonnes.

A summation of cargo movements through ports shows that total tonnage throughputs of New Zealand ports have more than doubled since 1962 largely as the result of the double handling of oil to and from the refinery, and the growth of exports of forest products. Tonnages of farm produce—butter, cheese, meat, wool, and fruit—have remained stable over the years but have dropped from 8.1 percent of total throughput in 1964 to 5.1 percent in 1975. The figures and percentages for different types of cargo are given in the following table. Transhipments have been included. It should be noted that cargo figures shown in this and other tables refer to calendar years, and that the "Tonnes" are "Manifest Tonnes".

Item197419751976
*Mostly refrigerated, except wool.
 Tons (000)Tonnes (000)Tonnes (000)
Inward cargo20,50218,09418,518
Outward cargo15,47914,03216,345
Total throughput35,98132,12634,863
Some Principal Farm Products*   
Butter148163180
Cheese807967
Meat, frozen680763902
Wool285315380
Fruit, fresh316315329
Totals, farm products listed1,5081,6351,858
Percentage of throughput4.25.15.3
Forest Products   
Totals—timber only1,7261,0481,539
Percentage of throughput4.83.34.4
Bulk Commodities   
Cement1,4901,4561,357
Coal and coke282298257
Grain291216407
Fertilisers1,8091,5311,598
Sand, shingle, and shell3,0052,7312,759
Totals, bulk commodities6,8776,2336,378
Percentage of throughput19.119.418.3
Oil Products   
Totals, oil products11,87411,09412,154
Percentage of throughput33.034.534.9
Other Cargo   
Totals, other cargo13,99612,11612,934
Percentage of throughput38.937.737.1

The next table shows for each port the total inward and outward cargo in 1975. Loadings of bunker fuels amounting to 350,600 tonnes are not included. A large proportion of the coastal movement concerns oil tankers working from the Whangarei refinery, while the movements of cars by tourists builds up the Wellington, Picton, and Lyttelton tonnages.

PortInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

*Excluding transhipments.

†Transhipments included twice.

   manifest tonnes   
Parengarenga12,361--57,680-70,041
Houhora2,626----2,626
Awanui12,409----12,409
Mangonui5,640----5,640
Whangaroa449----449
Bay of Islands7,044---13,38320,427
Whangarei360,9633,425,833-3,105,38440,8356,933,015
Mangawhai---2,834-2,834
Auckland1,449,9422,582,18212,763203,624874,8135,136,087
Onehunga161,2017,240340,75428,327237,528
Raglan40,380----40,380
Taharoa----1,230,4411,230,441
Thames---203-203
Tauranga592,261464,103-23,840971,0042,051,208
Gisborne13,12024,144--44,42181,685
Napier300,423228,671-72493,7771,022,943
Taranaki332,792448,942-206,949139,6771,128,360
Waverley----1,111,2451,111,245
Wanganui56,324----56,324
Wellington1,902,9061,203,97993,6521,559,824407,4335,261,446
Picton1,112,0031,322-1,040,56329,2842,183,172
Nelson158,02779,884937,009418,185693,123
Tarakohe20,796--258,495-279,291
Westport1,17011,792-305,9133,159322,034
Greymouth2,1571,923-6,60648611,172
Lyttelton718,326865,2504,970293,323215,8852,102,724
Chatham Islands6,638--2,049-8,687
Timaru158,77470,345-5,915186,733421,767
Oamaru------
Otago197,773215,627-17,609213,113644,122
Bluff123,348595,580-16,663310,8211,046,412
Half Moon Bay5,561--2,208-7,769
Totals7,755,41410,226,817111,3977,187,5176,733,02232,125,564

Inward Overseas Cargo—The following table shows the tonnage of some major items of inward overseas cargo handled in 1975. Transhipments are included.

PortIron and SteelMachineryFertilisersMotor Spirit, KeroseneOil, Other MineralMotor Vehicles and PartsGypsum, Plaster of Paris
   manifest tonnes    
Whangarei--120,143-3,287,776-17,914
Auckland262,297113,040252,473386,34710,105241,20563,753
Tauranga7,624-229,58140,795---
Napier3,1201,459183,7874,146-752-
Taranaki208,0218,272215,242--3,792-
Wellington80,17973,604773295,32764,079173,843-
Nelson1414,6067,45913,669-15,89321,590
Westport------11,572
Lyttelton73,91019,857112,917204,51217,44864,64734,007
Timaru1,2061,81662,031--761-
Otago8,9462,90552,08538,026-2,7838,481
Bluff1,9291,716183,14253,922-11-
All other ports199117---490-
Totals647,572227,3921,419,6331,036,7443,379,408504,177157,317
PortFresh FruitGrainSugarTextilesAll Other GoodsTotal
   manifest tonnes   
Whangarei-----3,425,833
Auckland100,06591,185155,55263,759850,3532,590,134
Tauranga42324,306--161,374464,103
Napier---435,403228,671
Taranaki----13,615448,942
Wellington5,285153-21,564521,5881,236,395
Nelson74--7816,38379,893
Westport----22011,792
Lyttelton38,225271827,797274,759868,124
Timaru1,481--942,95670,345
Otago363--1,233100,805215,627
Bluff---72354,788595,580
All other ports1,09024,14462227,96534,629
Totals147,006139,815156,192114,6032,340,20910,270,068

Outward Overseas Cargo—In the section dealing with the export trade it is pointed out that pastoral products make up over 70 percent by value of New Zealand's exports. The following table shows how the various ports participated in the handling of the volume of the main items in the outward overseas cargo, including transhipments, during 1975.

PortButterCheeseOther Milk ProductsFrozen and Preserved MeatsHides and SkinsTallowWool
   manifest tonnes    
Bay of Islands8,316-2,6542,413---
Whangarei24,510-13,085218-188-
Auckland44,90414,529125,626163,72927,39024,39743,996
Onehunga106203598251174-
Tauranga45,5645,361154,0881,354-2,7292,308
Gisborne---10,65529-1,596
Napier31614,01298,12915,68519,96846,960
Taranaki21,45432,48118,59327,6472,5242,4961,901
Wellington16,87615,59513,797183,30426,5873,29788,727
Picton---3,131-1,370126
Nelson-2,0781813,06230-108
Lyttelton801,2915,80522,9067,18110,04938,598
Timaru-1,689589,8484,3637,21821,600
Otago-67112512,0082,9714,14725,222
Bluff-3,298-102,1975,66211,89234,639
All other ports-------
Totals161,81377,174338,330721,42692,42387,925305,781
PortFresh FruitBeans and PeasPaper, Newsprint, etc.Timber, SoftwoodIron-sandAll Other GoodsTotal
   manifest tonnes    
Bay of Islands------13,383
Whangarei-----2,83440,835
Auckland15,16762910,1517,680-398,874877,072
Onehunga359245701,834-24,05528,327
Taharoa----1,230,441-1,230,441
Tauranga1,887-160,476374,716-222,521971,004
Gisborne2,451----29,69044,421
Napier61,37679-98,742-148,662493,777
Taranaki---188-32,393139,677
Waverley----1,111,245-1,111,245
Wellington6952,06938662-117,274468,669
Picton6,064----18,59329,284
Nelson71,61834-340,549-525418,185
Lyttelton9113,10595145,181-71,879217,117
Timaru-5,672-20,250-36,088186,733
Otago6,655--71,055-90,259213,113
Bluff150-33,480-119,602310,821
All other ports-----3,6453,645
Totals166,36421,662172,534993,7372,341,6861,316,8946,797,749

PORTS AND SHIPPING IN THE FUTURE—The effect on New Zealand of the revolution in cargo handling must be a major rationalisation of ports and shipping services. Containerisation involves major changes through the whole chain of cargo transportation and handling, and in road, rail, and port facilities and capabilities. It means fewer ships, but much bigger and faster ones carrying much greater tonnages. In the U.K. trade, about 70 percent of northbound refrigerated cargo and 97. percent of general cargo will be containerised. On current planning, the shipping lines envisage that from 1979 onwards there will be an average service frequency of one ship every five days, each calling at two or three ports.

Larger faster ships will require further expansion of ports and land-based facilities. Present indications are that Auckland and Wellington will each require two container berths and three cranes. Two container ports have been developed in the South Island, at Lyttelton and at Port Chalmers. These at present each have one berth and one crane and have been operational since early 1977. It has been estimated that loaded container volumes in the trade between New Zealand and U.K.-Western Europe in 1978 will total over 90,000 per annum. Total container movements, involving loading, unloading, and the restowage of containers, will greatly exceed these figures and are estimated at about 250,000 per year.

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES—The examinations for masters, mates, and engineers serving in the mercantile marine are conducted by the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport, the regulations relating to these examinations being similar to those of the Department of Trade and Industry with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions. The U.K. Department of Trade and Industry recognises the following certificates only as of Commonwealth validity: Extra Master, Master, First Mate, and Second Mate Foreign-going ships, First- and Second-class Steam and Motor Engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the Department of Trade and Industry. There are examinations for masters and mates, and for marine engineers in both the foreign-going and home trade.

SHIP SURVEY STATISTICS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport carries out the survey of ships as required by the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, and 1,127 certificates of survey were issued in 1975. The department is also required to issue certificates to vessels engaged in international voyages in accordance with the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960, to which New Zealand is a signatory. Also special surveys are made for seaworthiness after damage, for efficiency of equipment, and for tonnage measurement.

LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE—On headlands, capes, reefs, and shoals around the 6,968 kilometres of coastline there are 242 navigation aids. These aids comprise 23 manned lighthouses, 109 automatic lights, 88 day beacons, 13 navigational buoys, 2 fog signals, and 13 radio beacons, and represent a capital investment of $5 million approximately. Their provision, maintenance, and servicing is a responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport, and involves an expenditure of approximately $1 1/4 million annually. Lighthouse tenders, aircraft, helicopters, and road transport along with a number of workshops are used to provide the mariner with reliable navigational aids. Light dues collected from ships meet most of the running costs of the service.

The "Zenon gas" light installed on Tiritiri Matangi Island, the main coastal approach light tower to Auckland Harbour, is of 11 million candlepower, and is one of the most powerful in the Southern Hemisphere.

WRECKS—In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a Superintendent of Mercantile Marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Transport, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, or in any river or lake, the Receiver of Wrecks for that district has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

Shipping accidents reported during the year ended 31 December 1975 are shown in the following table. It should be noted that the figures list all casualties including small craft.

Type of ShipMachinery Breakdown, and MiscellaneousCapsizing and CollisionsStranding and GroundingFounderingFireTotal
Passenger-1---1
Cargo221139
Fishing1721217755
Dredges, tugs etc.4121-8
Pleasure craft393729138126
Totals6243443218199

Fishing boat accidents on the New Zealand coast in 1975 resulted in the loss of 18 vessels and 6 lives, while 1 boat was lost at the Chatham Islands.

Pleasure craft casualties resulted in 45 deaths and 1 seaman died during abandonment of the Taiwanese cargo ship Union East, the 27 other crew members being rescued from the sea by the Northland Harbour Board tug Raumanga.

A fire on the Noumea registered cargo ship Capitaine Bougainville off the east coast of Northland on 3 September led to abandonment of the ship and the loss of 12 crew members and 4 passengers when a lifeboat foundered.

PLEASURE CRAFT—The Census of Population and Dwellings 1971 revealed that 77,529 households (9.7 percent of all households) had one or more pleasure boats. Of such households, 50,971 were in main urban areas.

Means of propulsion of the 77,529 boats enumerated were as follows: outboard motor 35,101; inboard motor 18,651; inboard jet motor 1,494; sails and engine 1,180; sails 9,413; oars and paddles 10,645; other means and not specified 1,045.

11 C—RAILWAYS

RAILWAYS DEVELOPMENT—A network of railways extending over nearly 5,000 kilometres links almost all the principal centres of population in New Zealand and carries a large share of the passenger and freight traffic to and from the towns and cities. Practically all the railway services in the country are provided by the New Zealand Government Railways Department, using the title New Zealand Railways for trading purposes. The department also operates road services over nearly 9,000 route kilometres of highways; and a rail and road vehicle and passenger ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton. A total staff of some 22,000 people is employed by the department.

Recent years have witnessed notable progress in development of the system and a steady increase in the carrying capacity of its main lines. Extensive use is being made of the latest developments in railway-transport technology, including diesel and electric traction, transistorised equipment for centralised traffic control, mechanised equipment for freight handling and track-maintenance work, and electronic data-processing machines to assist with accounting and statistical operations. Many new types of goods wagons have been and are being introduced, and numerous station buildings, goods sheds, bridges, etc., are being replaced by up-to-date structures in a continuing programme.

The largest railway construction project in recent years was completed with the opening in January 1971 of the 30-hectare Te Rapa marshalling yard near Hamilton. This massive yard is the first in New Zealand to have a semi-automatic hump-shunting system, while the refined electronic devices incorporated in the system make it also the most advanced. Designed initially to handle some 3,000 wagons a day, it will ultimately have a capacity to sort 5,000 daily.

Another major project is the 24-kilometre Kaimai Deviation, including a 9-kilometre tunnel through the Kaimai Hills, which substantially shortens the railway distance between the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty districts.

Also under construction is the 9-kilometre Mangaweka Deviation between Mangaweka and Utiku. This deviation which includes three tall bridges with a total length of 610 metres will eliminate a difficult section of the main trunk line which is very expensive to maintain and replace it with a low-maintenance, all-weather, high-speed route.

A brief history of the first hundred years of railway development in New Zealand was included as a special article in the 1963 edition of the Yearbook.

EXTENT OF THE SYSTEM—The total route length of railways vested in the New Zealand Government Railways Department and open for traffic at 31 March 1976 was 4,797 kilometres—2,610 kilometres in the North Island and 2,187 in the South Island. In addition, the Railways Department was working traffic over a further 7 kilometres of railways owned by other Government departments. Double line was worked over a total of 254 route kilometres, of which 208 kilometres were in the North Island. A total of 100 route kilometres of railway electrified on the 1,500-volt direct current, overhead contact system was in use at 31 March 1976.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING—In most instances, Government railways in New Zealand were constructed by the Public Works Department, now the Ministry of Works and Development, and handed over to the Railways Department upon completion. Recent practice has been for the Ministry of Works and Development to construct the earthworks, bridges, tunnels, and buildings, and for the Railways Department to lay the tracks and install signals.

Track—All track is laid to a nominal gauge of 1067 mm. The major routes are laid with rails 85 or 91 lb per yard (42.2 or 45.1 kg/m) but these lines will be progressively relaid with rails weighing 50 kg per metre. Secondary and branch lines have generally been laid with rails weighing 55, 70, and 72 lb per yard (27.3, 34.7, and 35.7 kg/m) and the practice is to relay these lines with heavier rails from the main lines. Treated Pinus radiata sleepers, laid about 1,480 per kilometre, have gradually replaced Australian hardwood sleepers, and locally manufactured concrete sleepers are also being used on selected areas on the main routes. Track with fishplates and bolts at every joint is progressively replaced with rails welded at the joints on all major routes and on some secondary lines.

Bridges—To carry the railways across gorges, rivers, and streams in New Zealand, about 2,600 bridges and viaducts have been built with an aggregate length of 90 kilometres. The longest railway bridge is that over the Rakaia River, 55 kilometres south of Christchurch. Completed in 1939 to replace an original timber structure of the 1870s, it is 1743 metres in length.

The highest viaduct is the Mohaka, completed in 1937 to carry the Napier - Gisborne railway 97 m above the bed of the Mohaka River. Twenty-one New Zealand railway viaducts altogether carry the rails more than 33 m above the streams they cross.

Tunnels—There are 182 railway tunnels, with an aggregate length of 84.5 kilometres in use, 107 in the North Island and 75 in the South Island. The two longest tunnels are the Otira (8.5 kilometres) on the Midland Line in the South Island, opened in 1923; and the Rimutaka (8.8 kilometres) on the Wairarapa line in the North Island, opened in 1955. Excluding city tube railways, these stand twenty-first and sixteenth respectively in a list of the world's longest railway tunnels. The Kaimai Tunnel, under construction on the Kaimai Deviation, will be 8.8 kilometres long.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service—An air freight service across Cook Strait was commenced in February 1947; information on its operation is given in subsection 11D.

Cook Strait Rail Ferry Service—Two ferries carrying rail and road vehicles, and passengers, are operated by the Railways Department between Wellington and Picton. The Aramoana and Aranui are each designed to carry a maximum of 30 railway wagons, or about 85 motorcars, on the vehicle deck and a further 30 motorcars in an upper-deck garage. There is all-weather accommodation in lounges and cabins in each vessel for about 500 passengers, but it is possible to carry just over 1,000 passengers per ship on special occasions. Regular sailings with the Aramoana began in August 1962 and a two-ship timetable was introduced with the advent of the Aranui in June 1966. In November 1971 the Railways Department took over maritime operation of these ferries from the Union Steam Ship Company.

A third ferry, Arahanga, entered the service in December 1972, and a fourth vessel, Aratika, in September 1974. Both are of a larger design than the first two ferries and were designed for freight only in rail and road vehicles, with limited accommodation for road truck drivers. In 1976 the Aratika was converted to carry passengers and cars as well as freight.

ROLLING STOCK: Passenger Cars—The first diesel railcars on New Zealand railways were placed in service in 1936. At 31 March 1976 a fleet of 34 was in use on passenger services, the latest three having been placed in service in 1972.

Multiple-unit electric coaches were first introduced on the Johnsonville line in 1938. By 1956 a fleet of 49 motor coaches and 79 trailer coaches was in use on Wellington suburban train services. A typical three-coach set comprising one 450 kW motor coach and two trailer coaches weighs 98 tonnes unladen, measures 57.5 m overall, and seats 200 passengers. This stock can accelerate rapidly from stops and operates up to 80 km/hr in normal service.

Wagons—The Railways Department's fleet of goods and livestock wagons at 31 March 1976 totalled 29,400, with a total carrying capacity of 463,380 tonnes. In recent years thousands of new wagons have been introduced, including long, covered bogie wagons with wide doorways for mechanical loading of palletised freight, for use on express goods trains. Special-purpose wagons include those designed for log traffic, packaged timber, and bulk commodities such as cement, flour, plaster, heated tallow, sulphuric acid, and aluminium sulphate, and wagons for coal traffic for the Mission Bush steel mill. Many bogie flat-top wagons have also been built or modified for the ever-increasing volume of container traffic. In addition to the wagons owned by the department, another 247 privately-owned wagons are also in use, mainly for petrol and cement traffic.

SPECIAL SERVICES—A fast daytime express diesel railcar with hostess service was introduced between Wellington and Auckland in October 1968, running three times a week each way. In December 1972 the Blue Streak railcars used on this run were transferred to the Wellington - New Plymouth route. New Silver Fern diesel-electric railcars, fully air-conditioned, took over the Wellington-Auckland service, the frequency of which was doubled to six times a week.

Meanwhile, in December 1970, the Southerner diesel-powered express trains with refurbished cars and on-train buffet service were introduced between Christchurch and Invercargill, and in September 1971 two complete new air-conditioned sleeping-car trains were placed in service between Wellington and Auckland. These overnight Silver Star expresses provide the highest standard of passenger travel comfort on New Zealand Railways.

Another refurbished express train, the Endeavour, was placed in service between Wellington and Napier in November 1972. The ordinary express train services between Wellington and Auckland were also upgraded with the introduction of the Northerner expresses in November 1975. Buffet or dining cars on the Southerner, Silver Star, Northerner, and Endeavour provide light meal and refreshment services for passengers.

MOTIVE POWER—From 1949 steam power was steadily replaced by diesel traction. All steam locomotives in the North Island were replaced by diesel locomotives by the end of 1967, and those in the South Island by 1971 with the exception of two retained for a Lumsden-Kingston tourist vintage train. In November 1972 15 "Dx" diesel electric locomotives weighing 97 tonnes and with double the horsepower of the "DA" class locomotives were introduced to haul express trains between Wellington and Auckland. Another 17 of this class entered service during the year ended 31 March 1976.

The proportions of railway traffic moved by the different types of motive power are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchPercentage of Total Traffic Moved by
Steam LocomotivesDiesel LocomotivesDiesel RailcarsElectric LocomotivesElectric Multiple Units
196530.858.33.82.94.2
19701.291.72.51.03.6
19750.194.62.10.52.8
1976-94.91.90.52.7

There were 297 main-line diesel-electric locomotives at 31 March 1976, and 14 electric locomotives apart from 280 diesel shunting locomotives.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Gross revenue and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue
*Deficit recovered from vote: stabilisation.
$(thousand)
1974152,179160,832-8,653*
1975153,911199,171-45,260*
1976170,207233,160-62,953*

The chief items of expenditure for 1975-76 were: wages, $140,292,802; fuel (including electricity) for locomotives, road vehicles, and rail ferries, $13,393,628; stores and materials, $30,481,570; depreciation, $13,895,694; and miscellaneous, $35,096,394.

The revenue and expenditure for recent years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items, are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or Loss
Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.
$(thousand)
1974125,78926,390135,36325,469-9,574+921
1975124,92128,990166,65732,514-41,736-3,524
1976137,28732,920194,82838,332-57,541-5,412

The respective Island figures of revenue and expenditure for railway operation only (i.e., omitting subsidiary services) are given below for the 1975-76 year.

AreaRevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or LossRatio of Expenditure to Revenue
  $(thousand) percent
North Island98,613136,732-38,119138.7
South Island38,67458,096-19,422150.2
Totals137,287194,828-57,541141.9

The revenue and expenditure of the various subsidiary services conducted by the Railways Department is set out in the following table. Full working costs are charged against these services, and interest which is debited to road services and rail ferries is credited to miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

ServiceRevenueExpenditure
1973-741974-751975-761973-741974-751975-76
$(thousand)
Advertising service319322362272293336
Departmental houses1,1061,2301,3622,4532,9443,400
Road services—      
Passenger and goods10,25011,33012,60810,96913,35415,804
Cook Strait rail ferry service12,77913,73015,61211,77515,92318,792
Miscellaneous1,9362,3782,976---
Totals26,39028,99032,92025,46932,51438,332

Revenue—In the following table the railway operating revenue is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassenger TrafficGoods Livestock, and ParcelsCatering ServicesTotal
$(thousand)
19747,501115,8202,468125,789
19757,949114,1892,783124,921
19768,999125,1843,104137,287

The revenue from passenger fares and luggage during the year 1975-76 represented an expenditure on railway travel of $2.91 per head of mean population. The total railway operating revenue was equal to $44.43 per head.

Expenditure—The railway operating expenditure under various heads is now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Way and WorksMaintenance of Rolling StockLocomotive TransportationTraffic TransportationHead Office and General Charges*Catering ServicesTotal
*Includes superannuation subsidy.
$(thousand)
197432,57332,23419,45540,1306,9154,056135,363
197538,90937,10725,81751,7798,1204,925166,657
197645,31443,71930,52958,91610,6065,744194,828

Expenditure has been influenced by progressively higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment, as well as higher costs of fuel and materials.

Capital Expenditure—The expenditure on capital works and new equipment is set out in the following table.

 Year Ended 31 March
Item197419751976

*Ministry of Works and Development expenditure on railway works not included in this summary prior to 1 April 1974.

†Includes Capital Equipment Credits.

  $(000) 
Plant and equipment7922,9422,836
Works programme7,529*16,40019,952
Rolling stock6,5658,65746,871
Motor vehicles8191,2562,490
Rail ferries5557,34278
Shares in companies--30
Totals16,260*36,59772,257

This capital expenditure has been met from the department's own depreciation reserves. National Development Loans, a loan granted by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and overseas credits.

The relative proportions of capital funded from these sources were as follows:

 Year Ended 31 March
Source197419751976
 $(000)percent$(000)percent$(000)percent
Railway depreciation12,8517913,0863614,16620
National Development Loan1,514917,0114631,97544
Overseas credits1,896126,5001826,11636
Totals16,26010036,59710072,257100

RAIL PASSENGER TRAFFIC—Passenger traffic reached its peak in 1961-62 but this was followed by a steady decline in passenger journeys in the face of competition from other forms of transport, the fall in non-suburban passenger traffic being attributed to the increased use of private cars and the development of air services. The introduction of new and upgraded train and railcar services halted and (in some measure) reversed this decline from 1972-73 onwards.

The following table sets out the numbers of rail passenger journeys and the corresponding receipts.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of JourneysPassenger Revenue
SuburbanNon-suburbanTotalSuburbanNon-suburbanTotal
 (000)(000)(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
197417,2121,73218,9442,9664,5357,501
197517,0041,89018,8942,9614,9887,949
197618,1481,88720,0353,4095,5908,999

GOODS AND LIVESTOCK TRAFFIC—The following table shows the volume of goods and livestock traffic in tonnes and tonne-kilometres, and the revenue received from goods, livestock, and parcels traffic consigned by rail.

Year ended 31 MarchGoods and Livestock Carried (excluding Parcels)Total Revenue from Goods, Livestock, and Parcels Traffic
TonnesNet Tonne-kilometresNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal
*Revenue from rail parcels traffic was $2,913,416 in 1973-74, $2,955,696 in 1974-75, and $3,585,400 in 1975-76.
 (000)million$(000)$(000)$(000)
197413,3783,627.582,92132,899115,820*
197512,8833,608.282,13932,050114,189*
197613,1933,649.088,63736,547125,184*

RAIL FERRY TRAFFIC—Traffic statistics for the rail ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton are given in the following table.

Year ended 31 MarchNumber of Return CrossingsTotal Passenger JourneysMotor Vehicles (of all kinds)Freight in Railway Wagons
NumberManifest TonnesDeadweight TonnesManifest Tonnes
19741,790599,064126,925644,779932,4691,238,191
19751,872671,726139,926769,5941,021,8131,358,524
19762,008661,671141,102776,0611,033,9301,353,076

Financial statistics for the Cook Strait ferry service are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure, Total
PassengerRefreshmentPassengers Motor VehiclesGoods (Rail and Road)Total
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
19741,6343871,8288,93012,77911,775
19751,7694931,9249,54413,73015,923
19762,0885802,00310,94115,61218,792

The following diagram illustrates the traffic on the railways and road services.

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES—The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31 March 1976 was 21,941 (excluding 551 sea-going staff employed on the Cook Strait rail ferries), compared with 21,222 a year earlier.

ACCIDENTS AT LEVEL CROSSINGS—Accidents at level crossings with roads resulted in the death of 13 people and injury to 53 others in 1975-76; in the previous year 16 were killed and 58 injured. In furtherance of departmental policy, an additional 14 automatic road-crossing alarms were installed in 1975–76.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS—There are a number of short private railways in New Zealand, principally lines serving colleries and other industrial undertakings. There is an 11-km line of the Ohai Railway Board, extending from Wairio (north-west of Invercargill) to coal mines at Ohai. The Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., in the North Island operates a 10-km private line from Awakeri to its mill at Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty.

RAILWAY OPERATED ROAD SERVICES—There is a network of railway-operated road services the origin of which dates back to November 1926 when a bus service between Napier and Hastings was purchased. Others were acquired in the following years (notably the services within the Hutt Valley and between the Hutt Valley and Wellington in 1927 and 1928), but it was 1934 before the first long-distance coach service was taken over. The main development of the network took place between 1936 and 1951, when the route distance over which licences were held rose from 418 to 9641 km. Now the Railways Department runs more than 25 percent of the total vehicle mileage of all licensed road passenger service operators in New Zealand (see section 11D), and maintains in its fleet almost 25 percent of all the vehicles used to provide road passenger services throughout the country. At 31 March 1976, the Railways Department's road services branch employed a staff of 1,623.

Suburban bus services at Auckland, Rotorua, Hastings, Hutt Valley, Wellington-Khandallah, Titahi Bay, Paraparaumu, and Dunedin, with a fleet of 263 vehicles at 31 March 1976, carried 12,767,000 passengers and earned a total revenue of $2,381,458. All the other road passenger services, both long and short distance, with 597 coaches, buses, and other vehicles, carried 8,553,000 passengers and earned a revenue of $9,411,253. The routes of the services in operation at 31 March 1975 covered 8,876 km of highway.

In addition to the road passenger services, a small number of road goods services were operated. Goods traffic on these services, for which some 83 motor vehicles were maintained, produced a further $814,669 in 1975-76. A Rail Ancillary Goods Service is operated by the department's Traffic Branch for the carriage of goods consigned to or from wayside stations.

The following selected statistics illustrate the development of the Railways Department's road services operations.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoute Kilometres at 31 March*Number of Passenger Vehicles at 31 MarchNumber of Other Vehicles at 31 MarchTotal Passenger JourneysTotal Passenger and Goods RevenueTotal Expenditure, Including Interest Charges
*Route mileage for which licences are held.
    (000)$(000)$(000)
1974961276935920,94710,25010,969
1975968876036920,76811,33013,354
1976968877338221,32012,60815,804

11 D—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

GENERAL—Capital investment in New Zealand's reading and road transport system exceeds that of all other forms of transport services. There are 90,000 kilometres of road and over 1.5 million motor vehicles, while the population census in 1971 revealed that there were 37,790 road transport drivers, 18,215 persons whose occupations involved carrying and cartage services, 37,277 persons occupied in the repair, servicing, and sale of motor vehicles and 8,604 persons engaged in motor-vehicle assembly and body building. It has been estimated that more than 1.7 million people hold drivers' licences.

ROADS AND BRIDGES—The cost of providing adequate roads in New Zealand as a proportion of annual investment is relatively high in comparison with many other countries, largely because of the nature of the country and the wide variety of terrain frequently encountered within relatively short distances, and of occasional rain and flood damage.

Annual roading expenditure by Central and local Government now considerably exceeds $170 million. Maintenance comprises about one-third of the expenditure.

Because of its many swiftly-flowing rivers and streams and its inland gorges and deep ravines, New Zealand is faced with major bridging problems, which are perhaps different in character and more complex than those generally found elsewhere. A survey of bridging in 1974-75 confirmed that many 30- to 40-year-old bridges warranted strengthening or replacement in order to meet current motor transport requirements. In view of financial stringency, the National Roads Board has set priorities for bridging work, with the replacement of emergency Bailey bridges taking first priority, followed by the elimination of bridge weight-carrying restrictions and improvements to trafficable bridge widths.

Motorways are expensive to construct and are justified only in areas of high traffic density. They require strong foundations and thick surfacings to stand up to the heavy, fast, and continuous traffic. They confer two great benefits—greatly increased traffic capacity and greater safety. The limited number of access points, designed to permit smooth and safe entrance and exit, and the complete absence of ordinary intersections, contribute substantially to safety and the uninterrupted, fast flow of traffic, which also reduces transport costs.

The Auckland motorway system is one of the largest engineering undertakings ever attempted in New Zealand and one which is changing the face of metropolitan Auckland. An indication of the size and complexity of motorway design is gained from the statement that the cost of the large dual interchange for the Auckland inner city part of the motorway system will be of the order of $20 million, including land purchase. The 1,500-metre Thorndon overbridge on the Wellington motorway is the largest bridge contract in the history of the Ministry of Works and Development.

Details of formed roads and streets at 31 March 1975 are given in the following table.

Nature of SurfaceCities and BoroughsCountiesTown DistrictsTotal
County RoadsState Highways and Motorways
   km  
Paved or sealed10,31224,6809,9677945,038
Metal or gravel86241,2329152243,031
Unmetalled886,52434326,957
Totals, formed roads11,26272,43611,22510395,026

There are 13,383 bridges of 3 metres and over with a total length of 313,296 metres.

Auckland Harbour Bridge Traffic—From May 1959, when the toll bridge opened, to March 1976, Auckland harbour bridge has carried 230 million vehicles. In the 1975-76 year the bridge had a daily average of 65,508 vehicles crossing it: the highest daily figure being a record 85,418. With traffic totals continuing to grow it is estimated that the eight-lane facility will reach its ultimate carrying capacity in the nineteen eighties.

Traffic totals for March years are shown in the following table.

Class of Vehicle1970-711971-721972-73*1973-74*1974-751975-76

*From April 1972 one-way (northbound) toll collection was introduced and no specific vehicle analysis is now available for southbound traffic.

†Estimated.

‡Tolls on omnibuses were removed in December 1974 and these vehicles are now classified as Exempt Vehicles.

   (thousand)   
Cars15,63017,3189,52210,34811,13911,236
Motor cycles, etc.277365219248272270
Buses270268137136
Commercial vehicles519543301339299290
Exempt vehicles1411266360100204
Southbound....10,24411,11911,78511,976
Totals16.83618,62020,48522,25023,59423,976

Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel—The continual increase in the volume of traffic since the 2 kilometres-long tunnel opened in 1964 now appears to be levelling off. In 1975-76 there was an actual decrease in trucks and extra axles.

Class of Vehicle1970-711971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76
Cars1,081,6641,223,8441,330,0971,447,3851,470,3101,475,675
Motor cycles, etc.59,90471,79972,33674,58377,69682,075
Buses14,32115,78123,28123,47721,95422,671
Trucks and extra axles215,929218,373245,506256,612278,336266,777
Non-revenue traffic36,14835,30237,38039,37939,99441,678
Totals1,407,9661,565,0991,708,6001,841,4361,888,2901,888,876

ROADS ADMINISTRATION—The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, the Counties Act 1956 and the National Roads Act 1953. Administration of the country's roading system is exercised by municipalities in respect of streets, by county councils in respect of county roads, and by the National Roads Board in respect of State highways.

The National Roads Board is charged with the responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs. The Board came into being in 1954 as the result of the passing of the National Roads Act. This same Act provided for the establishment of the National Roads Fund. Under the chairmanship of the Minister of Works and Development, the National Roads Board is an organisation of 10 members, representative of the private motorists, commercial vehicle owners, counties, municipalities, the Ministry of Works and Development, and Ministry of Transport. It is of interest to note that Government members are in a minority. The representative nature of the Board ensures that the widest possible background of knowledge and experience is brought to bear on roading matters. Essentially the Board is a politically orientated policy-making body; it is required to think nationally and to act nationally. The most important functions of the Board are:

  1. to administer the National Roads Fund.

  2. to provide a roading system adequate for New Zealand's needs.

  3. to advise Government on all matters concerning roading including the provision of finance.

  4. to assist and advise local authorities on roading problems.

  5. to undertake at intervals of not more than five years a comprehensive survey of the roading position in New Zealand.

The money in the National Roads Fund is derived from road taxation paid by the users, the private motorist and the commercial vehicle operator. Through this roads fund the money is returned to the road user in the form of safer, smoother, more economical travel. It is an inviolate fund. Under the legislation by which it was brought into operation on 1 April 1954, all taxation paid into it must be immediately available and be used for roading purposes. In effect the National Roads Act provided for an independent fund at the disposal of an independent board and removed the element of uncertainty associated with annual appropriation of funds through Parliament. Nevertheless opportunity is provided for Parliament to debate the Board's activities.

The National Roads Board can be likened to a board of directors with the Minister of Works and Development as chairman and Director of Roading as chief executive officer. The Board meets regularly once a month. Most of the business is conducted in open meeting with representatives of the press in attendance.

The Board employs no staff directly but the Ministry of Works and Development provides an engineering and administrative service for which it is paid 5 percent of total National Roads Board expenditure. The roading division of the Ministry of Works and Development carries out the executive functions of the Board and in servicing the Board calls on the specialist services of other divisions and branches of Ministry of Works and Development as required, e.g., bridge design, land purchase, accounts, legal, etc.

For State highways and motorways, the Board meets the full cost of construction and maintenance, while the maintenance and construction of county roads and municipal streets are subsidised by the Board. Some 93 percent of State highways are now sealed. The National Roads Board is the controlling authority for State highways. As the Board's agent, the Ministry of Works and Development has responsibility for financial control and technical control. In certain cases, the Board has delegated its powers of construction and/or maintenance to local authorities.

In the case of county roads and municipal streets, responsibility lies with the local authority concerned. Apart from the question of standards on major works, there are no strings and no overriding control by Central Government.

Under the National Roads Act, in December of each year the Board is required to estimate its income for the following year and to make its primary allocations of funds expected to be available. At the present time there are three sectors and funds are allocated on the following basis: for counties—not less than 23 percent of motor revenue; for municipalities—not less than 16 percent of motor revenue; for State highways—not less than 50 percent of motor revenue; this leaving 11 percent of motor revenue for allocation to any or all of the above, at the discretion of the Board.

For purposes of roading administration, New Zealand is divided geographically into 22 roads districts and funds are allocated by the Board to each sector in each district as fairly and equitably as possible having regard to particular needs.

In each roads district there is an advisory body known as a District Roads Council. These councils are representative of the same interests as the Board itself. Although they have no executive powers, their recommendations concerning relative priorities have considerable influence on board decisions. In addition to its regular meetings the Board makes visits of inspection to several roads districts each year. These visits afford an opportunity for Board members to get a better appreciation of local problems, needs, and conditions through observation and discussion, and to maintain personal contact with District Roads Councils. The Board is thus able to keep in close touch with the roading problems of New Zealand, and is better able to discharge its responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs.

Finance—A National Roads Fund has been established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Motor spirits tax of 18.10c per gallon (4c per litre) is paid into the National Roads Fund. An equivalent distance tax is payable for diesel-powered motor vehicles, quarterly licence fees under the Heavy Motor Vehicles Regulations range from $4.83 (not above 2 1/2 tons) to $63 (11 tons), with $7 for each additional ton above 11. The fees for farmers' trucks range from $2.67 on a corresponding basis. Heavy traffic fees, less the cost of collection, are paid into the National Roads Fund. Tax imposed under the Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 (3c per gallon from February 1971) is not credited to the National Roads Fund.

Following is a statement of receipts and expenditure of the National Roads Fund for the latest three March years. Receipts are less collection expenses.

Item1973-741974-751975-76
Receipts—$(000)$(000)$(000)
Petrol tax (net)85,30285,26580,744
Distance tax5,6916,7877,254
Fees and charges—   
Heavy traffic fees11,52112,07312,588
Contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account7001,25018,350
Miscellaneous receipts—   
Repayments of plant purchases---
Repayments of advances to local authorities61080
Rents7478911,068
Sales of land and buildings1011,2001,433
Interest on plant purchases---
Bailey bridging hire5388128
Interest on investments9710141
Miscellaneous569539209
Total receipts104,787108,204121,895
Expenditure—   
Highways maintenance16,70219,66225,889
Highways construction35,91340,60241,620
Local authority roading subsidies and grants41,13646,06349,116
Local authorities advances65054
Administration and general expenses-   
Ministry of Works administration4,0275,8115,757
Fees and travelling expenses343744
Miscellaneous expenses8181,1662,173
Bridging expenses—   
Bailey bridging, etc.122130162
Unauthorised expenditure348
Total expenditure98,761113,524124,823
Balance in Fund at end of year8,3012,98156

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on State highways construction, renewal, or maintenance during the last five years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable.

Class of Expenditure1971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76
*Includes motorway structures.
$(thousand)
Construction and improvement25,97429,35227,03427,63826,866
Bridges and other structures*6,6748,6128,87912,96414,754
Maintenance, repairs, etc.14,35715,70516,70219,66225,889
Totals47,00553,66952,61560,26467,509

State Highways—The National Roads Act provides for the declaration of roads as State highways with the approval of the Minister of Works and Development. In 1969, the National Roads Board reviewed the State highway system, and re-affirmed the principle that the network must continue to be based on the pattern of national development, needs of defence, and directness of route and main travel desire lines. The most important principles in designing a State highway system are that the total length of the system must be based on routes of primary importance; that routes must be equitably distributed in relation to the pattern of national development; and that routes must be confined to those which have characteristics in keeping with the function of the system.

Although urban development with its growing industrialisation is a predominant problem, the National Roads Board is also aware of the need for continued development of a fully effective inter-regional network with adequate rural feeder roads. Balanced development of the total network is essential if primary production is to increase and production costs are to be restrained.

Highway Standards—In order to qualify for highway subsidies local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the Board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. The National Roads Board also produces complementary guides to good practice, and standard specifications for roading materials and construction methods.

Motorways—The Public Works Act makes provision for the declaration of motorways. Motorways provide efficient and economic means of communication, while the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The total length of motorways in use at 31 March 1976 was 108 kilometres.

New Sealing—During the year ended 31 March 1976, 43.7 kilometres of new sealing on highways was completed, giving an aggregate of 10,749 kilometres of sealed highway, 93 percent of the total length. New bridging totalled 2.3 kilometres.

National Roading Expenditure—Details of New Zealand public roading expenditure financed from the National Roads Fund, the Consolidated Revenue Account, and local authority funds (both from revenue and loans) are summarised as follows:

Item1974-751975-76
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
State highways expenditure 60,264 67,509
Subsidised highway, section 12A 513 618
County roading expenditure—    
From county funds21,660 23,659 
From National Roads Fund25,070 23,663 
From Consolidated Revenue Account (vote: "Roads")2,219 1,749 
  48,949 49,071
Municipal roading expenditure—    
From municipal funds29,935 36,893 
From National Roads Fund19,206 20,742 
  49,141 57,635
  158,867 174,833

NOTE—Table above does not include subsidies paid under section 12A of the National Roads Act to the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority ($1,000,000) and the Christchurch Road Tunnel Authority ($200,000).

Local Authority Roading—The National Roads Board pays a basic subsidy at the rate of $1.50 for each $2 that is spent by local authorities out of their own funds on such programmes of subsidised works as have been accepted for a financial year by the Board, and approves grants in special cases.

In recognition of the urgency and importance of the country's bridge renewal problem, the Board makes generous grants for local authority bridge replacements. Wooden bridges built 50 and 60 years ago, which have served the country well, continue to deteriorate at a greater rate than replacements can be built. In 10 years to March 1976 there have been 2,006 bridges completed, totalling 49,908 metres.

For the year ended 31 March 1976 the following amounts were paid to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading.

Local AuthoritySubsidyGrantsTotal
$(thousand)
Municipalities13,0177,72520,742
County councils14,90311,75926,663
Totals27,92019,48447,405

Loan Assistance—To assist counties and municipalities with their planning the National Roads Board meets 30 percent of the cost of approved transportation surveys in urban areas. Plans have been completed or are in the course of preparation in all city areas with a population in excess of 30,000 people.

Needs studies have been made for county and municipal roading and the Board has carried out regional surveys to assess relative needs.

It is envisaged that more comprehensive and co-ordinated surveys will become necessary as development increases in complexity, and that the Board's criteria will need to extend further into the field of productive economics.

Development Roading—In addition to the expenditure on roading from the National Roads Fund, moneys are provided annually by the Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) for development of road construction. Under this heading subsidies are paid to local authorities for the construction of new roads giving access to farmlands being brought into production. This Vote also finances access roads to lands being prepared for farm settlement by the Lands and Survey and Maori and Island Affairs Departments, as well as certain new roading of a national development character.

New roads constructed for farm access are handed over to the care of local authorities, while national roading normally becomes the responsibility of the National Roads Board for maintenance as part of the State highway system.

Government roading expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) for the year ended 31 March 1976 was $1,749,019.

Overall Roading Expenditure—The following table shows the total expenditure on roading from all sources for the year ended 31 March 1976.

National Roads Fund—$(000)$(000)
State highways67,509 
Subsidies, etc. – local roading47,406 
  114,915
Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) 1,749
Local authority funds—  
Municipalities36,893 
County councils23,65960,552
Total 177,216

Roading expenditure over the last 5 years is related to Gross National Product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoading Expenditure: Central and Local GovernmentTotal as Percentage of Gross National Product
MaintenanceConstructionTotal
*Provisional.
  $(million) percent
197241.6182.46124.071.92x
197345.7495.40141.141.88x
197447.3397.90145.231.68x
197555.03103.83158.861.69*
197664.57*110.26*174.831.62*

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES—The amounts for initial registration fees are: motorcars, from $20 to $100 according to age or engine capacity; motor cycles, trailers, and traction engines, $20; power cycles, $12; heavy trucks, $100; light trucks and vans, $60; farm tractors, $4; and any other motor vehicle, $40.

Annual licence fees are as follows; motor vehicles $20 (except veteran or vintage motor vehicles, $6 and $10); trailers (3 tons or less loaded), $12; motor cycles, $12; power cycles, $8; tractors, $16; traction engines, $6; trade licences for motor cycles are $12, and trade licences for other motor vehicles $20. Other fees include drivers' licences, 50c; changes of ownership, $10; and dealers' licences (motor cycles, $6; any other motor vehicles, $10). All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable to the local authorities, have been credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account since 1 July 1967. Additional to these fees are the Accident Compensation levies which replaced compulsory third-party insurance (see page 318).

The various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last five years are itemised below.

Type of Vehicle19721973197419751976
Cars955,4461,020,7781,078,7951,129,6111,172,000
Rental cars4,0074,1975,0385,2795,425
Private taxicabs12912999132130
Light goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight 2 tons and under)117,441122,485129,863132,150137,184
Heavy goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight over 2 tons)73,18472,16970,26474,62673,970
Contract vehicles1,1391,117,1091,2051,192
Omnibuses2,6132,5642,5392,6172,660
Public taxicabs2,9372,9933,0463,1133,082
Service coaches489536515513563
Motor cycles39,32647,47660,49366,81598,833
Power cycles23,61424,95026,65526,8414,207
Totals, motor vehicles1,220,3251,299,3941,378,4161,442,9021,499,246
Trailers, including trailers exempted from payment of annual licence fees and caravans238,798256,281279,650304,883328,099
Dealers' cars4,0474,1314,1824,1914,405
Dealers' motor cycles172222262321292
Vehicles including cycles exempted from payment of annual licence fees (farm tractors, etc.)86,83592,930103,098105,080111,139
Totals, all vehicles1,550,1771,652,9581,765,6081,857,3771,943,181

Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as farmers' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one part of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, cranes, and logging trucks (used on private roads), etc. A feature of recent years has been the steep increase in the number of motor cycles, which increased more than three-fold between 1971 and 1976.

The following table shows the changes in relationship between the number of licensed vehicles and population as at 31 March in the latest 6 years.

As at 31 MarchNumber of Persons in Population per CarNumber of Persons in Population per Motor Vehicle (Excluding Trailers)
19713.12.3
19723.02.2
19732.92.1
19742.82.0
19752.72.0
19762.71.9

Motor spirit usage in New Zealand during the latest March years is shown in the following table by grade. The grades shown are 83 octane (regular or standard), 96 octane (super, supreme, or premium) and other, which may include some non-petroleum based racing fuels. The figures are based on returns made by oil companies to the Customs Department in connection with the assessment of motor spirit duty. However, they include motor spirit used for farming purposes and in industrial engines for which the purchaser can claim a rebate of duty.

Year Ended MarchMotor Spirit Usage
96 Octane83 OctaneOthersTotal
*3 April 1976 to 1 April 1977.
   litres (000) 
19741,966,044283,1202962,249,459
19752,061,566206,9903142,268,870
19762,098,487174,0934962,273,076
1977*2,137,605144,4615222,282,588

Diesel fuel is widely used by heavy trucks and buses, but actual figures of consumption are not available.

The following diagram illustrates the trend that has taken place in the number of motor vehicles licensed, and in the consumption of motor spirits by motor vehicles. Diesel-fuel consumption, which has grown substantially in recent years, is not available. This influence should be recognised when analysing petrol consumption values.

Estimates based on survey data collected during the New Zealand Transport Study indicated that the average travel in 1972 for passenger cars and light vehicles was 13,673 kilometres; for heavy goods-service vehicles the average was 20,534 kilometres; and for passenger-service vehicles the average was 27,859 kilometres.

Registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country are as follows for the three latest years.

YearNew Cars and Station Wagons—C.C. RatingCars Previously Registered Overseas*New Motor Cycles
Up to 13001301 to 22002201 to 40004001 and OverTotal
*Included in previous columns.
197428,65036,84019,29914,42499,2135,41624,156
197531,62734,99710,3276,66183,6124,86320,804
197633,99528,4326,7154,38473,5263,27615,435
YearNew Commercial Vehicles by Gross Weight in PoundsOmnibuses and Service CoachesTotal Commercial Vehicles
5,000 or less5,001 to 10,00010,001 to 20,00020,001 to 27,00027,001 and Over
197410,9692,0107579961,47220416,408
197511,5222,4709769691,46319817,598
197611,7772,8019171,0201,48923818,242

Not included in the previous tables are new tractors, of which 4,894 were registered in 1974, 3,392 in 1975, and 3,129 in 1976, and new power cycles, of which 3,603 were registered in 1975, and 2,752 in 1976.

ROAD TRANSPORT—The Transport Act 1962 is the main legislation governing road transport and the road transport operations of the Ministry of Transport attendant regulations set out the rules of the road, the requirements as to motor vehicle equipment, and the obligations of motor drivers and owners and pedestrians.

Transport Licensing—Transport licensing is primarily an economic measure to achieve better coordination of road and rail transport and to prevent excessive competition and duplication of services within the road transport industry. Public passenger buses, taxicabs, rental vehicles, and harbour ferries can only be operated with a licence. A transport licence is also needed for the cartage of goods in the following circumstances:

  1. When they are carried for hire or reward by means of a motor vehicle.

  2. When they are carried in competition with the New Zealand Railways beyond specified distances whether for hire or reward or not, except with vehicles which together with their load, weigh 2 1/2 tons or less and farmers' vehicles with a payload of up to 5 tons.

Thus goods service licensing extends beyond the common carrier operating throughout the country and can include farmers and businesses carrying their own goods in their own vehicles, if these vehicles are over the laden weights or carrying the load prescribed above and they wish to operate them beyond certain distances.

In general, goods cannot be carried by road between places where a route is available which includes at least 40 miles of rail. However, certain commodities (particularly some foodstuffs) can be carried without this restriction up to 50, 75, or 100 miles, and for some goods, such as livestock, fresh meat, poultry, or fresh fish there is no restriction at all. In addition, this restriction ceases to apply where use of the railway would increase the journey by more than one-third of the shortest road route available. The licensing authorities (see below) may also grant exemption from the railway restriction in particular cases where this is in the public interest.

Apart from these exemptions in respect of competition with the railways, there is complete freedom from transport licensing for certain special or limited transport services.

New Zealand is divided into 17 transport licensing districts (including one harbour ferry district at Auckland) which are administered by five full-time licensing authorities appionted by the Minister of Transport for terms of up to 5 years. They adjudicate on applications for a licence to enter the industry, on transfer or renewals of licences, and on changes to or withdrawals of transport services.

In addition, there is a Regional Transport Licensing Authority for the purpose of hearing applications relating to passenger-service licences (other than taxicab-service licences) or harbour ferry service licences that are operated or intended to be operated within the Auckland Regional Authority's district.

The factors to be considered in dealing with these applications are specified in the Transport Act 1962, and emphasis is placed on consideration of the public interest and of users of public transport. There is a right of appeal from the decisions of licensing authorities to the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Charges for transport services do not come within the jurisdiction of the licensing authorities. Public bodies operating public passenger services fix their own charges; the Secretary for Transport all others. In every case there is a right of appeal to a Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Both the Minister of Transport and licensing authorities have powers in respect of public inquiries into or reviews of transport services and licences. Reviews of taxicab services must be made at least every three years in the four main centres and in other centres with a population of more than 20,000.

In general, licences may be either continuous, seasonal, or temporary (not more than 14 days). However, all rental service licences have a duration of three years after which application must be made for their renewal.

Operations of Licensed Goods and Passenger Services—The following table gives a summary of statistics of the licensed road transport industry for the year ended 31 March 1975. All the figures are estimates.

ItemTaxicabsRentalGoods
Total kilometres run (million)168160700
Kilometres per vehicle (000)612232
Total revenue ($million)2521362
Revenue per vehicle/km (cents)151352
Total capital ($million)924244
Capital per vehicle ($)3,2003,30011,200

As at 31 December 1974 the number of vehicle authorities issued was 2,999 for taxicabs, 7,213 for rental vehicles, and 23,738 for goods vehicles.

The next table shows financial and statistical data on passenger services licensed under the Transport Act 1962 for the year ended 31 March 1975. All the figures except the numbers of vehicles are estimates.

Type of ServiceTotal Kilometres RunTotal RevenueTotal AssetsNumber of PassengersNumber of Vehicles
*297 goods vehicles, 762 coaches, omnibuses, and tour cars.
 (000)$(000)$(000)(000) 
Suburban service and service coaches36,36713,28112,399..936
Mixed business and school contracts24,0716,7227,680..897
Local body services42,77115,38427,534101,0001,240
NZR Road Passenger and Goods Service42,11911,3306,67620,7681,041*
Totals145,32846,71754,289..4,114

Fuller details on NZR road services are given in the previous section on Railways, and fuller details on local body services at the end of this section.

Transport to Work—The dependence of the labour force on road transport for getting to work was indicated at the 1971 Census of Population, when those in active employment were asked to state their usual method of travel to work. In the labour force as a whole, 44.2 percent drove to work in cars, vans, or trucks; 9.6 percent were passengers in cars, vans, or trucks; 11.8 percent travelled by bus; 2.3 percent travelled by train; and 5.8 percent rode cycles or motor cycles. The balance was made up of those who walked and of farmers and others who lived at their place of work.

Houehold Motorcars—A question on the availability of motorcars was included in the 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings. It was found that, out of a total of 801,686 households, 441,459 (55.1 percent) owned a car or had a business car available for use, and an additional 192,776 households (24.0 percent) had two or more cars available for use.

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS—Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the Police. For the year ended 31 December 1975, 13,726 such accidents, resulting in 628 fatalities and in injuries to 19,839 other people were reported. Comparative figures for 1974 and 1973 were (1973 figures being given in parentheses): number of accidents 14,409 (15,571); fatalities 676 (843); persons injured 20,829 (23,385).

The decreases in 1975 were attributed mainly to the fuel crisis and associated measures introduced by the Government to deal with this. The reduction of the open road speed limit to 80 km/h, a marginal decrease in fuel consumption. the compulsory wearing of safety helmets by motor cyclists at all speeds, and the increased use of safety belts following the extension of fitting requirements to vehicles first registered after 1 January 1955 have all been contributing factors.

Details of the nature of road accidents for the calendar year 1975, which have been compiled by the Ministry of Transport, are set out in the following table.

Classification of AccidentsFatalInjuryTotal
Overtaking13360393
Head on (not overtaking)97898995
Lost control or ran off road on straight741,3371,411
Lost control or ran off road while cornering1372,1342,271
Collision with obstruction12845857
Rear end13787800
At intersections—   
Vehicles moving in same direction, one turning109931,003
Vehicles crossing paths, not turning331,3131,346
Vehicles crossing paths, turning13868881
Vehicles merging2232234
Vehicles moving in opposite directions, one turning right21926947
Vehicles manoeuvring2584586
Pedestrian crossing road881,4731,561
Pedestrian—other21212233
Miscellaneous18190208
Totals57413,15213,726

The ages of persons killed and injured in motor accidents is shown in the following table.

Age Groups (Years)KilledInjured
197319741975197319741975
*Includes accidents for which complete data is not available.
Under 534412278672635
5-93337231,082964881
10-143427231,5311,3271,039
15-192111651677,7747,0495,912
20-241291131144,1823,6803,424
25-295843451,7301,6311,457
30-344131361,109954864
35-39463121815807705
40-44312918774674594
45-49321727740599573
50-54332218705608582
55-59363019558503441
60-64412726519420412
65-69241317364317307
70 and over585052631507503
Unknown age2--85691,610*
Totals84367662823,38520,82919,839

A classification of road users killed and injured during the calendar year 1975 is given in the following table.

Type of CasualtyKilledInjuredTotal
Driver of—   
Car2015,5205,721
Rental car23941
Taxi14445
Van19428447
Truck4174178
Articulated truck22325
Bus-2121
Other11718
Motor cyclist762,8032,879
Power cyclist3274277
Passenger1706,0006,170
Pillion Riders17548565
Cyclist18745763
Pedestrian1121,7471,859
Other23638
Unknown-1,4201,420
Totals62819,83920,467

Of particular concern is the number of school children and pre-school children killed or injured on the roads while cycling or on foot. These are shown in the following table.

Age of Child, in yearsPedestriansCyclists
197319741975197319741975
Under 5284258228-21
5-9453435378188200148
10-15286292232549491369
Totals1,023985838737693518

Total casualties and rates for the latest 4 years are shown in the following table.

Calendar YearPersons KilledKilled per 10,000 Vehicles on RoadPersons InjuredInjured per 10,000 Vehicles on RoadCasualties (Killed and Injured) per 10, 000 Vehicles
*Provisional.
19738435.8623,385160.0168.4
19746764.5020,829137.5141.9
19756284.1019,839126.0130.0
1976*6093.7317,930109.9113.6

The following table shows motor accident death and injury rates in 1975 for New Zealand in comparison with other countries.

CountryPersons KilledPersons InjuredKilled per 10,000 VehiclesKilled per 100,000 PopulationInjured per 10,000 VehiclesInjured per 100,000 Population
*1974 Figures.
New Zealand62819,2394.120.3128.1639.3
Australia*3,57291,3585.826.3148.4677.4
Great Britain*6,886318,0824.012.3184.3568.3
United States*46,2004,634,0003.421.2342.6186.9

ROAD SAFETY: Enforcement of Traffic and other Laws—Traffic on roads in six cities and boroughs is controlled by local authorities. Elsewhere throughout the country it is controlled by the Ministry of Transport which is also responsible for traffic on motorways. In national emergencies or major disasters, all traffic control comes under the supervision of the Ministry of Transport.

In addition to regulation of traffic and standards of driving, traffic officers enforce the laws relating to heavy traffic, tyre pressures, and the allowable weights of vehicles and loads on different classes of road. They also enforce the legislation concerning the licensing of road transport services.

Traffic officers are not part of the Police and do not engage in criminal investigations. They form however, a uniformed and disciplined enforcement body and close liaison is maintained with the Police. Traffic officers have the power to arrest without warrant persons driving under the influence of drink or drugs, or being in charge of a motor vehicle while under the influence of drink or drugs and refusing to deliver ignition keys.

Persons giving a traffic or police officer good cause to suspect that they are driving after having consumed alcohol may be required to give a blood sample for analysis. An initial test with a breath-test device is used as a screening process. If a person is found to have a blood-alcohol concentration of 100 mg or more per 100 ml of blood he has committed an offence and is liable for prosecution.

Wearing of seat belts is now compulsory for drivers and front-seat passengers in most classes of light vehicles registered after January 1955. Children under 15 years of age are exempt, and there are other exemptions for certain occupational groups and on medical grounds.

From 1 December 1973 it has been compulsory for all motor cyclists and pillion riders to wear safety helmets at all speeds.

Offences—Penalties are awarded by Courts for driving and other offences under the Transport Act 1962 and attendant regulations. There is also a system in operation whereby points are automatically registered according to a fixed scale against persons convicted of driving offences.

The Secretary for Transport has authority to suspend drivers' licences for 6 months where 100 or more demerit points are received in less than 1 year, or for 3 months where this number of points are received within 2 years. Official warnings are issued and compulsory interviews take place before these levels are reached.

Breaches of certain parking, speeding, and overloading laws are dealt with under an infringement system. A motorist is able to pay an infringement fee within a certain time and thus avoid court proceedings if he so desires. In 1974 provision was made for the infringement system to be extended to certain other offences, which are not punishable by imprisonment.

Speed Limits—The maximum speed for highways generally is 80 kilometres an hour. However lower limits are prescribed for certain vehicles, e.g., 70 kilometres for heavy goods vehicles.

A general speed limit of 50 km/h is fixed in cities, boroughs, town district, or other localities, declared to be closely populated localities. Areas with a speed limit of 70 km/h may also be specified by the Minister of Transport; and limited speed zones may be established for which the maximum permitted speed may be either 80 km/h or 50 km/h depending on conditions and circumstances.

Inspection of Motor Vehicles—All vehicles using the roads must be inspected every six months to ensure that their mechanical and structural fitness is of a satisfactory standard. Most lightweight vehicles are required to have a warrant of fitness which can be issued at approved garages, or at testing stations operated by local authorities or the Ministry of Transport. All heavy vehicles, with minor exceptions, undergo a more exacting examination for a certificate of fitness, which, in respect of passenger service buses, has special regard for the safety and comfort of passengers. Taxicabs and rental vehicles also require a certificate of fitness.

The design and standard of construction of vehicles manufactured, assembled, or modified in New Zealand are also regulated to ensure safety.

Insurance—Under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 a motor vehicle scheme provides cover for everyone in respect of personal injury caused by motor accidents. There is a Motor Vehicle Fund financed by premiums paid with the annual licence fee. The legislation came into effect on 1 April 1974, replacing the compulsory third-party scheme previously operating.

Road Safety Education—Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out through the press, radio, and television and by means of posters, etc. Special road safety campaigns and traffic improvement courses are held from time to time. Great emphasis is placed on instruction in schools by uniformed road traffic instructors who visit all schools at least twice a year, and also lecture to teachers' colleges and other groups.

The New Zealand Defensive Driving Council provides a safety course for all licensed drivers.

Traffic safety advice is given to the Government by a permanent parliamentary select committee, by the Road Traffic Safety Research Council, and by a number of other bodies, including the 46 local road safety committees.

TRAFFIC OFFENCES—The following table shows the nature of the offences resulting in convictions during the latest three calendar years. The table covers only offences reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport; in addition traffic prosecutions are taken by the police, particularly for serious offences, following accidents or other police investigations. Some city councils employ their own traffic control staff and total convictions are therefore rather higher than shown. Convictions in Magistrates' Courts for the calendar year 1975 were, for instance, 206, 110.

Type of Offence197319741975
*These convictions relate only to speeds in excess of the speeding infringement range.
(a) Accident promoting offences—   
  Driving or attempting to drive, while under the influence of drink or drugs373300454
  In charge of motor vehicle while under the influence of drink or drugs369224
  Breath test blood-alcohol offences3,5023,8954,639
  Warrant of fitness offences12,63715,07112,602
  Certificate of fitness offences740879507
  Certificate of loading offences475539239
  Exceeding certificate of loading1719751
  Reckless driving164114113
  Driving in a dangerous manner661679795
  Driving at a dangerous speed814649616
  Driving without reasonable consideration577455283
  Careless use of a motor vehicle4,5515,3534,271
  Overtaking offences1,5231,59675
  Failure to keep to the left2,8202,8052,222
  Failure to yield right of way1,070997822
  Failure to stop in half clear road776816496
  Exceeding 50 km/h12,92212,3439,147
  Exceeding 70 km/h930807771
  Exceeding 80 km/h2,1917,54111,740
  Breaches of limited speed zone211022
  Exceeding temporary speed limits8235511,120
  Exceeding bylaw, etc.325224106
  Failure to stop at traffic lights2,0912,3581,468
  Failure to stop at compulsory stop sign3,7134,6792,769
  Failure to give way at a give way sign660794504
  Failure to yield right of way at pedestrian crossing428357264
  Failure to stop or give way for siren372921
  Failure to comply with road signs8581,135606
  Cycling offences374263368
  Pedestrian offences11312611
  Passenger offences10912657
  Horse traffic offences220-
  Motor cyclist exceeding 50 km/h without safety helmet (rider or pillion)*2,0811,855812
  Provisional motor cyclist exceeding 50 km/h*147224130
  Exceeding 70 km/h with trailer*946764857
Exceeding 70 km/h with heavy motor vehicle*183149203
Exceeding 80 km/h with pillion passenger*498282
Exceeding 80 km/h (omnibus)*1153
Exceeding other limits13511667
Defective brakes580854547
Lighting offences3,6964,1572,866
Failure to dip lights14218393
Mechanically defective or unsafe vehicle8,2859,1225,741
Trailer offences392552330
Totals73,58383,70969,534
(b) Non-accident promoting offences—   
Failure to obey officer8681,2731,051
Failure to fulfil duties after accident253271290
Owner failing to supply information1,9892,3781,089
Type of Offence197319741975
Failure to pay parking infringement fee309310118
Failure to pay overloading infringement fee675845
Failure to pay speeding infringement fee1,0831,0501,082
Heavy traffic licence not carried or no heavy traffic licence1,2081,498781
Heavy traffic licence defaced or obscured818766
Exceeding heavy traffic licence1,3841,289601
Mileage tax offences588391
Driver's licence offences12,33714,74010,894
Driving whilst disqualified891913936
Probationary drivers offences454531231
Vehicle licences and registration offences3,6484,2012,787
Breaches of drivers' hours regulations319877
Over 100 demerit points442419
Other miscellaneous offences245283176
Safety belt offences1,1442,9073,147
Noisy motor vehicles2,0192,1731,997
Emitting excessive smoke13011575
Loading offences1,0711,069626
Other nuisances11518198
Conversion1681
Aiding and abetting9510943
Stock offences22114
Other bylaw offences413633
Unlicensed goods service909366
Breach of goods service licence703567246
Exceeding rail restriction mileage12418480
Unlicensed passenger service542
Breach of passenger service licence4199
Rental vehicle offences406252
Taxicab offences19626
No vehicle authority or not carried258253292
Other transport licensing offences265188119
Totals31,09637,18827,230
(c) Parking offences24,25723,05013,922
Totals—all offences128,936143,947110,686
(d) Notices issued for infringements   
Parking248,719293,730240,437
Speeding38,32455,26177,971
Overloading6,0326,2484,714

The new minor offence system was introduced in 1 January 1975 and, for several months after, a duplicated system was operating with Court prosecutions.

URBAN PASSENGER SERVICES OPERATED BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The data provided in this section covers the whole of the urban passenger transport services operated by local authorities, and no account is taken of the various motor-bus services operated by the New Zealand Government Railways, or by any private enterprise.

In the last 20 years motor and trolley bus services have increased and electric tramways have been superseded. The last tramway system serving a city area was in Wellington, and this was terminated in May 1964. Wellington, however, still retains the only electric cable tram service now operating in New Zealand.

From 1 November 1969 to 31 March 1971 local authorities received grants from the Ministry of Transport of twice the amount of heavy traffic fees paid in relation to urban passenger service operations. From 1 September 1972 a grant equivalent to heavy traffic fees paid on urban passenger buses was paid to all operators, municipal and private. In March 1974 the grant was increased to 200 percent of heavy traffic fees paid.

An Urban Public Passenger Transport Council has been established under the Transport Act with the function of administering Government assistance by way of loans and grants for capital expenditure to urban public passenger transport operators, both public and private; and to encourage and conduct research into urban passenger transport and associated matters. During 1975-76 the Council made loans and grants totalling $1,024,000 to local authorities operating urban transport, and loans totalling $146,000 to private operators.

Recent years have been difficult for urban passenger transport operators, with mounting losses and falling numbers of passengers. During the year ended 31 March 1976 the Local Authority urban passenger services had an aggregate loss of $12.2 million compared with $8.2 million the previous year. Over the same period, the number of passengers carried rose from 101.0 million to 101.2 million, so that there was a loss per passenger of 12.1 cents compared with 8.1 cents the previous year.

Details of revenue and expenditure incurred by Local Authority passenger services only are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per Km RunExpenditureExpenditure per Km Run
Passenger FaresTotalOperating ExpensesCapital ChargesTotal (incl. "Other")
 $(000)$(000)cc$(00C)$(000)$(000)c
Auckland        
19757,4038,37115.4434.7011,1761,03512,21150.61
19769,12910,39618.8941.8213,7541,44716,81367.63
Gisborne        
1975909318.3635.86871810540.36
1976959919.7038.071061712347.37
New Plymouth        
19751861909.0826.402911830943.06
197621922410.8131.333511937151.95
Palmerston North        
197516416521.0922.722733931343.06
197619320122.6325.163205137146.56
Eastbourne        
197522423822.0635.622074125137.56
197623725224.7238.942253827041.84
Wellington        
19752,9783,04812.8054.324,7783425,12091.26
19763,3883,52414.4162.186,0515796,630117.00
Christchurch        
19752,0132,28512.5331.133,3312403,57148.66
19762,4982,87215.5837.464,0722704,34356.64
Timaru        
197512413212.6730.831643420246.96
197612913913.5332.151913422852.89
Dunedin        
19751,1061,15215.7348.601,4701021,57166.31
19761,1711,22417.1647.371,669871,75667.96
Invercargill        
197514314610.1922.482973232950.47
197614015212.0424.803244037661.47
Totals: All Services        
197514,43115,81914.2836.8822,0731,90123,98255.90
197617,20019,08117.0043.1327,0642,58431,28170.71

Details of vehicles, kilometres run, and passengers carried are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVehiclesKilometres RunPassengers CarriedPassengers per km Run
Trolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley BusesMotor Buses

*Includes 3 cable cars.

†Includes cable car running (kilometres) 1970-71, 59,000; 1971-72, 61,000; 1972-73 50,000; 1973-74, 48,000; 1974-75, 47,000; 1975-76, 42,000.

Auckland  (000)(000)(000) 
19751255213,89520,23047,9491.99
1976905503,51221,35048,3341.94
Gisborne      
1975-10-2614911.88
1976-10-2604831.86
New Plymouth      
1975-22-7192,0462.85
1976-22-7142,0222.83
Palmerston North      
1975-20-7267761.07
1976-22-7978531.07
Eastbourne      
1975-19-6681,0171.52
1976-19-6469601.49
Wellington      
1975111*1321,9623,64923,2754.15
1976111*1322,1063,56223,5214.15
Christchurch      
1975-169-7,33916,0672.19
1976-178-7,66716,0402.09
Timaru      
1975-13-4309802.28
1976-13-4319512.21
Dunedin      
197517674311,9387,0292.97
197617674472,0366,8282.64
Invercargill      
1975-19-6511,4012.15
1976-19-6111,1591.90
Totals: All Services      
1975253*9926,28836,610101,0322.36
1976218*1,0326,06538,074101,1512.29

The length of routes covered by the services are given in the following table.

Area and ServiceAt 31 March
19721973197419751976
   kilometres  
Auckland—     
  Trolley bus93.0893.0865.3461.4853.27
  Motor bus249.45652.04600.61604.71650.35
Gisborne—     
  Motor bus27.3628.9728.9728.9728.97
New Plymouth—     
  Motor bus38.6249.8949.8949.8953.11
Palmerston North—     
  Motor bus135.18144.84144.84144.84193.12
Eastbourne—     
  Motor bus25.7525.7525.7525.7525.75
Wellington—     
  Trolley bus51.5851.5851.5851.5851.58
  Motor bus95.8284.5684.56106.76106.76
  Tram, cable0.620.620.620.620.62
Christchurch—     
  Motor bus266.73266.73267.48279.54293.62
Timaru—     
  Motor bus37.2337.2337.2339.2739.27
Dunedin—     
  Trolley bus28.0432.4122.7522.7522.75
  Motor bus75.1880.8590.5090.5090.50
Invercargill—     
  Motor bus45.0645.0645.0645.0646.67

11 E—CIVIL AVIATION

GENERAL—In terms of this use of air transport per head of population, New Zealand ranks among the leading nations of the world.

Modern aircraft provide regular flights on a network of internal air services operated mainly by the National Airways Corporation ("Wings of the Nation"), while New Zealand's international airline, Air New Zealand, in competition with other international airlines, provides links with various nations in the Pacific and South-east Asian regions.

Early days of commercial aviation in New Zealand, and the growth and development of Air New Zealand, are described briefly in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

AIR SERVICES—The National Airways Corporation also wholly owns Safe Air Ltd., the air freight carrier. Mount Cook Airlines provides essentially tourist services. Safe Air Ltd., provides a Cook Strait service and a Chatham Island service. Other regular secondary air services are provided by Air North Ltd., and Capital Air Services and at most aerodromes there are light aircraft operators licensed for air charter and air taxi services. Aero clubs and flying schools provide facilities for training and private flying. The agricultural aviation industry has continued to flourish and an increasingly significant role is being played by helicopters.

International air services are operated by Air New Zealand Ltd., and other regular international air services are provided by QANTAS, Pan American World Airways, UTA French Airlines, Singapore Airlines, British Airways, and Air Pacific.

The operations of Air New Zealand earn or save an estimated $7 million in overseas funds and make an important contribution to the country's external balance of payments. Air New Zealand made a profit of $5.6 million in 1975-76, the company's twenty-second year of profitability. The company has seven DC10.aircraft (with one more on order) and three DC8s. The revenue ($164.9 million) of Air New Zealand was derived in the following proportions: passenger services 71.6 percent, freight and baggage 9.9 percent, charters 9.8 percent, mail 2.4 percent, and other sources 6.3 percent.

LEGISLATION—The principal legislation affecting civil aviation in New Zealand is the Civil Aviation Act 1964. This Act established the Department of Civil Aviation which later, under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968, became a Division of the Ministry of Transport.

The Air Services Licensing Act 1951 made provision for the establishment of the Air Services Licensing Authority, a four-man independent body, with the primary function of receiving and determining applications for the grant, renewal, amendment, or transfer of air service licences. Under the Act, an air service licence is essential for any air transport or specified aerial work conducted for hire or reward. There is a right of appeal against the decisions of the Air Services Licensing Authority to the Air Services Appeal Authority. International air services are governed by intergovernmental air transport agreements and the International Air Services Licensing Act 1947.

New Zealand is a party to the Warsaw Convention of 1929 as amended at The Hague in 1955 and these conventions define the financial liabilities of international air carriers towards their passengers. New Zealand has signed but has yet to ratify the Guatemala City Protocol which although not in force raises the limits of liability from $15,000 to $100,000. Air New Zealand is also a party to the airline agreement known as the Montreal Agreement which for travel to and from the United States of America imposes a limit of $US75,000. This limit is now being extended world-wide in its application, pending the entry into force of the Guatemala City Protocol. Liabilities of domestic air carriers are governed by the Carriage by Air Act 1967.

The Airport Authorities Act 1966 empowers local authorities, with the consent of the Governor-General in Council, to establish, improve, operate, or manage airports. In pursuit of these objectives local authorities may enter into joint-venture agreements with the Crown.

Effect is given to the Tokyo Convention 1963 relating to offences committed on board aircraft, the Hague Convention 1970 relating to hijacking, and the Montreal Convention 1971 relating to aerial sabotage by the Aviation Crimes Act 1972 which came into full force by Order in Council on 12 March 1974.

AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES AND FACILITIES—The Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport is the responsible authority for the provision of all facilities for air navigation in New Zealand and certain associated Pacific nations, and by delegation the facilities for flying operations in Western Samoa.

Air navigation facilities include a variety of electronic aids such as non-directional medium-frequency beacons (NDB), very high-frequency beacons (VOR), instrument landing systems (ILS), surveillance radar (SRE), precision approach radar (PAR), distance measuring equipment (DME), and also visual aids to navigation including visual glide slope indicators (VASI), high and low intensity approach, runway, and taxiway lights, aerodrome identification beacons, obstruction lights, hazard beacons, runway markings, cloud height measuring devices, wind strength and direction indicators, etc.

To assist the safe, orderly, and expeditious use of the air navigation system the Division provides a comprehensive ground services organisation comprising air traffic control units, communications services, crash-fire services, a search and rescue service, and ground safety organisations. Units of the ground services organisations are located at the majority of aerodromes served by regular scheduled air transport services in New Zealand and Pacific island territories operating from control towers and associated departmental buildings. In addition, control centres and communications centres are established at Auckland and Fiji for the conduct of international operations and at Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin to provide services to en-route aircraft throughout the entire country. A search and rescue service is provided from rescue co-ordination centres established by the Division whose responsibility it is to co-ordinate the effort and resources of military and civil agencies in the planning and direction of major search and rescue operations, whether air, land, or sea.

The Division maintains a flight supervision and standards service and conducts examinations and issues licences for all categories of aircrew and ground personnel. Specially equipped aircraft and qualified aircrew are continuously engaged on the checking and calibration of all air navigation facilities.

An Aeronautical Information Service prepares and publishes New Zealand Aeronautical Information and Notices to Airmen and, in collaboration with Lands and Survey Department, produces aeronautical maps and charts, etc.

An aeronautical training college is established at Christchurch International Airport where regular courses are conducted in air traffic control, meteorology, radio engineering, communications, and crash-fire procedure.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—The following summary statement shows operating and capital costs and recoveries of the Civil Aviation Division for years ended 31 March.

ItemCostsRecoveries
 1973-74197-4-751975-761973-741974-751975-76
Operating$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Civil Aviation, New Zealand—      
Regulatory and general1,9272,0832,565224102132
Airports8087217566181
Airways9,96111,20613,5524,8525,6229,425
Civil Aviation, South Pacific territories42481579214205161
Totals12,39214,19117,1265,1465,9909,799
Capital      
Civil Aviation, New Zealand—      
Regulatory and general142-1,0009-4
Airports4,1972,9214,205351823
Airways8621,5443,52114876175
Civil Aviation, South Pacific territories1,216670256-2-
Totals6,4175,1358,98219296202
Grand totals18,80919,32626,1085,3386,08610,001

NATIONAL AIRWAYS CORPORATION—The New Zealand National Airways Corporation provides regular services to 23 centres throughout the North and South Islands with a fleet consisting of 9 Boeing 737s, and 15 Fokker Friendships.

Statistics of operation of the National Airways Corporation for the 2 latest years are shown in the following table.

Item1974–751975–76Percentage Increase
Revenue passengers carried—   
  Scheduled2,155,3322,185,1621.4
  Charter11,7099,871-15.7
Passenger kilometres created (000s)—   
  Scheduled1,388,0071,407,2511.4
  Charter8,9614,865-45.7
Revenue passenger kilometres (000s)—   
  Scheduled962,233986,0742.5
  Charter5,7143,253-43.1
Revenue passenger load factor69.370.0..
Average passenger journey (kilometres)446.44451.26..
Revenue tonne-kilometres created (000s)163,378166,4681.9
Overall tonne kilometres used (000s)—   
  (a) Passenger and baggage83,94385,5621.9
  (b) Freight18,87120,7329.9
  (c) Mail1,4701,5737.1
Total104,284107,8673.4
Overall revenue load factor63.864.8..
 $(000)$(000) 
Operating Account   
Revenue58,20767,914+ 16.7
Expenditure56,6565,817+ 16.2
Operating surplus1,5572,097+ 34.7

Of the 20.7 million tonne-kilometres of freight carried in 1975–76, 7.7 million tonne-kilometres were carried on Safe Air freighters, a 15.9 percent increase In the previous year.

DOMESTIC SCHEDULED AIR TRANSPORT—The following table shows some data on operations of internal air services during 1975 calendar year.

ItemN.A.C. *Mount Cook Airlines *Safe Air (Charter services)Air NorthCapital Air Services *

*All figures of hours flown, passengers, and freight represent revenue numbers or tonnage.

†Actual hours flown and total tonnage carried.

‡Actual hours flown

   (000)  
Hours flown656632
Kilometre's flown21,1361,6761,298607375
Passengers carried2,189944136
Freight carried, tonnes36-24-1
Mail carried, tonnes3----

FLYING OPERATIONS—The following table gives the summarised results of the operations of scheduled commercial air services.

Calendar YearKilometres FlownPassengers CarriedPassenger-kilometresFreight Carried* (Tonnes)Freight (Tonne-kilometres)Mail (Tonne-kilometres)
*Includes excess baggage.
   (000)   
197322,9892,005891,87763.621,9311,218
197425,6152,2551,004,23264.023,7311,447
197525,1712,3121,033,67861.224,5391,617

AERIAL WORK—Aerial topdressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion was begun commercially in 1949. The industry developed rapidly and is now an established feature of the national economy. About half of the total fertiliser and lime applied to terms in New Zealand is spread by means of aircraft.

Aerial spraying (i.e., the release from the aircraft of agricultural chemicals in liquid form, such as insecticides and weedicides) has also been developed. The volume of this work has increased to more than 45 million litres a year. Since early 1974 there has been a significant change in application rates due to low-volume spraying techniques of insecticides, particularly in treatment for nodding thistle. Therefore there is a slight reduction in figures for litres sprayed, although there is growth in the area treated. A technical qualification is mandatory for pilots engaged in the application of all agricultural chemicals. The qualification is to ensure that pilots are familiar with the chemical properties and correct techniques in applying the agricultural chemicals, many of which are highly toxic.

A summary of aerial work operations follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 December
1972197319741975
Hours flown134,657159,140141,993x141,098
Number of operators79838385
Material distributed—    
Fertiliser and lime (tonnes)1,122,9001,335,823x1,105,375x865,443
Seed (tonnes)1,6442,6982,1741,978
Spray (litres)36,612,55945,712,25344,127,284x41,499,249
Animal poison (tonnes)4,6155,3277,1528,430
Supplies (tonnes)1,5515,0795,3983,496
Fencing (tonnes)1,6711,242630761
Dusts (tonnes)19681710
Prills (tonnes)9311919442
Miscellaneous (tonnes)3,0252,5281,9344,049

INTERNATIONAL AIR SERVICES—New Zealand's own airline, Air New Zealand Ltd., provides services to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Hong Kong, Singapore, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Fiji, American Samoa, Rarotonga, Tahiti, Honolulu, and Los Angeles. Air New Zealand's fleet comprises three Douglas DC8s and seven Douglas DC10s.

Other services through New Zealand include: Pan American World Airways—from the United States to Auckland via Tahiti; through Honolulu, Pago Pago and Nandi to Auckland and beyond to Sydney; British Airways—twice weekly from the United Kingdom to Melbourne and Auckland; Union de Transport Aeriens—weekly from Tahiti to Auckland and beyond to Noumea; and QANTAS—a full range of trans-Tasman services with connections available to a variety of destinations beyond Australia.

A minority financial interest is retained by Air New Zealand in the regional South Pacific operators: Polynesian Airlines Ltd. (PAL)—operating between Western Samoa, American Samoa, Tonga, Niue, and Nandi; and Air Pacific Ltd.—operating from Fiji to the British Solomons, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, the New Hebrides, Western Samoa, Tonga, Nauru, and Auckland.

TOTAL TRAFFIC FOR OVERSEAS AIRLINES—Total traffic figures for overseas airlines operating to and from New Zealand, showing passenger movements, freight, and mail separately, are given in the following tables for calendar years. During 1975, international scheduled services carried 1,179,000 passengers, 30,877 tonnes of freight, and 2,270 tonnes of mail.

INTERNATIONAL REVENUE AIR PASSENGER MOVEMENTS
RoutesEntering New ZealandLeaving New ZealandTotals
197419751974197519741975
Trans-Tasman—      
Auckland-Sydney150,126154,448136,022138,451286,148292,899
Auckland-Melbourne46,54559,89544,69756,77191,242116,666
Auckland-Brisbane31,97334,89429,52433,02361,49767,917
Wellington-Sydney50,82850,12147,85449,16598,68299,286
Wellington-Melbourne15,46215,96015,17915,87330,64131,833
Wellington-Brisbane8,8359,0579,0989,74217,93318,799
Christchurch-Sydney70,41669,09074,30074,254144,716143,344
Christchurch-Melbourne32,77135,40333,80636,61866,57772,021
Christchurch-Brisbane..7,835..8,689..16,524
Totals406,956436,703390,480422,586797,436859,289
Pacific—      
Long Haul74,57175,30170,15373,870144,724149,171
Short Haul90,74383,66983,34486,584174,087170,253
Totals165,314158,970153,497160,454318,811319,424

Revenue air freight carried trans-Tasman during 1975 totalled 20.7 million kilogrammes, of which 9.5 million kilogrammes was entering New Zealand and 11.2 million kilogrammes leaving. The bulk of the freight (9.6 million kilogrammes out of the total of 20.7 million) was carried on flights between Auckland and Sydney.

AIR FREIGHT—Air freight involves mostly exports and imports to and from Australia, and imports from United States and United Kingdom. Exports concern mainly made-up textiles, meat, fish, and live animals, notably racehorses. Imports air-freighted are mainly machinery, scientific instruments, pharmaceutical products, and textiles.

The following table is a summary of the value of exports and imports transported by air during the two 12-month periods ended June 1974 and June 1975. Fuller details are available from the Department of Statistics.

CommodityExportsImports
New Zealand ProduceImported Merchandise
1974–751975–761974–751975–761974–751975–76
*Includes manufactured goods classified chiefly by material and miscellaneous manufactured articles.
$(thousand)
Meat and meat preparations2,9844,6222322
Dairy products and eggs10517413188129
Fish and fish preparations1,5132,9881429447417
Fruit and vegetables1,6993,0561017479502
Other foodstuffs2604262814112x250
Live animals7,00310,018659542,8463,733
Beverages and tobacco2574411,4012,221112115
Hides, skins, and undressed fur skins1,0641,353-12241
Animal and vegetable crude materials n.e.s.1,9391,395551,4931,231
Petroleum and petroleum products122,3278,1828,927241,342
Medicinal and pharmaceutical products2,7562,43352929912,00715,374
Other chemicals4949166671,1355,2208,077
Textiles, fabric, made-up articles, etc.2,6149,85713617613,98819,298
Other manufactured goods*10,92722,1399,32310,99448,01359,843
Machinery and transport equipment8,92911,59010,73821,11299,886128,079
Other goods49522340652,8372,829
Total43,05273,95731,73745,056188,006241,261

AIRPORT STATISTICS—The following table shows airport activities for the 2 latest years ended 31 March.

AirportMovements of Passenger PlanesFreighter Plane MovementsPassenger Arrivals and Departures
InternationalDomestic
19741975197419751974197519741975
*Those airports serviced by N.A.C., Safe Air, Air North, and Mount Cook Airlines not separately listed.
Auckland7,2078,39822,58227,3691,6261,6071,516,2391,707,426
Blenheim--4,1415,8228,4307,86772,24879,562
Christchurch1,8782,06421,05322,7084,6504,3621,019,9961,125,947
Dunedin--8,6668,451582415217,501234,690
Gisborne--5,9336,2612-70,93880,813
Hamilton--5,2325,445355282109,369118,674
Invercargill--5,3475,339176160109,079115,103
Napier--7,3398,809-104123,733140,242
Nelson--9,66211,440723669171,924184,505
New Plymouth--4,5345,491-889,591103,041
Palmerston North--6,1996,66596138113,674130,320
Rotorua--7,7266,735--95,91298,234
Wellington1,3311,86736,54544,17211,22011,6011,206,8071,332,428
Other*--31,22541,36611617287,825381,240

AERO CLUBS AND COMMERCIAL FLIGHT TRAINING ORGANISATIONS–The next table gives a summary of the training activities of aero clubs and other flying organisations.

Calendar YearClubs* OperatingMembershipAircraft in useHours FlownAb Initio Pupils Under Training
AssociateFlyingDualSolo
*Other organisations included are given in parentheses.
197337 (21)1,5956,99028257,29995,9952,387
197438 (22)..6.990..59,28494,225..
197538 (20)1,1927,920..53,95090,3751,829

LICENCES—Between 1 April 1975 and 31 March 1976, 2,685 licences were issued to 48 airline transport pilots, 207 commercial pilots, 746 private pilots, and 1,684 student pilots. Fifty-six aerodromes held public licences, and there were 87 licensed private aerodromes, in addition to 316 authorised landing places and 22 Government civil aerodromes.

CIVIL AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS—Civil aircraft accidents are investigated by the Office of Air Accidents Investigation headed by the Chief Inspector of Air Accidents who has statutory powers of his own in respect of his investigative duties and responsibilities.

The following table shows accident rates per 10,000 hours flown in the various categories of flying activity. Private flying and gliding are not included.

Operational CategoryAverage Rate for 5-year PeriodsAccident Rate 1975
1967–711968–721969–731970–74
Airlines---0.020.17
Non-scheduled, charter, and air taxi1.871.932.303.011.31
Aerial work—     
  All sectors4.203.763.613.433.17
  Agricultural3.523.522.852.702.11
Aero clubs and flying training schools2.822.712.562.342.29
All above categories combined2.502.352.122.932.57

The following table shows the total number of aircraft accidents during 1975 with details of deaths (injuries, and aircraft damage resulting therefrom. The most noteworthy features were an extremely low fatality and serious injury rate in agricultural aviation operations and a high fatality rate in pleasure flying activities of club and flying school organisations.

Operational Category   Injuries to Personnel  
No. of AccidentsCrewOthersPassengersAircraft Damage
TotalFatalFSMFSMFSMDS

NOTE: Injuries are classified as fatal (F), serious (S), or minor or nominal (M). Aircraft damage is classified as destroyed (D) or seriously damaged (S).

Airline2---7--39----2
Public aircraft-------------
General aviation—             
Air transport7---7--17---25
Aerial work—             
Agricultural—             
Fixed wing23111211-1---518
Rotary wing9---9--1---27
Other aerial work             
Fixed wing-------------
Rotary wing23323211115--21112
Aero clubs and flying schools30331299330-1-723
Private flying2911-28--25--1326
Gliding17---19------116
Totals14087514111412811331109

Chapter 12. Section 12 COMMUNICATIONS

12 A—POST OFFICE

HISTORICAL—With the arrival of Governor Hobson in 1840 the first post office proper was set up at Kororareka (now Russell). The same year saw the establishment of offices at other settlements in the north and at Port Nicholson (Wellington), and the beginnings of overland mail routes. By 1858, 73 post offices had been opened to provide communication services for the scattered settlers. In that year a Post Office Act was passed making the Post Office an independent department of State.

The system of communication by telegraph was inaugurated in the 1860s. A separate department, the Telegraph Department, was created by Act of Parliament in 1865 to take responsibility for the erecting of telegraph lines and the opening of morse telegraph offices. The North and South Islands were linked by telegraph cable in 1866 and by telephone cable in 1926.

The telegraph and postal services were amalgamated in 1881. Under the Post Office Act 1959, the name of the department became the Post Office, and the Minister's title became Postmaster-General.

A table in the Statistical Summary towards the back of Yearbook shows the growth of postal and telecommunication activities over the last 50 years.

POSTAL BUSINESS—At 31 March 1976 there were 1,420 post offices in New Zealand. The following table shows the numbers of articles posted in the latest 3 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchLetters and PostcardsPrinted Papers, Commercial Papers, Newspapers, and MagazinesParcelsTotal
  million  
1974334.9316.916.8668.6
1975351.1329.618.3699.0
1976349.9339.117.6706.6

The average numbers of items posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1976 were: letters and postcards, 111.8; printed matter (printed papers, commercial papers, newspapers, and magazines), 108.4; parcels, 5.6.

Chartered air services are used to convey the bulk of surface mail between the North and South Islands.

Private boxholders in 1976 totalled 109,234.

Rural Mail Delivery—The rural delivery system enables country residents to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence, and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near their gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which residents obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc. At 31 March 1975 the total number of boxholders was 83,834 and at 31 March 1976 it was 86,370. The cost of the rural delivery service is $3.58 million a year.

Inland Airmails—The number of letters and parcels carried by air within New Zealand during the latest 3 years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchLettersParcels
197428,138,000311,938
197532,053,000388,908
197635,188,000..

Overseas Airmails—The weight of airmail dispatched from New Zealand is about 28.0 percent of the total amount of mail forwarded overseas each year. In 1975–76 310,235 kg of letters, 244,161 kg of newspapers and packets, and 263,761 kg of parcels were posted by overseas airmail.

Trans-Tasman Air Services—The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The existing service provides for flights between New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch) and Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane) with a frequency overall of at least one flight each day.

New Zealand - United Kingdom Air Service—This service is now operating daily to London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally 1 to 2 days.

New Zealand - Hong Kong and Singapore Air Services—There are direct services from Auckland to Hong Kong and from Auckland to Singapore. Airmail to countries in the Far East is dispatched to Sydney or Singapore for reforwarding.

Trans-Pacific Services—The trans-Pacific service operating between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940. Airlines now operate a daily service to the United States.

Pacific Island Services—Airmails are forwarded by New Zealand operated air services to the Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, Norfolk Island, and American Samoa (Pago Pago). Local air services provide connections from Pago Pago or Nandi to the British Solomon Islands, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, New Hebrides, Niue, Tonga, and Western Samoa.

Overseas Parcel Post—Particulars of overseas parcels received and dispatched in each of the latest 3 years are contained in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchOverseas Parcels ReceivedOverseas Parcels Dispatched
NumberWeightCustoms DutyNumberWeight
  kg$(000) kg
1974686,8832,554,8572,212444,9311,179,840
1975733,6432,720,7112,736460,8681,252,781
1976668,2572,574,0852,441513,3891,409,295

Postal Mechanisation—The Wellington Postal Centre is extensively mechanised, a similar modern centre is being built at Christchurch.

Money Orders—Inland postal money orders for amounts exceeding $7 (for $7.00 and lesser amounts postal notes are generally used) and telegraphic money orders for any amount may be purchased to send money within New Zealand, the Cook Islands, and Niue Island. Postal money orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in 115 foreign administrations, and an overseas telegraphic money order service is available to Australia. Fiji, Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Irish Republic, Norfolk Island, and Western Samoa. For remittances exceeding $4 to foreign countries a permit is required.

A special rate of commission applies to money orders payable in foreign countries, except to the Cook Islands, Niue, and Western Samoa to which the inland rate applies. In addition to commission, telegraph fees are also payable for money-order telegrams.

During the year ended 31 March 1976, 1,870,411 money orders were issued in New Zealand for a total of $65,326,660 and of these, 142,314 orders of a value of $3,856,118 were issued for payment overseas. Money orders issued overseas for payment in New Zealand numbered 39,468 with a value of $1,230,545.

Postal Notes—Postal Notes ranging from 10c to 52 and for $3, $4. and $5 are available for payment within New Zealand, Niue, and the Cook Islands.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post, and during the year ended 31 March 1976, 3,249,500 postal notes valued at $6.990.675 were purchased by the public.

British Postal Orders—These are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold are 10p, 12 1/2p, 15p, 25p, 50p, 75p, £1, and £2 sterling. (In decimal currency, which has applied in the United Kingdom from 15 February 1971, five new pence equal the previous one shilling). Commission is payable. For all remittances exceeding £2 per day a permit is required. As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, especially the United Kingdom. During the year ended 31 March 1976 the Post Office sold 1,203,176 British postal orders valued at $3,774,104, and paid 166,717 orders valued at $987,008.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK—Details on the Post Office Savings Bank are given in Section 28, Banking and Currency.

TELEPHONE SERVICES—The following table indicates the growth of telephone installations (the figures are as at 31 March).

Item1973197419751976
Main telephones—    
Automatic794,655846,923896,928946,991
Manual90,74986,96083,37972,195
Extension telephones466,217503,511544,236584,514
Public telephones4,9905,13252275,328
Private line telephones266272254241
Toll offices1,2571,2341,2101,164
Total telephones1,358,1341,444,0321,531,2341,610,433
Telephones (all types per 1,000 population)456475493514
Applicants awaiting installations15,31920,90422,42927,013
Number of toll calls (inland and outward international)67,072,08773,905,37077,692,42080,685,524

About one-sixth of the main telephones are business telephones (in 1976 there were 167,476 business telephones). At 31 March 1976 there were 1,019,186 subscribers and 27,013 waiting applicants, of whom about 48 percent were in the Auckland City and environs.

Forty new automatic exchanges were brought into service during the year ended 31 March 1976; also substantial progress was made in the extension of free calling areas, thereby eliminating toll fees between outlying exchanges and their town or city centre; 23 more exchanges were provided with this service.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1976), compiled by the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks fifth in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the United States of America (69.49), Sweden (66.07), Switzerland (61.09), Canada (57.15), and New Zealand (50.18).

A broadband toll link, comprising microwave, radio, and co-axial cable systems, connects main centres from Whangarei to Invercargill.

A 5-year supply agreement has been entered into with Nippon Electric Co. Ltd. of Japan for the supply of crossbar automatic telephone switching equipment.

Subscriber Toll Dialling (STD) which will enable subscribers to dial direct to other automatic subscribers without the need to go through a toll operator is being introduced into the New Zealand telephone system progressively from April 1976.

Free local telephone calling is provided in New Zealand, as distinct from charging for each local call as followed by many overseas administrations.

TELEGRAPH SERVICES:Telegrams—The downtrend in inland telegrams has continued. In the year to 31 March 1976, 4.3 million telegrams were lodged compared with 4.6 million in the preceding year. Of these, 69 percent were lodged by telephone, 9 percent by telex, and 22 percent handed in over Post Office counters. On the other hand, 46 percent were delivered by messenger, 42 percent telephoned to the addressee, and 12 percent telexed.

The public telegraph network comprises 119 teleprinter offices. These offices interwork through gentex (automatic circuit switching) augmented by point-to-point circuits between some major cities.

Telex Service:Telex—the international abbreviation for Teleprinter Exchange Service—is a customer-to-customer service using page teleprinters. An international manual telex service for communicating with overseas subscribers commenced in New Zealand on 1 September 1960 with 16 subscribers. Service was then available with 23 overseas countries.

Automatic telex service was introduced in New Zealand on 13 May 1964 with 150 subscribers. This service absorbed the previous international connections and enabled all New Zealand telex subscribers to communicate with each other as well as with overseas telex subscribers. International service is now available with 176 countries. An important development in New Zealand's international telex service was the introduction in July 1968 of automatic subscriber-to-subscriber calling. Telex subscribers in New Zealand can now dial direct to subscribers in most countries, without the aid of the international operator. At 31 March 1976 there were 2,444 subscribers, an increase of 294 over the previous year.

The monthly rental is $90 for a standard machine and $120 for a teleprinter equipped with a tape reperforator and transmitter. In the year to 31 March 1976 rentals totalled $1,966,188 and call revenue was $3,670,337.

Ancillary telex services include: Public telex booths at Auckland, Palmerston North, New Plymouth. Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin and a restricted public telex service (operator assistance mandatory) at 18 other large centres—approximately 1300 calls are handled each month, mostly international; teltex, which provides for the delivery, by telephone or messenger, of telex messages sent to any public telegraph delivery office, current volume over 35,000 per month; telexograms, the delivery of telegrams by telex from any teleprinter office in the public network to any telex subscriber.

Data Service—The use of computers in the commercial sector has created a need for facilities for transferring data from one point to another. The Post Office leases circuits for data transmission, leases data modems (200 and 600/1200 bauds) for use on leased lines, and provides a datel service for the exchange of data using the switched telephone networks, both local and toll. The datel service is restricted to speeds of 200, 600, or 1200 bauds.

Data modems are charged between $100 and $175 depending on speed and type.

Leased data circuits ranging from normal speech grade to 240 kHz are charged for on a bandwidth distance basis.

For datel service, a telephone must be leased especially for the purpose, and the use of a post office modem is mandatory. The rental for these is as for a business telephone connection, varying between $24.80 to $38.90 per 2 months according to the class of the telephone exchange, plus the rental for the modem Where the toll service is used for data calls the ruling toll rates apply.

INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS:Cable Links—Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, and between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva, and Fanning Island in 1902. In 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications systems were brought under Government control and, in accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphs Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the assets in New Zealand of Cable and Wireless Ltd., the private company previously controlling these services, and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

In July 1962 a new submarine cable with a capacity of 80 telephone channels was brought into operation between New Zealand and Australia as part of a Commonwealth round-the-world cable project. The cable was extended from New Zealand to Fiji in December 1962, and in December 1963 was further extended, via Hawaii, to Vancouver and across Canada by microwave to Montreal. At Montreal it links up with the trans-Atlantic telephone cables, to connect with Britain, and provide high-quality circuits for telephone, telegraph, and telex communication between New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Canada, the United States of America, and Britain. This cable system links New Zealand with most of the world's major countries, and it was supplemented by the bringing into service in March 1967 of the South-East Asia Commonwealth Telephone Cable which extended the system from Australia to New Guinea, and (via Guam) to Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Singapore.

An additional high capacity trans-Tasman submarine cable, a joint New Zealand - Australia multi-million dollar project was brought into service in early 1975. Known as "Tasman" the new cable has a total capacity of 640 telephone circuits.

International Telephone Service—Telephone communication by cable, satellite and radio is now available to almost all countries of the world, as well as to Ross Dependency (Scott Base), Raoul Island, Chatham Islands, Campbell Island, passenger ships, and H.M. New Zealand and Australian warships.

An International Gateway telephone exchange in Auckland handles all New Zealand's outgoing and incoming international telephone calls. The international operators dial direct to subscribers in other countries, and overseas operators and in some cases subscribers dial direct to subscribers on automatic telephone exchanges in New Zealand. Data transmission service is also available to some other countries through the telephone network.

International Telex Service—Telex service is available to many countries including, in most cases, the facility for subscribers to establish calls automatically.

International Telegraph Service—Telegrams are an important part of international communications and a world-wide service is available. Phototelegraph service is also available to a number of countries.

Satellite Communications—Because of the rapid increase in international telecommunication traffic, an earth station was opened in 1971 at Warkworth, near Auckland, for communicating with other countries via satellites in space.

In addition to providing additional international telecommunications facilities, the earth station makes live television relays practicable. The earth station works through a satellite over the Pacific Ocean.

International Radio Services—Telegraph and telephone services between New Zealand and places in the Pacific area not served by cable or satellite are provided by radio through a high-power transmitting station at Himatangi and a receiving station at Makara.

Direct radio circuits are operated from New Zealand to Apia, Rarotonga, Niue, Ross Dependency (Scott Base), and Chatham Islands. Communication is effected with other islands in the Cook group by Rarotonga Radio through feeder stations. Stations in the Tokelau Islands communicate with Apia Radio.

Radio Services to Shipping—The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911. Other stations are located at Auckland, Awarua, and Chatham Islands. These stations provide a service for the exchange of radio telegrams with ships at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand and Australia. A free radio-medical service also operates for ships at sea and lighthouses on the New Zealand coast. The number of ships licensed to operate radio equipment is 8,498.

INLAND RADIO SERVICES—The use of radio as a means of communication continues to grow. In the Post Office very-high-frequency service 4,818 subscribers are provided with radiotelephone service to 37,643 mobile units through 79 base stations throughout the country. A further 11,890 mobile units are provided with service through 2,945 Government and private owner-operated base stations. The biggest growth is in the Citizen radio service where the number of walkie-talkie sets licensed increased from 9,842 to 12,356, an increase of some 25%. The amateur service provides facilities for experimental communications between persons interested in radio as a hobby, and 4,853 licensed stations are operated by qualified amateur operators. There are now 86,379 radio transmitting stations of all types licensed compared with 76,360 in 1975.

REVENUES—The revenue of the Post Office for the latest financial years is now shown.

Item1972-73197-1974-751975-76
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Postal revenue—    
Postages32,11034,45736,38743,013
Private box and bag rentals and rural mail delivery fees660705750803
Miscellaneous981301,545668
 32,86835,29238,68244,484
Telecommunications revenue—    
Telex3,1613,7874,7405,934
Telegraph5,2295,2925,5476,005
Tolls48,50456,54764,56574,434
Telephones82,29287,62992,862100,352
Overseas telecommunications8,58211,35615,34616,117
Radio364446441533
 148,132165,057183,501203,375
Miscellaneous revenue—    
Fees from Government departments, etc.4,5084,5328,2439,678
Money order and postal note commission532557585670
Rents received325325511500
Other revenue5094936994,162
 5,8745,90710,03815,010
Total revenue186,874206,256232,221262,869

Revenue and expenditure for the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure
 $(000)$(000)
1971129,858143,548
1972169,843169,495
1973186,874188,885
1974206,256212,495
1975232,221252,995
1976262,869301,589

CAPITAL—Capital expansion necessary to meet demand requires substantial provisions for now telecommunications systems and the replacement of those which have become obsolete. Accommodation to house this equipment, to provide post offices in newly developed areas, and to replace old and inadequate offices is an important part of Post Office capital development.

Capital expenditure on telecommunications development and buildings is financed partly by the Post Office, and partly from National Development Loans Account on which interest is paid at the rate of 10 percent. The interest payment amounted to $19.9 million in 1975-76.

In 1975-76. $49.6 million was spent on the development of telecommunications systems and $15.1 million on buildings. In addition, $12.0 million was invested in other assets such as motor vehicles, tools and plant, and office equipment. This expenditure was financed from Post Office resources, National Development Loans Account, and capital equipment credit arrangements. The capital liability of the Post Office is now $459.6 million and liability under capital equipment credit arrangement is $2.3 million.

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS—Because it has numerous offices readily accessible to the public, the Post Office also undertakes agency work for other Government departments. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts—For the following departments: Education (examination fees, etc.), Health, Inland Revenue (land tax and income tax, under PAYE system), Lands and Survey, National Roads Board (special mileage tax on motor vehicles), Public Trust Office, Housing Corporation (State rents, loan and interest repayments), Electricity (some electric-power receipts), Ministry of Transport, Tourist and Publicity, Valuation, Customs (collection of Customs duty and sales tax), Treasury (Government Superannuation, National Provident Fund receipts, and motor vehicle registration and licence fees).

Payments—Departments of Social Welfare (social security benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health (refunds of medical expenses), Defence, Labour (subsidised wage payments), Public Trust Office, Police (witness warrants), Treasury (Government superannuation payments and miscellaneous payments for other departments), Ministry of Works and Development, and for Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons).

Other services performed by the Post Office are the issue of licences in respect of motor vehicles and radio apparatus, and assistance to the Marine and Civil Aviation Divisions of Ministry of Transport on radio matters. In some of the smaller centres postmasters act as registrars of births, deaths, and marriages. In each of the 87 electorates, a postmaster or senior officer is appointed electorate officer, as an agent of the Department of Justice, with responsibility for the compilation and maintenance of the electoral roll in his electorate.

Other activities include the receipt of levies under the Motor Vehicle Accident Scheme as provided for under the Accident Compensation Act 1972, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatisation societies, organising and selling health stamps, and collecting television licence fees.

STAFF—Staff numbers at 31 March are shown in the following table.

Classification197119721973197419751976
Permanent staff27,66527,88828,51829,16930,84832,637
Temporary and non-classified staff4,6944,5854,6475,4836,0556,270
Total staff32,35932,47333,16534,65236,90338,907

VEHICLES—The Post Office fleet as at 31 March 1976 consisted of 5,677 vehicles; 1,203 trucks 2,836 vans, 1,630 cars and 8 motor scooters. Of this fleet, 574 vehicles are used for hire to other departments, 3,772 for engineering work and 1,331 on postal, telegram delivery, and other general work. The fleet travelled 46.3 million miles in the year ended 31 March 1976.

12 B—RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING

GENERAL—Created by the Broadcasting Act 1976, the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand came into existence on 1 February 1977. It united under one central board, four independent statutory bodies—TV1, TV2, Radio New Zealand, and the Broadcasting Council of New Zealand—which had been established by the Broadcasting Act 1973. However, it calls for the three programme Services (TV1, TV2, and Radio New Zealand) to retain "the maximum practicable independence". The announced intention of the legislation was to restore direct Ministerial responsibility for the public broadcasting system, to improve administrative efficiency and financial viability, and to establish a Tribunal with powers to control some aspects of broadcasting, including the establishment of further private radio stations. At the same time, it was intended to preserve those features of the preceding system which were thought to be advantageous to listeners and viewers in general. Earlier forms of control dating back to the introduction of the first "wireless" stations in New Zealand were the Radio Broadcasting Company of New Zealand Ltd. (1925–31); the Broadcasting Board (1931–36); the National Broadcasting Service and the National Commercial Broadcasting Service (1936–45); the New Zealand Broadcasting Service (1945–62); and the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation (1962–75). Information on these organisations appears in the relevant Yearbooks.

BROADCASTING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—The Corporation consists of not less than seven and not more than nine members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Broadcasting. The Corporation must appoint from its members three standing committees, each with a particular responsibility for one of the operating Services—Radio New Zealand, Television One, and Television Two. Each Service has its own Director-General and the Secretary of the Corporation is in executive charge of all centralised functions.

In general terms the Corporation's responsibility is to carry on public broadcasting services and to develop, extend, and improve them in the public interest. In doing so, it must have regard for the general broadcasting policy of the Government. The Minister may direct the Corporation in writing but any such direction must subsequently be gazetted and laid before Parliament.

The Corporation is required to maintain standards of accuracy, impartiality, decency, and good taste; and to this effect must promulgate rules governing programmes and advertising. The Independent Broadcasters' Association is represented on the committee formulating these rules. Additionally the Corporation is charged with maintaining a New Zealand identity in its programmes, with respecting the privacy of the individual, and avoiding the co-incident presentation on the two television channels of programmes of a like nature. Formal complaints from the public on certain aspects of programming must receive proper consideration and if dissatisfied with the Corporation's decision, the complainant may refer the matter to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

The Corporation is responsible for the publication of the New Zealand Listener and for the administration of the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra. Up to two-thirds of the cost of operating the Orchestra may be met by Government appropriation if necessary.

The Corporation is empowered and expected to promote and encourage artistic, cultural, and educational development in the community.

BROADCASTING TRIBUNAL—A Tribunal of three members, appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Broadcasting, is empowered to consider applications and grant warrants for additional radio stations, public or privately-owned. No warrant may be granted for any television station additional to the TV1 and TV2 Services, without the express permission of the Minister. The Tribunal has no authority over any short wave station.

It is also empowered to consider and determine complaints which in the opinion of the complainant have not been satisfactorily dealt with by the Broadcasting Corporation. The Tribunal must have regard for Government policy on broadcasting and must comply with any written direction from the Minister which does not derogate from its duty to act judicially. Any such direction must subsequently be gazetted and laid before Parliament.

RADIO—Radio New Zealand provides programmes for 52 medium wave broadcasting stations, and 2 short-wave transmitters of the External Services Division, the latter having a number of assigned frequencies. Of the 52 medium-wave stations, 33 broadcast advertising material. No advertising is broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. Twenty-one stations maintain a daily 24-hour service, apart from shutdowns once a month, between the hours of 11.15 p.m. and 5.30 a.m. The shutdowns are staggered to give the minimum loss of coverage to listeners.

Coverage of Short Wave Service—The External Services Division of Radio New Zealand broadcasts the Home Service (National) Programme to the Pacific on two frequencies from 6 a.m. to 7.30 p.m. daily. Then one frequency beams this programme to Australia until 10.30 p.m. The Home Service programme also continues to the Pacific on one frequency until 10.30 p.m.

Special breakouts to take Concert and Sports Networks to the Pacific and Australia are generally to cover sporting events, e.g., the South African All Black tour, and the cricket series in Pakistan and India. Radio New Zealand's Overseas Programme Unit supplements this with weekly despatches of taped programmes; news, current affairs, talks and comment including vernacular programmes.

Local Broadcasting—Whereas in many Commonwealth countries local broadcasting has only recently begun, in New Zealand it is in many ways the most important part of the national system. Local stations not only provide a wide range of entertainment programmes, but also play a valuable social role through new community services and participation in cultural activities. Decentralisation of administration enables local radio stations to be highly responsive to the communities they serve.

Broadcasts to Schools—Programmes are designed to aid teachers in meeting syllabus requirements particularly in the fields of science, social studies, music, language, and Maori culture. Nineteen programmes a week are broadcast to children ranging from 4 to 13 years. The most popular programmes—music, current events, and dramatised extracts from literature—are heard by audiences of between 100,000 and 150,000 children. Programmes are also broadcast by the Correspondence Schools.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Non-commercial)—One private non-commercial station operated by the Otago Radio Association Incorporated has been issued with a warrant and has been broadcasting since 1922. This station, located in Dunedin, operates from 1800 to 2230 hours on Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays and; on Sundays, from 0900 to 1200 and from 1800 to 2230 hours.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Commercial)—The first warrants for private commercial broadcasting stations were issued on 30 June 1970 to Radio Hauraki and Radio i, both located in Auckland, and transmissions commenced on 26 September 1970 and 31 October 1970 respectively. Radio Waikato was issued with a warrant on 31 July 1970 and commenced transmission on 2 November 1970, followed by Radio Whakatane with a warrant dated 24 November 1970, commencing transmission on 30 June 1971 and Radio Otago with a warrant dated 8 June 1971, coming into operation on 20 November 1971. Later warrants enabled Radio Avon in Christchurch and Radio Windy in Wellington to commence operations late in 1973. Advertisements are not permitted to be broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. If Anzac Day falls on other than a Sunday, advertisements are not permitted before 1300 hours. The Broadcasting Act 1973 prohibited the issue of any further warrants, but the 1976 Act reinstated the right to grant them to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

Independent Broadcasters Association—in 1970, holders of warrants for private commercial radio stations formed a federation which was subsequently approved by the Broadcasting Authority in August 1971. The general objects of the federation are to conserve the rights and interests of the members in broadcasting. The name was subsequently changed to the Independent Broadcasters Association (Incorporated).

Committee of Private Broadcasters—This consists of a Chairman, appointed by the Minister, and two members appointed by him on the nomination of the Independent Broadcasters Association. I investigates allegations of breaches of warrants or rules by private stations, and is responsible to the Broadcasting Tribunal.

TELEVISION—In August 1958 the Government decided that the 625-line system would be the standard for any television service in New Zealand.

In October 1958 approval was given to the then New Zealand Broadcasting Service to purchase equipment to enable technical investigations to be made. The Service began regular transmissions in Auckland in 1960, in Christchurch and Wellington in 1961, and in Dunedin in 1962.

In October 1969 the Minister of Broadcasting directed the Broadcasting Authority to carry out an inquiry into the extension of television services. Following extensive hearings in 1970, the authority recommended that the existing TV services be converted to colour transmission (using the PAL system). Colour telecasts began in a limited way in October 1973, and conversion of the remaining transmission equipment was completed by March 1975. At the end of 1976, some 25 percent of households had colour TV sets.

Extension to Coverage—Television coverage has been steadily extended to all areas of New Zealand.

By the end of 1976, the first television programme (TV1), was being disseminated by six 100 kW transmitters, one 50 kW, 12 of from 1 to 10 kW, and 182 installations of less than I kW. These transmitters cover some 99 percent of the population.

Some 166 small units are operated by private individuals or societies, the latter receiving financial assistance from the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand. These small transmitters cover less than 1 percent of the population.

Transmission of the second television programme (TV2) began from 300 kW transmitters at Auckland and Christchurch on 30 June 1975. The 100 kW transmitter for Waikato and Bay of Plenty was commissioned in September 1975, and the 300 kW transmitter for Wellington in November. The 300 kW transmitters for Manawatu and coastal Otago and the 100 kW transmitter for Southland came into operation during the first half of 1976. By the end of 1976, 15 translators of less than 1 kW were relaying TV2 programmes.

Second programme transmitters for other areas will be provided progressively until identical coverage is achieved for both programmes.

Over 85 percent of homes in New Zealand are equipped with television sets.

Television Programmes—Television One, with headquarters at the Avalon Centre, Lower Hutt, operates a national network in colour for 86 hours per week. Five days are commercial and Mondays and Sundays are non-commercial.

The Service has production studios in Dunedin and also produces a weekly entertainment programme out of Auckland. TV1 has three colour outside broadcast units, stationed at Auckland, Wellington, and Dunedin. These are deployed for live coverage of sport, and programme production from towns and cities in both islands.

Television Two (South Pacific Television) opened in Auckland and Christchurch on 30 June 1975. Unlike TV1, which took over the existing NZBC network on 1 April 1975, it is continuing its transmission development by stages. By the end of 1976 it was reaching approximately 76 percent of the population. By the 1980s TV2 should operate a full nationwide coverage.

The channel transmits in colour for approximately 74 hours each week, and the two non-commercial days are Friday and Sunday.

Production is centred in the Service's studios in Auckland and Christchurch. Auckland has three studios and Christchurch two. In addition, Christchurch has the use of the converted Civic Theatre (now known as the Teletheatre) for a variety of productions. Auckland and Christchurch are each served by colour outside-broadcast vans and comprehensive film facilities.

Under the rules of the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, both Services are required to have a local content of not less than 30 percent, but each has the objective of increasing this proportion substantially as circumstances permit.

Local content includes drama, news and current affairs, light entertainment, religion, service programmes, and sport. The balance is made up of programmes purchased from overseas, mainly the United Kingdom, the United States, and Australia.

The use of satellite links permits same day presentation of world news items and live telecast of significant overseas events.

NEW ZEALAND SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA—The New Zealand Symphony Orchestra was formed in 1946 as the National Orchestra and adopted its present title in 1975. It is a full symphony orchestra widely known for the high standard of its public concerts as well as its performances over the air. Distinguished guest conductors and celebrity artists from other countries along with resident soloists and New Zealand choirs appear regularly with the orchestra. As a national orchestra, its tour programme is one of the most extensive in the world, involving some 15,000 miles of internal travel annually. The playing strength is approximately 85 players, which enables the orchestra to undertake the complete symphonic repertoire.

In 1974 the orchestra undertook its first overseas tour to three Australian cities, and further tours are planned. During 1976 a total of 88 orchestral concerts was presented, with very few of the programmes being repeated, as well as many studio recordings for broadcast, both radio and television. The diversity of their work means that the orchestra covers a very wide repertoire. Also in 1976 part of the orchestra accompanied 13 performances by the Australian Opera in Wellington and Auckland.

The New Zealand Symphony Orchestra has also made several commercial recordings, three being released during 1976. One of these topped the record album sales charts in New Zealand, an unheard-of feat for a classical recording. Since its inception, the orchestra has paid significant attention to the work of New Zealand composers.

NEW ZEALAND LISTENER—Programmes and advance information for national television channels and radio stations are published in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, first issued on 30 June 1939. The circulation of the Listener is now about 260,000. As well as containing programme information the Listener occupies a special place in New Zealand journalism as a leading periodical dealing with the current scene. It publishes interviews, talks, and discussions as well as fiction, poetry, and criticisms. Through its editorial and correspondence columns, the Listener provides a forum for serious public discussions on important issues.

FINANCES—There have been two principal sources of revenue: licence fees and radio and television advertising. While, under the NZBC licence, fee revenue was credited to the accounts of the non-commercial stations and sales revenue to those of the commercial stations, a common fund was in fact operated, all revenue being available for the general purpose of broadcasting. The NZBC was abolished on 1 April 1975 and was replaced by four corporations—Television Service One, Television Service Two, Radio New Zealand, and the Broadcasting Council ‘of New Zealand. Under that structure the licence fee revenue was allocated amongst the four organisations by the Council. The operating policies of the Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand in the financial sphere, had not been finally determined at the time of publication.

Gross revenue from licence fees and from advertising for the latest 5 financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76
 $(thousand)
Radio-licence fees1,161---
TV-licence fees10,81214,19614,90217,92725,769
Radio advertising7,1077,7169,28710,19610.974
TV advertising9,90410,22811,24114,12020,894
Totals28,98432,14235,43042,24357,637

LICENCES—As from 1 October 1971 the radio licence, which stood at $3 a year, was abolished and the monochrome television licence raised from $13 a year to $20. A colour television licence fee of $35 was introduced on 1 November 1973. On 1 January 1975 licence fees were increased to $27.50 (monochrome) and $45 (colour).

The following table summarises licences for television receivers issued by districts.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedinTotalNumber of Sets Covered by Hirers' Licences*

*Included in preceding figures.

†lncludes 15,331 colour sets in 1974, 82,027 in 1975, and 188,911 in 1976.

‡Including other.

1972294,361224,785107,01069,996696,192100,442
1973311,747234,325113,25972,878732,250118,235
1974263,271203,267101,87662,757754,623123,452
1975272,730209,150108,82864,494790,599135,397
1976287,244230,362110,62268,590811,182124,344

12 C—NEWSPAPERS AND CINEMAS

NEWSPAPERS—Although printing in New Zealand began peacefully enough with the production of hymns in the Maori language, the early years of the New Zealand press appear to have been stormy, acrimonious, and marked by frequent shortages of the basic necessities of newspaper production. The first newspaper to be printed in New Zealand was the New Zealand Gazette of 18 April 1840, but like most early New Zealand newspapers it was short-lived. Much of the newspaper-writing of early days was powerful, dogmatic, sometimes virulent and irresponsible, and the Government or other target of attack reacted with equal force. One way of closing down a rival or too-critical newspapers was to buy up the press on which it was printed. When this method of silencing was used against the Auckland Times in 1842 the proprietor continued publication with the aid of a job-lot of assorted old type, a load of coarse paper, and a mangle. Another paper appeared for some weeks printed on red blotting paper, and others appeared on occasion on green or blue paper or in varying paper sizes or qualities. Appeals for supplies of paper sometimes appeared in advertisements and one paper made a despairing appeal for treacle, apparently an essential ingredient in inking-rollers. One Auckland paper was made to yield to a unique form of forceful persuasion. In 1865 the New Zealander published an article which gave offence to the Navy, whereupon a large number of sailors passed a hawser through the newspaper office and back over the roof, and threatened to overturn the building unless there was a full retraction.

Since 1840 about 500 different newspapers have appeared in New Zealand, but relatively few have survived. The oldest surviving newspaper is the Taranaki Herald, started in 1842. A number of the large metropolitan dailies still in existence were started in the 1860s.

By world standards, New Zealand has had (and continues to have) a large number of newspapers for the size of population. In the past, difficulties of geography and the scattered nature of the centres of population prevented any daily newspaper achieving a national circulation. Today, aided by distribution during the dead hours before dawn, the morning papers published in Auckland and Wellington are, between them, able to cover much of the North Island, while the Christchurch morning paper covers much of the South Island. Nevertheless, the provincial press remains fairly strong. New Zealand still has a relatively large number of local papers published daily, weekly, or two, three, or four times a week which, by offering a detailed coverage of local news, are complementary to the newspapers published in the main centres rather than in competition with them. Most of the provincial dailies are evening papers.

There are eight daily newspapers in the four main metropolitan areas, with a total circulation of approximately 750,000. In the smaller cities and provincal towns there are 27 daily newspapers with a total circulation of over 250,000. Five Sunday papers have a combined circulation of over 350,000.

In the following table, based on the UN Statistical Yearbook, the total circulation of daily and non-daily (including Sunday) newspapers is shown per 1,000 inhabitants for selected countries. Circulation figures for non-daily papers in New Zealand include those for the weekly, fortnightly or monthly local papers distributed free in many districts.

CountryYearCopies per 1,000 Inhabitants
DailiesNon-dailies
Australia1972408..
Canada1972230263
Denmark1972361256
France1971237424
Germany, West197229430
Italy197213353
Japan1972519..
Netherlands197131199
New Zealand1972365547
USSR1971347247
United Kingdom1972528..
United States1972297..

Advertising—The advertising revenue of newspapers and periodicals is shown in the following table, for the latest available years.

Type of Publication1970-711971-721972-73
  $(000) 
Newspapers, daily33,74035,32739,150
Newspapers, other than daily3,6574,4594,868
Magazines, journals, and periodicals2,0882,3882,593

CINEMAS—Statistics relating to cinemas are normally collected every alternate year. The survey of cinemas for the year ended 31 March 1975 covered 203 theatres, compared with 208 in 1973.

Cinema admissions, which had been dropping since the introduction of television in 1961, showed a recovery in the latest survey. Compared with the position 2 years earlier, total admissions during 1974-75 were up by 3.2 million and admission per head of population, at 5.1, were above both the 1972-73 and the 1970-71 figures, although well below the wartime peak of 21.3 in 1944-45.

The following table gives figures of cinema attendances and takings.

YearTheatresAdmissionsGross Admission TakingsAverage Admission Price*Admissions Per Head of Mean Population
*Including amusement tax up to and including 1964–65. This tax was abolished as from June 1965.
  (000)$(000)CNo.
1944–4555135,4205,17614.621.3
1949–5060036,3535,58015.319.3
1960–6154540,63210,79226.617.0
1970–7121013,0877,82859.84.6
1972–7320811,8709,85583.04.0
1974–7520315,03514,12994.05.1

The following statistics refer to the three latest surveys.

Item1970–711972–731974–75
*Includes 1 circuit or itinerant operator.
Cinemas—   
Screenings 6 days per week120134134
Screening odd days per week897469
Circuit1....
Totals210208203
Cinemas according to seating accommodation—   
Under 200101613
200 and under 500766878
500 and under 1,00010310595
1,000 and over201917
Totals210*208203
Seating accommodation (all cinemas) No.129,434126,185119,365
Average seating capacity per cinema No.616607588
Persons engaged-   
Full time—   
Males No.261227241
Females No.190226244
Part time—   
Males No.425405422
Females No.664784886
Performances per year No.89,69094,948 91,304
Average attendance per performance No.146125165

Statistics on the commercial operation of theatres are given in the following table. These statistics relate only to cinemas, and do not purport to show employees, revenue, and expenditure of the motion picture industry as a whole. In particular, the full revenue and expenditure in connection with screen advertising, and also head office expenses of controlling companies (including such items as interest on debentures and mortgage charges), unless recovered from exhibitors, are not recorded in the statistics. The item "Rent" under "Theatre expenditure" does not represent the rental value of all theatres, but only the rent paid where theatres were leased or rented.

Item1970-711972-731974-75

*Includes drawings of working proprietors.

†In 1972-73 other receipts included a large increase in revenue from sales of confectionery and beverages not recorded in the two previous surveys.

Revenue— $(000) 
Admission receipts7,8289,85514,129
Screen advertising337362413
Other receipts5021,2942,029
Totals8,66711,51116,571
Expenditure—   
Salaries and wages*1,8832,4523,288
Film hire2,6403,2125,193
Advertising2,8283,6814,565
Rent
Repairs and maintenance
Depreciation
Other expenses
Totals7,3569,34513,046

Classification by Statistical Areas—In the following table, cinemas have been classified by statistical areas; further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

The average attendance per performance in 1974–75 rose in all areas except Marlborough.

Statistical AreaPopulation Estimate at 1 April 1975CinemasSeating AccommodationAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions Per Head of PopulationPerformances For YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Seating Capacity per Hall
 (000)No.No. of seatscNo.No.No.No.
Northland100.494,44480.93.92,918135494
Central Auckland796.74025,995104.45.726,771170650
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty464.13718,24472.25.013,812168493
East Coast48.583,46680.76.62,163148433
Hawke's Bay144.973,8273.04.13,088193547
Taranaki104.9105,77777.84.43,157146578
Wellington591.93325,02399.14.917,612164758
Marlborough34.331,34974.12.21,03474450
Nelson72.363,89481.04.22,054149649
Westland22.541,67076.55.2984119418
Canterbury428.12514,602102.14.410,363183584
Otago185.8156,70293.54.04,706160447
Southland111.064,37280.84.02,642169729
Totals3,105.4203119,36594.05.191,304165588

Classification by Urban Areas—Statistics for the principal urban areas are as follows. Further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

Urban AreaPopulation Estimate at 1 Apr 1975CinemasSeating AccommodationAdmissions per SeatAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions per Head of PopulationPerformances per YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
 (000)No.No. of seatsNo.cNo.No.No.No.percent
Northern Auckland746.43524,380183104.96.025,39517697718.0
Western Auckland
Central Auckland
Southern Auckland
Upper Hutt Valley333.71513,592134109.25.510,1881791,00317.8
Lower Hutt Valley
Porirua Basin Wellington
Christchurch297.9149,382169106.65.38,14319578724.8
Dunedin114.463,67317197.65.53,72316964726.1
Totals1,492,47051,027167105.65.747,44917992419.4

Classification of Cinemas—The following table shows further statistics of cinemas classified by the number of screening days weekly.

ScreeningCinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAverage Admission ChargeAdmission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Admission Takings
 No.No. of(000)c$(000)$(000)percent
Six and 7 days per week134seats 95,70814,32194.713,5675,03737.1
Fewer than 6 days per week6923,65771578.656215727.9
Totals203119,36515,03594.014,1295,19336.8
ScreeningPersons EngagedPerformances for the YearAverage Number of paid Admission s per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
Full TimePart Time
MaleFemaleMaleFemale
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.percent
Six and 7 days per week26325237485882,33817478422.2
Fewer than 6 days per week4120111668,9668040519.8
Totals30427248592491,30416574722.1

Chapter 13. Section 13 FARMING

13 A—GENERAL

SOILS—Soil is a product of its environment—its composition depends on the parent ingredient, the climate, the length of time it has weathered, the topography, and the vegetation under which it has formed. The complex soil pattern of New Zealand is a result of the many different kinds of rock, and the various conditions under which the soils have formed.

New Zealand includes such extremes as the subtropical climate of North Auckland, the cold uplands of the alpine regions, and the semi-arid basins of Central Otago.

The country's topography is also varied—50 percent of the land is classifiable as steep, 20 percent is moderately hilly, and only 30 percent is rolling or flat.

The natural vegetation ranges from kauri forest to subalpine scrub, and from tussock grassland to broadleaf forest. From time to time, occurrences such as river floods on alluvial plains, sand drifts, or a volcanic ash eruption interrupt and alter the pattern of soil development.

Regional differences in New Zealand's soils result mainly from the effects of climate on topography, soils develop more rapidly under high temperatures and a heavy rainfall. In New Zealand, distinct soil gradations are found, both from north to south and from west to east. These closely follow the isohyets (lines connecting places that receive the same amount of rain) on a climatic map.

Increased knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to soil management. Soils have been mapped and their properties and uses determined. This has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of "problem" land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency, which reflects the modern changes to farming as an up-to-date science.

Farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers, phosphatic fertilisers, lime, and trace elements. The use of aircraft for topdressing and oversowing of grass is resulting in considerable improvements to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

New Zealand soils may be classified on a regional basis as follows.

RegionSoilsVegetation and Land Use
North Auckland Peninsula and Auckland regionNorthern yellow-brown earths and podzols left by kauri forest. Loams and clays from volcanic rocks. Soft-rock uplands with volcanic outcrops.Heavily forested (high rainfall and humidity). Patches of rich dairy land on formerly swampy organic soils. Some wool and store sheep. Dairying, fat Iambs near Auckland. Patchy land use.
Bay of Plenty - Waikato - Thames - Hauraki PlainsVolcanic ash covers much of area. Most soils intrazonal or azonal. Yellow-brown pumice soils in Bay of Plenty. Peaty soils with high ground water on Hauraki Plains.Intensively farmed dairying region. Land use almost entirely based on grass and clover, with great reliance on topdressing Some fat lambs. Extensive exotic forests in Bay of Plenty region.
Volcanic PlateauPumice soils, lacking in essential trace elements. Yellow-brown pumice soils from volcanic material.Largely undeveloped scrub and native forest: Extensive exotic forests. Topdressing of former manuka and scrub area for farming.
East CoastSouthern and central yellow-brown earths. Patches of recent alluvial soils along rivers. Yellow-grey earths on rolling land south of Hawke BaySemi-extensive sheep farming (wool and store sheep). Intensive fat-lamb production on flat to rolling plains. Market gardens and orchards near Napier and Hastings. Some pip fruit. Pockets of dairying close to main ranges from Norsewood south.
TaranakiRing plain consists of yellow-brown loams, with granular clay from volcanic ash. Overlay of fertile ash and sediment from Mount Egmont. Soft-rock uplands away from coast.Distinct contrast between rich, closely farmed dairying ring plain and inland country with its steep ridges mainly covered in second-growth forest or dense gorse, and severely eroded.
Manawatu - Horowhenua Coast PlainSand dunes and swampy hollows common along coast. Steepland yellow-brown earths inland. Extensive young soils from dune sands along coast.Many hollows contain native flax (Phormium tenax). Pockets of dairying and fat-lamb production.
NelsonPockets of fertile, recent alluvial soils in yellow-grey and yellow-brown earths.Orchards and market gardens. Hops and tobacco also grown on flat, rolling land.
Marlborough - Kaikoura CoastYellow-brown earths with pockets of alluvial soils.Where land is developed, mainly sheep or cash cropping.
West CoastExtensive grey podzols, with recent swamp soils on alluvial flats.Mostly undeveloped scrub and native bush. Some dairying.
Canterbury PlainsVery thick layer of gravel deposited by rivers—thickest and coarsest near mountains from which rivers flow. Soils range from stony gravel to fine silts.Deep layer of fine sediment provides fertile soil for cereals and fodder crops, and makes good sheep pasture. Cash cropping on former swamp near Christchurch.
OtagoHigh-country yellow-brown earths on ranges; yellow-grey earths, often stony, in basins.Sheep farming for wool and fat lambs plus some cattle and some orchards. Irrigation necessary in low-rainfall area.
Southland and FiordlandSouthland Plain has extensive deposits of gravel and silt. Fiordland mostly subalpine grey soils and grey podzols.Fat-Iamb production in Southland. Fiordland agriculturally undeveloped and unproductive. Scenic attractions.

NATURE OF FARMING—Most of the dairy farms are in lowland areas of the North Island, where naturally fertile or improved soils make for good grass growth. Approximately 90 percent of the total dairy stock in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of Northland, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, and Wellington. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry and carrying capacity may be as high as 2.5 cows per hectare, and annual production as high as 400–450 kg of milkfat per hectare. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. In most of the dairying areas fat-lamb raising is also undertaken, particularly in the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty.

On the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are raised.

Sheep fattening farms are generally located on land which is of high fertility, either naturally or produced by topdressing. Country of this type is usually flat to undulating in topography, and tends to be concentrated on the coastal plains and river valleys of both islands, e.g., the Waikato basin, the Poverty Bay flats, the Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, Canterbury, and Southland plains. In the North Island it is normal to rely on pasture as a sole diet, while in the drier areas of the South Island it is necessary to grow special crops, such as rape, for fattening lambs, and in colder areas to grow crops for supplementing the ewe flock feeding over the winter.

Fattening farms vary considerably in area and in the size of flock carried. A flock of 1,000-1,200 ewes is commonly regarded as a 1-man unit. The average range in carrying capacity is from 7 to 15 ewes wintered to the hectare. Lambing percentages are variable but average from 100 to 120 lambs per 100 ewes mated. The aim of the farmer is to sell a high proportion of these lambs, fat off their mothers, at carcass weights around 12–16 kg for the United Kingdom market. In the North Island, cattle are normally purchased in the spring to control excess pasture growth and are fattened, if possible, by the autumn. On some properties, store wether lambs from the hill-breeding flocks may also be brought in for fattening. The amount of meat produced on fattening farms averages about 130-155 kg per hectare.

Hill country sheep farming covers extensive areas in both islands. The stock carried consists of a mixed-age flock of breeding ewes, ewe hoggets for replacements, and rams. Where part of the property is of poor quality, wethers may also be carried. Products sold are wool (which usually represents 50 percent or more of the total farm income), some fat wether lambs, store lambs for fattening and, of most importance, breeding ewes which are purchased by fat-lamb farmers.

A large proportion of the beef cattle are also run on hill-country properties.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. Approximately 92 percent of New Zealand's wheat, oats, and barley areas are in these districts. On the majority of the cereal-producing farms sheep and lambs are also fattened.

OCCUPIED LAND: Tenure—The tenure of occupied land at 30 June 1974 by size of holding is given in the following table.

Size of HoldingNumber of HoldingsFreeholdCrown Land, Leases and LicencesLeasehold*OtherTotal Land Occupied

Includes land leased from private individuals (484,900 ha), land leased from companies (172,200 ha), land leased from trustees (413,600 ha), and land leased from local authorities (150,500 ha).

Hectares  Hectares (000)   
Under 53,90310.50.20.6-11.3
5- 93,51721.30.81.8-23.9
10- 142,00419.71.02.80.123.6
15- 191,61722.91.33.10.127.4
20- 292,95058.93.58.20.270.8
30- 393,17794.45.39.70.2109.6
40- 494,077153.88.915.30.4178.4
50- 593,213148.811.214.90.6175.5
60- 795,660323.527.536.70.9388.6
80- 994,486331.425.439.01.0396.8
100- 1496,994700.975.478.32.8857.4
150- 1994,928680.998.772.32.2854.1
200- 2996,1471,162.6213.8119.64.11,500.1
300- 3993,065798.9160.593.42.81,055.6
400- 5992,9451,056.4223.1138.25.81,423.5
600- 7991,381668.6174.999.04.7947.2
800- 999805487.1154.368.42.7712.5
1,000-1,199465352.6115.140.63.1511.4
1,200-1,999932881.2432.7103.05.31,422.2
2,000-3,999582712.3785.593.411.71,602.9
4,000 and over6071,052.87,128.0182.965.58,429.2
Total63,4559,739.59,647.11,221.2114.220,722.0

Land Usage—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1974 by statistical area is given in the following table. Provisional estimates of occupied farmland at 30 June 1976 gave a figure of 20.9 million hectares compared with 20.7 million two years earlier.

Statistical AreaNo. of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneCrops, Fruit, or NurseryPlantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingTotal Area of Holdings*
Established Before 30/6/73Established During Year Ended 30/6/74Area Prior to 31/3/73Planted in 1974 Season
*Including "other".
  ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)
Northland        
Central Auckland5,360607.512.53.722.32.157.71,031.5
South Auckland - Bay of4,959294.53.47.617.51.012.4408.6
Plenty14,5871,679.528.526.6317.217.858.93,180.2
East Coast1,423553.54.47.413.00.432.6723.7
Hawke's Bay4,054875.612.619.526.43.660.61,285.4
Taranaki4,358414.44.22.22.40.122.4612.7
Wellington7,3971,354.321.826.028.22.1170.51,942.0
North Island42,1385,779.387.493.0427.027.1415.19,184.1
Marlborough1,199215.07.78.08.41.9513.51,076.5
Nelson2,108134.55.28.654.83.0106.21,448.0
Westland64675.53.30.98.60.741.8828.3
Canterbury8,1991,031.3118.4180.840.62.81,507.93,371.6
Otago4,466722.443.459.830.32.41,983.23,270.8
Southland4,699642.728.546.412.05.3427.91,542.7
South Island21,3172,821.4206.5304.5154.716.14,580.511,537.9
New Zealand63,4558,600.7293.9397.5581.743.24,995.620,722.0

Farm Type—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1974 by farm type is shown in the following table.

Farm TypeNumber of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneLand In or Prepared For Fruit, Grain, Crops, Vegetables, etc.Plantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingOther Land On HoldingTotal Area of Holdings

*75 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

||More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

   Hectares (000)    
Dairy*15,3111,025.112.63.235.4106.51,182.8
Sheep*13,7372,793.0120.227.03,082.6641.56,664.3
Beef*7,104675.95.47.2292.2226.01,206.7
Pig*51210.21.3-0.71.713.9
Cropping*1,20829.932.20.31.62.766.7
Dairy with Sheep37845.71.00.25.17.859.8
Dairy with Beef1,105112.11.30.58.020.9142.8
Dairy with Other36821.51.60.10.42.225.8
Sheep with Dairy12819.50.50.12.03.225.3
Sheep with Beef5,7242,023.536.714.01,063.8500.33,638.3
Sheep with Cropping1,021151.433.91.215.48.9210.8
Sheep with Other32341.62.60.428.38.781.6
Beef with Dairy18519.80.1-1.14.125.1
Beef with Sheep1,384296.12.93.3145.674.0521.9
Beef with Other27116.81.90.52.13.324.6
Cropping with Sheep55145.925.80.61.13.176.5
Cropping with Other1747.24.6-0.30.412.5
Pig with Other1465.90.5-0.71.68.7
Mixed Livestock5,0881,186.015.19.5234.6.328.11,773.3
General Mixed Farmings§1,990230.261.92.523.316.2334.1
Poultry Farming||6625.40.4-0.32.08.1
Market Gardening||1,52215.913.3-0.64.634.4
Orchards2,058||6.814.50.51.82.926.5
Tobacco Growing||2514.41.90.31.33.711.6
Plantations417||6.00.2538.15.01,147.11,696.4
Other Farming1,83798.85.115.442.32,687.92,849.5
Total63,4558,894.6397.5624.94,995.65,809.420,722.0

FARM EMPLOYMENT SURVEY—At 30 June 1974 the total number of persons working on farms was 140,532, an increase of 8.3 percent compared with 30 June 1973. Of these, 66,411 were working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers; 38,931 permanent paid employees; 11,340 paid casual employees; and 23,850 unpaid family members.

Female working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers increased by 3,014 or 35.3 percent from 30 June 1973 to 30 June 1974. This emphasises the trend for women to be included in the ownership structure of partnerships and farming companies. Male working owners decreased by 2.3 percent, while the number of males employed increased by 2,682 or 7.5 percent during the same period.

There were 63,455 productive farm holdings included in the survey. On 47,270 there were working owners, leaseholders, or sharemilkers, on 27,595 there were permanent paid employees, and on 10,752 casual labour was employed during the year.

Of the 66,411 working owners, leaseholders, and sharemilkers, 36.5 percent were engaged in dairy farming, 29.0 percent in sheep, 11.0 percent in beef, and a further 8.2 percent in mixed livestock farming.

At 30 June 1974 sheep farms accounted for 37.0 percent of paid full time and part time employees, dairy farms 23.1 percent, mixed livestock 10.5 percent, and beef farms 5.9 percent, while the same farm types accounted for 36.5, 8.6, 7.6, and 5.5 percent respectively of all paid casual employees at the same date.

Paid casual employees at the 30 June 1974 numbered 11.340 or 22.6 percent of the total paid labour force. Of these casual employees 63.1 percent were employed on farms of under 200 hectares. Of the paid permanent full time and part time employees however, only 48.8 percent were employed on farms of less than 200 hectares.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE ON FARMS—An annual survey of capital formation in the farming industry is made by the Department of Statistics. For the year ended 31 March 1974 capital expenditure was reported by 67.4 percent (42,780) out of the 63,455 farms and plantations surveyed.

The following table shows capital expenditure by type during the latest available 5 years. For each type of expenditure the figure given is net, i.e., receipts from "trade-ins" or sales have been deducted from the gross expenditure.

YearBuilding and ConstructionTransport VehiclesTractors and Farm MachineryOther Improvements and DevelopmentTotal Capital Expenditure

NOTE—Up to 1974-75 this table excludes holdings given over wholly to plantations of timber trees, whereas these are included in the next table.

   $(million)  
1970-7133.918.022.639.8114.3
1971-7232.231.532.635.0131.3
1972-7342.151.739.951.8185.6
1973-7459.145.841.465.0211.3
1974-7584.433.640.543.6202.1

The following table shows capital expenditure, net of sales, by farm type and size group. It includes timber plantations, which were excluded from the previous table. This table refers to the year ended 31 March 1974.

 Size Groups (hectares)Total Expenditure
 Under 2020-4950-99100-299300-799800 and Over

*75 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51-74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡51 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity and no other single activity is more than 40 percent of gross income.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

∥Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

¶Includes farms of a specific nature (e.g. Hops, Tobacco Growing, Beekeeping, Deer Farming, etc.) which meet the criteria in notes * or ‡ preceding but which are too small in number to be shown separately.

    $(000)   
Dairy*6817,82321,13812,6078604343,152
Sheep*1,7721,0562,36218,17114,27713,22450,863
Beef*3,7952,3912,3614,3321,9921,39516,266
Pigs*7944573708780-1,788
Dairy with sheep45213107191501111,355
Dairy with beef312261,0002,125375143,771
Dairy with other921963127517-1,151
Sheep with dairy-565185153-408
Sheep with beef1421304697,0639,84610,21227,862
Sheep with other4340845662531581,144
Beef with dairy16376227489-478
Beef with sheep1601912891,6551,2401,2844,819
Beef with other179972102981569949
Stud227428434694302302,115
Mixed livestock§6398281,4636,3945,7454,71319,782
General mixed farming3645541,0804,3731,7894268,586
Poultry2,42128823810914-3,070
Market gardening1,78671462676711864,080
Orchardist2,7418983511069-4,105
Plantations9272573407,7217,895
Other farming2,3591,2391,7726,5043,25638415,514
Totals18,21417,66935,33967,37740,64439,910219,153

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION ACCOUNT AND VALUE AND VOLUME OF FARMING PRODUCTION—At the beginning of 1976 the Department of Statistics released details of a new series of accounts relating to the farming industry. The new series was fully described in a supplement to the January—February 1976 Monthly Abstract of Statistics, which should be consulted for details of the statistical methodology and sources used. The new series replaces the Gross Farming Income and Volume of Farm Production series.

The new series is centred around the structure of the Agricultural Production Account, of which the other accounts are more detailed elaborations. The Agricultural Production Account, which is shown below, is the forerunner of some twenty other industry accounts of the proposed system of New Zealand national accounts, for which the theoretical and methodological prescription can be found in the United Nations System of National Accounts.

ItemYear Ended March
197219731974x1975*x1976*
*Provisional.
   $(million)  
Input     
Intermediate consumption444512594551651
Compensation of employees136155178184195
Operating surplus—     
Interest paid8690104110119
Proprietors' surplus from farming activity455675672409619
Consumption of fixed capital110120138144156
Indirect taxes2426313338
Less Subsidies-25-13-5-8-18
Gross Input1,2301,5651,7121,4231,760
Output     
Characteristic products of industrial activity1,2261,5611,7061,4161,756
Other products44674
Gross Output1,2301,5651,7121,4231,760

It will be noted that figures for 1974-75 and 1975-76 are provisional.

The following table shows details of the Agricultural Production Account item, Intermediate consumption.

ItemYear Ended March
197219731974x1975*1976*
*Provisional.
   $(million)  
Animal health, weed and pest control39x42464954
Shearing expenses2730363542
Fertilisers, lime and seeds74851107893
Vehicle expenses6166697788
Electricity1011171516
Feed and grazing5775838588
Agricultural services2024333040
Repairs and maintenance69x859883113
Packing and containers67779
Railage and cartage2428322934
Administration and general expenses35x34353540
Insurance6781013
Rent1617201821
Total444512594551651

GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION (GROSS OUTPUT)—The following table of Gross Agricultural Production shows the value of farming production for March and June years. The June year Gross Agricultural Production replaces the Gross Farming Income series which has periodically been calculated for a June year to correspond with the farming production season.

The main differences between Gross Agricultural Production and the earlier Gross Farming Income lies in the coverage of the new series. While the Gross Farming Income account portrayed the value of output of seven main groups of farming, the Gross Agricultural Production account goes further and includes, in addition to the value of farm produce, the value of agricultural services and non-characteristic products. For the main groups of farming output, the Gross Agricultural Production account differs little from the Gross Farming Income account except for some methodological improvements and the advantage taken of better sources of raw data. One significant change is that stockchange of livestock, now shown separately, was previously included in the relevant product group and calculated as the physical difference in livestock at the start and the end of the year with the difference only valued at current market prices at the end of the year.

 Year Ended
Item31 Mar 197330 Jun 197331 Mar 197430 Jun 197431 Mar 197530 Jun 197531 Mar 1976*30 Jun 1976*
*Provisional.
    $(million)    
Income        
Sheep and lambs263349313305206195232291
Wool356364325315218216398398
Cattle272296336298195200277321
Pigs2727343536373737
Dairy products328317343347364375435443
Crops and seeds87899699109107110112
Fruit3939394045464546
Vegetables4242474856565656
Poultry and eggs5154606266667778
Agricultural services7373818181819292
Other—farm products1414171717171920
—non-farm products44667766
Changes of stock (livestock)        
Physical change at average market prices—sheep-14-29-30-8-2-8+9+9
—cattle+25+31+46+70+26+1-34-55
—pigs-1- --1-1-1-2+-+1
Gross Agricultural Production (Gross Output)1,5651,6681,7121,7141,4231,3961,7601,856

The value of Gross Agricultural Production for June years prior to 1972-73 has been estimated as follows (in $ million): 1965-66, $884; 1966-67, $869; 1967-68, $862; 1968-69, $936; 1969-70, $949; 1970-71, $1,064; 1971-72, $1,247.

VOLUME OF GROSS AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—The index of the Volume of Gross Agricultural Production, which is a year-to-year quantum measure of commodities coming off all New Zealand farms and hence available for export or domestic consumption, is shown in the following table with two expression bases, 1965-66 (=1000) and 1971-72 (=1000). From 1971-72 on, the series is a revision of a previous statistical series based on the 1938-39 year, and is a chain-linked index with annually changing weights.

 Index Number 
Year Ended JuneBase: 1965-66 (=1000)Base: 1971-72 (=1000)Change from previous Year

*Provisional.

†Minus sign signifies a decrease.

   Percent
197211331000+2.8
19731094x966x-3.4x
19741064x939x-2.8x
1975*1076x950x+1.2x
1976*11351002+5.5

The index of the Volume of Gross Agricultural Production for each of the latest 5 years is shown in the following table for the component product groups, as well as for the production of the whole agricultural industry. The expression base for each product group separately, and for the agriculture industry as a whole, is the year 1971-72 (=1000).

ProductsYears Ended 30 June
19721973197419751976*

*Provisional.

†Revised.

  Volume Index Numbers   
Sheep and lambs1000911834833905
Wool10009628969471006
Cattle10009701002909946
Pigs1000925872836863
Dairy products10009729249861061
Crops and seeds1000907938976986
Fruit10001055119911331088
Vegetables100089485810391027
Poultry and eggs10001050110511071192
Other farm products1000954127013511377
Agriculture services...............
Non-farm products of the agriculture industry...............
All agriculture industry production10009669399501002

VOLUME OF NET AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION—A completely new statistical series, commencing with the 1971-72 year, is that of the Volume of Net Agricultural Production. The net volume index is arrived at by deducting intermediate consumption expressed in constant dollar terms from outputs in constant dollar terms and expressing the difference in index form.

The importance of the net volume series lies in the fact that it measures the volume of the contribution of the agriculture industry alone, after elimination of the contribution of all other industries to gross agriculture output. The net index is preferable to the gross index in analysing the contribution of agriculture to the country's real gross domestic product and the changing importance of agriculture in the economy and its productivity

In the following table the new series is shown in index form and in annual percentage movements. The base is 1971-72 (=1000).

Year Ended MarchIndex NumberChange from previous year
*Provisional
  Percent
19721000 
1973x896-10.4
1974x853-4.8
1975x974+14.2
1976*1018+4.5

Problems which are specific to farm accounting are related to the production process of the industry itself—its seasonal nature, and its dependence on biological factors and climatic conditions. All these intervene in various ways between real resource use and output. Also, operations are not necessarily restricted to an annual cycle (e.g. the application of fertiliser in one year can affect output for a number of years) but the accounts are always made up for one year. As a result, year-to-year comparisons between resource use and output and, in the final analysis, the net profit (net income, surplus) of the farming industry, can be affected by fortuitous factors.

This is the principal reason why year-to-year changes in real gross production and real net production can differ to a marked degree.

DAIRY PRODUCTION—The next table shows milk production and utilisation of milkfat during each of the last five seasons, year ending 31 May. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

 1971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76
*Includes milk fed to stock and waste, but excludes separation loss.
   Production*  
Milk, litres (million)6,0485,8815,5125,9076,359
Milkfat, tonnes (000)291.5280.5260.9273.3296.5
Liquid milk, cream, and icecream, litres (million)507519525558557
   Utilisation of Milkfat Processed  
Butter, tonnes (000)203.0193.1176.6197.3211.3
Cheese, tonnes (000)41.439.835.133.940.1
Other wholemilk products, tonnes (000)13.613.716.112.716.2
Total, tonnes (000)258.0246.6227.8243.9267.6

Production by dairy factories during the latest five seasons is set out in the following table.

Product1971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76
*Includes caseinates (3,977 tonnes in 1975-76).
   tonnes(000)  
Creamery butter210.8201.8185.9205.1219.8
Whey butter3.53.02.72.73.0
Anhydrous milkfat29.932.722.731.629.3
Frozen cream5.25.15.15.97.0
Cheese104.3101.189.088.6104.8
Skim-milk powder197.0189.2194.1243.7207.0
Casein, acid35.639.930.429.544.6
Casein, rennet*4.76.45.15.08.2
Buttermilk powder22.522.419.024.224.3
Condensed and powdered whole milk38.435.050.333.946.8
Lactose10.09.18.07.59.4
Totals661.9645.7612.3677.8704.2

The butter produced in New Zealand is of a salted type and, because the cows are fed almost entirely on grass, it has a high carotene content which makes it yellower than the butter from countries where cows are fed indoors for much of the year. Most of the cheese exported is a cheddar. Milk powders include those made from whole milk or from separated milk and buttermilk, by-products of butter making. Lactose is made from whey, a by-product of cheesemaking. At one time skim milk, buttermilk, and whey were almost entirely fed to pigs, but in recent years more has been dried to produce powder.

The following table gives estimates, derived by the New Zealand Dairy Board, of the average milkfat production per cow "at the pail".

YearDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per Cow*
*Including an allowance for cows milked on small holdings not covered by the annual farm census.
 (000)kg
1970-712,239124
1971-722,200132
1972-732,190129
1973-742,140123x
1974-752,080132x
1975-762,092142

Herd sizes have increased as suppliers with small herds have ceased production and as dairy farms have been amalgamated. The number of suppliers to dairy factories and milkfat production per supplier is shown in the following table. (Source: N.Z. Dairy Board.)

SeasonSuppliers* at 31 DecemberAverage size of HerdMilk fat per Supplier

*Does not include town milk suppliers (about 1,800).

†Average area of dairy farms estimated at 63 hectares.

   kg
1971-7220,76010212,975
1972-7319,87910612,926
1973-7418,55710912,875
1974-7517,69511214,350
1975-7617,42011515,722

Tanker collection of milk by the dairy factories began in 1951. By 1960 55 percent of the milkfat supplied to dairy factories was received as milk (instead of cream as previously); this increased to 79 percent by 1966 and in 1973-74 was 97 percent. In 1971-72 there were 922 tankers and trailers; they travelled 26.4 million kilometres, collecting daily from 16,501 suppliers.

The following diagram shows the progress of the dairy industry over a long period of years.

The New Zealand Dairy Board of 13 members functions under the Dairy Board Act 1961. Apart from two Government representatives, all are producer members—three are appointed by the New Zealand Co-operative Dairy Company, eight are elected by other dairy companies, with voting proportionate to the quantity of milkfat received by those companies from their suppliers in six geographically-defined wards.

The Dairy Board's work is divided broadly into two sections; one concerned with the development of the dairy industry and the other with marketing of dairy produce. (This latter activity is described in Section 20A, Marketing of Farm Products.) It is a further function of the board to promote the bobby calf and pig industries.

The Dairy Board has the broad function of linking manufacturing plans and growth with export market requirements. It is responsible by statute for the purchase and sale of export dairy products and for the development, in all respects, of the dairy industry. Since the board is the sole purchaser of produce for export, this purchasing power helps to link manufacturing plans with commercial reality.

MILK PRODUCTION—The administration and organisation of the town milk supply is the responsibility of the New Zealand Milk Board (see Section 20A).

During the year ended August 1976, town milk suppliers provided 725.5 million litres of milk. Of this, 498.6 million litres went to the treatment stations and eventually reached the consumer in the form of 414.3 million litres of pasteurised milk and 8.5 million litres of sweet cream. The balance of the total production went to dairy factories (216.9 million litres), to the manufacture of ice cream, yoghurt, and cottage-cheese (10.2 million litres), and for sale as raw milk (134,471 litres).

MEAT PRODUCTION—The following table shows in summary form production of meat. Figures are shown at bone-in weights for years ended September.

Product1971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76
    tonnes(000) 
Beef389.6423.8377.9477.0599.0
Veal20.321.726.831.129.1
Mutton195.8215.1192.9163.9155.2
Lamb378.9341.0304.6327.0357.6
Pig meat40.635.334.434.232.8
Edible offal57.160.253.455.560.6
Totals1,082.41,097.0990.01,088.71,234.3

PRODUCTION FOR EXPORT—Export meat production for years ended September is shown in the following table.

Type of MeatTwelve Months Ended September
197419751976

Source: N.Z. Meat Producers Board.

 tonnes(000) shipping weight
Lamb—carcasses235.0258.2276.8
—cuts35.041.350.6
Mutton—carcasses106.078.981.3
—cuts8.27.46.3
Beef—manufacturing130.1155.2199.6
—other30.950.177.3
Veal10.011.710.9
Pig meat0.20.20.1
Other meats0.50.70.3
Fancy meats38.342.546.4
Inedible meat and offal15.716.916.5
Total610.0663.1766.1

There is considerable potential for expansion in lamb and mutton processing given adequate labour and plant and, in the case of lamb, some change in market requirements. Cutting and boning add significantly to the value of meat otherwise exported in carcass form and, in addition, there is a substantial freight saving.

Lamb export slaughterings during the 1975-76 season, at 24.4 million, were up 2.8 percent on the previous season's figure.

More significant was the continued sharp rise in the cattle kill. Slaughterings of steers and heifers were up 40 percent and 65 percent respectively, and cows up 24 percent, on the previous season's figures, and this surge of slaughterings has undoubtedly checked the rapid expansion of the country's beef cattle herd which began in the mid-1960s.

The following table gives livestock slaughter statistics at meat export works and abattoirs, omitting killings on farms and in rural slaughterhouses, for years ended September.

AnimalsYear Ended September
1972x1973x1974x1975x1976

Source: Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries.

   (000)  
Lambs27,84226,68422,99725,42825,961
Sheep8,61310,3288,7627,0946,592
Cattle1,7712,0311,7902,1372,573
Calves1,0571,0601,2441,4411,295
Pigs878752745720721

About two-thirds of lambs tailed are killed during the season, and some 90 percent of the lamb meat is exported.

Meat consumed in New Zealand represents approximately one-third of total production; quantities per head are shown in section 23, Consumption of Food.

Producer Control—The principle of producer control of the export meat industry was established in 1922. A system was created in which the processing and exporting companies—public, private, and co-operative—worked under the overall direction of the Meat Producers Board. This system over the years has given the producer a choice of the people he did business with and a choice of methods of selling his stock. That choice for the producer meant that he obtained full benefit from a competitive situation. The system has also given the producer, through his representatives on the Meat Producers Board, the chance to influence through sales promotion the sale of his meat right down to the retail shops half a world distant. The board has controlled shipping to place supplies and has advertised widely, especially in Britain; it controls its own system of grading export meat; and it is general spokesman for the industry.

The Meat Producers Board, the Wool Board, and the Wool Marketing Corporation are in the position of having to make not only long-term decisions but also to meet day-to-day situations as they occur. This they do with the aid of their own technical staff and through an economic service which is in close and constant contact with the sheep farming industry throughout New Zealand.

WOOL PRODUCTION—New Zealand holds third place in the world as a producer of wool, and second place as an exporter. Production is mainly of cross-bred wool.

The 1974-75 season was marked by low prices, weak demand, and extensive support to the market by the Wool Marketing Corporation. However, the market showed signs of improvement during the second half of the season, and the Corporation was able to dispose of a substantial quantity of the wool it had bought in at earlier sales.

The 1975-76 season was characterised by a continuing firm demand for wool of all types. This trend continued upwards throughout the season and resulted in the largest gross value for wool ever.

The following table shows for the last 6 seasons the total wool production (greasy basis), the movement in the average price per kilogram of wool (greasy basis), and the estimated total value of wool production (obtained by valuing the production estimate at the overall price per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction).

Season Ended 30 JuneTotal Wool Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price Per Kilogram (Greasy Basis)Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
 tonnes(000)cents$(m)
197232266.46214.2
1973309143.96444.5
1974285139.19396.4
197529491.75269.8
1976312157.12489.9

On account of lack of information on changes in stocks of wool on farms, the above figures of production should not be taken as precise measures of actual production in each season.

New Zealand Wool Board—The New Zealand Wool Board was set up under the Wool Industry Act 1944. There are 6 representatives of woolgrowers, elected by an Electoral Committee of 26. (The members of the committee are in turn elected by sheepfarmers. The same committee elects the Meat Producers Board.) Representatives on both Boards have a 3-year term and are eligible for re-election. There are 2 Government appointed members and the Director General of Agriculture is an associate member.

The Board's main functions are to promote the use of New Zealand wool through research and through advertising and related activities. It advises the Government on industry matters and may exercise other functions in production and marketing by regulation.

The Board's main sources of income are a 3 percent levy on all wool whether processed in New Zealand or exported; a Government grant to assist in financing overseas research and product development (currently $2 million); an annual grant of $600,000 from the Wool Marketing Corporation, being interest on grower funds held by the Corporation: and interest on the Board's own investments. In 1975–76 the gross income was $16,300,000.

With the Meat Producers Board, the Wool Board maintains the Economic Service, which surveys a representative 500 pastoral farms. The Board's own staff, numbering about 30, are engaged in economic studies on production and marketing, advisory services on breeding and wool preparation, a shearer training scheme, technical assistance to wool processors and garment manufacturers, and the full range of promotion activities on the New Zealand market. The Board also offers technical assistance to users of New Zealand wool overseas and engages in some promotion in Australia and other export markets.

More than four-fifths of the Board's income is contributed to the work of the International Wool Secretariat. In 1976–77 this amounted to $13.2 million—including the $2 million Government grant. The IWS is a partnership with Australia, South Africa, and Uruguay. It has headquarters in London and operates in almost all countries with a substantial consumer market. It offers technical and fashion assistance in menswear, womenswear, and furnishings to manufacturers; administers the Woolmark and Woolblendmark, maintaining quality control in more than 13,000 plants; and promotes wool through campaigns with manufacturers and retailers. The Wool Board represents New Zealand on the board of the IWS.

The Board provides approximately half the annual revenue of the Wool Research Organisation of New Zealand (WRONZ). In 1976–77, this was $450,000. Established in 1960 at Lincoln, Christchurch, WRONZ has a professional staff of about 35. It conducts fundamental research on the wool fibre and applied research on scouring, processing and performance of New Zealand wools and fibre measurement as an aid in marketing.

The amalgamation of the Wool Board and the Wool Marketing Corporation (see below) has been under study for some considerable time and, early in May 1977, it was announced that the merger had definitely been decided upon. The amalgamated body is to be called the New Zealand Wool Board and will have a 10-man directorate, of whom 6 will be elected by the Wool Board's electoral committee, 3 appointed by the Minister of Agriculture, and one appointed by the other nine.

New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation—The New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation, successor to the Wool Commission, was established under the Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972. It has wide powers to obtain, in the interests of growers, the best long-term returns for New Zealand wool, including the power to acquire and market all wool produced in New Zealand. It has indicated, however, that it will not invoke this latter power unless a majority of growers support the move.

The Corporation has ten directors: a chairman nominated by the Wool Board and approved by the Minister of Agriculture, three growers representatives from the Wool Board, one nominated by the Wool Board (not being a member of that Board) for his commercial experience, two nominated by the Minister, and the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries. The Chief Executive and a tenth man nominated by the Corporation board are associate (non-voting) directors.

The Corporation values all wool offered at auction and intervenes in the market according to its commercial judgement. In doing this it may buy wool. At the end of the 1975–76 season it held approximately 50,000 bales, the remainder of a stockpile purchased in this way over the preceding 2 years which had reached a peak of 272,000 bales in February 1975. It sells from this stockpile, normally through the established wool trade in New Zealand.

For these operations it has reserve funds which totalled approximately $72 million at 30 June 1976 and were derived originally from sales of wool accumulated during World War II.

Wool is also valued by the Corporation for the purpose of ensuring a minimum return to growers (the "minimum floor price"). In the 1976–77 season, the minimum floor price was set at an average of 136 cents per kilogram greasy weight. When the market price for a lot offered at auction falls below the appropriate minimum price, the Corporation pays the difference to the grower as a supplementary payment. Supplement is also paid on privately sold wool provided the buyer displays it for appraisal by the Corporation.

Until 25 January 1975, these payments were made from Corporation funds. As at that date the Government made $15 million available for that purpose and up to 30 June 1976 approximately half that amount had been paid out to growers in this way. Under the Wool Stabilisation Regulations 1976 which came into force on 1 July 1976, a levy was introduced on wool sold for the first time and eligible for minimum floor price protection for the purpose of funding the minimum prices scheme.

Other functions of the Corporation include market intelligence and the operation of a statistical service covering production, disposal, and market prices. Its Act provides for a Wool Auction Sales Committee which draws up and supervises the roster of wool auction sales, it is involved financially and otherwise in the development of sale of wool by sample and other market innovations, it is concerned in wool transport, packaging, and wool facilities, it is the negotiator of freight rates for wool, it collects the Wool Board levy on behalf of the Board, and it operates a number of wool stores for its own use.

In addition it is responsible for administration on behalf of Government of the Wool Income Retention Scheme introduced by the Wool Income Stabilisation Regulations 1976. Under this scheme a percentage of gross proceeds from sale of wool is retained when the adjusted weighted average sale price at auction exceeds a "trigger price" set by the Minister (195 cents per kilogram greasy weight in 1976–77). The proceeds so retained are credited to individual growers' accounts and are refundable to growers after 5 years or in special circumstances as prescribed in the regulations.

The Corporation's main sources of income are interest on its reserves ($1.96 million in 1975–76) and profit from wool trading ($14.2 million in 1975–76).

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION COUNCIL—This council was set up following a recommendation of the Agricultural Development Conference in 1964. It comprises the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries (chairman), the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries (deputy-chairman), the Dominion President, Federated Farmers of New Zealand (Inc.), the chairmen of the three producer boards (Dairy, Meat, and Wool), the Secretary to the Treasury, and the Secretary of Industries and Commerce. As a result of a review in 1973–74 the chairman of the Horticulture Committee was added to the membership of the council.

In addition to one standing committee on horticulture, the Council has 22 District Agricultural Advisory Committees which bring together at local level all the organisations which service agriculture in that region. These committees review the progress of agriculture in their district; identify factors limiting production and propose remedial measures; ensure that farmers and their advisors are fully aware of development incentives and concessions and the availability and terms of finance; and keep the council advised of local problems and circumstances.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries was formed in 1972 by grafting the fisheries management and research divisions of the former Marine Department on to the Department of Agriculture. The principal functions of the ministry are: to promote and to encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, horticultural and fishing industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; and to promote, control and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of agriculture and fisheries. Under a Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries there are Divisions of Animal Health, Meat, Dairy, Advisory Services, Agricultural Research, Fisheries Research, Fisheries Management, Economics, and Administration. Though the service is primarily advisory, the ministry administers a number of Acts and regulations.

Animal Health—The major objective of the Animal Health Division is to safeguard the health of livestock in New Zealand by preventing the introduction of serious exotic diseases and to work towards the eradication of existing endemic diseases. The division's veterinarians examine animals and certify them as suitable for export; they maintain surveillance and quarantine procedures which reduce the risk of introducing foreign diseases with import of animals and animal products. The division operates quarantine stations for imported livestock. Five regional animal health laboratories are operated by the division and provide diagnostic support to practitioners and veterinarians of other divisions of the ministry. It also operates a national reference laboratory for infectious diseases and for diagnostic tests of imported and exported animals. A central brucellosis laboratory services the national brucellosis testing scheme.

The division is associated with the Pest Destruction Council, through district pest destruction boards, in the destruction of rabbits, hares, opossums, and wallabies.

Meat—The Meat Division is responsible for the inspection of stock intended for slaughter at abattoirs and export meatworks and for the later inspection of the carcasses. It is also responsible for the standard of hygiene at these establishments as well as in meat packing houses, rural slaughterhouses, game packing houses, and export fish packing houses. Veterinary certificates for meat, game, and fish exported are given by veterinary staff of the division, and meat-inspection staff are responsible for grading meat for local consumption produced at abattoirs and supervising the grading of meat for local consumption at export meatworks.

Dairy Produce—Instruction in the manufacture of all dairy products is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy produce is inspected and graded before shipment and on arrival in United Kingdom. The division is responsible also for the registration of town-supply farm dairies and provides technical advice on market milk treatment. Laboratories at Auckland, New Plymouth, Mount Maunganui, Wellington, and Hamilton provide comprehensive examination of dairy products as a background to quality control. All dairy farms are visited regularly by farm dairy instructors. Dairy advisory officers give specialist advice at farms and dairy factories. The division licenses and registers dairy factories and approves their design, general suitability and economic justification.

Advisory Services to Farmers—The Advisory Services Division provides advisory services to farmers and horticulturalists and undertakes the various activities such as plant diagnostic, quarantine, testing, and field inspection services needed to meet the ministry's responsibilities under the Plants Act 1970.

The graduate advisory officers, who service the districts, are backed by specialists in the fields of agricultural engineering, animal husbandry, and farm economics. Extension work operates through individual farm visits, group techniques, and the mass media.

Outside its extension work, this division is responsible for certification and testing of herbage and cereal seeds, for the Flock House Farm Training Institute at Bulls, and for the educational and training aspects of the Telford Farm Training Institute at Balclutha. The division also provides a specialist advisory service for poultry farmers.

The advisory service extends to commercial producers of pip, stone, citrus, and subtropical fruits, vegetables, berry fruits, cut flowers, nursery stock, grapes and wine, bees and honey, hops, and tobacco. It covers all aspects of production—soil management, disease and pest control, and crop production and handling. Advisory officers demonstrate and adapt research results in districts for all horticultural crops and beekeeping. Experimental and demonstration areas are sited at Kerikeri and Manutuke (citrus). More emphasis is being given to commercial horticultural units to assist producers to improve the profitability of their holdings.

Horticultural inspectors inspect commercial plant nurseries, market gardens, and orchards for plant pests and diseases to restrict their spread. They advise producers on dates for picking, and give instruction in grading and packing fruit for export and local markets. They also inspect fruit, vegetables, and plant material for export from New Zealand. All pip fruit delivered to the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board for local and export markets is inspected by horticultural inspectors. An orange-quality testing service is provided for the Citrus Marketing Authority and a honey-grading service for the Honey Marketing Authority. All, honey for export is inspected before certificates are issued.

Information is supplied for marketing organisations in the form of seasonal forecasts of production. Periodic surveys are made of orchards, market gardens, and nurseries.

Agricultural Research—All research stations of the ministry are under the control of the Director of Agricultural Research, with headquarters at Ruakura. Directors of Animal Research, and Soil and Field Research are also stationed at Ruakura. Irrigation research is done at Winchmore, and other research establishments are at Whatawhata (near Hamilton), which specialises in hill-country research, and at Invermay. Research work on animal diseases is centred largely at Wallaceville. Horticultural research is centred at Levin and viticultural research at Te Kauwhata. Research activities are more fully discussed in Section 7B, Science and Scientific Services.

Economics—The Economics Division deals with all aspects of agricultural policy including international trade and trade negotiations in relation to agriculture, international quality standards, liaison with international agencies, the analysis of national production and marketing policies, and the general economic position of farmers. Other functions include the economic appraisal of projects associated with agricultural development and resource use, the economics of the fishing industry, and the economic evaluation of research proposals.

Port Agriculture Service—The Port Agriculture Service is a uniformed branch of the ministry under the control of a superintendent directly responsible to the Director-General. Its chief responsibility is to prevent the introduction into New Zealand of serious animal and plant diseases and pests. Officers of this service are located at ports and international airports, and deal with all items of concern to agriculture from overseas.

Pasture Grasses—Researches and experiments in regard to pasture grasses are regular features of the activities of both the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. These experiments, which extend to individual farms throughout New Zealand, and are conducted in co-operation with the farmers themselves, are wide in their application, and cover all the major phases of pasture management, dealing in particular with such items as pasture mixtures, suitability as to soil types, methods of establishment and management, the efficient use of fertilisers, etc.

TOPDRESSING—Topdressing with artificial fertilisers has been an important factor in the intensification of grassland farming. Most New Zealand soils need fertilisers, especially phosphates. Superphosphate has been produced in New Zealand in increasing quantities since the 1880s, using rock phosphates from Nauru and Ocean Islands; Christmas Island is now an increasingly important source of supply. Over the years there has been a marked changeover from straight superphosphate as the principal fertiliser for grassland and crops—usual variants are serpentine superphosphate or aerial superphosphate, or a mixture of superphosphate with potash, additional sulphur or a trace element. Production of chemical fertilisers in 1975–76 totalled 2,142,000 tonnes compared with 1,819,000 tonnes in 1974–75, a 17.8 percent rise. Approximately half of the sown grassland receives fertiliser annually, with about half the fertilised area covered by aerial distribution; about one-third of the quantity is distributed by aeroplanes from 8,000 airstrips. Total expenditure on topdressing of farm land comes to about $80 million annually, including fertiliser transport and application costs. New Zealand occupies less than 0.3 percent of the world's land area, yet this country uses 2 percent of the world's fertiliser production.

The use of lime to correct soil acidity and increase the availability of trace elements grew steadily from 1890 to a peak of 1.5 million tonnes in 1945. Since then the usage has dropped to less than 1 million tonnes annually; there is now a more judicious application of lime and a greater use of trace elements, such as molybdenum, according to proved soil needs.

The following table gives particulars of areas of grassland topdressed during the latest available years. From 1972 this information is being collected triennially.

 Area TopdressedQuantity of Fertiliser and Lime Spread
Year*Fertiliser OnlyLime OnlyFertiliser and Lime TogetherTotal Area TopdressedBy Ordinary MeansBy Aeroplanes
*Year ended 31 January to 1970 and 30 June thereafter.
 ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)tonnes(000)tonnes(000)
19704,853.8165.4632.95,652.12,003.8951.3
19714,758.3171.8695.75,625.82,218.9930.4
19724,758.7187.5741.75,688.02,189.61,020.2
19754,143.4226.6555.24,925.21,819.5747.1

IRRIGATION—Most of New Zealand soils have a seasonal moisture deficiency and require irrigation to reach their maximum productivity. Many soils presently farmed under dry land conditions are capable of substantially increased production under irrigation.

The Upper Waitaki scheme serving an area of 2,000 hectares was completed in 1970 and construction of the Lower Waitaki scheme to serve 14,000 hectares is proceeding.

During 1975–76 the Water Resources Council gave approval in principle to five new irrigation schemes and specific approval for the construction of a further two new schemes. In addition, the large-scale Waiau Plains (Canterbury) and Maniototo (Otago) irrigation schemes were recommended to Government for specific approval. Construction of the Maerewhenua irrigation scheme commenced, and the Morven-Glenavy and Waitaki schemes progressed satisfactorily.

Major irrigation schemes are financed, constructed, and operated by the Government.

Charges for water supplied to farms are fixed so that over a period of 40 years the revenue should meet the costs of operation and maintenance or periodic renewal of items of capital works, and of interest on one-quarter of the capital cost of the scheme.

In addition to these large, Government-controlled schemes, irrigation is used on single farms or orchards in many parts of New Zealand, in particular, in Hawke's Bay, Nelson, and Marlborough. Water is generally drawn from underground sources, or pumped from rivers and drains, and applied by spraying.

The Ministry of Works and Development is extending its activities for the investigation, design, and construction of new irrigation schemes, including the co-ordination of other Government and local agencies. To qualify as an approved scheme an irrigation proposal must, in general, include a minimum of four farm businesses and an area to be irrigated of not less than 400 hectares and also meet agreed engineering and benefit/cost standards.

Approved irrigation schemes are financed on a basis of the Government's providing the full capital cost of all off-farm works and approved fixed on-farm works, and half of the cost of off-farm distribution works within the irrigable area to be recovered. The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation takes security for the full capital cost of approved fixed on-farm works. Two-thirds of the cost is recovered by way of mortgage and one-third is treated as a suspensory loan. The loan will be written off at the expiration of 7 years.

Approved irrigation development not qualifying as a scheme will qualify for Rural Banking and Finance Corporation loans of 100 percent with interest and capital repayments deferred, if necessary, during the initial 4 years of development.

Local irrigation committees have been set up to reappraise all existing schemes and, through the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority, to advise the Minister of Works and Development on upgrading, operation, and maintenance. There are also official irrigation committees for each of the 7 Ministry of Works districts. These district committees are convened and chaired by the district commissioner of works and include representatives of Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Rural Banking and Finance Corporation and regional water boards. Other members may be co-opted if and when required.

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC.—For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry and allied organisations from public funds.

The following table shows the pattern of major payments in recent years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.1971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76x1976–77*
*Estimates.
   $(000)   
Lime transport assistance241456572492379250
Fertiliser transport subsidy8,94512,48011,6498,1829,16113,400
Flood and drought relief313192951145263400
Weedicide and pesticide subsidy4,7015,4162,479---
Eradication of bovine tuberculosis and brucellosis—      
Compensation for condemned animals, loss of production payments, hardship payments, and incidental costs2,1323,6042,9852,9792,6873,435
Agricultural pests control2,2692,5352,7283,0254,0694,990
Subsidies to nassella tussock boards2247405887613,1457,730
Subsidies to county councils under the Noxious Weeds Act1617405887613,1457,730
Agricultural Engineering Institute190223276327373420
Herd Improvement Council111120132147160160
National Hydatids Council120152201192--
Veterinary Services Council434457606060
Fertiliser price subsidy13,13419,0928,81435,50261,50763,000
Special Assistance Fund185-3-2-
Dairy diversion scheme (beef)2,049281---200
Stock drench subsidy3,5915,1523,097---
Aerial application of fertiliser and lime subsidy4971,104432--..
Grant to New Zealand Wool Board3,8124,1634,4002,8792,0002,000
Stock retention incentive-11,87136---
Grants to Dairy Products Development Centre-75340175188186
Pipfruit pesticides rebate----391-
Fertiliser and lime bounty----14,69716,200
Contribution to Meat Income Stabilisation Account----35,000-
Contribution to Wool Income Stabilisation Account----15,000-
Feed storage construction subsidy---219839400
Lucerne establishment grant---417655400
Sharemilkers' Suspensory Loan Scheme----145300
Cartage grants to dairy companies----264700

Lime Transport Assistance—Since 30 November 1959 a subsidy on lime transport has been paid to farmers applying lime to newly developed land which is lime responsive, has not previously been limed and which is cultivated and sown for the first time; or, if it cannot be cultivated, which receives its first dressing of lime. The rates of subsidy are 3.7c per tonne-kilometre for the first 100 km and 1.2c per tonne-kilometre thereafter. A revised scheme which subsidises the transport of all lime from approved lime works at the same rates of transport subsidy as those applying to fertiliser became operative from the date of the 1976 Budget in July 1976.

Fertiliser Price Subsidy—A uniform subsidy of $5 per ton ex-works on all fertiliser was introduced on 6 July 1970. It was increased to $7.50 per tonne in June 1971. From June 1973 it applied to the first 30 tonnes only. From 1 July 1974 a subsidy has been paid on all fertiliser bought by farmers, without restriction on quantity, to keep the price of fertiliser to that applying at 30 June 1974. The rate of subsidy applying from 10 August 1975 was $35.79 per tonne, but this was reduced to $25 per tonne from midnight 29 July 1976.

Fertiliser Transport Subsidy—From 1965 there has been a subsidy on the transport of fertiliser (excluding lime). The subsidy is 4.4c per tonne-kilometre for distances up to 30 km, 3.7c per tonne-kilometre between 30 and 160 km, and 2c per tonne-kilometre over 160 km.

Fertiliser and Lime Bounty—This bounty was introduced from 24 January 1975 to encourage the application of fertiliser and lime. A bounty of $7.50 per tonne for fertiliser and $2 per tonne for lime spread by contractors, and $5 per tonne for fertiliser and $1 per tonne for lime spread by farmers was paid for fertiliser and lime applied between 24 January and 30 June 1975. The scheme was extended to 31 December 1975, with the rates for fertiliser spread after 30 June 1975 being $4.50 per tonne for fertiliser ground-spread by a contractor, $7.50 per tonne for fertiliser air-spread by a contractor, and $3 per tonne for fertiliser spread by a farmer. From 29 July 1976 the rates for the air spread bounty, the groundspread bounty, and farmer-spreading were amended to $8.50 per tonne, $4.00 per tonne, and $2.50 per tonne respectively. Lime-spreading rates have remained unchanged.

Noxious Weeds Eradication—The estimates for 1975–76 include $2.56 million for the Noxious Plants Control Scheme introduced from 23 May 1975. Actual expenditure was $3.15 million. For 1976–77, $7.73 million was allocated.

Contribution to the Meat and Wool Stabilisation Accounts—In January 1975 the Government announced a scheme of special assistance to farmers. Up to $15 million was made available for wool income stabilisation and up to $35 million for meat income stabilisation. The wool support was to enable a minimum price of 93c a kilogram to apply to wool sold in the 1974–75 season; the meat support involved an extra $1 a lamb on lambs sold to export houses in the 1974–75 season and also a supplement of 60c a lamb on lambs sold by store-stock producers, and a supplementary payment on export beef.

Other Items—Most of the remaining items represent attempts to deal with specific problems, such as the eradication of bovine tuberculosis, which are of importance to the whole community but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on individuals or small groups, and the cost of the Government contribution towards running particular organisations, such as the Agricultural Engineering Institute.

FARM MACHINERY—The following table gives details of farm machinery for those items where comparison is available. The 1974 figures relate to holdings of 1 hectare and over (previous years 4 hectares and over). Machinery owned by farm contractors is not included.

Type of Machine1965197019711974

NOTE: Other farm machinery at 30 June 1974 included 21,483 cultivators. 14,391 grain drills, 4,944 spray irrigation plants, 31,640 weed and crop sprayers, 19,946 lime and fertiliser spreaders, 1,174 potato planters, 1,507 potato harvesters and 16,193 grain silos or bins. Farm trucks totalled 32,967.

Agricultural tractors89,43195,50296,66695,289
Milking machines32,88727,93025,79321,408
Shearing stands65,91871,05572,66968,271
Pick-up balers10,24712,61812,92612,994
Side delivery rakes24,17825,37825,06422,223
Harvesters—    
Forage4,2805,4035,4515,225
Header5,2895,7245,5914,828
Electric fence units63,97070,14074,58371,336
Field mowers-52,00551,00842,720
Ploughs-42,10141,39233,646
Disc harrows-32,97932,49930,288

Milking Machines—At the end of June 1974 there were 21,408 milking machine plants in use, with a total of 181,445 sets of cups, compared with 27,930 machines and 205,268 sets of cups at 31 January 1970.

Agricultural Tractors—The classes of tractors on farm holdings outside borough boundaries at 30 June 1974 are given in the following table.

Type19701974
Diesel oil—  
Crawler7,5977,939
Wheel43,26052,209
Totals50,85760,148
Petrol or kerosene—  
Crawler5,9463,713
Wheel38,69931,428
Totals44,64535,141

13 B—CROPS

GENERAL—Crops grown in New Zealand are in general sufficient to meet domestic needs for agricultural products, apart from tropical and subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, etc.

Local requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones are met by New Zealand orchard production. Citrus fruits are grown in the subtropical northern portion of the North Island (although in addition substantial quantities of oranges are imported), and grapes are cultivated in certain localities. There is a substantial export trade in apples and pears.

Potato and onion production is normally adequate.

Wheat production fluctuates in relation to price incentives and imports are sometimes necessary.

Animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full 12 months of the year, but the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. Hay and silage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialise in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders other than grass and clover, hay, and silage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal and extension of pastures require the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seed. There is an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION—Grain growing is localised to a considerable extent, the Canterbury statistical area, with its fertile plains, supplying more than half of New Zealand's wheat yield, about half of the oats threshed, and over half of the barley yield. In recent years, however, the North Island has grown higher proportions of wheat and barley crops.

Maize growing is largely confined to certain portions of the East Coast (notably Cook County) and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty areas. The growing of peas for threshing is carried out extensively in Canterbury, and to a lesser extent in Marlborough and Wellington, Canterbury alone producing over three-quarters of the total yield. About two-thirds of the area closed off for production of grass seed is in the Canterbury district.

The Canterbury statistical area also produces a large proportion of the commercial potato crop, followed by Wellington statistical area, while the growing of potatoes for the early market is of importance in a few relatively frost-free areas, particularly Pukekohe, near Auckland. The Pukekohe district also provides the Auckland area with a considerable portion of its vegetable requirements as well as being the main onion-growing area of the Island. Wellington City draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts, while Ohakune, in the centre of the North Island, with climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages and broccoli, supplies both Auckland and Wellington with these vegetables. Hastings has become a centre for the canning and processing of many vegetables.

In the South Island market gardening is carried on near cities, on the rich soils near Christchurch, south of Oamaru, and on the Taieri Plains just south of Dunedin. Nelson also produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions. The Nelson and Hawke's Bay districts are notable for their apple and pear orchards, a high percentage of the crops from these districts normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. Hawke's Bay and Nelson are also noted for their peach production. In certain particularly warm areas of the North Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne.

Grape growing is of importance near Auckland and in Hawke's Bay, and to a lesser extent in South Auckland. Tobacco growing is confined to the Nelson district, hop growing also being concentrated in this area.

The area devoted to each of the principal crops in the 1972–73 season and the percentage distribution of each crop by districts was shown in a table in the 1976 Yearbook.

The following table shows the varieties of wheat, oats, barley, and peas threshed during the year ended 30 June 1974. It should be noted that some holdings grow more than one variety of a crop and that if, for example, a holding grows three varieties of wheat it appears three times in the "Number of Holdings" column. As a result, the aggregates of holdings by individual varieties may exceed the totals of holdings under particular crops.

VarietyNumber of HoldingsArea From which ThreshedTotal YieldAverage Yield Per HectarePercentage of Survey AreaPercentage of Total Yield
  Hectares(000)Tonnes(000)TonnesPercentPercent
Wheat—      
  Aotea2,19529.4100.33.4143.6646.70
  Hilgendorf98812.935.52.7519.1416.55
  Arawa5046.118.33.009.058.53
  Gamenya1932.88.22.934.153.82
  Kopara77312.538.53.0818.5517.95
  Raven190.20.93.290.300.42
  Opal180.10.53.500.140.23
  Other3693.412.43.655.015.80
Totals4,00667.4214.63.18100.00100.00
Oats—      
  Onward1,1875.617.53.1326.0527.69
  Mapua2,67111.735.33.0254.4355.85
  Black Supreme3531.43.62.576.515.69
  Grey Winter1170.20.62.420.930.95
  Achilles1300.41.02.741.861.58
  Other White3891.12.82.555.124.43
  Other2251.12.42.185.103.81
Totals4,65721.563.22.95100.00100.00
  Barley—      
  Carlsberg1,41413.439.02.9115.3916.15
  Kenia3693.410.73.153.904.43
  Research2793.411.13.273.904.60
  Zephyr4,70065.0173.72.6774.6471.88
  Other2651.97.13.742.172.94
Totals6,66887.1241.62.77100.00100.00
  Peas—      
  Field varieties      
  Maple5798.420.62.4441.1838.83
  White2862.45.42.2511.7710.22
  Blue Boiling3153.810.82.8418.6320.46
  Garden varieties6425.816.12.7828.4230.49
Totals1,57620.452.92.59100.00100.00
Maize—Totals89312.588.37.06......

Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics and in statistical bulletins issued by the Department of Statistics. Unless otherwise stated, the statistics quoted in this subsection relate to holdings of 1 hectare and above situated outside borough boundaries or in rural areas of municipalities.

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS—Details of areas for threshing, total yields, and yields per hectare of the principal grain and seed crops during recent years are set out in the following table.

YearWheatOatsBarleyMaizePeas
  Areas for threshing (hectares)   
1972-73107,69015,07973,75012,85821,390
1973-7467,41421,45187,14312,51620,357
1974-7557,65619,036104,49520,55821,822
  Total yield (tonnes)   
1972-73376,11144,965285,261117,50759,733
1973-74214,59063,237241,58088,30452,891
1974-75179,87450,219262,881157,59947,522
  Yields per hectare (tonnes)   
1972-733.492.983.509.132.79
1973-743.182.942.777.062.59
1974-753.122.642.527.672.18

The following table which gives the number of holdings and total area sown during the 1973–74 season shows cereal cropping on various types of farm. The areas include threshed, fed off, and crop abandoned during the 1973–74 season.

Farm TypeWheatOatsBarleyMaize
AreaTotalAreaTotalAreaTotalAreaTotal
ThreshedYieldThreshedYieldThreshedYieldThreshedYield

*75 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

∥More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

 HectaresTonnesHectaresTonnesHectaresTonnesHectaresTonnes
Dairy*1253362104851,7495,2736493,968
Sheep*12,36140,5058,31925,39814,20342,044189699
Beef*1965032125569572,5334453,232
Pig*154621526392,08482709
Cropping*8,75628,1191,1202,9548,50928,0933,97226,159
Dairy with sheep31136461362236391531
Dairy with beef301141123268915951,362
Dairy with other15052428543461,1133552,561
Sheep with dairy15654873210038612128
Sheep with beef2,0407,0122,3706,8576,28519,7414424,318
Sheep with cropping12,94240,1092,7458,1898,97930,594117568
Sheep with other1967071596145091,6072089
Beef with dairy----2069481,503
Beef with sheep116480541396522,4392001,270
Beef with other153450752643771,2582971,747
Cropping with sheep10,01230,8121,1573,0956,34021,3662151,761
Cropping with other9093,2281504831,3554,8789287,660
Pig with other--103133865634186
Mixed livestock6272,3476841,9753,12310,1483792,524
General mixed farming§18,34957,8303,66210,72330,84961,4493,86226,747
Poultry farming216892719566425123
Market gardening73019355161,85448352
Orchards--5155114640320
Other farming96289507531086328119
Stud farm1263893281,01425075719158
Total all types67,414214,58221,45163,22687,143241,56912,51688,294

WHEAT—The 1975 wheat harvest fell to 202,600 tonnes, which was the smallest for the 15 previous seasons and, as a result, the Wheat Board found it necessary to import 141,891 tonnes. A 50-year series is given in the Statistical Summary towards the end of the Yearbook.

The following diagram shows the fluctuations that have occurred in the area sown in wheat, together with the total yield and the average yield per acre.

Wheat Board—Control of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the Wheat Board, which is also responsible for the distribution of flour and associated offal. The operations of this Board, which consists of representatives of flourmillers, wheat growers, bread bakers, the poultry industry, the grain seed and produce business, the Department of Trade and Industry with the Minister of Trade and Industry as chairman, and one person with no direct association with any of the above industries as deputy chairman, are governed by the Wheat Board Act 1965.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Board through the agency of grain merchants acting as brokers for the board. The board is responsible for the distribution of all imported wheat and its functions also include arrangements for the processing of wheat by flour-millers and the sale of the resultant flour and offal to merchants, bakers, pastry cooks, grocers, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand for flour and cereal foods approximates 313,000 tonnes. Wheat is also required for poultry foods and seed. Research is assisted by a levy on wheat and flour on recommendation of the Wheat Research Committee.

MAIZE—Maize is principally grown on the East of the North Island, Hawke's Bay, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty. During the last decade the area sown has greatly increased, partly as a result of the introduction of improved hybrid maize varieties. The yield of grain threshed has doubled. Maize is used principally as poultry feed, but smaller amounts are used to feed pigs and other stock.

BARLEY—Barley is used mainly in the manufacture of stock feeds, and for malting. The production of barley is increasing steadily, mainly because of the growing demand for stock feeds.

OATS—Most of the oats are grown for threshing and green feed and not for chaff. From the grain milled, rolled oats, oatmeal, and proprietary oaten foods are produced, along with feed for animals and fowls.

VEGETABLES—The production of the main vegetables for the fresh market is shown in the following table for the latest 4 years; production for processing is also shown for 1974 and 1975.

Vegetable1972197319741974 (Processed)19751975 (Processed)

*Production for fresh market is outdoor plus glasshouse; production for processing is outdoor only.

†Glasshouse production only.

   tonnes   
Asparagus4004372761,0824771,342
Beans, green93195582910,6171,00316,554
Beetroot1,6741,5241,4703,6751,4084,177
Brussel sprouts1,7231,8291,9043301,819245
Cabbages28,17728,44926,14885025,463748
Carrots24,05727,43327,95012,40428,7717,929
Cauliflower23,09923,36918,24352924,043636
Kumaras7,5828,3329,235-7,46524
Lettuce14,61915,74916,429-15,766-
Onions34,45436,98437,7781,95643,8541,680
Parsnips3,9564,3694,609144,362-
Peas43837624134,78372029,936
Sweet corn1,5231,7272,26230,5732,92828,893
Tomatoes*21,77622,78023,48827,04024,47625,709
Celery4,0444,6743,5613933,377290
Cucumbers1,0971,2291,293..1,217-

There has been a marked increase in recent years in the quantity and variety of crops grown for processing. The quick-freezing industry has expanded rapidly and so have other forms of processing, such as canning, freeze-drying, and the manufacture of prepared foods. The major areas producing vegetables for processing are the Heretaunga Plains around Hastings, Gisborne, Christchurch, and Timaru. Peas are the main crop, followed by sweet corn, tomatoes, carrots and green beans. For a number of vegetables, the processing figures for 1975 show slight falls as compared with the previous year. This was mainly because of poor harvests and a small drop in the demand for peas.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries estimates that 3,000 vegetable producers were cultivating a total area of 21,777 hectares during the year ended 31 October 1974. Included in this figure were some 13,900 hectares of vegetables for processing.

POTATOES—The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet the home market.

Under the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950 a Potato Board was established consisting of 7 members, 3 of whom are representative of the growers on an elective basis, 3 nominated by the New Zealand Grain, Seed, and Produce Merchants' Federation (Incorporated), and one an officer of the Public Service acting in an advisory capacity.

The principal function of the board is to ensure that adequate supplies of main-crop potatoes are available for consumption in New Zealand, and for that purpose to enter into contracts with growers for the growing of main-crop potatoes. The Act provides that the board may impose a levy not exceeding $3 per ton on main-crop potatoes sold by growers, the proceeds of which are to be applied by the board in payment of charges, etc., for which it may become liable in the exercise of its functions.

The board undertakes to compensate contract growers for any declared unsold number one grade contract produce held by growers at the end of the season. From the 1972–73 season to the 1975–76 season the rate was $20 per tonne in the South Island and $24 per tonne in the North Island.

Potato yields have risen to such an extent that a population of 3 million is now supplied from the same acreages as were 1 3/4 million people 20 years earlier. Most of this increased production has been achieved through new varieties and better farming practice based on research results.

Figures for area and yield of potatoes for the latest available 3 years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonnestonnes
1972-738,995244,42127.15
1973-748,606206,19223.96
1974-758,854225,52225.47

ONIONS—Areas in, and yields of, onions for the latest available 3 years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonnestonnes
1972-731,09232,20929.50
1973-741,09924,66222.44
1974-751,31629,01322.05

GLASSHOUSES—The following table shows the area of glasshouses (heated and cold) given over to the production of tomatoes, cucumbers, beans and grapes.

Vegetable or Fruit19721973197419751976
 Area in square metres (000)    
Tomatoes1,054.21,080.41,038.01,011.31,335.2
Cucumbers69.770.076.374.497.7
Beans27.725.727.339.549.0
Grapes49.747.553.553.853.6

LINSEED—Most of the linseed is grown under contract for the production of linseed oil and about 3,500 hectares are sown each year. The oil is extracted mainly for use in paints, and the residue provides a valuable concentrate for stock food.

SEED CERTIFICATION—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates a seed certification scheme covering the more important herbage species, cereals, brassicas, and potatoes. Bred varieties of these species are produced by the Grasslands and the Crop Research Division of the DSIR. These are then reproduced under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries which releases them as Breeder's seed which in turn produces Bas c seed. The final stages in the multiplication of certified seed are known as 1st and 2nd Generation seeds. Basic and Certified seed, 1st and 2nd Generation, are sold through the usual commercial channels.

GRASS SEED—The areas of grass, clover, and lucerne crops harvested for seed, are given in the following table.

Crop1969-701970-711971-721972-731973-74
   hectares  
Ryegrass24,85148,43321,96219,67646,183
Clovers15,31626,44915,52914,47314,861
Lucerne3,6795,4272,3551,569-
Other grasses and clovers, and mixed pasture8,86612,4849,3456,6347,608
Totals52,71292,79349,19142,352-

Quantities (in dressed weights) of grass, clover, brassica, and other seeds treated by machine dressing plants during the latest 2 years are given below.

Type of SeedYear Ended 31 October
19741975
*Figures not available.
Ryegrass—kilograms 
Perennial14,178,99511,970,096
Short Rotation (H1)1,865,8211,668,291
Italian (and Western Wolths)1,471,1831,171,980
Ariki2,115,9611,685,722
Tama2,814,6131,354,313
Nui-29,985
Chewings fescue68,33442,395
Brown top76,97872,310
Crested dogstail796,662629,095
Cocksfoot389,630651,235
Timothy138,002186,889
Phalaris tuberosa10,3749,478
Prairie grass20,69240,643
Yarrow2,3611,829
Yorkshire fog10,0788,729
White clover3,156,4113,957,285
Suckling clover34,366127,061
Cowgrass (including broad red)382,863236,402
Montgomery red clover154,472137,632
Lucerne331,755356,848
Other clovers58,33889,340
Mixtures and other grasses, clovers and herbs17,408-
Rape118,412194,275
Kale (including chou moellier)323,095265,105
Maize*2,121,426
Peas—  
garden*13,535,094
field*19,041,162
Swede38,82469,728
Turnip74,893128,494

Large quantities of grass and clover seed have been exported during recent years, especially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 21B of this issue.

HORTICULTURAL LAND USE—An indication of the size of the horticultural industry is given by the following figures of occupied land and the number of trees, as published by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries for 1975.

 hectares
Vineyards2,351
Citrus orchards1,588
Chinese gooseberry (kiwifruit) orchards1,089
Hop gardens251
Registered nurseries (690)1,348
Apples2.2 million trees
Pears155,000 trees

In 1975 commercial orchards contained an estimated 2,370,000 pip fruit trees, 904,000 stone fruit trees, 1,010,000 citrus fruit trees, and 739,000 trees or vines bearing sub-tropical fruit such as tamarillos, kiwifruit, passionfruit, and avocados.

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY—Whereas pip and stone fruits are grown commercially throughout New Zealand, citrus and subtropical fruits are largely confined to the coastal strip from North Auckland through the Bay of Plenty to Gisborne, where the climate is suitably mild.

During 1973, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries made its fifth comprehensive survey of commercial orchards throughout New Zealand. The following table compares the areas of orchards recorded in this survey with estimated areas in 1975. Because the 1973 survey did not take into account 1973 tree plantings and removals, it in effect gave the situation as at the end of 1972. The main producing areas for the various fruits are also given.

Fruit19731975Main Districts
Pip Fruithectares  
Apples4,9305,220Nelson, Hawke's Bay.
Pears542496Hawke's Bay, Nelson.
Stone Fruits—   
Apricots595579Otago.
Cherries105112Otago, Marlborough.
Nectarines262347Otago, Hawke's Bay.
Peaches1,3141,241Hawke's Bay, Auckland, Otago.
Plums362377Hawke's Bay, Auckland.
Citrus—   
Grapefruit435501Bay of Plenty.
Lemons164149Bay of Plenty.
Mandarins201253Bay of Plenty, Northland.
Oranges (sweet)362354Northland, Poverty Bay.
Tangelos223328Bay of Plenty, Northland, Poverty Bay.
Subtropicals—   
Kiwifruit (Chinese Gooseberries)7201,019Bay of Plenty.
Passionfruit2819Bay of Plenty, Poverty Bay.
Tamarillos208207Northland, Bay of Plenty.

Fruit and Crop Disposal—Estimated production and methods of disposal of the various fruit crops in 1975 are shown in the following table.

 Disposal 
FruitExport (fresh)Local Market (fresh)ProcessingTotal Production
Pip Fruit tonnes  
Apples73,56656,54629,291159,403
Pears1,97510,7444,70017,419
Stone Fruit    
Apricots2,7002,2024,902
Cherries52642568
Nectarines2,116872,203
Peaches11,1007,38718,487
Plums2,1874342,621
Citrus Fruit    
Grapefruit2,1272,9365,063
Lemons1,1662,1533,319
Sweet oranges2,3484902,838
Mandarins1,2271,227
Tangelos1,7023142,016
Subtropical Fruit    
Kiwifruit (Chinese gooseberries)3,0881,2131144,415
Tamarillos2267167760
Passionfruit5181132

BERRYFRUIT GROWING—Berryfruits are grown commercially throughout New Zealand.

The following table gives the estimated areas of the various berryfruits. The main producing areas are also shown. Figures are for years ended June of year shown.

Fruit197319741975Main Districts
  hectares  
Strawberries188217178Auckland.
Raspberries268248229Nelson, Canterbury.
Boysenberries135183179Nelson, Hawke's Bay, Bay of Plenty
Loganberries766Wairarapa, South Canterbury.
Blackcurrants89136153Canterbury, Dunedin.
Gooseberries181717Wairarapa, Horowhenua.

Estimated production and disposal of the various berryfruits is given in the following table.

FruitMarket (Fresh)ProcessingTotal Production
1973–741974–751973–741974–751973–741974–75
   tonnes   
Strawberries2,6652,6207034993,3683,119
Raspberries6146291,1929061,8061,535
Boysenberries3813917751,1311,1561,522
Loganberries363115195150
Blackcurrants101147204265305412
Gooseberries116854423120508

Commercial production in 1975 of blackberries (23 tonnes), blueberries (1 tonne), and red currants (4 tonnes) was on a very small scale.

The raspberry is the only berryfruit for which there is a statutory marketing scheme.

District marketing committees were established in Nelson in 1940, and in Canterbury and Otago in 1950. A Central Council of Raspberry Growers was created by the Raspberry Marketing Regulations 1950 to co-ordinate marketing by the 3 district committees.

GRAPE GROWING AND WINE PRODUCTION—In 1975 the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries estimated the national area in vineyards at 2,351 hectares, mainly in the regions Auckland, Northland, Waikato, Poverty Bay, Hawke's Bay, and Marlborough.

There were 355 commercial vineyards, with almost 4 million vines. Grape wine production in 1975 had increased to 34,600 kilolitres (1 kilolitre = 1000 litres). For the same period fruit wine production increased 30 percent. Wine exports to date have not been significant.

The 1975 total vineyard production of grapes was approximately 24,013 tonnes, of which 23,119 tonnes were used for winemaking, 600 tonnes used in the production of unfermented grape juice, and 294 tonnes sold for dessert.

The 1976 estimated area in commercial glasshouse vineries was 53,600 square metres producing some 294 tonnes of select dessert grapes. There is a small but expanding trade in select glasshouse grapes to the northern hemisphere.

APPLES AND PEARS—A summary of the activities of the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board appears in Section 20. Over 700 orchardists consistently sell apples and pears to the board. Over 75 percent of the total crop received comes from Nelson and Hawke's Bay.

The following table shows the quantities of the main varieties of fresh apples and pears received by districts by the Apple and Pear Marketing Board during the 1974–75 season.

VarietyHawke's BayNelsonOther DistrictsTotal
Apples— cartons (000)  
Granny Smith1,1525283562,036
Sturmer Pippin1996451781,022
Golden Delicious196432107735
Delicious86253146485
Red Delicious39514194630
Jonathan421152267
Dougherty15212926307
Cox's Orange Pippin6232269453
Richared712822121
Gravenstein1210313128
Others16166117344
Total apples2,4902,8581,1806,528
Pears—    
Williams Bon Chretien181230
Winter Cole735816147
Winter Nelis601534109
Packham's Triumph3555898
Others2626658
Total pears19417276442

Exports of apples and pears in the 1974–75 season totalled 3,963,500 cartons (excluding processed goods).

HOPS—The whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea County and all the requirements of hops for New Zealand are produced. Production per hectare (approximately 2.47 acres) usually ranges between 1,400 kilograms and 1,800 kilograms.

The total crop produced in the 1976 season was 323 tonnes compared with 383 tonnes in 1975. About 98 percent of the crop is picked by machines. Hop gardens covered 220 hectares in 1976 compared with 251 hectares the previous season, and the yield averaged 1.47 tonnes per hectare.

A Hop Marketing Committee of 6 members (one Government and 5 producers) was established by the Hop Marketing Regulations 1939 to regulate and control the marketing either locally or overseas of all hops produced in New Zealand and to assist the industry generally

TOBACCO—Tobacco is grown mainly in the Motueka district. Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, air-cured, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. Some 3,600 tonnes of raw tobacco leaf was imported during 1974–75 and 3,650 tonnes during 1974–75

With the following particulars relating to tobacco production, it should be noted that the figures relate to the total commercial tobacco production and not merely to holdings of 10 acres (approximately 4.05 hectares) or over situated outside borough boundaries. (Source: New Zealand Tobacco Board.)

SeasonNumber of GrowersArea Planted*ProductionEstimated Value of Crop
*Contract area amended after planting operations completed.
  hectareskg(000)$(000)
1972–733531,7393,0455,819
1973–743401,7513,2387,200
1974–753061,7643,0077,485

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 97 percent and air-dried leaf for 3 percent of the 1974–75 crop.

Approximately half the tobacco used by New Zealand manufacturers in the production of cigarettes and cut tobacco is New Zealand grown. The actual average percentages used during recent years ended 30 June has been as follows: 1970, 49.4 percent; 1971, 49.3 percent; 1972, 49.1 percent; 1973, 49.2 percent; 1974, 48.3 percent; and 1975, 47.1 percent.

LINEN FLAX—There is a strong demand for all linen fibre produced in New Zealand from a local manufacturer of twine who uses this kind of fibre in the making of twine for closing bags and bales, for rolling meat, and for other purposes which require a twine made from a strong durable fibre.

In the spring of 1975, 254.35 hectares of flax were sown, as compared with 197.9 hectares in 1974. The February-March 1975 harvest yielded 1,068.73 tonnes, i.e., 5.40 tonnes per hectare as compared with the February-March 1974 harvest when the yield was 646.38 tonnes, i.e., 7.13 tonnes per hectare.

Production from the Linen Flax Corporation factory at Geraldine in recent years has been as follows.

Product197319741975
  tonnes 
Straw processed8169441,201
Scutched fibre97103101
Seed888175
Tow423128
Linmeal554752

Sales during 1975 totalled $187,516, of which sales of flax fibre totalled $172,919.

13 C—LIVESTOCK

GENERAL—Agriculture is a major industry upon which much of New Zealand's prosperity depends. It has the capacity to expand provided the circumstances are favourable for development. The lines of development are influenced by overseas prices received for farm products in the form of meat, wool, butter, cheese, milk powder, casein, etc. Although there is a time-lag associated with livestock breeding, the livestock numbers are an indication of the response of farmers to financial incentives, although weather factors, such as drought, are also involved.

Livestock numbers over a 50-year period are shown in the historical tables near the back of the book

A feature of recent years has been the continued upward trend in beef cattle numbers, in contrast to fluctuations in numbers of other livestock.

New Zealand has more than 20 times as many animals as people: this ratio is probably not exceeded in any country in the world. Grasslands have been developed to the extent that the best dairy farms can carry two and one half cows to the hectare, and the best sheep farms can support up to 25 sheep to the hectare throughout the year.

The first sheep stations in the 1840s were stocked with Merinos from Australia. During the 1850s and 1860s several English breeds of sheep were imported, notably Southdowns, Leicesters, Lincolns, and Romneys. In 1855 there were 761,700 sheep in the country; by 1870 there were 9,700,000. Until 1882, the year of the successful introduction of cargo refrigeration when mutton and lamb exports were sent to London, the Merino and its crosses were predominant, because the only sheep products of any importance for export were wool and a little tallow, obtained by boiling down carcasses. Then the Merino was superseded in the North Island by breeds more suited to the climate and conditions. Today the flock sheep of the North Island are nearly all predominantly of Romney blood. In the South Island, Merino blood in varying degree continued to play an important part in the flock structure but are now restricted to the foothills of the Southern Alps, while Corriedales are more profitable in the better hill country, and crossbreeds and long-woolled British breeds at lower levels.

In 1851 there were 193,000 cattle in New Zealand and by 1897 the number had reached 1,138,000. Cattle raising and fattening are usually associated with hill-country sheep farming and fat-Iamb farming respectively, and beef stock are grazed chiefly in the North Island. The latest available survey of cattle by breeds show that the most popular breed of beef cattle is now the Aberdeen Angus (75 percent), with Herefords (17 percent) and Shorthorns (6 percent) next in number.

The growth of dairy herds was related to the availability of refrigeration for the export of butter from 1882, and the development of butter and cheese factories. There were 300,000 dairy cows by 1897 185,000 of them in the North Island and 115,000 in the South Island. Now the North Island has more than 12 times as many dairy cows as the South Island. Estimates of breeds in 1971–72 were: Jersey, 58 percent Friesian, 34 percent; Ayrshire, 3 percent; Shorthorn, 1 percent.

In the following table, livestock numbers are shown by farm-type category as at 30 June 1974.

Farm TypeBeef CattleDairy CattleSheep and Lambs ShornPigs

*75 percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

‡Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

∥More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶Year ended 30 June 1974.

   (000) 
Dairy*2332,44126052
Sheep*1*2711532,3659
Beef*980365665
Pig*10921221
Cropping*1221842
Dairy with sheep17522572
Dairy with beef95184703
Dairy with other648918
Sheep with dairy89209
Sheep with beef1,6461119,9114
Sheep with cropping3811,8893
Sheep with other2215084
Beef with dairy3017151
Beef with sheep39261,7021
Beef with other352253
Cropping with sheep124841
Cropping with other102192
Pig with other571037
Mixed livestock1,1601948,52569
General mixed farming§159162,29419
Poultry farming62291
Market gardening16260
Orchards51352
Tobacco growing434
Other farming65174852
Totals6,2373,07469,966462

Figures as at 30 June 1974 gave a total of 6,237,368 for beef cattle (of which, breeding cows and heifers totalled 2,063,781 compared with 1,981,589 the previous year), and a total of 3,073,996 for dairy cattle, of which 2,040,685 (compared with 2,087,608 the previous year) were dairy cows in milk.

The 1974 figures showed a 4.3 percent increase in beef cattle, but the total of dairy cattle decreased by 2.7 percent. The beef cattle herd has been increasingly supplemented in recent years by dairy-bred cattle reared for beef production, as indicated by the declining calf kill.

The dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island which, in 1974, had 82 percent of the total cattle and 92 percent of the dairy stock. Localising the dairying industry still further, it is found that 66 percent of the milking cows of New Zealand are in the northern half of the North Island.

Beef cattle are fairly evenly spread over the North Island, except Taranaki and areas close to Auckland.

Taking the number of beef breeding cows 2 years old and over as a guide to beef production, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty and Wellington statistical areas easily lead with 36 percent of the New Zealand total between them. Hawke's Bay is next, followed by Northland and East Coast in that order. These 5 districts together pasture 68 percent of breeding cows.

Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty statistical areas account for 39 percent of the pig population and Wellington and Taranaki for 26 percent. The number of pigs kept in the Nelson and Canterbury areas has increased considerably in recent years and 20 percent of the pig population is now in these areas. Tanker collection of whole milk from dairy farms has reduced the rearing of pigs as a sideline; major developments have taken place in the rearing of grain-fed pigs in large units.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The statistical areas of major importance are Canterbury, Wellington, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Southland, Otago, and Hawke's Bay, in that order. These six districts accounted for 85 percent of the total sheep population in 1974.

The following table shows the distribution of livestock at 30 June 1974.

Statistical AreaDairy CattleBeef CattleAnimals Shorn*Pigs
Sheep and HoggetsLambs
*During year ended 30 June 1974.
   (000)  
Northland3686711,36164216
Central Auckland24930380930251
South Auckland—Bay of Plenty1,3701,4037,4743,513112
East Coast84492,2651,0324
Hawke's Bay607536,3792,54814
Taranaki4962421,36859054
Wellington2909768,4433,50866
  North Island2,8414,79728,09812,136316
Marlborough221051,21420518
Nelson5410460119717
Westland2774150431
Canterbury674708,9061,41076
Otago313826,89790519
Southland333057,4781,72615
  South Island2331,44125,2464,486146
  New Zealand3,0746,23753,34416,622462

Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics. This publication also contains the summary tables from parliamentary paper C. 5A (formerly H. 23), which is a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns.

SHEEP—The following table analyses categories of sheep.

At 30 JuneRamsWethersBreeding EwesDry EwesHoggetsTotal
RamWetherEwe
    thousands    
    Totals    
19739371,22341,0173613132,24810,58556,684
19749101,27540,3663162982,00910,71055,883
19759091,30041,1083362891,5769,80255,320
19768801,15841,2003343041,64610,86956,400
   Stud Sheep (Entered in Flock Book)     
19721955752102251,016

The 1972 classification of breeds shows that of the 60,882,719 sheep in New Zealand, 40,019,022 (65.73 percent; were Romneys and 8,604,020 (14.13 percent) were crossbreeds. The remainder were composed principally of Corriedale 4,405,591, half-bred 2,537,007, Merino 1,132.905, and Southdown 1,061,539.

Following several years of steady increase, the size of the average flock fell in 1973 and again in 1974. A classification of numbers of flocks by size of flock is now given for the latest 5 years.

Size of Flocks19711972197319741975
1–995,0274,6295,1315,3325,421
100–1992,1451,9201,9732,0622,073
200–4994,2023,6173,8863,8073,854
500–9995,2455,2544,8954,7734,593
1,000–1,4995,4615,2745,0544,8984,788
1,500–1,9995,1505,0594,8024,7004,556
2,000–2,4993,5413,7343,3153,3283,256
2,500–4,9995,2735,7755,3315,2395,246
5,000–9,9991,1951,3011,1961,1901,200
10,000 and over276263257250248
Total flocks37,51536,82635,84035,57935,235
Average flock size1,5701,6531,5821,5711,570

The following table, based on an annual survey by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, shows estimates of the number of lambs born and the percentage of lambing.

YearNumber of Breeding Ewes at 30 JuneEstimated Percentage of LambingEstimated Number of Lambs
197143,01795.7041,149
197244,15295.5542,186
197341,01793.1538,208
197440,36692.6037,379
197541,10896.2039,546

CATTLE—Numbers of cattle at 30 June of the three latest available years are now given by categories.

Category197319741975

*Heifers not yet in milk, and cows not in milk during season but intended to be used again for dairying.

†One and two year old heifers in calf included in cows in milk during season.

‡Includes bobby calves (40,000 in 1972: 13,542 in 1973; 16,155 in 1974; and 6,172 in 1975.)

§Includes cows culled from dairy herds (71,225 in 1973; 66,762 in 1974; and 56,665 in 1975).

Dairy stock—   
Cows and heifers, 2 years old and over—   
Cows in milk during season2,087,6082,040,6852,061,591
Others*45,69251,52145,313
Heifers—   
One and two years old476,027470,123447,819
Under one year old463,203423,483374,298
Bulls and calves intended for dairy breeding72,83372,02962,828
Totals, dairy stock3,158,9053,073,9962,998,021
Beef stock—   
Breeding cows and heifers, two years old and over1,981,5892,063,7812,114,618
Cows, two years old and over, not used for breeding113,231160,295179,544
Heifers—   
One and under two years old617,355684,380694,500
Under one year old767,185798,562793,898
Steers and bulls of all ages2,214,6812,463,5882,455,075
Totals, beef stock5,765,266§6,237,368§6,294,300§
Totals, cattle8,924,1719,311,3649,292,321

A feature of dairy farming in recent years has been the move to the amalgamation of farms to provide more economic units. The following table which shows dairy cattle by size of herd, demonstrates how the trend towards amalgamation has resulted in larger herds on individual holdings. In June 1972, 36 percent of dairy cattle were in herds of 200 or more; by June 1974 the percentage had risen to 39.

At 30 JuneDairy Cattle in HerdTotal Dairy Cattle
1–3940–7980–119120–199200–299300 and Over
    (000)   
1972711794981,3547774093,288
1973611614461,3187634103,159
1974531373921,2877884173,074
1975491333921,2657663932,998

PIGS—Pig numbers fell in the late sixties as farmers began increasingly to supply whole milk to dairy factories instead of separating off the skim milk, which was frequently used to feed pigs, There is increased emphasis on grain-feeding, and a significant increase in pig numbers in the grain-producing areas of the South Island. At 30 June 1974, when the total pig population recorded a 3 percent drop on the previous year's figure, the 76,193 pigs in Canterbury statistical area showed a 4 percent rise on the previous year, and the 19,241 pigs in Otago statistical area a 5.6 percent rise.

At 30 JuneBreeding Sows One Year Old and OverOther Pigs of All Ages (Including Boars)Total Pigs

*At 31 January.

197178,839473,440552,279
197260,319416,670476,989
197357,633418,209475,842
197456,576405,150461,726
197553,553368,838422,391

DEER—A new type of livestock farming which is of growing importance is deer-farming. Venison finds a ready overseas market and almost all the meat produced is exported. (In 1975–76 venison exports totalled 2,670 tonnes valued at $8.2 million; in 1976–77 the provisional total was 2,894 tonnes valued at $11.8 million. The principal market is the German Federal Republic.) Deer farming is strictly controlled by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries because of the status of the deer in the wild as a noxious animal. Deer farms have to be licensed and registered, and permits are issued for specified numbers of animals.

The first deer-farm licence was issued in March 1970. By August 1977 there were 39 registered deer farms and a further 83 applications to start deer farming were being processed. Permits had been issued for a total of 15,440 deer to be carried on farms.

DOGS—The count of dogs registered during the year ended 31 March 1973 showed that there were 230,730 dogs registered in counties, 97,439 in cities and boroughs, and 1,015 in town districts. Unregistered dogs and those up to 6 months old are not included in these figures.

POULTRY—For many years the traditional backyard flock of fowls has been declining in popularity, and the trend has been towards large flocks kept on poultry farms and other commercial establishments. At the 1971 Census, 91,869 households were recorded as owning fowls. This total, which represented 11.5 percent of all households, was little more than half the total 20 years earlier, at the 1951 Census.

In 1975–76 there were 1,375 registered poultry runs forming the basic commercial units of the industry. Farms comprising 24 birds or less are exempt from registration. The following table shows registered poultry runs in 1975–76 by flock size and the number of birds.

Flock Size (Birds)Number of RunsNumber of Birds
25–10050726,465
101,50017641,524
501–1,000184166,577
Over 1,0005083,379,850
Totals1,3753,614,416

The commercial groups sell their eggs through licensed egg floors and are therefore mainly responsible for supplying eggs to retail shops in the cities and larger towns.

Commercial poultry farms are distributed over both Islands, but there are concentrations around Auckland, Tauranga, Christchurch, and Oamaru. The poultry industry does not cater for overseas markets, though limited quantities of frozen egg pulp, surplus to local requirements, are exported.

Reference to the field covered by the Egg Marketing Authority is given in Section 20 of this Yearbook.

The following table shows eggs handled by licensed distributors for years ended 30 June.

YearEggs
 doz (m)
1970–7151.0
1971–7251.1
1972–7350.9
1973–7453.5
1974–7556.7
1975–7651.1

The establishment of "take-away" chicken shops throughout New Zealand and high beef prices has led to increased chicken-meat consumption. Production increased from 13 million to 18 million birds during the 1973–74 year and to 22 million by 1976.

Poultry meat production for June years is shown in the following table.

YearBirds

NOTE: All figures are estimates. These have been obtained by a survey of the largest producers, and allowance has been made for other smaller producers.

 million
197110.0
197211.0
197313.5x
197420.6x
197518.2x
197622.0

BEES—The rich pasture lands of New Zealand and some bush areas are favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey, although more intensive farming methods and land development have eliminated many sources of nectar for the bees.

Production for the year ended 31 May 1976 was estimated at 4,915 tonnes of honey and 67 tonnes of commercial beeswax. Most of the honey is consumed in New Zealand. Exports in 1975 amounted to 842 tonnes.

Following is a summary of registrations under the Apiaries Act 1969 at 31 May 1975.

 Hives
Group1–56–5051–250251–600601–10001000+Total
Beekeepers2,2177401555455593,280
Apiaries2,3861,6741,6941,6952,8265,12115,396
Hives established4,87911,73222,79827,03847,94890,156204,551

Only approximately 200 beekeepers were completely dependent on honey production and beekeeping for their livelihood.

Chapter 14. Section 14 FORESTRY

Table of Contents

GENERAL,—Until the early nineteenth century extensive evergreen forests covered some two-thirds of the country, the remaining third being the low-rainfall zones in the east of the South Island (carrying only tussock grasses) and the rocky mountain tops above 1,100–1,400 metres. Because of the abundance, use of timber during the early days of European settlement was wasteful, and in clearing land for farms large areas of forest were felled and burnt in the interests of land development. There was little regard for conservation, and clearing extended well beyond the limits now considered desirable. Not until towards the end of the nineteenth century was the need to conserve forests of the high mountain watersheds recognised.

Today, apart from national parks, about 4 million hectares of land valuable either for timber production, recreation, or forest growth vital to soil and water conservation has been constituted State forest, and there is also a large private forest estate. Resources have been built up by afforestation with introduced species, mainly conifers, which produce usable wood in 25–30 years, a much shorter time than the slow-growing indigenous species.

The following table shows the present area of forested land in relation to other categories of land.

Type of LandAreaPercentage of Total Area
*1 hectare = 2.47 acres.
 (million hectares)* 
Total forested land7.026.0
Pasture and arable land13.550.2
Other non-forested land6.022.3
Minor islands0.10.4
Lakes, rivers, etc.0.31.1
Total area26.9100.0

FORESTS TODAY—About three-quarters of the forest area is classed as unmerchantable. This is mainly Crown-owned indigenous forest which, because it covers much of the remote and mountainous high-rainfall country, has as its primary function soil protection and water regulation.

The limited production possibilities it offers must be subordinated to its protective role.

Of the 6.2 million hectares of indigenous forests that remain, only some one million hectares are merchantable by today's standards for sawmilling. Despite the greatly increased use of exotic timber the indigenous forests are being depleted at the rate of 5,000 hectares a year, primarily for sawn timber. This rate of cutting is however diminishing.

Merchantable forests also include almost all the planted (exotic) forests, about half of which were established and are owned privately or by local authorities. There are about 730,000 hectares of productive exotic forest, over half of which is in the Bay of Plenty - Taupo region, where very large plantings were made from 1923 to 1936. The distribution of the planted forests was influenced mainly by availability of cheap undeveloped land at that time. The output of timber from the exotic forests greatly surpasses that from the indigenous forests.

The exotic conifers, particularly radiata pine, have high growth rates, ease of establishment and ease of re-establishment on cut-over areas, and they produce wood that has many uses. Plantings of such trees are being extended and developed to provide for increasing domestic and export demand.

The distribution by area of forest land is shown in the table below.

Forested LandIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll Forests
 hectares (thousand)  
State forest2,9933813,374
National parks and reserves1,5501,550
Unoccupied Crown land361361
Other tenures1,3423481,690
Totals6,2467296,975

BOTANICAL COMPOSITION OF FORESTS: Indigenous Forests—These can be broadly grouped into podocarp/broad-leaved forest (which includes kauri forest) and beech forest, but there are also many subgroups and transition zones.

Podocarp/broad-leaved forests are found at all latitudes in the three main islands, more particularly those of the north and of the warm wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes, and there is a general increase in luxuriance and in numbers of species from south to north. This type of forest has suffered severely by destruction in land clearing or from heavy logging. There are still some large areas on steep country, such as the Ureweras, but these are essentially protection forests. Fairly extensive areas in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island contain most of the remaining indigenous softwood supplies. Otherwise, the remaining forest of this type consists of pockets, some of which may be worked out in a few decades.

The principal podocarp is rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) and important secondary ones are totara (Podocarpus totara), matai (P. spicatus), and miro (P. ferrugineus). Important species at higher elevations are Hall's totara (P. hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii). Kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides), once common on low-lying swampy river silts now cleared for farming, is becoming scarce. The smaller podocarps of the silver pine group (Dacrydium biforme, D. colensoi, and D. intermedium) are dominant in bog forests occupying limited areas in the central North Island and scattered widely over the South Island although concentrated largely on the West Coast, where they are largely cut over for posts and sleepers.

The main broad-leaved species associated with the podocarps are kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa), rata (Metrosideros umbellata and M. robusta), and tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa) in the North Island and western Nelson.

Kauri forests are found in the north of the North Island. In them, kauri (Agathis australis) either occurs frequently or is locally dominant—otherwise they are akin to the podocarp/broad-leaved forest, though with many additional hardwoods. They have been almost destroyed by logging and fire and only limited stands now remain.

Beech forests, in which one or more of the southern beech (Nothofagus) species are dominant, are the forests of the south, of the mountains, and of the dry lowlands; but the species are absent from some localities where their presence might be expected, e.g., Mt. Egmont, the region 160 km south of the Taramakau River in Westland, and Stewart Island. In the main, these forests are protection forests, but there are large areas in accessible regions that have been cut over and are regenerating, and others that have not yet been logged and will be reserved for sustained-yield management or replacement by fast-growing exotics.

Scrub and second-growth broad-leaved species occupy much of the land now classified as forest. There were, before European settlement, limited transition areas carrying manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides) between tussock grassland and forest proper. With deliberate destruction by fire of much tussock and forest these manuka belts have extended, and manuka even occupies extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from its own original stands. In this respect it is important, for it is often a stage in succession back to forest proper.

Exotic Forests—Introduced conifers form the bulk of the large and valuable exotic-forest estate, and among these radiata pine (Pinus radiata) is the supreme multi-purpose tree. Radiata pine grows rapidly in New Zealand (reaching saw-log size in 25–30 years), produces a large volume of usable wood, and is remarkably adapted to a variety of sites. Other major species are Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Corsican pine (Pinus nigra (laricio)), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa).

The largest exotic forests are in the centre of the North Island; medium and small plantations are distributed throughout most of the country. Radiata pine constitutes about half the area of State plantations and about 90 percent of private plantations.

MANAGEMENT OF STATE FORESTS—The management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards protecting, conserving, and, where possible, perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests of the country, and creating an exotic forest estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce and to provide for large exports.

Spreading awareness among the general public of the human and physical environment has brought the management of remaining indigenous forests under critical examination. In 1975 a new policy covering State indigenous forests was approved by Government. It provides principles to guide the future use and management of these forests, giving due regard to sound forestry practices, the wishes of the public, and social and economic welfare on a regional and national basis. To manage forest land on the basis of optimum use, dominant forest values (whether they are of protection, amenity, production, or otherwise) must be identified and defined. Recognising forest zones is a sound basis for reconciling numerous objectives. The values identified first in forest zoning are soil and water conservation and biological significance. Scenic appeal, potential for recreation, and wood production values are considered subsequently.

In relation to the approximately 4 million hectares of State forest administered by the New Zealand Forest Service, conservation embraces: the husbanding of indigenous forests yielding timber needed for special purposes, but which are difficult to perpetuate and must therefore be used as sparingly as possible; the management in selected areas of less silviculturally difficult forests, such as terrace rimu in Westland, beech in Southland and north Westland, and kauri in North Auckland, on a sustained yield basis; the creation and management of exotic forests on a sustained yield basis for the production of wood for a wide range of uses; the establishment or maintenance in a healthy state of protective vegetation on hill and mountain land to preserve soil and to control stream channel aggradation; the protection of exotic and indigenous forest against fire, disease, and noxious animals for the maintenance of a supply of exotic and indigenous wood, a vegetative cover to preserve soil and water values, a habitat for wildlife, and scenic and other amenity values in perpetuity; the legal reservation of selected forest types as forest sanctuaries and dedicated areas; the use of exotic and indigenous forest for recreational and other purposes, including spiritual enjoyment, where this is not incompatible with essential soil and water conservation.

Increasing interdependence between forests and the social and economic benefits derived from indigenous and exotic forests in regional development emphasise the necessity for planning all forest operations on a regional basis.

Indigenous Production Forests—Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve restriction of the annual cut, rigid insistence on full utilisation, and block sales of carefully measured standing timber. Substantial long-term reserves have also been set aside to ensure the continued supply of high-quality indigenous timber and to safeguard resources against the unlikely event that a major catastrophe should befall the exotic forest estate.

The ecology of the natural forest associations and the silvicultural characteristics of the individual species are being studied. Past work has shown the importance of preserving a forest climate. Carefully conducted selection logging of terrace rimu forests in south Westland provides a favourable forest environment for the regeneration and growth of rimu.

In many districts, forests of mixed podocarps and tawa have been logged for rimu, leaving tawa behind. Recently, however, tawa has been found useful as a hardwood pulp and in the Bay of Plenty wood unsuitable for saw logs is being used for this purpose.

The kauri forests, now only remnants, are owned principally by the State. Management of them has the objective of perpetuating kauri as a species in the interests of science and public enjoyment, in natural stands and as managed forests. Large representative areas of mature and immature kauri have been set aside as sanctuaries, programmes of research and artificial establishment intensified, and the annual cut reduced to the lowest level consistent with economic, social, and legal constraints.

The prospects of improving and perpetuating the beech forests on a sustained-yield basis are good. Both major species, red and silver beech, when given the right conditions, will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to produce saw logs in 100–130 years; and both show their best development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. Many large areas of beech forests are still intact and, in the case of red beech, there are extensive stands of young forest which have originated after fire, wind throw, or mining activities. Against these favourable circumstances must be set the presence in many localities of red deer and other feral animals, the browsing of which may check or even prevent effective regeneration.

A survey has been undertaken into the extent and distribution of beech forests in Nelson, northern Westland, and western Southland that may be suitable for production of saw logs and hardwood pulp. Care is being given to the consideration of areas that must be reserved for soil and water conservation, the presentation of flora or fauna of particular scientific interest, or scenery and recreation, and any forests utilised will be managed on a sustained-yield basis or replaced in part by fast-growing exotics. Details of the proposed management and use of these beech forests are given in the publication Utilisation of South Island Beech Forests (parliamentary paper C.4, 1971). Permanent production is envisaged from some 300,000 hectares of lower altitude beech forest in Nelson, Westland, and Southland conservancies. (There are 3.5 million hectares of beech forest in the South Island.) The Forest Service is conscious of the need to preserve major environmental values in perpetuity.

In 1974 the Government invited proposals to use beech forests for major pulp industries. In late 1975, however, consideration of schemes to use the West Coast beech was deferred until the completion of a study by consultants to discover the economic feasibility of major processing industries using combined wood resources from West Coast, Nelson, and Marlborough, and of a panel-board industry or other local small-scale processing, using wood residues from West Coast sawmills and forests. The consultants' report is expected in 1977. In relation to Southland beech, further study will concentrate on two proposals—one for kraft pulp, the other for medium-density fibreboard.

Exotic Forests—State exotic forests date from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting began in 1898 and proceeded slowly until 1922, by which time 19,000 hectares had been established. From 1923 to 1936 there was a boom in afforestation, with no less than 150,000 hectares planted by the State and 120,000 hectares by commercial companies. After the boom period planting continued on a more modest scale, but in 1961 State planting was increased and the Government provided for financial inducements to encourage planting by private landholders and local authorities—with the aim of doubling the exotic-forest estate by the end of the century. The annual rate of State planting has increased to more than five times the rate achieved then (4,000 hectares in 1961, over 21,000 hectares in 1975). The figure of over 22,000 hectares for 1975 private plantings is about 10 times that for 1961.

Now that the stage of large-scale utilisation has been reached, there are opportunities to increase productivity by correcting the deficiencies in the distribution of age classes, replacing unthrifty plantations, and improving the quality of the trees, and, at the same time, meeting the demand for forest products and ensuring continuity of supplies. The diversity of products now marketable permits utilisation of trees of a wide range of sizes and aids the operations needed in management practice.

Present policy is to concentrate new exotic forests in areas where there is scope for building up integrated wood-based industries to supply New Zealand markets and material for export. The planted forests (both State and private) already supply nearly 90 percent of the total wood production.

Stabilisation of Sand Dunes—This aspect of the Forest Service's work has a twofold objective—the stabilisation of dunes for the protection of agricultural and pastoral land and the establishment of exotic production forests. The Forest Service plants marram grass, sows lupin, and later establishes trees on certain protective zones. Eight schemes are in operation—at Aupouri, Mangawhai, Woodhill, Waiuku, Tainui-Kawhia, Waitarere, Santoft, and Pouto—embracing around 60,000 hectares. About 25,000 hectares of trees have been planted.

A most successful co-operative venture is under way in two Northland localities, where the Crown has leased large areas of Maori-owned coastal sand dunes (adjacent to Aupouri and Woodhill forests) for stabilisation and afforestation.

Protection Forests—The vegetation of the mountainous areas—forest, scrub, and alpine grassland—is of the highest importance to the welfare of New Zealand. Many rivers that bring water to low-lying farmlands or provide the domestic water supply of cities and towns have their headwaters in the mountainous back country. The mountains receive frequent heavy rain and are mostly formed of rock that erodes easily when exposed to rain, wind, and frost. The blanket of montane vegetation protects the thin soil layer and stabilises rocky slopes. This prevents soil and rock from reaching streams and altering their flow characteristics. Settled flood plains can be protected by a combination of river-training works and a good cover of vegetation on catchments to ensure the most stable stream flow possible.

In addition to forest parks and recreation areas, the Forest Service controls about one million hectares of protection forest land, and its main function here is to maintain the protective vegetation in good condition. The greatest threat is from the large numbers of browsing animals that were introduced many years ago and which, in the absence of natural enemies and limiting climate multiplied excessively. Consequently the first step in the effective management of these areas is control of the numbers of these animals to a level that will allow adequate vegetation response.

The Environmental Forestry Division of the Forest Service works closely with the Forest Research Institute's Protection Forestry Division on techniques to assess the condition and trends of vegetation, alpine climate, rates of erosion, the possibility of introducing new forest and scrub species into badly depleted areas, and changes in animal populations and methods of control.

Recreation in State Forests—Nearly one million hectares of State forest is set aside as forest parks which, although primarily protection forests, also provide scope for recreation. In addition, a further 100,000 hectares of State forest-land has been set apart as recreation areas.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for leisure pursuits in surroundings of great natural beauty—for study of plant and animal life; for challenging tramping; and for shooting and fishing. Most of the forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation and recreational use can be allowed in almost all such forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting, for instance, can be of benefit in destroying wild animal pests. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining shelter huts, assets also of use to Forest Service personnel. Entry is unrestricted except that, in the interests of public safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

The older exotic forests also offer attractions and have the advantage of accessibility. In many there are walks and picnic spots for the public, and selected areas are reserved from felling for their scenic value.

Seeding Forests and Timber:Fire Prevention—Fire is the greatest single menace to forests; within a few hours it can destroy a valuable timber crop or undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance. Indigenous forests are fairly fire resistant but can become flammable in drought conditions. Severely burnt indigenous forest usually means a destroyed forest because many of the species are difficult to regenerate. Without doubt, however, the major risk occurs in the plantations of exotic conifers.

The fire-protection organisation of the Forest Service operates over the entire country, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, national parks, and all other State areas. A fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the department has fire-fighting responsibilities and well equipped fire-fighting crews can be brought into action at short notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial fire-detection patrols operate when and where required, and aerial fire fighting, in the form of helicopters fitted with special buckets, has been adapted to deal with fire outbreak in high country and like inaccessible areas. When weather or other conditions may lead to the start of forest or rural fires and endanger life and property, the Forest Service may issue a warning of fire hazard conditions, impose a total ban on lighting fires in the open, and take charge of an area so endangered by declaring a regional fire emergency.

Noxious Animal Control—Under the Noxious Animals Act 1956 the Forest Service is responsible for the control of deer, goats, chamois, pigs, and other introduced wild animals on all lands where the damage they cause is detrimental to the welfare of the country. On State forest and unoccupied Crown land the Forest Service also deals with opossum and wallaby control; but on pastoral land control of these two animals comes under the Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

The widespread populations of many of these animals have a serious effect on the growth of trees and ground cover in production as well as in protection forests. The forest floor of ferns, mosses, and shrubs has been extensively damaged by deer and goats, while the upper storey is adversely affected by the canopy-feeding opossum.

Control of Insects and Disease—In conjunction with private enterprise the Forest Service has organised joint spraying operations to control the pine needle blight Dothistroma pini. Aerial spraying of a copper fungicide is an effective means of dealing with the disease. Increasing research is being directed towards the debilitating effect of Swiss needle cast (Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii) on the growth of Douglas fir.

Pathologists and entomologists of the Forest Research Institute maintain a constant watch on forests, woodlots, and shelter belts to detect incipient epidemics in time for effective control measures to be taken. Much information is accumulated to elucidate the relationships between the organisms and the forests.

Timber Inspection and Quarantine—Forest Service timber inspection and quarantine cover all sawn, hewn, and natural round timber, wooden manufactured items, wooden packing, and ship's dunnage entering or leaving the country.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES—More money is spent on establishing and tending State forests than is obtained in revenue. Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry is met in full from taxation, as distinct from the development of State forests, which is financed from national development loans.

Sources of finance are shown in the following table.

Source1971–721972–731973–741974–751975–76
  $(000)   
Consolidated Revenue Account expenditure4,1224,9465,7466,7858,459
Less receipts143128687585
Required from Consolidated Revenue Account3,9794,8185,6786,7108,374
Works and Trading Account expenditure37,27843,82952,01661,52478,704
Less receipts26,71730,00740,79539,90837,647
Loan moneys required10,56113,82211,22121,61641,057
Net finance required from Government funds14,54018,64016,89928,32649,431

PRIVATE FORESTRY: Private Forest Estate—Exotic forest holdings other than State forests (New Zealand Forest Service) or those on Crown lands amount to 290,000 hectares. Twenty-two thousand hectares of this was planted in the winter of 1975.

Forestry Incentive—In 1975 6,764 hectares of new private planting was carried out under the Government's forestry encouragement loans scheme (for local authorities) or forestry encouragement grants scheme (for individuals, including trusts and partnerships, and small companies). There is added incentive in the fact that the value of standing trees does not increase any assessment for land tax, death duties, or local body rates; as well, there are concessions with regard to income tax.

Extension Services—Advice and help in all plantation matters are available from the Forest Service, which administers the forestry encouragement schemes. Because of the high degree of interest in private forestry, increasing emphasis is being given to information and training services. Printed booklets are available; a correspondence course is offered through the Technical Correspondence Institute; and short residential courses are held periodically.

Farm forestry associations also are involved in promoting the advantages and advising on the management of woodlots.

FOREST UTILISATION: Removals of Roundwood—By the 1930s the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, whereas some of the exotic forests had reached the stage where harvesting could begin. By 1939, of the 1,700,000 cubic metres per annum of roundwood for industrial use, some 280,000 cubic metres came from the exotic forests. By 1948 the total annual removals of roundwood had gone up to 2,300,000 cubic metres with 820,000 cubic metres from the exotic forests. The exotic forests are now by far the more important source of wood and in 1976 they supplied 7,344,000 cubic metres, or 88 percent of the total supply from exotic and indigenous forests.

The table below shows the quantities of timber produced by the forests of New Zealand to supply the forest industries, which comprise 420 sawmills, 9 plywood and veneer plants, 3 particle board mills, 6 pulp and paper mills, and 2 fibreboard mills. This roundwood production does not include firewood.

Year Ended 31 MarchIndigenous WoodExotic WoodTotal
 thousand cubic metres  
1972948.67,016.97,965.5
1973889.17,353.88,242.9
1974917.27,659.98,577.1
19751,002.77,397.5x8,400.2x
1976959.67,344.38,303.9

Sawn-timber Production—Radiata pine and other pines account for about 88 percent of the total cut of exotics; Douglas fir provides most of the remainder. Less than a quarter of the country's timber requirement comes from the indigenous forests, and this proportion must inevitably fall as cutting is gradually reduced to the point where a small sustained yield of indigenous timber can be maintained.

The table below gives the production of rough-sawn timber in recent years.

Total sawn-timber production by years over a 50-year period is included in the Statistical Summary at the back of the Yearbook.

Year Ended 31 MarchSoftwoodsHardwoodsGrand Total
IndigenousExoticTotalIndigenousExoticTotal
   thousand cubic metres    
19723661,3291,695477541,749
19733401,4021,742405451,787
19743411,6682,009405452,054
19753281,7162,044393422,086
19763261,6181,9444811592,003

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past 5 years.

SpeciesYear Ended 31 March
19721973197419751976
  thousand cubic metres   
Rimu and miro303281288272266
Matai1818171720
Totara109786
Kahikatea3028262932
Tawa23x1511821
Beech2324272726
Other indigenous64553
Totals, indigenous413380381366374
Exotic pines1,1671,2341,4701,5421,427
Douglas fir144157177147153
Eucalypts345310
Other exotic2010212839
Totals, exotic1,3341,4051,6731,7201,629
Totals (all species)1,7471,7852,0542,0862,003

Wood-chip Industry—Two wood-chip mills in the Nelson region (one beginning production in 1969, the other in 1971) produce wood chips solely for Japan. They use trees unsuitable for sawn-timber production in order to allow replanting with more productive species and to provide a market for forest and sawmill residues.

In 1972 export of wood chips from Mt. Maunganui began. At Christchurch a chip mill started production in 1974 and exports chips through Lyttelton, which has specially installed loading machinery. The production of wood chips for export, using sawmill wastes, has begun in Otago, and the first shipments left Port Chalmers in 1977.

Pulp and Paper Industry—The total value of output of the pulp and paper industry reached $149 million in 1973–74. Over the last 10 years total production of pulp (the basic commodity) has risen at an average annual rate of almost 9 percent. Production rose from 239,000 tonnes in 1958–59 to 953,000 tonnes in 1975–76. During the same period total wood consumption in the pulp and paper industry (which includes sawmills of integrated plants) increased from 1,100,000 cubic metres to 3,800,000 cubic metres. The industry is mainly concentrated near the big exotic forests on the volcanic plateau of the North Island. There are 6 pulp and paper plants in New Zealand, 5 of which are in the North Island. Of these 5, 4 are integrated with sawmills to utilise fully the total input of wood. The 6 companies are:

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.—This company was formed in 1952 to utilise wood from Kaingaroa State Forest. Practical assistance and financial backing were given by the Government, which is represented on the board of directors. The company's plant is at Kawerau, Bay of Plenty. The pulp and paper mill began operation late in 1955 and the sawmill early in 1956. The annual rated capacity of the sawmill is 210,000 cubic metres of sawn timber on the basis of one shift a day, while the capacity of the pulp and paper plant is 325,000 tonnes of newsprint and wallpaper base, 245,000 tonnes of chemical pulp, and 295,000 tonnes of mechanical pulp.

N.Z. Forest Products Ltd.—This public company utilises about 3,200,000 cubic metres of timber a year from its own pine forests and also small quantities of hardwood (tawa) from State forests. Annual plant capacity is 246,000 tonnes of kraft, packaging, printing, and writing paper, 386,000 tonnes of kraft pulp, 45,000 tonnes of refiner groundwood pulp for fibreboard production, and 115,000 cubic metres of sawn timber a year, the last on a one-shift basis. The company uses 8,000 cubic metres of timber to make wooden cases and produces 37,500 cubic metres of veneer (on a three-shift basis), 11 million square metres of fibreboard, and 100 million multi-wall paper bags annually. The integrated pulp mill, paper mill, sawmill and veneer lathe is at Kinleith near Tokoroa: the fibreboard, multi-wall paper bag, and wooden case mills and plants are in Auckland. The company is also a joint owner, with Australian Paper Mills Ltd. of Australia and U.E.B. Industries Ltd., of Fibre Products N.Z. Ltd., a firm which makes a range of moulded pulp products, including 28 million moulded fruit trays a year.

Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., a subsidiary of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., has an annual production capacity of 127,000 tonnes. The company manufactures its mechanical and semi-chemical pulp; it also uses considerable quantities of waste paper. The company owns its own radiata pine forest at Matahina and hauls the logs 42 kilometres to the mill by road. It also operates a sawmill near the board mill to take the larger logs from the forest.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. makes tissue and various lightweight papers adjacent to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.'s plant at Kawerau.

New Zealand Paper Mills Ltd., at Mataura, has been in operation for more than 99 years. It has 2 machines producing a range of papers from kraft wrapping grades to specialty printing and writing papers. The company uses New Zealand - made sulphate-pulp and supplements this with wastepaper and small quantities of imported specialty pulp. Annual production capacity is 17,000 tonnes of paper. Adjacent to the paper mill is a small bagmaking factory, producing a range of single-ply bags.

Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd.—In 1969 the Government invited tenders for the processing of 9 million cubic metres of wood from Kaingaroa State Forest. After examining the proposals received, the Government awarded the sale of roughly two-thirds of the volume to Carter Consolidated Ltd. This led to the formation of the company, which has built an integrated sawmill and refiner groundwood mill at Whirinaki in the Napier district. This project, which is geared to the Japanese market began producing wood pulp in March 1973. Present productive capacity is about 200,000 tonnes of refiner groundwood pulp and 70,000 cubic metres of sawn timber annually. Expansion announced will increase pulp production to about 245,000 tonnes a year. Production of newsprint is also planned from about 1980.

The basic products of the pulp and paper industry are mechanical and chemical pulp, which are converted into such products as newsprint, kraft, and other paper, paperboard, and fibreboard.

The following table gives the production of wood pulp in New Zealand in recent years.

Year Ended 31 MarchWood Pulp
Chemical*Mechanical

*Chemical pulp includes semi-chemical pulp.

†Mechanical pulp includes ground-wood pulp and defibrated pulp.

 tonnes 
1971317,074258,948
1972317,998262,627
1973339,502260,543
1974465,300351,057
1975521,161x371,618
1976565,376387,736

Almost all mechanical pulp is used in the manufacture of paper, paperboard, and fibreboard, but there is a deliberate surplus of chemical pulp for export. (See table on trade in pulp and paper.)

Production figures for paper in New Zealand in recent years are as follows:

Year Ended 31 MarchNewsprintOther Printing and Writing PaperOther Paper and PaperboardTotal Paper and Paperboard
  tonnes  
1972218,01023,078227,675468,763
1973213,22123,629216,585453,435
1974217,83131,175285,129534,135
1975208,52333,852304,459x546,834x
1976219,13434,213301,607554,954

The rise of production of pulp and pulp products is clearly shown in the following graphs.

Wood-based Panel Products Industries:Plywood—Five factories manufacture plywood, and the total output for the year ended 31 March 1976 was 19,300 cubic metres. Total production of veneer in the industry in 1975–76 was 32,200 cubic metres.

New Zealand Forest Products plywood plant at Kinleith began production of industrial and structural grades of plywood for both the domestic and export markets in 1976. The plant has a capacity of 3.7 million cubic metres (twice that of any other plywood plant in New Zealand or Australia) and uses radiata pine from Kaingaroa State Forest together with wood from the company's own pine forests.

Radiata pine has become increasingly important as a species for peeler log supply because of the demand for industrial plywood and now constitutes about 60 percent of total peeler log production. Now that the indigenous forests have become depleted, the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence, in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers logging State indigenous forests to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Fibreboard—Although fibreboard is manufactured from wood pulp, it is by end use a panel product. Production started in 1943 and has increased steadily. A new mill in Canterbury began producing medium-density fibreboard by a dry process in 1976.

Particle Board—Particle board is manufactured from roundwood and sawmill residues. There is an expanding domestic market for this product for interior panelling and flooring as well as furniture manufacture.

Production of plywood, veneer, fibreboard, and particle board is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVeneerPlywoodParticle BoardFibreboard
 cubic metres tonnes 
197239,30029,10055,000x45,500
197331,80027,10072,200x44,700
197437,80030,100118,000x45,500
197535,400x27,000117,90043,900
197632,20019,300115,80044,000

Production of Round and Split Produce—Considerable quantities of native timbers have been used in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, and firewood, and for a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge-timber requirements. A 1968 survey showed that a total of 7 million fence posts of all types was used: 4 1/2 million of these were wooden, almost all being thinnings or small-diameter logs from exotic plantations.

Wood Preservation—In the year ended 31 March 1976, 46.9 percent of all sawn timber produced was preservative treated; by world standards the proportion treated is very high, partly because of the relative ease with which otherwise non-durable exotic softwoods such as radiata pine can be treated.

Features of the preservation industry are: the very wide use in house building of timber treated by diffusion or vacuum-pressure methods with water-borne preservative at low retentions to prevent insect borer attack; the wide dispersal of small treating plants specialising in such treatment; and the quality-control function exercised by the Timber Preservation Authority.

Timber Preservation Authority specifications prescribe the preservative treatments for different seavice conditions. For treatment of exterior timbers against decay multi-salt preservatives (essentially solutions of copper, chromium, and arsenic compounds) at high loadings are widely used, but oil-type preservatives (e.g., creosote) are also acceptable. The usual method of application of multi-salt preservatives is by vacuum pressure, but such variations as the oscillating-pressure method (OPM), the Lowry process, and the alternating-pressure method (APM) have been introduced. Oil-based preservatives are applied by pressure, hot and cold bath, and cold soak and are used for poles, posts, and sleepers. For timber out of contact with the ground and protected from the weather lighter treatment with water-soluble preservatives is acceptable.

The following table shows the quantities of sawn timber treated.

YearOpen TankDiffusion Impregnation*Pressure ImpregnationTotal
*Mainly boron.
  cubic metres  
1971–72119281,912380,913662,944
1972–737x291,654x476,798x768,459x
1973–745403,488536,036939,529
1974–7537396,370561,971958,378
1975–7690359,238570,849930,096

In addition, 329,823 cubic metres of other timber, such as sleepers, poles and fence posts, was treated by one of the preservation methods in 1975–76.

OVERSEAS TRADE—Forest products are important earners of overseas funds. For the year ended June 1975 exports of forest products were valued at about $119 million; Australia was the largest customer, taking 45 percent, mainly in the form of pulp and paper, and Japan was the next largest, taking 35 percent, mainly pulp and paper. For the same period, imports of forest products into New Zealand were valued at $53 million.

Timber Exports—There is an established market in Australia for sawn radiata pine and Douglas fir, and the Pacific Islands continue to be an important market for sawn timber. Japan is taking mainly logs, but the market there for sawn radiata pine is expanding. Korea and the People's Republic of China are also taking logs. Only special categories of indigenous timbers are permitted for export, and these are strictly regulated.

Timber Imports—Durable Australian hardwoods are still imported for use as large poles, cross-arms, wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc. The demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses, exterior joinery, and weatherboards continues. Other imports are normally limited to tropical hardwoods for the furniture trade and specialty purposes.

Pulp and Paper Exports—A steadily increasing export market for both pulp and paper is developing, mainly to Australia. Chemical sulphate pulp is the only type exported in quantity. Newsprint comprises 65 percent of all paper exports.

Pulp and Paper Imports—Short-fibred pulp and special papers are imported and constitute about half of the value of our total forest products imports.

VALUE OF EXTERNAL TRADE IN FOREST PRODUCTS
Year Ended 30 JuneWood ProductsPulpPaper and Paper ProductsAll Forest Products
  Imports ($000, c.d.v.)  
19716,2292,37612,05120,656
19725,6581,68411,41818,760
197313,3361,85312,09827,287
197422,1951,78419,43443,412
197520,9221,20031,24053,362
  Exports ($000, f.o.b.)  
197141,3509,37620,43471,160
197246,24811,17224,62082,040
197351,06714,09924,55989,725
197453,97825,57328,654108,205
197536,08543,58739,306118,978

The following tables give New Zealand's imports and exports of timber for the last 5 years.

TIMBER IMPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneSawn TimberSleepersLogs and Poles
HardwoodsNorth American Softwoods*OakOtherTotal
*Douglas fir, redwood, and cedar.
   cubic metres (thousands)    
197110150.213.03914
19729139.0328
197319191.9408
197431300.33.26511
197532210.11.7555
TIMBER EXPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneIndigenous TimberRadiata PineDouglas FirOther ExoticsTotal ExoticsTotal All Sawn TimberLogs and Poles
SawnCases

NOTE—Small quantities of roundwood are included in the exports.

    cubic metres (thousands)    
197113.019735813.02702831,824
19727.01816613.02592661,872
19737.01636712.02422481,954
19745.21745314.92422471,449
19754.31221356.3164170695

The following table gives New Zealand's external trade in pulp and paper for the last 5 years.

Year Ended 30 JuneWood PulpFibreboard*Paper and Paperboard
NewsprintOther Paper and PaperboardTotal

*In 1,000 square metres.

†Excludes manufactures of paper and paperboard: values include minor items for which no quantities are given. Basis for valuation: exports—free on board at port of shipment; imports—c.d.v. in country of origin.

   Imports (tonnes)  
197117,53111.550224,69925,201
197212,9203.936027,36327,723
197313,5802.956732,77033,337
197411,52025.57,54638,55746,103
19754,102..7,86150,63058,491
   Exports (tonnes)  
197196,1451,619.2111,44119,744131,185
1972114,2622,239.5130,93623,616154,552
1973141,513x2,495.7122,965x25,044x148,009x
1974231,994744.2x103,09441,363144,457
1975312,603383.4120,58252,147172,729

RESEARCH—Since 1947 all forestry and forest-products research administered by the Forest Service has been undertaken or co-ordinated by its Forest Research Institute, Rotorua. In addition, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the universities, and private industrial organisations undertake research into certain aspects.

The Forest Research Institute has three research divisions. They are:

Production Forestry Division—This division is responsible for research into all aspects of growing forest trees and diseases and insect pests affecting them. It is subdivided into two branches—Forest Management Branch, which includes: economics of silviculture; forest establishment; forest mensuration; genetics and tree improvement; and indigenous silviculture, and Forest Sciences Branch, which includes: forest entomology; forest pathology; soils and site productivity; tree physiology; and forest biology survey.

Forest Products Division—This division is responsible for research into the properties of timber and the various uses of wood. It has a close relationship with the timber and building industry and is represented on committees associated with building standards, timber preservation, etc. Its fields of research are: adhesives and composite wood products; pulp and paper; timber drying; timber engineering; wood chemistry; wood preservation; wood quality; and wood structure and formation.

Protection Forestry Division—This division is based at the University of Canterbury. It is responsible for research into the functioning of trees and other vegetation as a protective cover for the high country and the problems of maintaining and restoring that cover in spite of climatic conditions and the depredations of noxious animals. It is also responsible for research into the biology and control of introduced animals which are declared noxious in terms of the Wildlife Act 1953. Its research fields are: animal ecology; geohydrology; plant ecology; watershed (conditions and trends) survey; and watershed rehabilitation.

All research work is reviewed regularly by three research advisory committees, one for each division. They advise on research needs and help maintain sound and balanced research programmes.

The institute employs 124 scientists, 203 technicians, and a substantial administrative and servicing staff. It has a large research nursery and a tree improvement trial area within its grounds, and has established research trials of both exotic and indigenous forest trees in the North Island and in the South Island. It maintains a continuous exchange of scientific information with other research organisations in New Zealand and throughout the world and provides opportunities for senior research fellowships and the exchange of scientists under reciprocal exchange schemes.

TRAINING IN FORESTRY—The Forest Service recruits school leavers and undergraduates up to 20 years old as forestry trainees. They spend their first year working in forests, then go on to train either as foresters or forest rangers. Forester trainees attend university on a full-time study bursary to complete a 4-year degree course in forestry. Ranger trainees continue to work in a variety of forest operations for a further 3 years and study for the New Zealand Certificate in Forestry by attending part-time courses at the Forestry Training Centre, Rotorua.

To build up a permanent skilled-labour force, the Forest Service recruits each year about 60 youths 16 to 18 years of age. These junior woodsmen receive a 2-year course of basic training in the practical skills of forestry at one of the woodsman schools at Kaingaroa, Golden Downs, Berwick, or Aupouri, followed by a third year of advanced training given in small groups in selected forests.

Through the Forestry Training Centre at Rotorua courses are regularly offered in timber grading, seasoning and treatment of timber, and other forestry operations. The Timber Industry Training Centre at Rotorua provides courses for the industry in saw doctoring, sawmilling, and timber machining. Short grading courses for representatives from local industry are also held in other centres.

The University of Canterbury offers the Bachelor of Forestry Science degree, for which study involves 2 intermediate years of pure science followed by 2 years of professional classes.

EMPLOYMENT—In 1976 the people employed in the forestry sector comprised 3.6 percent of the total labour force. Because the major manufacturing units are logically located near their raw material supplies, there is a concentration of employment near the largest forest areas. This is seen in the central North Island, where over half the country's exotic forests are located and where one-quarter of the regional labour force is engaged in forest industries. In fact the forest industries have had a very marked effect on regional development. The current prosperity and the fast growth of population in the Rotorua - Bay of Plenty area is due in no small measure to the expansion of the forest industries. Apart from the expansion of the established towns such as Rotorua, the industrial development of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., and Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. led to the establishment of a completely new town—Kawerau—and the rapid growth of another—Tokoroa. The development of these industrial complexes has also stimulated other industries, especially transport, vehicle repair, and building and construction. Similarly the expansion of exports of forest products was partly responsible for the increased tonnages that have passed through the ports of Tauranga and Napier over the last decade.

The following table shows the number of employees and working proprietors in the forest industries at 15 April 1976.

At 15 AprilForestry*LoggingSawmillingTimber MerchantingPulp, Paper, and PaperboardOther§Total

*Includes silviculture, nurseries, etc.

†Includes felling, cutting, and haulage.

‡Includes planing mills and plywood and veneer mills.

§Includes other wood industries, manufacture of furniture and fittings, wooden and cane containers, and wood and cork products.

19763,6403,1388,2133,6385,04020,02543,694

THE OUTLOOK—The State owns 75 percent of the remaining indigenous timber and about half of the 0.7 million hectares of exotic forest. It makes sales, usually of standing timber but sometimes logs, from both types of forest. The contribution of the indigenous forests to timber supply will inevitably diminish but it is hoped that it will remain a source of special purpose timbers for several decades. The exotic forests are renewable and are managed for sustained yield. Their full possibilities have not yet been reached but owing to the irregularity of past planting programmes their composition is far from ideal and there are problems over maintaining a steady rate of expansion of output.

The large area of exotic forest in private ownership has arisen for the most part from speculative planting in the 1920s and 1930s. Most of the forests then established have since come under the control of industrial companies, which are utilising them and managing them, in several cases, to ensure regular and permanent supplies for their major wood-using factories. The other privately-owned indigenous forests are subject to uncontrolled exploitation and are expected to be exhausted at no distant date.

Long-term industrial expansion will require a continuing increase in the area of the nation's exotic forests. During 1973–76 new planting in this category averaged over 40,000 hectares a year. Recommendations by the Forestry Development Council for a still greater rate are being considered by the Government. Increased production up to the end of the century would be based for the most part on existing forest resources and would be sustained thereafter by the additional planting proposed.

New Zealand's forest industries are favourably placed in regard to the basic requirement for expansion—wood supplies from exotic forests, which will increase over the next 30 years. Efficient processing is well established, providing a good basis for further expansion; projections indicate that demand for forest products will grow both at home and abroad, particularly for paper. In many countries wood supplies are inadequate for their needs, hence they must import.

Chapter 15. Section 15 FISHERIES

Table of Contents

General—Food from the sea figured prominently in the diet of the Polynesian inhabitants of New Zealand for over a thousand years. And although fish was also important to white settlers, it is only within the last decade that fishing has attained status as a significant industry.

Whalers and sealers were the first Europeans to tap the potential of New Zealand waters and in 1844 whale oil and other products were fetching more than £50,000 on London markets.

Fishing existed as a way of life for more than a century until 1945, when the Government of the day introduced a system of restrictive licensing of fishing vessels which provided for the vessels to land catches only at the port of registration. Surplus was exported, but never steadily, and in 1962 a Parliamentary Select Committee was appointed to examine the prevailing restrictive licensing system and review practices. It recommended the abolition of the system, which had restricted the expansion and diversification of the industry.

At this time there was a mounting world-wide demand for protein foods. Russian and Japanese fishing boats were penetrating into the hitherto unexploited south-west Pacific, including New Zealand waters, where of the 42 food fishes known to be caught locally, only 7 were being marketed regularly.

Restrictive licensing was abolished in 1964 and the Fishing Industry Board was established to help promote the industry. Since then fisheries have expanded at an accelerating rate.

The continental shelf, which extends out to a depth of approximately 160 metres, is fairly narrow. Though in some areas, such as the Taranaki Bight, it extends for a considerable distance offshore and in others, such as the south-west of the South Island, it is almost contiguous with the coast line, its average width is approximately 19 kilometres.

In 1966, following the increasing encroachment of overseas shipping vessels into the waters of the continental shelf, a 15 kilometre fishing zone beyond the 5 kilometre territorial limit was introduced, and a later agreement with Japan resulted in Japanese fishing boats being phased out completely from the fishing zone by the end of 1970. The effect was to conserve more fish stocks for New Zealand fishermen.

The establishment of new industrial plant principally for export of quality wetfish, regular supplies, development of attractive packaging, and the introduction of Government quality standards and control are now resulting in expanding export markets.

Stimulated by the impetus of the 1962 Select Committee, which had recommended freeing the industry from restriction, and with Government assistance, the industry has not only expanded, but begun diversifying into rock oyster and mussel production and begun to employ different catching methods to land tuna and other pelagic species, which represent a large untapped resource in New Zealand waters.

Resources and Fishing Methods—Trawling and Danish seining are the principal methods of taking demersal or bottom-dwelling fish, which form the basis of New Zealand's fishing industry. These two methods accounted for 69 percent and just under 7 percent respectively of the total wet fish catch in 1974. Lines and set nets accounted for another 18 percent. Other methods used are purse seining and trolling, employed in fishing for pelagic or surface-dwelling fish, which form an increasing proportion of the total wet fish catch.

Between 1964 and 1975 production of fin fish increased from 29,924 tonnes to 38,023 tonnes and the value of all fish exports increased from $4.1 million to over $20 million.

The biggest stimulus to the export industry has been the development of the rock lobster fishery, exports of which have flourished after a demand for frozen tails arose in the United States from 1948 onwards. In 1962 rock lobster landings totalled 4,501 tonnes. Five years later landings had risen to 8,078 tonnes and in 1968 jumped to 10,909 tonnes valued at $7,433,006. This was the peak year of a fishery in the Chatham Islands, where prolific rock lobster grounds had been discovered. Total landings began to taper off in 1971, and declined to 3,318 tonnes in 1975.

Fishing Grounds—There are 36 trawl fishing ports, including 16 of major importance. These are located fairly evenly around the coastline, with trawlers having access to the whole continental shelf. The boundary of the shelf occurs at about the 200 metres isobath, which is the maximum depth normally fished by trawlers.

Boats work throughout the year, with no marked seasonal fluctuations. A full-time trawler averages between 100 and 160 days at sea a year, but there are regional variations due to climatic differences.

Trawling is more intensive along eastern coasts, but the fishery on western coasts is increasing, especially in the South Island.

Vessels—Since 1945 the average size of trawlers has increased from 12 to 16 metres and from 16 to 26 gross tonnes. Engine power has risen from an average of 40 bhp to 150 bhp.

North Island boats are generally larger than those of the South Island. At Auckland and Gisborne average size approaches 20 metres and 200 bhp, and at Lyttelton and Timaru boats average 14 metres.

Crews number between one and three, with the national average about 2.5.

The National Development Conference of 1968 set a target for the fishing industry of $25 million by 1978, including an export target of $7 million for pelagic or surface schooling fish.

At the time of the conference pelagic fish amounted to only 15 percent of the total fishing catch here, whereas they comprise 60 percent of the world catch. By 1971 the percentage of pelagic species in the total New Zealand catch was 21 percent. However, most of these were still trawl caught.

Species landed have been barracouta, trevally, tuna, kingfish, kahawai, mackerel, and pilchard. Of these, barracouta, trevally, and tuna have been exported. Tuna landings in 1968 were 18 tonnes; these rose to 1,807 tonnes in 1975. Tuna fishing has been pursued in recent seasons by commercial fishermen in the Bay of Plenty and off the Taranaki Bight in the North Island.

New Zealand landing figures offer no real indication of the total potential harvest of the seas in the south-west Pacific, but the presence of Japanese and Russian fleets suggests that there are substantial resources which are, as yet, not overfished. The extent to which the New Zealand industry will participate in fishing this area depends upon the economic outlets for the fish and the availability of capital for investment in large all-weather vessels capable of fishing down to 500 fathoms (914 metres). Practical research into pelagic fishing has been undertaken by a United States fishing company under a special arrangement with the New Zealand Government. American super seiner are being used to develop the commercial skipjack tuna fishing.

Fisheries Management—Responsibility for the optimum development of fisheries rests with two divisions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Fisheries Research and Fisheries Management Divisions.

The research programme is headquartered in Wellington, with freshwater centres also in Christ-church and Rotorua. The 42-metre, deep sea research vessel James Cook is used extensively all around New Zealand, and the 19-metre Ikatere mainly for inshore studies in north eastern waters. Virtually all the major New Zealand demersal and pelagic fish species are being studied by the Research Division. A typical end-product is the mathematical model established for the East Cape tarakihi fishery. Shellfish teams also study rock lobsters (life history investigations), dredge and rock oyster (tagging and breeding cycle studies), and mussels (growth rates and other aspects, in various locations).

The 27-metre technological vessel, W. J. Scott, based at Nelson, undertakes various gear tests and exploratory fishing. Among long-standing programmes are management of the Foveaux Strait dredge oyster fishery, rock lobster investigations in Otago, Southland, and Fiordland, elephant fish studies in the Canterbury Bight, toheroa surveys and a study of the shellfish industry in Golden and Tasman Bays.

Development until recent years has in the main been influenced by a traditionally small and highly selective domestic market which has not encouraged diversification in processing methods for fish which did not meet the normal domestic demand for a white fleshed, bland, non-oily, relatively bone-free type of fish.

Generally, fisheries development involves two important factors. The first is where a demand develops for a particular type of fish and this stimulates a search for this fish. The second factor is new treatment and packaging of a resource which has not previously found favour in the traditional fresh fish market in New Zealand (e.g., mackerel).

There are changes in the world-wide demand for fish as the more popular species reach the point of over-exploitation. Thus fish species which in the past had little or no value on either the domestic or the export market are now acquiring a new value internationally. The time is very appropriate for the expansion and development of certain types of fisheries but a great deal will depend upon the economics of these operations.

The governing legislation for the fishing industry is the Fisheries Act 1908, which is administered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The Territorial Sea and Fishing Zone Act 1965 redefined the 5 kilometre territorial seas and introduced a 15 kilometre fishing zone beyond the territorial limit.

Fishing Industry Board—This board was established in 1964 under the Fishing Industry Board Act. Since then there have been great improvements in the quality of fish products and their presentation and in the wider use of less popular fish species. There have been new developments in fishing vessel design and construction; fishing gear and catching methods; in the catching of under-utilised species; in fish farming; in processing, packaging, and marketing; in food technological research; in technical education; and in co-operation within the industry.

A levy of approximately 1 percent of the landed value of fish came into force on 1 January 1965 and provides finance for the board's activities. The board through its committees investigates local supply and marketing, export development, technical education, tuna development, and fishing demonstrations.

Fishing Industry Finance Committee—The committee considers applications under the Government's State Loan and Mortgage Guarantee Scheme for loans to the fishing industry. The committee consists of representatives of Treasury, the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation the Department of Trade and Industry, the Fishing Industry Board, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (convenor). Secretarial services are provided by the Ministry. The scheme assists purchases or refinancing of loans for fishing vessels, equipment, changing the method of fishing, re-engining, improvements in storage facilities, flake ice or ice plants and cool stores in outport areas, and the initial development of rock-oyster farms.

During 1975-76 the committee recommended loans as follows:

 $
5 new fishing vessels182,520
11 used fishing vessels465,000
3 re-engining17,500
13 equipment54,642
2 rock-oyster farms15,000
1 flake-ice plant33,500
Total768,162

The standing of the scheme at 31 March 1976 was:

 $
Total State lending limit5,000,000
Less State loans approved at 31 March 1976 for 129 new and used fishing vessels, 4 re-enginings, 3 flake-ice plants, and 8 rock-oyster farms4,218,362
 781,638
Plus loans not taken up466,800
Balance$1,248,438

Loans totalling $181,000 were under action on 31 March 1976.

SPECIES OF FISH—Of the many kinds of excellent edible fish, the most important is the snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which is the principal species in the catch (mainly by trawl) in the north-western part of the South Island, the west coast of the North Island, and the east coast of the North Island to just south of East Cape; next in importance is tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropterus), which is taken mainly by trawlers working off the east coast of the North Island and in smaller quantities off the coasts of the South Island. The groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) is caught on lines in the deeper water from North Cape to Stewart Island, but principally in Cook Strait and on the rocky parts of the east coast of the South Island, while the blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the staple line-caught product of the southern line fisheries, particularly about Foveaux Strait, Stewart Island, and at Chatham Islands. The flounder and sole (Pleuronectidae) occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters. Rock lobster (crayfish) are fished mainly at the Chatham Islands and around the south-west of the South Island.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow waters, and most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 80 fathoms. Depths of over 100 fathoms occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, kingfish, and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounders, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, John Dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets and drag nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet.

Pelagic Fisheries—Blue mackerel, Scomber japonicus (Cuvier and Valenciennes), and jack or horse mackerel, Trachurur declivis, are taken by purse seining. The smaller pelagic species include the pilchard, Sardinops neopilchardus (Steindachner), sprat, Sprattus antipodum Hector, and the anchovy, Engraulis australis (White).

Arripis trutta, the New Zealand kahawai, which forms the basis of a commercial fishery in Australia, schools at the surface in substantial numbers in our waters and is being caught in increasing quantities.

Of the larger, oceanic-pelagic species, the southern bluefin tuna, Thunnus maccovii, is found from the far north of New Zealand to the south of the South Island in summer. Though hardly exploited commercially by local fishermen, it is fished off-shore by Japanese long-line vessels, particularly to the east and west of the North Island.

Albacore, Thunnus adalunga, skipjack, Katsuwonus pelanis, and yellowfin, Neothunnus macropterus are species under investigation.

CATCH—The amount of fish landed annually by the fleet increased continuously from 6,488 tonnes in 1936 to 48,606 tonnes in 1974, but showed a drop to 38,023 tonnes in 1975.

Composition of the catches is extremely varied and most species are landed whole. About 40 species are landed, but many only in small quantities. In 1975, 4 strongly dominant species contributed 54 percent of the total landings. These were snapper (31 percent), tarakihi (9 percent) trevally (9 percent), and red gurnard (5 percent).

In some individual fishing areas one or two species predominate. The trawl fishery in Hauraki Gulf is largely a snapper fishery, tarakihi is the chief species in the East Cape and eastern Cook Strait areas, and sole, red cod, and elephant fish predominate on the east coast of the South Island.

The catch in landed weight and value is shown in the following table.

Class1972197319741975
tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)tonnes (000)$(000)
*Includes estimated value of whitebait catch ($680,400 in 1975) and other minor items.
Snapper13.22,17414.12,66113.93,42911.63,092
Trevally6.04774.94285.15953.5475
Tarakihi4.36993.86833.87193.4803
Gurnard2.22303.74303.03802.0276
Barracouta1.4762.81823.42602.5233
Hapuku1.14571.35881.34411.1415
Elephant fish1.13441.03730.93200.6275
Flounder0.84370.74770.96010.9680
Mackerel0.6240.7361.5630.317
Sole0.52290.94741.15630.7322
Shark1.54361.65182.68542.4683
Red cod0.3460.7961.91940.764
Albacore0.2470.51690.93390.6162
Skipjack0.2430.1200.71481.2209
Other6.81,1007.81,4117.81,3636.51,427
Totals, wet fish40.16,81944.88,54648.610,26938.09,133
Rock lobster4.68,1454.89,4883.67,0533.35,850
Oysters (dredge and rock)8.61,62810.62,10110.12,4509.93,378
Mussels2.41482.42102.12151.696
Paua0.71970.82410.41460.5201
Scallops1.83332.55423.48049.52,283
Southern spider crab---410.3502--
Squid0.1200.4890.1260.121
Other0.2190.4440.4740.3718*
Totals, all fish58.717,737*66.721,54469.121,837*63.21,680

The value of fisheries products is shown in the following diagram.

The total value of all exports of fisheries products for 1975 increased by $5.3 million (26.7 percent) over 1974. The record total value of $25.75 million was due almost entirely to increased scallop and eel productions and to the general improvement in prices that occurred, especially from June 1975 onwards.

The value of rock-lobster exports increased to $12.07 million in 1975, representing 46.9 percent of all fisheries exports. There was, however, little change in the overall meat volume of lobster exports as compared with the 1974 volume.

The long-term economics and profitability of the industry continue to cause concern. Fishing effort has increased but there is a trend toward a decline in yield per unit of effort. The cost of running vessels has increased enormously, largely because of price rises on petroleum products. The capital cost of plant and equipment, much of it imported, for new or modernised fishing vessels, has skyrocketed. An 18-metre steel vessel costing $90,000 in 1968 cost over $200,000 in 1975. New and more expensive gear is also required. Relatively little is known about the fishing resources that are available for utilisation and it is becoming increasingly important, on account of the high cost of capital investment in the fishing industry, to know more positively the extent and nature of New Zealand's resources for future planning and development to be rational and economic.

MAIN FISHING PORTS—Auckland and neighbouring Manukau continue their leadership of New Zealand fishing ports. These two centres registered 13,003 tonnes of wetfish in 1974 out of a record total wetfish catch for New Zealand of 48,606 tonnes. Nelson, in third place, is the fastest growing fishing centre, with a 1974 catch of 5,290 tonnes. Twenty ports reported catches of over 500 tonnes, an indication of the wide dispersion of the industry.

FOREIGN FISHING ACTIVITY—The types of fishing being practised by foreigners are, as far as the Fishing Industry Board is aware:

  1. Long lining for tuna, mainly by Japanese vessels, but quite possibly by other nations such as Korea.

  2. Trawling by large vessels, mainly Japanese and Russian.

  3. Squid fishing by Japanese vessels.

EXPORTS—A table showing quantities and values of the principal classes of fishery products exported during each of the latest 3 years is set out below. Rock lobsters, or crayfish, are exported mainly to the United States; for other fish the main markets are Australia and Japan. New Zealand's exports of fish and fish products now go to over 25 countries.

 QuantityValue
Commodity197319741975197319741975
  tonnes(000) $millions (f.o.b.)  
Fish (fresh, chilled, and frozen)11.310.210.97.37.38.7
Rock lobsters (whole tails and processed)1.91.71.711.311.412.1
Shellfish (fresh and processed)0.90.81.91.51.64.9
Totals14.112.714.520.120.325.7

CONSUMPTION—The following table shows the annual per head consumption of fish products and the permissible mercury levels in selected countries. A study on mercury levels in snapper in New Zealand waters was recently made by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Results showed that, despite some variation in mercury levels with size of fish and location, the average level was well within acceptable limits.

Country and PeriodPer Head Consumption (Edible Weight)Permissible Mercury Level
*This is one-tenth of the lowest level likely to cause ill-effects.
 lbppm
Japan (1969)67.61.0
Denmark (1966-68)45.91.0
Sweden (1969-70)45.91.0
Norway (1968-69)45.11.2
United Kingdom (1968-69)20.91.0
New Zealand (1969)15.30.5*
Australia (1968-69)14.50.5
Italy (1968-69)12.90.7
Netherlands (1968-69)12.11.0
United States (1971)11.20.5

DREDGE OYSTERS—The principal oyster beds around the coasts of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South Island and Stewart Island. During 1975 a total of 114,706 sacks of oysters, valued at $2,855,707, were dredged from these beds. Tasman Bay, in Nelson, yielded a further 8,652 sacks, valued at $116,802. The total 1975 dredge-oyster catch of 123,358 sacks, valued at $2,972,509, represented an increase of 1.7 percent in landings and a rise of 28.5 percent in value on the previous years figures.

Dredge oyster catches during the latest available five seasons are shown in the table below.

SeasonFoveaux StraitTasman BayTotal
Sacks (000)Value $(000)Sacks (000)Value $(000)Sacks (000)Value $(000)
1973125.91,8264.763130.61,889
1974119.52,1011.824121.32,125
1975114.72,8568.7117123.42,973

In 1975, catch rates during the season (March to August) were relatively high, averaging 11.90 sacks per hour's fishing.

ROCK OYSTERS—In addition to the 2 Government experimental rock-oyster farms, some 125 private farms are in production in Northland and the Hauraki Gulf. The industry is in the process of changing from tray to stick cultivation.

During 1975 farms produced 13,514 bags valued at $405,420. Of these, 6,842 bags were exported and 6,672 bags sold locally.

ROCK LOBSTERS—Rock lobster, or marine crayfish, occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Part of the catch of rock lobster is sold in local markets for domestic consumption and part is exported as frozen rock lobster tails and whole crays.

With the development of the export of frozen rock lobster tails to the United States of America and the productive fishing in the Chatham Islands, the catch of rock lobster increased until 1968. The boom period, however, has now passed and the aim of all concerned is to ensure that this valuable fishery stabilises to provide regular supplies for overseas and local markets.

YearProduction (Whole)Exports
QuantityValueQuantityValue
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
19734,7719,4881,74610,669
19743,5727,0531,74410,677
19753,3185,8501,74112,070

FISH MEAL AND FISH OIL—In 1974 three companies produced commercial quantities of fish meal and fish oil from whole fish offals and frames. Fish meal production totalled 1,190 tonnes, valued at $356,209. Fish oil production totalled 14 tonnes, valued at $4,008.

BIG-GAME FISHING—Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District, and attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), Whakatane and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The record black marlin swordfish (976 lb) was caught off the Bay of Islands.

To preserve this very important fishery the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950 prohibit the taking of swordfish by other than rod and line, and stipulate that the line be not heavier than No. 39 linen thread line. In addition, a limit bag of not more than 4 fish per boat per day has been imposed.

In the 1975 season (from 1 November to June), big-game fish caught included 18 black marlin, 249 striped marlin, 17 blue marlin, 557 mako sharks, and 112 hammerhead sharks.

PAUA—Relatively few years ago paua was, strictly speaking, a non-commercial shellfish. Maoris have traditionally taken paua as a regular item of diet, but it was largely neglected as food by the pakeha until very recent years. Even now it is only a small item in the retail sales of fish in New Zealand. The recent change in the demand for paua has come about in the context of the ban on the export of unprocessed meat, which would have been processed overseas, since some New Zealand canners have solved the problems of bleaching and canning the meat to produce an article acceptable at substantial prices in, primarily, South-east Asian markets.

A close season for paua from 1 February to 31 May each year was introduced in 1972. Stocks are believed to have increased slightly during 1975.

WHITEBAIT—This fishing is based on Galaxias species which, so far as is known, is not taken on a commercial scale in the other countries where it occurs. Whitebait fishery is carried on in the tidal reaches of many rivers, from August to November in the North Island and from September to November in the South Island. The most productive fishing grounds are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally the whitebait fishery gives employment to over 300 regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishers. With improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aeroplanes have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island. The 1975 season for the West Coast of the South Island showed a total of about 104 tonnes. It is becoming harder to collect catch data because of the large number o itinerant buyers, and the 1975 catch figure should be regarded as conservative.

FRESHWATER FISHERIES: Acclimatised Species—These include quinnat salmon, brown and rainbow trout, and perch. The local administration and management of these species is delegated to acclimatisation societies and to the Department of Internal Affairs for the Rotorua and Taupo fishing districts and for the Southern Lakes Acclimatisation District, where it acts as an acclimatisation society. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries assists with management investigations, and provides technical advice. It also conducts research, on behalf of acclimatisation societies.

A fishing licence is required for the taking of acclimatised fish. The estimated revenue from angling licences in a season is $300,000.

Indigenous Species—Eels are the only indigenous species of which a significant commercial harvest is taken from New Zealand's freshwaters. The catch of "wild" eels increased in 1975 to 1,231 tonnes compared with 830 tonnes in 1974. Several companies are now engaged in farming eels.

Research—The research programme includes provision for continued limnological studies of the Rotorua lakes. Sources of nutrients, the principal causes of eutrophication, are still under study as is the botton fauna. Studies of the correlation between trophic status of lakes and the population density and condition of sport fish is being undertaken. Work on whitebait fisheries and stream faunas is continuing in order to determine productivity levels and fish behaviour.

Studies on adult quinnat salmon are to be published and work on fry and smolts is being initiated. In addition work on trout and their inter-relationship to salmon in South Island rivers is being commenced.

Additional work is to be done on the occurrence of trace elements, particularly mercury, lead, zinc, cadmium, and copper, in shellfish from a variety of sea areas, in order to determine the naturally-occurring levels of these elements. New work is planned on parasites and diseases of freshwater fish.

Chapter 16. Section 16 MINERALS

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The mineral industry in New Zealand began with the discoveries of the gold prospectors of the 1850s and 1860s. Gold production reached a peak in 1873 when it earned 75 percent of all export earnings. Coal mining also began about 1850, and early this century the value of coal produced exceeded that of gold for the first time. In 1961 coal in turn was replaced by building aggregate, sand, and gravel as the most valuable mineral product. From 1969-72 the world-wide mining boom resulted in a great upsurge in mineral exploration in New Zealand. At its peak in 1971 estimated annual expenditure reached $1.7 million. No major metalliferous mineral deposits were discovered, but the impetus given to the mining industry has continued.

The existence of extensive ironsand deposits on the west coast of the North Island has been known for more than a century. Numerous attempts had been made to smelt the ironsand but, as none had been successful, the State-owned New Zealand Steel Investigating Co. was set up to investigate the feasibility of steel-making from the ironsands. In 1963 the company reported that an industry was economically and technically feasible, using ironsand from near Waikato Heads and Waikato coal. Construction of the steel mill at Glenbrook was completed in 1970 and the mill now provides a significant proportion of the country's steel requirements.

In addition ironsand is mined for export at two localities (Waverley and Taharoa) on the west coast of the North Island. The value of ironsand concentrates exported in 1974 exceeded $10 million.

Ilmenite, which is a source of titanium oxide for the paint and other industries, occurs extensively in the beaches of the west coast of the South Island in association with monazite, gold, and zircon. A reconnaissance survey by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research indicated reserves of over 50 million tonnes of ilmenite-bearing sands, and subsequent work by New Zealand and Australian companies has indicated considerable reserves in the Westport and Barrytown areas. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has carried out extensive laboratory work aimed at producing a synthetic rutile from these rather low-grade (46 percent TiO) ilmenites. The companies concerned have also carried out both concentration and beneficiation studies with encouraging results. The main obstacle to the development of this mineral is now in marketing rather than in treatment.

Coal production over the last 40 years has varied between 2 and 3 million tonnes per annum. However recent steep rises in the cost of imported fuels, and increasing demand for electricity has led to renewed interest in the country's coal resources, mainly for electricity generation. A large thermal power station at Huntly should begin operating in 1979, and three new mines now being developed at Huntly will produce over 2 million tonnes per annum when fully operating. Most of this coal will be consumed by the Huntly power station.

After a long period with little activity, serious exploration for oil and gas resumed about 20 years ago, resulting in the discovery of two natural gas fields. The Kapuni Field was discovered in 1959 and started production in 1970 with gas being supplied to nine North Island centres and to a number of industrial consumers. The much larger Maui offshore gas field was discovered in 1969 and is at present being developed. The gas produced will be used for electricity generation, and as a premium fuel. Exploration for oil has continued with the drilling of several wells both on-shore and off-shore, so far without success.

The existence of high-melting-point waxes in peat deposits on the Chatham Islands has been known for more than 30 years. Comparable waxes have also been discovered in the lignites of Otago and Southland.

The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is carrying out research in processing methods that might produce saleable products from these minerals. Laboratory-scale work has investigated a range of solvent systems, and different extraction techniques. Larger-scale work is also being done on the production of bulk samples of wax for further analysis and evaluation. Thus successful commercial development will involve co-operation between industry and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

The Mineral Resources Council, established as the Sector Council on minerals for the National Development Council, keeps under review all aspects of mineral development.

MINERAL PRODUCTION—In New Zealand non-metallic minerals such as coal, clay, limestone, and dolomite are both economically and industrially as important as metallic ores. Until recently over 90 percent of the value of all mineral production was represented by coal and limestone, together with sand, rock, and gravel for roads, ballast, building, and construction. This figure fell to about 70 percent in 1974 as a result of the increased production of ironsand for export and the increasing output of gas and condensate from the Kapuni field. The value of aggregate and sand production still exceeds that of coal, and remains the highest of any mineral in New Zealand. The quarrying industry, which produces about 27 million tons of aggregate and sand and 3 million tons of limestone annually, is of prime importance.

The following table shows the production of metals and minerals from mines and quarries. The values are assessed at pit mouth or quarry.

 19741975
MineralQuantityValue*QuantityValue*

*Based on selling price ex mine (or equivalent).

†Based on overall price at State coal mines (73 percent of tota production).

‡Includes a high percentage of CO2 the value after CO2 extracted.

§Includes stockpile increase at Waipipi of 104,713 tonnes.

†Estimated value.

¶Includes 1,094 tonnes processed; value $36,312.

**Tonnes unless otherwise stated.

Fuelstonnes**$(000)tonnes**$(000)
Coal2,564,31717,1062,412,39317,256
Petroleum condensate—Kapuni220,233m310,749226,299m3..
Natural gas—Kapuni484.11 x 106 m32,1560524.90 x 106 m3..
LPG—Kapuni3,993m31154,743,845 litres..
Natural gasolene....664,526 litres..
Metals    
Gold146.50 kg50485.45 kg369
Silver56.41 kg361.95 kg4
Iron ore21923295
Ironsand export2,181,96610,2842,127,606§11,638
Ironsand local170,687789169,450946
Tungsten ore6,700 kg32--
Non-Metallics    
Bentonite5,069485,24657
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc.257,389473211,423754
Clay for pottery16,71134226,997315
Diatomite4,5581923,055118
Dimension stone35,08531723,091318
Dolomite20,93540913,598252
Greenstone5,700 kg155.8412
Limestone, agriculture1,539,5834,3401,502,4964,557
Limestone for roads134,217299241,632487
Limestone industrial113,985648125,314848
Limestone and marl for cement1,884,3162,6701,838,2992,369
Magnesite8262079118
Perlite46511,5004
Pumice70,3287237,85766
Rock for harbour work, filling, etc.2,131,9531,9223,296,0233,021
Salt54,86445440,00044,464
Sand, rock, gravel, etc. for building aggregate7,525,42415,3766,523,29915,499
Sand, rock, gravel, etc. for roads and ballast20,054,24625,90916,092,33424,282
Sand for industry44,4517912,75551
Serpentine89,06937160,069402
Silica sand148,633557147,738614
Sulphur224858518
Totals..96,257..84,745

The following summary figures are the mineral industry export targets in constant 1969-70 prices unprocessed, as set by the Mineral Resources Council.

Item1969-701972-731975-761978-791981-82
All minerals and metal ores—  $(million)  
  Assured0.45.612.612.612.6
  Probable--3.36.513.0

The 1972-73 exports figure comprises ironsands, lead-zinc ores, scheelite, and pumice. The 1978-79 figure is based on confirmed ironsand contracts, and the prospects of coal, clay, and ilmenite.

The corresponding additional figures for import savings (i.e., for selected minerals which would otherwise need to be imported) and for total production (i.e., Mines Statement totals plus geothermal steam including exports and domestic production of aggregate, limestone, coal, etc.) are as follows.

Item1969-701972-731975-761978-791981-82
Import saving—  $(million)  
Assured1.75.07.010.511.9
Probable----15.0
Round total1 1/2571027
Total mineral production52.6647988115

LEGISLATION—Legislative control of mineral production is contained in the Atomic Energy Act 1945, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959, the Mining Act 1971, the Quarries Act 1944, the Petroleum Act 1937, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. The administrative agency is the Mines Department.

COAL—Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, outside which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are—

Bituminous Coal (Coking): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfields), Reefton (Garvey Creek).

Sub-bituminous Coal (Non-coking): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai), Reefton.

Lignite (Non-coking Low Grade): Southland (Mataura).

Coal Utilisation and Research—Coal utilisation and research is being fostered by the New Zealand Coal Research Association. Finance for the Association's activities is raised by a levy of 7.38 cents a tonne made by coal wholesalers, including State coal mines, and a Government grant.

Fuel Technology Service—The Mines Department and the Coal Research Association have established a fuel technology service in Auckland, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin to advise industrial and domestic consumers on the efficient use of coal.

Survey of Coal Resources—Investigation of coal resources is now being carried out in three phases: (i) mainly geological and chemical activities; (ii) detailed topographical surveys and shallow prospecting by means of cuts, pits, and hand drilling; (iii) investigations by deep-core drilling. For detailed information concerning geology, coal type, rank, and extent of the coalfields, those interested are referred to Geological Survey Bulletins Nos. 17, 45, 51, 56, and 59, and for an overall picture to Economic Geology of New Zealand, Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Monograph Series No. 4, procurable from the Government Printer, Wellington.

A fresh estimate of the coal resources of New Zealand prepared in 1974 was based on information obtained by the Mines Department and the Geological Survey. The classification accepted—"measured", "indicated", and "inferred"—is that used by the United States Bureau of Mines and also accepted in the Commonwealth Mineral Resources Survey issued by the British Commonwealth of Nations Scientific Liaison Offices, London. These terms are simply defined as follows:

  1. "Measured coal" is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established.

  2. "Indicated coal" is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. "Inferred coal" is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples or measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

  4. "Speculative coal" is considered a useful term for coal that exists well beyond the limits of certain geological knowledge out to areas where its existence is undoubtedly possible and has not been disproved.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable reserves, which total 1,426 million tonnes.

LocalityMeasured RecoverableIndicated RecoverableInferred Recoverable
 Bituminoustonnes(000) 
Buller31,6806,16012,100
Murchison-101,600
Garvey Creek-2,5504,810
Reefton8001,88010,750
Greymouth2,57011,290152,390
Pike River--15,000
Shag Point-1065
 35,05021,900196,715
 Sub-bituminous  
Waikato (includes Maramarua, Huntly, Rotowaro, Glen Massey, Whatawhata)106,000214,000273,000
Kawhia2575507,000
Mangapehi--10,000
Taranaki (includes Ohura, Waitawhera, Mokau)-1,30095,840
Retaruke--6,000
Collingwood100100100
Heaphy River--1,000
Charleston1,7703,3606,090
Punakaiki90702,000
Reefton (includes Inangahua, Fletcher Creek)8001,0006,000
Kaitangata3201,700470
Ohai2,6209,88076,520
 111,957231,960484,020
 Lignites  
Canterbury360-22,000
Otago (includes Green Island, Pomahaka, North Otago, and Central Otago)21,57072,92065,310
Southland (including Mataura Valley)4,80341,800115,440
 26,733114,720202,750
Totals173,740368,580883,485

One of the biggest potential uses for coal is for electricity generation.

There is likely to be a smaller number of larger, mechanised underground mines. Coal mining will become less labour-intensive.

There are three coal areas of major future significance—Waikato, Buller and Southland.

Waikato has measured and indicated resources of low/moderate-ash low-sulphur sub-bituminous coal of 300 million tonnes—one-eighth of it opencast. Inferred resources are an additional 79 million tonnes. Production costs range from $5 to $8.50 per tonne. Sufficient reserves are known to supply a 1,000 MW power station, plus the steel industry's projected requirements. Further work to increase measured and indicated reserves is currently being undertaken for proposed additional thermal station capacity. The Waikato coalfield is well placed to serve Auckland industrial development, and coal is railed to the Bay of Plenty for the pulp and paper industry. New Zealand Steel's development programme anticipated an increased demand of 500,000 tonnes a year by 1983.

Main markets for Waikato coal are electric power generation, dairy factories, paper mills, freezing works, carbonisation, central heating, brick and tile manufacturing, cement and lime works, general industries, and domestic heating.

Buller has measured and indicated resources of low/moderate-ash, low/high-sulphur bituminous coal amounting to about 40 million tonnes, three-quarters of it opencast, but only 7 million tonnes of it low-ash and low-sulphur. Inferred reserves amount to 12 million tonnes. The significant fact is the high proportion (about 30 million tonnes) of opencast, and therefore low-cost ($6 per tonne) coal.

Southland essentially comprises the Ohai and Mataura Valley coalfields. Ohai contains over 100 million tonnes of Waikato-type coal, mostly inferred, but has little significance because the principally domestic market is likely to decrease. Mataura is important because of its proximity or ready access to the Bluff industrial area, and because the reserves of moderate-ash, low-sulphur coal are large, potentially cheap and open-castable. Because the flat-lying seams seldom outcrop, and there are relatively few drillholes, there is potential for a very large speculative tonnage of coal to be present in addition to the inferred recoverable reserves. Future potential uses include power generation.

Coal Consumption—Coal has always been important in New Zealand's mineral industry, and had a higher production value than any other mineral between the First and Second World Wars, but usage has slumped in recent years.

The approximate distribution of coal consumption during recent years is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports.

User19741975
 tonnes(000) 
Factories1,1201,077
Shipping--
Railways- 
Gasworks10989
Households289234
Public hospitals and central heating, etc.281244
Electricity generation814844
Total2,6132,488

Summary of Operations—The following table summarises coal-mining operations during recent years.

YearOutputPersons Ordinarily Employed
UndergroundOpencastTotalUnderground MinesOpencast MinesTotal
SurfaceUnderground
  tonnes(000)  Number  
19737991,6702,4694277923361,555
19748061,7592,5644307633881,581
19757171,6952,4124157714141,600

The total output of underground and opencast mines up to and including 1975 is estimated at 189.7 million tonnes.

In 1975 the State operated 14 of the 38 underground mines in operation, and these produced 645,662 tonnes of coal; 13 of the 29 opencast mines were operated by the State and they produced 1,070,899 tonnes of coal. The loss on operations of State coal mines for the year ended 30 September 1975 was $3,436,698 without charging interest on loan capital.

Derived Products—Low temperature carbonisation works at Rotowaro (100 km south of Auckland) use the Lurgi process to produce a range of products derived from coal which forms part of the output of local State mines. During the year ended 30 September 1975 the works produced 13,715 tonnes of carbonettes, 2,064,412 litres of tar and oil, 24,423 tonnes of char, 1,323 litres of pitch, and 1,298,788 litres of creosote. The plant is now in full production after the fire in 1974, resulting in the increase in carbonettes and corresponding decrease in char sold.

Mercer Power Station—This station, of 210,000 kW capacity, if working at full capacity, can burn up to 780,000 tonnes of coal a year. Two-thirds of the coal is provided from the Kopuku opencast coalfield about 11 km distant from the station, and the remainder from the Huntly coalfield.

Huntly Power Station—Following delays in coming to an agreement on the price of natural gas, it has been decided to build a 1,000 MW coal-fired station at Huntly, the first unit (250 MW) of which is scheduled to be commissioned in April 1979. Investigations have confirmed the existence of a large underground coalfield sufficient to provide fuel for the station.

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS—Prospecting and mining for petroleum in New Zealand is governed by the Petroleum Act 1937, the Petroleum Regulations 1939 and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. These give the Minister of Mines the authority to grant petroleum prospecting and mining licences over land and marine areas including the New Zealand continental shelf. An amendment to the Petroleum Act 1937 was passed in 1975 which has the effect of giving the Minister a much better control of petroleum prospecting and mining. As at 31 December 1975 there were 61 petroleum prospecting licences covering 622,311 km2 of New Zealand land, territorial sea, and continental shelf. Two petroleum mining licences covered 202 km2 of the Kapuni field in Taranaki and 782 km2 of the Maui field in the continental shelf off-shore of Taranaki.

Activity in search for petroleum is being maintained with 5 off-shore and 2 on-shore prospective wells being drilled. On the Kapuni field 4 additional wells were drilled to increase production of gas, mainly to supply the New Plymouth electric power generating station until the Maui field comes into production.

The construction of the Main A Platform was completed in Japan and arrived on site for erection in late December 1975. During 1976 work proceeded on this platform and the laying of pipelines from it to on-shore. The Maui field discovered in 1969 some 30 km off the Taranaki coast has an area of 765 square kilometres and recoverable reserves estimated at 140 million metres of high quality natural gas with, in addition, a condensate content likely to supply 10 to 15 percent of the refinery feedstock requirements in New Zealand.

Gas from the Kapuni field is used mainly as a premium fuel and is supplied to the Natural Gas Corporation for distribution to Auckland and Wellington and other centres en route. Condensate separated from this gas before it is supplied to the Corporation is delivered as feedstock to the petroleum refinery at Whangarei.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE MAUI FIELD—The Maui field is being developed in two stages: Stage One consists of the installation of Maui Platform A, drilling of production wells, the installation of separate submarine pipelines for gas and condensate, and the onshore processing facilities at the Oaonui production station. Treated gas will be distributed by transmission pipelines to the New Plymouth, Huntly, and Auckland No. 1 and No. 2 power stations.

Commissioning of Stage One is planned to be completed by 1 October 1978.

Stage Two of the development provides for a second platform, Maui Platform B, additional submarine pipelines, and an expansion of the onshore processing facilities. Work is scheduled for completion by 1983.

Stage One Development—The first drilling and production platform, Maui Platform A, is being installed some 37 km from the Taranaki coast, close to the Maui 3 exploration well, in a water depth of some 110 metres. Twelve production wells will be drilled from the platform. The tower base of the platform, which was fabricated in Japan, arrived on schedule and was upended on location in early January 1976. Difficulties arose during the 1975–76 construction season as a consequence of severe weather and installation work was suspended in June 1976. Installation work recommenced with a larger construction vessel in December 1976.

A 254 mm condensate pipeline and a 610 mm gas pipeline will transport the condensate and the gas to the onshore processing facilities at the Oaonui production station. The laying of these submarine pipelines also commenced in January 1976 but was suspended in June 1976 again as a consequence of the very severe weather. This work also recommenced in December 1976. Notwithstanding these difficulties it is still hoped to meet the completion date for Stage One of 1 October 1978.

At Oaonui two gas refrigeration trains, each with a capacity of approximately 7 million cu metres a day, will process the gas stream to meet the gas delivery specifications, and two stabiliser trains, each with a capacity of 1,500 tonnes per day, will stabilise the condensate to enable subsequent sea shipment to the Whangarei refinery. The construction programme for the onshore processing facilities is on schedule and commissioning will be completed to meet the onstream date of 1 October 1978.

Stage Two Development—Maui Platform B will be located some 16 km further from the coast than the first platform, close to the Maui 1 exploration well, in similar water depth to Maui platform A. At least nine production wells will be drilled from the platform and similar processing equipment will be installed as on the first platform. A 254 mm condensate pipeline will be linked to the condensate pipeline installed from platform A during Stage One but a separate 508 mm diameter gas pipeline will be laid to the onshore processing facilities. A third gas refrigeration train, also with approximately 7 million cu metres a day capacity, will be constructed at the onshore plant.

The estimated cost in money terms, i.e., the actual cost of the Stage One development, excluding the on-shore gas and condensate transmission pipelines, is $318 million in 1977 values. The estimated cost of Stage Two (also excluding on-shore transmission pipelines) in terms of 1977 money value, is $223 million. These figures compare with $223 million and $179 million respectively in 1976 values in the 1976 Yearbook. The increases are a consequence of continuing inflation, the devaluation of the New Zealand dollar, and the increased time now seen necessary for the installation of platforms and submarine pipelines.

Onshore Pipeline—The total length of the on-shore gas pipeline will be approximately 386 km. The diameter of the pipeline is 864 mm as far as New Plymouth, where it reduces to 762 mm. The diameter will be further reduced at the first Auckland power station lateral take-off point. New Plymouth and Huntly power stations will be served by 508 mm and 406 mm lateral pipelines respectively. The condensate pipeline from Oaonui to New Plymouth is 203 mm diameter and approximately 47 km long.

The estimated cost of the on-shore gas transmission system and the condensate pipeline is $180,000,000 in 1977 values. This investment will be spread over the period 1974 to 1988. The costs to be incurred in the 1980s largely consist of expenditure on the construction of gas pipeline compressor stations.

Construction of the condensate pipeline is complete. Construction of the Oaonui to Huntly section of the gas pipeline is approximately 50 percent complete. Pipe for this section has been purchased in Japan and is in storage at New Plymouth, where a protective asphaltic coating has been applied, before it is transported out to the pipeline right-of-way.

IRON RESOURCES—New Zealand's largest resources of potential iron ore are contained in the black sands of the western beaches—from Westport southwards in the South Island and from Wanganui to Muriwai in the North Island. Titanomagnetite sands make up most of the black sands in the North Island, but from Waikato Heads northwards the beach deposits also contain ilmenite in varying proportions. In the South Island beach sands, ilmenite is the chief iron-bearing material. These beach sands have been estimated to contain some 800 million tonnes of titanomagnetite, with a further 8.6 million tonnes of ilmenite in the North Island and 43 million tonnes in the South Island.

A process has been developed whereby the titanomagnetite sands can be smelted on a large scale economically to produce a good grade of steel. A steelworks has been constructed at Glenbrook, 58 km south of Auckland, by New Zealand Steel Ltd., and the plant began production late in 1969 using ironsand deposits from the North Head of the Waikato River, 19 km away. Production of steel billets from ironsand commenced in November 1969.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district, for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the brickmaking industry.

Near Waverley, 32 km north of Wanganui, an ironsands mining unit produces titanomagnetite concentrates for direct export to Japan through off-shore bulk-loading facilities and in 1975 some 1,035,354 tonnes were exported. N.Z. Steel Ltd. has developed a similar undertaking at Taharoa, near Kawhia, and 1,092,252 tonnes were exported in 1975.

URANIUM—In 1955 uranium-bearing minerals were discovered in the Buller Gorge. These deposits occur in steep, broken country which is heavily covered with bush. The area is subject to heavy rainfall and access is difficult. Prospecting work, however, has been disappointing and, so far, ore has not been found rich and extensive enough to be worked economically at present price levels. Interest is being maintained in the investigation of these areas.

The Atomic Energy Amendment Act 1957 amended the Atomic Energy Act 1945 by adding several new provisions designed to encourage the search for and production of uranium or other substances which may be used for the production of atomic energy.

GOLD—The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, declined in importance with the exhaustion of the more accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment. Annual production is now mainly confined to one dredge at Taramakau on the west coast of the South Island which suspended operations in 1974.

SILVER—A small quantity, of silver is won by the West Coast gold dredge, the remainder of the silver comes from Waihi.

TUNGSTEN—The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

The scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, and the scheelite is erratically distributed in the veins. Access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high. Although the price of tungsten ores has improved, scheelite mining continues to be on a small scale, being confined to the Glenorchy and Macrae's Flats field in Otago.

COPPER—Production of copper has ceased since the Tui mine, near Te Aroha, closed in 1973. Small mines have been worked in Northland in the past, at Parakao (where the carbona and oxide ore was used as a fertiliser additive) and Pupuke. Prospecting has been carried out at a number of localities, but no significant deposits have been discovered. Exploration for economic deposits of copper in a number of geological environments continues.

MANGANESE—Manganese ores are found in many localities, chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. Prior to 1960 there was some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore.

MERCURY—Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury is widely distributed in New Zealand. No mining is at present being carried out. Past production has been limited, the main bulk came from the cinter deposits in Northland, at Puhipuhi and Ngawha Springs. Recently there has been interest in the disseminated mercury in Northland.

LEAD AND ZINC—An ore-bearing reef of lead and zinc was mined near Te Aroha, producing lead-copper sulphide and zinc sulphide concentrates for export to Japan, but the mine closed in 1973.

MOLYBDENUM—Some promising geological environments exist for economic molybdenum mineralisation in north-west Nelson but, to date, exploration has failed to locate an economic deposit.

TIN—Cassiterite in the form of "stream tin" occurs in small deposits near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, and these have been worked to some extent.

PLATINUM—Platinum occurs in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel, but quantities produced have been insignificant.

SILICA—At Parengarenga, in northern Northland, there are large deposits of pure quartz (silica) sand. Over 90,000 tons from here and 20,000 tons from Mt. Somers in Canterbury, are used each year, mainly for glass manufacture.

There are lump silica deposits in Southland of a high quality suitable for the production of ferrosilicon and probably silicon metal.

DIATOMITE—Diatomite is a light powdery material used as a source of silica and as a filtering agent. It is worked in the Rotorua-Taupo volcanic zone and at Middlemarch, Otago.

BENTONITE—Production of bentonite continued at Coalgate in Canterbury and at Porangahau in Hawke's Bay for applications such as foundries and pelletising stock food. A new drilling grade meeting A.P.I. specifications is being used on oil rigs in the Taranaki area. Export shipments were sent for iron ore pelletising in Tasmania, as well as to Japan and Taiwan.

HALLOYSITE—Halloysite is a clay used as a filler in the paper industry, and for ceramics. It has been mined in Northland since the Second World War. Though nearly all production is for local consumption, possible expansion of the existing small existing export market is being investigated.

SULPHUR—Prospecting proved a 6 million ton deposit of sulphur at Rotokaua in the Taupo area in 1968. The deposit is mixed with pumice and work on the development of a separation process is continuing. A pilot plant operation recently started producing some sulphur for commercial use.

PERLITE—Perlite is a volcanic glass expanded by heating; it is used as an insulator and in light-weight concrete. There are deposits in the Rotorua-Taupo area, and others are being prospected on Great Barrier Island.

ASBESTOS—Chrysotile asbestos mainly associated with serpentines in ultramafic occurrences, occurs at a number of localities in the South Island. A deposit in the Takaka Valley was mined between 1941 and 1963. The most significant deposits are those of the North West Otago (Pyke River) which are thought to be extensive, although recent exploration has not yet established an economic deposit.

PHOSPHATE—The only deposit of phosphate ever to have been worked in New Zealand is that at Clarendon. Mining ceased in this area in 1944. The most promising source of phosphate is thought to be the nodules occurring on the sea floor on the eastern half of the Chatham Rise (west of Chatham Island). Evaluation is still continuing. Exploration for phosphate in other geological environments has not revealed any economic deposits as yet.

SERPENTINE—Serpentine is a magnesium-rich rock used as a fertiliser additive. Deposits are being mined at Piopio, near Te Kuiti, and North Cape, in the North Island, and Lee Valley, Collins Valley and Mossburn, in the South Island. To the end of 1974, 2,928,092 tonnes had been mined, including 89,069 in 1974.

GREENSTONE—The mineral nephrite, the "pounamu" of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of "greenstone", occurs as rounded aggregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. At the present time the main source of supply is from a deposit of greenstone boulders in Olderog Creek, a tributary of the Arahura River. The boulders are reduced in size by a portable diamond trepan saw and airlifted by helicopter. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations this mineral has been in short supply. The best-known occurrences of bowenite, the serpentine variety of greenstone, are in Fiordland, but are not systematically or commercially exploited.

KAURI GUM—Production of kauri gum has been at a comparatively low level in recent years. The quantity exported annually is now less than 100 tons. Prospecting north of Kaitaia has given encouraging results, however.

PEAT WAX—There are an estimated 10,000 acres of moorland peat on the Chatham Islands with an average thickness of 14 feet. This peat contains peat wax derived from a particular plant which grew in the area. The peat wax is being investigated for commercial application in carbon paper, polishes, varnishes, cosmetics, and explosives. Similar investigations are taking place with deposits in Central Otago.

SALT—At Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt was first harvested in 1952.

Production of salt in the latest 6 years is shown in the following table.

YearSalt ProducedValue
 tonnes$(000)
197052,790364
197143,261393
197259,436385
1973101,500447
197454,864454
197540,000464

STATE AID TO MINING—State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz (a) geological survey and bulletins; (b) detailed investigation of the occurrence and development of economic minerals; (c) schools of mines; (d) financial aid to prospecting and for access roads to mining fields; (e) research by Chemistry Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY—An understanding of the country's geology is imperative for long-term assessments of New Zealand's mineral resources. In New Zealand almost all Government geological work is carried out by the New Zealand Geological Survey, a scientific institution founded in 1865, which since 1926 has been a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Mines Department, the Ministry of Works and Development, and other Government departments consult the Geological Survey on geological problems, and do not themselves maintain a geological staff. Only that part of the work of the Geological Survey that concerns the discovery and development of mineral resources is discussed here. Other aspects of applied geology include engineering geology, the study of earthquakes and volcanoes, and effects of engineering works and other developments on the physical environment.

The survey's principal work is to prepare geological maps of New Zealand and to determine the country's geological structure and geological history. Along with this, the survey studies and helps to assess the country's mineral deposits, geothermal steam, and underground water resources, and gives advice on geological problems encountered in State and private civil engineering projects, such as the construction of hydro-electric dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, and building foundations.

The Geological Survey has issued regional geological maps on a scale of 1 mile to the inch, covering about one-third of the country. Maps (scale 1:250,000), informally known as the "Four mile" series, are available for the whole country. One-mile (1:63,360 or 1:50,000) maps and bulletins will continue to be issued at intervals for areas of special economic or scientific importance. Most new maps will in future, however, be published on metric scales—1:10,000, 1:25,000, 1:50,000, 1:100,000 etc. In 1972 a new 1:1,000,000 geological map was published (in two sheets) of each of the North and South Islands; and in 1973 maps on the same scale of the Quaternary geology (Pleistocene and recent deposits, together with the location of active faults, recent and active volcanoes, and changes in short lines, etc.). Several sheets of a series of detailed urban geological maps, at a scale of 1:25,000, have been issued. They cover to date most of the Auckland area and the city of Hamilton.

Geological mapping has also been carried out in New Zealand's island territories and in the Ross Dependency, Antarctica.

Prospectors and mining companies may seek advice and assistance from any of the dozen or so district offices of the Geological Survey as well as from the head office in Lower Hutt, which houses the administrative and specialist research sections.

Mineral Resources Surveys—The Economic Geology Section of Geological Survey is responsible for the investigation of potentially valuable deposits, coupled with closer study of the changing overseas economic emphasis. The work is largely concerned with the implementation of the Mineral Resources Council's recommended programme. A new inventory of New Zealand's minerals is now available, and a publication Industrial Minerals and Rocks, containing articles of interest to engineers, mining companies, and local bodies, is produced annually. In earlier years, when gold was of major importance, the survey reported on all major goldfields. Deposits of ores of iron, copper, tungsten, manganese, chrome, uranium, aluminium, and other metals have also been investigated over the years, and the Survey took complete responsibility for the raw material geological investigations for the new steel industry. Field studies are made by the geologists, and laboratory examination of ores by the petrology specialists. Chemical analysis is usually done by the Chemistry Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Petrology Section makes free identification of rocks and minerals forwarded by the Mines Department, prospectors, and others.

Coal—Coal is still New Zealand's most important mineral, apart from constructional materials, and mapping the coal fields in detail has been one of the survey's major undertakings in economic geology. Work has proceeded in co-operation with the Mines Department and with the Coal Research Association. Detailed maps and bulletins on Greymouth, Reefton, Kaitangata, Ohai, and Waikato coalfields have been published. Although the mapping of the coalfields is largely complete, Survey geologists continue to help with the large number of day-to-day problems in the coalfields and undertake constant revision. A major revision of coal estimates is currently being made. Geological work is being undertaken for the Mines Department in connection with the present extensive drilling in the Huntly area.

Oil and Gas—Oil companies draw on survey maps and bulletins for basic information about the country's stratigraphy and geological structure which enables them to narrow down areas deserving more detailed examination. Close and mutually beneficial co-operation has usually developed between survey geologists and paleontologists and those of oil companies. Copies of oil company reports and maps continue to be deposited with the Government in terms of the Petroleum Act. The Geological Survey is the national repository of collections of rocks, fossils, and drill cores collected by the oil companies, and has recently expanded its Petroleum Section, partly in response to increased Government participation in exploration.

Paleontological and stratigraphic information by the Survey helped the search for oil in Taranaki which was rewarded by the discovery and development of large reservoirs of natural gas at Kapuni, and off shore in the Maui field. The collections of fossils and drill cores held from earlier Taranaki oil-exploration bores greatly helped prediction of the type, age, and thickness of strata the drills would penetrate. Geological Survey micro-paleontologists are assisting oil companies in interpreting the stratigraphic progress of off-shore oil wells and provide a complete service for many recent drill-holes, both on shore and off-shore.

Constructional Materials and Other Non-metallic Minerals—As far as it is possible with the staff available, the survey advises the Ministry of Works and Development and local authority engineers, contractors, and other users on where rock materials for road metal, aggregate, building stone, sand, etc., can be obtained. Marl, limestone, and pozzolana for cement manufacture, perlite, bentonite, clays, talc, mica, and magnesite are other non-metallic minerals in the utilisation of which the survey has played a part. Current aid to industry given by the survey, includes detailed projects on north-west Nelson deposits of wollastonite, asbestos, dolomite, and talc magnesite; the limestone resources of Auckland and Otago have been assessed in detail; and North Auckland sands and halloysite clays have been the subject of New Zealand Geological Survey publications.

CENSUS OF MINING, QUARRYING, AND PROSPECTING—The third 5-yearly census of mining, quarrying, and prospecting was taken for the production year 1973–74. At earlier censuses, only operators of mines and quarries registered with the Mines Department were surveyed, but the 1973–74 census included for the first time holders of licences issued by other Government departments.

Production—The value of all output from mines and quarries registered with the Mines Department was $73.1 million, and, in addition, there was a value of output of $2.6 million from firms holding licences issued by other Government departments. This gave a total output value of $75.7 million for the production year 1973–74.

The main products were shingle, sand, and gravel with a total value of production of $18.2 million, quarried rock, sand, etc., $19.9 million, coal $14.5 million, limestone $6.2 million, and clay for manufacturing $1.1 million. The remaining $15.8 million consisted mainly of ironsand concentrate, gold, silica sand, bentonite, serpentine, salt, marble, and scoria.

The statistics in the following table refer only to operators of mines and quarries registered with the Mines Department. An analysis of returns received from firms operating under licences issued by other departments is given separately later in the section.

Item Operating Full Time All Types Operating Part TimeGrand Total
Predominant Type of Mining or Quarrying
Shingle, Sand, Gravel, Quarried Rock, etc.LimestoneClayCoalOther Incl. GoldTotal

*Valuation of production was at the point at which the minerals were washed, graded, crushed, screened, powdered, or otherwise crudely treated and were ready for sale or transfer for further use.

†Included in salaries and wages, other expenses, and capital expenditure.

Type of organisation—        
Registered private company1744412112126256318
Registered public company181783349857
Co-operative-4-7-11-11
Individual ownership153-32235477
Partnership62-92191938
Government10--1112921
Local authority622---643498
Totals28572203429440180620
Nature of business—        
Underground mines operated---34236642
Surface mines or quarries operated794904123369843031,287
Productive bores----33-3
Totals794904157411,0233091,332
Average number of persons employed during the year (excludes working proprietors)1,976344731,3244154,132674,199
Salaries and wages paid for year (including bonuses, overtime, etc.) to above persons $(000)9,2241,7632676,0712,42319,74713519,882
Number of working proprietors275-5859579174
Production during the year(*)—        
Shingle, sand, and gravel cu yds (000)11,800282-611,83558712,422
$(000)15,582541-1615,65239416,046
Quarried rock, sand, etc. cu yds (000)10,31015014310,46829110,760
$(000)19,21013839319,36315119,514
Limestone tons (000)1083,304..-243,436263,463
$(000)3265,6742-786,081466,128
Clay for bricks, tiles, tons (000)5381565-20434238
pottery, and other manufacturing $(000)12331,02214-1,081421,123
Coal tons (000)---2,402-2,40232,405
$(000)---14,461-14,4611914,480
Other $(000)1467611115,48615,71910515,824
Total value of production $(000)35,2765,9741,03914,48515,58372,35875873,116
Less salaries and wages $(000)9,2241,7632676,0712,42319,74713519,882
Less other expenses $(000)22,7583,5636779,6418,33044,96942545,395
Surplus $(000)3,29564895-1,2274,8317,6411987,839
Net output (net value added) $(000)12,9122,4823764,8707,63128,27034128,611
Expenditure on capital assets—        
Land—excluding purchases for resale $(000) Buildings-26617--21303-304
Residential $(000)2218-21812231224
Non-residential $(000)89110-4214538710397
Other construction $(000)2739361,0782,5403,98933,992
Motor cars and station wagons $(000)22335934613623365
Other transport vehicles (road, air, or sea) $(000)730184-982241,237301,267
Plant, machinery, and equipment $(000)4,506837492682415,901605,961
Totals $(000)6,1091,294651,5233,41212,40310712,510
Sales of assets at realised value $(000)8493407442711,709221,731
Expenditure on exploration surveying, and prospecting $(000)583..122744688164
Environmental protection expenditure $(000)30818192712049215507820

The statistics in the following table were compiled from returns received from firms operating under licences issued by the following:

  1. Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport who issue licences under the Harbour Act 1950.

  2. Lands and Survey Department who issue licences under section 165 of the Land Act 1948.

  3. Ministry of Works and Development who hold licences which are sub-issued to Catchment Boards.

No. of units—213QuantityValue
Production during year—(000)$(000)
Shingle, sand and gravel cu yds1,5512,114
Quarried rock, sand, etc. cu yds308380
Limestone tons2759
Clay for bricks, tiles, pottery, and other manufacturing tons66
Coal tons..2
Other..26
Total value of production..2,587
Exploration—  
Expenditure on exploration, surveying, and prospecting (including purchase during the year of vehicles and other fixed assets)— $(000)
Salaries and wages..116
Other expenses..236
Total..351

Prospecting—Returns received from holders of licences issued by the Mines Department showed 53 units engaged full time in mineral exploration and prospecting. The following table shows details. Expenditure by these units is in addition to that by mining and quarrying units in production and by units holding licences from other than the Mines Department, as shown in the previous tables.

Units Engaged in Prospecting During 1973–74
Type of organisation—  
Registered private company..31
Registered public company..11
Individual ownership..4
Partnership..7
Total..53
Nature of business—  
Exploring for oil or gas..11
Exploring for mineral ores..41
Other exploring..3
Total..55
Average number of persons employed during year on mineral exploration..82
Salaries and wages paid for year (including bonuses, overtime, etc.) to above persons$(000)462
Number of working proprietors..19
Operating costs other than salaries and wages during the year$(000)2,318
Sales of services during the year—  
Fees or other receipts derived from mineral exploration services rendered$(000)85
Expenditure on capital assets$(000)228
Sale of assets at realised value$(000)20

Chapter 17. Section 17 MANUFACTURING

Table of Contents

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—The function of the early manufacturing industries in New Zealand was to supply locally the immediate needs of the small scattered communities for food, clothing, building materials, and home furnishings and to provide shipping with ropes, spars, and repairs. These handicraft activities grew into factories as the settlements expanded and as there developed more opportunities for the organisation and specialisation of labour, and for the more complex processing of domestic or imported raw materials. Flour mills, flax mills, ropewalks, and sawmills appeared in the early eighteen forties followed by breweries, brick kilns, cooperages in the mid forties and, later in that decade, lime kilns, ship and boat yards, soap and candle works, and tanneries.

By 1867, the first year in which statistics of factory production were collected in conjunction with the population census, manufacturing establishments included grain mills, breweries, biscuit factories, a bone-manure works, brick and tile yards and potteries, candle and soap works, coachbuilding workshops, fellmongeries, tanneries, wool-scouring works, flax works, aerated water and cordial factories, iron and brass foundries, lime kilns, malt kilns, engineering workshops, a patent slip, a petroleum works, rope and cordage works, sawmills, sash and door factories, ship and boat yards, and a woollen mill. The factories of this period were still primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the needs of the limited local markets.

The development boom of the eighteen seventies, the rapid rise in population, and the better communications between internal markets encouraged further factory expansion. There was to some extent a natural protection from overseas competition in the high freight rates on imports. Other factors which assisted in this expansion were the admission of certain raw materials free of duty, the imposition of a tariff on some finished goods, and the granting of bounties for new factories by central and provincial governments. These were followed by protection by way of tariff in 1888 when the home market was shrinking and capital and labour were beginning to leave the colony. Footwear and clothing factories, machinery, and metal industries were protected by this tariff. A wider protective Customs tariff was imposed in 1895. During the depressed years of the eighteen eighties low wage costs enabled some New Zealand manufacturers to export their products, but this was partly attributable also to the special suitability of some New Zealand products, such as farm implements, to the needs of other developing communities overseas.

The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 opened the way for the establishment and growth of the meat-freezing and butter and cheese industries. Ten years after this first shipment, 21 meat-freezing works and 104 butter and cheese factories had been established.

The recovery from the long depression, the resumption of large-scale immigration at the beginning of the present century, the spectacular development of meat-freezing and dairy factories, and the breaking in of new land, especially in the North Island, all contributed to the revival of a strong internal demand which stimulated manufacturing growth.

Auckland early established itself as the predominant manufacturing province in New Zealand, but in the general prosperity following the gold boom of the sixties, there was a spectacular increase in manufacturing activity in Otago, which led Auckland until the nineties. Canterbury was the next most important manufacturing province. Today, however, Auckland has clearly re-established its predominance and is followed by Wellington and Canterbury.

With the rising population and increased export income during the first decade of this century, manufacturing continued to expand at a steady rate. The growth continued to be concentrated on industries processing farm products for export and those supplying the more simple goods, housing materials and equipment, repairs, and supplies for farmers. In this period the electrical, wire-work, sheet-metal, and motor-vehicle industries had their beginnings.

Developments in the nineteen twenties included the expansion of the vehicle industry (particularly motor and cycle assembly), sawmilling, and the metalworking, furnishings, and apparel industries. These developments carried forward the tendency for industries processing farm products to be less dominating in value of production and employment compared with other types of industry.

During the depression of the nineteen thirties the total volume of factory output declined with the contraction of New Zealand's export income and the drop in internal demand. While prices fell the output of factories processing farm products rose, but not sufficiently to offset the loss in volume from other manufacturing industries. The rapid fall in purchasing power caused the farmer to produce more, but the impact of the depression on the factories processing "non-farm" materials meant a heavy reduction in the output of consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural and dairy machinery and implements. By 1934–35, however, the volume of factory production had been restored to the 1929–30 level.

Apart from metalworking and vehicle factories, which had improved their position significantly, industry emerged from the depression in much the same pattern as before.

The recovery of manufacturing after the depression was primarily the result of better export prices, more public development, and an expansionist monetary policy, all of which resulted in the re-engagement of most of the unemployed.

There had been little time for any protective effect of exchange control and import selection to stimulate industrial expansion between the date these measures were introduced (December 1938) and the outbreak of war in September 1939. It was the war and its shortages which changed the manufacturing pattern and gave great encouragement to industrial development. The engineering and apparel industries, which contributed so much to war needs, made the greatest progress.

Production expanded in response to the need to replace imports that the United Kingdom and other countries could no longer supply and to provide uniforms, weapons, equipment, and provisions for New Zealand and allied armed forces.

One protective effect of the war and post-war periods and their restricted supply of imports was that domestic industry was often enabled to attain its optimum (New Zealand) output quickly without a difficult competitive struggle with imports.

Post-war Development—The pattern of New Zealand industry changed again from 1949–50 with the exemption from import control of many items. Factory expansion was sustained by a high level of internal demand, by a widening of the range of products, and to some extent by the restriction of imports for a short period of exchange control. In this period the volume of production in the food, footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods groups increased slowly in response to population growth, while leather industry production fell as a result of competition from imports and synthetics. Spectacular increases in production came from new developments in the pulp and paper and the rubber industries. However, as in past years it was the engineering factories that contributed most to the growth of manufacturing after 1949–50. The expansion in this field was stimulated especially by increasing mechanisation on farms, the high level of investment in New Zealand, the rising demand for consumer durables, and the increased imports of motor vehicle components.

The growth in production has been assisted by increases in manpower engaged and capital investment in new buildings and machinery.

The average annual compound growth rate in the volume of production for the years 1961–62 to 1966–67 was 5.1 percent. In 1967–68 production fell by 1.3 percent. Successive annual increases in the volume of production since then were as follows: 1968–69, 3.1 percent; 1969–70, 12.3 percent; 1970–71, 5.1 percent; 1971–72, 4.3 percent; 1972–73, 6.2 percent; 1973–74, 13.2 percent; and 1974–75, 4.2 percent.

The value of factory production in recent years has been: 1969–70, $2,995 million; 1970–71, $3,407 million; 1971–72, $3,874 million; 1972–73, $4,611 million; and 1973–74, $5,251 million. Net value added in manufacture has been 1969–70, $867 million; 1970-71, $996 million; 1971–72, $1,131 million; 1972–73, $1,302 million; and in 1973–74, $1,502 million.

About 25 percent of males and 21 percent of females in the labour force are directly engaged in manufacturing.

Small factories continue to be typical of manufacturing in New Zealand. Some 51 percent of the factories employ 10 or fewer people, a reflection of the fact that, partly as a result of the geographical configuration of the country, many factories supply small local markets. At the other end of the scale, only 2.2 percent of factories had staff in excess of 200. The majority of the smallest manufacturing units are involved in the production of transport equipment, machinery, and wood products, while the largest plants are engaged in the manufacture of food and paper. The trend is towards larger manufacturing units.

Some of the major industries are mentioned later in this section. Others include wire drawing and galvanising; the production of copper tube, wire rope, aluminium cable, and telephone and underground power cable; the manufacture of TV tubes, 11 kV switchgear, electric hoists, electric motor starters, and fractional horsepower electric motors, as well as electronic controls for a variety of equipment. The manufacture of transport equipment and machinery has expanded to cover turbo-prop top-dressing aircraft, bicycles, pneumatic and steel-tyred road rollers, self-propelled hydraulically operated excavators, post-hole diggers, hydraulic equipment and attachments, and cargo containers. Further items now made in New Zealand include oil-fired kilns, control valves, thermostats, press brakes, disc brake pads, high-speed twist drills and numerous others. In the chemical and allied industries, New Zealand factories produce PVC compounds and dry blends, besides such PVC products as sheeting, flooring, roofing, and rainwater goods; a range of formaldehyde resins used in the manufacture of adhesives and related products; acrylic emulsions and compounds; many industrial and domestic chemical materials including synthetic detergents; and various weed killers and insecticides. The packaging industry makes moulded pulp products as well as several types of plastic film, the most recent projects involving cast polypropylene and the manufacture of irradiated polyethylene (‘shrink film’). Textured synthetic yarns, warp-knitted, transfer-printed, and foam-backed fabrics have been added to the products of the textile industry in recent years. An oil refinery and sheet glassworks have been in operation for some years. Gin and whisky distilleries have been established.

RECENT MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS—The following paragraphs summarise certain of the major industrial developments which have recently taken place.

Pulp and Paper—New Zealand Forest Products Ltd. opened a new kraft pulp mill at Kinleith early in February 1973. This mill, operating 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, has doubled pulp output from 213,360 tonnes to 426,720 tonnes. The company's No. 6 paper machine began operating about the end of the first quarter of 1973. The company's No. 3 paperboard machine at Whakatane came into production in mid 1976. This doubled the capacity of the Whakatane paperboard mill and enabled the company to produce fully-coated paperboard. A new multi-wall paper bag plant at Penrose also commenced production in mid-1976, producing a new type of totally sealed bag for foodstuffs such as milk powder. The major increases in pulp and paper production are part of a 5-year expansion project which is the largest undertaken by an individual company in New Zealand's industrial history.

The expansion programme undertaken by Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., Kawerau, is also well advanced. The kraft pulp mill expansion has raised output from 106,700 tonnes a year to 233,700 tonnes, of which 100,000 tonnes will be exported. The company's third newsprint machine, which commenced production early in 1975, has increased newsprint production to 350,000 tonnes a year.

The pulp mill constructed by Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd., at Whirinaki, near Napier, commenced production in March 1973. The capacity has now been raised to 240,000 tonnes per annum. The entire output is exported.

Particle Board—New Zealand Particle Board Ltd. commenced production in October 1972. With an annual output of 56,000 cubic metres at the Kumeu plant, the company is in the process of installing plant which will more than double its capacity.

The Fletcher Timber Company Ltd's Taupo particle-board plant has also recently more than doubled capacity. In addition the company has introduced a new product to the market—Bison-board—which is a type of particle board. At present, the company is constructing a second Bison-board plant at Kopu, near Thames.

Canterbury Timber Products Ltd. commenced production of a new product—a medium density fibreboard—in Rangiora in late 1975.

Plywood—New Zealand Forest Products Limited has established a new plywood plant at Kinleith. This plant, the largest of its kind Australia or New Zealand, uses 56,500 cubic metres a year of radiata pine from the Kaingaroa forest.

Steel—New Zealand Steel Ltd. was formed in July 1965 and began production at Glenbrook, south of Auckland, of a range of galvanised coil and sheet from imported black coil in November 1968. The company is meeting the full domestic demand for galvanised products and primary steel (billet). The company has announced that it is now making plans for long-term development and expansion which will entail the establishment of hot and cold rolling facilities and an increase in iron and steel production capacity to a minimum of 450,000 tonnes a year. The total development is expected to take 10-15 years at a possible cost, in current terms, of $400 million.

Hunter Douglas completed the installation of a new wide paint line during 1975-76. Prepainted steel and aluminium coil are now available to the market with the initial impact being expected within the building industry particularly.

The GKN wire mill suffered serious production problems early in 1976 which caused temporary shortages.

Aluminium—New Zealand Aluminium Smelters Ltd. was formed following the signing of an agreement by the New Zealand Government, Comalco Industries Pty. Ltd., of Australia, Showa Denko KK, and Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd., of Japan. Construction of the primary aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point, near Bluff, was completed early in 1971. The first furnace was commissioned in April 1971. Production has recently been boosted to 150,000 tonnes a year, with two full pot-lines in operation. Approximately four fifths of the primary aluminium produced at the smelter is exported.

An aluminium semi-fabricating industry is well established, making a wide range of extrusions, rolling mill products and fabricated items.

Aircraft Manufacture—In March 1973 rationalisation of the aviation manufacturing industry took effect with the amalgamation of separate industry units into a single company; Aerospace Industries Ltd. The National Airways Corporation and Air New Zealand provide substantial financial and technical assistance.

Electronics Manufacture—The New Zealand electronics industry has a well-developed consumer sector which has produced 254,794 colour television sets in the 3 years following the introduction of colour transmissions on 31 October 1973. This represents a 31.06 percent penetration by colour of the total television receiver market. Development of a professional electronics capability continues and is evidenced by success in design and production in such widely divergent fields as medical electronics and single side band marine radios.

Motor Vehicles—During 1973, two new vehicle assembly plants were commissioned in the Auckland area by the Ford Motor Co. (N.Z.) Ltd. and Nissan Motor Distributors Ltd. Todd Motors Ltd's new plant at Porirua, currently the largest single vehicle assembly plant in New Zealand, was officially opened in October 1975.

The new transmission and chassis component plant of the Ford Motor Co. (N.Z.) Ltd. at Wiri was officially opened in November 1973. Assisted by provisions of the New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement, this facility is intended to supply total New Zealand and Australian needs for several components used in Ford's production of light and medium passenger cars.

Specialist production of sports cars and racing cars has commenced on a limited scale for export.

Carpets and Carpet Yarns—From being a local industry supplying the local market (with some minor exports), considerable recent expansion has enabled yarn and finished carpet exporting to increase considerably

Growth of carpet yarn spinning has been brought about by expansion of existing mills in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Invercargill, and new mills have been established in regional development areas such as Wanganui, Dannevirke, Invercargill, and Foxton. Much of the yarn is exported.

An increasing proportion of the carpet industry's production is being exported. Woven and tufted carpets have found a ready market in a variety of overseas countries. Increased carpet-making capacity has been installed in Auckland, Foxton, and Wellington. Total carpet production is currently 9.0 million square metres per year. In 1975-76, 2.1 million square metres of tufted carpet were exported to Australia under the NAFTA agreement.

TRENDS IN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: Export Market Orientation—A considerable number of manufacturers are now exporting a substantial proportion of their production. This is a comparatively recent development. A decade ago few manufacturers would have exported more than 5 percent of their output but exports of 20 to 40 percent or more are not uncommon now. This development reflects both increasing efficiency and competitiveness, and a greater awareness by manufacturers of the opportunities in overseas markets.

Overseas Investment—The major objectives in supervising overseas investment are to ensure that New Zealand's natural and human resources are developed to the benefit of New Zealand and also that overseas investment contributes to the maintenance of a satisfactory rate of economic growth in New Zealand. Investment of overseas capital is usually accompanied by specialised skills and technical advances and these are strongly associated with New Zealand's industrial expansion and rationalisation.

Indigenous Resources—The continuing trend towards the development and expansion of resource-based industries is of considerable significance. Traditionally, the only substantial resource-based New Zealand industries have been those engaged in processing farm products, meat, milk, and wool. Apart from these industries, in the period of almost 20 years following the end of the Second World War, the growth of manufacturing industry was, in the main, dependent on imported materials and components. The radio and television industry is a good example of growth of this type, and others are to be found in the domestic appliance, petroleum products, and engineering industries.

The turning point in the use of indigenous resources came with the developments in the forest industry where expansion has reached almost boom proportions during recent years. The industry is now a major earner of overseas exchange, the principal exports being pulp, paperboard, newsprint, and other papers. Logs, sawn timber, chips, and processed building boards are also sold overseas in substantial quantities. Research into possible industries based on South Island beech forests is currently being carried out.

The fishing industry has grown in recent years from a small scale operation serving the local market to an industry with some processing of fish products and a basis for further expansion as export markets are found and catching methods diversified.

Industries based on New Zealand's mineral resources are developing. Indigenous ironsands are being smelted in an iron and steel manufacturing plant.

The Kapuni natural gas field is in commercial production and the development of the larger offshore Maui gas field is proceeding. Apart from electric power generation, other uses of this natural gas resource are being studied. Possible uses include the manufacture of petrochemicals, liquid petroleum gas and more extensive reticulation for domestic and industrial purposes.

Resource Conservation—In early 1974 a resource conservation officer was established in the Department of Trade and Industry. The intention was to promote the existing conservation industries and to aid the establishment of new operations. A major effort has been directed toward the establishment of a scheme to recover old car hulks from throughout the country and process them into high grade scrap in Auckland. Other activities have included the promotion of increased glass cullet, waste oil, and solvent recovery capacity.

Future prospects include the establishment of industries based on ilmenite beachsands occurring on the west coast of the South Island, the exploitation of Southland silica deposits, a mineral wax industry based on Chatham Islands peat and Otago lignite deposits, and the manufacture of activated carbon from West Coast coal. Developments based on farm produce continue to take place, one example being the manufacture of dried lucerne pellets for export.

EXPORT EARNINGS—Goods manufactured in New Zealand are finding more outlets in overseas markets. Export receipts for all manufactured goods (excluding forestry and dairy products) during the year ended June 1976 totalled $343.6 million compared with $208.1 million the previous year and $70 million in 1970. About 20 percent of the total receipts came from sales of aluminium ingot.

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT—Increasing attention has been paid in recent years to the regional aspects of the development of New Zealand and especially to the differing rates of growth of population, employment, and industry between regions.

Recognising this, the Government has given regional development an important place in its planning. Initially, emphasis is being given to the development of industry in a number of priority regions in order to provide employment opportunities and restrain the outflow of population from these regions. By the end of 1975 there were 11 regional development councils working in the declared priority regions—Otago, West Coast, Wanganui, Southland, Northland, Wairarapa, Taranaki, East Coast, King Country, Southern Canterbury, and Marlborough. Assistance to industry may include small business grants, suspensory loans, bank guarantees, freight subsidies, relocation grants, and assistance with housing and labour training. (See Section 24D.)

AIDS TO DEVELOPMENT—Described very briefly below are some of the bodies which provide assistance of various types to manufacturing industry.

Development Finance Corporation—A description of the Development Finance Corporation which was established as an independent body in 1964, is included in the Banking and Currency section of this Yearbook. In the 1976 Budget the Government announced that, in order to rationalise the various programmes of assistance in the development of new industrial products and processes, there was to be an amalgamation of the Inventions Development Authority, the Industrial Research and Development Grants Scheme, and the National Research and Development Scheme, the whole to be administered by the Development Finance Corporation. This came into effect on 1 November 1976.

Industrial Research and Development Grants Scheme—This scheme was established in 1970 to encourage increased industrial research and development. Grant payments for the 1970-71 year were $202/117, for 1971-72 $749,175; for 1972-73 $1,156,506; for 1973-74, $1,246,799; for 1974-75, $1,357,669; and for 1975-76, $1,622,743.

Productivity Centre—A Productivity Centre was established within the Department of Trade and Industry in January 1973 to promote improved productivity in New Zealand's manufacturing and servicing industry. It is pursuing an active nationwide programme in close co-operation with interested organisations to help firms make better use of their resources by using specific productivity techniques.

The programme of the centre is guided broadly by a 10-member Productivity Advisory Council. Members represent both Government and private sectors, providing the council with a wide range of practical experience and close links with other bodies concerned with productivity improvement.

The centre offers a variety of services to industry:

  1. Interfirm comparisons, which highlight areas within individual firms requiring remedial attention, are sponsored and costs subsidised in selected cases. Seventeen major industry groups, involving more than 800 firms, participated in the centre's interfirm comparison programme during 1975.

  2. The establishment of self-sustaining productivity groups is promoted by the centre. Some 23 groups, which enable representatives of diversified local industries to examine and exchange productivity ideas and experience that will benefit their individual enterprises, were operating at the end of 1975.

  3. Companies and organisations are assisted with setting up productivity improvement teams. These teams harness the ideas, knowledge, and ability already existing in an organisation to improve productivity.

  4. The centre organises workshop sessions and seminars on specific management topics, particularly in centres where few formal management education facilities exist.

  5. Extension services to industry are provided by industry liaison officers based at the Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin offices of the Department of Trade and Industry. These officers are available to help diagnose the existence and extent of practical problems in individual companies at the invitation of management, and to channel to them advice and assistance from the wide range of financial, technological, managerial, and other facilities available in the public and private sectors.

  6. Literature is distributed by the centre including general information material, a newsletter, a technical series, and a directory of advisory services.

In addition the centre's programme includes general publicity to ensure widespread understanding of the benefits of productivity, research, and investigation into productivity measurement and incentives, and liaison with productivity organisations overseas.

New Zealand Export/Import Corporation—Established early in 1974, the corporation has a responsibility for co-ordinating and expanding overseas trading opportunities. By providing assistance to small companies which lack the resources or skills to go into the export field, the corporation enables New Zealand to compete in many lines of goods which formerly could not be marketed economically.

Other Bodies—A number of liaison committees have been established to promote development in particular fields of industry: these include the Advisory Committee on the Heavy Engineering Industry, the Foundry Industry Advisory Committee, and the Electronics Advisory Committee. Several bodies exist principally to promote exports: the Engineering Export Association of New Zealand Inc. continues to be prominent in this field, while the Export Guarantee Office facilitates the export of manufactured goods by removing some of the financial uncertainties involved in export trade. The Industrial Design Council exists to promote and encourage good design.

There are also several bodies providing technical and advisory services for industry. Further details of these organisations are to be found under Section 7, Education, Science, and the Arts.

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT—Engagement in research and development by industry groups is shown in the following table for 1973-74.

The statistics include milk processing, bread bakeries, ready-mix concrete; these 3 industries are usually left out of published "Industry Group Totals" in order to maintain comparability with statistics of previous years.

Industry GroupPersons Engaged on Research and DevelopmentPersons on Research and Development to Total Persons EngagedExpenditure on Research and DevelopmentPercentage Research and Development Expenditure of Net Output
 No.percent$(000)percent
Food (includes milk processing and bread bakeries)1330.271,3680.50
Beverages80.253420.77
Tobacco manufactures252.01....
Textiles290.192890.33
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods600.224100.41
Wood and cork products (except furniture)340.222210.22
Furniture and fixtures150.232030.56
Paper and paper products350.364540.63
Printing, publishing, etc.90.062430.26
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)150.58950.68
Rubber products300.782600.95
Chemicals and chemical products3464.592,2823.25
Petroleum and coal products81.22390.29
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i. (includes ready-mix concrete)450.473050.41
Basic metal manufactures80.17....
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)820.401,0640.58
Machinery (except electrical)2401.401,5171.42
Electrical machinery and appliances1861.631,2572.12
Transport equipment920.635460.57
Miscellaneous products800.706670.94
All groups1,4800.6011,5630.76

SCOPE OF STATISTICS—The statistics of industrial production collected annually by the Department of Statistics cover registered factories employing at least two persons (including the working proprietor) engaged in the manufacture, assembly, repair, or treatment of articles.

Bread bakeries and ready-mixed concrete establishments were surveyed as separate industries for the first time for 1962-63, but they have been excluded from group and national totals to maintain comparability with previous years. Milk processing plants have been surveyed as a separate industry since 1968-69 and have also been excluded from group and national totals for the same reason.

Commencing with the 1968-69 production year, paper bag and paper sack manufacturers as well as plastic manufacturers were surveyed as separate industries.

Industrial activities not covered by the survey of the Department of Statistics set out in this section are: cake and pastry kitchens; boot repairers; bespoke tailors; dressmakers; milliners; abattoirs; railway workshops; naval dockyard; all one-man factories.

In addition, commencing with the 1971-72 census, the motor vehicle repair industry has been excluded from manufacturing activities and is now being covered in the Census of Distribution. Consequently, all manufacturing "time-series" statistics back to 1956-57 have been adjusted to exclude the statistics of that industry.

The year covered by these statistics is generally the year ending 31 March, but factories are permitted to furnish returns covering their financial year most closely corresponding to this period. In the case of the important semi-primary industries—butter, cheese, and other milk products, and meat freezing and preserving—the years correspond with the production seasons ending in May and September respectively.

The summaries which follow cover the last of a series of statistics of annual factory production. Commencing with 1974-75, manufacturing industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification, and the census was changed to an integrated economic basis on the year ended 31 March or the last accounting year prior to that date.

GENERAL SUMMARY—The factory production table in the Statistical Summary section of this volume gives a long time-series of leading statistics.

Following an increase of 6.4 percent in volume of production in 1972-73 there was an increase of 13.2 percent in 1973-74. The total value of production was $5,251 million in 1973-74 or 13.9 percent more than the 1972-73 total of $4,611 million. Net output increased by 15.4 percent from $1,302 million in 1972-73 to $1,502 million in 1973-74 and manufacturers surplus increased by 6.5 percent (from $387 million to $412 million). The number of persons engaged, including working proprietors, was 244,522, an increase of 8,864 or 3.8 percent on the total of 235,648 in 1972-73. Total salaries and wages paid (including drawings of working proprietors) during 1973-74 amounted to $1,042.2 million compared with $875.4 million in the previous year. This was an increase of 19.1 percent.

The following table gives the main statistics by statistical areas for the year 1973-74.

Statistical AreaEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)
 No.No. $(000)  
Northland1994,48820,431141,692194,25732,463
Central Auckland2,53286,023364,057941,7781,690,009545,957
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty86224,976112,701401,496676,538159,908
East Coast772,47310,17137,17556,61013,616
Hawke's Bay26910,60746,053171,169255,62962,050
Taranaki2177,01931,474154,056208,87338,058
Wellington1,40244,662189,123554,489932,567271,125
Marlborough791,4505,87812,86320,8996,354
Nelson1763,49914,33642,57573,66220,23
Westland601,1014,28010,09119,2575,978
Canterbury1,19037,736152,192367,518652,181210,457
Otago39213,23951,914130,280239,91480,307
Southland2357,24939,605147,624230,48155,880
Totals7,690244,5221,042,2143,112,8065,250,8781,502,387

Information as to the character of organisation of the establishments engaged in factory production during 1973-74 is given in the following table. Co-operative associations are characteristic of certain industries engaged in the processing of farm products, mainly butter and cheese manufacturing.

Character of OrganisationEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials Used or Operated UponValue of Manufactures or ProductsNet Output
TotalPer Establishment
 NoNo.$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)($)
Private registered company5,894148,2216111,6422,867894151,690
Public registered company91883,9313771,0831,886540588,614
Individual3651,5885717821,411
Partnership2882,097818341344,628
Co-operative association1715,7582735341631183,193
Local authority and State542,92714103016296,037
Totals7,690244,5221,0423,1135,2511,502195,369

A further summary of the operations of factories is given below for the three final years of this series. Statistics for the motor vehicle repairs industry are excluded from the figures in this and subsequent time series tables.

Item1971-721972-731973-74
Number of establishments7,7837,6697,690
Persons engaged232,424235,648244,522
Production costs—   
Salaries, wages $(000)780,308875,4201,042,214
Materials $(000)2,288,5782,787,2013,112,806
Other expenses $(000)489,841561,536683,746
Total costs $(000)3,558,7284,224,1574,838,766
Value of production $(000)3,874,2874,611,2565,250,878
Manufacturers' surplus $(000)315,559387,099412,112
Net output (net value added) $(000)1,130,6771,301,7011,502,387
Overtime worked by wage earners h(000)38,36541,17745,503
Volume index for industry: Base 1956-57 (=1000)247726312977
Premises and plant—   
Value at end of year—   
Land and buildings $(000)871,594974,484..
Plant, machinery, and equipment $(000)565,353659,588..
Transport equipment $(000)40,17443,797..
Capital expenditure during year—   
Land and buildings $(000)65,20365,874x84,354
Plant, machinery, and equipment $(000)167,297184,879x202,911
Transport equipment $(000)19,73421,391x25,153
Coal consumption as fuel tonnes(000)882908..

The following table gives a summary of some of the principal production statistics for the year 1973-74 classified by individual industries. Totals for the industrial groups to which these industries belong are also shown. For many of the principal industries, fuller details covering the final 3 years of this series are included later in this section under "Statistics of Principal Industries".

IndustryEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)
Food Manufacturing IndustriesNo.No. $(000) 
Meat freezing and preserving4927,413143,441703,959144,235
Ham and bacon curing411,4175,71942,04310,018
Sausage casings82531,1153,4951,213
Ice cream195462,11115,7024,155
Butter, cheese, and milk powder1454,69422,342377,37524,744
Milk products other than butter and cheese
Fruit and vegetable preserving283,58713,85062,31819,844
Fish preserving628293,04822,2135,868
Grain milling338313,24237,9425,877
Biscuits81,3904,91022,1687,975
Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery402,2037,26933,97211,147
Feeds for animals and fowls486142,81444,2906,105
Food preparations, n.e.i.562,238,58976,00414,383
Totals53746,010218,4501,441,483255,565
Beverage Industries     
Winemaking685312,17817,2922,915
Distilling, rectifying, and blending of spirits41164983,1771,059
Brewing of ale and stout, and malting151,5698,48663,08024,105
Aerated waters and cordials471,0433,85017,1155,781
Totals1343,25915,012100,66433,860
Tobacco Manufactures     
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes51,2424,96334,09410,686
Manufacture of Textiles     
Woolscouring288994,323168,0665,397
Woollen milling214,41716,18157,34421,352
Other spinning and weaving mills263,00113,33156,59720,865
Phormium flax
Hosiery and other knitting mills845,41517,82471,62825,460
Linen flax1278710755
Textiles, n.e.i.361,7077,85155,13215,532
Totals19615,46659,598408,87488,661
IndustryEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)
Manufacture of Footwear, Other Wearing Apparel, and Made-up TextilesNo.No. $(000) 
Leather gloves and apparel172336502,129832
Men's and boys' outerwear1023,4579,39626,43911,581
Women's and girls' outerwear2545,40914,15347,51918,273
Underclothing431,7134,26114,7715,745
Hats, caps, and millinery232416591,868758
Neckties41604972,117793
Corsetry241,4794,05411,7665,864
Shirts and pyjamas502,2345,65017,2527,713
Wearing apparel, n.e.i.1465,85415,02051,12219,011
Fur coats and necklets201534581,410601
Footwear (other than rubber)1025,04516,48748,20320,129
Canvas goods454941,6036,4912,362
Made-up textiles (other than wearing apparel)891,4284,11218,9676,381
Totals91927,90076,999250,055100,045
Manufacture of Wood and Cork (Except Manufacture of Furniture)     
Sawmills2835,87725,897100,60540,163
Planing mills and timber preservation1452,1879,15357,98915,454
Joinery3844,65220,31978,06328,491
Wooden containers243811,5266,3992,018
Plywood and veneer141,2435,66827,53110,480
Wood products, n.e.i.941,0124,36916,5856,027
Totals94415,35266,932287,172102,634
Manufacture of Furniture and Fixtures     
Furniture3565,62523,39574,60730,794
Mattresses186712,39910,9154,015
Venetian blinds202729925,0901,348
Totals3946,56826,78690,61236,156
Manufacture of Paper and Paper Products     
Pulp, paper, and paperboard74,46928,102149,03737,139
Cardboard boxes, cartons, and containers392,2479,61855,34415,236
Paper bags and paper sacks169604,17823,7316,001
Paper products, n.e.i452,1838,47147,96213,472
Totals1079,85950,369276,07471,848
Printing, Publishing, and Allied Industries     
Printing and publishing947,61735,19289,98052,796
Job and general printing3587,13829,10281,06437,338
Service industries for printing trade617533,4677,7024,345
Totals51315,50867,761178,74694,479
Manufacture of Leather and Leather Products (Except Footwear)     
Tanning191,1574,49326,5317,197
Fellmongery91044434,120859
Leather goods961,3204,14714,4335,987
Totals1242,5819,08345,08414,043
Manufacture of Rubber Products     
Motor vehicle tyres and tubes393,31417,10452,49122,186
Rubber goods (other than motor vehicle tyres and tubes)
Vulcanising and tyre retreading555472,35511,0805,057
Totals943,86119,45963,57127,243
Manufacture of Chemicals and Chemical Products     
Chemical fertilisers161,2067,07484,72616,817
Vegetable and animal oils and fats204282,07412,6723,630
Ink103381,4306,0262,835
Soap115412,06514,2674,965
Paint and varnish329864,20630,1887,260
Pharmaceuticals, toilet goods, and cosmetics381,6575,60537,45511,710
Chemical products, n.e.i.872,3909,57667,68622,914
Totals2147,54632,031253,01970,131
Manufacture of Products of Petroleum and Coal     
Petroleum and coal products173922,21499,62010,916
Bituminous paving and roofing materials262651,15610,6122,523
Totals436573,370110,23213,439
Manufacture of Non-metallic Mineral Products (Except Products of Petroleum and Coal)     
Structural clay products319073,95610,6745,105
Pottery, china, and earthenware121,0103,5657,8364,598
Cement47754,48922,9359,428
Glass and glass products512,33911,04432,72216,561
Concrete products2052,59311,36645,91118,696
Lime913541,5538,6602,883
Fibrous plaster332148702,3681,056
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.208154,14727,5469,283
Totals4479,00740,990158,65367,609
Basic Metal Industries     
Basic metal industries1024,58423,698192,30544,429
Manufacture of Metal Products (Except Machinery and Transport Equipment)     
Sheet-metal working2226,96230,050125,69945,005
Wire working551,0574,48723,6316,976
Nail making61527365,7281,166
Electroplating and metal polishing759224,30711,1895,981
Metal products, n.e.i.57511,41051,955201,74279,069
Totals93320,50391,534367,989138,197
Manufacture, Assembly, and Repair of Machinery (Except Electrical Machinery)     
Agricultural and pastoral machinery1851,7176,98937,37210,732
Machinery, n.e.i.61715,42771,625234,81796,087
Totals80217,14478,614272,189106,819
Manufacture of Electrical Machinery. Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies     
Range making81,2124,55916,8536,150
Radio and television assembly and manufacture252,5558,70939,19111,124
Electrical machinery, appliances, n.e.i. and repairs3157,62330,238119,23941,943
Totals34811,39043,507175,28359,217
Manufacture of Transport Equipment     
Boat building and ship repairing1171,7628,23825,66510,190
Motor vehicle assembly186,40627,873249,32349,704
Motor body building801,8247,52026,34910,048
Aircraft manufacture, maintenance and repair472,78515,11631,35115,990
Perambulators81615151,679618
Transport equipment, n.e.i.481,6546,98624,2289,794
Totals31814,59266,247358,59796,345
Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries     
Optical, surgical, and dental, etc., equipment394021,6665,7612,512
Jewellery958193,33311,1254,790
Brushes and brooms84631,5465,4612,042
Toys and sports goods351,0323,37710,0804,194
Plastics2186,76429,710125,90245,931
Manufacturing industries, n.e.i.1212,0137,18127,85511,511
Totals51611,49346,813186,18470,980
Grand Totals7,690244,5221,042,2145,250,8781,502,387

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES—In recent years the shortage of labour in the principal centres has resulted in branch factories and workrooms being opened in secondary towns to tap the labour resources in those areas.

An analysis of the 1973-74 totals by industrial groups in the various statistical areas is given in the next table.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland -Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Number of Factories 1973-74
Food16997610183982
Beverages45414314413
Tobacco manufactures-1--1-1
Textiles176626147
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods134027552115194
Wood and cork products (except furniture)40169190164340126
Furniture and fixtures6149382151069
Paper and paper products-39633129
Printing, publishing etc.8160464188148
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)148517214
Rubber products1241324420
Chemicals and chemical products2911415649
Petroleum and coal products1113--116
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.3778515251365
Basic metal manufactures-42812120
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)163958652719154
Machinery (except electrical)3119912862731149
Electrical machinery and appliances912344512958
Transport equipment811732410550
Miscellaneous products525527211898
Totals1992,532862772692171,402
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z
 Number of Factories 1973-74
Food16156853936537
Beverages272971134
Tobacco manufactures-2----5
Textiles-2-35164196
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods483136367919
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1744281504833944
Furniture and fixtures26173176394
Paper and paper products-1-1744107
Printing, publishing, etc.58468279513
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)21-27610124
Rubber products-11203194
Chemicals and chemical products12-26134214
Petroleum and coal products---74-43
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.5264712839447
Basic metal manufactures-1-2124102
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)41631454221933
Machinery (except electrical)101331254436802
Electrical machinery and appliances-7-53235348
Transport equipment812-461511318
Miscellaneous products34576184516
Totals79176601,1903922357,690

The distribution of the sexes among the persons engaged shows a considerable preponderance of males—in 1973-74 for every female engaged, there were 3 males. In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent, but the male preponderance is considerably diminished in the 4 main districts, where female labour is in great demand mainly on account of the importance of the clothing and textile industries. In 2 industrial groups the number of females exceeded the number of males—viz., the tobacco group, where there were 113 females to every 100 males, and the footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile group where there were 433 females per 100 males. Individual industries in the other groups with more females than males were those manufacturing ice cream; biscuits; cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery; hosiery and other knitted goods; venetian blinds; leather goods; pharmaceuticals and toilet goods; cosmetics; and those engaged in radio and TV assembly.

The following table shows the numbers of persons engaged in industrial production, again by statistical areas.

Statistical AreaMalesFemalesTotalNumber of Males per 100 FemalesTotal Population at 1 April 1974Total Persons Engaged per 1,000 of Population
Northland3,7916974,48854498,52046
Central Auckland58,42227,60186,023212775,460111
South Auckland -Bay of Plenty20,1424,83424,976417453,35055
East Coast1,8845892,47332048,15051
Hawke's Bay8,2272,38010,607346141,00075
Taranaki5,7391,2807,019448102,26069
Wellington30,80313,85944,662222581,76077
Marlborough1,0613891,45027333,43043
Nelson2,7937063,49939671,16049
Westland8872141,10141422,43049
Canterbury27,19310,54337,736258420,87090
Otago9,4793,76013,239252184,36072
Southland6,6276227,2491,065110,05066
All areas177,04867,474244,5222623,042,80080

A classification of the establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, is now given.

YearFactories With Persons Engaged Numbering—Total
10 or Under11-2021-5051-100Over 100
 Number of Factories 
1971-724,1091,4511,3234924087,783
1972-733,9841,4461,3235044127,669
1973-743,9311,4821,3135304347,690
..Number of Persons Engaged 
1971-7221,17121,37341,66934,717113,494232,424
1972-7320,89621,21641,40035,398116,738235,648
1973-7420,47221,73841,24137,358123,713244,522

The classification according to the number of persons engaged shows clearly that, judged by the standards of highly industrialised communities, the average size of the industrial unit in New Zealand is small. Factories employing 10 persons or under accounted for 51 percent of the total number of factories in 1973-74.

SALARIES AND WAGES—The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages include amounts paid as bonuses and for overtime, also amounts drawn in lieu of salary by working proprietors. The amounts received by male and female employees (inclusive of all groups—executive, clerical, professional and technical, and wage earning), and the average amount received per employee of each sex, are set out below.

YearMalesFemalesBoth Sexes
TotalAverageTotalAverageTotalAverage
 $(000)$$(000)$$(000)$
1971-72656,9273,898123,3811,932780,3083,357
1972-73738,1994,292137,0492,155875,2473,715
1973-74866,0894,892176,1252,6101,042,2144,262

The averages shown relate to all persons engaged, irrespective of age, industry, status, and personal occupation, and year-to-year comparisons may also be affected by changes in any of these factors. The figures do, however, give an indication of the increased earnings of both male and female factory workers in recent years.

The amount of salaries and wages paid in each industrial group and in all industries during the latest three years is given hereunder.

Industry GroupSalaries and Wages Paid
1971-721972-731973-74
  $(000) 
Food170,789196,293218,450
Beverages11,53813,38615,012
Tobacco manufactures3,6974,0914,963
Textiles47,77450,52959,598
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods60,48064,01576,999
Wood and cork products (except furniture)48,87154,79066,932
Furniture and fixtures17,58220,88726,786
Paper and paper products37,04740,81050,369
Printing, publishing, etc.53,35360,11267,761
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)6,6897,5689,03
Rubber products15,41916,97319,459
Chemicals and chemical products24,25827,19932,031
Petroleum and coal products2,8243,0263,370
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.29,99132,75140,990
Basic metal manufactures15,78719,95923,698
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)64,55473,58991,534
Machinery (except electrical)58,26765,86378,614
Electrical machinery and appliances31,05834,62643,507
Transport equipment48,03853,93166,247
Miscellaneous products32,29135,02346,813
Totals780,308875,4201,042,214

MOTIVE POWER—A supply of cheap motive power is a material element in industrial development. New Zealand industries were formerly handicapped in this respect, long railway hauls and, in some instances, sea carriage being involved in the transport of coal from the mines to the factories. The development of the country's electric power resources has been a major factor in industrial growth.

The following table shows the number and aggregate horsepower of each class of engine used in factories in recent years.

Class of Engine1968-691969-701970-711971-721972-73
ElectricNo.247,447256,629264,523274,616285,454
 hp1,362,7831,461,3361,521,3491,587,3461,691,418
SteamNo.196175178167162
 hp12,46211,82011,59610,59211,446
Petrol and light oilNo.838869822842766
 hp18,85421,58420,39221,12326,231
Heavy oilNo.168160148158148
 hp12,92910,97110,40510,8538,505
OtherNo.5480215196200
 hp2,3731,6183,1742,7663,399
TotalsNo.248,703257,913265,886275,979286,730
 hp1,409,4011,507,3291,566,9161,632,6801,740,999

The figures relating to horsepower represent the rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use for driving factory plant. Steam boilers and engines for generating electric power in own works are excluded.

CONSUMPTION OF COAL—During the year 1973-74, 967,000 tonnes of New Zealand coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production. Comparable figures for the 2 previous years were: 1971-72, 926,000 tonnes and 1972-73, 957,000 tonnes. It is important to note that the factory production statistics exclude the activities of the gas-making industry and electrical generation and supply stations. These two industries used 99,387 and 827,065 tonnes of coal respectively in 1973-74.

The following table shows for the year 1973-74 the consumption of coal by industrial groups.

Industry GroupTonnes of Coal Used
Food421,274
Beverages11,780
Tobacco manufactures-
Textiles23,974
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,740
Wood and cork products (except furniture)47
Furniture and fixtures6
Paper and paper products51,854
Printing, publishing, etc.15
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)3,438
Rubber products16,433
Chemicals and chemical products6,864
Petroleum and coal products54,843
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.310,239
Basic metal manufactures60,726
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)157
Machinery (except electrical)227
Electrical machinery and appliances-
Transport equipment8
Miscellaneous products2,862
Total966,537

Approximately 82 percent of the amount of coal used is accounted for in three groups: food, non-metallic mineral products, and basic metal manufactures. Individual industries using more than 10,000 tonnes of coal in 1973-74 were as follows.

IndustryCoal Used
 tonnes
Milk products303,000
Cement277,000
Meat freezing and preserving108,000
Pulp, paper and paperboard52,000
Petroleum and coal products55,000
Basic metal industries61,000
 tonnes
Woollen milling11,000
Structural-clay products15,000
Lime15,000
Motor tyres and tubes16,000
Brewing ale and stout12,000

MATERIALS—The value of materials used does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry or industrial group and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. An example of the wide differences which may occur in the ratio of cost of materials to value of goods produced will be seen in the food group and the wood and cork products (except furniture) group. The values shown for materials used include the cost of containers and packing but exclude fuel costs.

Totals for the latest year show that the cost of materials used in food manufacture was $1,060 million, and the goods produced were valued at $1,441 million, while the materials used in the manufacture of wood and cork products cost $144 million and finished goods produced were valued at $287 million.

The cost of materials used in each industrial group and in all industries for each of the final 3 years of this series was as follows:

Industry GroupCost of Materials Used
1971-721972-731973-74
  $(000) 
Food895,5931,088,8471,059,936
Beverages35,13443,97650,569
Tobacco manufactures18,64820,10520,700
Textiles162,111274,167283,947
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods93,747104,290126,194
Wood and cork products (except furniture)101,829112,74143,662
Furniture and fixtures29,23235,01645,805
Paper and paper products92,027102,191125,795
Printing, publishing, etc.42,1547,76354,147
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)13,11420,09726,727
Rubber products22,67322,72025,307
Chemicals and chemical products111,047127,971155,353
Petroleum and coal products73,91981,59190,310
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.35,79441,39753,512
Basic metal manufactures56,66984,764120,949
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)115,132135,778184,205
Machinery (except electrical)98,368108,234133,596
Electrical machinery and appliances66,70174,69096,017
Transport equipment170,223199,903231,964
Miscellaneous products53,80260,72884,111
Totals2,288,5782,787,2013,112,806

A large proportion of the total cost of materials is accounted for by the food group, which includes the primary produce processing industries dealing with meat freezing and preserving and the manufacture of butter, cheese, and other milk products. In the latest year, for example, the cost of materials used by this group, $1,060 million, represented 34 percent of the total cost of materials used by all industries, $3,113 million. For this reason, variations in the prices received for primary produce have a very marked effect on this total.

PRODUCTS—The value of products is based upon the valuation of goods at the factory door. It is the selling value at the factory to customers of all goods made or processed during the year after deducting all costs of selling and distribution.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which value in recent years constitutes approximately three fifths of the value of products. Where the products of one industry—for example, sawmilling—are treated again in other industries, such as furniture making, joinery, etc., part of the value of the timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of furniture and joinery made. Duplication of this kind is found in many industries.

The following table shows the gross value of production for each industrial group and for all industries.

Industry GroupValue of Production
1971-721972-731973-74
  $(000) 
Food1,233,5341,491,5221,441,483
Beverages76,38688,170100,664
Tobacco manufactures28,49931,58034,094
Textiles254,890375,741408,874
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods185,913204,148250,055
Wood and cork products (except furniture)198,376224,769287,172
Furniture and fixtures58,38670,28390,612
Paper and paper products194,659213,229276,074
Printing, publishing, etc.142,159159,096178,746
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)25,57233,98945,084
Rubber products52,91255,53563,571
Chemicals and chemical products183,040211,436253,019
Petroleum and coal products90,709100,297110,232
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.111,419129,450158,653
Basic metal manufactures96,260144,233192,305
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)240,646280,275367,989
Machinery (except electrical)200,814223,375272,189
Electrical machinery and appliances123,166137,453175,283
Transport equipment254,762297,965358,597
Miscellaneous products122,185138,709186,184
Totals3,874,2874,611,2565,250,878

NET OUTPUT (NET VALUE ADDED)—This consists of the rewards to the factors of production, i.e., salaries and wages, interest on borrowed capital, and manufacturers' surplus. These three items are the components of national income or its companion aggregates net national and net domestic output. Net output (net value added) replaces the former added value which consisted of the difference between the value of production and the cost of materials.

The following table covering the manufacturing industry demonstrates the derivation of each concept

Components1969-701970-711971-721972-731973-74

*National income at factor cost plus factor payments to rest of world.

†Provisional.

   $(million)  
Value of production2,994.83,407.43,874.34,611.35,250.9
Less cost of materials1,791.42,014.62,288.62,787.23,112.8
Added value1,203.41,392.81,585.71,824.12,138.1
Plus interest (paid)21.526.134.839.248.1
 1,224.91,418.91,620.51,863.32,186.2
Less other expenses357.8423.2489.8561.5683.7
Net output (net value added)867.1995.71,130.71,301.71,502.4
Contribution of manufacturing industry to net domestic output*20.921.220.520.219.6

The next table on net output for 1973-74 classifies factories into several net output groupings, giving a general picture of size distribution.

Net Output GroupEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials UsedValue of ProductionNet Output
TotalPer Person Engaged
$No.No.$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$
Under 5,000952045539731,7083131 535
5,000-9,9993528652,7574,7318,9502,8063,244
10,000-19,9999403,24611,54218,40840,26613,9974,312
20,000-29,9998534,56317,55332,45961,83521,1874,643
30,000-39,9996934,98819,04432,20465,26924,0704,825
40,000-99,9992,22027,882107,120255,486450,659143,5945,150
100,000-199,9991,15529,613115,399397,704623,263162,8105,497
200,000-499,99982244,357172,814523,787875,857253,7945,721
500,000-999,99928831,178127,327407,480682,274196,9196,315
1,000,000-1,999,99914832,507144,037424,285716,011210,6756,480
2,000,000-4,999,9997635,603170,196470,748801,600233,5846,560
5,000,000 and over4829,516153,873544,540923,186238,6368,084
Totals7,690244,5221,042,2143,112,8065,250,8781,502,3876,144

The development of factory production in New Zealand is clearly portrayed in the following diagram, which also shows the relationship between cost of materials, net output, and value of production.

EXPENSES OF OPERATION—Total operating costs of factories for the year 1973-74 amounted to $4,839 million, of which salaries and wages accounted for $1,042 million, cost of materials for $3,113 million, and other expenses for $684 million, while value of production totalled $5,251 million.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operation, other than salaries and wages and costs of materials, by industry groups for the year 1973-74.

Industry GroupCoalElectricityCoke, Gas, Oils, etc.Interest on Loans, etc.DepreciationOtherTotal
   $(000)    
Food4,6079,5458,0418,42030,15273,636134,401
Beverages1156467171,8014,06310,69518,037
Tobacco manufactures-143512548921,6192,959
Textiles3782,0671,5573,0857,12925,13539,351
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods319051751,4963,01519,68925,312
Wood and cork products (except furniture)12,6999022,5816,04231,23143,457
Furniture and fixtures-394685951,1537,0379,246
Paper and paper products5767,6035,0743,92524,53240,64682,356
Printing, publishing, etc.-9942111,7845,80523,10931,904
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)322191523967913,1194,710
Rubber products1699645031142,3077,07811,135
Chemicals and chemical products741,5098001,4426,00619,14628,976
Petroleum and coal products-510222561,4674,2846,539
Non-metallic mineral products, n.c.i.4,4392,7972,8701,4456,58320,84338,977
Basic metal manufactures5044,6762,39510,4797,56711,78537,406
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)22,2741,1092,9747,42534,77748,561
Machinery (except electrical)61,3398032,4195,27424,35134,193
Electrical machinery and appliances-1,1293639433,49315,06420,992
Transport equipment-1,3307082,1506,39221,85732,437
Miscellaneous products271,719731,7045,81623,05932,797
Totals10,96343,46327,19348,060135,905418,163683,746

CAPITAL ASSETS—For the year 1973-74 information is shown by industry groups of the amounts expended during the year by way of capital additions and alterations, together with totals for all industries for the 2 previous years. These latter amounts cannot be taken as the total capital expended by New Zealand manufacturers during the year, as they do not include capital expenditure of firms not yet in production.

Industry GroupCapital Additions and Alterations During the Year
Land and BuildingsPlant Machinery and EquipmentTotal
Totals— $(000) 
1971-7265,203167,297232,500
1972-7365,874184,879250,753
1973-74—   
Food19,90339,93259,835
Beverages6,4795,88812,367
Tobacco manufactures841,1451,229
Textiles1,4798,0179,496
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods2,0123,2345,246
Wood and cork products (except furniture)5,9879,85815,845
Furniture and fixtures9621,6032,565
Paper and paper products10,26753,48363,750
Printing, publishing, etc.2,9508,18311,133
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)6611,3331,994
Rubber products1,3564,5925,948
Chemicals and chemical products2,9628,87811,840
Petroleum and coal products1553,0173,172
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2,2888,80011,088
Basic metal manufactures1,6852,8294,514
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)3,1808,06411,244
Machinery (except electrical)2,2255,3367,561
Electrical machinery and appliances2,2553,7125,967
Transport equipment15,29816,53231,830
Miscellaneous products2,1648,47610,640
Totals, 1973-7484,354202,911287,265

MANUFACTURERS' STOCKS—The following table gives results of the quarterly surveys of manufacturers' stocks. In presenting the results, the chief seasonal industries—meat processing and dairy products manufacture—have been segregated to assist in the interpretation of movements in stock holdings. The heading "Materials" includes work in progress, fuel, and miscellaneous supplies.

As at 31 MarchTotal StocksPercentage Change in Stocks at Annual IntervalsStocks Seasonally AdjustedPercentage Change in Stocks Seasonally Adjusted at Quarterly Intervals
MaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsMaterialsFinished Goods
 $(m)percent $(m) percent
Including Primary Produce Processing Industries          
1972445.2335.4780.7+12.1+6.8+9.8............
1973444.8381.4826.3-0.1+13.7+5.8............
1974577.1428.21,005.3+29.7+12.3+21.7............
1975830.6536.11,366.7+43.9+25.2+35.9............
1976811.1724.11,535.1-2.3+35.1+12.3............
Excluding Primary Produce Processing Industries          
1972427.6207.3634.9+11.6+16.3+13.0425.2208.9+2.5+2.9
1973429.8206.4636.2+0.5-0.4+0.2426.7207.9+1.0+0.1
1974560.9213.1774.0+30.5+3.2+21.7556.2214.5+11.4+2.1
1975808.7313.41,122.1+44.2+47.1+43.0799.4313.8+5.0+2.1
1976785.0379.21,164.1-2.9+21.0+3.7770.7379.6-0.1+4.5

More detailed information on stocks is given in the next table showing by industry groups comparative stock figures at the end of March.

Industry GroupStocks at 31 MarchPercentage Change in Stocks 31 March 1975 to 31 March 1976
19751976
MaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotal
Primary Produce Processing Industries   $(million)   percent 
Meat freezing, ham bacon and casings18.21124.30142.5120.57192.15212.73+13.0+54.6+49.3
Dairy3.7398.42102.155.51152.73158.24+47.7+55.2+54.9
Totals21.94222.71244.6626.08344.89370.97+18.9+54.9+51.6
Other food77.1153.07130.1765.1458.99124.11-15.5+11.2-4.6
Beverages14.7112.3227.0317.9516.6434.59+22.0+35.1+28.0
Tobacco manufactures22.52-22.5225.88-25.88+14.9-+14.9
Textiles50.1221.1971.3153.1224.2977.41+6.0+14.6+8.6
Clothing37.5917.9355.5235.0421.0656.10-6.8+17.5+1.0
Footwear8.464.8013.268.005.1813.18-5.4+7.9-0.6
Wood manufactures26.0119.9545.9633.9429.5663.50+30.5+48.2+35.2
Furniture and fixtures.13.391.4014.7913.541.7115.25+1.1+22.1+3.1
Paper and products43.7027.0670.7644.1742.7286.89+1.1+57.9+22.8
Printing, publishing27.445.4532.8929.258.1637.41+6.6+49.7+13.7
Leather and products10.962.8713.8311.353.7115.06+3.6+29.3+8.9
Rubber products15.4213.8629.2813.7611.5425.30-10.8-16.7-13.6
Chemicals and products68.9539.00107.9562.3637.73100.09-9.6-3.3-7.3
Petroleum, coal products7.703.9411.6511.006.8017.80+42.9+72.6+52.8
Non-metallic mineral products19.6217.7437.3619.5523.2942.84-0.4+31.3+14.7
Basic metal products25.317.3932.7026.159.4435.58+3.3+27.7+8.8
Metal products70.8517.7088.5564.8920.9785.86-8.4+18.5-3.0
Machinery65.1014.3179.4168.1817.9086.+4.7+25.1+8.4
Electrical products69.3311.6881.0161.9614.6076.55-0.6+25.0-5.5
Transport equipment89.105.6094.7082.597.5490.13-7.3+34.6-4.8
Miscellaneous45.3216.1261.4337.1717.3354.49-18.0+7.5-11.3
Totals808.69313.381,122.07784.98379.161,164.14-2.9+21.0+3.7
Grand totals, all manufacturing industries830.63536.091,366.73811.06724.051,535.12-2.3+35.1+12.3

VALUE AND VOLUME INDICES—The next table gives index numbers of added value, value of production, and volume of production

Production YearAdded ValueValue of ProductionVolume of Production
 Base: 1956-57 (=1000)
1959-60129211681175
1960-61139212521290
1961-62154413301359
1962-63163913861420
1963-64185815901574
1964-65204518071776
1965-66233519621901
1966-67246920442006
1967-68253520881983
1968-69273422972036
1969-70311926002279
1970-71361029582378
1971-72411033632477
1972-73472640032631
1973-74554245582977

The table which follows sets out, by industry groups, index numbers of value of production, net output, and volume of production. It is not possible to arrive at volume of production index numbers for all the groups, for technical reasons, and consequently some have been omitted, but the total index number for the year is calculated in such a way as to include the groups which cannot be assessed separately. The index is based on 1956-57 (= 1000).

Industry GroupValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)Volume of Production
1972-731973-741972-731973-741972-731973-74
*Index not available for group but allowed for in compiling total index.
   Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)   
Food315830524871428918481847
Beverages425348554501514020182219
Tobacco manufactures260028073488427421122164
Textiles621367615804721145365241
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods258631672812347317011801
Wood and cork products (except furniture)307939343241418416151870
Furniture and fixtures3388436933934292(*)(*)
Paper and paper products477661845555661637304444
Printing, publishing, etc.381142824045462725082719
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)415555114450588620452318
Rubber products262830093247381326542736
Chemicals and chemical products391246814456523027332995
Petroleum and coal products20783228411356813412(*)(*)
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.349342813899465623352838
Basic metal manufactures21336284471696822038(*)(*)
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)6709880966538555(*)(*)
Machinery (except electrical)4279521449045989(*)(*)
Electrical machinery and appliances642781966583850847425697
Transport equipment4377526843035444(*)(*)
Miscellaneous products11703157091204515593(*)(*)
All Groups400345584688541026312977

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS—The following table, by assembling data from previous pages, affords an analysis of production costs in 1973-74, together with the value of production for each industry group and for all industries. In addition, by virtue of the complete details collected annually of the cost structure of goods produced in manufacturing industries, it is possible to give information on the surplus available to manufacturers prior to payment of dividends, taxation, and other appropriations. The only exception occurs in the case of co-operative dairy companies, which do not purchase milk and cream in the way that other manufacturers purchase raw materials. They collect the milk and cream from their shareholders, process it, and pay out to these shareholders the whole of the profits of the sales of the products, less amounts paid to reserves. Manufacturing surplus shown by these companies is therefore confined to the amount of these transfers to reserves and any undistributed profits.

In quite a number of cases, articles produced are transferred at cost to separate selling departments and warehouses, or to retail stores run by the same company or establishment. Where this is apparent, the company concerned is asked to substitute a commercial value for its production. The same procedure holds where a company controls more than one factory, and transfers the products of one to the other for further processing. It must be recognised that estimated values have to be accepted in many transactions of this type.

Industry GroupProduction CostsValue of ProductionManufacturing Surplus
Salaries and WagesCost of All Materials UsedOther Expenses of OperationTotal
   $(000)   
Food218,4501,059,936134,4011,412,7871,441,48328,695
Beverages15,01250,56918,03783,618100,66417,046
Tobacco manufactures4,96320,7032,95928,62534,0945,469
Textiles59,598283,94739,351382,896408,87425,978
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods76,999126,19425,312228,505250,05521,549
Wood and cork products (except furniture)66,932143,66243,457254,051287,17233,121
Furniture and fixtures26,78645,8059,24681,83790,6128,775
Paper and paper products50,369125,79582,356258,520276,07417,555
Printing, publishing, etc.67,76154,14731,904153,811178,74624,934
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)9,08326,7274,71040,52045,0844,564
Rubber products19,45925,30711,13555,90063,5717,671
Chemicals and chemical products32,031155,35328,976216,360253,01936,659
Petroleum and coal products3,37090,3106,539100,218110,23210,014
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.40,99053,51238,977133,480158,65325,173
Basic metal manufactures23,698120,94937,406182,053192,30510,252
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)91,534184,20548,561324,299367,98943,690
Machinery (except electrical)78,614133,59634,193246,402272,18925,787
Electrical machinery and appliances43,50796,01720,992160,516175,28314,767
Transport equipment66,247231,96432,437330,648358,59727,949
Miscellaneous products46,81384,11132,797163,721186,18422,463
Totals1,042,2143,112,809683,7464,838,7665,250,878412,112
STATISTICS OF PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES
Item1971-721972-731973-74
Meat Freezing and Preserving
Number of establishments..474849
Persons engagedNo.26,70327,31727,413
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)115,644133,332143,441
Materials$(000)373,458594,152500,354
Other expenses$(000)49,32257,74063,815
Totals$(000)538,425785,224707,610
Value of production$(000)575,117844,675703,959
Net output (net value added)$(000)155,290195,797144,235
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)6,2126,9746,338
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (=1000)..169117461584
Ham and Bacon Curing
Number of establishments..404141
Persons engagedNo.1,3191,3701,417
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)4,2614,9015,719
Materials$(000)18,37522,38828,821
Other expenses$(000)2,5132,7613,302
Totals$(000)25,14930,05037,842
Value of production$(000)27,92133,06642,043
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,1007,99210,018
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)307315236
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (=1000)..102310631143
Butter, Cheese, and Other Milk Products
Number of establishments—    
Butter and cheese..161153137
Other milk products..888
Persons engagedNo.4,6064,7284,694
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)17,66720,34622,342
Materials$(000)348,758297,616322,825
Other expenses$(000)26,52526,91330,680
Totals$(000)392,950344,876375,847
Value of production$(000)393,807345,727377,375
Net output (net value added)$(000)19,34321,78024,744
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,3441,4201,404
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (=1000)..140313671268
Ice Cream
Number of establishments..181919
Persons engagedNo.574519546
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)1,6431,6992,111
Materials$(000)7,0017,9759,382
Other expenses$(000)1,9291,9712,313
Totals$(000)10,57411,64513,806
Value of production$(000)12,43013,59115,702
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,6473,7594,155
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)106105127
Volume index Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..251826792992
Grain Milling
Number of establishments..353333
Persons engagedNo.872857831
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)2,6232,8433,242
Materials$(000)23,65724,23829,259
Other expenses$(000)2,5952,7342,984
Totals$(000)28,87529,81435,484
Value of production$(000)31,44732,97837,942
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,4046,2325,877
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)123129152
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..152115561599
Biscuits
Number of establishments..788
Persons engagedNo.1,3491,3751,390
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)3,4723,8994,910
Materials$(000)9,42010,10311,639
Other expenses$(000)2,3922,5522,554
Totals$(000)15,28316,55419,104
Value of production$(000)17,01019,09222,168
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,2876,5407,975
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)319344302
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..156616891889
Cocoa, Chocolate, and Sugar Confectionery
Number of establishments..464340
Persons engagedNo.2,3472,2872,203
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)6,0006,4187,269
Materials$(000)16,02316,34718,478
Other expenses$(000)3,1213,6084,590
Totals$(000)25,14426,37430,337
Value of production$(000)28,64630,10033,972
Net output (net value added)$(000)9,59610,37411,147
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)380335441
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..185219132079
Fruit and Vegetable Preserving
Number of establishments..242728
Persons engagedNo.2,9343,3273,587
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)8,51510,42413,850
Materials$(000)23,37928,93635,478
Other expenses$(000)8,1597,8298,273
Totals$(000)40,05447,18957,601
Value of production$(000)41,24649,84562,318
Net output (net value added)$(000)10,91814,29919,844
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)810684832
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..353039124432
Brewing of Ale and Stout, and Malting
Number of establishments..151415
Persons engagedNo.1,5511,5511,569
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)6,8777,7298,486
Materials$(000)20,86825,82428,457
Other expenses$(000)8,39510,04611,135
Totals$(000)36,14143,59848,078
Value of production$(000)47,90355,64663,080
Net output (net value added)$(000)19,11020,33324,105
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)578638577
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..162417211888
Wine Making (Wineries with annual production of 5,000 gallons or more)
Number of establishments..696968
Persons engagedNo.496567531
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)1,4471,8322,178
Materials$(000)6,6889,34112,068
Other expenses$(000)2,0412,6852,988
Totals$(000)10,17613,85817,235
Value of production$(000)11,59214,48317,292
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,3103,0282,915
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)567283
Sales—    
Table wineslitres(000)7,66010,69211,678
Dessert wineslitres(000)12,65612,77413,925
Spirits (Distilling, Rectifying and Blending)
Number of establishments..554
Persons engagedNo.143146116
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)498544498
Materials$(000)1,5741,7191,735
Other expenses$(000)574626483
Totals$(000)2,6452,8892,717
Value of production$(000)3,1183,3303,177
Net output (net value added)$(000)1,0071,0391,059
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)899
Aerated Waters and Cordials
Number of establishments..484847
Persons engagedNo.9621,0421,043
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)2,6993,2813,850
Materials$(000)6,0047,0938,308
Other expenses$(000)2,3502,6533,430
Totals$(000)11,05313,02715,588
Value of production$(000)13,77214,71117,115
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,6535,2545,781
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)63107155
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..242625362893
Tobacco, Cigars, and Cigarettes
Number of establishments..555
Persons engagedNo.1,2001,1911,242
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)3,6974,0914,963
Materials$(000)18,64820,10520,703
Other expenses$(000)2,5942,9312,959
Totals$(000)24,93927,12628,625
Value of production$(000)28,49931,58034,094
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,4218,72110,686
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)290268275
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..198821122164
Woollen Milling
Number of establishments..232121
Persons engagedNo.4,4254,3474,417
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)13,11613,85316,181
Materials$(000)17,38922,73727,003
Other expenses$(000)8,0158,12210,261
Totals$(000)38,52044,71253,445
Value of production$(000)39,85846,95557,344
Net output (net value added)$(000)15,08916,79221,352
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)770682885
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)339136194122
Hosiery and Other Knitting Mills
Number of establishments..868484
Persons engagedNo.5,6045,2255,415
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)14,54914,91817,824
Materials$(000)28,76629,41337,641
Other expenses$(000)7,8827,7079,264
Totals$(000)51,19752,03864,729
Value of production$(000)55,45557,56971,628
Net output (net value added)$(000)19,69321,19725,460
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)480501548
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..385439734346
Clothing
Number of establishments..668639646
Persons engagedNo.21,15320,45020,547
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)41,75344,56553,689
Materials$(000)66,01973,56687,225
Other expenses$(000)11,60812,82116,999
Totals$(000)119,380130,952157,914
Value of production$(000)129,268142,045172,856
Net output (net value added)$(000)52,44256,42769,739
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)439520612
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..151116291716
Footwear
Number of establishments..100101102
Persons engagedNo.5,2944,9795,045
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)13,97314,08516,487
Materials$(000)17,66818,71722,686
Other expenses$(000)5,0185,2685,621
Totals$(000)36,65938,0744,795
Value of production$(000)39,68040,61848,203
Net output (net value added)$(000)17,24916,91120,129
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)382355440
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..184817731846
Sawmills
Number of establishments..312300283
Persons engagedNo.5,5415,6825,877
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)19,09421,52925,897
Materials$(000)34,03035,00541,970
Other expenses$(000)15,24116,40719,407
Totals$(000)68,36572,94187,275
Value of production$(000)74,91081,380100,605
Net output (net value added)$(000)26,35230,77240,163
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)666918834
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..127913101509
Planing Mills and Timber Preservation
Number of establishments..155152145
Persons engagedNo.2,0982,1372,187
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)6,8567,8199,153
Materials$(000)27,59332,37236,685
Other expenses$(000)4,8125,4846,284
Totals$(000)39,26145,67552,122
Value of production$(000)42,90050,04057,989
Net output (net value added)$(000)10,81512,61815,454
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)332313430
Joinery
Number of establishments..388388384
Persons engagedNo.4,4364,4554,652
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)15,28616,73720,319
Materials$(000)27,42930,06841,852
Other expenses$(000)5,5706,4278,364
Totals$(000)48,28653,23370,536
Value of production$(000)52,38458,87278,063
Net output (net value added)$(000)19,89722,87628,491
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)695687859
Furniture
Number of establishments..372364356
Persons engagedNo.4,8885,2715,625
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)15,46018,36323,395
Materials$(000)23,41327,89836,428
Other expenses$(000)5,0436,1077,927
Totals$(000)43,91652,36867,750
Value of production$(000)48,36858,28474,607
Net output (net value added)$(000)20,27424,71030,794
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)7756721,015
Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard
Number of establishments..667
Persons engagedNo.4,0284,2134,469
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)20,86623,00428,102
Materials$(000)33,60235,68147,617
Other expenses$(000)33,34239,50167,516
Totals$(000)87,80998,185143,235
Value of production$(000)99,715105,221149,037
Net output (net value added)$(000)33,99531,39437,139
Overtime worked by wage earners h(= 1000)..9851,1581,100
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..347734874371
Cardboard Boxes, Cartons, and Paper Bags
Number of establishments..615855
Persons engagedNo.3,2123,2103,207
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)10,40111,33113,796
Materials$(000)37,85343,05048,964
Other expenses$(000)6,8108,2179,337
Totals$(000)55,06562,59872,097
Value of production$(000)61,30868,76079,075
Net output (net value added)$(000)17,56017,96821,236
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)747801979
Printing and Publishing
Number of establishments..959694
Persons engagedNo.7,7467,7767,617
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)28,04531,99635,192
Materials$(000)16,42118,08120,043
Other expenses$(000)15,59817,15717,802
Totals$(000)60,06467,23573,037
Value of production$(000)72,57280,68789,980
Net output (net value added)$(000)40,96745,94952,796
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)662699834
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..188419252180
Job and General Printing
Number of establishments..357359358
Persons engagedNo.7,0477,2397,138
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)22,35625,00129,102
Materials$(000)25,18028,27132,143
Other expenses$(000)9,88411,60312,629
Totals$(000)57,42064,87573,874
Value of production$(000)63,58771,92381,064
Net output (net value added)$(000)29,21032,83537,338
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)849770898
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)302932653559..
Tanning
Number of establishments..181819
Persons engagedNo.1,0291,0871,157
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)3,3353,7804,493
Materials$(000)7,49513,09316,666
Other expenses$(000)1,8182,1632,964
Totals$(000)12,64819,03624,123
Value of production$(000)14,75520,76926,531
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,5585,6887,197
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)153153167
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..176219742138
Rubberware
Number of establishments..353539
Persons engagedNo.3,2553,2453,314
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)13,36314,84117,104
Materials$(000)18,31718,35520,960
Other expenses$(000)6,3317,9639,441
Totals$(000)38,01141,15847,505
Value of production$(000)42,31944,90052,491
Net output (net value added)$(000)17,85418,70322,186
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)457508529
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..257325592672
Chemical Fertilisers
Number of establishments..151516
Persons engagedNo.1,1841,1561,206
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)5,1705,9157,074
Materials$(000)40,88549,41359,996
Other expenses$(000)6,5507,5318,075
Totals$(000)52,60562,85975,145
Value of production$(000)58,17371,54984,726
Net output (net value added)$(000)10,97114,79716,817
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)399334497
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..208025032546
Soap Manufacture
Number of establishments..111111
Persons engagedNo.545547541
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)1,7091,8662,065
Materials$(000)6,1695,7427,505
Other expenses$(000)1,7231,6572,016
Totals$(000)9,6019,26511,587
Value of production$(000)11,20411,36614,267
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,6744,2054,965
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)92100127
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..160615781673
Paint and Varnish
Number of establishments..363532
Persons engagedNo.951932986
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)3,2943,6104,206
Materials$(000)15,29816,44719,587
Other expenses$(000)2,3582,5843,446
Totals$(000)20,94922,64127,239
Value of production$(000)23,44825,60030,188
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,8856,6557,260
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)113146186
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)162817632024..
Pharmaceuticals, Toilet Goods, and Cosmetics
Number of establishments..373638
Persons engagedNo.1,5571,5011,657
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)3,9514,2715,605
Materials$(000)15,74017,84521,943
Other expenses$(000)2,5322,8544,072
Totals$(000)22,22324,97031,621
Value of production$(000)26,54630,70137,455
Net output (net value added)$(000)8,38910,13211,710
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)9880109
Structural Clay Products
Number of establishments..353231
Persons engagedNo.983883907
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)3,3033,3383,956
Materials$(000)1,5321,6252,085
Other expenses$(000)3,0903,2553,649
Totals$(000)7,9258,2189,689
Value of production$(000)8,6579,94910,674
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,1995,3305,105
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)243296241
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..1122991-
Pottery, China, and Earthenware
Number of establishments..101112
Persons engagedNo.9669451,010
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)2,7262,9243,565
Materials$(000)1,3561,1981,572
Other expenses$(000)1,7141,6111,918
Totals$(000)5,7965,7327,056
Value of production$(000)6,7686,7277,836
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,0144,1774,598
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)201149220
Cement
Number of establishments..444
Persons engagedNo.664683775
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)2,6753,3284,489
Materials$(000)2,3653,0563,515
Other expenses$(000)7,0638,59410,386
Totals$(000)12,10314,97818,390
Value of production$(000)16,40520,25522,935
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,1908,9279,428
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)265339302
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..176020722271
Concrete Products
Number of establishments..216201205
Persons engagedNo.2,4122,3462,593
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)7,8498,61811,366
Materials$(000)12,98914,12918,594
Other expenses$(000)5,7846,3098,994
Totals$(000)26,62229,05638,954
Value of production$(000)32,41836,25945,911
Net output (net value added)$(000)13,97216,13518,696
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)485580637
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)190921332615..
Plywood and Veneer
Number of establishments..131314
Persons engagedNo.1,0711,0271,243
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)3,8414,1485,668
Materials$(000)6,1587,30210,727
Other expenses$(000)3,1653,9256,707
Totals$(000)13,16415,37523,102
Value of production$(000)15,07218,26727,531
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,9207,19910,480
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)394355444
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..308035334842
Range Making
Number of establishments..678
Persons engagedNo.1,1001,0851,212
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)3,4433,5924,559
Materials$(000)6,0916,8998,572
Other expenses$(000)1,6801,8312,237
Totals$(000)11,21412,32215,368
Value of production$(000)11,81113,27716,853
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,1044,6166,150
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)188169252
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)208423232785..
Radio and Television Assembly and Manufacture
Number of establishments..212025
Persons engagedNo.2,0032,0362,555
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)5,6176,0468,709
Materials$(000)13,70715,96224,153
Other expenses$(000)2,6243,3234,109
Totals$(000)21,94825,33036,971
Value of production$(000)23,04425,64139,191
Net output (net value added)$(000)6,9346,51211,124
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)110166246
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)457247636416..
Motor-vehicle Assembly
Number of establishments..151718
Persons engagedNo.5,4885,7866,406
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)19,21522,68527,873
Materials$(000)137,941165,606183,800
Other expenses$(000)9,66910,91217,209
Totals$(000)166,824199,203228,881
Value of production$(000)177,265213,930249,323
Net output (net value added)$(000)29,82538,09749,704
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,2992,0981,108
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)..188920222081
Motor-body Building
Number of establishments..817980
Persons engagedNo.1,7251,5891,824
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)5,5295,7857,520
Materials$(000)8,9079,46213,876
Other expenses$(000)2,0612,1972,729
Totals$(000)16,49617,44424,126
Value of production$(000)17,45318,93426,349
Net output (net value added)$(000)6,7277,54510,048
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)153207278
Sheet-metal Working
Number of establishments..238232222
Persons engagedNo.6,8206,7166,962
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)23,99025,03230,050
Materials$(000)44,79145,79764,401
Other expenses$(000)13,41914,99617,394
Totals$(000)82,20085,825111,845
Value of production$(000)92,82295,795125,699
Net output (net value added)$(000)35,52735,94845,005
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,3681,2771,464
Volume index. Base: 1956-57 (= 1000)42624269--
Metal Products, n.e.i.
Number of establishments..535551575
Persons engagedNo.9,51710,54011,410
Production costs—    
Salaries and wages$(000)33,63240,91551,955
Materials$(000)57,29473,81198,859
Other expenses$(000)15,80919,89325,437
Totals$(000)106,735134,619176,250
Value of production$(000)121,273152,682201,742
Net output (net value added)$(000)49,24860,31479,069
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,6302,0192,714
Agricultural and Pastoral Machinery
Number of establishments..188187185
Persons engagedNo.1,5021,5961,717
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)4,9365,7396,989
Materials$(000)20,41420,03223,296
Other expenses$(000)2,3252,6463,642
Totals$(000)27,67528,41833,927
Value of production$(000)29,68131,58037,372
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,1839,13210,732
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)147204248
Plastics
Number of establishments..195206218
Persons engagedNo.5,9576,0906,764
Production costs—    
Salaries, wages$(000)19,61821,53729,710
Materials$(000)34,57640,68457,474
Other expenses$(000)14,42617,03323,722
Totals$(000)68,62079,254110,906
Value of production$(000)77,48491,768125,902
Net output (net value added)$(000)29,26234,74145,931
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,7781,6371,705
Machinery, n.e.i.
Number of establishments..647624617
Persons engagedNo.14,39315,15715,427
Production costs—    
Salaries wages$(000)53,33160,12471,625
Materials$(000)77,95488,201110,299
Other expenses$(000)24,36927,19530,551
Totals$(000)155,654175,519212,475
Value of production$(000)171,133191,795234,817
Net output (net value added)$(000)70,54078,33496,087
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)2,7423,4063,382
Petroleum and Coal Products
EstablishmentsNo.181817
Persons engagedNo.392399392
Production costs—    
Salaries and wages$(000)1,7781,9932,214
Materials$(000)69,55876,56983,846
Other expenses$(000)4,2633,6494,871
Totals$(000)75,59982,21190,930
Value of production$(000)83,03291,56299,620
Net output (net value added)$(000)9,21711,35110,916
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)475449

A considerable amount of information on industrial production on a monthly, quarterly, and annual basis is included in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

PRODUCTION OF SELECTED GOODS—The following table shows the volume of production of selected goods. It should be noted that the figures, many of which were compiled by the Department of Trade and Industry, refer to the calendar years (except where otherwise stated) and not to production years as in most tables in this section. This table is not based on the annual surveys from which the data in other tables in this section are derived.

Commodity197419751976

*Other than rubber or plastic.

†See also section 13A Farming (General) and section 23 Consumption of Food.

‡Year ended May.

§Provisional.

∥Year ended June.

¶Figures relate only to operations of super-phosphate manufacturing works.

**Gross production, including wastage.

Refrigerators and deep freezers No. (000)246.2262.4242.7
Washing machines No. (000)83.491.783.1
Tumbler clothes dryers No. (000)90.3133.2137.0
Electric ranges and rangettes No. (000)93.376.675.3
Lawn mowers No. (000)101.299.196.9
Radios and radiograms No. (000)169.4163.6157.9
Television sets No. (000)96.8146.7154.0
Records No. (000)6,2725,1986,063
Textiles and Clothing
Woollen and worsted yarn tonnes19,40018,13821,586
Piece goods sq metres (000)4,8253,1622,809
Blankets prs (000)283306215
Carpets sq metres (000)11,3879,27611,315
Women's—
Overcoats (000)239.0238.3214.2
Skirts (000)570.9646.1695.3
Slacks and jeans (000)1,462.01,081.11,596.3
Dresses (000)1,089.9856.51,111.9
Blouses and shirts (000)1,305.21,408.01,782.7
Men's—
Suits (000)200.1205.6206.1
Trousers (working) (000)943.5840.9933.9
Trousers (other) (000)2,119.51,589.01,500.5
Shirts (men's and boys) (000)7,7285,9206,374
Footwear
Men's footwear* prs (000)1,776.11,620.01,761.7
Women's footwear* prs (000)2,687.52,266.32,169.5
Children's footwear* prs (000)1,242.31,061.6940.6
Slippers prs (000)1,474.61,199.51,180.4
Rubber and plastic boots and shoes prs (000)970.31,227.31,138.7
Gym or tennis footwear prs (000)805.7869.41,075.6
Foodstuffs
Liquid milk litres (million)5,5125,9076,359§
Creamery butter tonnes (000)208.6236.7249.1
Cheese tonnes (000)89.088.6104.8§
Skim-milk powder tonnes (000)194.1243.7207.0
Condensed and powdered whole milk tonnes (000)50.333.946.8
Casein tonnes (000)35.534.552.7
Flour tonnes (000)212.6219.3211.1
Wheatmeal and wholemeal tonnes (000)5.44.95.0
Refined sugar tonnes (000)168.4148.1154.1
Breakfast foods tonnes (000)15.815.617.1
Biscuits tonnes (000)26.525.729.1
Ice cream litres (million)56.052.151.9
Beer and stout** litres (million)391.1421.0409.6
Canned vegetables tonnes (000)20.221.619.1
Quick frozen vegetables tonnes (000)51.745.040.3
Canned fruit tonnes (000)19.918.220.0
Transport
Passenger cars No (000)67.767.569.5
Trucks, vans, and buses No (000)12.612.911.5
Tyres No (000)1,6211,5631,673
Miscellaneous
Paper tonnes (000)560550608
Wood pulp tonnes (000)8919511,038
Chemical fertilisers tonnes (000)2,2681,8012,251
Cigarettes million5,8896,4886,535

Chapter 18. Section 18 BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND HOUSING

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The building and construction industry makes an important contribution to growth and development since most of its work represents investment in the future. Because of its size and the demands it makes on a wide range of industries supplying building materials and services, and because not only commerce and industry but also the housing of the people depend on it, the well-being or otherwise of the industry is a matter of concern to all informed New Zealanders. The industry is a fairly large contributor to total national output. Buildings represent around 40 percent of gross domestic capital formation, and civil engineering and land development also contribute substantially.

The industry employs 7 to 8 percent of the total labour force on "on-site" works, and its position as a large market for goods from other sectors also strongly influences employment in these sectors. For example, the concrete and other non-metallic mineral products industry in the manufacturing sector employs up to 6,000 workers and the metal products industry approximately 39,000 workers. In the forestry sector, builders' woodwork has over 5,000 workers, and sawmilling and plywood 12,000. In varying degrees these industries and others rely on the building and construction industry to absorb their output. The "off-site" supply services provide about 65 percent of the value of the work put in place.

The characteristic of the industry with its relatively high proportion of short-term construction (mainly dwellings) is reflected in the structure of firms. Over 80 percent of "on-site" building firms employ fewer than six persons, are usually under-capitalised, and tend to rely on extended credit from suppliers. Hence effective planning of the housing sector on a longer-term basis is important to the stability of the industry.

During 1975-76 there was a continuing decline in overall demand for most types of building, even though Government programmes were expanded. The number of building permits issued for new dwellings units dropped by a thousand, and the number of dwelling units completed or created by conversion of existing accommodation during the year ended March 1976 was 33,200, compared with 34,600 during the previous year. In the "other buildings" sector the sharp downturn in private demand for commercial and factory building during the last quarter of 1974-75 remained evident during the following year in generally low levels of private-sector investment.

The work load in the heavy construction or civil engineering sector during 1975-76 was largely concentrated on major power projects, namely the Upper Waitaki, Huntly, Tongariro, Kapuni, and Maui Gas projects. Reduced construction programmes in the roading sector on both State highways and local body roads and streets led to a shortage of work for contractors normally engaged on earthworks.

Within the residential field the trend away from houses to flats continues. Whereas new flat units comprised 5.5 percent of all residential units built in 1960-61, the percentage in 1975-76 was 35.0. The greatest demand for flats has been in the main urban centres, Auckland and Wellington. Many flats are merely two or more one-storey units on the one section, thus making greater use of serviced sections and achieving a saving in costs. This construction is popular with builders and finds a ready market, particularly with people of retiring age.

The modern tendency is for people to buy, rather than rent, flats. Another development in residential accommodation is the growing popularity of town houses, a type of construction which combines some of the advantages of both houses and flats and makes more economical use of space than does the traditional house on the 1/4 acre section.

BUILDING INDUSTRY ADVISORY COUNCIL—The functions of the Building Industry Advisory Council are: (a) to give advice to Government through the Minister of Works and Development on matters affecting the building and construction industry; (b) to maintain an overall and continuing review of the industry and (c) to give advice to the industry on the likely effects of building trends. The membership of the council consists of seven representatives from sectors of the industry, namely contractors, architects, professional engineers, workers, and suppliers, plus one representative each from Treasury and Ministry of Works and Development. Members have been appointed by the Minister of Works and Development on the recommendation of organisations within the building industry.

NATIONAL HOUSING COMMISSION—The National Housing Commission, established in 1974, is a body whose principal functions are to advise the Minister of Housing on all matters relating to housing in New Zealand and to inquire into and keep under review the housing needs of the population. In addition it is charged with assisting in the co-ordination of all persons, bodies, and agencies, both public and private, concerned with housing in New Zealand and to promote co-operation between them.

The establishment of the Commission was based in part on the recommendations of a Commission of Inquiry into Housing which met in 1970 and reported in May 1971 (Parliamentary Paper H.51).

Currently there are four appointed members, comprising the chairman (general manager of a lending institution), a company director with wide land development and building experience, a barrister and solicitor with local body housing background, and an architect.

TRENDS IN AVERAGE COSTS—The following table illustrates trends in the cost of building activity over a period. (Sources: Ministry of Works and Development, and Housing Corporation.)

Type of BuildingCost at End of Year
1950196019701973197419751976
*Area 102 sq. metres. Cost comparability is affected by design changes from year to year.
 $$$$$$$
State rental house (976 sq ft)4,3445,5287,45012,19515,960*17,735*19,690*
Buildings (reinforced concrete) of similar size and type50,20064,20096,000136,000157,700179,778199,553

CENSUS OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION—The third 5-yearly census of the activities of the building and construction industry shows that the total value of work done in the production year 1973-74 was $1,716 million compared with $814 million in 1968-69. If subcontracts and other identifiable transactions between firms within the industry are deducted, the value of work done becomes $1,405 million for 1973-74 and $697 million for 1968-69. The net values are a relatively large proportion of the gross national product of the 2 years at 16.3 percent and 16.0 percent respectively.

In 1973-74 expenditure by the industry on capital goods for its own use such as plant and machinery, motor vehicles, and land and buildings was $96 million compared with $43 million in 1968-69 representing 4.6 percent and 4.5 percent of the estimated gross capital formation (excluding stock changes) in the two respective years.

Of the total gross value of production for the year 1973-74 of $1,716 million, $1,308 million or 76 percent was represented by work on buildings (involving construction, alteration, repair, maintenance, or demolition); $140 million was for work on roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, wharves, aerodromes, and airstrips; $56 million was for land drainage, sewerage, river protection, irrigation schemes, water supply, and well drilling; $62 million was for earthmoving, reclamation, and land development; $6 million was for the removal of overburden for mines or quarries; $82 million was for power, telephone, and telegraph-line erection, cable laying, radio and television masts, and power development; $46 million was for other construction; and $16 million was for plant hire.

One of the main purposes of the 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction is to examine the structure of the industry. Of the total gross output of $1,716 million in 1973-74, private firms were responsible for output to the value of $1,364 million both as main and subcontractors, Government departments used their own staff for a value output of $147 million, while local authorities did work to the value of $104 million with their own staff. Private owner-builders not normally engaged in building and construction undertook $101 million of their own building work. In 1973-74 Government and local authorities gave more work to private firms, and correspondingly reduced their own activities.

Private Contractors—The business of private contractors in building and construction in 1973-74 is summarised in the following table.

Nature of BusinessUnitsPersons EngagedSalaries and WagesWorking ProprietorsMaterialsValue of Work Done
As Main ContractorAs Sub-ContractorTotal*
*Includes value of work done as labour-only contractors.
 No.No.$(m)No.$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)
Building contracting5,67427,672124.04,070302.3761.047.9816.2
Civil engineering contracting3246,06933.86940.7112.221.6134.9
Shop and office fitting403671.7182.95.22.57.8
Electrical contracting9913,76316.545834.322.940.765.0
Plumbing and drainlaying1,3654,38018.679144.033.948.883.3
Painting and paperhanging1,2313,40514.51,0769.219.618.638.5
Plastering2137473.21342.02.05.98.0
Roofing contracting766553.72213.24.318.923.2
Bricklaying and/or blocklaying3851,0254.42978.14.413.818.5
Glazing895212.1235.32.57.29.7
Flooring contracting843061.3403.42.73.36.7
Earthmoving2871,5267.81153.132.35.037.5
Road sealing386193.085.612.31.313.8
Concrete contracting1156082.8604.15.44.410.0
Heating and air conditioning contracting891,4546.81716.719.511.130.6
Demolition contracting221250.59-1.00.51.5
Scaffolding contracting111870.84-0.31.61.9
Other3913,49216.613319.625.031.656.9
Totals11,42556,921262.27,344514.81,066.6285.01,364.0

HOUSING—Nearly 483,000 of an estimated 974,000 dwellings (that is, nearly half of the total housing stock) have been built since the National Housing Conference in 1953. The standard house is about 100.3 square metres in area, is single-storeyed, and normally built of timber; fittings are of a reasonably high standard, especially in the kitchen. It now costs over $18,650 to build, and stands on a section costing more than $6,970 on average.

Approximately 90 percent of the dwellings completed annually are built for private home ownership, with most of the balance being erected by Government agencies for rental purposes. Since the war there has been no significant housing built for private rental, but some rental flats are created by conversion of existing dwellings. Accelerated property cost increases have made it difficult for persons on modest incomes to finance their way into home ownership.

Since 1937 the State, using the services of private contractors, has been building rental dwellings At March 1976, 80,248 of these houses and flats had been built and since 1950, 27,456 of them had been sold to the occupiers. Rental dwellings are let to applicants in difficult housing circumstances.

Under the Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act 1945 local authorities can take action to rebuild decadent central city areas. Urban renewal schemes are in progress at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin, assisted with Government finance. Loans are available to private houseowners to renovate old houses.

The Unit Titles Act 1972 made provision for a new type of ownership of units in a multi-unit development. Individual owners are entitled to a legal estate in their respective units and can sell or transfer a unit without requiring the consent of other owners as is the case where a block of shares in a flat-owning company provides the right to a flat.

GOVERNMENT CAPITAL ASSISTANCE ON NEW HOUSING—The following table gives the Government's total capital assistance on new housing in 3 recent years and includes both direct expenditure by Government departments and money advanced by way of mortgages and loans by the Housing Corporation and the Department of Maori Affairs, and amounts advanced in capitalisation of family benefits payable under social security. Expenditure on new housing by hospital boards, education boards, etc., is not included.

Expenditure1972-731973-741974-75
  $(000) 
Land purchase and development, State house construction, etc.12,92520,71071,475
Expenditure by Housing Corporation for other departments4,2564,7247,222
Department of Maori Affairs6,8278,91320,197
Department of Lands and Survey3124847,937
Advances for new urban houses77,77284,742119,090
Advances for new rural houses1,6151,0431,886
Loans to local authorities for rural housing, pensioners' housing, etc.7,73910,98216,509
Subsidies paid to local authorities, religious, and welfare organisations for housing of elderly1,3262,3794,925
Advances under capitalisation of family benefits6,8817,0206,514
Totals119,652140,997255,755

HOUSES AND FLATS COMPLETED—Statistics of completions are given in the following table; they include flats created by conversion of existing dwellings. The statistics are dependent on the supply of information by local authorities and indications are that they have been understated.

 GovernmentPrivate and Local AuthorityTotal New Houses and FlatsFlats Created by ConversionTotal Housing Units
Year Ended 31 MarchState RentalGovt. Tenancies*

*Includes Education and Hospital Boards.

†City, borough and county councils, etc., comprising pensioner units, staff housing, etc.

‡Additional dwelling units created by conversion of existing buildings, e.g., one house converted into two flats.

§Provisional.

197376541226,30027,40056028,000
197465044130,90032,00065032,700
19751,05640533,00034,30036034,600
19761,88057030,50032,90025033,200
1977§1,91359725,90028,40029028,600

DEMOLITIONS—According to notifications received, the totals of dwellings demolished in recent years have been: 1972-73, 2,525; 1973-74,3,137; 1974-75, 2,145; 1975-76, 2,056; and 1976-77, 2,097.

BUILDING STATISTICS—The principal official building statistics are the Department of Statistics monthly analyses of building permits and its quarterly analyses of the value of work put in place. Estimates of construction other than buildings (mostly in the Government sector) are derived from Government accounts and form part of gross domestic capital formation in the national income statistics. Other building information is available from the 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction, the 5-yearly Census of Population and Dwellings, and inter-industry statistics.

The prime source of the following statistics is building permits issued by local authorities. To enable a complete picture of building activity to be shown, construction commenced by Government departments, hospitals, education and harbour boards are included, even though permits may not actually be taken out.

The value shown represents in the majority of instances the total contract price or estimated cost of the building. A permit for a large building may involve work spread over several years whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown entirely for the year or month in which the permit is issued. This qualification applies more particularly to large buildings.

The value placed on a building for the purposes of the permit is usually less than the actual cost. This applies particularly to large new buildings which take a considerable time to complete. In these cases the final cost, owing to wage increases, rising costs of materials, etc., may be considerably greater than originally estimated. These rises are not apparent in building permit figures.

The values of building permits for the latest 5 years are analysed by types of building in the following table. Permits cover alterations and additions as well as new buildings. Government and other buildings not requiring building permits are included.

Type of BuildingYear Ended 31 March
19721973197419751976

*Includes ancillary buildings.

†Includes alterations and additions.

‡Includes powerhouses from April 1973.

Dwellings  $(million)  
Houses182.1259.6378.6400.3432.5
Flats64.3106.1166.1146.3160.9
Alterations and additions40.249.467.675.891.8
Other Buildings     
Hostels, boardinghouses17.023.45.33.94.6
Hotels, motels, etc.*....19.216.916.1
Hospitals and nursing homes*25.021.216.132.291.5
Education buildings*35.3x64.953.975.777.6
Shops, restaurants, taverns....37.528.818.0
Office and administrative62.9108.578.1110.284.2
Warehouses....40.338.538.8
Factories54.151.187.897.186.8
Social, cultural, and recreational....15.424.724.2
Farm57.961.616.816.619.7
Miscellaneous buildings....14.414.411.7
All buildings538.8745.9997.31,081.31,158.

The following table shows a percentage analysis of the value of building permits and authorisations during 1975-76 by type of building and sector of ownership. The high percentage of the total value of building permits represented by houses and flats built by the private sector highlights the importance of private investment in residential building as a key to stability in the building industry.

Type of BuildingCentral GovernmentPublic CorporationsLocal GovernmentPrivate SectorTotal
   percent  
Houses and flats4.1-1.652.658.3
Hostels and boardinghouses0.1--0.30.4
Hotels, motels, etc.0.10.2-1.11.4
Hospitals and nursing homes7.3--0.57.8
Education buildings6.1--0.56.6
Warehouses0.10.20.13.03.3
Factories, powerhouses, etc.0.80.70.35.67.4
Social, cultural, recreational--0.31.82.1
Shops, restaurants, taverns---1.51.5
Office and administrative1.60.40.64.67.2
Farm buildings---1.71.7
Miscellaneous0.5-0.81.12.4
All buildings20.81.43.774.2100.0

Compared with the previous year, in 1975-76 the value of permits and authorisations for houses and flats made up a higher percentage of the aggregate total (59.1 percent as compared with 57.6 percent), as also did permits for hospitals and nursing homes (7.9 percent as compared with 3.0 percent). Most of the other types of buildings showed lower percentages of the total, with the most significant decline in offices and administrative buildings (7.3 percent as compared with 10.2 percent).

Some categories of buildings used in this and other building-permit tables require additional explanation. Hostels and boardinghouses, for example, include barracks, orphanages, nurses' homes, and boarding school accommodations; hotels and motels include private and licensed hotels, but exclude taverns; education buildings include primary and secondary schools, teachers colleges, technical institutes, university buildings, kindergartens, and play centres; and the broad category—social, cultural, recreational—include churches, halls, theatres, cinemas, clubrooms, community centres, and grandstands.

In the following table the numbers of permits for new houses and flats over a period of 5 years are shown along with permit values.

Year Ended 31 MarchNew HousesNew FlatsTotal Dwelling Permits*Total Permits, All Buildings*
Dwelling UnitsValueAreaDwelling UnitsValueNo. of Blocks
*Includes the value of permits for alterations and additions.
  $(m)sq metres (000)$(m) $(m)$(m) 
197215,577182.11,863.78,75664.33,212286.6538.8
197319,916259.62,427.412,857106.14,491415.2745.9
197423,582378.63,018.416,152166.15,622612.3997.3
197521,436400.32,602.411,665146.34,336622.41,081.3
197620,931432.42,540.711,257160.94,192685.11,158.4

The average permit value for houses and flats in 1975-76 was $18,434, compared with $16,508 in 1974-75, $13,708 in 1973-74, $11,160 in 1972-73, and $10,126 in 1971-72.

The following diagram illustrates building-permit figures for new houses and flats.

Sector of Ownership—Permit values for the main groupings of building activity during 1975-76 are analysed below according to sector of ownership. The 1975-76 total of 32,188 permits and authorisations for new dwellings to a total value of $593.4 million includes authorisations by the Central Government for 2,117 new houses (value $44.4 million) and 194 new flats (value $3.3 million).

Type of BuildingCentral GovernmentPublic CorporationsLocal GovernmentPrivate SectorTotal
   Value $(million)  
Houses and flats48.10.118.2618.7685.1
Hostels and boarding houses1.5--3.04.6
Hotels, motels, etc.0.71.80.113.516.1
Hospitals and nursing homes86.0--5.591.5
Education buildings71.7-0.15.877.6
Shops, restaurants, taverns0.3-0.517.318.0
Office and administrative18.64.27.154.384.2
Warehouses0.91.81.234.938.8
Factories, powerhouses, etc.9.58.23.465.786.8
Social, cultural, and recreational buildings0.3-3.020.924.2
Farm buildings0.6--19.119.7
Miscellaneous5.2-3.92.611.7
All buildings243.216.237.6861.41,158.4

The values of permits for alterations and additions are included for all types of buildings.

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATIONS—The following table shows for urban areas and statistical divisions, building permit values and dwelling completions for the March year 1975-76. Where applicable the urban areas are included in the relevant statistical division.

 New Houses and FlatsTotal (All Permits)Dwelling
AreaNumberValueValueCompletions*
*Figures for completions of dwellings are rounded to indicate that exact numbers are not available and are dependent on notifications from local authorities.
  $(m)$(m) 
Whangarei U.A.4277.612.4550
Northern Auckland U.A.2,38843.960.42,200
Western Auckland U.A.2,06834.745.91,780
Central Auckland U.A.1,24822.193.31,390
Southern Auckland U.A.3,01456.987.13,230
Auckland S. Div.9,329169.1304.39,090
Hamilton U.A.98716.237.01,150
Hamilton S. Div.1,61427.954.81,820
Tauranga U.A.62811.419.1600
Rotorua U.A.4677.413.0560
Gisborne U.A.2113.96.5240
Napier U.A.5609.818.0660
Hastings U.A.4467.913.6560
Napier-Hastings S. Div.1,05018.833.51,260
New Plymouth U.A.70813.621.3620
Palmerston North U.A.53310.335.0700
Palmerston North S. Div.78915.843.9940
Lower Hutt U.A.73914.537.3810
Upper Hutt U.A.4358.815.6510
Porirua Basin U.A.49411.024.3660
Wellington U.A.1,24726.183.51,040
Wellington S. Div.3,36270.2175.93,360
Wanganui U.A.4017.514.0430
Masterton U.A.1673.77.0150
Nelson U.A.4237.212.7410
Christchurch U.A.3,45754.695.43,570
Christchurch S. Div.3,86563.1106.93,990
Timaru U.A.2634.911.1280
Dunedin U.A.71214.558.3760
Dunedin S. Div.7715.760.5790
Invercargill U.A.4578.919.6550
Totals New Zealand32,188593.41,158.432,900

WORK PUT IN PLACE—The Department of Statistics makes a quarterly survey of building work put in place. In contrast to the statistics based on building permits, these figures show the gross value of actual work done. It should be noted that there are varying time lags between the issue of the building permit and the commencement of building. The actual work for which a permit is issued can be extended over a number of time periods. Also, the total value of this work may differ considerably from the value estimated on the building permit.

Year Ended 31 MarchDwellings
New Houses and FlatsAlterations and AdditionsTotal
GovernmentOtherTotal
  $(million)   
19729.0228.6237.639.8277.4
197311.4311.8323.248.3371.5
197414.5428.4442.960.2503.1
197533.1509.7542.875.6618.4
197661.7536.5598.294.7692.9
Year Ended 31 MarchOther Buildings*Grand Total
Hotels, Boarding-housesHospitalsFactoriesCommercial BuildingsSchoolsMiscellaneousTotal

*Includes alterations and additions.

†And ancillary buildings.

‡Includes churches, sports, and entertainment buildings.

    $(million)    
197221.219.451.371.139.155.7257.8535.2
197321.526.852.581.044.862.7289.3660.8
197425.019.174.4122.145.450.2336.1839.2
197523.423.099.1172.954.155.2427.71,046.1
197621.439.298.9165.175.667.6467.81,160.6

EMPLOYMENT—The level of employment in the building and construction industrial group as shown in the Department of Labour's half-yearly survey has varied considerably during the last 10 years. The labour force rose from 56,000 in 1963 to 64,000 in 1966. There was a sharp decline in 1968 when the labour force fell to approximately 59,300, but a rise was experienced in 1969 and 1970. The total at April 1971 was 69,500, at April 1973 it was 71,400, and at April 1974 it was 74,800. At April 1975 it had risen again to 76,700. Employment in the building of houses and flats fell from 15,600 in 1961 to 13,100 in 1970 and to 11,500 in 1971 but rose again to 13,000 by April 1973, and 14,500 by April 1974. There was a slight fall to 14,300 at April 1975.

In recent years the size of the "on-site" labour force in the building and construction industry has been affected by the tendency for a greater proportion of the work to be done by "off-site" supply industries in the form of prefabricated, preformed, or pre-assembled sections and units.

The average "working life" in the industry has been estimated by the Building Industry Advisory Council at about 10 years.

BUILDING MATERIALS—Production of some principal building materials during the three latest calendar years is shown in the following table.

ItemCalendar Year
197419751976
Ready-mixed concrete cu metres (000)1,6171,5331,430
Paint and varnish—   
Paints (not water) and enamels in liquid form litres (000)14,19413,21113,342
Water paints, emulsion type litres (000)7,5907,8317,855
Lacquers (clear), undercoats, and colours litres (000)2,5042,3822,576
Structural clay—   
Glazed pipes metres (000)2,2272,3872,229
Field tiles metres (000)2,9362,7512,856
Bricks and hollow blocks No. (000)33,94827,53227,482
Fibrous plaster sheets sq metres (000)1,111880842
Sawn timber cu metres (000)2,0621,9732,083
Particle board cu metres117,646129,102156,489
Plywood cu metres26,32617,86425,660
Cement tonnes (000)1,1101,074999

HOUSING FINANCE—The chief agency providing finance for housing in New Zealand is the Housing Corporation, a wholly Government-owned institution described in detail in Section 29C. For the year ended 31 March 1976 the Housing Corporation authorised 11,659 loans valued at $178 million for new urban dwellings. Of the total 19,235 loans authorised, 3,701 were authorised for the purchase of existing houses. Other important sources of housing finance are building societies, life assurance offices, trustee savings banks, and solicitors trust funds.

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 provides for payment in a lump sum of the social security family benefit, the capitalised benefit to be applied towards the provision of a family home, for essential alterations, or for repayment of encumbrances on a family home. The scheme became operative on 1 April 1959. Benefits in respect of any number of children may be capitalised provided the aggregate advance does not exceed $2,000. Family benefit advances totalling $8.20 million were authorised during 1975-76 by the Housing Corporation to applicants holding elegibility certificates issued by the Department of Social Welfare.

The Housing Corporation operates two Housing Mortgage Guarantee Schemes in respect of housing loans on first mortgage granted by approved lenders, including trustee lenders, where the amount advanced does not exceed 90 percent of value. Under the first scheme, which is confined to approved institutional lenders, the corporation guarantees the amount lent above the institution's normal lending limit (usually two-thirds of value). The second scheme, for which any lender may qualify, provides for the guarantee of the full amount of the loan advanced. Fees are charged according to the amount guaranteed and the degree of risk. The loans must be for the purpose of building, buying, altering, or refinancing a house or flat.

Home lay-by accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank and trustee and private savings banks qualify for subsidy, and Home Ownership accounts qualify for subsidy and preferential loan finance (see Section 28).

COST OF HOUSES AND SECTIONS—Freehold section and house costs in building proposals financed by the Corporation in the four areas of greatest housing demand in March 1975 and March 1976 are set out below. Section prices are likely to be conservative as some sections would have been purchased well in advance of offering as securities.

  SectionsHouses
CentreMarchNumberAverage CostNumberAverage Contract Price
   $ $
Auckland1975867,9859217,863
 19761057,24910618,068
Hamilton1975136,040917,409
 1976116,045717,557
Wellington1975626,495x5820,426
 1976307,4123021,372
Christchurch1975119,412116,834
 197699,0751617,317
New Zealand197x3335,81833918,061
 19763056,41429418,207

Statistics compiled by the Valuation Department illustrate the trend in residential prices in 38 urban areas throughout New Zealand. The following figures of average sale prices for sections, houses, and owner-occupier flats exclude family sales and sales of leasehold property.

ItemCalendar Years
197119721973197419751976
Average sale price of—  $   
Sections3,4513,8354,9627,1798,94110,195
Houses11,46913,23017,12623,29925,47127,476
Owner-occupier flats12,61013,95216,50622,78723,65725,050

URBAN HOUSE PROPERTY AND SECTION PRICE INDEX—This index is designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for house properties and sections sold during each half-year. Variations in the average age of properties transferred, as an indicator of the average quality of such properties, are eliminated in the index methodology in order to arrive at a valid index of price level changes.

This revised series replaces the former urban house property price index which was current from 1960 to 1973 and which applied to a combination of all twenty five centres in which prices were collected for the Consumers Price Index. The new indexes are prepared for each of 17 principal market centres and for all 17 centres combined. A description of the revised index was published in a supplement to the January-February 1975 Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

The following table shows index numbers for individual centres (Base: Each centre separately 1973 = 1000).

CentreResidential PropertiesSections
January-June 1976July-December 1976January-June 1976July-December 1976
Whangarei1781181024832664
Auckland1539156020412080
Hamilton1623167621612193
Tauranga1574158218861807
Rotorua1714179425262381
Gisborne1793179821312611
Napier-Hastings1578163717611828
New Plymouth1664167215932083
Wanganui2062215424932706
Palmerston North1554167822272046
Masterton1746180324442695
Wellington-Hutt1431148216111822
Nelson1742181122252321
Christchurch1520155018862078
Timaru1700186319952583
Dunedin1681175621852236
Invercargill1650176220092204
 1565160819812069

The series shown overleaf is obtained by linking the revised urban house property price index (on base: weighed average 17 centres combined, 1973 = 1000) to the index which it superseded.

Six Months EndedHouse PropertiesSections
1970—Jun596597
Dec626626
1971—Jun665647
Dec695688
1972—Jun750729
Dec806782
1973—Jun918905
Dec10821095
1974—Jun13221456
Dec14431642
1975—Jun14521800
Dec15031939
1976—Jun15651981
Dec16082069

HOUSE MORTGAGES—Most of the housing advances made by institutions are in the form of table mortgages, being made initially for terms of usually over 20 years at the Housing Corporation, about 15 years at building societies and about 10 years at the private savings banks. The general experience of these institutions is that most house mortgages are redeemed in 7 to 12 years, seldom running the full term. Interest rates and the methods of calculating them vary from one institution to another. Some institutions prefer to lend on new houses, others cater for the purchase of older dwellings. Information on mortgages is given in Section 29A—Mortgages and Section 29C—State Finance for Housing.

ROLE OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities through the Housing Corporation for pensioner, rural, and community housing, including urban renewal.

Housing of the Elderly—Since 1951 Government has encouraged local authorities to meet the housing needs of elderly persons rather than provide such accommodation itself. To this end a scheme of subsidies was introduced, the balance of the cost being found by way of a loan to the local body with interest at 3 1/2 percent reviewable 3-yearly and a term up to 30 years on a table basis. The combination of subsidy and low interest rate is directed at keeping rents within reasonable levels—at present, one-sixth of the income from the appropriate basic Social Welfare Benefit.

The policy is administered by the Housing Corporation, which establishes the need for pensioner accommodation in a particular locality, provides technical services, and administers the loan and subsidy. The subsidy offered is up to 100 percent of the total cost of the units, including land and land development, less the amount of loan of $3,500 per unit.

The amount of subsidy approved in 1975-76 was $7,984,881 to provide housing for 826 persons. Since the inception of the policy in 1951, subsidy assistance has totalled $35,418,567 for the accommodation of 9,802 persons.

A new policy to assist the rehousing of elderly home owners in owner-occupier flats is proving popular with local authorities and religious and welfare organisations. A particular feature of this policy is the bridging finance which is made available, so that elderly home owners can sell their existing home before contributing towards the cost of the new flat unit.

Rural Housing—The Rural Housing Act 1939 has as its object the provision of more houses on farm properties. Loans are made to county councils (and other local bodies within whose boundaries farmlands are situated) for readvancing to farmers for the erection of, or additions or alterations to, dwellings. The Housing Corporation is responsible for the supervision and general administration of the Act. Persons receiving loans (767 in 1975-76) are principally owners of economic farms.

Community Housing—The Housing Corporation has authority to grant loans for general housing purposes, i.e., for the benefit of the community in general. Proposals must involve a definite scheme for the erection of not less than three houses. The substantial proportion of assistance provided has been in the metropolitan areas (e.g., in Wellington a significant part of the city council's building programme has been financed from this source). The emphasis is on moderate-cost accommodation.

Urban renewal is also financed by the Housing Corporation. The area concerned must first be declared a reclamation area or a comprehensive urban renewal area; any loss on land purchase and demolition is eligible for a Government subsidy. The Freeman's Bay scheme in Auckland and the Nairn Street project in Wellington are examples.

Since 1970 over $38 million has been authorised for community housing and urban renewal schemes.

Provision has been made by the Government for an annual amount of $7 million for urban renewal and allied works (including community housing undertaken by local authorities). This recognises the need to curb urban sprawl and to bring more people into inner city areas, close to employment, health services, and other amenities.

Borough councils are authorised under the Municipal Corporations Act to provide loans for housing purposes, to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Authorities Loans Board for blanket authorities for the purchase of land for subdivision for housing purposes. Local authorities are encouraged to play a prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

MAORI HOUSING—In addition to the facilities of the Housing Corporation, financial assistance towards the building of houses, including the purchase of building sites, additions, repairs to existing dwellings, and for the purchase of houses, is available to Maoris and other Polynesians under the Maori Housing Act 1935.

The Maori Affairs Department also arranges for the construction of the houses in many cases and provides a free plan service. Finance through the department up to set loan limits, rebated interest rate, and capitalisation of family benefits, is similar to loans granted by the Housing Corporation. Where the applicant does not qualify for special interest concessions the finance is made available at an interest rate of 5 5/8 percent.

All applications for State tenancies are dealt with by the Housing Corporation, although assistance with applications is often given by the department's staff.

From the inception of the scheme to 31 March 1976, the department has provided finance to enable 18,411 families to build new houses and 1,259 to purchase existing houses. Also, 9,064 advances have been made for additions and repairs to houses and other buildings.

The Government has also provided accommodation for single young Maori people in urban areas. It has built rental flats for girls in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Whangarei. It has provided hostels for boys at Auckland and Christchurch and by the provision of subsidy has encouraged church organisations to establish hostels in a number of cities. Through the agency of the Maori Trustee, hostel and flat accommodation for both boys and girls has been provided in many of the main centres. In these ways the accommodation needs of over 1,000 young Maori people are now being met, many of whom are enrolled on the department's vocational training courses operated in conjunction with the technical institutes.

Flats for elderly Maoris have also been provided in semi-rural areas in close association with local marae.

WELFARE ORGANISATIONS: Hostels for Young People—Since 1951, religious and welfare organisations have been assisted to establish hostels for young people by subsidies of establishment costs. As from November 1973, the subsidy has been 80 percent, with a limit of $5,000 per young person accommodated. The purpose is to assist young men and women who are living away from their homes in order to study or undertake employment and find it difficult to obtain suitable living accommodation. Subsidies of 50 percent may also be granted for authorised improvements to existing hostels, and 75 percent for fire protection work as required by the local authority.

Since the policy commenced, subsidies totalling $1,964,095 had been approved up to 31 March 1975, to assist in providing hostel accommodation for 1,484 young people, and for upgrading purposes.

Government also helps with substantial subsidies for university halls of residence established by religious and welfare agencies. Administration is handled by the University Grants Committee.

CORPORATION RENTAL HOUSE CONSTRUCTION—State rental houses and flats (now known as Corporation rental houses and flats) have been built since March 1937. These are allocated to tenants on the basis of need. The Housing Corporation acquires and develops land to provide sites for houses and flats and arranges contracts for their construction. The "design-and-build" scheme, whereby the Housing Corporation arranges contracts with private builders or organisations for the construction of houses on land owned by the builders or organisations, was introduced during 1974–75. The scheme provides for the construction of the houses and the purchase of the land within the one contract, and has proved a successful means of achieving integration of rental accommodation in privately-owned and developed subdivisions.

The totals of rental units completed and handed over for occupation in the latest 6 years are shown in the following table. Up to 31 March 1976 there were 80,248 units completed.

YearRental Units
1970-711,194
1971-72661
1972-73765
1973-74650
1974-751,463
1975-763,017

Planning of New Urban Areas—With a continuing high level of demand for State development in the main centres, it has been necessary to acquire significant areas of land which, when developed, have resulted in the creation of large new communities. These have been comprehensively planned, and developed sites have been made available for central commercial, industrial, and administrative areas, as well as civic and neighbourhood amenities.

Recently, large scale purchases of undeveloped land have also been made at a number of provincial centres, and developments have been planned for areas near Hamilton, Gisborne, and at Paraparaumu. In addition, schemes are underway at Invercargill and Nelson and major urban expansion is either being planned or undertaken at centres such as Napier, Palmerston North, New Plymouth, Masterton, and Dunedin. In planning these areas, and in State developments generally, it is recognised that there is a need to conserve land and gain as much return from the installation of municipal services as possible. For these reasons, particular attention has been paid to subdivisional design and, where appropriate, medium-density housing to an acceptable level has been introduced. In addition, a measure of building of medium and high-density residential accommodation has been undertaken in inner city areas in Auckland and Wellington.

Further substantial areas of land have been acquired in Auckland for future development and in this and other major developments, departmental officers and local authority staff are working together in an attempt to obtain a high standard of land development.

Recognising the need for social diversification in Corporation-developed areas it is now policy to make 50 percent of the sections available for sale to the public for private housing.

State Services Housing—State Services houses are houses for Government departments and the armed forces. The total number of such houses erected by the Housing Corporation to 31 March 1976 was 14,650. This includes houses built at the sites of major construction jobs, such as electric power schemes.

Finance—The cost of the Corporation housing programme, including the acquisition and development of land, is financed from the Housing Corporation vote, i.e., out of national development loan moneys.

The following table shows the annual expenditure from the Housing Construction (later, Housing Corporation) vote.

Year Ended 31 MarchCorporation HousingState ServicesLand Purchase and DevelopmentAdministration and GeneralTotal
   $(000)  
19726,551-2,4351,99810,984
19737,903-2,5272,49512,925
19748,999-9,0282,68320,710
197543,380-23,2544,84171,475
197665,815-30,6807,276103,771

The next table shows the annual total expenditure by the Housing Corporation on house construction in the latest 5 years.

YearVote: Construction Land Purchase and Development, AdministrationOn Behalf of Other DepartmentsTotal
  $(000) 
1971-7210,9842,96413,948
1972-7312,9254,25617,181
1973-7420,7104,72425,434
1974-7571,4757,22278,697
1975-76103,77110,670114,441

Land Acquisition and Development—During 1975–76 a total of 2,254 developed unit sites were purchased as a charge against the Housing Corporation vote, also 987 hectares of undeveloped land estimated ultimately to yield 6,644 unit sites. In the same period, 2,146 fully-serviced house unit sites were developed on land already held.

Corporation Rental Housing Tender Prices—The following table shows typical tender prices being accepted in the 4 main centres at the ends of a series of years for similar types of 3-bedroom corporation rental houses of equivalent floor space. In each case the house is a typical single unit on a flat section, built in weatherboards with a tiled roof. The price includes drainage, fencing, paths, toolshed, revolving clothes line, and letterbox. The cost of the section is not included. The figures in parentheses represent the cost per square metre (1 square metre = 10.764 square ft).

YearAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 $  $$  $$  $$  $
1964-656,726 (69.00)6,888 (70.61)6,104 (62.54)6,632 (68.03)
1969-707,184 (74.63)7,675 (78.58)6,759 (69.21)7,661 (78.47)
1973-7414,146 (144.99)15,250 (156.29)14,057 (144.02)15,091 (154.79)
1974-7517,987 (184.32)19,081 (195.51)17,415 (178.40)18,658 (191.21)
1975-7619,823 (193.98)21,484 (210.23)18,244 (178.53)21,139 (206.85)

JOINT FAMILY HOMES—The Joint Family Homes Act 1964 is designed to encourage the stability of marriage and family life. It provides for a form of ownership in which a husband and wife enjoy equal rights of use, possession, and enjoyment of the family home. While a settlement subsists, neither party may deal separately with his or her interest in the property, but on the death of one of them the home becomes wholly the property of the survivor. There are considerable benefits arising from settlement under the Act. Settlements are exempt from gift and stamp duty, and on the death of one spouse an exemption from estate duty may be claimed. In the event of claims by creditors, or the Official Assignee in bankruptcy, the property is protected to the extent of $10,000. Own-your-own flats may be settled under the Act, and an amendment passed in 1974 enables the benefits of settlement to be transferred from one family home to another purchased for the same purpose.

Joint family homes under the Joint Family Homes Act registered during the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHomes Settled
197116,118
197215,232
197316,925
197420,710
197525,402
197631,415

CENSUS INFORMATION: Nature of Dwelling—The following table shows the nature of dwellings at the censuses at 1966 and 1971.

Nature of DwellingNumbersPercentage of Total Inhabited Dwellings
1966197119661971
Occupied dwellings—    
Permanent private dwellings—    
Private house626,580682,00386.584.2
Private house, partly sublet1,1625,2340.20.6
Flat74,999105,45910.413.0
Dwellings combined with shop, rooms attached to offices, etc.5,8204,7360.80.6
Bach7,4844,1731.00.5
Other5981--
Totals716,104801,68698.899.0
Mobile and temporary dwellings—    
Mobile residence (including caravans)1,0359940.10.1
Other (including tents)13475--
Totals1,1691,0690.20.1
Non-private dwellings—    
Hotel, boardinghouse, apartment house, hostel5,3173,9760.70.5
Public or private hospital5337400.10.1
Educational institution209384--x
Other1,1121,9820.20.2
Totals7,1717,0821.00.9
Grand totals, occupied dwellings724,444809,837100.0100.0
Unoccupied dwellings—    
Occupants temporarily away14,97918,116--
Untenanted dwelling26,27226,184--
Holiday residence29,53432,446--
Totals70,78576,746--
Building—    
Dwellings in course of erection10,6679,182--

Between the 1971 and 1976 Censuses of Population and Dwellings the total number of dwellings occupied on the night of the Census increased from 809,837 in 1971 to 933,260 in 1976, a rise of 123,423, or 15.2 percent. This rate of increase was considerably in excess of that for population. In addition, unoccupied dwellings increased from 76,746 to 86,361.

In 1976 the average number of occupants per permanent private dwelling was 3.19, compared with 3.38, 5 years earlier.

Unoccupied dwellings are restricted to buildings intended for human habitation, e.g., houses, flats, cottages, etc., and the category omits unoccupied caravans, tents, etc.; it also excludes unoccupied dwellings which are both deserted and dilapidated.

Tenure of Dwelling—The following table classifies the occupied permanent private dwellings according to tenure. The 1976 figures are based on a provisional count.

 19711976*
TenurePermanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total SpecifiedPermanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total Specified
*Provisional.
Owned without mortgage212,37426.7260,59027.8
Owned with mortgage329,73341.4391,86041.8
Rented or leased206,46525.9253,34027.0
Free with job34,6834.422,4502.4
Free not with job13,1711.78,5600.9
Not specified5,260-2,540-
Totals801,686100.0939,340100.0

Amenities of Dwellings—The following tables present the various amenities, as at the 1971 Census, which were used by the occupants of permanent private dwellings.

AmenityHouseholds Not SharedPercentage Not SharedHouseholds SharedPercentage Shared
Flush toilet776,23096.92,4110.3
Television set678,41484.7383-
Telephone685,27885.62,0280.3
Washing machine725,61890.68,0701.0
Refrigerator771,97996.45600.1
Deep freezer345,92343.2227-
Motor mower518,90064.82,2500.3
Clothes dryer215,11326.91,1800.1
Means of CookingHouseholdsPercentagePrincipal Means of HeatingHouseholdsPercentage
Electric694,06886.6Electricity338,14242.2
Gas, including rock gas66,6628.3Oil44,5485.6
Wood, coke, coal38,6244.8Wood, coke, coal401,06550.0
Other (including combination)1,1220.1Gas, including rock gas11,4211.4
No means253-Other7810.1
Not specified9570.1Not specified5,7290.7
Totals801,686100.0Totals801,686100.0
Type of Hot Water ServiceHouseholdsPercentageType of Water SupplyHouseholdsPercentage
Electric717,20289.5Piped public or private supply742,96192.7
Gas21,7022.7Rainwater tanks58,2377.3
Other55,8537.0No water laid on4170.1
No hot water service4,0000.5Not specified71--
Not specified2,9290.4   
Totals801,686100.0Totals801,686100.0

New questions asked at the 1971 Population Census revealed that 79 percent of households (634,233) had motorcars available for use (24 percent (192,774) with two or more cars), while nearly 10 percent (77,529) owned or had an interest in pleasure boats, and 4 percent (35,581) owned or had an interest in a holiday residence.

Materials of Outer Walls—The following table gives an analysis showing the materials of which the outer walls of inhabited permanent private dwellings were constructed. Flats are included individually and not as blocks. Therefore part of the increase, for instance, in brick and concrete construction, is accounted for by a lesser number of buildings than indicated by the increase in number of dwelling units.

Material of Outer WallsNumber of Dwellings
1956196119661971
Wood411,370431,318455,213454,266
Stone1,1212,4568,9101,540
Concrete, including concrete blocks17,86922,51028,34732,832
Concrete and wood1,0872,0393,0937,621
Brick, including hollow brick47,42065,17194,100123,766
Brick and wood3,3326,1578,81815,438
Brick and other material3,4557,0656,29716,670
Wood and iron3,7213,3142,5076,651
Iron3,8623,0832,5542,711
Proprietary wallboards of asbestos type28,86250,95556,02547,976
Roughcast28,44525,95837,28366,784
Other materials5,13512,90311,17224,553
Not specified7,3737781,785878
Totals563,052633,707716,104801,686

Houses and flats with outer walls constructed of concrete, brick, and roughcast increased both in number and as a percentage of the total between 1966 and 1971, thus continuing the post-war trend.

Materials for Roofs—Most dwellings (70.8 percent) in 1971 were roofed with sheet or corrugated iron.

Tiles of clay, concrete, or asbestos roofed 23.0 percent of dwellings, and an additional 1.5 percent had roofs of metal-based, bituminous-coated tiles. Asbestos sheet, flat or corrugated, roofed 2.6 percent, and flat or corrugated aluminium sheet roofed just under 1 percent.

Easily the most popular type of house construction in New Zealand featured wooden walls and a roof covered with galvanised iron. This description applied to 355,061 (45.4 percent) of the 801,686 inhabited permanent private dwellings enumerated at the 1971 Census of Population.

Numbers of Rooms and Occupants—The following table classifies inhabited permanent private dwellings in 1971 according to the number of rooms and the number of occupants.

Number of RoomsNumber of Occupants
12345678 and OverTotal DwellingsAverage Per Dwelling
15,08075617980288826,1411.26
213,4479,0442,141922331147614926,1421.72
320,41025,06810,1125,9232,8701,58086199167,8152.41
431,29456,64627,23620,48510,2824,8202,2232,519155,5052.75
525,94772,66254,50368,44248,14123,8379,2527,256310,0403.62
69,82129,80323,68828,73923,14314,0937,0286,686143,0013.95
72,5208,4047,6199,6358,7425,6472,7472,45347,7674.18
87792,8172,6233,4563,2552,2511,0991,03517,3154.32
92729279651,1751,1537914744156,1724.42
101364333954754353581951862,6134.39
11 and over963162923003072281361401,8154.40
Not specified3,4874,6782,5152,3241,7671,09264635117,3603.30
Totals113,289211,554132,268141,956100,45454,85224,73022,583801,6863.38

Of the total number of dwellings (where number of rooms was specified) 608,546, or 77.6 percent had either 4, 5 or 6 rooms and of these 382,204 were occupied by either 2, 3 or 4 persons.

The number of dwellings with only 1 occupant increased from 89,384 in 1966 to 113,289 in 1971 a rise of 26.7 percent; those living alone in dwellings of 3 rooms rose from 14,828 to 20,410; those in 4 rooms from 24,996 to 31,294; and those in 5 rooms from 21,399 to 25,947.

TENANCY—Under the Rent Appeal Act 1973 administered by the Department of Labour, rent appeal boards have been appointed to determine on application by either a landlord or tenant the equitable rent for dwellinghouses. The amounts to be paid for rent in advance and as a bond are limited by the Act. The Tenancy Act 1955 governs rents and conditions of possession of certain private tenancies in existence before 18 November 1961. All private tenancies since that date and all business premises without exception are no longer governed by the Act. Where the Act applies, a landlord or tenant may apply to a rents officer or the Magistrate's Court to fix a fair rent, effect certain repairs, prevent oppressive conduct, or have the tenancy freed from controls under the Act. It is estimated that 8,800 tenancies are protected by this Act. The Rent Freeze Regulations 1976 provided that the maximum rent for any property, whether residential or otherwise, should not during the period 18 August 1976 to 31 December 1976, exceed the rent payable for that property as at 17 August 1976.

Chapter 19. Section 19 ENERGY

19 A—ENERGY DEMAND AND SUPPLY

DEMAND AND SUPPLY TODAY—The demand for energy in New Zealand has grown on average by four percent annually since World War II. This is a result of the expansion and diversification of the economy and of the falling price of energy in real terms. Policies tended to be aimed principally at providing reliable and cheap supplies to keep up with demand, little heed being given to conservation. The following table illustrates the trends in the consumption of primary energy since 1924. In this table energy is measured in thousands of terajoules. The joule is the metric unit of energy and makes comparisons among the different forms of energy possible. For convenience the terajoule (TJ) or 1012 joules is often used.

Calendar YearCoalOilNatural GasPrimary ElectricityTotalImported Oil as % of total

*Estimated.

†Because of rounding, totals may differ slightly from sums of individual figures.

   Terajoules (000)   
19247510-0.58611
19345619-37824
19447230-710928
19546659-1413942
196466103-3420351
197360208135533560
197461201145533158
197556195156433157
1976*55205405535552

The term "primary energy" used in this system of energy accounting refers to energy as it is first obtained from natural resources.

Broadly, this means that coal is accounted for as it is mined, oil products as they are imported in various degrees of refinement, and natural gas as it is taken from the wells at Kapuni. A small proportion of our primary oil requirements is derived from Kapuni condensate. Primary electricity is electricity generated from hydro and geothermal sources. For these, generation efficiencies are ignored, and the measure of the primary energy is the electricity generated. This is justifiable in the case of hydro-electricity, where the generation efficiency is high, but a large quantity of energy is wasted in geothermal electricity generation. This is low grade energy, however, and for the sake of simplicity is not shown in the tables.

In 1975 some 10 percent of primary energy was converted into other forms (mainly electricity), while smaller amounts were lost in processing (oil refining, gas treatment, etc.) or supplied to international transport.

The following table illustrates the trends in consumer energy consumption over the same period. Consumer energy is accounted for in the form and quantity in which it is distributed to the consumer. "Electricity" includes the electricity which is generated in thermal stations burning coal, oil, or natural gas, and "gas" includes the small quantity of gas manufactured from coal, naphtha, and natural gasoline.

Calendar YearCoalOilGasElectricityTotal
*Estimated
  Terajoules(000)   
19245952166
193449192373
1944623028101
19545559216132
19644890230170
197441150758256
1975401531161264
1976*401571364274

In 1975 the 264,000 TJ of consumer energy was used in the proportion: industry 37 percent; transport 37 percent (nearly all oil); households 15 percent; and commerce 11 percent. The demand and supply of energy in that year is shown in detail in the following table.

 Source of Energy
 Solid FuelOilGasElectricityTotal
*Increase in stock levels appear as positive stock changes. Such increases in stocks have to be deducted from indigenous production (+imports—exports) in order to obtain figures of energy consumed.
  Terajoules (000)   
Indigenous production58.18.115.464.0145.6
Plus Imports0.2189.9--190.1
Less Exports0.2---0.2
Stock Changer*+2.1+2.6--+4.7
Primary energy consumed56.0195.415.464.0330.8
Secondary production2.0-2.06.610.6
Total energy produced58.0195.417.470.6341.4
Used by international transport-20.0--20.0
Used in electricity generation14.89.60.4-24.8
Used in synthetic fuel production3.50.8--4.3
Consumption by energy sector and losses0.19.26.39.324.9
Non-energy use-3.4--3.4
Statistical discrepancies--0.1---0.1
Other users21.2109.64.052.0186.8
Total consumer energy39.6152.510.761.3264.1
Energy demand—     
Industry25.736.47.822.892.7
Transport-102.2-0.1102.3
Domestic7.72.81.529.241.2
Commercial and other uses6.211.11.49.227.9
Total energy demand39.6152.510.761.3264.1

Market shares of the various energy resources for 1975 are shown on a percentage basis in the following table.

SourceIndustry and CommerceTransport (Incl. International Transport)HouseholdsThermal Electricity Generation
  Percent  
Oil40100739
Coal26-1960
Gas (natural and manufactured)8-31
Electricity26-71-
Totals100100100100

OIL USAGE—The rapid growth in the use of oil in New Zealand over the past 50 years, which ran parallel to trends in other developed countries, resulted from its relatively low cost, its versatility, its convenience, and the increasing affluence of the population. Declining demand for coal and manufactured gas was limited only by subsidising production. Oil and electricity have become relatively more important in industry, the railways, and households, and since 1970 Kapuni natural gas has also come into use.

The following table summarises net oil use in 1975 (use of electricity, coal and gas is discussed in the respective subject matter sections). The transport sector used about 64.2 percent of the oil, i.e. the equivalent of 36 percent of total energy consumption.

AgencyPercentage of Total Oil Consumption by Weight.
Motor vehicles49.6
Aircraft (internal)3.0
International transport11.3
Electricity generation4.5
Other users31.6
 100.0

Petrol accounts for about 41 percent of New Zealand's total consumption of petroleum products. In the year ended December 1975, New Zealand used a total of 2,974 million litres of petroleum products. The following table shows the proportion of this total by the various products and the total in millions of litres in each case.

ProductLitres (million)Percentage
Aviation gasoline171
Aviation turbine fuel843
Motor gasoline (petrol)1,21641
Light distillate fuel (gasworks naphtha)14-
Kerosene361
Automotive gas oil70224
Marine diesel fuel251
Fuel oils72925
Lubricants722
Bitumen752
Chemical and other petroleum products4-
Totals2,974100

In 1976, 90 percent of our oil was imported—three-quarters came in as crude and partly refined feedstocks for refining at the Marsden Point Refinery while the remainder was imported as refined products because of a lack of appropriate refining capacity. Most of the aviation fuel comes from Australia, and other lubricants, kerosene, chemicals, and detergents are imported from the Middle East, Australia and Singapore.

About 42 percent of the Marsden Point refinery's annual output is petrol, 20 percent is diesel, 35 percent light and heavy fuel oils, and 3 percent is bitumen.

ENERGY PLANNING FOR THE FUTURE—Until late 1973 there seemed to be little difficulty in meeting the expanding demand for energy from a combination of indigenous resources and imported petroleum, although New Zealand had been steadily moving into a position of increased dependence on imported fuel. The oil supply embargo announced in October 1973 by the Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries sounded a clear warning of the danger this entailed. As well as dramatically illustrating that oil was no longer a reliable form of energy in terms of supply, the fourfold price increases that followed the lifting of the embargo meant that oil was no longer a cheap resource.

New Zealand's oil import bill rose from $114 million for the December year of 1973 to $306 million for 1974; $374 million for 1975; and an estimated $480 million for 1976. The most recent OPEC price increases, announced in December 1976, saw the emergence of a two-tier pricing system, with Saudi-Arabia and the United Arab Emirates opting for a 5 percent increase in prices and the remaining cartel members deciding on an increase of 10 percent, with an additional 5 percent proposed for the following July. (The proposed July increase did not occur, but all cartel prices were brought up to a common level once more.)

Even before the outbreak of the oil crisis, concern had been felt about the lack of co-ordination in New Zealand's energy policy making. This concern was the rationale for the formation of the Ministry of Energy Resources in 1972, and later, for the decision to give the three energy portfolios—of Energy Resources, Electricity and Mines—to one Minister.

The ministry's principal function is to advise the Government on policies that will ensure the effective and efficient production, supply and use of all forms of energy in New Zealand, bearing in mind social and environmental factors and the need to conserve resources. The ministry advises the Government on an overall energy policy for New Zealand, including its international energy policies, and also provides an independent view on proposals concerning the production, supply and use of energy in all its forms, in both the public and private sectors. Amongst its administrative functions the ministry is responsible for the day-to-day oversight of the Government's participation in the Maui field development and in offshore petroleum exploration.

A further development in the co-ordination of energy policy making was the announcement in May 1977 of the Government's decision to merge the Ministry of Energy Resources, the New Zealand Electricity Department, and the Mines Department into a single department responsible for all energy planning and operations.

The rising cost of imported petroleum, coupled with uncertainty about the reliability of future supplies, has made it imperative for New Zealand to adopt policies aimed at reducing petroleum consumption and decreasing its dependence on imported energy. This goal is being pursued on two broad fronts; by accelerating the development of all indigenous energy resources, especially those that can substitute for petroleum, and by developing and promoting energy conservation programmes. Supporting these strategies is a research and development effort, which was spearheaded by the establishment of the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee in 1974. In the international sphere, New Zealand has taken action to ensure the reliability of oil supplies through its membership on the International Energy Agency.

Development of Resources—The decline in New Zealand's dependence on imported petroleum since 1973 has largely been as a result of the Kapuni acceleration, which provided a supply of untreated gas to the New Plymouth power station and increased the flow of condensate for local refining. To a much small extent, greater use of treated gas and coal by industry has also contributed. With the present constraints on coal and gas production, the potential for further reducing our reliance on imported oil by interfuel substitutions is limited until Maui natural gas comes ashore in late 1978, and new coal production facilities are in operation.

The following table sets out New Zealand's estimated recoverable fossil fuel resources. As can be seen, the major resource deficiency is in liquid petroleum fuels, and it is likely the country will continue to be a net petroleum importer. It will, however, become relatively less dependent on imports for a decade or so as natural gas is brought into greater use.

Fuel1975 ProductionProven/MeasuredProbable/IndicatedPossible/InferredTotalNatural Units
   Terajoules (000)   
Coal565,8404,21011,84021,890940m tonnes
Oil82004005065013m tonnes
Gas159204,9601,1907,070202,000 million ma
Total796,9609,57013,08029,610...

In 1975 New Zealand's installed hydro capacity provided 60,689 TJ (16,858GWh) of electricity, or 84 percent of the total generated. There is still a substantial potential for further hydro development in the South Island—perhaps 115,200 TJ (32,000 GWh) per annum, and a smaller potential in the North Island—perhaps 28,800 TJ (8,000 GWh). Environmental considerations may, however, limit development of some of these schemes.

In 1975 geothermal steam at Wairakei generated 4,579 TJ (1,272 GWh), or 6.2 percent of our total electricity, and also provided some heat for homes and industry. A rough estimate of the total electrical energy available from New Zealand's geothermal resources is 54,000 TJ (15,000 GWh) per annum, given the present state of technology. Geothermal energy if used directly has the potential to provide a greater amount of heat than foreseeable demands.

As to the introduction of nuclear energy in New Zealand—scheduled for 1990 in the 1976 Report of the Power Planning Committee—the Commission on Nuclear Power Generation has completed its findings. The Royal Commission, which was formally established in September 1976, had available the report of the Fact-finding Group on Nuclear Power, established in November 1975. This report was completed during the early months of 1977.

Energy Conservation—The initial impetus for a major effort on energy conservation in New Zealand came from the 1973 oil crisis. Since the lifting of emergency restrictions, except for the 80 km/h speed limit, efforts have still concentrated mainly on reducing the use of imported petroleum, although increasing attention has been paid to the conservation of indigenous energy resources as well In the context of the country as a whole, fuels can to a large extent replace one another and a reduction in the consumption of gas or coal releases these fuels to other consumers until, at the margin, oil is replaced.

Pricing and tax measures introduced during 1974 and 1975 included a graduated sales tax on cars, a $6,000 depreciation limit on company cars, petrol price and tax increases, minimisation of petrol tax rebates, and a tax on fuel for private flying. Other measures included the introduction of daylight saving, electricity allocations, a publicity campaign, and an interest-free loan scheme for home insulation. A programme for the insulation of existing state rental and departmental houses was introduced with the scheme and the Housing Corporation has laid down a specification for the insulation of all new State houses. As far as larger buildings are concerned, the Government has taken a lead by issuing a set of instructions requiring a critical analysis of the design of public buildings (schools, hospitals, post offices, state office buildings, etc.) having regard to energy conservation.

A major development during 1976 was the announcement in October of the Government's energy pricing policy. The policy recognises that because certain energy prices had been held artificially at low levels there was little incentive for the conservation and efficient use of indigenous energy resources. It was also recognised that more realistic retail tariffs for electricity will improve the viability of solar heaters, wind generation and other alternative energy sources, as well as ensuring that the energy distribution industries have a sound financial footing from which to operate.

A feature of the new policy was the introduction from 1 January 1977 of an energy resources levy on coal and natural gas. The pricing policy had the effect of increasing the average retail price for coal by 20 percent and the price for gas to 20-50 percent. The bulk electricity supply tariff was increased by 40 percent from 1 April 1977.

Three non-price measures intended to promote the wiser use of energy in the business sector were announced with the pricing policy:

  1. A system of approved energy audits to aid firms to use energy more efficiently.

  2. A fuel advisory service to be established within the Ministry of Works and Development.

  3. An immediate write-off for tax purposes of approved expenditure on effective controls on existing energy-using plants, industrial insulation, and similar approved measures.

Research and Development—New Zealand is able to obtain the results of much overseas energy research work through its international scientific contacts (such as through the International Energy Agency). Many of this country's energy problems are, however, unique and can only be solved by our own efforts.

In order to promote energy research and development in Government departments, universities and the private sector, the New Zealand Energy Research and Development Committee (ERDC) was set up in April 1974. Since its establishment it has received funds amounting to $500,000 a year. The projects it is sponsoring are additional to the work on energy which was already being undertaken by Government Departments, notably the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and others.

As well as having responsibilities for additional energy research and development in New Zealand, the ERDC is the administering body here for the joint United States-New Zealand Agreement for Scientific and Technological Co-operation, under which initial priority is being given to energy.

The ERDC has drawn up an order of project priorities, giving emphasis to work that must be undertaken in New Zealand because of local conditions and the special problems that this country faces. This priority order is applicable not just to ERDC projects but to energy research and development generally. It has been decided at this stage that the allocation of ERDC funds should emphasise research and development that will be of value in the shorter-term, say the next 15 years. New Zealand will have to look largely to other countries for the development of new technologies which will be introduced in the longer-term.

The following is the order of project priorities:

  1. Projects to determine current and future energy demand.

  2. Projects concerned with conservation and more efficient use of energy.

  3. Projects concerned with the assessment of indigenous energy resources.

  4. Projects concerned with the assessment of the human, financial, and organisational resources for energy production and use.

  5. Projects concerned with economic, technological, social and environmental aspects of energy use and production over the next 15 years.

  6. Projects concerned with economic, technological, social, and environmental aspects of energy use and production beyond the next 15 years.

So far over 50 research contracts have been let to Government departments, universities, research associations, industry, and consultants. These contracts cover a wide range of topics in the energy field. In some cases it has been found desirable to establish research teams, with members from several institutions, to work on particular projects.

An important area of research and development is the work being conducted here and overseas on non-conventional energy sources with the aim of bringing them to the stage where they can be fully exploited. This involves developing and providing the technology and in appropriate cases, establishing the size of the resource. Research and development also needs to be directed towards reducing the costs of utilising new sources of energy. Of the various possibilities the most promising appear to be solar energy, wind power, biomass conversion, and energy from waste.

The main potential contribution of solar energy in New Zealand, at least in the medium term, is in domestic water heating. Research being carried out by the DSIR, universities, and private firms is directed mainly at improving the efficiency of solar water heaters and at reducing their cost. Overseas research into the use of solar radiation for space heating, electricity generation, and industrial applications is being kept under review.

The potential for utilising wind power in New Zealand appears to be good and in time a significant, proportion (according to some estimates up to eight percent) of our electricity could come from this source.

As regards biomass conversion, there are two main areas of interest:

  1. the conversion of cellulose both from forest industry waste and specifically-grown trees and crops to methanol for admixture with, or as a substitute for, petrol;

  2. the generation of gas from biological waste from sewage plants, cow sheds, etc., and directly from plant material.

Also being investigated is the feasibility of burning city refuse to produce electricity and to supply direct heat for district heating schemes.

International—At the end of 1976 New Zealand notified its consent to be bound by the Agreement on an International Energy Programme, under which the International Energy Agency (IEA) was established. This nineteen-country organisation was set up as an autonomous body within the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, in response to the 1974 oil crisis. New Zealand had provisionally joined in March 1975, but before it could ratify its membership the Government required legislative authority to enable it to fulfil the various IEA commitments. This authority is given by the IEA Agreement Act, passed in 1976.

All IEA members are co-operating in an emergency oil-sharing scheme which is intended to provide protection against further embargoes in oil supplies. During an emergency the arrangement calls for the sharing of any oil available to the group on an equitable basis. Countries have agreed to introduce oil demand restraint measures in an emergency and to hold oil stocks at specified levels at all times.

The IEA is attaching considerable importance to co-operation in energy conservation and the accelerated production of alternative sources of energy. A Long-term Co-operation Agreement negotiated amongst the member countries is directed towards these purposes and sets a framework for co-operation in a number of fields. Another important feature of the effort to reduce dependence on imported oil has centred on an extensive programme of research in which member countries collaborate on energy research in fields of mutual interest. Areas of particular interest to New Zealand include research into solar heating and cooling, heat pumps, geothermal power, wind power, and coal technology.

Comparative statistics of per-head consumption of energy in selected countries and geographical areas in 1974 are given in the following table. The figures, taken from the UN Statistical Yearbook, are expressed in kilogrammes of coal equivalent per head and are provisional.

 Kg per Head

*Except Middle East.

†Except Eastern Europe.

‡Includes that part of Russia in Asia.

Africa359
Congo216
Egypt322
Ethiopia31
Ghana184
Nigeria94
South Africa2,753
America, North,11,321
Canada9,816
United States11,485
America, South844
Argentina1,861
Brazil646
Chile1,361
Middle East1,026
Bahrain11,819
Iran1,272
Israel2,914
Turkey628
Asia*552
Bangladesh31
Burma56
India201
Japan3,839
Pakistan188
Singapore2,060
Europe4,237
Denmark5,114
France4,330
Germany, West5,689
Netherlands6,191
Sweden5,804
United Kingdom5,464
USSR5,252
Oceania4,544
Australia5,997
New Zealand3,444
World2,054

19 B—ELECTRIC POWER

GENERAL—New Zealand's natural resources of lakes and fast-flowing rivers have been systematically harnessed for hydro-electric development, providing a relatively cheap source of energy which is continually replenished by nature. Hydro energy provides over 80 percent of the national electricity supply with 6 percent coming from geothermal energy and the balance from fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas.

At Wairakei, in New Zealand's thermal region, natural steam is being used to drive the turbines. Coal is being used at Meremere steam station south of Auckland. A large station has been built at New Plymouth to use as fuel either natural gas or oil, and a large gas and coal-fired station is being built at Huntly.

An oil-fired steam station has operated since 1967 at Marsden, near Whangarei, and gas turbines have been generating at Otahuhu since mid-1968. The question of nuclear power generation is currently being reviewed by a Royal Commission of Inquiry, nuclear generation having been proposed as a suitable alternative source of power for the 1990s. Because of the effect on the environment by way of air pollution and the transfer of heat to natural waters used to cool the condensers, environmental impact reports are required for projected schemes.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—Electricity supply in New Zealand was pioneered by local bodies and private enterprise. Reefton had hydro-electric supply as early as 1888, and Wellington in the following year opened a water-powered plant, using water from the city mains, but later switched to steam generation. Auckland and Christchurch, using steam-generating stations, and Dunedin, using hydro plant, all had supplies extensively developed before the advent of Government supply. Many smaller communities also had local supply, mostly produced from local steam stations, although in some cases hydroplant was installed to take advantage of local water resources.

The first Government station was opened at Lake Coleridge in 1914, and its capacity was increased in four stages up to 1930. In the North Island the Government purchased the Waihi Goldmining Company's station at Horahora on the Waikato River. This station was enlarged and by 1927 was supplying power as far north as Henderson and Takapuna. Mangahao station near Shannon was completed in 1925; one of the Waikaremoana stations (Tuai) and Arapuni both began operating in 1927. Between 1920 and 1930 the capacity of the State generating system grew by 135,590 kW and the number of consumers in New Zealand increased from 58,449 to 284,235. In the early 1920s steam stations were still producing up to 60 percent of the total electricity but by the 1930s they produced as little as 1 percent in some years, as they were gradually relegated to standby stations.

In the 1930s the Waitaki hydro station was commissioned and the Government acquired two small hydro stations—Arnold from the Grey Electric Power Board and Monowai from the Southland Power Board. With the latter the Government also took over the responsibility for distribution in Southland.

Despite the difficulties, capacity was increased during the war years. Some existing stations were extended, and new ones opened at Piripaua (the second Waikaremoana station), at Cobb in north-west Nelson and, towards the end of the war, at Highbank in Canterbury. Gates were built in 1941 to control the outflow from Lake Taupo.

After the war plans were pushed ahead for the development of the potential of the principal power source in the North Island, the Waikato River. Work had proceeded on Karapiro, the second Waikato station, during the war and its first power was produced in 1947 (the old Horahora station was submerged in the lake formed behind the dam). In 1952 Maraetai, the largest station on the Waikato, began producing electricity, and in 1956 Whakamaru was completed, followed by Atiamuri in 1958. Both Ohakuri and Waipapa stations began operating in 1961 and Aratiatia station in 1964.

Development in other areas included the commissioning of Kaitawa, the third Waikaremoana station, in 1948, and the installation of further machines at Waitaki. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo to ensure an adequate water supply to the Waitaki station in the winter. Incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo is a single machine power station which was commissioned in 1951. The largest station built up to that time in New Zealand began operating at Roxburgh on the Clutha River in 1956. Meanwhile work proceeded on the Benmore station which was completed in 1966. Another station on the Waitaki, at Aviemore, located between the Waitaki and Benmore stations, began operating in July 1968.

Matahina on the Rangitaiki River in the Bay of Plenty produced its first electricity in January 1967.

The Manapouri scheme uses the waters of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, taking advantage of the 183 m head between Manapouri and the sea. Intakes at the West Arm of Manapouri lead the water into vertical penstocks to the turbines 213 m underground and it is discharged into Deep Cove at Doubtful Sound through a tunnel almost 10 kilometres in length.

A large proportion of Manapouri's output supplies the Bluff aluminium smelter and the remainder is fed into the national grid. Four generators began operating in 1969 and the remaining three in 1971 to give a total installed capacity of 700MW.

The Manapouri scheme was the subject of an agreement between the Government and Comalco in 1960 but subsequent agreements were negotiated in 1963, 1966, and 1969. As the land concerned lies within Fiordland National Park the agreement required statutory authority which was conferred in the Te Anau - Manapouri Development Act 1963. Under the 1969 agreement the Government built the power station and the lake control works at Te Anau and Manapouri.

The actual formula devised for Comalco to pay for the electricity has varied between agreements and remains complicated; Comalco pays for the capacity to supply electricity, not for the electricity itself, plus the operating costs of that capacity; the price is based on capital charges. A sinking fund for the civil engineering works covers 80 years while the fund for equipment allows for a depreciation period of 40 years.

The 1966 agreement provided that Lake Manapouri be raised from its natural level of 178 m above sea level to an operating level of 185–190 m while the minimum lake level was set at 175.4 m. Consequent on a campaign by conservationists opposed to the raising of the lake level the Government appointed a commission in 1970 to inquire into the proposal. The dam at Mararoa to control Lake Manapouri has been built on a narrow base to control the lake within a normal range of levels. Lake Te Anau which feeds Lake Manapouri through the Upper Waiau River is controlled at natural levels between 199 m and 202 m by a dam near its outlet.

The purpose, planning, and the development of the Manapouri project were fully described in parliamentary paper D.7, 1967, as well as the Report of the Commission to Inquire into the Proposal to Raise the Level of Lake Manapouri for the Purpose of Generating Electricity (parliamentary paper D.8, 1970) and a report by the Institute of Economic Research on the Manapouri-Bluff Project commissioned by Comalco and published in October 1971.

The installed capacity of Maraetai power station on the Waikato River was doubled by the building of a second powerhouse for five additional machines which were commissioned in 1970–71. The yearly output from Maraetai has not been increased although useful peak-time capacity has been added.

Thermal Generation—The first thermal station built by the New Zealand Electricity Department came into operation in 1958 at Meremere beside the Waikato River, 64 km south of Auckland. This station burns coal which is transported from the Maramarua opencast mines by aerial cableway, and from the Huntly mines by road and rail.

At Wairakei, a few kilometres north of Taupo, geothermal steam has been harnessed for the generation of electricity. The first machine began producing electricity in 1958 and the last machine (the thirteenth) was installed in 1963. Bores which are 102, 152, and 203 mm in diameter have been drilled to depths varying between 174 m and 1220 m.

Marsden power station was commissioned in 1967 using oil from the nearby refinery, and oil-burning gas turbines went into service in 1968 at Otahuhu. In 1975 a gas turbine station using natural gas was completed at Stratford.

The 600 MW thermal station at New Plymouth produced its first electricity in 1974 and the last machine was commissioned early in 1977. Until the Maui natural gas wells off the coast of Taranaki begin production in 1978, the energy source will be Kapuni natural gas, supplemented by some oil-firing. A chimney 198 m high has been built to disperse the hot exhaust gases.

Construction Projects:Hydro—A catchment area of nearly 260,000 hectares in the central volcanic uplands of the North Island is being tapped for hydro electric power development. Known as the Tongariro Scheme, this complex development involves drawing upon the headwaters of certain rivers and their tributaries and diverting part of their flow from one watershed to another.

The Western Diversions collect water from the headwaters of the Wanganui River and several of its tributaries and divert it into Lake Rotoaira. As part of this project, control equipment has been installed to close gates at the Whakapapa tunnel intake in the event of the passage of a lahar (volcanic mud flow) down the Whakapapa River. Water from Lake Rotoaira passes through a 6100 metre tunnel to the recently completed power station at Tokaanu, then into Lake Taupo. Tokaanu Power Station, which has four 50 MW generators, was completed in early 1974.

The Eastern Diversions will collect water from the Moawhango River and the eastern slopes of Mount Ruapehu. The waters will then feed through the Moawhango tunnel (due for commissioning in 1978) to join water from the Tongariro River before passing through Rangipo station into Lake Rotoaira. Rangipo Power Station, now under construction, is a 120 MW underground station scheduled for commissioning in 1982.

Much restorative planting and landscaping work is being carried out through the whole development as well as special measures to protect and preserve fishing and fish spawning grounds in the area.

In July 1968 Government approved in principle the total development of the Upper Waitaki Valley for hydro-electric use. The scheme involves controlling the outflows of Lakes Tekapo and Pukaki and to a limited extent Lake Ohau, and directing the stored waters through canals to four power stations named Tekapo B, Ohau A, Ohau B, and Ohau C; the diverted waters will eventually reach the Waitaki River at Lake Benmore. The total capacity of the new stations will be about 850 megawatts; also the extra storage provided by the scheme will allow the output from existing Waitaki stations to be increased. Work began with the construction of a township at Twizel, and on the Tekapo B project, which was completed early in 1977. Work is underway on the Ohau A power station, which is scheduled for completion in 1977. The Government has also given approval for Ohau B and C stations, and work has started on both these.

Thermal—Agreement was reached late in 1973 between the oil consortium and the Government on the development of the Maui off-shore natural gas field. The first stage to be completed in 1978 involves the installation of a platform structure at the Maui 3 location and the laying off-shore of a 610-mm diameter gas pipeline and a 254-mm diameter condensate pipeline. Part of the natural gas delivery of 17 million cubic metres a day will be used to feed four thermal power stations, one of them being the New Plymouth station.

One natural-gas-fired power station of 1,400 MW is proposed in the Auckland area and a second dual-fired gas/coal station of 1,050 MW south of Auckland. A 1,000 MW station is being built at Huntly, the first unit (250 MW) of which have is scheduled to be commissioned in April 1979. Investigations by the Mines Department over the years have confirmed the existence of a large underground coal-field sufficient to provide fuel for such a station, but natural gas from the Maui field is to be used for one or more of the generating units, at least in the initial years of operation.

A 220 MW gas turbine station, which burns oil, came into operation at Whirinaki, near Napier, in mid-1977. Approval was given in November 1972 for a further 2 generating units of 50 MW to be added to Otahuhu gas turbine station. These are designed to run on distillate oil and came into operation in 1976. Construction of an oil-fired intermediate load station, Marsden B station, was approved on 30 July 1974 and first power is scheduled for January 1979.

The guaranteed market for gas for electricity generation has made the development of the Maui field, with the recovery of the associated valuable condensate, an economically viable proposition. This guaranteed gas demand involves a progressive increase in annual consumption until a maximum level is reached in the mid 1980s. At this level, about 17,600 GWh of electricity could be produced annually from gas-fired power station plant of 3,300 MW capacity. This capacity would, of course, be reduced by the extent to which gas is diverted for other uses, but the annual consumption rates set out in the Maui Gas Purchase Contract are expected to be maintained. Some idea of the magnitude of this output can be gauged from the fact that these figures are roughly equivalent to electrical energy consumption and peak demand for the whole of New Zealand for the 1972–73 year.

Upper Clutha Hydro-electric Development—The previous Government approved in principle the proposals of the Clutha Development Commission for the building of 6 dams over a period of 15 years on the Upper Clutha and Kawarau Rivers to produce 1,490 megawatts (or twice the generating capacity of Manapouri). Two dams were to be built in the Cromwell Gorge and 2 further dams were to be built on the Upper Clutha River above Cromwell. The final 2 dams were to be built on the Kawarau River which drains Lake Wakatipu and joins the Clutha River at Cromwell.

A number of alternative schemes have been produced, and in December 1976 the new Government announced that scheme F was to be adopted.

INTER-ISLAND TRANSMISSION—In 1965, at the same time as Benmore power station was commissioned, the transmission systems of the North and South Islands were linked by a high-voltage direct-current transmission line and undersea cables. This new system enabled electricity to be transmitted from the South Island to the North Island where there is a greater demand for power.

This scheme not only involved the laying of submarine cables for 40 km in Cook Strait, but also the construction of a 570 km, 500 kV direct-current transmission line from Benmore to Fighting Bay on the southern side of Cook Strait, and from Oteranga Bay on the northern side to Haywards substation. Complex converting equipment had also to be installed at each end of the system. Considerable world-wide interest has been shown in this scheme, which was the largest of its type outside the USSR. The World Bank made a loan of $23.2 million to meet the overseas costs of this project.

Following modification to the HVDC link it has been possible to transmit power in both directions between the North and South Islands since April 1976.

PLANNING FOR ELECTRIC POWER—Forward planning is continually under review by a series of specialised committees. The Committee to Review Power Requirements considers estimates for 5 years ahead from the Electrical Supply Authorities Association and projects demand for a further 10 years. Peak power forecasts are also derived from the basic energy forecasts.

The personnel of this committee, representing the generating and distributing portions of the electrical industry, together with the Department of Statistics, Treasury, and (from 1976) the Ministry of Energy Resources, apply a wider judgment on long-term considerations to frame forecasts for the 15-year period. The independent forecast prepared by the Department of Statistics provides a valuable comparison with the work done in the industry.

Forecasting electricity demand is one of the longest-term planning processes in New Zealand. It is of critical importance to the electrical industry and the economy of the country. The long sequences of events in providing generating plants, spanning about 7 years, is today lengthening because of a more critical appraisal of their environmental impact. If demand estimates are low, or plant is not ready on time, a difficult supply situation could result. On the other hand, if estimates are high, a premature commitment of resources and capital can materially affect what is available for other national development and social programmes.

The Planning Committee on Electrical Power Development in New Zealand, which consists of members of the New Zealand Electricity Department, Ministry of Works and Development, Ministry of Energy Resources, Treasury, and supply authority representatives, considers the findings of the Review Committee in relation to the construction of stations to meet power requirements. The planning period was increased, in 1974, from 10 to 15 years to provide for the extra time necessary for the careful environmental impact planning and generally lengthening construction times of major projects.

The Planning Committee recommends what projects it considers should be proceeded with, and when, in order to meet the estimated needs. The review and planning reports are submitted to the Minister of Electricity who tables them in the House of Representatives.

Estimates made in 1976 by the Committee to Review Power Requirements were as follows (in million kWh): 1976–77, 21,780; 1977–78, 23,284; 1978–79, 24,660; 1979–80, 26,413; 1980–81, 28,574; 1981–82, 30,440; 1982–83, 32,120; 1983–84, 34,339; 1984–85, 36,238; 1985–86, 38,256; 1986–87, 40,368; 1987–88, 42,574; 1988–89, 44,876; 1989–90, 47,276; 1990–91, 49,774.

There has been sustained growth of electricity consumption in New Zealand with increased use of electricity in households, growth of the services sector, and increases in industrial production. Electricity generated to meet this rising demand increased by 90 percent between 1965 and 1976 to reach 20,071 million kilowatt-hours. In the same period generating capacity of power plants doubled, to reach 5.04 million kilowatts.

The electrical industry has put considerable emphasis on conservation, an example of this being the home insulation loan assistance scheme that allows householders and those building new homes to finance thermal insulation over a two-year period with an interest-free loan, repayments being with their electricity accounts. Many electric supply authorities operate advisory services and these, with the Electrical Development Association, provide advice to consumers on economic and efficient consumption of electricity.

FINANCE FOR ELECTRICITY—Up to 1966 some $919 million had been expended in generation transmission, and distribution, of which Government share was $674 million. By 1976 the capital invested by the Government had risen to $1,714 million and with the further expenditure by the electrical supply authorities on distribution, the total capital outlay had increased to $2,179 million. Continuing capital expenditure will be necessary for the strengthening and expansion of both the New Zealand Electricity Department's generating and transmission network and electrical supply authorities distribution systems. Until recently this capital investment programme was partly financed from a surplus of current revenue but with the stabilisation of electricity tariffs a greater portion had to come from loan funds.

LEGISLATION—Under the Electricity Act 1968 the New Zealand Electricity Department is responsible for preparing plans to meet the expected demand for electric power and for controlling the State generating and transmission systems. The department also has certain responsibilities for promoting the conservation and efficient utilisation of electricity. In general, hydraulic investigation and civil engineering are carried out by the Ministry of Works and Development to the requirements of the New Zealand Electricity Department. The department is also responsible for the overall functional design of each station, detailed design and installation of all turbines, generators, and associated electrical and mechanical equipment, for the design and installation of equipment at substations, for the survey, design, and construction of transmission lines, and for the operation and maintenance of the network which supplies electricity in bulk to the distributing authorities.

ELECTRIC POWER BOARDS AND SUPPLY AUTHORITIES—Under the Electric Power Boards Act 1925, boards control constituted electric power districts. Of the 39 electric power boards actually functioning at 31 March 1976, 15 had generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 52,660 kW. There were also 22 municipal electric supply authorities, 8 of them having generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 111,612 kW, and 2 county councils. New Zealand Electricity Department acts as the distributing authority for Southland Electric Power Supply, while Rotorua is controlled by an area electric authority. The licensed areas under the control of the boards and other authorities cover almost all the inhabited parts of the country. More than 99 percent of New Zealand's population enjoy the benefits of electricity in the home; only a few thousand people in the more isolated and less accessible parts of the country lack this amenity.

The supply of electricity to the remote areas presents difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in relation to the revenue from power sold. A rural reticulation council can make a levy of up to 1/2 percent of the gross revenue of all supply authorities and Government-owned electrical undertakings to subsidise the annual cost of supply in remote areas. The Rural Reticulation Council was set up under the Electricity Act 1945, and up to 31 March 1976, had approved subsidies of 16,050 route kilometres of line to supply some 15,442 consumers. At this date, 15,685 route kilometres of line were completed and 15,365 consumers connected. The total capital expenditure was estimated at $17,875,183 and the subsidy paid for the year amounted to $1,231,561.

PUBLIC SUPPLY STATIONS—The following table covers all stations whose output is fully or partially available to the public supply system as at 31 March 1976, their installed capacity, static head where applicable, and annual energy generation. Stations are State-owned unless otherwise indicated.

StationInstalled capacity at 31 March 1976Static HeadAnnual Energy Generation Year Ended 31 March 1976Annual Load Factor
Number of UnitsMW

*Owned by Dunedin City Council.

†Owned by other supply authorities and industries.

‡Excludes capacity of generating plant owned and operated by industries.

§New station being commissioned. No. 5 machine should be commissioned in early 1977.

  Hydrometresmillion kWhpercent
Arapuni8157.853971.970.5
Aratiatia390.034408.054.8
Atiamuri484.025347.248.9
Karapiro390.030615.575.5
Mangahao519.2273105.457.1
Maraetai10360.061996.633.5
Matahina272.061348.853.7
Ohakuri4112.035460.746.0
Tokaanu4200.0208629.334.4
Waikaremoana—     
Kaitawa232.0135123.245.9
Piripaua240.0113162.345.9
Tuai352.0206257.645.9
Waipapa351.016298.560.6
Whakamaru4100.038590.364.7
Arnold23.11326.190.4
Aviemore4220.037888.142.2
Benmore6540.0922,182.543.9
Cobb632.0594203.467.7
Coleridge934.5149182.958.7
Highbank125.210186.547.4
Manapouri7700.01774,354.084.2
Monowai36.04734.967.6
Roxburgh8320.0461,550.754.3
Tekapo125.230157.469.9
Waipori*1165.2360127.6-
Waitaki7105.021484.450.9
Auxiliary6188.7-279.4-
Sub-totals..3,624.9..16,873.2..
  Thermal   
Marsden2240.0..403.919.6
Meremere7210.0..978.962.7
New Plymouth=4480.0..412.819.0
Otahuhu4180.0..36.83.4
Stratford§2100.0..76.1-
Wairakei13192.4..1,272.191.6
Auxiliary1010.3..17.4-
Sub-totals..1,412.7 3,198.0..
Totals 5,037.6 20,071.2..

The next table summarises general statistics of all supply authorities in 1975–76.

Item1975-76

*Excluding stocks and materials.

†Calculated on revenue from retail sales only.

Establishments No.93
Kilowatts of prime movers kW (000)5,292
Materials used— 
Coal tonnes684,479
Light oil tonnes6,053
Heavy oil tonnes217,179
Natural gas cubic metres (000)48,000
Persons engaged No.14,297
Capital expenditure* 
During year (net outlay) $(m)265.0
To date $(m)2,178.6
Generation and sales— 
Generation per head of mean population kWh6,467
Retail sales per head of mean population kWh5,687
Retail sales per customer (domestic) kWh8,126
Revenue per kWh sold (retail sales) cents1,255

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Financial operations are summarised in the following table.

Item1975-76

*These figures represent transfers within the electrical supply industry and therefore do not represent additional revenue or expenditure to the industry.

†Deficit.

 $(000)
Revenue— 
Gross revenue (including bulk sales and standby charges, excluding rates)377,250
Revenue from bulk sales to supply authorities119,874
Net revenue (excluding rates, bulk sales, and standby charges)257,376
Expenditure— 
Operating (including cost of energy purchased in bulk)202,520
Cost of energy purchased in bulk*119,874
Operating (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)82,646
Trading administration and general57,643
Capital charges127,666
Total annual expenditure (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)267,955
Surplus-10,579

GENERATION—Means of generation of electrical energy for public supply is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated by Means of
HydroSteamOil and GasTotal
  million kWh  
197212,969.72,135.089.015,193.7
197314,109.42,922.1222.017,253.5
197414,150.93,534.0429.518,114.4
197514,197.23,992.4162.118,351.7
197616,873.23,084.9113.120,071.2

The following table sets out generation by supply authorities and disposal. The excess generation of certain local factories, which is bought in for public supply, is given in the column "other sources".

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated for Public SupplySold RetailNonproductive
N.Z. Electricity DepartmentSupply AuthoritiesOther SourcesTotal
   million kWh   
197214,8303461715,19413,1122,082
197316,8383922317,25315,0312,223
197417,7363532518,11415,9472,167
197517,9533811818,35216,2722,079
197619,6474071720,07117,6502,421

SALES—The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. In this table "domestic" includes domestic water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 MarchDomesticIndustrialCommercialFarmingStreet LightingRail and Bus TractionTotalNumber of Consumers
    million kWh    
19726,8113,7392,0653501034413,1121,129,375
19737,3894,8612,2603741064115,0311,154,271
19747,4405,6422,3603621043915,9471,182,469
19757,5545,8042,4033701043716,2721,214,922
19768,4036,1232,5783941133917,6501,248,909

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power, and shows also the principal purposes for which the power was employed.

The distribution of the expenditure per kWh sold retail during 1975–76 was as follows: operating expenses, 0.468 cents; miscellaneous expenses, 0.327 cents; and capital charges, 0.723 cents, giving a total expenditure of 1.518 cents per kWh sold retail.

The revenue per kWh sold in 1975–76 was, by categories: domestic 1.202 cents; commercial 2.185 cents; industrial 0.878 cents; farming 2.085 cents; public lighting 1.429 cents; railway traction 1.397 cents.

19 C—GAS

GENERAL—Gas was produced from coal as an early source of light and heating in New Zealand and by 1916 there were 56 establishments engaged in the marketing of gas to the public. From that date the numbers of gas undertakings steadily declined because of the growth of electricity usage. In recent years there has been an increased demand from the industrial sector but the loss of domestic consumers was viewed with concern in relation to satisfaction of the energy demand, and a Gas Council was established in 1958 to arrest the decline. Since 1970 the gas industry has been rejuvenated by the reticulation of natural gas. There is, however, a major difference between that part of the industry distributing natural gas and the remainder which is still manufacturing gas from coal and oil. The manufactured gas industry has, for many years, not been able to operate without financial assistance, and its problems intensified during 1974–75, largely because of the massive increases in the price of oil from which the lowest-cost gas had previously been produced.

The oil consortium, Shell B.P. and Todd Oil Services Ltd., discovered natural gas at Kapuni in 1959. In 1967, when further investigations had confirmed that the field was sufficiently large to justify exploitation, the Natural Gas Corporation was set up by the Government to develop this new energy resource. It is now operating the gas purification equipment and the pipeline to supply and sell gas along the pipeline routes to undertakings previously producing coal gas, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Hawera, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Levin, Hutt Valley, and Wellington. Natural gas supply to these centres took place in 1970 and 1971. The Corporation also supplies gas to a limited number of industrial consumers adjacent to the pipeline route. A pipeline to supply untreated natural gas to the Stratford and New Plymouth electricity generating stations was completed in 1975. The Corporation produces natural gasoline which is used by the Gisborne, Napier, and Hastings undertakings as a base feedstock for their gas supplies. An additional byproduct extracted at Kapuni is commercial propane, which is purchased and distributed by the oil consortium. The gas treatment plant at Kapuni cost over $5 million and the pipelines and compressors over $16 million. Gross trading profits of the Natural Gas Corporation were $62,144 in 1971–72, $719,966 in 1972–73, $1,826,000 in 1973–74, $1,894,000 in 1974–75 and $2,511,379 in 1975–76, but interest and depreciation charges resulted in net losses of $2.8 million, $2.2 million, $1.3 million, $1.3 million and $982,885 in the respective years.

Those gasworks not receiving natural gas continue to receive financial incentives provided by the Government; in 1975–76 subsidies on coal prices and gas sales totalled $2,056,146 compared with $1,460,021 the previous year.

Restrictions on electricity usage in the winters of 1973 and 1974 led to an unprecedented increase in demand but this could not be met until the Natural Gas Corporation completed extensions to its gas treatment plant at Kapuni. However, during 1974–75, total gas processed at the Kapuni plant increased to 120,463,502 therms.

GAS INDUSTRY—In 1975–76 the gas industries were reclassified under the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification covering:

  1. The Natural Gas Corporation's Kapuni natural gas plant and the supply pipeline in the North Island (Major Division 2: Sub-group 22020 (part).

  2. The manufacture and distribution of gas by gasworks, covering 4 gasworks in the North Island and 8 in the South Island (Major Division 4: Sub-group 41021).

  3. The distribution of natural gas by gas undertakings, covering 9 undertakings in the North Island (Major Division 4: Sub-group 41022).

This reclassification also introduced an integrated economic census of the industry, based on the year ended 31 March 1976 or the last accounting year prior to that date. Consequently, the tables covering this census do not relate to a standard period due to the differing balance dates.

PRODUCTION AND DISPOSAL OF GAS—The following tables show gas production on a calendar year basis during the latest 5 years and gas energy production and disposal on the basis of the economic census year for the two years for which figures are available.

Type of Gas ProducedCalendar Year
19721973197419751976

*Source: Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand.

†Includes use in production by Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand.

  Megajoules (million)   
Gas manufactured by gas-works1,275.31,246.91,330.51,297.31,308.7
Natural gas supplied*     
To gas undertakings4,484.15,469.37,602.19,928.411,873.2
To other consumers4,962.15,816.95,279.43,796.625,402.9
Total production10,721.512,533.114,212.015,022.338,584.9
ProductionCensus YearDisposalCensus Year
1974–751975–761974-751975–76
*Includes bulk sales for the generation of electricity.
 Megajoules (million) Megajoules (million)
Natural gas produced12,709.715,094.8Distribution losses2,599.61,996.4
Manufactured gas produced1,316.71,294.5   
Total production14,026.416,389.2Sales—  
   Domestic1,306.51,665.1
Less gas used for internal consumption1,834.91,749.2Industrial and commercial*8,285.510,978.6
Quantity available12,191.514,640.1Total disposal12,191.514,640.1

PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURED GAS BY GASWORKS—The table which follows shows the production of coal gas, oil gas, and water gas during the latest 4 years; the amounts available for distribution and how distribution was effected. The figures are on a census year basis.

ItemCensus Year
1972-731973-741974-751975-76
Production— Megajoules (million)  
Manufactured by gasworks—    
Coal gas898.6863.0855.31,294.5
Oil gas328.3360.2437.01,294.5
Water gas41.742.924.31,294.5
Quantity manufactured1,268.71,266.21,316.71,294.5
Less gas used for internal consumption10.011.710.34.9
Manufactured gas available for distribution1,258.61,254.51,306.41,289.6
Distribution—    
Distribution losses222.6217.0231.9211.9
Sales—Domestic380.8361.9348.2354.3
Industrial and commercial655.3675.6726.4723.4
Total distribution by gasworks1,258.61,254.51,306.41,289.6

DISTRIBUTION OF NATURAL GAS BY GAS UNDERTAKINGS—The following table shows the amount of natural gas purchased and available for distribution by gas undertakings, and how distribution was effected over the last 4 years.

ItemCensus Year
1972-731973-741974-751975-76
Purchases— Megajoules (million)  
Purchased by gas undertakings4,641.15,774.77,932.910,319.3
Less—    
Internal consumption by gas undertakings77.852.573.3106.8
Quantity available for distribution4,563.35,722.27,859.610,212.6
Distribution—    
Distribution losses1,614.91,762.71,691.61,236.1
Sales—    
Domestic742.7786.5958.31,310.8
Industrial and commercial2,205.83,173.05,209.87,665.7
Total distribution4,563.35,722.27,859.610,212.6

CONSUMERS, SALES, AND PRICES—The numbers of retail consumers, sales of gas, and average prices are shown for the latest 4 years in the following table. Figures refer to all manufactured and natural gas distributed, with the exception of bulk sales of natural gas for the generation of electricity

ItemCensus Year
1972-731973-741974-751975-76
Consumers—    
North Island No.73,25274,49374,92182,075
South Island No.33,85631,87431,44129,438
Total New Zealand No.107,108106,367106,362111,513
Gas Sales—    
North Island megajoules (million)3,595.24,589.16,749.59,940.3
$(000)6,6557,6819,96313,506
South Island megajoules (million)896.7897.8924.8928.7
$(000)2,6972,7153,1253,960
Totals New Zealand megajoules (million)4,492.05,486.87,674.310,869.0
$(000)9,35210,39613,08817,466
Average price of gas to consumer per megajoule(000)—    
Domestic $3.173.183.193.14
Industrial and Commercial $1.941.691.471.33
Average consumption of gas per consumer—megajoules(000)41.951.672.297.5

GENERAL STATISTICS OF THE GAS INDUSTRIES: Census Year Basis—The scope of the new annual integrated economic census has introduced changes to previously published statistics. The tables for the two gas industries are therefore limited to 1975–76, the first year of this census, and comparable figures will be added over the next 2 years.

ItemGas WorksGas Undertakings

*Covers gas works, including manufactured gas distribution pipelines.

†Covers city "gates", including natural gas distribution pipelines.

‡Covers all other units servicing the industries, including any separate retail outlets.

§Includes both full-time and part-time paid employees.

∥Included in total capital expenditure (previous item).

¶Included elsewhere in the General Statistics table under the appropriate main headings.

Enterprise units—  
Establishments* No.12-
Establishment type No.-9
Ancillary units No.62
Paid employees at mid April—  
Administration, sales, professional, office, and related employees—  
Male No.79193
Female No.3993
Production and all other employees—  
Male No.287359
Female No.8-
Totals—  
Male§ No.366552
Female§ No.4793
Hours worked by paid employees—  
Ordinary time—  
Male hrs(000)6661,039
Female hrs(000)75171
Paid overtime—  
Male hrs(000)6494
Female hrs(000)-1
Paid employees, full-time equivalent—  
Male No.409634
Female No.4296
Wages received by paid employees—  
Administration, etc.—  
Male $(000)5221,507
Female $(000)145415
Production, etc.—  
Male $(000)1,7121,954
Female $(000)31-
Totals—  
Male $(000)2,2343,461
Female $(000)177415
Capital expenditure, less sales of fixed assets—  
Land, buildings, etc. $(000)201,741
Vehicles, all types $(000)40178
Plant, machinery, and equipment $(000)664246
Other expenditure $(000)11559
Total $(000)7342,724
Capital work done by own employees—  
Salaries and wages $(000)29280
Other costs $(000)..1,251
Total Costs $(000)291,531

Financial statistics of gas works and gas undertakings during 1975-76 are shown in the following table.

ItemGas WorksGas Undertakings
Stocks of materials etc., and finished goods— $(000)
Value at start of year1,1342,847
Value at end of year1,3353,033
Increase or decrease+201+186
Purchase of materials—  
Fuel and Power—  
Electricity7729
Coal--
Fuel oil32-
Gas  
Natural-34
Manufactured49-
Materials—  
Natural gas for distribution-4,326
Coal1,210-
Oil1,750-
Other materials and amount paid for contract services32144
Goods for resale3732,030
Total purchases of materials3,5236,564
Operating Expenses—  
Contributions to superannuation, etc.52124
Rent—  
Land and buildings2114
Plant, equipment, vehicles..39
Insurance66105
Land tax, rates, and licence fees73121
Depreciation351461
Salaries and wages2,4113,876
Other operating expenses1,0731,763
Total operating expenses4,0486,503
Total purchases and expenses7,57113,066
Sales of gas and gas by-products—  
Natural gas—  
Industrial users-8,650
Domestic users-3,549
Manufactured gas—  
Industrial users3,167-
Domestic users1,687-
Coke492-
Crude tar98-
Prepared tar41-
Tar oil--
Other manufactured goods and services169218
Sales of goods purchased for resale6682,816
Total Sales6,32215,233
Other income—  
Rent29130
Subsidies1,122-
Other116207
Total other income1,267337
Total revenue7,59015,570

CONTRIBUTION TO GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT—Since this census of the gas industry is now on an integrated economic census basis, it is to possible use the information collected to measure directly the contribution of the industry to the value of gross domestic product in the revised New Zealand System of National Accounts.

The following table sets out the elements of the approximate contribution to G.D.P. in 1975-76. Exact figures, including some adjustments for imported finance charges, will not be available until the full NZSNA is published at the end of 1977.

ItemGas WorksGas Undertakings
  $(000)
Total revenue+7,590+15,570
plus stocks at end of year+1,335+ 3,033
Totals+8,926+18,603
less stocks at start of year-1,134-2,847
less total expenses-7,571-13,066
equals operating surplus (or loss)+ 221+ 2,690
plus salaries and wages+2,411+ 3,876
plus superannuation, etc.+ 52+ 124
plus land tax, rates, etc.+ 73+ 121
plus depreciation+ 351+ 461
equals gross total+ 3,108+ 7,272
less Government grants and subsidies-1,122-
equals added value+1,986+ 7,272

Chapter 20. Section 20 MARKETING

20 A—MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

DEPENDENCE ON AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL EXPORTS—Despite the rise in the last decade in exports of timber, wood pulp, and paper and of manufactured products in general, products of animal origin still average annually over 65 percent of the total value of New Zealand exports, and agricultural exports of grass seed and fruit can be added to raise even higher the value of exports of farm produce. New Zealand remains one of the largest exporters in the world of butter and also (in some years) of meat, and is also one of the leading exporters of wool and cheese.

The following table of exports by value indicates the relative importance of farm products.

Year Ended 30 JuneDairy ProduceMeatWoolHides, Pelts, and SkinsTotal Exports*
ButterCheeseMilk Powder, etc.CaseinTotal

*Of New Zealand produce.

†Provisional.

     $(million)    
1970109.744.331.125.8213.8368.9204.248.71,064.5
1971113.948.034.130.2228.9390.8187.850.61,108.1
1972183.966.376.525.4355.2399.0228.662.21,346.6
1973x137.179.287.422.0328.3540.9424.095.91,758.7
1974x109.562.0130.628.6333.1534.1361.667.01,746.2
1975x122.148.4103.114.7291.2442.2261.762.71,558.0
1976204.178.282.827.0396.2590.6455.777.02,246.8

The countries of destination for some of the main exports for 1974-75 are shown in the following table on a percentage basis. (Percentages are based on value of exports.)

Country of DestinationButterCheeseLambBeef and VealMuttonWool
United Kingdom62.231.871.44.04.917.8
United States1.17.33.067.20.13.1
Japan1.228.72.62.329.58.1
Canada7.9....3.111.40.7
France--0.30.10.57.1
Belgium--0.40.40.13.4
West Germany..-1.90.20.29.1
Italy--0.8..0.13.2
Other27.632.216.514.464.647.5
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

The United Kingdom has always been New Zealand's main export market for farm products. Until Britain joined the European Economic Community the British consumer had virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand supplies of butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of the mutually advantageous trading arrangements made between Britain and New Zealand over a long period, which reflected close political and economic connections between their people and governments.

GENERAL MARKETING SITUATION: Meat—Most meat produced in the world is supplied to domestic markets, and only about 8 percent of world output enters into international trade. Among the few countries with significant levels of exports are Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, the Netherlands, Denmark, and the Irish Republic. The principal importers are the countries of Western Europe (in particular, the United Kingdom), the United States, Canada, and Japan. It is significant, however, that although the Common Market countries are substantial meat importers, much of the current trade now takes place between member countries of the Community as governed by the Common Agricultural Policy regulations.

The United Kingdom continues to be by far the largest market for lamb and New Zealand lamb exports are heavily dependent on this market.

Currently, over 100 countries import New Zealand meat; of these, three may be regarded as major markets: they are the United Kingdom, which accounts for about 65 to 70 percent of New Zealand's lamb; Japan, which takes about 50 percent of New Zealand's export mutton production; and North America (United States and Canada) which purchases about 65 percent of the country's beef and veal exports.

New Zealand's beef trade with North America developed in the late '50s as a result of a decline in the American dairy herd and a subsequent drop in output of manufacturing-type beef. The American beef herd is grain-fed and produces carcases with a greater amount of external fat than the consumer requires. This fat is trimmed when the carcases are being dressed. The trimmings which are used in the manufacture of processed meat products need to be supplemented with the lean type of beef that New Zealand (and Australia among others) can provide. Imports of beef into the United States are subject to "voluntary restraint" agreements under the meat import quota law. Under this system New Zealand, along with other suppliers, agrees to restrict the quantity of quota meat shipped for arrival in the U.S. during the calendar year to a negotiated tonnage. Under the terms of the agreement New Zealand was entitled to ship 117,800 tonnes of quota meat to the U.S. during 1976.

Initially for 1976, imports of beef to Canada were free of specific restraints. However, as a result of pressure on internal prices from increased domestic supplies and imports, Canada was obliged to follow the United States lead and reimpose quotas during the last quarter of the year. Imports of beef and sheepmeats into the United States are shown in the following table.

Country of ExportBeef and VealMutton and Lamb
19721973197419751972197319741975
    tonnes(000)   
New Zealand12113211812591069
Australia30531523230833833
Canada2625179----
Mexico37301813--1-
Nicaragua25251521----
Costa Rica23222727----
Other countries53596146----
Total imports59060948854942181012
United States production10,2729,71310,55811,275241228206185

Shipments of beef and veal to Canada totalled 37,000 tonnes in the year ended September 1976 while lamb shipments made up 8,000 tonnes.

In Japan, imported mutton is used mainly for processing into sausage-type foods. Shipments of New Zealand mutton in the year ended September 1976, including those to South Korea where the meat is processed and reshipped to Japan, totalled 27,600 tonnes, compared with 59,500 tonnes in 1975 and 62,000 tonnes in 1974. The other major mutton market for New Zealand recently has been the Soviet Union, which has imported 65,000 tonnes during the past 2 years. The Soviet Union has also imported substantial quantities of beef.

It has been the policy of the Meat Board to diversify exports of lamb. The original initiative for this was the likelihood of Britain joining the EEC and, with that, the possibility of more comprehensive regulations covering imports of sheepmeats from outside the Community than the present Common Customs Tariff of 20 percent. It was also considered that there was a need to reduce the continued dependence on one market.

In 1960 the Meat Export Development Company was established, an organisation charged with the responsibility of the orderly development of New Zealand lamb marketing in the United States and Canada. All New Zealand lamb sales to these countries are controlled by this company, the directorate of which is composed of nominees of the New Zealand Meat Producers Board and representatives of the freezing companies. The head office of the company is in Wellington, while the North American operations are controlled from Toronto.

There is a Market Development Committee which consists of representatives of the Meat Board and the meat export trade. Each year, the committee sets a percentage of lamb exports to be sold in markets other than the United Kingdom. It also establishes a levy payable per kilogram on any short fall in sales below the target figure. When the scheme was instituted in the 1966-67 season, the development target was 10 percent. This gradually increased to 30 percent in 1975-76 and 1976-77.

During the past 2 years a major development in New Zealand's lamb trade has been sales to the Middle East. In 1975-76, shipments included 18,000 tonnes to Iran and 11,500 tonnes to Iraq. Other principal lamb markets were Greece (15,100 tonnes); Japan (9,500 tonnes); Germany (3,400 tonnes) and the Netherlands (2,700 tonnes).

Wool—New Zealand is one of the largest exporters of wool in the world. Most of the wool is auctioned in New Zealand and buyers come from all the main importing countries to make their purchases of wool. About 18 to 20 percent of wool is sold privately in New Zealand and a small percentage of wool produced is shipped to England for sale. Prices fluctuate according to the demand for wool. After a period of relative price stability dating back to the early 1950s, demand slackened in late 1966 and prices remained low for the next 5 years. Following a recovery which reached a peak toward the end of 1973 the market again declined sharply although not to the low levels of the late 1960s.

After the devaluation of the New Zealand dollar in August 1975 the downward trend was reversed, and the market continued to strengthen throughout 1975-76 and into the 1976-77 season. By early November 1976 prices had reached record levels, but when converted to common dollar terms to allow for inflation were still below the prices realised in the early 1950s. By the end of 1976 the Wool Marketing Corporation's stockpile, purchased primarily during the period of low prices in 1974 and 1975, had been reduced from a peak of nearly 272,000 bales to about 8,000 bales. The threat of competition from synthetic materials is such that the International Wool Secretariat is actively promoting advertising, merchandising, and research.

World wool production increased steadily until 1968-69, particularly in Australia, New Zealand, and the Soviet Union. This growth reflected improvements both in carrying capacity per acre (number of sheep) and in wool production per sheep. Of the increase, probably over two-thirds stemmed from the upward trend in sheep population and the remainder from improved output per head of sheep. After reaching a record level in 1968-69, world wool production showed a downward trend until 1972-73. This trend has now been reversed, and sheep numbers are increasing steadily. Since the Second World War there has been no significant change in the broad geographical distribution of production which remains concentrated in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa, and Uruguay—all of which export on a large scale—and in the United States and the Soviet Union, neither of whose clips enters the international market to any significant extent. These countries account for 75 percent of world production; of the world total Australia alone produces 33 percent, and with New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa some 53 percent.

The International Wool Secretariat, founded by the woolgrowers of Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa in 1937 and now a partnership of the wool boards of these 3 countries plus Uruguay, is continually engaged in research, merchandising, advertising, and the general promotion of the use of wool. In recent years wool, in common with other natural fibres, has had to meet very strong competition from synthetics.

The distribution of wool production does not, of course, coincide exactly with the distribution of the sheep population, since the production of wool or yield per sheep varies considerably. While there is undoubtedly scope for improvement in a number of the lower yielding countries, the yields, are determined by the type of pasture, breed of sheep, average age of flock, and age of sheep at slaughter. Variations in yield between countries, therefore, do not necessarily reflect variations in efficiency but rather differences in pastoral conditions and objectives in farming.

Sheep numbers and wool production for selected countries are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

CountryWoolled SheepWool Production
1972-731973-741974-751972-731973-741974-751975-76

*Provisional.

  (million)  tonnes(000) greasy  
Australia140.0145.2151.7735700792752
New Zealand56.755.955.3309285294312
Argentina40.039.038.0177180184191
South Africa28.529.129.9107105105109
Uruguay15.915.415.260606263
United States17.716.414.580726557
United Kingdom27.928.528.348494951
U.S.S.R.139.1142.6145.3420433462463
World total913.9921.3929.82,5192,4732,6072,592

The major importing countries for raw wool are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of Import197019711972197319741975
*Partly estimated.
   tonnes(000)   
Belgium95.375.669.353.043.145.3
France158.5171.1164.6121.5125.5120.1
Italy126.9104.3121.490.467.074.0*
Japan320.5307.8348.1315.7163.1229.8
United Kingdom205.6160.5207.0150.8121.0132.5
United States91.572.855.234.515.319.4
West Germany98.4111.3115.758.947.274.3

Dairy Produce—There are now four main dairy exporters, namely EEC, New Zealand, Australia, and Canada, in that order of magnitude, who provide about four-fifths of all exports. Poland, the Soviet Union, and a number of other countries export relatively smaller quantities.

The Dairy Board exports annually over 500,000 tonnes of manufactured dairy products, of which just under half go to the affluent countries in Europe, North America, and Japan and the remainder to the rest of the world, with a heavy emphasis on South-east Asia and Latin America.

Nevertheless international dairy trade remains marginal in character and it is still vulnerable to fluctuations from external causes whether these be climatic, commercial, or political. New Zealand now relies on the United Kingdom for just over one-third of the value of its dairy export exchange earnings, although the United Kingdom remains the principal market for butter.

Industrial countries have a tendency to express social and political policies towards their farmers through price support mechanisms; high prices which are fixed with little regard to commercial reality encourage production but discourage consumption, thus creating surpluses. Disposal of these surpluses at cut rates, with Government support, in such free markets as have existed, has further limited the opportunities for profitable diversification.

New Zealand has had minimal success in GATT or in other international organisations in its attempts to negotiate improved conditions of access for agricultural products in developed countries apart from Britain. New Zealand has maintained strong and consistent pressure in international councils to achieve a stable balance between supply and demand in international trade, particularly in agricultural products. A significant step was made in 1971 when the EEC undertook in the Luxembourg Agreement "to make every effort to promote the conclusion of an international agreement on dairy produce; and to pursue a trade policy which will not frustrate New Zealand's efforts to diversify". In 1970, the GATT minimum international selling price for skim-milk powders of US $180 a tonne was established and since then has been progressively raised to a level of US $350 a tonne. In 1971 negotiations for the establishment of minimum prices for butter and anhydrous milkfat continued until, in 1973, agreement was reached to establish a minimum price for anhydrous milkfat of US $680 per tonne.

In 1974 the total production of butter by 18 of the main producing countries of the world amounted to just under 3 million tonnes. In the same year world exports by 16 of the leading exporters amounted to about 786,000 tonnes, that is, only about 26 percent of world production entered into international trade. However, since trade between the member states of the EEC does not enter international trade as such, this percentage is in effect considerably lower. Of this quantity 455,500 tonnes came onto the United Kingdom market. Total international trade in butter outside Europe is relatively small in relation to total world production and relatively small surpluses in large producing countries when exported via subsidies can have a disproportionate effect on world trade.

The following tables compare production and exports of butter, cheese, and skim-milk powder by selected countries. (Source: United States Department of Agriculture.)

PRODUCTION
CountryButterCheeseSkim-milk Powder
197219731974197519721973197419751972197319741975

*Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

†Twelve months ended 31 May of following year.

‡Provisional.

      tonnes(000)      
Australia*185175161148939699110134157170160
Canada132115105125163165183175170155153179
Denmark13614713813913112414514851525368
France540550543559871885916930667699680712
Ireland, Republic of778776824742605866103102134
Netherlands163169172205322333430430118128140185
New Zealand2422182432571018889104189194238220
United Kingdom95965236184182215195169156101103
United States5004174364451,1811,2181,3291,260554416463470
West Germany497513511515545558595610432460495519

EXPORTS

CountryButterCheeseSkim-milk Powder
1972197319741975*1972197319741975*1972197319741975*

*Provisional.

†Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

‡Including donations shipped overseas.

      tonnes(000)      
Australia584133523038343248966795
Canada----10542521215936
Denmark87991019575849510159393611
Finland19121911202323225-12
France271728070142161103154173237235124
Ireland, Republic of38493957263947573612582127
Netherlands9716116017018421023122211487455
New Zealand1491381401719570658116121611496
United Kingdom3133346127----
United States192--33341288451
West Germany191151481386482101105191201179149

Much of the export trade shown in the previous table includes transfers between member states of the European Economic Community, and as such the commodities do not effectively enter into international trade. In the United Kingdom. New Zealand butter and cheese entered under Protocol 18 to the Treaty of Accession from 1 February 1973 onwards, was guaranteed a c.i.f. price of £361 per ton for butter, and £312 per ton for cheese. In 1973, monetary compensatory amounts became applicable to New Zealand's butter and cheese exports to the United Kingdom, and these went some way towards compensating for the decline in the sterling value of the c.i.f. prices. In November 1974 the EEC agreed to increase New Zealand's guaranteed c.i.f. prices for butter and cheese by 18 percent in recognition of New Zealand's claim that inflation and rising freight and production costs had severely eroded returns to our farmers.

A further increase of 18 percent was granted towards the end of 1975 applicable from 1 January 1976, to compensate for cost increases incurred throughout 1975. The provisions of the Protocol terminate on 31 December 1977. However, in June 1976 the EEC Commission agreed that for the years 1978, 1979, and 1980 access for New Zealand butter to the United Kingdom should continue at 125,000 tonnes, 120,000 tonnes, and 115,000 tonnes respectively. The future of New Zealand's cheese exports to the United Kingdom after 1977 has still to be settled.

Skim-milk Powder—The world production of skim-milk powder has rapidly expanded over recent years. Production in the leading dairy countries of Western Europe, North America, Australasia, and Japan reached about 3.2 million tonnes in 1975 an increase of 7 percent. Up to 1975, world demand has been buoyant, stimulated by a growing number of milk recombining plants in Asia, South America, Africa, and the Caribbean. Economic recession and high support prices dampened demand during 1975. There was a corresponding decline in international market prices in the face of surplus powder stocks, largely in the hands of the EEC. New Zealand's level of surplus stocks of aged powder was eased during 1976 by stockfood sales, but returns are not likely to improve until concerted action is taken to remove the European stocks overhanging the market.

Casein—Lactic casein, which is produced from skim milk, is being put to an increasing range of uses. It is used as high-grade protein in sausage and other food fillings, as the bulk material for various types of pharmaceutical drugs, and in the manufacture of coatings for high quality paper. New Zealand is the largest exporter of casein, with much of the production going to the United States, Japan, and EEC countries.

The chief countries exporting and importing casein are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of Export1972197319741975Country of Import1972197319741975
*Year ended 30 June of following year.
New Zealand*27.839.917.124.3United States44.147.046.823.0
Australia*15.09.26.116.0Japan20.919.621.88.1
France16.619.025.212.3West Germany12.311.212.88.5
Argentina8.78.64.46.1United Kingdom4.25.44.73.9
Poland10.5......Italy8.710.08.06.2
West Germany4.56.57.56.0France2.44.24.24.4

From 1970 to 1975 there was a world decline in the availability of liquid skim milk for casein manufacture, due to the higher return available from the alternative manufacture of skim-milk powder. With the weakening of returns from skim-milk powder since 1975, New Zealand has attempted, as much as possible, to divert skim milk to casein production.

Diversification of Markets—The value of New Zealand's dairy exports to markets outside the United Kingdom have, up until recently, steadily increased. In 1955, only 13 percent of the value of New Zealand's total dairy exports went to countries outside the United Kingdom. By 1970 this had risen to 27 percent and in 1972, for the first time, more than half of the exchange earned from dairy exports came from markets outside the United Kingdom.

The proportion of dairy exchange earnings from the United Kingdom now appears to be stabilising at round one-third of the total. In 1975-76 this proportion was around 35 percent, a slight increase on the 1974-75 level of 32 percent. This check in the rate of diversification away from the United Kingdom in exchange earning terms, is largely attributable to the relatively higher returns for the milkfat export sector as opposed to the solid-not-fat sector, and underlines the United Kingdom's continuing importance as a bulk outlet for New Zealand's milkfat products. Recent diversification successes include sales of butter to Eastern Europe and the Middle East; of anhydrous milkfat (a.m.f.) to South East Asia, Central and South America; and of cheese to Japan and the United States.

The following table shows the changing direction of New Zealand's dairy exports for June years over a 5-year period.

Product1971-721973-741975-76Percentage to United Kingdom
United KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll Markets1971-721973-741975-76
   tonnes(000)    percent 
Butter, milkfat134.8191.698.3162.6112.6205.770.360.454.7
Cheese60.988.818.669.532.880.868.626.840.6
Milk powder-189.6-261.9-143.6---
Casein3.442.71.740.80.726.68.04.22.6
All products199.1512.7118.6534.8146.1456.738.822.222.0

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY—The Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) came into force on 1 January 1958. The member countries were Belgium, France, West Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands. These countries entered into negotiations which resulted in the abolition of customs duties within the Common Market on 1 July 1968. On the same date the separate customs tariff of the six countries gave way to a single tariff—the common customs tariff of the Community. By that date also much of the common agricultural policy was in operation, although some final negotiations had still to take place. The Common Agricultural Policy, with its high internal prices supported at the Community frontier by variable levies, and its export subsidies, has encouraged the production of surpluses, most notably of dairy products, while reducing consumption.

The danger facing New Zealand was that should Britain, in joining the EEC, accept the common agricultural policy without special arrangements to protect the major items of New Zealand's agricultural trade with Britain, the pastoral industries in particular and the economy in general would be severely damaged.

Before the formal negotiations between Britain and the EEC commenced, the New Zealand Government engaged in discussions with the British Government and listed the requirements which were regarded as necessary to safeguard New Zealand's vital interests. These requirements were as follows:

(a) That New Zealand should be able to continue to sell at remunerative prices the quantities of butter and cheese for which it currently received assured access to the British market.

(b) That guarantees of access should not terminate with the transitional period, but that there should be a continuing arrangement subject to periodic review.

(c) That, in the event of the Community adopting a common regulation for sheepmeats, New Zealand should continue to have access for lamb sales on a satisfactory basis.

When the formal negotiations opened in June 1970, the British Government accepted this "statement of claim" for dairy products as the basis for their submission to the Community. In respect of lamb, no negotiations with the EEC were scheduled because of the absence of a common Community regulation. The New Zealand Government accordingly sought from the United Kingdom an understanding that they would not agree to the introduction of a sheepmeats policy which would damage New Zealand's interests.

Negotiations between Britain and the Community formally opened on 21 July 1970. However it was not until a decisive negotiating session held in Luxembourg from 21-23 June 1971 that Britain succeeded in negotiating a special arrangement for New Zealand butter and cheese.

The special arrangement was subsequently incorporated in Protocol 18 to the Treaty of Accession of the applicant countries (United Kingdom, Denmark, and Ireland) to the EEC.

Continued Access—In March 1975 the Common Market heads of government agreed to continued access for New Zealand butter for 3 years after 1977 with regular price adjustments taking into account prices paid to the EEC's own farmers and rising production costs in New Zealand and increased freight rates. The EEC Commission is drawing up details in accordance with the agreement.

The way was also left open for Britain to negotiate protected imports of New Zealand cheese after 1977.

The EEC has not yet implemented a common agricultural policy for sheepmeats. This reflects the low consumption in most member countries. The comparative importance of Britain's sheepmeat consumption suggests that Britain should play an important part in developing sheepmeat policy in the enlarged community. It would be severely detrimental to New Zealand if the effect of any such policy were to restrict access and reduce overall net returns from the sale of lamb to an enlarged EEC. It can be expected that Britain will wish to ensure that imports from these countries, in particular New Zealand on which it is heavily dependent, will not be curtailed.

UNITED KINGDOM MARKET: Dairy Produce—New Zealand's important position in the supply of butter and (to a lesser extent) cheese to the United Kingdom market is illustrated in the following table showing imports into the United Kingdom, by country of export. Domestic production of butter in the United Kingdom is relatively small in comparison with total supplies. Domestic cheese supplies, on the other hand, are comparatively large, as is also the domestic output of milk powder. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of ExportButterCheeseMilk Powder*
197319741975197319741975197319741975
*Includes both whole-milk and skim-milk powders.
   tonnes(000)      
New Zealand132119x1244716301--
Denmark741008414151821 
West Germany33658133---
Irish Republic373653374556171155
Netherlands61110118202426533
France4313791414111
Other Countries2110109558913
Total imports332442x484137122x152342572
United Kingdom production955347180214231192156155

The following table shows the comparative figures for consumption of butter and margarine in the United Kingdom. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Product19681969197019711972197319741975
   kilogram per head   
Butter8.88.78.57.97.07.68.5x9.3
Margarine5.15.45.45.96.55.85.05.0

Meat—The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom from the principal countries, by country of export. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of ExportMutton and LambBeef and Veal
197319741975197319741975
   tonnes(000)   
New Zealand2392042341476
Australia2388842210
Argentina---59282
Denmark---32715
Ireland, Republic of1114910596
Botswana---17311
Other countries211445756
Total Imports266213244270249196
United Kingdom production2352512598761,0731,222

The Commonwealth Secretariat estimated that in 1975 the inhabitants of the United Kingdom consumed per head 23.4 kilograms of beef and veal, 8.3 kilograms of mutton and lamb, 10.3 kilograms of pork, 4.0 kilograms of offal, and 8.7 kilograms of bacon.

THE ORGANISATION OF MARKETING—In a country such as New Zealand which is very dependent upon overseas trade, the efficient organisation of marketing of primary produce takes on a special importance.

Marketing Authorities—Since about 1950 the principle has been accepted that producers should be predominantly responsible for the marketing of their products. The major statutes under which specific marketing authorities operate are the Dairy Board Act 1961, the Meat Export Control Act 1921-22 and the Amendment Acts 1956 and 1971 (for the Meat Producers Board), and the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, the Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972, the Milk Act 1967, the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953 (safeguards citrus fruit, honey, and eggs).

Dairy Produce—The New Zealand Dairy Board acquires and markets all dairy products intended for export, and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. The New Zealand Dairy Board is a statutory authority operating under the Dairy Board Act 1961 and acts as the administrative body for the industry and as its export marketing agency. Of the board's members 11 are elected by the co-operative companies and 2 are appointed by the Government. The board acquires all export dairy products from the manufacturing companies, sells the goods overseas, and returns the proceeds, less marketing costs, to the companies.

The board sells its products throughout the world, and is currently exporting to over 90 countries. Sales are made in the United Kingdom through the board's own sales organisation. In other markets, the board sells through local agents, or in the case of some buyers it sells direct, on a contract basis. Increasingly the board is posting its own personnel overseas in key markets as liaison representatives and where warranted, subsidiary trading companies have been established.

Meat—The New Zealand Meat Producers Board was constituted in 1922 under the provisions of the Meat Export Control Act 1921-22 to protect the national and producers' interests. The board obtains funds by the imposition of a levy on all meat exported (except canned meats and offals). The current levy is 0.77c per kilogram.

Funds from the levy totalled $5.0 million in the year ended September 1976. Expenditure exceeded income by $240,000, the balance being drawn from the industry reserve account.

The board's main responsibilities are:

  1. Meat export licensing;

  2. The grading, storage, and shipment of meat;

  3. Market research;

  4. The promotion of New Zealand meat;

  5. Improvement in the quality of New Zealand meat.

The board has engaged in most activities in the export trade in the interests of the producer.

The board has had a major influence on meat marketing policy through the regulation of shipments, control over quality, and the development of markets through promotion in which it is investing some $3 million a year.

In its market support activities the board is the only organisation in the world promoting the sale of meat on a genuinely international scale. To this end it has established in its major markets a network of market consultants assisting the board through its overseas offices which are in London, New York, Tokyo, Brussels, and Tehran.

Prior to 1971 the board's power to participate in the purchase and sale of meat in any country outside New Zealand was limited under the terms of the Act to the establishment of markets in those countries where no substantial market for New Zealand meat previously existed and to the expansion and maintenance of those markets. An amendment to the Act passed in October 1971 extended the board's power to enable it to buy any meat derived from sheep and sell in or export to any country. These powers were further extended in 1974 by an Order in Council which enables the board to buy and sell beef. In the 1971-72 season, the board purchased a sizeable proportion of lambs slaughtered for export, while, at one stage in the 1974-75 season, it was purchasing mutton, beef and lamb. During the 1975-76 season the board again intervened and purchased a significant proportion of the export mutton product.

While the trade has retained the role of direct marketing, the administrative and promotional work of the board has served to ensure that the long-term interests of the industry are not ignored. This function embraces all activities in moving meat from producer to consumer in the quickest and most efficient manner with due regard to the stability of prices and markets.

A Pork Industry Council functions under the Pork Industry Act 1974. Its principal functions are to promote and organise the orderly development of the pork industry; to assist in the marketing of pigs; to maintain and improve quality; to increase production; to promote efficiency; and to ensure a supply of foodstuffs for pigs.

Wool—The Wool Marketing Corporation was established on 1 December 1972 by the Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972. The corporation is a grower-controlled authority which has as its object to obtain, in the interest of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. It has wide powers, including the power to acquire and market all wool produced in New Zealand. However, it has indicated that it will not invoke this latter power unless a majority of growers support this action. Currently the Corporation is involved in a number of activities associated with the marketing of wool including the operation of a minimum prices scheme and a market intervention scheme aimed at reducing fluctuations in prices and cushioning declines in the market.

In May 1977 it was announced that the Wool Marketing Corporation was to amalgamate with the Wool Board (see Section 13A—Farming).

Apples and Pears—Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This board was set up in 1948, in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971, to acquire and market the apple and pear crop. Under the Apple and Pear Marketing Amendment Act 1967 there has been set up an Apple and Pear Prices Authority whose function it is to determine each season the average price to be paid for apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average, and within it prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. Most apples and pears of standard grade are purchased by the board with private sales by growers limited by regulations. Growers may sell direct to consumers in lots of not more than two cases, or with permission of the board, to retailers in specified localities. Manufacturers may be licensed by the board to purchase their requirements direct from growers (although in some cases the board itself purchases fruit and resells it to the factory). Growers may also be permitted by the board to sell at municipal markets established under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954.

The board decides what proportion of the fruit is to remain in New Zealand and what proportion is to be exported, and arranges for the storage and release of varieties according to their condition and keeping capacity, in order to make fruit available for as long a period as possible during the year. The board determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold in New Zealand by authorised wholesalers to retailers. If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the board exceed the amount which the board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the board, is apportioned between a reserve fund and the growers. The board may distribute up to 50 percent of the surplus among growers, or such greater proportions as the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries approves. The balance is added to the reserve fund. If sales in any season realise less than the amount the board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund. The reserve fund, which has been built up from profits derived almost solely from exports, has been invested in a chain of modern cool stores and mechanical equipment designed for the improved handling of fruit.

Financial results for recent seasons are shown in the following table.

SeasonProfit or LossBoard's ShareGrowers' ShareReserve Fund at End of Season
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1972-732,6522,410242906
1973-74-4,103-4,103--3,197
1974-751,0181,018--2,179
1975-76-2,228-2,228--4,407

Potatoes—The Potato Board, with equal representation of growers and merchants and an officer of the Public Service as an advisory member, was established by the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950. Its principal function is to ensure that an adequate supply of main-crop potatoes shall be available for consumption. Its powers include the making of contracts between growers and the board for main-crop potatoes, and the appointment of wholesalers authorised to purchase from growers and to sell potatoes in respect of which contracts have been made with the board. In June 1956 the Government announced that it would guarantee the overdraft of the Potato Board to enable the board to guarantee a certain schedule of minimum prices to contract growers for any potatoes unsold at the end of the season. The purpose is to encourage the growing of an adequate supply of potatoes.

Milk—The New Zealand Milk Board was set up in 1953. It operates the national milk scheme and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient distribution of milk. The legislation is contained in the Milk Act 1967.

The board may make a levy on milk to finance its operations but while a subsidy on milk is payable from the Consolidated Revenue Account the rate of levy requires the approval of the Minister of Agriculture.

Retail prices are fixed by Order in Council. The price for the milk to the producer is fixed by the Minister of Agriculture after consultation with the Milk Board. Intermediate margins, such as those for pasteurising and bottling milk and to vendors for its delivery, are fixed by the Milk Prices Authority. The total cost at the present time exceeds the amount paid by the consumers, the balance being met by subsidy. It is the function of the Milk Board to administer the whole town milk scheme on behalf of the Government which, however, retains a direct interest by virtue of the substantial sum paid in subsidy.

Eggs—The Egg Marketing Authority, which was established in 1953, consists of eight members—five producer members of the New Zealand Poultry Board and three Government representatives. The principal function of the authority is to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in New Zealand and elsewhere in accordance with the regulations, to ensure as far as possible sufficient supplies of eggs and their equitable distribution in the general interests of producers and consumers.

The New Zealand Egg Marketing Authority operates principally through licensed distributors in the various districts who, on commission, receive and resell eggs or, as directed by the authority, manufacture egg pulp for the use of bakers and pastrycooks. Eggs are subject to price control,

Imported Citrus Fruits and Bananas—The importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, pineapples and grapes are the responsibility of a registered company, Fruit Distributors Ltd., representing trade interests. The operations of the company are defined and restricted by an agreement between it and the Government. There are two Government members on the company's board of directors.

New Zealand Lemons and Oranges—The Citrus Marketing Authority was established in 1953 to market fresh lemons, either directly or through agents, throughout New Zealand and to process unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products, such as fruit juice and lemon peel. The authority has a membership of six, five of whom are nominees of the New Zealand Citrus Council and represent the producers, and one appointed by the Minister of Agriculture as the Government member, who also protects the interests of consumers.

The Citrus Marketing Authority controls the assembly and distribution of New Zealand lemons, and also New Zealand grown sweet oranges. The entire output of fruit, which comes under the jurisdiction of the authority, is sold at agreed prices to Fruit Distributors Ltd. The authority operates processing and packing facilities at Kerikeri, Tauranga and Gisborne.

Honey—The Honey Marketing Authority, set up in 1953, undertakes the packing and marketing, within New Zealand and for export, of all honey supplied to it. Beekeepers have the option of supplying the authority, selling to private packers, or packing and marketing their own honey.

A hive levy payable by all producers owning 50 or more hives is administered by the Authority for the benefit of the honey producing industry generally.

The rate of hive levy is determined annually and is currently set at 15c per hive.

The authority comprises four members elected by beekeepers, and one member appointed as Government representative. One of the functions of the Government representative is to watch the interests of the consumer.

Prices and sales of honey are set out in the following table.

Item1971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76
Payment to producerscents per kg37.8544.5854.9854.8261.34
Average selling price—      
New Zealandcents per kg61.6564.0384.4293.01101.20
Overseascents per kg51.4276.1487.7874.2380.98
Sales—      
New Zealandtonnes726549780988889
Overseastonnes1,3831,8263986872,061

TRANSPORT AND OVERSEAS MARKETS—Farm products form the bulk of New Zealand's exports. They come to hand for shipment in seasonal cycles. These are most pronounced for lamb, and apples and pears, but apply also to a marked extent to mutton, beef, wool, and related produce. Butter, cheese, and other dairy produce become available throughout the year but production is considerably higher in the 6 months October to March than in the remainder of the year. The peak season for all the animal products is much the same, being roughly November to May, while there is a shorter concentrated season for fruit in March and April.

This seasonality presents shipping problems in the marketing process. In addition, the bulk of the commodities are perishable and require continuous refrigeration throughout the period of at least 2 to 3 months between production and consumption. The demand for shipping space lags a little behind the season, generally building up in January and declining in June. A realisation of the demands that increased production was making on transport, storage, handling, and shipping services led in 1964 to the setting up of an Exports and Shipping Council, an independent body whose main purpose is to improve the efficiency and economy of New Zealand export trade as it relates to transport services. Shipping receives special attention as shipping costs absorb a substantial portion of market realisations.

The council is representative of producer boards, freezing companies, transport interests, harbour boards, the New Zealand Chambers of Commerce, the Federation of Labour, and the Manufacturers' Federation. It has been successful in bringing into effect many of the recommendations of the streamlining report on ports, shipping, transport, and other services, produced as a result of consultations between the producer boards and the main shipping lines, and it continues its efforts to improve the efficiency and economy of transporting New Zealand produce to its markets.

PRICES FOR FARM PRODUCTS: Wool—Under the Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972, the Wool Marketing Corporation continues to operate a Minimum Prices Plan which was first introduced in 1952. The corporation prepares a table of minimum prices which becomes effective by agreement with the Minister of Agriculture. If wool offered at auction is sold either to the trade or to the corporation at a price below the appropriate minimum price, the corporation supplements the market price realised to bring the return to the grower up to the minimum price level. Procedures also exist for applying minimum floor price protection to privately sold wool.

Up to 24 January 1975, any supplement paid by the corporation and its predecessor organisation, the New Zealand Wool Commission, came from their own funds. (The Wool Commission from 1967 to 1972 paid out to farmers in supplementation of market prices $10 million, $8.7 million of which was paid out in the 1966-67 season. Because the floor price was well below market levels from its formation up to 24 January 1975, the corporation made no supplementary payments in that period.) As from 25 January 1975 the Government made funds totalling $15 million available under its wool price stabilisation scheme to meet supplementary payments. By agreement with Government, the corporation raised the minimum average from 70 cents per kilogram to 93 cents per kilogram at that time, and to 124 cents per kilogram from July 1975, with the result that, up to 30 June 1976, supplementary payments amounting to $7.5 million were made available from the Wool Income Stabilisation Account. Under the Wool Income Stabilisation Regulations 1976, which came into force in July 1976, a levy on gross proceeds from wool sold for the first time at above minimum prices was introduced to fund the minimum price scheme. As from the same date, the average minimum price was raised to 136 cents per kilogram.

Apart from the Minimum Prices Plan, the Wool Marketing Corporation is empowered to purchase wool at any price level. Under this provision it has pursued a policy of market intervention aimed at supporting the market. In pursuance of this policy it has purchased a total of 349,981 bales at auction in 1973-74, 1974-75, and 1975-76. By 30 June 1976, all except 49,960 bales had been resold. (During its twenty-one years of existence the Wool Commission purchased 761,000 bales in application of the Minimum Floor Price Plan, the bulk of them in 1966-67.)

The following table shows weight, sale value and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction. The last column shows the average minimum price to growers set by the Wool Marketing Corporation, or its predecessor, the Wool Commission.

SeasonGreasy Wool Sold at AuctionTotal Sale ValueSale Value per KilogramAverage Minimum Price per Kilogram
 Tonnes (000)$ (million)cc
1971-72209.02139.066.4646.00
1972-73196.21282.5143.9650.00
1973-74195.13271.6139.1970.00
1974-75210.25192.991.7593.00
1975-76212.52333.9157.12124.00

The next table shows index numbers based on prices of new clip greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand adjusted to a clean f.o.b. New Zealand port basis. The All Wool and each group index is on its own base: average over all sales of 1974-75 season (=1000).

SeasonAll WoolFine Wools*Medium WoolsCoarse Wools

*Count 56's and finer.

†Count 48/50's to 50/56's.

‡Count 46/50's and lower.

1972-731528164816621444
1973-741511165915801451
1974-751000100010001000
1975-761669145616481716

Dairy Produce—Basic prices (then known as guaranteed prices) were introduced in 1936 for butter and cheese. The present legislative authority for the fixing of purchase prices for all dairy produce which the Dairy Board acquires for export is the Dairy Board Act 1961, as amended by the Dairy Board Amendment Acts of 1972 and 1975.

The Dairy Board Amendment Act of 1975 extended the basic purchase price to cover the solid non-fat (snf) portion of the milk and changed the basis of payment for dairy products.

Commencing in the 1975-76 season, the Dairy Product Prices Authority established values for milkfat and also establishes the value for the solid non-fat portion of the milk.

The Dairy Board uses the milkfat value to calculate the purchase price for butter and other fat products and uses the snf value to calculate the purchase price for snf products.

Cheese and wholemilk powder purchase prices are based on both milkfat and snf values.

The movements in snf and milkfat values from one year to the next is limited to 10 percent upwards and 5 percent downwards for both components.

The farmers, therefore, receive a stabilised return for milk solids. Because the Prices Authority establishes milkfat and snf values rather than purchase prices, the producers are cushioned from processing cost increases and receive the full effect of movements in milkfat and snf values.

As from the beginning of the 1975-76 season the Dairy Board will declare the values of milkfat and snf on a "at farm" rather than factory door basis.

The new legislation provides for two trading accounts—the milkfat trading account, and the snf trading account. Any annual surplus or deficit in the trading accounts at the end of any trading period is transferred to the Dairy Industry Reserve Account and the provisions for distribution of surpluses are unaltered by the 1975 amendment.

The following table gives the prices in cents per kilogram of product paid by the Dairy Board to companies for the main products acquired for export. Prior to 1975-76, these were f.o.b. realisations to companies. From the 1975-76 season they are based on milkfat in milk at farm (N.Z. average).

Season Ended 31 MayCreamery Butter (Finest Grade 93 pt)Cheese (First Grade 92 pt)
*Estimated.
 cents per kilogram 
1973-7463.3268.71
1974-7566.4969.78
1975-7670.29x75.08x
1976-77*78.1976.04

The prices quoted in the preceding table for butter and cheese were designed to enable dairy companies to pay to suppliers the following amounts in cents per kilogram of milkfat used for butter or cheese manufacture. Also given is the actual net revenue per kilogram of milk fat supplied achieved by companies for the main products.

Season Ended 31 MayButter-makingCheese-makingActual Average Net Revenue
Butter-makingCheese-making
 cents per kilogram of milk fat
1970-7161.4083.6465.01x89.43
1971-7264.04110.6978.44x124.87
1972-7370.90116.6471.41x119.96
1973-7470.83132.8466.97x132.47x
1974-7572.15127.4372.46132.78
1975-7674.42133.68  
1976-7781.86134.64  

NOTES—(1) The basic price for buttermaking is on a farm gate fat in cream basis up to and including 1971-72, 1972-73 to 1974-75 figures are on a factory stage basis (i.e., milk and cream collection costs must be paid out from these amounts). From 1975-76 figures are on an at farm basis.

(2) Columns (1) and (2) do not include surplus payments These are price structure calculations.

(3) Columns (3) and (4) include the surplus payments shown below:

 Cents per kilogram milk fat
1970-712.65
1971-7213.23
1972-733.31
1973-74-
1974-752.9311x

(4) From 1972-73 buttermaking basic prices include revenue items.

Most milk fat is now collected by tankers. Only 7 percent of suppliers supply cream and they make up an even smaller proportion of total milk fat supply, i.e., 2 percent.

The main product mixes obtained from whole milk are:

  • Cheese

  • Whey butter

  • Separated whey

  • Butter

  • Buttermilk powder

  • Skim-milk powder or casein (acid or rennet)

  • Whole milk powder

  • Butter

  • Anhydrous milk fat

  • Buttermilk powder

  • Skim-milk powder or casein

Production of dairy factories is shown in Section 13A—Farming.

Town Milk Supply—The objects of the New Zealand Milk Board are the provision of an adequate supply of milk of good quality for human consumption and the organisation of the town milk industry on an economic basis. The board arranges supply contracts with milk producer companies for all districts, reports to Government on the adequacy of the town milk producer price, makes recommendations to Government or reports to the Milk Prices Authority, as the case may be, as to national margins for pasteurising, bottling, distribution, and other aspects of price fixation, fixes local allowances for cartage and such special distribution allowances as may be necessary, makes financial adjustments with all those in the industry to see that they get the prices or allowances to which they are entitled, and in doing so pays out subsidy on behalf of Government.

The total Government subsidy on town milk paid during recent twelve-month periods ended 31 August has been as follows: 1972-73, $36,476,950; 1973-74, $43,941,904; 1974-75, $49,196,949; and 1975-76, $44,066,660. These figures include deferred payments.

The following table shows production and sales of town milk under the control of the New Zealand Milk Board.

Year Ended 31 AugustProductionQuantity on Which Town Milk Price PaidVolume of Town SalesPrice per Litre Paid to ProducersGovernment Subsidy Per Litre
  litres(m) cc
1973646.6484.4394.28.3589.2527
1974640.6503.9410.29.00510.7115
1975671.7517.1422.69.23211.5413
1976725.5536.8414.39.69210.634

The town milk industry has converted to the metric system and bottles of 600 ml, 300 ml, and 150 ml have been progressively introduced.

Meat—The Imported Meat Trade Association in the United Kingdom compiles weekly London wholesale meat prices, the basis of quotation being "ex-hooks to retailers at Smithfield market" The next table gives prices for New Zealand lamb and beef at the end of the last week in March. Approximately 35 percent of the value of all New Zealand exports of frozen and chilled meat is generally accounted for by lamb, and the 8-12.5 kg and 13-16 kg P grades quoted in the table usually account for approximately 20 percent and 35 to 40 percent respectively of all lamb carcasses exported.

End of Last Week in MarchLambBeef
Prime GradeY GradeBoneless Cartoned Ox Rumps
8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg16.5 to 25.5 kg8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg
*At end of last week in February. No March quotations.
  New pence per kilogram equivalent  
197350.7-51.450.7-51.448.5-49.450.3-50.750.7-51.1103.6-105.8
197460.4-61.959.5-61.358.4-59.559.5-60.659.5-60.697.0-98.1
197566.1-67.263.9-65.059.5-60.663.9-66.162.8-63.9143.3-145.5
197678.3-79.470.5-71.765.0-66.178.3-78.970.5-71.7134.5-138.9
197790.4-93.789.3-91.588.2-89.388.2-90.488.2-89.3163.1-167.6*

Schedule Prices—A schedule of buying prices is issued each week by the meat operators in New Zealand. The producers have a choice on how to sell their export meat. They can sell on schedule, on owner's account, on a pool account system, on the basis of prices received from a nominated ship, on the hoof, or they can sell through a producer co-operative.

At the beginning of the 1971-72 season the N.Z. Meat Producers Board considered that exporters were unduly pessimistic in their assessment of future overseas market prices and that the opening schedule prices for lamb were not high enough. After obtaining an amendment to the Meat Export Control Act to permit it to purchase and market sheepmeats, the Board issued its own schedule of prices. During the season the Board purchased 12.5 million lambs and, as overseas prices improved later in the year, it made a profit on sales of $8 million. The Board again used its statutory powers to set its own lamb, mutton, and beef schedules in the 1974-75 season. However, on this occasion, the Board's view of market prospects was not too different from that of the exporters. Low market prices and substantial increases in charges between the farm gate and export markets had caused producer returns to drop, so the Board's announced prices were really guaranteed minimum payments for each class of stock. As a result of these prices the Board purchased virtually the entire export mutton kill and some 2.6 million lambs.

After a short period of buying beef the Board, in conjunction with the N.Z. Meat Exporters Council, implemented a scheme whereby the trade resumed the responsibility of marketing all export beef while the Board supplemented the exporters' prices to producers to ensure that they received the guaranteed minimum payments.

The depressed prices for mutton and beef continued into the 1975-76 season and the Board again supported producers' returns. This involved the purchase of much of the export mutton at the announced minimum prices and the supplementation of returns on beef in the early and latter parts of the season when prices fell below the minima. The opening schedules for the latest 5 seasons are given below. The prices quoted are for dressed weights "on the hooks" at freezing works. The prices for lamb and mutton are for bare meat only with an additional payment being made for the wool and pelt.

OPENING NORTH ISLAND SCHEDULE PRICES
Class of Meat1972-731973-741974-751975-761976-77

*Schedule issued by New Zealand Meat Producers Board.

†New Zealand Meat Producers Board Minimum Price.

   cents per kg  
Lamb—     
PL, 8.0-12.5 kg50.771.444.459.7x72.9
PM, 13.0-16.0 kg47.069.742.456.2x68.4
YL, 8.0-12.5 kg47.067.944.452.7x59.5
Mutton—     
EL, 22 kg and under19.844.114.0*24.021.5
EM, 22.5-26.0 kg17.641.912.0*22.019.5
Beef—     
Pl—Steer, 220.5-270 kg63.978.039.055.055.0
Ll—Steer, 220.5-270 kg63.970.037.048.050.5
M—Cow, 140.5 kg and over56.266.026.042.042.5
Bull, 160.5-260 kg62.079.038.050.050.0

Minimum Prices for Export Meat—The scheme which had operated since 1955 has been replaced by a more comprehensive system with two principal aims: first, to establish floor prices at a more realistic level and, second, to provide a mechanism which will allow for the replenishment of the funds paid out during the periods of low prices by levying farmers' receipts when prices exceed certain "trigger" levels.

Minimum prices are based on the average of the actual price for the preceding season, the estimated price for the current season (towards the end of which the determinations are made) and a forecast for the following season during which the prices will operate. The Meat Export Prices Committee will have discretion to set the minima up to 10 percent above or below the average of the three seasons. The Committee also determines the trigger prices for each class of meat. If prices exceed the trigger level, a 50 percent levy is imposed, the proceeds going into individual buffer accounts (sheep meats and beef) established at the Reserve Bank within the Meat Industry Stabilisation Account.

In general, the scheme aims at placing a floor under the prices the producers receive, financed by funds accumulated when returns are at higher levels. It is, in short, a price-smoothing scheme which at the same time, pays necessary regard to changes in market demand. Because of the importance of meat in the national economy, it will also have the effect of softening the impact of any sharp movements in overseas prices.

The minimum and "trigger" prices for the 1976-77 meat season are shown in the following table.

Class of MeatMinimum PricesTrigger Prices
Lamb—Cents per kilogram 
PM, 13.0 to 16.0 kg5572
Mutton—  
EL, 22 kg and under2130
Beef—  
PI Steer, 220.5 to 270 kg5580
M Cow, 140.5 kg and over4060

These are known as the "benchmark" prices. They are the key grades for each category of meat. Other grades will be priced as appropriate differentials.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES—Farm industry reserves were built up during the Second World War when, in furtherance of the Government's stabilisation policy, farmers agreed that increases in overseas realisations for meat and dairy produce be paid into special funds for later use for the benefit of the industry concerned. The wool reserve account (now the capital funds of the Wool Marketing Corporation) arose in the main from the profits derived from the sale of wartime surplus stocks, and in part from a contributory charge levied on wool sold at that time, much of it was used to buy in wool in 1966-67 but this was all resold by 1972. About half of the meat industry reserve was used to purchase lambs in 1971-72 to provide a higher price schedule, but was recovered from the ensuing marketing of the meat. The meat industry and wool reserve accounts were both drawn on again in 1974-75. Under a new stabilisation scheme for the wool industry, from the start of the 1976-77 selling season, wool growers paid a 3 percent levy on gross wool proceeds into a stabilisation fund. Where necessary, supplementary payments back from the fund will assure them of a minimum price.

The following table shows the balances in the various farm industry reserve accounts at given dates.

YearDairy Produce Account at 31 MayMeat Industry Reserve Account at 30 SepWool Corporation Account at 30 June

* $15 million was contributed to the sheep retention scheme in 1972.

†In addition, the Wool Trading Account Reserve stood at $15,248 million, giving a total of capital and reserves of $72 million.

‡Although the Dairy Produce Account had a deficit of almost $26 million, there was a total credit of $23 million in the General Reserve, the Export Credit Reserve, and the Diversification Reserve.

$(000)
1972+13,83487,327*52,353
1973+18,41888,59254,745
1974+11,77693,55855,900
1975+17,78577,83456,711
1976-25,97890,92456,777

20 B—DOMESTIC TRADE

GENERAL—Domestic trade embraces retail and wholesale trade and part of the services field. The trend of retail trade is one of the most perceptive barometers of economic activity as it constitutes a large proportion of personal expenditures on consumer goods and services.

The fifth of New Zealand's 5-yearly Censuses of Distribution, which provide the basis for the monthly and quarterly surveys of retail and wholesale trade, was for the year ended 31 March 1973. It covered wholesale trade; retail trade; selected service trades; the hotels, motels, taverns, and restaurant group; motor vehicle trades including repairs and servicing; laundries and dry-cleaners; and cinemas. This section contains a summary of the results.

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1973—The Census of Distribution for 1972-73 revealed aggregate retail sales of $4,314 million, or average turnover of $128,100 by each of the 33,700 retail stores included in the Census.

At 31 March 1973 there was one retail shop to every 88 persons over 40 percent of them dealing in food and drink. A large proportion of the goods sold had earlier passed through wholesale stores, of which 5,215 with an aggregate turnover of $3,632.9 million were included in the Census.

Retail Trade—In the following table the main retail trade figures from the latest two censuses are set out. To allow for comparisons, a number of store-types surveyed only in the 1973 Census have been omitted.

Item19681973Percentage Increase
Number of retail stores29,33130,5864.3
Sales ($ million)2,099.73,968.789.0
Average sales per store ($)71,600129,80081.3
Labour force—   
Paid employees103,254147,62843.0
Total137,251188,32137.2
Salaries and wages paid ($ million)181.1376.3107.8

Some comparisons between the results of the 1968 and 1973 Censuses are shown by store-type group in the following tables. As in the previous table, store-types surveyed for the first time in 1973 have been omitted.

Store-type Group Number of StoresTotal SalesAverage Sales per StoreLabour Force
Paid EmployeesTotal
*Owing to the similarity of commodity breakdown between supermarkets and general stores, some 326 stores with a turnover of $39 million are included in the Miscellaneous group instead of the Food and Drink (packaged) group. These figures, therefore, cannot be truly compared with similar store types for 1967-68.
Food and drink—  $(m)$(000)Number 
Packaged19738,881*752.584.722,56037,028
 19689,915499.350.419,34533,313
Consumed19734,134364.788.229,57835,998
 19684,077198.348.614,11619,789
Apparel19734,565273.459.912,95517,830
 19684,119168.140.810,23914,194
Furniture19731,659213.0128.47,6159,359
 19681,578118.074.86,3277,648
Automotive sales19732,1081,054.9500.422,47124,821
 19681,344292.3217.56,3847,586
Hardware19731,093195.3178.76,1647,376
 19681,008119.4118.45,6646,568
Chemists19731,19397.131.44,1875,628
 19681,16758.550.13,5354,564
Miscellaneous19736,953*1,017.6146.442,09850,281
 19686,123645.9105.537,64443,589
Totals197330,5863,968.7129.8147,628188,321
 196829,3312,099.771.6103,254137,251
Store-type Group Average Labour Force per StoreTurnover per unit of Labour ForceTurnover per Head of PopulationAverage Population per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid
Food and drink— No.$$No.$(m)
Packaged19734.220,322253.033546.6
 19683.414,988181.427830.4
Consumed19738.710,131122.672066.8
 19684.910,02172.067523.6
Apparel19733.915,33491.965227.4
 19683.411,84361.166816.1
Furniture19735.622,75971.61,79323.5
 19684.815,42942.91,74413.0
Automotive sales19739.342,500354.61,41172.8
 19685.638,530106.22,04813.7
Hardware19737.726,47865.72,72218.6
 19686.518,17843.42,73111.7
Chemists19734.717,25332.62,34310.0
 19683.912,81121.22,3596.4
Miscellaneous19737.220,238342.1428110.6
 19687.114,818236.145066.3
Totals19736.121,0741,334.291376.3
 19684.715,298762.8x94181.1

In the previous table the store-type group "Food and drink—consumed" includes restaurants, licensed hotels, taverns, chartered clubs, cafeterias, coffee bars, fish and chip shops, and similar eating establishments.

In the 1968 Census of Distribution, licensed hotels were asked to supply only the value of sales of beer, wine, spirits, tobacco and cigarettes, with the appropriate related employment and wage data for that area. In the 1973 Census of Distribution, sales or turnover, labour force, and salaries and wages for licensed hotels also included accommodation services and a la carte dining rooms where meals were charged for separately to guests (that is, not included in tariff) and the general public. Also included in the 1972-73 figures were 22 licensed hotels (with total sales of $4.9 million) for which the provision of accommodation services was the predominant activity and which were therefore classified as service establishments, although a large proportion of their turnover (slightly less than 50 percent) was attributable to retail sales. The breakdown of sales for licensed hotels only was as follows: retail sales, $187.8 million; accommodation services, $37 million; wholesale sales, $0.3 million; and hiring and leasing services, $0.3 million.

The store-type group "automotive sales" includes the store-type "sales of motor vehicles (including motor cycles)". It should be noted that, in the 1968 Census of Distribution, only licensed motor vehicle dealers, wholly concentrated in the sale of motor vehicles, were included. In the 1973 Census, the store-type content for the automotive sales group was extended to include service stations and motor vehicle repair shops, taking in the sales of petrol, oil, parts, and accessories, and also repair and maintenance work. In many cases, where service stations or repair shops had car sale yards attached, and the sale of cars was predominant (that is 50 percent or more of total value of sales), such establishments would be store-typed as "motor vehicle dealers." The 1973 Census figures are, therefore, not a true comparison with those of 1968. The breakdown of sales and paid employee occupation content in 1973 is as follows:

(a) Sales—retail sales (including petrol, oil, parts and accessories) $895.9 million; wholesale sales $21.9 million; services (maintenance, repairs, etc.) $66.9 million; and hiring and leasing services $0.7 million.

(b) Paid employee occupation—managerial, clerical, etc., 4,380; selling and distribution (including petrol, oil, parts and accessories) 5,007; motor mechanics, auto electricians etc., 8,766; and other paid employees 1,338.

The following table deals only with those store-types first surveyed in the 1973 Census which were omitted in the previous tables.

Newly-surveyed Store TypesNumber of StoresTotal SalesAverage Sales per StoreLabour Force at 15 April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid
Paid EmployeesTotal
  $ (m)$(000)  $ (m)
Food and drink (packaged)—Milk vendors1,07925.023.22,2003,7521.2
Food and drink (consumed)—Caterers1809.653.21,6161,9312.1
Licensed motels205.6279.76706901.5
Totals20015.276.02,2862,6213.6
Automotive—      
Service stations1,545220.5142.77,2679,71521.6
Caravan and trailer dealers5510.3186.61292060.4
Powered boats and accessories dealers9016.0177.34185301.3
Totals1,690246.7146.07,81410,45123.2
Hardware—      
Timber merchants10245.2443.11,5431,6335.3
Concrete and cement products5317.7334.05856391.9
Totals15562.9405.82,1282,2727.1
Miscellaneous—      
Other miscellaneous120.541.729410.1
Totals, newly-surveyed store types3,136350.3111.714,45719,13735.2

It may be noted that the tables giving comparisons between the 1968 and 1973 Census of Distribution show total retail sales in 1973 as $3,968.7 million. The above table dealing with store-types omitted in the tables of comparisons show total sales of $350.3 million. This gives a grand total of retail sales or turnover recorded at the 1973 Census of Distribution of $4,319.0 million whereas the following tables show a figure of $4,314.0 million. The explanation of this discrepancy lies in the 22 hotels mentioned previously, of which the predominant activity was the provision of accommodation services. These hotels were accordingly classified as service establishments. However, in the tables of comparisons only, these 22 hotels were included with the bulk of the licensed hotels classified as retail establishments, and the total retail sales were accordingly inflated by $4.9 million.

In the following table retail sales are shown by method of purchase as recorded at the 1973 Census. Figures given in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total sales. A survey of hire purchase is carried out at quarterly intervals, and some results from this are given later in this section.

Store-type GroupCashCharge AccountHire PurchaseLaybyInstalments, Budgets, Store Credit, etc.OtherTotal Turnover (1972-73)
Not Assigned to Finance CompaniesAssigned to Finance Companies
*Receipts by chemists for dispensing charges claimed from the Department of Health were included under "cash" in 1968 and under "Other" in 1973.
Food and drink—   $(million)    
Packaged667.3109.9---0.2-777.5
 (85.8)(14.1)-----(100.0)
Consumed339.832.9----2.4375.0
 (90.6)(8.8)----(0.6)(100.0)
Apparel222.234.30.30.310.34.61.4273.4
 (81.3)(12.5)(0.1)(0.1)(3.8)(1.7)(0.5)(100.0)
Furniture64.2101.034.811.11.00.9-213.0
 (30.1)(47.4)(16.3)(5.2)(0.5)(0.4)-(100.0)
Automotive639.3420.566.8169.60.20.74.41,301.6
 (49.1)(32.3)(5.1)(13.0)--(0.3)(100.0)
Hardware47.5201.90.40.60.67.1-258.2
 (18.4)(78.2)(0.1)(0.2)(0.2)(2.8)-(100.0)
Chemists, etc.52.77.0----37.3*97.1
 (54.3)(7.2)----(38.4)(100.0)
Miscellaneous449.6474.342.38.27.326.69.81,018. 1
 (44.2)(46.6)(4.2)(0.8)(0.7)(2.6)(1.0)(100.0)
Total, all groups2,482.71,381.9144.6189.819.540.255.44,314.0
 (57.6)(32.0)(3.4)(4.4)(0.5)(0.9)(1.3)(100.0)

The following table shows details of all industries surveyed in the 1973 Census of Distribution by turnover-size groups.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1973Total Labour Force on 15 April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid During 1972-73Turnover During 1972-73Stocks at Close of Year (March 1973)
MalesFemales
$    $(m)$(m)$(m)
Under 4,000467361077550.11.10.4
4,000-9,9991,3283135952,6581.09.52.2
10,000-19,9993,6769992,4988,6734.456.29.5
20,000-39,9997,7314,0407,79423,39117.4227.231.9
40,000-59,9995,3864,1587,21419,41921.8265.736.0
60,000-99,9996,2318,12711,40728,70943.0480.360.8
100,000-199,9994,76213,62512,09531,75965.1652.981.9
200,000-499,9992,62118,62111,86332,61185.8800.496.9
500,000-999,99990914,3039,31824,15867.0634.878.5
1,000,000-1,999,99940310,4485,76216,40948.2554.562.8
2,000,000 and over18610,7587,32418,20055.9631.380.1
Totals, All Retail Stores33,70085,42875,977206,742409.74,314.0541.1

Of the 33,700 stores surveyed in the 1973 Census, 18,377 (54.5 percent) were owned by private registered companies, 7,843 (23.3 percent) by individuals, 4,675 (13.9 percent) by partnerships, and 1,960 (5.8 percent) by public registered companies. The remaining 845 (2.5 percent) were owned by a variety of organisations, including co-operative associations, licensing trusts, Government departments, and local authorities.

Geographical Distribution of Retail Trade—In 1973 the principal centres of population (urban areas) included 68 percent of New Zealand's population, but contained 69 percent of all retail stores, with almost 74 percent of total retail turnover.

Urban AreasEstimated Population at 31 March 1973Number of Retail StoresTotal SalesAverage SalesPurchases
Per StorePer Head of Population
 (000) $(m)$(000)$$(m)
Whangarei35.445566.51461,87950.8
Northern Auckland123.91,225130.01061,05098.8
Western Auckland99.172982.911483763.3
Central Auckland289.74,155585.61412,022429.3
Southern Auckland185.41,473204.11391,101156.9
Hamilton87.81,073176.21642,007132.9
Tauranga44.465673.91131,66556.7
Rotorua43.453089.11682,05566.2
Gisborne31.236454.91511,76142.0
Napier46.455066.21201,42749.7
Hastings48.258681.41391,68862.0
New Plymouth40.751974.91441,84055.9
Palmerston North59.8729108.11481,80981.1
Upper Hutt Valley33.026834.51291,04526.2
Lower Hutt Valley94.9957126.41321,33395.8
Porirua Basin52.029739.513375829.8
Wellington139.41,792281.31572,018202.2
Wanganui38.050861.31211,61246.2
Masterton20.628239.61401,92130.2
Nelson39.851264.61261,62148.3
Christchurch285.93,153404.11281,413303.8
Timaru29.539757.01431,92945.3
Dunedin112.41,334161.91211,440121.1
Invercargill52.3702112.81612,15884.6
Totals2,033.223,2463,176.71371,5622,379.2

The next table gives the number of stores and value of sales or turnover for boroughs with over 4,000 population not included in the 24 main urban areas of the preceding table.

BoroughsEstimated Population at 31 March 1973Number of Retail StoresTotal SalesAverage SalesPurchasesTotal Labour Force
Per StorePer Head of Population
   $(m)$(000)$$(m) 
Dargaville4,1609913.81393,31911.0623
Pukekohe8,04016425.61563,18119.91,058
Huntly5,2909513.31402,51810.6517
Cambridge6,68012214.41182,15711.2733
Ngaruawahia4,080573.7659102.7241
Te Awamutu7,06016622.81373,22817.61,019
Morrinsville4,44012721.61704,87617.6797
Te Kuiti4,85010812.81182,6309.6547
Taumarunui6,71011817.21462,56413.4731
Thames5,87012915.11172,56711.9653
Matamata4,19011814.41223,44311.4604
Putaruru4,62010013.31332,87110.4515
Taupo11,90019825.31282,12919.61,044
Whakatane10,25018729.11562,83822.61,217
Kawerau7,670568.01421,0376.2352
Wairoa5,54010514.51382,61611.2702
Dannevirke5,60012815.01172,68111.5763
Waitara5,320686.6981,2475.2346
Stratford5,38010515.71502,92112.4652
Hawera8,21017528.71643,49722.61,153
Feilding9,98015620.51322,05615.7962
Marton4,6709013.51502,88310.5573
Levin13,85022128.51292,05522.01,238
Blenheim15,60023632.41372,08024.71,593
Westport4,880969.0941,8526.6536
Greymouth7,75017118.81102,42714.4958
Rangiora5,1509113.21452,55610.2586
Ashburton13,70018832.51732,37426.01,405
Oamaru13,05021928.61312,19222.01,366
Balclutha4,7108214.61783,09711.5643
Gore8,88016427.51683,09721.41,045

Types of Retail Stores—In 1972-73, approximately 42 out of every 100 retail establishments dealt in food and drink, either for home preparation and consumption (for example, the bulk of the commodities sold by butchers, bakers, grocers, milk vendors, and so forth) or for consumption on the premises when the establishment was a restaurant, hotel, cafeteria, milk bar, or similar. Total sales of food and drink amounted to $1,152.5 million, almost 27 percent of total retail turnover.

In the following table, leading results of the 1973 Census of Distribution are given by both store-type groups and store-types. Unlike the store-type tables given earlier in this section, the following table includes store-types surveyed for the first time in 1973.

Store TypeNumber of StoresSales or TurnoverAverage Turnover per StoreTotal Trading IncomePurchasesTotal Trading ExpenditureCost of Goods Sold as percentage of Turnover*

*Cost of goods sold is equivalent to purchases during the year plus stocks at start less stocks at close.

†Builders' hardware stores, excluding stores selling timber and constructional materials.

  $(m)$(000)$(m)$(m)$(m)Percent
Food and drink (packaged)—       
Baker and pastry-cook, cake shop57020.235.420.410.918.153.8
Butcher, delicatessen, poulterer1,778125.670.7126.190.4116.771.7
Grocer and dairy4,983507.4101.8508.8426.7484.983.5
Confectioner1223.326.83.31.82.955.7
Fish shop (wet fish)2107.837.17.84.96.762.8
Fruiterer, greengrocer89838.542.938.628.333.973.5
Milk vendor1,07925.023.225.415.219.560.6
Wine shop, independent bottle store27139.0144.039.327.134.168.1
Other food and drink (packaged)4910.7218.610.98.910.282.6
Totals9,960777.578.1780.4614.2727.178.5
Food and drink (consumed)—       
Licensed restaurant12915.3119.015.66.914.744.5
Hotel, tavern, chartered club1,392255.9183.8259.7140.3240.354.6
Unlicensed restaurant, tearoom, coffee house, cafeteria1,20442.735.442.822.738.153.0
Takeaway food bar, milk bar, fish and chip shop1,38745.933.146.028.840.062.3
Other food and drink (consumed)20015.275.815.36.513.842.3
Totals4,312375.087.0379.4205.2346.854.4
Apparel—       
Footwear74448.665.348.833.944.768.9
Draper91161.467.461.743.757.968.9
Hosiery, lingerie, children's clothing, wool, corsets, millinery, and haberdashery73822.330.222.415.821.068.6
Dress and coat shop1,35869.551.269.849.765.669.3
Men's and boys' clothier74269.493.569.748.463.768.4
Other apparel722.230.72.31.21.952.4
Totals4,565273.459.9274.6192.8254.968.7
Furniture—       
Furniture store48281.2168.584.658.176.569.1
Floor coverings and soft furnishings34841.2118.541.531.940.672.0
Household appliance store59974.6124.578.952.174.068.4
Radios, television, etc.23015.969.316.410.915.464.6
Totals1,659213.0128.4221.3153.1206.469.1
Automotive—       
Service station (oil, petrol, accessories sales predominant)1,545220.5142.7221.8175.6212.879.2
Motor vehicles (including motor cycles)1,436985.4686.2992.0832.2955.583.8
Parts and accessories (including tyres and batteries)53665.0121.365.344.261.866.4
Other automotive28130.7109.331.323.929.475.9
Totals3.7981,301.6342.71,310.41,075.91,259.582.0
Hardware—       
Domestic hardware, crockery, glass and china33220.461.420.614.819.470.0
Paint, varnish, and wallpaper23825.7108.126.418.824.971.5
Builders hardware (*)21462.4291.663.446.857.774.1
Timber and building materials294137.9468.9145.2101.6130.872.8
Other hardware17011.969.812.37.811.363.7
Totals1,248258.2206.9268.0189.8244.272.4
Chemicals       
Chemist1,16093.380.593.764.485.767.3
Other chemicals323.8115.44.43.04.178.0
Totals1,19397.181.498.267.389.867.7
Miscellaneous—       
General store687129.5188.5131.6108.4126.283.1
Department and variety store379292.6772.0302.2210.5284.970.6
Toys, novelties, etc.37016.544.716.710.714.864.9
Bookseller, newsagent, and stationer1,26483.866.386.360.079.670.2
Electrical goods10413.5130.113.98.813.165.0
Florist2735.720.85.72.94.950.6
Jeweller53723.844.323.915.321.760.6
Pawnbroker and secondhand dealer34421.763.021.916.621.274.0
Seedsman and nurseryman26211.343.211.46.310.254.7
Tobacconist50513.727.214.010.212.273.7
Leather goods and harness1446.041.86.04.05.764.7
Music and record store13312.190.812.58.311.866.3
Office supplies store11127.0243.227.213.423.752.3
Sports goods dealer27618.868.318.913.717.869.7
Agricultural machinery and farm equipment17753.6302.654.738.551.267.9
Photographic dealer1317.255.37.35.06.967.9
Sewing machine dealer1178.270.38.45.17.661.3
Other miscellaneous1,151272.9237.1290.2220.7272.079.5
Totals6,9651,018.1146.21,052.9758.5985.573.2
Grand Totals33,7004,314.0128.04,385.33,256.74,114.274.5

The following table shows the number of retail stores handling particular commodity groups and the total sales of each commodity group during the year ended 31 March 1973.

Commodity GroupNumber of Stores Handling CommoditiesTotal Sales of Commodity
 No.$(m)
Groceries (excluding processed meat, fish, smallgoods, etc.)6,546367.3
Fresh and frozen fish (including molluscs, etc.)2,23612.3
Fresh fruit and vegetables5,10674.3
Fresh and frozen meat5,202154.3
Processed (other than tinned) meat, fish, bacon, ham, small-goods, etc.4,69031.6
Bread, cakes, and pastries5,98348.7
Milk, cream, yoghurt5,56236.2
Cooked take-away food, fish and chips, hamburgers, etc.1,99934.8
Beer, wine, and spirits1,985254.2
Confectionery, ice cream, soft drinks, snack foodstuffs, etc.8,69290.4
Meals consumed on premises and separately charged1,75064.1
Cigarettes, tobacco, and tobacconists' sundries10,29294.3
Drapery, millinery, haberdashery, soft furnishings, bedding, household textiles2,93998.5
Women's, girls', and infants' clothing and accessories3,343160.6
Furniture (including mattresses, blinds, etc.)1,21678.3
Floor coverings (including carpets, lino, floor tiles, etc.)85656.1
Footwear—men's and boys'1,91125.1
Footwear—women's, girls', and infants'1,74439.8
Men's and boys' clothing and accessories2,362109.4
TV sets, parts, and accessories (excluding rental sets)1,21914.5
Radios, record players, tape recorders, etc.1,31922.4
Musical instruments, records, sheet music, etc.77316.0
Domestic refrigerators and freezers1,18126.2
Washing machines, stoves, household heating and ventilation appliances, etc.1,28529.6
Sewing and knitting machines, parts, etc.56610.0
Other household appliances and accessories (including vacuum cleaners, motor mowers, toasters, food mixers, electric blankets, etc.)2,06732.5
Domestic hardware (including kitchenware, china, glassware, cutlery, garden tools, etc.)2,62152.8
Wallpaper and glass58915.0
Timber (including joinery and fencing)69891.2
Wood-based panel products (e.g., hardboard, softboard, plywood)34121.6
Cement, clay, plaster, and concrete products, sand and gravel, bricks, tiles, pipes, etc.57936.9
Paints and varnishes1,35424.9
Plumbing supplies4356.0
Electrical supplies (builders)46712.9
Hand tools (including electrical)1,00011.5
Other builders' hardware and materials (including structural steel, metal joinery, etc.)83455.3
Motorcars and station wagons—new775323.6
Motorcars and station wagons—used1,520335.9
Trucks, vans, buses, and other vehicles except motor cycles—new51167.4
Trucks, vans, buses, and other vehicles except motor cycles—used62031.8
Motor cycles and motor scooters—new26616.7
Tyres and tubes (including stock retreads and recaps)2,66543.7
Motor vehicle parts and accessories (including batteries)3,067136.4
Motor spirit (not including diesel fuel)3,095170.1
Diesel fuel1,4906.8
Lubrication oil2,47212.1
Caravans and trailers (including fixtures and fittings)21012.2
Boats, outboard and inboard motors, parts, etc.36619.3
Agricultural machinery and implements (including tractors, parts, and accessories)81567.6
Industrial machinery and equipment (including fork lifts, machine tools, parts, etc.)26836.3
Office and business machines and equipment, parts and accessories18622.5
Fertilisers and manures77548.1
Grain, bulk seed, feed, and fodder62769.4
Medical and pharmaceutical goods1,29925.0
Stock remedies54311.6
Agricultural chemicals58613.7
Toiletries, cosmetics, perfumes, etc.3,06639.3
Prescription medicines (including dispensing and payments from Department of Health)1,16239.4
Photographic equipment, accessories, and supplies (including projectors, enlargers, chemicals, and film)1,14410.5
Souvenirs and novelties1,34012.7
Travel goods, briefcases, handbags, etc., of leather or plastic7128.3
Sports goods and requisites, camping equipment, toys, games etc.1,85136.2
Watches, clocks, jewellery, precious stones1,39324.8
Seeds, plants, and other garden supplies (excluding garden tools)1,22415.8
Books, stationery, newspapers, magazines, greeting cards, etc.4,24792.0
Secondhand goods, antiques, etc.61532.1

The following table shows average turnover and average labour force per establishment, turnover per unit of labour force and per head of population, and the approximate number of times stock was turned over each year as recorded by store-type group at the 1973 Census.

Store-type GroupAverage Turnover per EstablishmentAverage Labour Force per EstablishmentAverage Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceTurnover per Head of PopulationNumber of Times Stock Turned Over per Annum
Full TimePart Time
 $  $$ 
Food and drink—      
Packaged78,0592.51.620,322253.021.2
Consumed86,9715.13.710,131122.629.8
Apparel59,8842.71.215,33491.93.8
Furniture128,3814.80.822,75971.65.8
Automotive342,7088.11.242,500354.611.8
Hardware206,9306.80.926,47865.76.4
Chemists, etc.81,4273.31.417,25332.66.7
Miscellaneous146,1805.81.420,238342.15.8
All retail stores128,0114.51.621,0741,334.28.7

Shopping Malls—Unlike the 1968 Census of Distribution, in 1973 no comparable statistics were obtained for multiple stores engaged in retail trading. Statistics have, however, been taken out for shopping malls.

The following table gives the total of all retail establishments confined to shopping malls, excluding service establishments such as hairdressing salons.

LocationNumber of Stores in Shopping MallsSalesStocks at End of Year (March) 1973Total Labour Force on 15 April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid 1972–73
Full timePart time
Main Urban Areas—No.($m)($m)No.No.($m)
Northern Auckland496.31.02091640.6
Western Auckland416.51.02341110.6
Central Auckland8810.02.14852291.3
Southern Auckland14221.72.76544571.9
Total, Greater Auckland U.A.32044.56.81,5829614.4
Wellington8714.62.05631841.5
Lower Hutt Valley242.80.499650.3
Total, Greater Wellington U.A.11117.42.46622491.8
Christchurch11616.32.15383041.5
Secondary Urban Areas573.40.4143860.3
Smaller Centres717.71.12721950.8
Other Urban Areas201.70.383230.2
Totals69590.913.13,2801,8189.0

The following table shows the number of shopping malls by turnover-size groups, together with the number of stores (including, in this case, service establishments), aggregate sales, and average sales per store for each turnover-size group.

Turnover-Size Groups of Shopping MallsNumber of Shopping MallsNumber of Stores in Shopping MallsSalesAverage Sales per Shopping Mall
$No.No.($m)($m)
Under 250,0007420.80.1
250,000–499,9998772.80.4
500,000–999,99911948.20.7
1,000,000–1,999,9993383.91.3
2,000,000–2,999,9993667.82.6
3,000,000–3,999,99937810.83.6
4,000,000–4,999,999515222.44.5
5,000,000–8,999,999312119.26.4
9,000,000 and over29418.79.3
Totals4576294.62.1

Self-Service Stores—With the advent of equal pay for female shop assistants, shortages of staff, and the introduction of more varieties of goods, combined with larger selling areas, the numbers of self-service stores operating have grown considerably over the past few years.

The following table gives statistics for the units which were mainly self-service in 1972–73, followed by those which were mainly counter-service units.

LocationNumber of StoresSalesStock at End of Year (31 Mar 1973)Paid Employees as at 15 April 1973
Full TimePart Time
  $(m)$(m)  
Main Urban Areas— Mainly Self-Service   
Northern Auckland17226.22.1470491
Western Auckland10720.11.1371325
Central Auckland52366.46.71,424898
Southern Auckland21642.53.1892749
Total, Greater Auckland U.A.1,018155.213.03,1572,463
Wellington21631.03.3884406
Lower Hutt Valley11118.32.3376197
Upper Hutt Valley416.80.514983
Porirua Basin489.40.617897
Total, Greater Wellington U.A.41665.56.71,587783
Hamilton14118.51.8429214
Christchurch35149.43.81,107516
Dunedin15618.42.1430184
Secondary Urban Areas729106.19.72,5391,029
Smaller centres45369.16.61,729693
Other Urban Areas30634.73.7705318
Rural32224.52.9346207
Totals, mainly self-service3,892541.450.112,0296,407
  $(m)$(m)  
Main Urban Areas— Mainly Counter-Service   
Northern Auckland1,053103.811.02,2831,551
Western Auckland62262.87.01,432711
Central Auckland3,632519.268.315,9985,039
Southern Auckland1,257161.618.83,8561,848
Total, Greater Auckland U.A.6,564847.4105.223,5699,149
Wellington1,576250.332.96,6852,851
Lower Hutt Valley846108.212.72,1661,322
Upper Hutt Valley22727.73.6574388
Porirua Basin24930.13.5681358
Total, Greater Wellington U.A.2,898416.252.610,1064,919
Hamilton932157.721.54,0671,239
Christchurch2,802354.750.510,3644,738
Dunedin1,178143.519.44,3711,532
Secondary Urban Areas6,061843.8115.024,6518,893
Smaller centres4,054548.572.614,4424,548
Other Urban Areas2,660265.634.97,1952,535
Rural2,659194.819.34,6382,013
Totals, mainly counter-service29,8083,772.6490.9103,40339,566
Totals, all retail stores33,7004,314.0541.1115,43245,973

Wholesale Trade—The total of 5,215 wholesale establishments included in the 1973 Census o Distribution had an aggregate turnover of $3,632.9 million, an average turnover of $696,627 per store (Oil companies, with 119 outlets and a turnover of $318.8 million, are not included in these figures. A separate summary is given later in this section.)

Auckland and Wellington (including the Hutt Valley and Porirua Basin) Urban Areas, together accounted for 46.2 percent of wholesale stores and 55.6 percent of turnover.

The following table shows details of wholesale establishments by store-type groups in 1973.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1973Total Labour Force on 15 April 1973
MalesFemales
Food and drink96910,7554,42615,898
Apparel and textiles4963,2222,2505,921
Furniture3122,2519463,423
Automotive3734,1231,1405,501
Timber and hardware8908,8641,96511,405
Chemicals2182,5161,2073,784
Miscellaneous1,95715,1386,62323,329
Totals, all wholesale stores5,21546,86918,55769,261
Store-type GroupAverage Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1972–73Sales or Turnover During 1972–73Average Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1973)
 No.$(m)$(m)$$(m)
Food and drink16.448.8880.062,05476.8
Apparel and textiles12.017.9289.055,11348.4
Furniture10.911.4202.163,84825.5
Automotive14.717.7407.075,10155.0
Timber and hardware12.838.1479.944,17186.8
Chemicals17.313.4209.459,14841.2
Miscellaneous12.073.41,165.654,797180.7
Totals, all wholesale stores13.3220.73,632.957,014514.4

A classification by size of turnover shows that stores with a turnover of under $100,000 numbered 1,641 (31.5 percent) but accounted for only $68,195,000 or 1.9 percent of the total turnover. At the other end of the scale, a total turnover of $2,522,193,000 (69.4 percent was accounted for by only 789 stores (15.1 percent) which had turnovers of $1,000,000 or more.

Amount of TotalNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1973Total Labour Force April 1973Salaries and Wages During 1973Turnover During 1972–73Stocks at Close March 1973
MalesFemales
$    $(000)$(m)$(m)
Under 6,0002314913041,0562,1520.30.2
6,000–9,999662421126790.50.1
10,000–19,9991841691335626512.70.5
20,000–39,9993794803751,3252,08111.31.5
40,000–59,9992835953311,2782,46614.02.4
60,000–99,9994981,4246672,5855,97639.36.3
100,000–199,9998283,3611,4115,33815,073120.819.6
200,000–299,9995202,8221,0634,26512,277127.521.3
300,000–399,9994022,9561,0624,20513,247139.724.9
400,000–499,9993012,6949223,77412,107134.624.4
500,000–599,9992042,0427552,8999,650111.721.5
600,000–799,9993243,9501,4605,57618,344224.737.0
800,000–999,9992062,7989873,90513,018183.628.5
1,000,000–1,499,9993035,5541,9767,64426,278365.554.0
1,500,000 and over48617,5097,09024,72387,2892,156.7235.9
Totals, all wholesale stores5,21546,86918,55769,261220,6853,632.9478.1

The following table shows a commodity analysis of wholesale trade, repair work, hiring, leasing, and renting.

Commodity GroupNumber of Stores Handling CommodityTurnover During 1972–73
AmountPercentage of Total
 No.$(000) 
Groceries, other food, drink, and tobacco459395,43710.9
Fresh and frozen meat, poultry, game, etc.191192,7895.3
Fresh and frozen fish, etc.14622,8620.6
Processed meat, fish, bacon, ham, smallgoods, etc., other than canned12238,7701.1
Fresh fruit and vegetables12465,5361.8
Bread, cakes, and pastries18341,0281.1
Milk, cream and yoghurt (wholesaler), confectionery, ice cream, soft drinks, etc.29671,5002.0
Other foods14750,8351.4
Beer, wine, and spirits167109,4823.0
Cigarettes, tobacco, and tobacconists sundries210111,5893.1
Fabrics, drapery, piecegoods, millinery, haberdashery, woollen goods, soft furnishings, etc.406138,3573.8
Footwear26831,8170.9
Men's and boys' wear27176,2052.1
Women's, girls', and infants' wear31892,1272.5
Furniture and floor coverings32792,2632.5
Television sets and parts (excluding rentals)8912,0990.3
Radios, radiograms, record players, and tape recorders17722,0460.6
Musical instruments (including records)4610,6610.3
Domestic and commercial refrigerators and freezers13831,7370.9
Washing machines, stoves, heating and ventilation equipment21235,1751.0
Other household appliances, motor mowers, electrical goods, and accessories37635,0611.0
Domestic hardware, cutlery, china, and glassware43861,9571.7
Building materials and supplies (excluding timber, bricks and concrete products)19133,9950.9
Wallpaper and glass13113,8920.4
Timber only, including joinery and fencing materials21966,9581.8
Panel products (wood based) hardboard, soft board, and plywoods12119,6480.5
Cement, clay, pipes, bricks, and concrete products, sand and gravel, etc.14445,3671.2
Plumbing supplies25960,5051.7
Electrical supplies28763,0391.7
Hand tools (including electrical)24212,9134.0
Other builders supplies, structural steel, metal joinery, etc.515184,9985.1
New and used motor vehicles62247,2846.8
Automotive parts and accessories, fuel, and lubricants522145,7644.0
Caravans, trailers, boats, bicycles, etc.16220,4450.6
Agricultural machinery, implements, tractors, parts, and accessories16232,5200.9
Industrial machinery and equipment464118,7113.3
Construction, earthmoving, mining, and quarrying machinery, etc.9627,8340.8
Other machinery, including office18923,6820.7
Florists goods, plants, seeds, and garden supplies24729,4490.8
Agricultural chemicals10421,8550.6
Fertilisers and manures10440,9041.1
Grain, seed, feed, and fodder9440,8361.1
Medical and pharmaceutical goods (including payments received from Department of Health)23170,3791.9
Toiletries, cosmetics, perfumes, etc.18733,2260.9
Industrial chemicals and allied products14471,3292.0
Books, stationery, newspapers, etc.21254,1601.5
Paper in bulk (not stationery)7838,1981.1
Photographic equipment and supplies6513,2570.4
Printers supplies, paper, and ink369,7400.3
Professional and scientific equipment, including medical, optical, and dental equipment13014,9320.4
Sports goods (including toys and games)21429,7830.8
Travel goods, leather goods, etc.14016,8310.5
Watches, clocks, jewellery, silverware, etc.27518,6310.5
Wrapping and packaging materials15624,1010.7
Wool, hides, and skins, and sheepskin products90205,2205.6
Other34531,0100.9
Totals, wholesale commodities..3,620,72999.7
Totals, wholesale repairs and services..10,9800.3
Totals, wholesale hiring, leasing, and renting..1,201- -
....3,632,910100.0

Wholesale Distribution of Petroleum and Petroleum Products 1972–73—Petrol wholesalers were not included in the previous tables on wholesale trade as the 7 oil companies surveyed under the Census of Distribution supplied aggregated figures for their respective installations. In all, 119 depots with aggregate sales valued at $318.9 million were covered by the survey. Details of sales of petroleum and petroleum products during 1972–73 are given in the following table.

Wholesale Sales of GoodsVolumeValue
*Included in these figures are the following over/under recoveries from the Petroleum Pool Account.
 litres (Million)$(Million)
Motor gasoline2,184.8209.9*
Aviation gasoline35.82.4
Lighting and power kerosene35.21.8
Jet kerosene201.18.2
Light fuel oil251.75.9*
Heavy fuel oil743.414.3*
Diesel1,074.140.4*
Other petroleum products..35.9
Total..318.8
 $(million)
Motor gasoline9.2 (over)
Diesel1.3 (under)
Light fuel oil0.1 (under)
Heavy fuel oil0.3 (under)

The following table gives a summary of the income and expenditure of the 119 oil company installations in New Zealand and also includes Head Office expenses such as sales promotions.

ItemValue
Trading income—$(million)
Sales of goods (see above)318.8
Sales of services (mainly to other companies in this group)6.4
Other trading income (interest, rent, etc.)2.6
Total trading income327.8
Value of stocks 
Beginning of year40.9
End of year42.1
Trading expenses 
Purchases of petroleum and petroleum products (includes refinery fees and coastal shipping charges)144.5
Commodity duties and taxes100.3
Salaries and wages (includes overtime)14.7
Rent and leasing of land, buildings, plant, vehicles, etc.2.9
Advertising and sales promotion2.6
Gross interest paid1.9
Transport costs—operating costs of own vehicles4.3
—Contract freight and cartage7.7
Depreciation on fixed tangible assets (as charged in books of account)8.4
Other trading expenses24.3
Total trading expenses311.6

All figures in these tables dealing with the wholesale trading activities of oil companies include inter-company sales but exclude manufacturing activities which mainly involve the blending and packaging of lubricating oils.

Total paid employees of the 7 companies surveyed numbered 3,211. The table below shows the fixed tangible assets of the oil companies.

Fixed Tangible AssetsPurchases During Trading YearSales During Trading YearBook Value at End of Trading Year
  $(million) 
Land0.50.610.6
Buildings0.10.15.7
Road transport vehicles1.70.77.1
Other assets4.90.442.3
Total7.21.865.7

Service Establishments—Service establishments surveyed in the 1973 Census of Distribution fell into 5 main groups as follows: renting, hiring, and leasing; accommodation; motor vehicle repair, maintenance, and servicing; other miscellaneous repair and maintenance servicing; and personal services.

Of the 7,416 service establishments, 5,516 or 74 percent provided services only, and in the remainder some secondary trading was also carried on. Services establishments covered by the Census comprised 5,350 (or 72 percent of the total) in the North Island and 2,066, or 28 percent, in the South Island.

The principal centres of population (Urban Areas) contained 70 percent of service establishments with 79 percent of the total turnover of such establishments.

The following table gives details of numbers and location of those services covered by the census in 1973.

ItemRenting, Hiring, and Leasing ServicesAccommodation ServicesMotor Vehicle, Repair, Maintenance, and ServicingOther Miscellaneous Repair and Maintenance ServicesPersonal ServicesTotal
Number of establishments2971,5762,1718592,5137,416
Sales or turnover during 1972–73 $(000)44,95336,72499,59729,80764,773275,854
Location of establishments—      
Main urban areas1763691,0594781,4073,489
Secondary urban areas754045061945241,703
Smaller centres22160298100336916
Other urban1623315267181649
Rural84101562065659
Paid employees on 15 April 1973      
Males1,6328706,0441,6784,26414,488
Females1,1483,36681042911,25317,006
Totals2,7804,2366,8542,10715,51731,494
Total labour force on 15 April 19733,0257,0759,9673,17418,38541,626
Salaries and wages paid during 1972–73 $(m)10.56.521.37.127.172.4

Service establishments are further analysed in the following table.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Paid Employees on 15 April 1973Total Labour Force 15 April 1973Salaries and Wages Paid During 1972–73Turnover During 1972–73
MalesFemales
$    $(000)$(000)
Under 2,000223202729525.5277.9
2,000–3,99946549117741165.71,412.4
4,000–5,99956037236988341.82,814.8
6,000–9,9991,1751458322,5061,357.49,303.2
10,000–19,9991,7506451,9485,0934,405.925,031.4
20,000–29,9991,0121,1821,4034,1115,244.024,899.4
30,000–39,9995469788892,6884,189.018,848.9
40,000–59,9996501,7991,2443,9887,773.731,960.2
60,000–99,9995552,5911,7805,15510,848.542,620.7
100,000–199,9993132,5111,8484,74911,602.542,486.4
200,000–499,9991322,5613,7106,36513,817.639,390.2
500,000 and over351,9702,9724,94712,620.536,809.1
Totals7,41614,48817,00641,62672,392.2275,854.4

The nature of the service establishments covered in the Census of Distribution 1973 is shown in the following table. It should be recognised that there are many other types of services.

Nature of ServiceNumber of Stores or Agencies
Personal services— 
Laundry, drycleaner, carpet cleaner, dyer383
Cleaner (office, window, shop)166
Men's hairdresser143
Ladies' hairdresser, beauty salon1,417
Photographer (portrait and commercial)223
Funeral director and undertaker78
Health centres, saunas, etc., gymnasiums54
Other49
Total, personal services2,513
Renting, hiring, and leasing services— 
Cars and other motor vehicles101
Television46
Towels and linen20
Apparel13
Motor vehicle repairs— 
Service stations226
Panelbeater714
Spray painter218
Car washer25
Car trimmer85
Engine reconditioners and engineers655
Auto electrician170
Other78
Total, motor vehicle repairs2,171
Excavation, construction, building, and agricultural machinery59
Office machinery and equipment13
Other45
Total, renting, etc.297
Accommodation— 
Unlicensed motels973
Motor camps and cabins275
Unlicensed hotels, guest houses, hostels, boardinghouses28
Licensed hotels/motels (accommodation predominant)43
Total, accommodation1,576
Other miscellaneous repair and maintenance services— 
Boot and shoe repairer102
Electrical goods repairer322
Watchmaker88
Carpet sewer and fitter44
Agricultural machinery and equipment repairer39
Gunsmith and locksmith15
Tool repairer and sharpener35
Other214
Total, other services859
Grand total, all services establishments7,416

Turnover figures for the 14 main types of service establishments covered were as follows: Panel-beating, $33.6 million; engineers and engine reconditioners, $28.5 million; service stations, $18.5 million; laundry, dry-cleaning, dyeing, $17.1 million; electrical repairs, $16.3 million; hairdressing and beauty salons, $16.2 million; office and shop cleaning, $15.4 million; renting, hiring or leasing office machine equipment, $14.5 million; car hire, etc., $8.0 million; auto electrician, $7.7 million; towel and linen hire, $7.9 million; licensed hotels (accommodation predominant) $7.4 million; unlicensed motels, $5.9 million; and renting, hiring television, etc., $5.2 million.

The following table shows details of numbers and turnover of establishments for the above groupings, divided into those providing services only, and those providing mainly services but with secondary retail or wholesale activity.

Type of ServiceNumber of Establishments Handling Service SpecifiedTurnover During 1972–73
 No.$(000)
Personal services—  
Services only1,97955,528
Services plus retail and wholesale5349,245
Totals, personal services2,51364,773
Renting, hiring, and leasing—  
Services only20218,135
Services plus retail and wholesale9526,818
Totals, renting, hiring, and leasing29744,953
Accommodation—  
Services only1,26320,424
Services plus retail and wholesale31316,300
Totals, accommodation1,57636,724
Motor vehicle repair—  
Services only1,59860,280
Services plus retail and wholesale57339,317
Totals, motor vehicle repair2,17199,597
Other miscellaneous repair and maintenance services—  
Services only4749,648
Services plus retail and wholesale38520,160
Totals, other miscellaneous repair and maintenance services85929,808
Grand totals, all services7,416275,854

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADE*—A quarterly sample survey of retail trade was made by the Department of Statistics until the December quarter 1969, but was replaced by a monthly sample survey in January 1970 and the results of this sample are aggregated to obtain quarterly figures.

The present sample survey was revised in January 1976, based on store-type groupings from the 1972–73 Census of Distribution. Some store types (hotels, chartered clubs, wine and spirit merchants, and the automotive group), are still excluded from the published figures. The collection of statistics for these store types commenced in April 1976 and the results are at present being used to establish a seasonal correction pattern for future surveys.

The following table gives quarterly sales and also stocks at 31 March for store-type groups. Figures prior to March 1976 have been linked to the new series to give a comparable long-term series.

Quarter EndedButcher, Poulterer, etc.Grocer and DairyOther Food and DrinkFootwearApparelFurniture and Soft FurnishingsHousehold Appliances, Electrical Goods, Radios, T.V., etc.Hardware, Builders' Hardware, Paints, etc.ChemistGeneral, Department, and VarietyOtherAll Store Types
*Revised.
     $(million) Retail Sales*       
1972—            
Mar29.7134.145.79.846.525.722.341.819.070.1121.8566.5
Jun31.4134.444.813.558.031.425.643.820.087.3124.4614.6
Sep32.7142.846.710.454.134.826.145.921.484.5130.7630.1
Dec34.9160.152.013.866.738.230.952.726.6108.4161.0745.1
1973—            
Mar34.2152.950.411.053.534.227.249.923.680.9148.5666.4
Jun37.8155.050.514.767.739.132.351.323.297.9147.1716.5
Sep39.9159.153.012.365.746.235.155.324.697.215.6748.1
Dec42.6181.760.416.678.955.243.367.531.9132.8200.7911.7
1974—            
Mar37.1170.357.412.965.544.539.157.826.599.5180.2790.9
Jun39.3173.858.316.279.554.547.256.827.7118.8178.4850.5
Sep37.6186.260.414.475.858.953.664.330.5115.5182.9880.2
Dec38.0214.265.918.987.958.961.374.038.3145.2222.71,025.5
1975—            
Mar32.3198.060.814.066.643.951.659.332.0102.9181.2842.7
Jun34.6199.861.119.888.952.967.161.433.7132.4187.7939.6
Sep35.7208.864.416.180.761.674.365.636.2132.2206.9982.6
Dec40.6243.372.221.299.369.983.877.843.5171.9275.11,198.6
1976—            
Mar37.4228.667.916.578.854.965.970.637.9123.1227.71,009.3
Jun39.9239.669.823.099.663.877.674.339.1148.9225.81,101.4
Sep41.0258.573.418.188.468.285.476.742.3140.2234.91,127.1
Dec46.4298.086.322.9102.975.790.091.752.8190.0309.51,366.1
Retail Stocks at 31 March*            
19701.531.83.914.657.917.219.730.811.955.992.1337.2
19711.633.74.315.862.819.119.033.413.063.596.8363.1
19721.335.24.217.570.520.820.836.714.468.8104.6394.7
19731.438.84.517.373.122.222.838.216.170.0104.3408.6
19741.744.85.118.584.029.725.939.118.487.3133.3487.7
19751.752.35.523.7101.647.537.647.721.2105.7150.9595.4
19762.063.36.626.8109.559.047.751.826.1110.0178.2680.9

Retail Trade Statistics Adjusted for Seasonal Fluctuations and for Price and Population Changes—To facilitate direct comparisons between quarterly figures, seasonally adjusted values of retail trade turnover have been prepared. To do this, seasonal adjustment factors were calculated representing, for each quarter, an average over several years of the ratio of sales in this quarter to the trend value for the quarter (the trend values being calculated as appropriately-centred moving averages).

A special price index has been prepared for the purpose of deflating the retail sales figures to give a series in dollars of constant purchasing power—i.e., the adjusted series shows the changes in the real volume of retail sales. The principal source of the prices used for this index are the commodity prices used in the Consumers' Price Index. The prices have been appropriately weighted and the whole index expressed on the base: year ended 31 March 1958 (=1000), so that application of the index to the original figures, both before and after seasonal correction, gives series in constant 1957–58 dollars.

The results of these calculations and adjustments are shown in the following table for all store types.

Quarter EndedIn Current In Constant 1957–58
As RecordedSeasonally AdjustedBefore Seasonal AdjustmentSeasonally Adjusted
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*

*Base: Average quarterly values during the year ended March 1958 = 1000.

†Figures prior to March 1976 have been revised.

Total Sales      
 $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) 
1972—Mar566.5599.32450342.7362.51482
Jun614.6628.42569370.3378.61548
Sep630.1651.62664375.8388.61589
Dec745.1672.72750441.1398.21628
1973—Mar666.4709.22900383.7408.41670
Jun716.5734.53003404.6414.81696
Sep748.1775.83172410.0425.21738
Dec911.7816.53338495.4443.61814
1974—Mar790.9816.63338421.9435.61781
Jun850.5873.43571445.9457.91872
Sep880.2903.83695449.0461.01885
Dec1,025.5915.63743505.8451.61846
1975—Mar842.7916.03745401.3436.21783
Jun939.6957.03913432.6440.71802
Sep982.61,007.74120431.0442.01807
Dec1,198.61,065.44356498.7443.31812
1976—Mar1,009.31,070.64377405.7430.41760
Jun1,101.41,134.74639426.4439.31796
Sep1,127.11,153.34715418.6428.31751
Dec1,366.11,201.44911488.7429.81757
Sales per Head of Population      
 $$ $$ 
1972—Mar195.05206.331895117.99124.811146
Jun211.37216.131985127.36130.231196
Sep216.31223.692054128.99133.391225
Dec253.35228.712100149.98135.401243
1973—Mar224.53238.992195129.29137.611264
Jun241.34247.422272136.30139.741283
Sep251.64260.962396137.92143.031313
Dec303.38271.712495164.85147.631356
1974—Mar260.60269.052471139.01143.521318
Jun280.28287.822643146.95150.911386
Sep289.89297.662733147.87151.831394
Dec333.95298.172738164.70147.051350
1975—Mar271.82295.482713129.44140.701292
Jun303.47309.092838139.74142.331307
Sep317.58325.692991139.30142.861312
Dec383.59340.973131159.61141.881303
1976—Mar320.45339.923121128.82136.651255
Jun354.12364.823350137.10141.241297
Sep362.41370.833405134.58137.711265
Dec437.67384.883534156.57137.681264

Information on quarterly sales is presented graphically in the following diagrams.

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF WHOLESALE TRADE—In this survey stores are classified by store-type group according to the predominant type of commodity sold. The store-type figures therefore do not cover only sales of goods normally associated with the type of store listed, as there are many wholesale stores which handle a wide variety of commodities.

It should be noted that this survey has altered coverage of wholesale store types as compared with the coverage of the Censuses of Distribution. For this reason, and because of the lack of uniformity in the trading year for which firms supplied census returns, care should be exercised when comparing the survey statistics with the censuses.

Certain stores (about a third of the food and drink group) which by nature of their business have a low ratio of stock to total turnover, have been omitted to facilitate collection and compilation of data.

The following table shows, by store-type group, the values of sales during the quarter.

QuarterFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicalsGeneral MerchantsMachinery (Agricultural, Heavy Electrical and Industrial)
   $(million)     
1974—Mar174.968.549.6156.9107.755.945.461.2
Jun181.078.060.5165.5119.058.049.561.2
Sep195.779.275.2189.7133.755.060.176.5
Dec225.284.369.9173.7125.757.059.376.9
1975—Mar198.975.353.2151.1113.148.546.177.9
Jun197.579.969.7185.3125.052.843.873.2
Sep211.886.078.5203.9137.357.848.181.5
Dec255.184.185.2187.5139.971.055.784.3
1976—Mar234.795.169.8174.8134.962.946.391.8
Jun236.694.281.8195.3152.675.652.391.0
Sep258.7101.495.0200.5166.973.261.198.8
Dec293.6103.789.3224.9164.384.965.9101.1
QuarterElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryGrain and SeedsRubber, Leather, and Canvas GoodsOffice, Printers' and Photographic SuppliesOtherAll Groups
    $(million)   
1974—Mar28.827.912.411.614.566.3881.5
Jun34.628.212.912.815.973.3950.5
Sep44.235.115.513.516.882.11,072.3
Dec42.833.112.511.522.189.51,083.4
1975—Mar36.831.111.210.518.475.5947.4
Jun43.531.111.812.519.187.01,032.2
Sep51.134.013.114.120.799.11,137.1
Dec48.333.813.613.726.5105.51,204.0
1976—Mar45.535.611.913.522.790.91,130.5
Jun53.336.713.616.026.2107.21,232.2
Sep57.940.118.018.322.0109.71,321.7
Dec50.739.017.017.528.7124.61,405.2

For firms excluded from the continuing survey, the value of sales recorded in the Census of Distribution 1968 was $218.6 million, or 13.7 percent of total wholesale turnover and the value of closing stocks, $14.3 million, or 6 percent of total stocks. The value of wholesalers' stocks covered by the survey as at the end of the March, June, September, and December quarters of 1976 were (in millions of dollars) $873.29, $885.68, $923.99, and $911.13 respectively.

INSTALMENT CREDIT TRADING—Instalment credit trading in New Zealand has been growing steadily in recent years in common with other developed countries. This growth generally is explained by common causes, including an increasing social acceptance and the development of borrowing facilities. There is an increasing tendency for consumer durables to be purchased on credit. Instalment credit allows high-priced goods to be acquired as opportunity or desire dictates, with less reference to the immediate cash position. Some people welcome the discipline of monthly credit repayments as a means of saving. Consumer credit is provided either by retailers or finance companies. A major activity of the finance companies is the financing of motor vehicles on hire-purchase; the Reserve Bank collects statistics in this field. A report by the Tariff and Development Board on instalment credit trading, published as parliamentary paper H.49, 1968, is a useful reference.

The Hire Purchase Act 1971 is the governing legislation in New Zealand.

Regulations to control hire-purchase trade have existed since 22 July 1955. From 3 March 1976 the minimum deposit on colour television sets was increased from the previous 10 percent to 60 percent and the repayment period reduced from 30 months to 18 months; hire purchase sales of new cars and light trucks were prohibited; and the repayment period for second-hand cars and light trucks was reduced from 18 months to 12 months. Earlier regulations made in recent years are summarised below.

CommodityDate EffectiveMinimum Deposit (Percent)Maximum Repayment Period (Months)
*Reduced by 3 months from 6 December 1968, except television sets.
New motorcars and light trucks7 Sep 19725024
 4 Sep 19746012
Secondhand cars and light trucks17 May 19685018*
 7 Sep 19725024
 4 Sep 19746018
Motor cycles17 May 196833 1/318*
 7 Sep 197233 1/324
 4 Sep 19746012
Furniture and furnishings22 Mar 19681024*
 19 Sep 19691024
 28 Mar 19721030
Other consumer goods19 Sep 19691024
 28 Oct 19701524
 28 Mar 19721030

A limited quarterly survey of hire-purchase trade is made by the Department of Statistics. It includes selected merchandising firms and finance corporations and for the 1967–68 March year surveyed business was estimated to cover 72 percent of hire-purchase sales recorded in the 1968 Census of Distribution. Only sales covered by the regulations governing hire-purchase are included in the quarterly survey. Credit sales, charge accounts, laybys, and other forms of instalment or credit selling covered by the Census of Distribution, and shown in an earlier table in this section are not included in the quarterly figures. The following table shows the value of goods sold on hire-purchase as recorded by the businesses in the survey.

QuarterMotor VehiclesPlant and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal Sold on H.P.Total Owing Under H.P. Agreements*Percentage of Payments Overdue*
Sold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. FinancedSold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. FinancedSold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. FinancedSold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. Financed
*As at end of quarter.
1974—      $(m)    %   
Mar50.324.925.48.82.46.41.10.20.912.1.910.873.0192.62.7
Jun52.027.024.99.63.16.51.60.31.313.32.111.376.5195.82.8
Sep52.727.924.89.33.06.32.00.41.614.22.311.978.1195.53.0
Dec43.125.517.610.43.47.12.10.51.614.52.512.070.1190.83.3
1975—               
Mar42.124.317.810.43.47.01.80.41.412.42.410.066.7192.53.3
Jun53.629.324.312.25.07.22.90.82.116.03.013.084.7185.53.3
Sep57.429.627.714.54.510.04.11.13.016.83.013.892.7200.24.6
Dec62.433.229.215.34.610.84.11.13.018.93.315.6100.7220.13.9
1976—               
Mar58.431.826.516.04.711.32.90.92.014.42.811.691.7224.03.8
Jun51.626.125.613.33.89.42.71.21.520.03.816.287.6226.62.8
Sep56.027.328.721.65.216.32.91.31.619.23.815.499.7234.33.3
Dec69.132.137.022.15.216.92.51.01.522.74.218.5116.4297.53.0

The average amount covered by hire-purchase agreements in the quarter ended 31 December 1976 was: motor vehicles, $2,304; machinery, $12,821; television sets, $442; other household and personal goods, $125.

Chapter 21. Section 21 EXTERNAL TRADE

21 A—GENERAL

GENERAL—New Zealand has always been heavily dependent on overseas trade for its development and progress. Today the value of New Zealand's overseas trade as a proportion of gross national product is among the highest in the world. In the early days of colonisation the infant farming industry found a ready market in Australia for basic foodstuffs such as potatoes, grain, butter, and cheese. Timber and gold temporarily constituted a sizeable proportion of exports, but the most consistent export was wool, which made up 22 percent of the value of exports in 1853, when statistics were first compiled. In the 1870s it accounted for over half the value; from 1880 to 1898 its share was from 40 percent to 50 percent. From 1899 to 1964 wool consistently earned one-third of New Zealand's export receipts; since then the proportion has progressively declined, and in 1975 wool made up only 16 percent of exports by value.

Real and lasting diversification of the exports of farm products was made possible by the introduction of refrigerated ships in 1882. This accentuated the development of New Zealand's economy as a complement to the British economy, to the benefit of both. The proportion of New Zealand's total exports going to Britain grew from 70 percent in 1860 to 77 percent in 1900, and reached 88 percent in 1940. At first, exports of frozen meat increased more rapidly than those of butter and cheese; the early emphasis was on frozen mutton and lamb, with beef and veal becoming more significant later. The great expansion of exports of dairy produce occurred after 1900, and was encouraged by the centralised factory production of butter. From 1913 onwards, meat, dairy products, and wool have accounted for over 60 percent of total exports of New Zealand goods. The proportion in the year ended June 1976 was 59.5 percent.

New Zealand's heavy dependence on the British market continued into the post-Second World War era. From about the beginning of the 1960s the increasing emphasis on diversification away from this dependence has been reflected in the growth of beef exports to the United States, of mutton and forest products exports to Japan, of lamb exports to Greece, the United States and Canada; the establishment of a rapidly growing trade in meat and dairy produce with the developing countries of South-east Asia, the Middle East, and Latin America; the expansion of trade with Australia under NAFTA and with other South Pacific countries; and the growth of manufacturing industries within New Zealand to supplement agriculture as a source of export earnings as well as to supply the domestic market.

Britain's entry into the European Economic Community has in recent years lent special importance to New Zealand's efforts in the field of economic diplomacy. Although the terms of the special arrangement concerning the importation of New Zealand butter and cheese into Britain were decided at Luxembourg in June 1971, this was preceded by an intensive programme of official contacts and representations both in Britain and in the countries of the Common Market. New Zealand's diplomatic and trade posts in Europe were strengthened to handle this work and, over the years, a programme of visits to New Zealand was organised for Ministers, senior officials, and journalists directly concerned with developments in the Common Market.

An important development affecting New Zealand's future trading relations with Britain and Europe arose in March 1974 when a new Labour Government was elected in Britain on the pledge to renegotiate the terms of Britain's terms of entry into the EEC. Of particular significance to New Zealand was the British Government's objective of seeking improved conditions of access for certain foodstuffs, including dairy products and meat from the Commonwealth. Following discussions with New Zealand, Britain submitted renegotiation proposals to a meeting of EEC Heads of Government in Dublin on 10 March 1975 making specific reference to New Zealand dairy products, and the EEC Commission was invited to submit a proposal for continuation of the special arrangement for dairy products beyond 1977 with suitable adjustment of prices. In June 1975, the British public voted by a large majority in favour of Britain remaining in the EEC.

In November 1975 the Community's Council of Agriculture Ministers approved an 18-percent increase in the guaranteed prices New Zealand receives for its butter and cheese sent to Britain, and in June 1976 it agreed on the terms of an extension up to 1980 of the special arrangement under which New Zealand supplies butter to this market. In accordance with the decision made at Dublin in March 1975, the Community is committed to look at the possibilities for continued access for cheese in the post-1977 period in the light of the problems which would be created for New Zealand if access was terminated (see Section 20A—Marketing of Farm Produce).

Access into the North American market is vitally important. New Zealand's trade with the United States is circumscribed by various quantitative restrictions imposed on beef, mutton, veal, and dairy products. The quantitative restrictions on beef, veal, and mutton apply from time to time, although the situation is reviewed every quarter, as provided by law, but New Zealand's exports of dairy products are subject to a formidable array of quota controls. Dairy products exported to Canada are also subject to quantitative restrictions, and quotas were applied to beef entering Canada in 1975, and between October and December 1976.

New Zealand's economic and trade relations with Japan have become closer. Bilateral trade has increased, both in volume and value, and consultations between the two Governments, at Ministerial and official level, have been extended. Continued efforts have been made to improve access for New Zealand agricultural exports, particularly dairy products and beef. Beef sales recommenced on a limited scale in the latter half of 1975, following the establishment of several small quotas, and have progressed slowly under the 6-monthly import allocation system adopted by Japan in April 1976.

The newly-independent nations of the Pacific have attracted particular attention since the formation in 1971 of the South Pacific Forum. There is now much more awareness of the scope for closer trade relations with and between the Islands, and New Zealand has taken several initiatives in this direction.

At the same time our diplomatic and trading links across the Pacific, with the countries of Latin America, have been extended and a significant volume of trade has developed. Credits are available to Peru to assist it to finance purchases of mutton and dairy products from New Zealand

Activity in the trade field has included other countries of the Pacific Basin. From April 1970 New Zealand has extended 6 annual trade credits totalling $4.0 million to Indonesia. A new trade agreement with the Philippines was signed in November 1976.

New Zealand's trade relations with Australia, dealt with in more detail later in this section, have always been close, but in recent years, and especially since the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement came into effect in 1966, two-way trade has grown at an unprecedented rate.

New Zealand's trade relations with the U.S.S.R. and Socialist countries of Europe have grown to such an extent that the U.S.S.R. became New Zealand's fifth largest export market by value in 1975. New Zealand's strengthening of its diplomatic and trade links with the Socialist European countries included, in 1975, the first visit by a New Zealand Economic Mission to this area.

The large rises in world oil prices have greatly increased the revenues of Middle East oil exporting countries and this has been reflected in the expansion of New Zealand exports to the region in recent years. New Zealand exports of meat to the Middle East rose from less than NZ$1 million in the year ended 30 June 1973 to more than NZ$27 million in the year ended 30 June 1976; wool from approximately NZ$6 million to over NZ$18 million; and dairy products from less than NZ$1 million to more than NZ$2.3 million.

The main markets for these commodities in the year to 30 June 1976 were Iran (meat, wool, and dairy products), Iraq (meat and dairy products), and the Arab Republic of Egypt (dairy products).

New Zealand's Primary Industries

Pictorial Supplement

NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEARBOOK

All photographs are by National Publicity Studios

The scope of New Zealand exports to this region has expanded to include not only significant quantities of commodities such as timber but also manufactured goods ranging from paper to aircraft and fishing vessels. Algeria, Bahrain, Kuwait, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates have all provided small but rapidly expanding markets for New Zealand products over the last 2 years.

The pattern of New Zealand export commodities is changing. Whereas in 1970, meat, dairy products, and wool comprised 74.13 percent, by value, of total exports, in the year ended June 1976 they represented 59.5 percent. In the same period manufactured goods, including logs and forest products, rose from 12 to 19.9 percent of total exports. The value of meat, dairy and wool exports has not fallen however, and in the year ended June 1976 it had increased in value by 58.4 percent over the year ended June 1970.

The following table shows the changing pattern of external trade by countries of destination and origin. The percentages are based on value data, exports f.o.b. and imports c.d.v.

YearBritainAustraliaJapanUnited StatesOther Countries
*Provisional.
   Exports percent  
1920745..165
1930803..512
1940883..45
1950663..1021
1960534..1330
June Year     
1970368101530
1972318101535
1973*277131538
1974*2110141738
1975*2211121243
1976*2012131144
   Imports percent  
19204817..1817
1930478..1827
19404716..1225
19506012..721
19604318..1029
June Year     
1970302181328
19722823111027
1973*2425131127
1974*1924131232
1975*1920141334
1976*1719151534

TRADE RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED KINGDOM—The preceding table shows that the United Kingdom has remained the predominant market for New Zealand's exports and the second biggest supplier of her imported goods. The British consumer for a long time enjoyed virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of trading arrangements reflecting traditional economic, political, and cultural bonds between the people and governments of the two countries.

In return for providing an assured market for this New Zealand produce, Britain obtained an assured source of reasonably priced food in war and peace, valuable preferences in the sale of manufactured goods in the New Zealand market, and considerable earnings from the provision of shipping, insurance, and other services related to the two-way trade between the countries.

In recent years the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's export trade has gradually declined. This decline was given impetus by New Zealand's increased efforts to diversify her export products and markets in view of British moves towards joining the EEC. Thus in 1950 the United Kingdom took 66 percent of New Zealand's exports, but by the year ended June 1976 its share had fallen to 20 percent. However, the United Kingdom is still New Zealand's main export market, taking the bulk of our lamb and butter exports (69 percent, and 53 percent, respectively, in the 1975–76 year), and about one-sixth of our wool and a substantial part of our cheese.

Entry into the EEC, involving assumption of obligations under the community's common agricultural policy, required Britain to terminate the 1959 and 1966 trade agreements with New Zealand on 31 January 1973, and to begin to phase in the common customs tariff and other EEC policies affecting the import of goods from those countries. In consequence, New Zealand phased out by 1 July 1977 the tariff preferences previously given to imports from Britain.

DIVERSIFICATION—Britain's prospective entry into the EEC also caused an intensification of New Zealand's efforts to develop new markets for its exports and to broaden the range of its export commodities. Progress in diversification by the dairy industry is reflected in the fact that dairy export receipts from markets outside Britain rose to 67 percent of the total in 1975 and 64 percent in 1976, compared with 57 percent in 1973. An important factor in the diversification effort is the greater exchange of views and co-operation between the principal dairy exporters.

Reference has been made earlier to the important structural changes taking place in New Zealand's export trade and, in particular, the growing importance of manufactured exports and of new markets, especially in the Pacific basin region.

North America—The United States is one of New Zealand's largest markets outside Britain, and the major market for beef and veal, taking 47 percent of our total exports of these commodities in the year ended June 1976. This trade is, however, circumscribed by United States import restrictions, introduced in 1964. These were suspended in mid 1972 but reimposed in 1975 and 1976. In October 1976 the United States imposed quotas for the first time since the introduction of the Meat Import Law 1964. Dairy exports are subject to a formidable array of quota controls. Not since 1973 and 1974 has New Zealand been able to take advantage of emergency import quotas for cheese, milk powder, and butter.

New Zealand's exports to Canada have increased from $10.6 million in the year ended June 1967 to $59.9 million in the year ended June 1976. Beef is our main export to Canada, followed by butter, sausage casings, lamb, wool, sheepskins, milk powder, apples, and textile yarns. In July 1973 New Zealand and Canada agreed in an exchange of letters to continue tariff preferences on the same general basis as those derived from their trade agreements with Britain prior to the termination of these agreements on 1 February 1973 because of Britain's entry into the European Economic Community. The July 1973 agreement included undertakings against increasing duties against each other, and for maintenance of margins of preference. In August 1974 Canada introduced import quotas on beef. These were removed in January 1976 but reimposed in October 1976, thereby limiting New Zealand's ability to expand sales to this market. New Zealand's main objectives in the trade policy field are to have the quotas removed and to obtain permanent access for dairy products.

Japan—Exports to Japan have shown a marked increase from $6.2 million in 1953 to $323 million in the year ended June 1976. Meat (mainly mutton), forest products, and wool comprise 39.3 percent of our total exports to Japan. Other principal commodities are dairy products, aluminium, and ironsands. Japan is our main market for mutton and until February 1974, when Japan froze imports under its global quota, it was our fourth largest beef market. A new global quota was announced in June 1975, and subsequent quotas have been announced for limited quantities of beef. Dairy imports are strictly controlled.

South Pacific—The Pacific Islands have attracted particular attention in recent years and in 1971 New Zealand and Australia, with the Cook Islands, Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, and Western Samoa, formed the South Pacific Forum. Since then Papua New Guinea has become a full member. The Forum has initiated a regional shipping line, and studies into market expansion for Island products, and the rationalisation of agricultural production.

Latin America—Peru, Venezuela, Ecuador, and Mexico have become useful new markets for dairy products. Peru is our main market in this area, purchasing largely milk powder and anhydrous milk fat and also live sheep, mutton, seeds, and casein. Chile has also purchased milk powder and anhydrous milk fat. Trade with Peru has been facilitated by several trade credits established in favour of dairy products and meat imports.

Asia—Activity in trade diversification has included other countries in the Pacific Basin. Annual trade credits to Indonesia have assisted in the expansion of exports from $0.48 million in the year ended June 1970 to $16.6 million in the year ended June 1976. In the last 5 years the People's Republic of China has become a useful market for New Zealand, increasing its purchases from $0.8 million in 1970 to $25.0 million in 1976. Most of this increase has taken place since the establishment of diplomatic relations in December 1972 and the signing of the Trade Agreement in October 1973. Wool and tallow are the main exports, but contracts have been signed for a number of new products, including pulp and linerboard, logs, boilers, and a range of hides and skins. The second meeting of the New Zealand – People's Republic of China Joint Trade Committee took place in Peking in April 1976. The committee, which has the task of overseeing the development of trade between the two countries, is to meet annually.

Markets have also been developed in Malaysia, the Philippines, Hong Kong, Korea, Singapore, and Thailand, for both pastoral and manufactured products.

Socialist Countries of Europe—Efforts have continued to be made to increase and diversify trade with the socialist countries of Europe whose purchases from New Zealand have traditionally been mainly wool, hides, and skins.

In the year to 30 June 1976 useful sales of butter were made, particularly to Poland. Some 6,000 tonnes of milk powder were sold to Yugoslavia for animal feed purposes.

In the year to 30 June 1976 New Zealand's exports to the U.S.S.R. increased to $62.1 million (mainly wool, mutton, and beef) compared with $45.5 million the previous year. Two large contracts for mutton and beef were negotiated with the U.S.S.R. in April and August 1976.

During a visit to Moscow in 1973, the Minister of Overseas Trade signed a protocol to the 1963 New Zealand - U.S.S.R. Trade Agreement, establishing a joint trade commission to promote the growth of mutual trade. The first meeting of the commission took place in Wellington at the end of 1974 and the second in Moscow in 1976. The commission includes business as well as Government representatives. Meetings of the commission are to take place at least every 2 years, alternately in Wellington and Moscow. The setting-up of New Zealand embassies and trade posts in Moscow and Vienna is now facilitating our trade development with the socialist countries of Europe.

In February 1975 the Prime Minister visited Romania and Yugoslavia for discussions on the development of trade relations between New Zealand and these two countries. While in Yugoslavia the Prime Minister signed a trade agreement under which the two countries accord each other most favoured nation treatment in all matters relating to trade.

The first Economic Mission from New Zealand visited Hungary, Romania, Poland, and Yugoslavia in September-October 1975. The mission was led by the Deputy Secretary (Trade), Department of Trade and Industry, and included representatives of commercial organisations in New Zealand interested in expanding trade relations with these countries.

The Middle East and Africa—Ministerial, official, and business contacts with the Middle East region have continued at a high level with the opening of an embassy in Baghdad in December 1975 and the visit of the Minister of Agriculture to Iran in May 1976. The Deputy Prime Minister led the New Zealand delegation to the first meeting of the New Zealand/Iran Joint Commission for Trade and Economic Development in October 1976 and later visited Iraq, the Arab Republic of Egypt, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Kenya, and Tanzania.

Australia—New Zealand's trade relations with Australia have always been close, but recent years have witnessed unprecedented growth in two-way trade, particularly in manufactured goods. The 1965 New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has been an important factor in this expansion. A number of projects for co-operation in industrial development, including the motor vehicle industry, have been developed and there has been increased co-operation in implementing the Memorandum of Understanding on Defence Supply signed in 1970.

The New Zealand – Australia Free Trade Agreement was signed on 31 August 1965 and came into effect on 1 January 1966. The main aim of the agreement, which ran for an initial period of 10 years, and is to be extended for a further period, is "to further the development of the area and the use of the resources of the area by promoting a sustained and mutually beneficial expansion of trade".

The central element of the agreement is its list of goods (Schedule A) on which duties are progressively reduced and bound at free in the tariffs of both countries. The agreement also contains general provisions governing the conduct of trade between Australia and New Zealand covering such matters as dumping, the maintenance of import restrictions, the encouragement of industrial rationalisation between the two countries, and the holding of consultations on a regular basis and for specific purposes.

The original Schedule A contained some 990 items. Since then a further 805 items have been added to give a total of 1,795 at 1 July 1976. On inclusion in Schedule A, goods free of duty are bound at free; goods with duties not exceeding 5 percent become free; duties of between 5 and 10 percent are halved and eliminated 2 years later; and duties of more than 10 percent are reduced by one-fifth on inclusion and by a further fifth every 2 years. There is provision for either quicker or slower reduction of duties where agreed to by both countries. Schedule A trade represents about 54 percent of total trans-Tasman trade.

There has been some reluctance on the part of manufacturers in both countries to accept inclusion of their products in Schedule A because of the resulting exposure to unrestricted competition. Accordingly, in November 1973 it was agreed to establish a series of new arrangements (Schedules B, C, and D), which provide for partial participation in the free trade provisions of the agreement, for example, by way of duty free quotas or partial elimination of duties. A number of joint panels have been set up by New Zealand and Australian industries to study the possibility of using the new partial free trade arrangements as a basis for developing industries on a complementary basis through reciprocal trade.

Complementary development of trade has been encouraged since 1967 by reciprocal concessions under trading arrangements between firms in New Zealand and Australia under Article 3:7 of NAFTA. Approvals for such inter-firm arrangements totalled about $60.6 million in the June year 1976. The new partial free trade arrangements, while not replacing the old arrangements, will offer wider opportunities, will not be limited to specific firms, and should encourage co-operation on an industry wide basis as well as co-operation between individual firms. The advantages of co-operation accompanied by the complementary development of industries are obvious; they include specialisation and longer production runs to supply the whole NAFTA area as one market. The reciprocal advantages available under the new schedules will encourage such complementary developments; in addition, in agreed circumstances, the two governments have decided to protect each other's production against competition from other sources.

Continued development of the concept of reducing tariffs within the NAFTA area as a preferential free trade area was the aim of an interim agreement on tariff rates and preferences concluded by a ministerial exchange of letters on 7 May 1973. This agreement preserves to the fullest possible extent for each country the benefits of the British preferential tariff system which formerly derived from the trade agreements both countries had with the United Kingdom prior to British entry into the EEC on 1 February 1973. The basic features are undertakings not to increase tariffs against each other, while maintaining agreed minimum margins of tariff preference over imports from non-preferential countries. In addition, the agreement makes clear the intention of both Australia and New Zealand to set tariffs against each other on manufactured goods at the lowest possible level consistent with protection of domestic production, while permitting reasonable competition from the NAFTA partner. Since 30 September 1974 the agreement has been extended by ministerial exchanges of letters. In due course it is expected that New Zealand and Australia will conclude a longer-term agreement taking account of progress in the GATT multilateral trade negotiations; the effects of British entry into the EEC; and the operation of this new interim agreement. It is also intended that the terms of the interim agreement should be taken into consideration in formulating any future long-term agreement between the two countries.

A number of special industry bodies have been established within the NAFTA framework to promote trade in particular products. Among these is the Joint Consultative Council on Forest Industries, the Joint Committee on Dairy Products, the Joint Pea and Bean Industry Panel, and the Joint Industry Panel on Sawmilling Products.

The tenth anniversary of the establishment of the NAFTA, in 1975, was the occasion for the Governments of the two member countries to set in train a joint review of the Agreement and its success in developing mutual trade. It was expected that this review might bring to light ways in which the mechanisms of NAFTA might be adjusted to take account of changed circumstances since the Agreement was concluded. However the prime objective from New Zealand's point of view—the creation of conditions that facilitate the expansion of New Zealand's exports especially forest and other manufactured products—would not change.

Trans-Tasman trade statistics are given in the following table.

June YearN.Z. Imports from Australia (NZ$Million)N.Z. Exports* to Australia (NZ$Million)Visible Balance of Trade with Australia (NZ$Million)Ratio of Imbalance in Australia's Favour

*Including re-exports.

† Provisional.

1972267.3113.3-153.91:2.36
1973323.5131.8-191.61:2.45
1974x452.7171.9-280.81:2.63
1975502.6188.3-314.41:2.67
1976514.5288.4-226.11:1.78

TRADE PER HEAD—Trade per head of population is affected, not only by the volume of trade but also by the value, i.e., the prices received for exports and the cost of imports.

The following table shows the value, per head of population, of New Zealand's trade over the last 5 years.

Year Ended JuneExports (f.o.b.)Imports (c.i.f.)Total Trade
*Provisional.
 $$$
1972x476.42429.31905.73
1973x609.33467.251,076.58
1974x595.53678.661,274.19
1975x529.71902.621,432.33
1976*763.90943.021,706.92

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RELATIVE VALUE OF TRADE—For New Zealand exports of goods are of greater importance to the national economy than is the case for most other countries. (Many other countries have a greater proportional income from the exports of services such as travel, investment, insurance, and shipping activities.)

In the following table the values of the exports of goods (excluding services) for some of the main trading countries are given as a percentage of the gross domestic product, and also the value of total external trade in goods in 1973 per head of population, using c.i.f. valuations for imports.

(Source: United Nations Statistical Office.)

CountryExport of Goods as Percentage of Gross Domestic ProductValue of External Trade per Head
197219731973

*Exports include a large volume of goods originating in inland Europe passing through ports.

†Fiscal year beginning 1 April.

‡Fiscal year beginning 1 July.

§ 1970.

  percent(NZ)$
Netherlands37*40*2,510
Belgium and Luxembourg44*..3,087
Switzerland23232,301
Norway22251,943
New Zealand20221,136
Sweden21..1,975
Canada19211,547
Austria19191,162
West Germany18191,386
France13..980
Israel1615955
United Kingdom16..874
Italy1616642
Australia15..868
Japan109489
South Africa1313251
Argentina7§..159
United States45465

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE—In the following table the c.i.f. valuation of imports has been used to establish the visible balance of trade. Gold and specie totals are excluded.

June YearVisible Excess of Exports

*Provisional.

NOTE: Minus signs indicate an excess of imports.

 $(000)
1970-71-23,809
1971-72135,973
1972-73417,842
1973-74-249,472
1974-75-1,141,556
1975-76*-556,086

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries (see Section 24B). A statement of New Zealand's overseas exchange transactions is given in Section 28, Banking and Currency.

TRADE STATISTICS—Provisional trade data are published in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics fairly soon after the period to which they relate. A quarterly publication entitled External Trade of New Zealand (Country Analyses) is also published.

Annual volumes are also published by the Department of Statistics, the latest available issues being Exports 1974-75 and Imports 1973-74 Part A Commodity by Country and Part B Country by Commodity.

New Zealand has used the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) as from 1 July 1962, for classifying external trade for statistical purposes; from the same date this classification was put into effect for recording the external trade of the Cook Islands and Niue. The SITC order was also adopted on 1 July 1962 as the Customs Tariff classification, but a move to the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature was made on 1 July 1967.

Provisional values of imports and exports are set out in the following table.

Period1973-741974-751975-76
Exports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.Imports
c.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Value
      $(million)   
Month of July124.1152.4162.7124.7205.5227.9140.9182.2198.9
2 months ended August279.2283.8303.7276.9414.2462.5282.3353.6388.0
3 months ended September419.7414.9444.3391.7634.4706.2432.6554.4604.2
4 months ended October565.7555.7596.2518.4858.1957.8611.5785.1860.0
5 months ended November678.8694.6747.9636.41,096.01,224.0783.21.018.21,111.4
6 months ended December833.5821.3884.5779.71,334.01,485.4963.61,248.81,361.4
7 months ended January977.5978.81,056.8895.11,527.41,701.01,120.81,459.21,590.7
8 months ended February1,141.41,124.01,215.31,025.41,740.31,938.71,319.51,641.31,788.2
9 months ended March1,316.01,269.21,377.21,139.81,912.92,18.81,544.21.993.62,164.0
10 months ended April1,497.91,428.61,553.51,303.82,101.52,334.31,765.32,230.82,423.4
11 months ended May1,639.11,637.91,785.91,458.92,273.12,522.71,993.02,458.12,670.4
12 months ended June1,787.61,842.32,014.21,612.62,470.42,737.52,371.62,693.72,927.7

Valuation of Exports—It has always been the practice to record exports at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, except during the Second World War when wool exports were valued at appraisal prices. Most meat and dairy produce exports are consigned for sale on overseas markets, and necessarily valued, on export, at the f.o.b. equivalent of the prices ruling at that time in the markets to which they are consigned. Price changes may occur in these markets before the actual sale of the produce.

The exports recorded relate to goods on vessels which have cleared their final port of call in New Zealand during the period.

Valuation of Imports—From July 1962, with the introduction of the Standard International Trade Classification, Revised, statistics on the c.i.f. basis (cost including freight and insurance) became available at item level.

The proportional difference between the two figures of valuation now made available—viz, c.d.v. and c.i.f.—varies from period to period depending on: (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods. (2) differential charges in import prices and in freight rates, (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchases and of shipping. In all the tables imports are now shown at c.d.v., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the imports entries passed by the Customs Department. Generally the imports entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf.

Annual Statistics—For trade statistics a June year has been adopted since 1 July 1962 and this accords fairly well with the farm production year.

The statistics of external trade given in this section (comprising the three subsections) do not include the trade of the Cook Islands, Niue, and the Tokelau Islands: statistics for these territories are given in Section 35 of this Yearbook.

The following table gives the values of the export and import trade for years ended June and December. The movement of specie is not included in these figures and gold is excluded.

YearExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.ImportsYearExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.Imports
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
*Provisional.    
  Year ended June $(million) Year ended December 
19721,375.01,152.71,239.019721,504.61,188.81,276.3
1973x1,792.01,282.21,374.11973x1,918.11,487.91,599.3
1974*1,787.61,842.32,014.21974*1,733.82,355.02,615.1
1975*1,612.62,470.42,737.51975*1,796.52,385.22,613.4
1976*2,371.62,693.72,927.71976*2,815.53,011.53,270.7

The following table shows for the June year 1976 the values of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the countries trading with New Zealand.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDED JUNE 1976*
CountryExports f.o.b.Imports c.d.v.
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of Origin
*Provisional
O.E.C.D. Countries— $(000) 
E.E.C. Countries—   
Belgium and Luxembourg25,15225,37116,797
Denmark2,8522,8987,261
France and Monaco65,17865,37625,468
Germany, Federal Republic of60,82861,57896,148
Greenland--4
Ireland5,6225,656839
Italy and San Marino37,92738,02833,372
Netherlands54,68355,10132,919
United Kingdom446,185449,415457,345
Totals, E.E.C. Countries698,427703,424670,153
Other O.E.C.D. Countries   
Australia264,897288,360514,464
Austria8058173,643
Canada59,87060,04053,454
Finland6607252,745
Greece42,51742,519242
Iceland--
Japan308,648323,377401,987
New Zealand (Re-imports)....3,842
Norway2,3352,4062,733
Portugal5,0885,0881,519
Spain7,7357,7374,897
Sweden3,6203,66649,764
Switzerland and Liechtenstein1,6471,70820,572
Turkey646649222
United States of America268,197277,029394,779
Totals, O.E.C.D. Countries1,665,0911,717,5442,125,017
China—   
People's Republic of China25,39925,39910,808
Province of Taiwan23,19023,1936,928
Asia—   
Afghanistan3322
Bangladesh1,5901,6211,915
Brunei74104
Burma--18
Cambodia--2
Hong Kong23,74424,22240,766
India and Sikkim91492722,447
Indonesia16,59316,8722,170
Korea, Democratic People's Republic of--70
Korea, Republic of13,78913,79118,534
Laos7373-
Macao1331334
Malaysia26,02326,13019,121
Maldives-2,725-
Mongolia--8
Nepal26626718
Pakistan4,4204,517529
Philippines25,13934,7495,969
Singapore26,79751,98085,211
Sri Lanka1,1681,1913,849
Thailand8,5798,6731,938
Vietnam, Democratic Republic of308308
Vietnam, Republic of12612684
Oceania—   
British Solomon Islands1,0591,154173
Fiji26,72430,84613,465
French Polynesia7,8638,291108
Gilbert Islands5986943,730
Nauru28829417,042
New Caledonia5,2575,40081
New Hebrides1,2011,3131
Papua New Guinea5,9586,1261,562
Pitcairn Islands1522
Tonga4,4634,9241,002
Wallis and Futuna Islands161167-
Western Samoa6,7227,4281,971
Latin America—Caribbean   
Argentine Republic1010303
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean4,9824,983416
Bahamas63763710
Belize1818
Bermuda1,6751,675
Bolivia--
Brazil7287335,644
British Virgin Islands1616-
Cayman Islands2222
Chile71132114
Colombia18318340
Costa Rica439439
Cuba--29,261
Dominican Republic1,4981,4983
Ecuador2,0352,0353,012
El Salvador1,1231,1233
Falkland Islands
French Guiana8484-
Guatemala727223
Guyana56756785
Haiti50501
Honduras--
Jamaica12,43812,461932
Mexico3,3423,342965
Montserrat1212-
Netherlands Antilles1,8681,868845
Nicaragua21921947
Panama3,2663,391-
Paraguay1
Peru16,51216,5148
Surinam1919-
Trinidad and Tobago10,00110,00787
Uruguay3131
Venezuela2,3722,3723
Middle East   
Bahrain1,2951,30634,112
Egypt11,88011,8815
Iran33,66433,66499,404
Iraq19,67719,8227,593
Israel25251,151
Jordan9697-
Kuwait2,5472,54760,027
Lebanon2952951
Libya1414-
Oman1,0711,071-
Qatar165165-
Saudi Arabia2,2012,20333,771
Syria3,0833,08313
United Arab Emirates2,1862,1892
Yemen1401401,800
Eastern Europe   
Albania--1
Bulgaria20320320
Czechoslovakia4,3664,3683,285
German Democratic Republic3,0913,091363
Hungary3,7613,761224
Poland23,44923,461924
Romania1,6281,628151
U.S.S.R..62,13062,1301,414
Yugoslavia11,22511,226670
Africa   
Algeria2,1482,1481
Angola11
Botswana....171
Cameroon52352353
Central African Republic--103
Comoro--
Ethiopia434388
Gambia1313-
Ghana1,5041,5044,656
Ivory Coast1591598
Kenya358359631
Lesotho
Liberia1313-
Madagascar--68
Malawi518519364
Mauritius1,9191,9192
Morocco2,1992,19929
Mozambique2,3762,376166
Namibia
Nigeria2,3492,4431
Reunion191191-
Rhodesia44
Senegal434434-
Seychelles88
Sierra Leone32323
South Africa7,1117,27511,510
Sudan141418
Swaziland21219
Tanzania4704802,380
Tunisia3131-
Uganda662,027
Zaire14514581
Zambia550552-
Other Countries   
Antarctic Stations (U.S.A.)2-
Cyprus2,8392,84116
Gibraltar9696-
Malta4,9054,90542
Totals, All Countries2,207,1912,305,3462,693,728
Passengers baggage60014,221-
Ships' stores29,95042,951-
Destination optional9,0879,087-
Grand Totals2,246,8282,371,6052,693,728

VOLUME INDEX OF EXTERNAL TRADE—For the index of the volume of external trade, both the import and the export series are linked chain series with changing (price) weighting patterns, each year being calculated on base previous year and then linked on. This revised series was described in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics May 1972.

Exports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (=1000)

June YearButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy Produce
19711000100010001000100010001000
197297395810161032107110471041
197391810311011108799410471046
1974x8537541023912732842889
1975x853697811985764898881
1976x1079881937110795110511033
June YearFood Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsAll Groups
*Provisional.
19711000100010001000
19721004131710741048
19731029167510351074
1974x9371918820953
1975x8911893827929
1976*104223349731094

Imports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (=1000)

June YearPetroleum and ProductsTextile Yarn, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery Other than ElectricElectric Machinery ApparatusTransport Equipment
1971100010001000100010001000
1972994106083310289571370
1973x11021090970102610561254
1974x133315701298145814541576
1975x128912801538177620141458
1976*12081029934135916561613
June YearFood Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
*Provisional.
197110001000100010001000
197297110429819941027
197310131086115511051086
1974x12471474139313271431
1975x14151524121712851468
1976*1152123797512071214

IMPORT AND EXPORT CONTROL AND EXCHANGE ALLOCATION—To ensure that overseas debt services would be met and sufficient funds be available for essential imports, there have been import control and export licence regulations since December 1938.

The Import Control Regulations 1938 prohibited the import of goods except under a licence or an exemption. The Export Licences Regulations 1938 provided (with minor exceptions) that an export licence had to be obtained before goods could be exported. In addition, the requirement of an export permit was introduced by the Export Prohibition Emergency Regulations 1939, which have since been replaced by the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953. The Import Control Regulations 1973 require that, except for exempted goods (which comprise over two-thirds of private imports), a written licence, or a written permit granted by the Minister of Trade and Industry is necessary for all imports.

Export Control—Three classes of export licences are provided for, viz, particular, general, and purchaser's. The particular licence applies to an occasional shipment, the general licence is issued to exporters who make regular or frequent shipments, while the purchaser's licence applies to those cases where goods have been purchased in New Zealand for export and credits have been established from overseas funds (e.g., wool purchases). A condition of the issue of any export licence is that the overseas exchange earned must be sold to a New Zealand bank for New Zealand currency.

Whereas the purpose of the Export Licences Regulations 1966 is to ensure that all foreign exchange earned is sold to the New Zealand banking system, the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953 control the export of essential goods in short supply, of goods on which subsidies have been granted, and of goods shipped to strategic destinations.

The Export Incentive Scheme introduced in 1962 enabled import licences to be made available to all manufacturers who manufacture for export or who undertake to do so. Import licences issued under the scheme are either replacement, assistance, or bonus licences. A manufacturer already holding a licence, or entitlement to a licence for raw materials or components may obtain a replacement licence to the value of the licensed imported content of the goods exported, produced for export, or in the course of manufacture against confirmed overseas orders. Assistance licences will be granted either in the case of confirmed overseas orders where production has not been commenced, or when a manufacturer not holding overseas orders makes a declaration of intention to export and shows that active steps to open up an export market have been taken. Bonus licences are available to manufacturers who have actually exported; they may obtain licences for raw materials or components either of the same kind and value as those used in the manufacture of the exported goods, or of a different kind provided that the latter have a basic allocation and that the grant is not likely to affect adversely the efficient operation of an existing New Zealand industry. Bonus licences are in addition to licences issued as replacement or assistance licences. Once a bonus licence has been granted the materials or components may be used to manufacture goods for sale either overseas or in New Zealand as the manufacturer decides.

Import Selection—Before 1973 administration of import licensing policy was the joint responsibility of the Customs Department and the Department of Trade and Industry. On 2 April 1973 the Department of Trade and Industry assumed sole responsibility for licensing administration in terms of the Trade and Industry Amendment Act 1973.

Import provisions are published in an annual Import Licensing Schedule. Summaries of changes in the schedules and import policies in general up to the period 1974-75 are contained in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

The 1975-76 Import Licensing Schedule provided, in general, for a level of licensed imports at 100 percent of the 1974-75 allocation. There were, however, a number of items where because of high stocks or downturn in domestic demand this level was reduced.

The objectives of the import licensing policies for 1975-75 were to ensure a stable market for industry, to utilise domestic resources to the fullest extent, to maintain full employment, and to encourage investment and greater productivity.

The 1976–77 Import Licensing Schedule provided an allocation of 100 percent of the licences issued in 1975-76, but when the devaluation of the New Zealand dollar and increases in the prices of imports were taken into account, this meant that controlled imports were effectively cut by about one-third. When announcing the new Schedule the Minister of Trade and Industry stated that it had been prepared "in a climate of the most serious downturn of New Zealand's terms of trade since the war".

The 1977-78 Import Licensing Schedule again made provision for most basic allocations on the basis of 100 percent of the previous year's figure, but again import price rises will mean a reduction in the volume of imports.

Industries Development Commission—The Industries Development Commission operates under the Industries Development Commission Act 1961. This Act was assented to on 19 September 1975 and on that date the Industries Development Commission superseded the Tariff and Development Board. The Industries Development Commission Act 1961 differs only in minor respects from the Tariff and Development Board Act.

The Commission's functions are as set out in section 7 of the Act and are to inquire into and report on matters relating to industrial development and protection at the frontier when requested by the Minister of Customs or the Minister of Trade and Industry or the Minister of Overseas Trade.

At present the emphasis is on the Commission's developmental function. Its current commitments are a General Textile Industry Reference which calls for a study in depth of the whole of the New Zealand textile industry and two small development studies, one on book production and the other on galvanised steel sheet and strip.

The Commission has reported on fish processing, carpet joining tape, and polyester fabrics during 1976. The report on polyester fabrics was a review of a decision by the Minister of Trade and Industry arising from a recommendation of the Emergency Protection Authority.

Emergency Protection Authority—The Emergency Protection Authority operates under section 10A to 10E of the Industries Development Commission Act 1961. It was set up under an amendment to the Tariff Development Board Act 1961 of 22 November 1967. Its function is to advise, when requested by the Minister of Customs or the Minister of Trade and Industry or the Minister of Overseas Trade, whether urgent action is necessary to protect New Zealand industry in relation to the importation of any goods and if so the nature of such action.

In 1976 the Authority reported on carpet joining tape and liquefied petroleum gas storage tanks (over 3,000 i.w.g.).

From 1968 to the end of 1976 the Authority had undertaken 174 inquiries.

TRADE COMMISSIONER SERVICE—Facilities for the promotion of overseas trade are provided by the Department of Trade and Industry through the service of 36 Trade Commissioner posts—Athens, Baghdad, Bangkok, Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Djakarta, The Hague, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New York, Noumea, Paris, Peking, Perth, Port Moresby, Rome, San Francisco, Santiago, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Toronto, Trinidad, Vancouver, Vienna, and Washington. While this representation is modest in comparison with other countries, it reflects the country's interest in the desirability of diversifying export markets. In addition, some Air New Zealand overseas managers act as trade correspondents of the Department of Trade and Industry. At present there are Air New Zealand correspondents in Tahiti, American Samoa, and Honolulu. Most Trade Commissioners have appropriate diplomatic or consular status in the countries to which they are accredited.

While the selling of goods in overseas markets is basically the responsibility of New Zealand exporters, the Trade Commissioner can be of considerable help in conducting market surveys and supplying information on import and exchange restrictions, Customs duty, sales tax, normal sources of supply (local production and imported), marketing methods, freight rates, statutory or customary requirements for packing, labelling, etc., and reliable importers in his territory. He may also assist New Zealand importers to locate new sources of supply of essential commodities. New Zealand businessmen travelling overseas may be saved much time and trouble by enlisting in advance the services of the Trade Commissioner, whose knowledge of local conditions and whose connections with businessmen and Government officials in his territory enable him to give valuable advice. His task is made easier if he is given adequate notice of the visit.

The Trade Commissioner keeps a careful watch on the pattern of New Zealand trade with his territory and reports on significant changes. Where imports from New Zealand are affected, for example, by a new interpretation of an agricultural inspection regulation, or by the imposition of import restrictions, the Trade Commissioner is often called upon to make representations at the official level.

Trade Commissioners are also engaged in numerous other activities, some of which are representing New Zealand at international conferences, reporting on economic and industrial developments in their territories, acting on behalf of Government departments in the procurement of stores, payment of accounts, etc., and maintaining liaison where they are stationed with business and Government circles.

Businessmen may write for information direct to the New Zealand Trade Commissioner in the country concerned but, where convenient, it is preferred that requests be made through the Department of Trade and Industry in New Zealand, which is often able to give preliminary advice and assistance.

The addresses of overseas representatives are listed in Section 38, Official.

Trade Promotion—A Trade Promotion Council has existed since March 1962 to advise the Minister of Overseas Trade and the Government on issues affecting the further development of New Zealand's export trade. Members are drawn from leaders of industry and commerce. The Council, which meets quarterly, offers advice and comment on the operation and development of government services for exporters and potential exporters; promotes the provision of export incentives and export finance facilities; assists in placing before the Government views and problems of industry in the field of overseas trade; recommends ways to foster a better knowledge within the business community of how to go about exporting and make full use of the assistance available; and suggests ways of achieving nationwide appreciation of the importance of New Zealand's trading situation for living standards.

The Council co-operates with other sector councils on matters of mutual national interest. The Council's Export Award affords recognition to individuals, companies, and organisations who have made significant contributions to the expansion of New Zealand's export trade. There is also the Governor-General's Award for exceptional export performance, which is open only to winners of the Export Award who have had at least a further 5 years' exporting with exceptional sustained export performance.

The Export Guarantee Office operates under the Export Guarantee Act 1964. As an offshoot of the State Insurance Office it insures exports, including contracts insured under the national interest provisions of the Act. In 1975 it insured exports valued at $159 million compared with $143 million in 1974. Since its inception the office has insured exports to the value of approximately $860 million.

Export-Import Corporation—A corporation has been established under the New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Act 1973 to engage in overseas trade and act on behalf of any manufacturers, producers, exporters, and importers who request it to do so, including the Government. During 1975-76, its first full year of operations, the corporation brought the total of New Zealand companies and firms contacted to over 600. To these firms it offered a range of services varying from documentation and costing to complete marketing overseas. In money terms, the Corporation was involved in actual business exceeding $3 million, of which it processed on its own account goods to the value of $2.3 million.

21 B—EXPORTS

GENERAL—The growth and diversification of the New Zealand economy are heavily dependent on increasing exports to pay for rising imports of goods needed by industry and a growing population, as well as to provide for large payments for "invisibles" in the form of services. Overseas trade is the lifeblood of the economy. New Zealand's export trade has become more diversified in recent years, as regards both products and markets. While the traditional export commodities, dairy products, meat, and wool, remain the backbone of the export trade, new commodities such as wood pulp, paper, and other products of our forest industries, and manufactured goods, are of growing importance.

In New Zealand copies of export entries are forwarded to the Department of Statistics for processing and analysis and the regular publication of export statistics. Exports are valued in New Zealand currency "free on board at the port of shipment". Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy-produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realisation, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. A distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

Since 1 July 1962, the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) has been used in classifying export trade.

MAIN EXPORTS—The following table gives total exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports (excluding gold and current coin) for the latest 5 June years by the main commodity groups.

Year Ended JuneMeat and Meat PreparationsDairy ProductsHides, Skins, and PeltsWool
ButterCheeseCaseinTotal*

*Including commodities not listed.

†Provisional.

For final figures see Latest Statistical Information.

    f.o.b. value $(million)   
1972399.0183.966.325.4355.262.2228.6
1973540.9137.179.222.0328.395.924.0
1974x534.1109.561.828.6333.167.0361.6
1975x442.2122.148.414.7291.262.7261.7
1976590.6204.178.227.0396.277.0455.7
Year Ended JuneSausage CasingsTallowFruit and VegetablesPulp, Paper, and Paper-boardTotal*Re-exportsTotal Exports

*Including commodities not listed.

†Provisional.

For final figures see Latest Statistical Information.

   f.o.b. value $(million)    
197215.48.923.133.81,346.628.31,375.0
197314.29.730.836.41,758.733.31,792.0
1974x17.213.836.051.81,746.241.11,787.3
1975x18.816.441.280.21,558.063.51,621.5
197622.725.448.8120.92,246.8124.82,371.6

The commodity groups shown above normally account for about 80 percent of the total value of merchandise exports. In recent years, however, manufactured goods have come to play an increasingly important part in New Zealand's export trade.

The relative importance of dairy produce, meat, and wool as the main individual constituents of New Zealand's export trade have varied considerably, as is seen from the figures in the preceding table. The preceding subsection includes a table of volume index numbers for these commodities and for manufactured goods and other commodities. A table showing the export price index numbers and terms of trade is given in Section 22, Prices.

For many years, exports of pastoral products averaged over 80 percent (by value) of New Zealand's export trade. Despite the growing importance of manufactured goods, they still make up about three-quarters. During the June years 1975 and 1976, exports of pastoral products made up 72 percent and 71 percent respectively of the total value of exports.

Of exports other than pastoral the principal ones of economic significance for the June years 1975 and 1976 were: logs of radiata pine ($12.2 m and $17.4 m), fish and fish products ($21.3 m and $30.8 m), newsprint ($20.8m and $34.3 m), sawn timber ($10.5 m and $12.5 m), wood pulp ($43.5 m and $58.7 m), apples ($19.3 m and $19.2 m), and grass and clover seed ($10.0 m and $4.5 m).

Quantity figures of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce are next given for the 3 latest years, while the Statistical Summary, towards the end of the book, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities for the last 50 years.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)June Year 1974xJune Year 1975xJune Year 1976*
*Provisional.
Mining products—   
Pumice tonne611394493
Cement tonne8,0624,7455,033
Coal tonne361,28410,395
Fishery products—   
Fish, fresh and frozen tonne10,17510,57711,095
Crayfish tonne1,6791,6331,724
Fish oils and fish-liver oils litre40,94219,36154,221
Forest products—   
Kauri gum tonne233
Timber—   
Logs, radiata pine (000) cu m1,054462635
Sawn (000) cu m244169220
For cases in shooks cu m1,5851,343520
Wood pulp tonne243,218312,169358,830
Newsprint tonne103,099120,587131,946
Building board (000) sq m744384382
Plywood (000) sq m7132095
Pastoral products—   
Butter tonne162,146164,171202,348
Casein tonne39,96517,11924,263
Cheese tonne69,48164,76380,760
Milk, dried and condensed tonne278,333159,869145,943
Sugar of milk tonne6,6196,1414,200
Eggs—   
In shell (doz)240,781383,059325,705
Not in shell tonne1,8892,8462,723
Honey tonne1,0265512,416
Meat, frozen and chilled tonne570,654616,786644,419
Meat, canned tonne1,8391,5122,191
Meat extract kg45,743118,083138,415
Other preserved meat tonne1,0997683,091
Sausage casings (000) hanks7,1226,3306,581
Liver meal kg337,718314,506550,530
Cattlehides (000)1,5671,5672,057
Horsehides No.2,306500425
Calfskins (000)9111,041981
Deerskins (000)9579112
Opossum skins (000)1,5801,7881,582
Sheepskins and pelts (000)27,52630,29627,526
Horsehair and other coarse animal hair kg26,5832,8297,644
Wool tonne213,158218,198271,796
Lard kg31925450
Edible tallow tonne19065366
Edible stearin tonne25-2
Inedible tallow tonne53,57971,57294,915
Neatsfoot oil tonne532374352
Live cattle No.8,8321,5262,793
Live sheep No.98,2354,980406
Live horses No.1,8641,8052,174
Agricultural products—   
Barley tonne1259,264
Apples tonne66,40979,71471,721
Pears tonne2,6321,5391,424
Hops kg29,41334,273-
Potatoes tonne11,0958,19816,287
Onions tonne15,4829,57531,114
Canned vegetables tonne2,0822,1352,045
Frozen vegetables tonne15,58810,7679,624
Peas, food tonne25,39421,63818,953
Peas, seed tonne11,34410,1458,366
Seeds, grass and clover tonne9,30911,4116,070
Seeds, other tonne432333513
Miscellaneous—   
Biscuits tonne2,2792,5722,374
Ale, beer, stout litre (000)4,3796,1424,202
Sugar kg610,694537,504215,549
Drinking chocolate tonne2,3594,8296,210
Cigarettes kg206,184224,951244,370
Cut tobacco kg72,19265,63499,097
Textile waste kg616,296757,172990,679
Soaps tonne1,2251,5291,362
Chamois leather sq m48,24347,55550,238

The values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)June Year 1974xJune Year 1975xJune Year 1976*
*Provisional.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Mining products—   
Pumice231625
Cement150140195
Coal126424
Other1,228138259
Totals1,402318903
Fishery products—   
Fish, fresh and frozen6,8447,20610,874
Fish, other1,7113,3345,534
Crayfish10,43810,74314,297
Fish oils, fish-liver oils201060
Totals19,01321,29430,764
Forest products—   
Kauri gum234
Timber—   
Logs, radiata pine25,88312,23317,447
Sawn13,38410,47812,514
For cases in shooks11013458
Wood pulp25,57943,49858,710
Newsprint14,53920,84934,298
Other paper and paperboard10,96215,02526,975
Building board487325269
Plywood65126724
Other8,3985,3321,762
Totals99,994108,144152,061
Pastoral products—   
Butter109,549122,097204,050
Casein28,60314,65227,031
Cheese61,76148,44078,222
Milk, dried and condensed130,635103,05582,845
Sugar of milk1,6691,9641,771
Other dairy produce2,5432,9184,025
Eggs—   
In shell104136166
Not in shell9381,039912
Honey9005351,804
Meat, frozen and chilled529,687438,187583,228
Meat, canned3,3652,7734,292
Meat extract109466557
Other preserved meat9877782,533
Sausage casings17,19118,84622,691
Liver meal11596137
Cattlehides17,72413,10722,769
Calfskins3,1233,2124,313
Deerskins483301423
Opossum skins3,8694,6384,380
Sheepskins and pelts41,13740,88044,706
Pastoral products—continued$(000)$(000)$(000)
Wool361,576261,657455,682
Inedible offals (including dried blood)6,2086,6046,066
Edible tallow5425100
Edible stearine4-1
Inedible tallow13,74516,41325,275
Neatsfoot oil123116131
Live cattle3,9251,8471,717
Live sheep1,978295115
Live horses9,0778,11211,369
Other7,1815,0765,572
Totals1,358,3641,118,2651,596,882
Agricultural products—   
Barley17,317
Apples12,98219,32919,172
Pears530397426
Hops4147-
Potatoes1,2731,0902,071
Onions2,2731,1973,687
Canned vegetables1,0411,0151,267
Frozen vegetables4,6913,6824,048
Peas, food5,9805,5385,971
Peas,seed1,7302,2412,532
Seeds, grass and clover8,85210,0044,523
Other seeds889798995
Other6,93111,78329,811
Totals47,21357,12281,819
Miscellaneous—   
Biscuits1,8012,2792,683
Ale, beer, stout9251,3991,153
Sugar163341100
Soups402496994
Drinking chocolate1,2433,2046,041
Infant and invalid food (cereal)17120698
Cigarettes1,0741,0551,581
Cut tobacco301307517
Textile waste345278482
Soaps6999751,157
Scrap metal2,3102,1762,263
Dairy machinery1,5892,4932,291
Chamois leather216217294
Vitamins and concentrates23130168
Other209,074237,413363,975
Totals220,183252,882384,398
Totals, New Zealand produce (excluding gold)1,746,1691,558,0252,246,828
Gold (excluded from above)34768204

In the following table exports (excluding re-exports) are summarised according to the Sections and Divisions of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised).

Exports, New Zealand Produce—Section and DivisionJune Year 1975xJune Year 1976*
*Provisional.
Section 0. Food and Live Animals$(000)$(000)
Div. 00 Live animals10,43213,439
Div. 01 Meat and meat preparations442,204590,610
Div. 02 Dairy products and eggs277,685370,219
Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations21,26830,662
Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations3,07919,116
Div. 05 Fruit and vegetables41,21448,782
Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations3,1304,094
Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof6,0688,871
Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)12,51321,438
Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations2,4256,573
Totals, Section 0820,0181,113,803
Section 1. Beverages and Tobacco  
Div. 11 Beverages1,6651,630
Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures1,3722,101
Totals, Section 13,0373,731
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels  
Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed62,65077,049
Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and kernels1648
Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed--
Div. 24 Wood and cork28,04431,725
Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper43,99759,039
Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and waste262,280456,809
Div. 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones319623
Div. 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap13,01115,207
Div. 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.s.40,03938,137
Totals, Section 2450,357678,636
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials  
Div. 32 Coal, coke, and briquettes26555
Div. 33 Petroleum and petroleum products15,58929,476
Div. 34 Gas11
Totals, Section 315,61630,032
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats  
Div. 41 Animal oils and fats18,02026,626
Div. 42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed3111
Div. 43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed464572
Totals, Section 418,51527,208
Section 5. Chemicals$(000)$(000)
Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds1.3981,980
Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas321
Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials9901,369
Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products4,1194,157
Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials, toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations2,5173,267
Div. 56 Fertilisers manufactured450387
Div. 57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products2761
Div. 58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins2,0662,101
Div. 59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products20,04736,738
Totals, Section 531,61650,081
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified by Material  
Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.i., and dressed furs9,51613,219
Div. 62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.2,0721,824
Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)7,6599,643
Div. 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof39,38166,597
Div. 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products20,13937,368
Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.s.2,9545,217
Div. 67 Iron and steel11,8069,049
Div. 68 Non-ferrous metals37,12669,802
Div. 69 Manufactures of metal11,78319,116
Totals, Section 6142,438231,835
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment  
Div. 71 Machinery other than electric23,10424,693
Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances22,64431,897
Div. 73 Transport equipment10,23017,322
Totals, Section 755,97873,913
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles  
Div. 81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures, and fittings8361,008
Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures1,9604,242
Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles1,0531,541
Div. 84 Clothing4,09212,148
Div. 85 Footwear1,1011,302
Div. 86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods, watches and clocks1,6752,839
Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.s.9,34614,143
Totals, Section 820,06437,222
Section 9. Commodities and Transactions not Classified According to Kind$(000)$(000)
Goods under $50 in value240261
Other149104
Totals, Section 9388366
Total New Zealand produce exports1,558,0252,246,828
Re-exports63,522124,777
Grand total, merchandise exports1,621,5472,371,605
Exports of gold (excluded from above)68204

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) are given in the table below. It should be noted that Australia includes Cocos and Norfolk Islands, and the United States includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Islands Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

CountryJune Year
1971x1972x1973x1974x1975x1976

*Including ships' stores, passengers' duty free purchases, and destination optional.

†Provisional.

    $(million)  
Australia96.7113.3131.8171.9188.4288.4
Canada32.240.142.452.445.160.0
France and Monaco27.641.861.737.743.365.4
Germany, Fed. Rep. of30.334.651.242.342.361.6
Japan102.7130.7231.5248.7187.1323.4
Netherlands17.020.139.846.936.555.1
United Kingdom384.7419.6480.2368.7351.7449.4
United States199.5216.6283.0300.2190.9277.0
U.S.S.R.17.925.430.237.945.462.1
Other Countries*223.1332.8440.1480.6490.9729.2
Total merchandise exports1,131.71,375.01,792.01,787.31,621.52,371.6

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded on the Customs documents. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and in normal times subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export, the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported on an "optional" basis—United Kingdom, option Continent. In these cases, however, subsequent information is received as to the actual destination of the goods, and the entries are amended.

It will be realised, therefore, that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

In the following table figures are given for the value of New Zealand's export trade to European countries. This table shows the importance of wool as the chief commodity in New Zealand's trade with Europe.

CountryJune Year
1971197219731974x1975x1976*
*Provisional.
    $(000)  
Austria316250574448199817
Belgium and Luxembourg25,52931,54842,67936,24118,40725,371
Bulgaria797355304889433203
Czechoslovakia1,6361,8483,0355,4234,0594,368
Denmark1,9751,6481,9741,8292,5642,898
Finland873,645966940819725
France and Monaco27,64841,82461,71737,72643,34565,376
Germany, Federal Republic of30,29734,64551,23042,33242,31761,578
German, Democratic Republic1,5732,1403,9805,7282,2833,091
Greece12,29020,42238,15521,68929,69342,519
Hungary1502839144155853,761
Italy19,22818,46031,62027,11420,86438,028
Netherlands17,01420,07639,78146,86736,49255,101
Norway1,1801,4921,9341,0161,7662,406
Poland3,2746,02516,85013,49210,56923,461
Portugal1,8321,7813,9073.9359665,088
Spain1,9623,1735,9755,7027,1437,737
Sweden2,1082,6543,1713,9654,3923,666
Switzerland1,4591,8241,7932,8142,0281,708
Turkey48521101147506649
U.S.S.R.17,92525,35630,19237,86545,35562,130
Yugoslavia2,1403,04112,13411,2082,17711,226
Totals171,255220,011352,988307,787276,964421,907
    percent  
Percentage of total New Zealand exports taken by European countries15.3216.2019.7017.2217.0817.79
    $(000)  
Value of wool exported to European countries99,515127,747227,266202,704153,053259,570
    percent  
Percentage of wool exports to total exports to European countries (value basis)58.1158.0664.3865.8655.2661.52
Percentage of total New Zealand wool exports taken by European countries (value basis)52.9855.8753.6056.0658.4956.96

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS—The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the latest available June years. Note: Australia includes Cocos and Norfolk Islands; United States includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Islands Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

Country to Which ExportedJune Year 1974xJune Year 1975xJune Year 1976*
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

*Provisional.

†Excludes that part of China known as Taiwan.

‡Excluding oysters.

Wool (Greasy, Slipe, and Scoured)
..tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia8,19415,0884,9347,69310,17419,858
Bulgaria615889452416184203
Belgium and Luxembourg14,30522,9397,6028,9738,56714,148
Canada1,5703,1721,2121,7501,5222,980
China8,30314,913--8,13112,355
Czechoslovakia3,6905,4224,2324,0572,8774,361
Denmark2233772323641931
France and Monaco13,10819,73517,69918,54925,87041,081
German Democratic Republic4,0685,7272,2622,2691,9653,091
Germany, Federal Republic of14,59425,34618,55623,86822,76140,862
Greece7,28114,56613,36821,58612,64524,879
Iran3,7027,0128,45912,0869,34616,193
Ireland, Republic of1,8693,0201,6861,9872,2584,029
Italy8,07313,6037,4868,5229,62616,205
Japan14,62028,15216,45521,12826,91344,098
Mexico352643417559270534
Netherlands22,17433,66924,33025,30925,24140,350
Norway111208234380147227
Poland4,7127,4927,4807,9858,38913,342
Portugal2,2253,3314915041,4172,384
South Africa1452776709845791,032
Spain1,1251,7531,2911,3111,7362,499
Sweden349627562853328479
U.S.S.R.21,54637,86221,72025,48627,62045,705
United Kingdom37,24361,70441,91146,65538,49061,381
United States10,80017,8196,6928,0448,95115,304
Yugoslavia4,3868,3371,4271,4845,8748,663
Other countries3,7767,8946,3398,8549,89719,409
Totals213,158361,576218,198261,657271,796455,682
Frozen and Chilled Beef and Veal
..tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean1,4451,6631,8361,4422,4841,982
Bahamas7110480605954
Belgium and Luxembourg433562742683614837
Bermuda8811,4858971,056691959
Canada24,01328,90022,25518,37638,76836,544
Cyprus8381,3567277351,4441,417
Fiji99214426436797703
France and Monaco6086101102606877
French Polynesia1,4712,7331,7392,6322,2533,714
Germany, Federal Republic of78143239364547687
Greece2352471,0948573,5343,515
Hong Kong1,3252,9351,6692,5802,4244,022
Italy47623225102202
Jamaica9551,1501,3651,0421,8731,488
Japan6,0268,8603,1223,7415,2237,228
Korea13341222
Malaysia254569499715632981
Netherlands250340282282393409
Netherlands Antilles5429054825181,0611,316
New Caledonia1241528298180329
Philippines4168554527668271,221
Singapore1,2992,4311,9032,9162,7174,586
Sweden1733982403906041,046
Switzerland24--1413
Tonga5754426191344147
Trinidad and Tobago1,3081,7871,5351,3694,1974,035
United Kingdom8,75111,3745,7606,4216,6617,262
United States129,132161,566139,379108,758127,975137,451
Other countries3,0404,5245,0775,24521,11718,221
Totals183,326235,464192,445161,804228,154241,268
Frozen Lamb
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean1,0198381,1738161,014826
Australia24719244354041
Belgium and Luxembourg1,0859228006821,1681,132
Bermuda303360296300175210
Canada4,0054,0464,9565,9238,2788,797
Cyprus884738600473961774
Fiji1,3748792,0271,0703,1701,764
France and Monaco3473285374969801,071
French Polynesia426523380406369452
Germany, Federal Republic of3,0702,3285,1533,6244,7324,270
Greece5,2533,6808,0735,74213,51912,543
Hong Kong721582468352701573
Iraq1,5001,1596,8164,96511,4239,856
Italy1,8521,6332,0811,5454,1323,896
Japan4,6513,7876,2045,09110,3708,921
Jordan3,0942,9423,0883,7157466
Netherlands1,5401,3671,9981,6341,9871,801
Singapore763588821640755651
Switzerland1,3641,3889889609241,067
Tonga5782607953051,437322
Trinidad and Tobago288254296232609515
United Kingdom198,654150,626208,476137,348215,209170,344
United States7,8278,0945,2525,86413,27613,491
Western Samoa647317828320923211
Zambia4744----
Other countries9,4766,93214,1199,77721,62917,752
Totals251,014194,808276,269192,314317,854261,347
Frozen Mutton
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean253153150643615
Belgium and Luxembourg22520510255189141
Canada776121125014
Cyprus11581164886935
Fiji267167285135289128
France and Monaco8274335239288194
French Polynesia6777111518
Germany, Federal Republic of1378516577186103
Greece3,5282,3591,044720136115
Iran12,5117,7203141239267
Jamaica1,3399282,6211,0231,298627
Japan54,49033,96134,48513,69039,32716,308
Korea, Republic of11,4906,76211,3264,07611,1943,626
Papua New Guinea414206356123483126
Peru2,0061,2634,0001,8811,697793
Singapore17214129518112387
Tonga43226929145
Trinidad and Tobago10274147709568
United Kingdom6,6514,4495,5972,24610,5545,017
U.S.S.R.--44,09319,80210,3764,315
Yugoslavia1,5001,158----
Other countries2,0661,5263,7101,7993,5591,702
Totals97,53561,469108,99546,34980,21933,704
Frozen Pork
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Belgium and Luxembourg3887--2149
Fiji121558801321
France and Monaco156333246436116335
French Polynesia2434
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)20326528312160
Japan8413064913576
Netherlands488554920
New Caledonia--..1
Switzerland428159--
Western Samoa554411
Other countries314310173878
Totals6211,048423678253641
Other Frozen Meat
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Belgium and Luxembourg552634218245144173
Canada2131921511201,148844
Cyprus1811181176113282
France and Monaco2,0902,8863,3464,3463,6145,530
French Polynesia177263165163162167
Germany, Federal Republic of2,4274,8632,7104,9412,5087,207
Greece560258501243
Hong Kong34223510176139177
Italy96-957557361444
Jamaica613413737322896455
Japan1,3141,2071,5599233,0592,530
Netherlands1,1001,9967971,1628861,205
Netherlands Antilles255189222130260170
Philippines9927109486528
Singapore164117186127172111
Sweden418481276233524274
Trinidad and Tobago386289299164794536
United Kingdom24,98020,31625,34522,23427,23122,499
United States4718283053641,8251,940
Other countries1,0701,0201,1968512,6481,702
Totals37,50836,42538,41436,81146,56846,077
Canned and Other Preserved Meats
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Fiji109171155286253546
French Polynesia194420229511172417
Gilbert and Ellice Islands466911231633
Italy4825301133464
Jamaica181073164
Japan2611762352144422
New Caledonia851467415075172
Papua New Guinea40529103048
Singapore1811222162101
Tonga131202173340162367
United Kingdom8471,6814115328321,254
United States83167167399352811
Other countries624678449712620759
Totals2,5053,8101,9723,2112,9694,599
Butter
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean294233538530448488
Bahamas257191361328355423
Bermuda313231405373215264
Canada8,5126,97510,0079,632
Chile1,0008321--
Cyprus1389536324953
Fiji1,1719161,3131,1801,5601,641
French Polynesia279228514553607777
Germany, Federal Republic of74473824448438
Ghana180162538565449465
Guyana---
Hong Kong5224321,082953886816
Indonesia5514713623702,4242,590
Jamaica3,0282,1124,2823,7143,8984,439
Japan13,45810,8361,4981,5124,1395,503
Malaysia1,9101,5718778834,5995,006
Mexico3,5402,9183,3473,5481,8592,047
Netherlands Antilles211159256221211249
Nigeria--486496555569
Pakistan18161161139494
Papua New Guinea218180157143188205
Peru10,5437,72410,1048,9167,4148,690
Philippines2,0301,7051,4921,5492,3412,537
Singapore1,2529821,2971,1232,9373,121
South Africa1421281,5991,461252278
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)--1815--
Thailand6184657478559691,046
Tonga158118162153175170
Trinidad and Tobago7645161,0679091,0461,029
United Kingdom98,28059,202115,06575,970112,550107,755
United States10,9278,6651,4571,2972,9644,740
Western Samoa226170210193217229
Other countries1,5311,2694,7404,48348,49748,387
Totals162,146109,548164,171122,097202,348204,048
Cheese
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean901607955780707690
Australia1,2541,3431,6561,7692,0042,419
Belgium and Luxembourg----
Bermuda167111195166102115
Cyprus235136161133120365
Fiji664773626472
French Polynesia120122120151115167
Germany, Federal Republic of----11082
Guyana235148210246432438
Hong Kong11476161122144143
Iraq5003553,3322,5313,9133,860
Jamaica3,0251,8582,8532,2822,8823,090
Japan11,5937,55316,84313,91518,44718,523
Malaysia382514142832
Malta12981336295394377
Philippines5874611,5061,2601,2481,221
Singapore218139141119165178
South Africa4793423,0502,670752673
Trinidad and Tobago1,6781,0611,9931,5161,7931,805
United Kingdom18,52614,07725,11015,39832,75426,323
United States29,20432,8894,1303,52412,69815,768
Other countries4113321,9251,4881,8891,881
Totals69,48161,76164,76348,44080,76078,222
Milk (Dried, Condensed, etc.)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean4302001,124712847440
Brazil18,0828,0972,4851,342--
Chile25,02010,9655,9583,248--
China (Province of Taiwan)5,6503,3272,8031,9455,1884,351
Costa Rica1,7038631,642907300153
Fiji1,1706041,1666591,244863
Ghana4,0091,7215,1063,2811,047518
Hong Kong9194528976611,023656
India7,5513,70841255229
Indonesia7,7223,7265,8433,85612,7325,548
Iraq6032451,8611,257854633
Jamaica8,5483,8472,8701,7313,9801,964
Japan21,9259,48513,2758,57718,8929,165
Malagasy Republic1,197550599410--
Malaysia26,84012,83823,80615,84428,05115,880
Mauritius4752881,247979475403
Mozambique1,5416932,4461,4882,0641,057
Pakistan3742082,4841,2375032
Peru26,24011,77426,96516,95410,6526,544
Philippines35,88816,26822,51115,12820,80410,880
Senegal943383811548--
Singapore10,0074,9495,2933,5269,0085,170
South Africa49161,9711,3621,106565
South Vietnam4,3711,864562297--
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)1,0694992,4641,2681,8461,068
Thailand13,2596,0797,3574,6447,3444,001
Trinidad and Tobago4,3232,3222,4682,0872,1291,744
United States21,25912,8192,6771,8331,253928
Western Samoa333201330267327238
Zambia840347167141123159
Other Countries25,99211,29810,6396,84214,5519,856
Totals278,333130,635159,869103,055145,94382,845
Casein
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Canada334244102122234242
France and Monaco371280170189197245
Germany, Federal Republic of4,2182,8512,9092,2601,1901,257
India115777
Italy1,5881,09099874547
Japan13,4659,3937,4546,2277,5998,869
Netherlands9717098881,0271,1331,252
Spain533735464044
Sweden1513----
United Kingdom1,7321,351354404709799
United States16,01111,7534,9324,06212,11713,145
Other Countries1,2048811702219921,125
Totals39,96528,60317,11914,65224,26327,031
Edible Tallow
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Fiji309--2510
Japan246--15554
Malaysia----103
Singapore----3010
Tanzania----305
United Kingdom2553515104
Other countries11134301110615
Totals190546525366100
Inedible Tallow
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia1635343--
Burma--479170--
China4,3171,12721,7365,35120,4645,850
Fiji1,6595681,5494951,715451
France and Monaco6,7271,8948,0721,5382,702579
Germany, Federal Republic of5731154896141285
India----427
Japan14,0323,8737,2121,50130,5268,127
Kenya2496429162537171
Malaysia1,20529973820124170
Mauritius5471133297141168
Mozambique1,5213461,826495798186
Netherlands6,8581,5103,2165944,3851,138
Philippines5010800217754215
Singapore--903277--
South Africa9612311,3823351,579442
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)11727----
Trinidad and Tobago--5010--
United Kingdom5,9681,4514,7971,0107,7822,105
Other countries8,6322,06317,6994,02222,5675,782
Totals53,57913,74571,57216,41394,91525,275
Cattle and Horse Hides
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia1,070690353190544356
China12769--1,362651
Denmark23813629612612449
Germany, Federal Republic of23013534497234115
Greece7555221,1504191,7271,043
Italy9,0805,31111,7725,05711,5236,364
Japan2,6761,7273,6912,01512,2537,280
Netherlands5472867012561,147686
Norway331200333125655335
Poland8,7575,8324,7762,4131,630992
Spain9885661,3123741,144389
United Kingdom32921717..955428
Yugoslavia2,0761,1321,6206932,5321,456
Other countries1,9031,0523,5091,3604,7082,631
Totals29,10717,87529,87413,13440,53922,774
Calf and Kip Skins
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia695624
France and Monaco457214719538
Germany, Federal Republic of1541219410793160
Italy1,0221,5741,3221,7771,8453,291
Japan264362181206224411
Netherlands76921113212
Spain1331712723334785
United Kingdom1662598518387
Other countries507464544393488336
Totals2,3743,1232,6623,2122,7134,313
Sheepskins (With Wool)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
France and Monaco1,1621,2632,0331,4851,6901,428
Italy315630202627
Netherlands7394--199
Portugal1210----
Spain304312131899088
United Kingdom2,7381,6224,0731,7981,9471,458
Other countries4408853311,0056141,329
Totals4,7614,2416,5984,3984,3864,340
Sheepskins (Without Wool)
 doz(000)$(000)doz(000)$(000)doz(000)$(000)
Australia3625614
Belgium and Luxembourg3757,4541893,1681713,931
Canada14245132146107
Finland293663236614171
France and Monaco4346,87067210,7783716,641
Germany, Federal Republic of233272738313194
Italy1162,0221051,5932053,672
Netherlands1663,5091141,9261253,311
Spain1822,4652763,6642172,823
United Kingdom4047,3993064,7803526,394
United States3925,6985298,72264512,653
Other countries274805482629466
Totals2,16536,8962,32436,4822,14640,367
Sausage Casings
 hanks hanks hanks 
 (000)$(000)(000)$(000)(000)$(000)
Australia14437411541247180
Canada1,7244,3271,4424,3811,4065,002
Germany, Federal Republic of4381,1234901,6934711,925
Japan5271,3111253753861,210
United Kingdom2,2825,2811,9515,5001,7885,410
United States1,6594,0901,8125,5341,9236,853
Yugoslavia----27134
Other countries3476863969515331,978
Totals7,12217,1916,33018,8466,58122,691
Apples (Fresh Whole Fruit)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Belgium and Luxembourg6,4081,2369,2542,223--
Canada5,4701,0555,3871,3363,357919
Fiji527140467140490173
Finland------
French Polynesia32089366108341124
Germany, Federal Republic of8,3951,6191,090268--
Hong Kong2,0363934,1218943,468929
Ireland, Republic of--1,7024221,248299
New Caledonia44311931894427149
Netherlands--1,273316--
Singapore1,8813644,2239324,2621,104
Sweden6,8961,3157,2811,8062,489686
United Kingdom28,0245,48836,0968,82427,0877,309
United States3,5816924,9061,2176,7551,859
Venezuela1,328256833207979270
Other countries1,0242022,2545181,535308
Destination optional----19,1995,027
Totals66,33212,96879,57119,30571,63719,157
Seeds (Grass and Clover)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia1,8681,9628995641,567752
Chile1,1271,3351,2951,384--
France and Monaco6375531,8951,4891,4821,050
Germany, Federal Republic of5384371,0181,080356270
Ireland, Republic of1,0516247976546547
Italy66551471017687
Japan133180212294433366
Netherlands1451332122104320
South Africa2523139879541
United Kingdom2,4982,3522,6932,1811,026958
United States387359549595358458
Uruguay120219101170--
Other countries7136221,4531,196569474
Totals9,3098,85211,41010,0046,0704,523
Peas (Food), Including Frozen
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia5,1642,8404,1672,5544,5473,889
Belgium and Luxembourg1,7893042,7704011,132184
Fiji1,1133107232431,930458
Hong Kong4431044114126
Japan6,1571,5253,3379537,1511,507
Netherlands8,1761,1692,145275780153
Singapore3918844612831273
South Africa1,9554014,4159982,086549
United Kingdom4,6868264,4066592,666508
United States357516279857088
Other countries3,8057033,1966862,986567
Totals34,0368,31926,2727,00824,1727,982
Peas (Seed)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia3,0854724,6729783,5611,131
Fiji92212430
France and Monaco118183710176
Germany. Federal Republic of445--103
Italy123219219--
Japan207433598817
Netherlands3044587193612
South Africa46084451118644198
United Kingdom6,3159334,3999823,8071,109
Other countries6791063691058025
Totals11,3441,73010,1452,2418,3662,532
Wood Pulp and Waste Paper
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia111,07112,945129,74719,584137,78124,536
Japan89,0946,700141,82414,864152,77818,115
Philippines26,3773,52321,8254,57913,6423,250
Other countries19,2972,65523,7734,97061,53713,138
Totals245,83825,824317,16943,997365,73859,039
Timber (Sawn Conifer)
 cu m(000)$(000)cu m(000)$(000)cu m(000)$(000)
Australia946,137594,0811076,685
Japan1215,143824,040934,087
New Caledonia855685805343
Tonga211643062220
United States4291217726
Western Samoa19219319
Other countries10656118169728
Totals24012,99216610,09221712,109
Sawlogs and Veneer Logs (Conifer)
 cu m(000)$(000)cu m(000)$(000)cu m(000)$(000)
Australia----6
Japan1,27531,20363216,41365717,992
Korea, Republic of18441--13372
Other countries3325696
Totals1,29331,64763216,41669619,066
Fish(Other than Canned)
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia2,9762,5803,7694,0804,0675,364
France and Monaco40501953003831,049
Japan3,9674,4211,8821,0243,5704,233
Netherlands5864319489927891,154
United States2,5128,6363,04710,7081,65913,064
Western Samoa2508881721524093
Other countries1,7341,2722,0461,6973,0203,034
Totals12,06617,47712,70419,01713,72827,992
Newsprint
 tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)tonnes$(000)
Australia99,95614,161111,84019,267110,40429,303
Hong Kong1,4261663,3996243,254803
Indonesia227222,21841513,0352,895
Singapore552451,3362041,064239
Other countries9381451,7933404,1891,059
Totals103,09914,539120,58720,849131,94634,298

EXPORTS BY PORTS—The following table shows for the latest available June years the value of total exports, including re-exports, according to the ports at which goods were loaded for export.

PortYear Ended June
197119721973197419751976*
*Provisional.
  $(million)    
Whangarei38.048.245.235.830.538.3
Auckland309.6375.9476.3487.3451.5633.7
Hamilton0.22.59.77.27.4
Tauranga116.8177.6175.4187.9187.8282.0
Gisborne12.39.512.613.910.313.0
Napier130.6128.5182.4176.7161.1200.3
New Plymouth91.599.0105.184.577.8125.8
Wanganui2.63.33.44.45.8
Palmerston North
Wellington116.8180.2266.3262.7228.1363.5
Blenheim4.23.64.65.65.25.9
Nelson14.218.718.417.718.835.5
Greymouth0.10.2
Christchurch81.583.9133.4138.0116.4189.4
Timaru67.568.6101.388.993.4131.4
Dunedin41.862.399.898.974.5131.2
Invercargill106.7116.1165.3176.1154.4208.4
Totals1,131.71,375.01,792.01,787.31,621.52,371.6

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, since over a quarter of all exports are dispatched from that port. Wellington occupies second place, with approximately one-seventh of the trade. As will be seen from the above table, the order of the other ports varies from year to year. The general rise in the value of exports through Tauranga is attributed to the pulp, paper, and timber industries of the district.

RE-EXPORTS—Until recent years the forwarding trade of New Zealand has never been of great significance. In recent years, passengers duty-free purchases, ships' and international aircraft stores, have made up between one-fifth and one-third of the total re-exports. The balance is made up principally of miscellaneous stores sent to the Pacific Islands and goods returned or re-sold to the United Kingdom and Australia.

Particulars of re-exports are contained in the next table. Specie is not included in the figures.

Year Ended JuneRe-exports
*Provisional.
 $(000)
197123,628
197228,342
1973x33,281
1974x41,086
1975x63,522
1976*124,777

The destinations of this re-export trade for the latest available June years are shown in the following table.

CountryJune Year
1973197419751976*
*Provisional.
  $(000)  
Australia11,64711,47919,27923,463
Fiji2,2683,0243,2274,122
Hong Kong424634407478
Malaysia5460194107
Papua New Guinea6274226168
Singapore7626483,08325,183
South Africa5564319164
Tonga186205360460
United Kingdom1,0951,3282,9363,230
Western Samoa526468645706
Germany, Federal Republic of274299871750
Netherlands82127575418
Canada151295241170
Philippines14959489,610
United States3,6303,6764,9508,832
Brazil271345
Indonesia3514286279
Japan55849983314,729
Other countries1,2631,7374,8545,280
Ships' stores4,7167,29810,53813,002
Passengers goods5,3178,9559,84713,621
Totals (excluding gold and current coin)33,28141,08663,522124,777

EXPORTS TO COOK, NIUE, AND TOKELAU ISLANDS—Trade with the Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands is not included in external trade statistics. The values of exports (including re-exports) to the islands are summarised below.

Year Ended JuneExports
*Provisional.
 $(000)
19716,995
19725,923
19735,476
1974x6,800
1975x7,885
1976*10,825

Further particulars regarding the trade of the islands will be found in Section 35.

21 C—IMPORTS

GENERAL—Statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed to the Customs and are usually quoted on the valuation basis c.d.v. (current domestic value in the country of export at the time of shipment). However, in certain tables the value c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) is also given. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and import totals do not include gold and current coin, except where expressly stated.

Reference should be made to Section 21A for details of the systems of valuation of imports as now used in these tables. Section 21A also gives a summary of import totals for recent years and index numbers of the volume of import trade, and also includes a sub-section on Import Control.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS—The following table classifies imports by Sections of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised).

Year Ended JuneImports (c.d.v.)
Food and Live AnimalsBeverages and TobaccoCrude Materials, Inedible, Except FuelsMineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related MaterialsAnimal and Vegetable Oils and FatsChemicals
* See letterpress.
$(thousand)
197258,58312,87344,93966,5932,743142,790
197367,12015,42453,72376,8762,789167,907
1974x93,62219,71476,578169,7547,868246,967
1975x125,49721,58794,797317,67810,855288,275
1976*133,63725,100100,344395,3529,468307,355
Imports (c.d.v.)
Year Ended JuneManufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by MaterialMachinery and TransportMiscellaneous Manufactured ArticlesCommodities and Transactions not Classified According to KindTotal Merchandise Imports
* See letterpress.
$(thousand)
1972285,775444,50384,0819,8571,152,736
1973316,042466,621100,61415,0691,282,185
1974x491,684611,047131,72312,8551,861,812
1975x618,412821,590171,87421,4032,491,967
1976*558,285964,847177,95721,3822,693,728

The next table gives fuller details of imports according to sections and divisions for the latest available June years.

Section and Division S.I.T.C., RevisedJune Year 1975xJune Year 1976*
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
*Provisional.
Section 0. Food and Live Animals $(thousand)  
Div. 00 Live animals3,8014,0445,4525,910
Div. 01 Meat and meat preparations2,0392,2993,5894,010
Div. 02 Dairy products and eggs1,9282,082665728
Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations6,8317,5727,4888,289
Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations25,29329,91517,87522,411
Div. 05 Fruits and vegetables23,05131,27326,38731,875
Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations36,59743,33550,60955,553
Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof22,94726,62119,49723,772
Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)1,0281,301644777
Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations1,9832,3051,4301,660
Totals, Section 0125,497150,748133,637154,985
Section 1. Beverages and Tobacco    
Div. 11 Beverages13,62015,37213,70715,294
Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures7,9678,95011,39312,966
Totals, Section 121,58724,32225,10028,261
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels    
Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed7368341,1191,253
Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and oil kernels4,3484,9333,5514,285
Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed11,17913,22114,66316,993
Div. 24 Wood and cork7,83110,6565,3377,253
Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper1,2011,4151,7592,182
Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and e12,69414,43210,19411,745
Div. 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum and precious stones46,20068,12454,36276,682
Div. 28 Metalliferous ores and metal scrap2,7583,5252,5752,660
Div. 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.i.7,8508,4046,7847,345
Totals, Section 294,797125,543100,344130,399
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials $(thousand)  
Div. 32 Coal, coke, and briquettes8531,3321,6832,220
Div. 33 Petroleum and petroleum products316,753347,936393,636433,086
Div. 34 Gas721103349
Totals, Section 3317,678349,378395,352435,356
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats    
Div. 41 Animal oils and fats17220496114
Div. 42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed8,9069,8188,3459,607
Div. 43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin1,7761,9991,0261,106
Totals, Section 410,85512,0219,46810,827
Section 5. Chemicals    
Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds90,741109,160112,684128,059
Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas1,0211,3431,1671,331
Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials14,31216,47915,23816,461
Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products50,53744,38052,31445,233
Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials; toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations9,31110,3299,3629,720
Div. 56 Fertilisers, manufactured21,40629,65318,06522,313
Div. 57 Explosives2,5242,3412,8492,711
Div. 58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins70,32781,72968,62374,346
Div. 59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products28,09432,71727,05430,873
Totals, Section 5288,275328,131307,355331,047
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material $(thousand)  
Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.i., and dressed furs2,7913,0372,8513,102
Div. 62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.i.23,85125,06618,05518,782
Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)8,61410,8256,1617,339
Div. 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof35,37943,46621,34023,983
Div. 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles and related products167,758183,735161,736177,388
Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.i.31,63437,00131,86637,716
Div. 67 Iron and steel212,197241,858160,184179,915
Div. 68 Non-ferrous metals58,52561,00544,80047,145
Div. 69 Manufactures of metals77,66381,722111,291117,786
Totals, Section 6618,412687,716558,285613,155
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment    
Div. 71 Machinery other than electric374,326399,812388,649406,013
Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances170,814176,354198,416206,099
Div. 73 Transport equipment276,450308,272377,783406,928
Totals, Section 7821,590884,438964,8471,019,040
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles    
Div. 81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, lighting fittings, and fixtures3,4784,0602,3632,745
Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures1,2871,5351,1791,423
Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles559588553590
Div. 84 Clothing6,1566,6786,0496,685
Div. 85 Footwear4,0814,5274,1424,617
Div. 86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments: photographic and optical goods, watches, and clocks68,11066,43269,32367,820
Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.i.88,20394,72294,34898,645
Totals, Section 8171,874178,541177,957182,525
Section 9. Commodities and Transactions Not Classified According to Kind21,40322,26521,38222095
Grand totals, merchandise imports2,491,9672,763,1032,693,7282,927,690

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE—From the eighties of the last century until the early seventies of this century, the chief source of supply of New Zealand's imports was the United Kingdom. Prior to that, the main source of supply was Australia and, in the latest years, as the United Kingdom has become more involved in Europe, Australia has once more moved into first place. During the year ended June 1976, imports from the United Kingdom were valued at $457.3 million and imports from Australia at $514.5 million.

In the years following the Second World War, the proportion of the import trade received from the United Kingdom rose from 47.8 percent in 1946 to a maximum of 60.1 percent in 1950. Since 1950 there has been an overall decline, and for the June years 1975 and 1976 only 19.2 and 17.0 percent of imports came from that source. The trade with Australia from 1950 to 1956 was between 10 and 15 percent of the total. In 1957 and 1958, however, it rose to 17 percent, and in 1959 and 1960 to 18 percent. In the years ended June 1975 and 1976, 20.3 percent and 19.1 percent, respectively, of imports came from Australia. Japan is becoming an important trading partner in the years ended June 1975 and 1976, 13.5 percent and 14.9 percent, respectively, of imports came from that source.

The principal changes in the direction of the import trade are illustrated in the table in Section 21A giving the percentage received from the various currency areas.

The table which follows shows imports (valuation c.d.v.) during the latest 5 years from the United Kingdom, Australia, the United States, and Japan. It should be noted that, from 1975, Australia includes Coco and Norfolk Islands, and that the U.S.A. includes American Samoa, Guam, Pacific Island Trust Territory, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands and U.S. miscellaneous Pacific islands.

Year Ended JuneCountry Where PurchasedCountry of OriginTotal Merchandise Imports
United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.Japan
*Provisional.
     $(million)   
19723463001153292671171291,153
19733223601473043231461671,282
1974x4095032463534532252481,862
1975x5755743694795053333372,492
1976*5935674454815193944022,730

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS—The table which follows shows details of principal commodity imports by country of origin for years ended June 1974 and 1975. C.d.v. basis of valuation is used.

Commodity and Countries of OriginValue of Imports
1973-741974-75
*Does not include statistics for the Province of Taiwan.
 $(000) 
Oranges  
      Australia921697
      All countries2,5443,156
Bananas  
      Costa Rica--
      Ecuador2,9862,971
      Tonga247297
      Western Samoa135108
      All countries3,3753,377
Dried Fruits  
      Australia4,1774,297
      U.S.A.1,4112,017
      All countries6,3537,273
      Whisky  
      United Kingdom3,5613,867
      All countries6,4605,144
Tobacco—(Unmanufactured)  
 $(000) 
      South Africa2581
      U.S.A.5,0474,161
      All countries6,8366,719
Rubber (Crude and Synthetic)  
      Canada1,042791
      France and Monaco244767
      Malaysia5,4453,501
      United Kingdom320301
      U.S.A.1,0581,116
      All countries12,73411,179
Wood (Shaped or Simply Worked)  
      Australia7041,057
      Canada1,188601
      Ghana1,267785
      U.S.A.4,6482,467
      All countries10,5607,261
      Pulp and Waste Paper$(000) 
      Canada-10
      Finland473-
      Germany, Fed. Rep.21
      Sweden1116
      All countries1,7841,201
Wool and Other Animal  
Hair  
      Australia4,149783
      United Kingdom1,9371,037
      All countries6,1481,913
Sugar (not refined)  
      Australia12,44614,790
      Fiji4973,769
      All countries22,82535,136
Natural Phosphates  
      Australia4,49611,267
      Gilbert and Ellice Islands2,5809,498
      Nauru4,49812,949
      U.S.A.-
      All countries11,57433,714
Raw Coffee  
      Brazil9371,461
      Papua/New Guinea1,1971,409
      Tanzania501218
      Uganda5611,394
      All countries4,2096,074
Cocoa  
      Ghana1,7807,358
      Netherlands1,0941,466
      All countries3,8839,606
Tea  
      India258500
      Sri Lanka (Ceylon)2,6623,779
      All countries4,1806,441
Motor Spirit  
      Australia15,16820,672
      Iran4,5459,775
      Malaysia--
      People's Democratic Republic of Yemen-43
      Singapore5,0661,663
      Venezuela--
      All countries31,04436,881
Kerosene and White Spirit  
      Australia11,62919,381
      Iran9682,087
      People's Democratic Republic of Yemen-1,205
      Singapore783,086
      All countries13,65326,785
Lubricating Oils and Greases $(000)
      Australia3,5435,047
      United Kingdom9041,123
      U.S.A.4481,518
      All countries5,85310,700
Organic Chemicals  
      Australia8,6804,496
      Germany, Fed. Rep.3,6733,890
      Japan4,0247,723
      United Kingdom7,6817,974
      U.S.A.12,60112,829
      All countries43,50046,623
Inorganic Chemicals  
      Australia15,41017,722
      Germany, Fed. Rep.2,0491,932
      Japan2,3306,596
      United Kingdom4,1386,893
      U.S.A.3,2965,017
      All countries34,85343,841
Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Products  
      Australia12,99113,880
      Germany, Fed. Rep.4,2534,709
      Switzerland2,9948,546
      United Kingdom11,86814,490
      U.S.A.2,7603,112
      All countries39,44550,537
Sulphur (Other Than Sublimed, etc.)  
      Canada2,4003,476
      U.S.A.9651,500
      All countries4,1305,039
Plastic Materials, Regenerated Cellulose, and Artificial Resins  
      Australia10,0769,868
      Germany, Fed. Rep.7,4475,810
      Japan13,77516,607
      United Kingdom8,64210,815
      U.S.A.16,67414,925
      All countries65,76370,327
Rubber Tyres and Tubes  
      United Kingdom4,6263,648
      U.S.A.1,1442,068
      All countries13,03712,435
Paper and Paperboard  
      Australia3,2733,622
      Japan4,3578,010
      United Kingdom4,5537,652
      U.S.A.2,0424,786
      All countries19,57231,372
      Textile Yarn and Thread$(000) 
      Australia5,2965,956
      Hong Kong5,2463,868
      Japan3,1683,201
      United Kingdom5,4297,051
      All countries27,04728,137
Cotton Fabrics Suitable for Manufacture of Apparel  
      Australia337132
      China*4,9133,613
      Hong Kong7,6586,167
      Japan4,6953,219
      United Kingdom587853
      U.S.A.1,526926
      All countries28,13520,573
Cotton Furnishing and Household Fabrics  
      Hong Kong7,6404,702
      India1,8542,651
      United Kingdom1,3301,571
      All countries16,06513,629
Manufactured Fertilisers  
      Canada1,5422,322
      Germany, Fed. Rep.975876
      U.S.A.7,6429,274
      All countries17,36821,406
Woven Fabrics of Synthetic Fibres  
      Australia2,3602,558
      Japan17,21212,308
      United Kingdom2,4942,657
      U.S.A.3,4012,956
      All countries41,33030,891
Woven Fabrics of Regenerated Artificial Fibres  
      Japan1,5931,519
      United Kingdom2,1332,162
      U.S.A.887623
      All countries9,5268,747
Knitted or Crocheted Fabrics  
      Australia1,5391,036
      Hong Kong3,3754,195
      United Kingdom2,1042,118
      U.S.A.367838
      All countries9,80010,651
Household Linens$(000) 
      China*9311,273
      Hong Kong1,174497
      India536686
      Japan665543
      United Kingdom309456
      U.S.A.200402
      All countries5,2785,418
Glass  
      Netherlands374309
      United Kingdom2,5592,453
      U.S.A.601984
      All countries6,5977,423
Bars and Rods of Iron or Steel  
      Australia4,8477,014
      Canada4621,113
      United Kingdom1,0982,958
      All countries8,38222,247
Woven Woollen Fabrics  
      Australia384358
      United Kingdom1,6612,403
      All countries2,6113,567
Woven Jute Fabrics  
      India3,1533,400
      United Kingdom4784
      All countries3,3563,612
Universals, Plates, and Sheets of Iron or Steel  
      Australia11,23817,414
      Japan46,02360,293
      United Kingdom5,3317,079
      All countries70,35492,259
Hoop and Strip of Iron or Steel  
      Australia1,9412,593
      Japan2,2543,612
      United Kingdom1,2781,987
      All countries6,1829,594
Iron and Steel Wire  
      Australia3,2003,579
      United Kingdom2,2043,027
      All countries9,09411,839
      Tubes, Pipes, and Fittings of Iron or Steel$(000) 
      Australia9,5609,144
      Japan1,70823,437
      All countries15,35846,821
Copper and Copper Alloys  
      Australia21,21114,740
      Canada3,2182,242
      United Kingdom3,4894,600
      All countries28,67423,224
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys  
      Australia5,4875,455
      Japan1881,226
      United Kingdom9662,178
      U.S.A.8431,537
      All countries8,87513,298
Nails, Screws, Nuts, Bolts, etc., of Iron, Steel, Copper  
      Australia1,4152,021
      United Kingdom1,3662,076
      All countries4,5607,661
Angles, Shapes and Sections of Iron or Steel  
      Australia6,2408,077
      Japan4,4305,810
      United Kingdom1,3451,939
      All countries12,70716,880
Aircraft Engines  
      United Kingdom7641,298
      U.S.A.7,76413,765
      All countries8,63615,140
Internal Combustion Engines, Not Aircraft  
      Australia2,8022,594
      Canada1,2331,015
      United Kingdom3,6546,274
      U.S.A.8,11210,234
      All countries18,97224,261
Agricultural Machinery and Appliances (excl. Tractors)  
      Germany, Fed. Rep.1,3382,073
      United Kingdom2,2013,723
      U.S.A.9091,445
      All countries8,82112,107
Tractors$(000) 
      Italy2,4612,012
      Japan1,3421,247
      United Kingdom11,52612,114
      U.S.A.2,6936,561
      All countries18,94123,667
Office Machines  
      Germany, Fed. Rep.4,6421,545
      Japan5,0955,034
      United Kingdom8,23210,032
      U.S.A.7,37916,024
      All countries35,38846,016
Metalworking Machinery  
      Australia1,5891,063
      Germany, Fed. Rep.2,0162,477
      Japan463895
      United Kingdom2,4734,147
      U.S.A.688874
      All countries9,37012,609
Textile and Leather Machinery  
      Germany, Fed. Rep.1,7665,239
      United Kingdom2,8026,328
      U.S.A.9041,539
      All countries8,65024,975
Cutlery  
      Australia1,5152,258
      Japan994889
      United Kingdom835975
      All countries4,7356,691
Excavating, Levelling, Boring, etc., Machinery  
      United Kingdom2,4982,258
      U.S.A.10,81012,201
      All countries20,75622,100
Pumps and Centrifuges  
      Australia6,1418,605
      United Kingdom4,4406,475
      U.S.A.2,7345,204
      All countries19,21231,138
Mechanical Handling Equipment  
      United Kingdom3,4527,784
      U.S.A.4,1747,603
      All countries13,49027,971
      Ball, Roller, and Needle Roller Bearings$(000) 
      Japan8791,229
      United Kingdom1,4942,595
      U.S.A.7331,168
      All countries5,2857,509
Taps, Cocks, Valves  
      Australia1,7632,171
      United Kingdom2,8113,217
      U.S.A.1,1352,661
      All countries7,11610,243
Transmission Shafts and Cranks  
      Australia1,3911,747
      United Kingdom2,2583,766
      U.S.A.1,6562,800
      All countries6,73810,692
Electrical Power Machinery and Switchgear  
      Australia6,57910,438
      Germany, Fed. Rep.9761,373
      Italy340523
      Japan2,0784,256
      Sweden1,1241,732
      Switzerland1,012959
      United Kingdom14,98819,691
      U.S.A.1,56111,297
      All countries31,42555,517
Printing and Bookbinding Machinery  
      Germany, Fed. Rep.1,5611,946
      United Kingdom9462,899
      U.S.A.1,6493,182
      All countries6,00910,831
Electrical Measuring and Controlling Apparatus  
      United Kingdom3,5774,216
      U.S.A.2,5083,810
      All countries8,68011,137
Telecommunications Equipment  
      United Kingdom5,6499,957
      U.S.A.6492,883
      All countries19,41235,669
Railway Vehicles$(000) 
      Australia4791,510
      Canada1
      Japan9965,814
      United Kingdom9211,009
      All countries2,57610,025
Motorcars  
      Australia66,84237,939
      France and Monaco2,2621,580
      Germany, Fed. Rep.2,1533,113
      Italy3,0462,638
      Japan22,96316,237
      United Kingdom51,01257,026
      All countries149,145119,560
Lorries, Trucks, and Vans  
      Australia7,9389,265
      United Kingdom9,83818,473
      All countries32,37142,625
Aircraft  
      United Kingdom1,9551,363
      U.S.A.12,5468,135
      All countries16,32710,686
Ships and Boats  
      France8,10710
      Singapore33,846
      All countries15,97544,370
Equipment for Distributing Electricity  
      Australia2,0493,468
      United Kingdom2,3105,226
      All countries5,16711,254
Watches and Clocks  
      Germany, Fed. Rep.9531,073
      Switzerland1,9242,127
      United Kingdom5871,027
      All countries7,4208,430
Photographic Films, Plates, and Paper (Not Developed Cinematographic Film)  
      Australia6,0615,933
      United Kingdom1,3191,451
      All countries12,10614,37
      Clothing (Not Fur)$(000) 
      Australia682714
      Hong Kong1,1611,050
      United Kingdom1,2571,670
      All countries5,0976,137
Printed Books and Pamphlets  
      Australia4,9924,389
      United Kingdom9,71114,127
 $(000) 
      U.S.A.3,7704,735
      All countries22,97428,568
Newspapers and Periodicals  
      Australia3,6154,533
      United Kingdom2,8822,830
      U.S.A.1,6162,498
      All countries793210,408

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the quantities imported during June years of a large number of the principal items.

ItemUnit of QuantityYear Ended 30 June
19731974x1975x1976*
*Provisional.
Fish, canned, and fish preparationstonne3,7265,4944,0363,627
Wheat, unmilledtonne-49,837134,422112,126
Ricetonne5,9366,1486,5035,812
Orangestonne17,49317,28817,88814,963
Bananastonne33,06636,73442,82029,027
Fruit—     
Driedtonne10,5859,0848,7068,107
Cannedtonne7,8787,5095,3485,675
Desiccated coconuttonne1,4821,3491,2021,218
Edible nutstonne1,3541,5181,6661,186
Sugartonne181,050173,565202,963181,815
Coffee, rawtonne4,9685,1317,1475,563
Teatonne8,3337,4107,6156,882
Cocoatonne6,1484,3297,3494,130
Winelitre (000)2,2822,7392,3552,016
Whiskyproof litre (000)2,5433,5103,7843,310
Tobacco, unmanufacturedtonne3,4644,0873,6133,654
Synthetic and artificial fibrestonne5,0733,7452,3243,180
Woven fabrics—     
Synthetic fibressq metre (000)39,68858,38740,35228,497
Artificial fibressq metre (000)9,26413,21410,0637,024
Yarn and thread of silk, rayon, and synthetic fibrestonne3,1824,6234,5573,532
Yarn of wool and animal hairtonne8021531046
Meat wraps, cottontonne1,6801,9391,9181,482
Textile fabrics coated with plasticsq metre (000)3,6354,8844,8083,263
, sacks, wool packsdoz (000)549337554542
Cotton yarn and threadtonne3,3844,820 3,754..3,121
Cotton fabrics, woven, unbleachedsq metre (000)6,35712,0347,9083,830
Cotton canvas and ducksq metre (000)1,2092,1332,3701,346
Cotton fabrics suitable for the manufacture of apparel     
Flannelette, winceyette, diaper clothsq metre (000)8,13613,84112,6966,495
Other kindssq metre (000)26,21938,63921,12025,279
Cotton furnishing and household fabricssq metre (000)15,81330,29223,32911,057
Woven silk fabricssq metre (000)125160174201
Woven woollen fabricssq metre (000)1,0491,2171,570805
Woven linen, ramie, and hemp fabricssq metre (000)911,2011,4221,4441,838
Woven jute fabricssq metre (000)24,95027,77625,86519,420
Rubbertonne23,07030,44122,70524,433
Timber, sawncu metre39,55864,44253,06225,172
Wood and paper pulptonne13,85311,5214,1035,639
Nitrate of sodatonne1,4171,103964216
Fertilisers, phosphatictonne (000)1,1031,0791,211938
Gypsum, crudetonne127,503199,219168,574129,579
Sulphurtonne273,065238,362251,417196,215
Salttonne44,69144,14226,0268,386
Asbestostonne8,8127,11712,4849,167
Petroleum, crudetonne (000)2,2602,4732,5361,863
Petroleum, partly refinedtonne (000)915804902898
Motor spiritlitre (000)347,387766,093486,337728,506
Distillate fuelslitre (000)295,648510,802378,625407,437
Kerosene and white spiritlitre (000)315,059334,029385,889368,296
Lubricating oils and preparationslitre (000)61,42370,83873,34374,430
Cream of tartar and substitutestonne5,1345,7065,2896,433
Acidstonne2,6375,0584,8374,006
Caustic sodatonne13,08010,85516,21716,088
Carbonate of sodatonne22,95737,10233,94328,109
Calcium carbidetonne3,5272,8703,3454,267
Sulphate of ammoniatonne56,63644,42623,81715,301
Potashtonne257,976302,340237,083200,635
Pig iron and ingotstonne37,82626,20533,68412,045
Bars and rods of iron or steeltonne30,45049,50096,78222,860
Angles, shapes and sections of iron or steeltonne55,04580,54480,21339,835
Universals, plates and sheets of iron or steeltonne318,616397,433393,037256,844
Hoop and strip of iron or steeltonne16,22421,61124,79412,379
Rails of iron or steel—fish plates, etc.tonne11,63111,02114,46625,849
Iron and steel wiretonne19,70733,76130,99812,663
Tubes, pipes, and fittings of iron or steeltonne30,00235,29076,46862,646
Silver and platinum not fully workedgram (000)45,50565,47934,50257,146
Copper and copper alloystonne11,72615,33012,78412,361
Aluminium and aluminium alloystonne5,2338,00210,9931,800
Aluminium oxidetonne176,065291,115145,609294,125
Lead and lead alloystonne6,1337,6477,7968,904
Finished structural parts and constructionstonne10,9344,23411,63519,183
Wire productstonne4,6386,0789,5763,581
Nails, screws, nuts, bolts, etc.tonne3,0073,3914,7593,181
Hand toolsdoz(000)542.0674.6760.4572.3
Knives, kitchen and tabledoz(000)75.5117.6121.2102.9
Spoons and forksdoz(000)273.1438.427.0386.1
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)number105,500148,345160,580118,350
Agricultural mowers—crops, lawn, weed, scrub cuttingnumber1,266.8742,8741,239
Agricultural harvesters and threshers—forage, tobacconumber176280392306
Earthmoving machinesnumber3719001,477619
Typewriting, calculating, and accounting machinesnumber40,879123,616149,946202,563
Domestic sewing machinesnumber45,14255,76759,32761,569
Electric motors—     
Under 1 bhpnumber428,436412,026622,479494,163
1 bhp and overnumber19,65225,59055,99326,478
Sparking plugs(000)598675719567
Tractorsnumber5,2185,8705,2554,720
Motorcars—     
Unassemblednumber69,54976,52470,11158,148
Assemblednumber17,19430,76413,2894,456
Lorries, trucks, buses, vans, etc.—     
Unassemblednumber11,03213,72016,08914,737
Assemblednumber3012,2211,9811,085
Motor cyclesnumber26,13540,40120,56618,290
Bicyclesnumber7,82515,64319,0338,520
Rubber tyres and tubes (excl. bicycle)tonne4,2708,8757,2602,879
Plywoodsq metre (000)3311,5011,619902
Newsprint papertonne5477,5467,861205
Printing and writing paper—     
Machine made, not processedtonne4,6376,4227,4822,332
Impregnated, coated, or printedtonne9,40312,40114,0807,210
Machine-made paper and paperboard, n.e.s.tonne3,4525,9412,4002,373
Greaseproof paper, etc.tonne1,3432,0182,0001,417
Wallpaperrolls (000)58.067.3130.2110.3
Linoleum and similar floor coveringssq metre (000)1,396.4937.9365.4306.1
Carpets and carpeting of or with woolsq metre (000)22.518.518.587.1
Glass plate and sheetsq metre (000)1,001.61,445.91,525.71,223.0
Tableware and toilet potterytonne1,2139331,4491,364
Footweardoz pr(000)103.8132.2161.3102.6
Cameras, photographic(000)155.7172.1207.5105.0
Watches(000)1219.3344.1296.2217.3
Clocks, other than electric(000)91,312.7419.9424.1139.6
Electric clocks(000)56.5110.0142.065.3
Electric capacitators(000)19,10451,58857,10247,056
Insulated wires and cablestonne1,9882,0104,3543,056
Telephone handsets(000)23.627.357.629.7
Electric accumulators(000)49.274.6145.9122.4
Electric lamp bulbs and tubes(000)8,33112,94916,2066,834
Thermionic, etc., valves and tubes(000)1.8092,8043,0322,454
Crystal valves(000)8,39619,43126,52226,107

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS BY END-USE—In the following table imports are classified by end-use in the form of economic categories. The classification involves some arbitrary decisions but it is adapted to practical purposes and the comparability of the time series has useful economic applications. Basis of valuation is c.i.f.

Class of Goods ImportedYear Ended 30 June
197219731974x1975x1976*

*Provisional. of Statistics.

†For more detailed list of items included under each heading see relevant table in Monthly Abstract

   $(million)  
Finished Capital Goods187.7205.6272.9435.2454.7
Agricultural machinery and plant18.623.327.236.941.0
Industrial machinery and plant78.469.382.3131.0127.0
Construction machinery and plant4.911.120.317.715.1
Transport and communication items24.627.342.683.9111.7
Other complete items61.174.6100.5165.8159.8
Components and Materials for Capital Goods137.1138.9187.7320.2385.8
For agricultural machinery and plant5.66.88.812.311.0
For industrial machinery and plant16.216.423.441.442.8
For construction machinery and plant1.51.82.23.93.6
For transport and communications items51.646.556.489.7101.2
For building, construction, roads10.09.013.722.467.9
For other capital items52.158.583.2150.5159.3
Finished Goods and Components (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)206.1219.7293.2324.8389.3
Complete transport items60.649.983.158.7118.5
Parts for transport items96.2114.5140.2158.9157.5
Other complete items18.022.428.643.740.5
Parts for other items31.232.841.363.472.7
Consume: Goods308.3351.2524.4631.6657.5
Finished consumer goods152.4178.0257.2311.0320.7
Components for consumer goods156.0173.2267.2320.7336.8
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere3896443.8747.21,00.71,021.4
Stores Used Only for Defence1.214.911.42.519.1
Totals1,239.01,374.12,036.72,76.12,927.7
   percent  
Finished Capital Goods15.214.913.415.715.5
Agricultural machinery and plant1.51.71.31.31.4
Industrial machinery and plan6.35.04.04.74.3
Construction machinery and plant0.40.81.00.70.5
Transport and communications items2.02.02.13.03.8
Other complete items4.95.44.96.05.5
Components and Materials for Capital Goods11.110.29.211.613.2
For agricultural machinery and plant0.50.50.40.40.4
For industrial machinery and plant1.31.21.11.51.5
For construction machinery and plant0.10.10.10.20.1
For transport and communications items4.23.42.83.23.5
For building, construction, roads0.80.70.70.82.3
For other capital items4.24.34.15.55.4
Finished Goods and Components (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)16.615.914.411.813.3
Complete transport items4.93.64.12.14.0
Parts for transport items7.88.36.95.85.4
Other complete items1.51.61.41.61.4
Parts for other items2.52.42.02.3-2.5
Consumer Goods24.925.625.722.922.4
Finished consumer goods12.313.012.611.311.0
Components for consumer goods12.612.613.111.611.5
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere31.432.336.737.334.9
Stores Used Only for Defence0.81.10.60.70.7
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

IMPORTS BY PORTS—In 1976 New Zealand had 17 ports of entry for Customs purposes—ten in the North Island and seven in the South Island. The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry. The value of overseas cargo landed at other ports is included with the appropriate port of entry. Basis of valuation is c.d.v.

PortJune Year 1972June Year 1973June Year 1974June Year 1975June Year 1976*
*Provisional.
$(thousand)
Whangarei43,95552,227102,724252,025258,736
Auckland525,894594,308895,2001,097,6261,101,310
Hamilton5,2238,6689,38315,72925,813
Tauranga11,86613,81616,83636,08429,727
Gisborne5887001,7544,2592,810
Napier20,65026,40928,61746,72761,503
New Plymouth18,85725,89339,33873,477198,537
Wanganui1,4191,7092,3693,0962,969
Palmerston North4,9188,36410,50813,60416,907
Wellington318,829345,211453,718546,380546,135
Blenheim3955021,1633,556800
Nelson8,8176,9789,42825,84315,431
Greymouth3,4712,2214663,4751,050
Christchurch129,598138,264213,237262,027284,639
Timaru3,1782,7715,1375,1136,954
Dunedin28,90834,04442,06159,98958,462
Invercargill26,17020,10029,87242,95781,946
Totals1,152,7361,282,1851,861,8122,491,9672,693,728

Almost three-quarters of the total imports usually come in by way of Auckland or Wellington. Christchurch occupies third place and with the advent of the oil refinery plant at Whangarei this port has now reached fourth place in importance, followed by New Plymouth.

Imports by air have been credited to the port in whose district the overseas airport is located. Thus goods which came in through Mangere Airport were included in the Auckland figures, imports through Wellington Airport and Ohakea in the Wellington figures, and through Christchurch Airport in the Christchurch figures. The value of imports by air, the commodities and their countries of origin are listed in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Some figures of imports and exports by air are given by main commodity groups in section 11E of this Yearbook.

GOODS SHIPPED FROM COOK, NIUE, AND TOKELAU ISLANDS—Trade with the Cook Islands, Tokelau Islands, and Niue is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand. The following table shows the movement of goods from these islands to New Zealand. Particulars of the trade of the islands with other countries will be found in the section dealing with New Zealand territory overseas.

June YearValue of Goods
*Provisional.
 $(000)
19712,664
19722,531
19732,809
1974x3,156
1975x3,686
1976*2,692

The values of principal goods brought to New Zealand from the Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands during the latest available June years were as follows:

ItemYear Ended 30 June
1974x1975x1976*
*Provisional.
 $$$
Oranges, whole fruit183,20216
Tangerines and mandarins, whole fruit68,81126,32054,108
Lemons, grapefruit, etc., whole fruit11,7219,1437,349
Bananas118,210109,80997,695
Honey11,7865,3928,489
Citrus fruit juices1,009,417937,438770,331
Pineapple juice101,079153,418296,673
Preserved fruit231,349308,972342,271
Fresh tomatoes2,4442446,531
Arrowroot, etc.5,8803,5586,637
Copra346,4651,186,236289,294
Wood manufactures (not furniture)30,61831,67435,093
Textile clothing (not knitted, etc.)—   
Men's and boys' outer garments830,326531,598270,774
Women's and girls' outer garments2,25792722,585
Men's and boys' undergarments210,326153,24395,567
Women's, girls' and infants' undergarments1,8384,5282,479
Basketwork, wickerwork, etc.3,6386,5986,696
Other miscellaneous items169,672213,366379,433
Totals3,155,9053,685,6662,692,021

21 D—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

THE TARIFF—The objects of the Customs Tariff are as follows:

  1. The collection of revenue.

  2. The development of New Zealand industries.

  3. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand's exports.

  4. The implementation of New Zealand's tariff commitments in multilateral and bilateral trade agreements.

  5. Harmonisation with New Zealand's external political objectives including the provision of assistance to developing countries.

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND—New Zealand's first Customs Ordinance was proclaimed in 1841 with the objective of raising revenue and to some extent giving preference to goods of British origin. The prevailing economic philosophy in the latter half of the nineteenth century was directed at free trade but a tariff revision in 1895 was aimed at protecting a small range of industries.

The Ottawa Agreement of 1932 stemmed from a recognition that policies had tended to become protective. In return for concessions from the United Kingdom including duty-free entry for practically all New Zealand products (see Section 21A—Marketing of Farm Produce) New Zealand agreed to restrict the use of the tariff for purely protective purposes and to give further preference to British goods. In 1934 a Tariff Commission submitted a report which conformed broadly to the principles of the Ottawa Agreement and reduced the protection for New Zealand industries in some cases. Thus, the acceptance of the Tariff Commission's recommendations reflected the fact that New Zealand placed its economic emphasis on primary production, the market for which was mainly in the United Kingdom.

In November 1957 the Board of Trade completed a comprehensive review of the structure of the tariff and reported to Government. The board's recommendations were taken into account when a revised tariff was introduced on 1 July 1962 based on the Standard International Trade Classification. A new tariff based on the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature was introduced on 1 July 1967.

Consequent to the United Kingdom's entry into the European Economic Community a further revised tariff was introduced on 1 July 1974 to phase out the preferences on goods of United Kingdom origin. The phasing out was complete on 1 July 1977 with the exception of certain automotive products. This tariff provided separate rates for British preferential countries (the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, the Isle of Man, the Channel Islands, and the Republic of Ireland), other preferential rates of duty in favour of Australia, Canada, Malaysia, other Commonwealth countries, and developing countries, and a normal tariff rate.

The rates of Customs and excise duty enforced in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled the Customs Tariff of New Zealand available from the Government Printer, Wellington.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)—New Zealand was one of the original members of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade reached in Geneva in 1947 and has since taken an active part in the work of the GATT in attaining its general objective of reducing barriers to trade and providing a forum for the discussion and settlement of international trade problems and disputes.

The majority of the world's trading nations have now become contracting parties to the GATT and entitled to most-favoured-nation treatment. The non-discriminatory provisions within the GATT assist New Zealand to at least some degree in promoting its objective in seeking the right to trade on a multilateral basis.

The results of the tariff negotiations which took place in 1947 and on subsequent occasions are embodied in schedules to the General Agreement and are applied multilaterally so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants and, conversely, accords reciprocal concessions to all other contracting parties. These concessions are of two kinds—actual reductions in duty rates and bindings on duties against increase.

Developments have, however, tended to whittle away most of the trading advantages which countries relying heavily on agricultural exports might reasonably expect to get from GATT membership. There has been a growing disparity between the benefits accruing under GATT to the industrialised nations and the far less tangible advantages it provides for primary producing countries such as New Zealand. This has been due principally to the maintenance of quantitative restrictions on agricultural products by most of the large industrialised countries as an aspect of their policies of agricultural protectionism.

The Kennedy Round of negotiations which was concluded in June 1967 did not correct this imbalance although New Zealand did obtain improved access and some tariff concessions on a limited range of products exported to some GATT countries in compensation for a reduction in rates of duty of up to 50 percent on a number of items. A new round of multilateral trade negotiations was initiated in Tokyo in September 1973. Although progress towards obtaining its objective of further reducing trade barriers has been slow, New Zealand has taken an active part in restating its interest in promoting liberalised trade in agricultural products.

PREFERENCES AND OTHER BILATERAL TRADE AGREEMENTS: United Kingdom—A radical change in New Zealand's trade and tariff policy was necessitated by the United Kingdom's decision to enter into the European Economic Community on 1 January 1973 and the effect of this action on New Zealand's exports to that country. Consequently the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade agreement was abrogated on 31 January 1973. The tariff preferences accorded to British goods in the New Zealand market were accordingly phased out in four steps which began on 1 July 1974 and were completed by 30 June 1977, except in the case of a range of automotive products.

Australia—The New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement which came into force on 1 January 1966 provides for periodic reduction and ultimate elimination of duties on the good: listed in a schedule to the agreement when such goods qualify for admission into either country as the produce or manufacture of the other country. This agreement modifies or supersedes some of the provisions of the earlier trade agreement between New Zealand and Australia in 1933, and, in particular, 1933 agreement rates which were higher than the equivalent British preferential rates were to be reduced to the British preferential level not later than 1 January 1974.

The goods listed in Schedule A to the agreement cover 60 percent of the imports from Australia and include forest products (timber, pulp, packaging materials, plywood and veneers), petroleum products, meat, fish, cheese, lead, zinc and other metals, copper rods and bars, wool, and some machinery and chemicals. As a result of subsequent reviews a limited number of other items have been added to Schedule A each year.

The agreement provides for reviews of trade between the two countries with a view to progressive inclusion of additional items within the agreement. The original agreement was for 10 years and thereafter would remain in force unless terminated on 180 days' notice being given. However, in September 1976, the two countries agreed to extend the agreement for a further period of 10 years on the same terms and conditions.

New rules of origin applying to goods traded under preference between the two countries came into force on 1 October 1975. The main change in the rules is that United Kingdom content no longer counts towards meeting the preference requirements for goods which are partly manufactured in Australia or New Zealand. Instead, these goods are required to meet a 50 percent New Zealand - Australia area content criterion.

Provision is made within the agreement for variations to the above rule to allow for a lower or higher area content in exceptional circumstances.

On 7 May, 1973 an exchange of letters took place between the New Zealand and Australian Governments. Among the mutual agreements reached was a general undertaking, subject to certain qualifications and consultative provisions, not to increase the duties and to maintain the margins of preference on each others goods based on the position existing at 31 January 1973.

Canada—Reciprocal trade arrangements between Canada and New Zealand are governed by an agreement negotiated in 1932, and this agreement remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the terms of the agreement sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri gum, and phormium fibre are amongst the New Zealand products admitted free of duty. Certain other items such as butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb are admitted at rates of duty lower than the British preferential tariff.

On 26 July 1973 an exchange of letters took place between the New Zealand and Canadian Governments. Among the mutual agreements reached was a general undertaking, subject to certain qualifications and consultative provisions, not to increase the duties and to maintain margins of preference on each others goods based on the position existing at 31 January 1973.

Malaysia—A trade agreement between Malaysia and New Zealand was signed in February 1961 by which each country accords preferential rates of duty to the other. Both countries agreed to guarantee minimum margins of tariff preference which apply to certain important items in each other's trade.

Other Commonwealth Countries—Although there are no contractual obligations to do so, New Zealand has been maintaining preferences to other Commonwealth countries in the tariff, effective from 1 July 1974. The decision has now been made to withdraw these preferences from the date of implementation of the revised customs tariff consequent to the completion of the tariff review which is now being undertaken. This is expected to be on 1 July 1978. Since the recipients of these preferences are developing countries, they stand to benefit in lieu from the expanded scheme relating to developing countries mentioned below.

Developing Countries—New Zealand responded to the recommendation of the United Nations Committee on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) that developed countries introduce Generalised Systems of Preference in favour of developing nations, and special developing country rates were incorporated in the Customs tariff as from 1 January 1972.

When New Zealand introduced a revised Generalised System of Preference (GSP) on 1 July 1976 the new scheme was based on the negative-list concept and significantly increased the GSP coverage granted previously. Every effort was made to keep the list of exceptions to the minimum to give the greatest possible coverage to the scheme. The result was that, in a tariff of some 4,800 items, only 327 items (or about 7 percent) were excluded because of revenue considerations or other special factors. Based on figures for the year ended June 1975, the new scheme was estimated to cover imports worth $2,240 million (total imports being $2,470 million) from all sources. Imports from developing countries to which New Zealand granted preference amounted to $428 million, or 19.1 percent of this total.

The revised GSP was based on an intention to maintain, in terms of GSP criteria, specified margins of preference for developing countries up to a level of 20 percent. Margins were created on 3,264 items, with over 25 percent of these being at the maximum level of 20 percent. There were already 1,140 items in the tariff which were duty free from all sources.

Although no concurrent changes were made in rules of origin, New Zealand had already adopted, on 1 October 1975, the "cumulative" principle whereby content from any developing country could be aggregated to comply with the minimum requirement. At the same time, provision was made for the goods of one beneficiary country to enter the commerce of other beneficiary countries without interfering with their right to enter New Zealand under preference.

OTHER TRADE OBLIGATIONS—New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions and arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth resulting from direct negotiations with the countries concerned. In practice, some of the earlier arrangements (which generally provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment) became superseded by New Zealand's accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. Trade agreements which are still operative include those with Switzerland (1938 and since extended to Liechtenstein in 1956); the Federal Republic of Germany (1959); Japan (1958, amended 1962); the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1963); the Polish People's Republic (1965); Republic of Korea (1967); People's Republic of Bulgaria (1968); Republic of the Philippines (1968); Socialist Republic of Romania (1969); Hungarian People's Republic (1970); and the People's Republic of China (1973).

These agreements contain, in the main, provision for non-discriminatory treatment, the facilitation of trade and the treatment of foreign exchange for trade purposes.

ELIGIBILITY OF GOODS FOR TARIFF PREFERENTIAL RATES—In order to qualify for entry at preferential rates imported goods must meet certain origin requirements before they can be deemed to be the produce or manufacture of the countries entitled to the preferences. The provisions are contained in the Customs Regulations 1968 as amended. In general, with minor variations, they include the following:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries.

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw materials and/or (in some instances) from one or more of the imported partly-manufactured materials which are enumerated in the regulations.

  3. Goods partly manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or other items of factory or works cost incurred in such countries in respect of each article is not less than half of the factory or works cost of the article in its finished state.

TARIFF REVIEW—In 1975 Government announced that a review of tariff rates conducted by the Tariff and Development Board would be replaced by a 2-year departmental tariff review with the objective of providing domestic industry a reasonable degree of protection against competing imports. In addition the structure of, and descriptions used in, the tariff, as well as its statistical requirements, would be examined. The review is being conducted progressively on a chapter by chapter basis. It is intended that the new tariff should be effective from 1 July 1978.

CUSTOMS DUTIES—As the rates of duty on goods vary according to their country of origin as well as their classification, the tariff is printed in "multi-column" form listing rates of duty under (a) the British preferential tariff, applying to goods from the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland; (b) other preferential rates, chiefly those applicable to goods from Australia, Canada, other Commonwealth and developing countries; (c) the normal tariff, applying to goods from other countries.

Duty is generally calculated according to ad valorem rates; but specific duties are also prescribed in a number of items and in some cases a combination of ad valorem and specific rates are used.

EXCISE DUTIES—Excise duty is a tax on certain commodities manufactured in New Zealand. Duties on major commodities are as follows.

Beer—From 1 July 1974 the excise duty on beer became $13.20 per 100 litres where the specific gravity does not exceed 1,036 advancing by 36.66c. per 100 litres for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. The specific gravity of distilled water at 15.6°C is taken as 1,000; and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Tobacco—The following table sets out the rates of excise duty on tobacco from 30 July 1976.

DescriptionRate of Duty
Cigarettes—$
Exceeding in weight 1.134 kg per 1,000 per kg13.32
Not exceeding in weight 1.134 kg per 1,000 per 1,00015.11
Cigars and snuff per kg8.34
Other manufactured tobacco per kg9.91

Alcohol—Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures, the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has been provided since 1921 on alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: on alcohol used in manufacture: perfumed spirits, $0.80c per proof litre; toilet preparations, $0.75c; culinary and flavouring essences, $0.44c; medicinal preparations containing more than 50 percent of proof spirit, $0.10c per proof litre. In similar medicinal preparations containing not more than 50 percent, the alcohol used is duty-free.

Distilleries—Excise duty on gin, geneva, schnapps, vodka, and other basically derived white spirit liquors approved by the Minister of Customs, which are produced by two rectifying and compounding distilleries, is at the rate of $3.85 per proof litre. The excise duty on whisky made or distilled in New Zealand is $3,786 per proof litre. These rates applied from 22 July 1977.

CUSTOMS REVENUE—Revenue from Customs and excise duties is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchExcise DutiesOther DutiesTotal Duties
BeerSpiritsTobaccoSugar
   $(000)   
197444,6749,46571,603-120,096245,838
197546,23311,20375,197-142,685275,318
197648,37412,12980,265-124,630265,398

Motor spirits duty paid into the National Roads Fund has been excluded from Customs duties.

Customs revenue as a proportion of taxation is discussed in the section on Central Government finance.

INTERNATIONAL COMMODITY AGREEMENTS: Sugar—New Zealand's annual requirement of sugar is some 170,000 tons. Some three-quarters of this amount is usually imported from Australia and Fiji under long-term contracts. In recent years additional cargoes have been bought from Cuba and the Philippines.

World trade in sugar takes place largely under bilateral contracts and special arrangements such as the home convention between the EEC and the ACP (Africa, Caribbean, and Pacific) nations. Until 1973, New Zealand's sugar has been bought according to a 1957 Memorandum of Understanding agreed between New Zealand and the parties to the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement—New Zealand is not a member of the agreement itself. This understanding simply determined the quantity New Zealand would buy from Commonwealth suppliers at 75,000 tons.

The price at which New Zealand bought sugar however was the world price, the "London daily price", subject to a small adjustment in the case of the 75,000 tons bought under the Memorandum of Understanding.

Before 1957 New Zealand's purchases of sugar were governed by the 1951 Exchange of Letters between the New Zealand and British Governments. Under this exchange which was to operate from 1953 to 1958 inclusive the Ministry of Food agreed to supply 75,000 tons annually to New Zealand at a price negotiated by Britain and Commonwealth exporting countries. This arrangement proved unsatisfactory from New Zealand's point of view because in many years the Commonwealth negotiated price was higher than the world price. The arrangements under the exchange were terminated prematurely and replaced by the memorandum in 1957.

The Commonwealth Sugar Agreement terminated at the end of 1974 as part of the phasing out of Commonwealth trading arrangements resulting from the United Kingdom's entry into the EEC.

New Zealand has been a member of the International Sugar Agreements of 1958 and 1968. These agreements incorporated mechanisms that regulated the supply and price of sugar on world markets. Under the agreements exporters undertook to regulate their sales on the free market according to agreed quotas while importers were to restrict their purchases from non-members during times when sugar prices remained within the range specified in the agreement. The 1968 agreement terminated in 1973 and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) convened a conference to negotiate a new agreement. Against a background of record free market sugar prices (moving from around £75 per ton at the end of 1972 to over £200 per ton at the beginning of 1974), agreement on appropriate indicator prices proved impossible to find and the conference settled for a consultative form of agreement without control measures of any kind. Work is proceeding within the consultative organisation on the drawing up of a new agreement containing economic clauses.

Coffee—New Zealand is a party to the International Coffee Agreement 1976, which came into force in October 1976, for a period of 6 years. New Zealand was previously a party to the International Coffee Agreement of 1968 which finally expired in 1976, having been extended from 1973 as a purely administrative agreement.

Under the 1976 agreement, provisions have been incorporated for adjusting basic quotas, regulating imports whenever quotas arc in effect, and recording international coffee trade. New Zealand has joined this agreement as part of a wider support for commodity agreements.

Cocoa—New Zealand has recently joined the International Cocoa Agreement 1975, which came into force in October 1976, for a period of 3 years. New Zealand was a member of the 1973 agreement which expired in 1976. Quotas are more flexible under the new agreement, and further processing of cocoa in developing countries is advocated.

The International Cocoa Agreement incorporates features common to other commodity agreements, but depends largely for the stabilising of prices on the operation of a buffer stock. Cocoa beans would be bought into the buffer stock at times of low prices and sold when prices pass an agreed maximum level. To date the buffer stock has not come into operation as cocoa prices are still rising. It is hoped the 1975 agreement will be more effective in stabilising the international cocoa trade.

Chapter 22. Section 22 PRICES AND HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE

Table of Contents

CONTROL OF PRICES—The principal enactments affecting the control of prices of goods and services are the Commerce Act 1975 and the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948.

Under the former statute a Positive List of Controlled Goods and Services is published by the Minister of Trade and Industry. This specifies goods and services, increases in the prices of which are subject to the direct supervision of the Secretary of Trade and Industry. Regulations (notably the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974) have been made under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948 for the purpose of restraining increases in the prices of most other goods and services which are not subject to the direct supervision of a statutory pricing authority. Such authorities are the Secretary of Trade and Industry in the case of goods and services subject to control under the Commerce Act, the Secretary of Transport in the case of many domestic transport services subject to price control under the Transport Act 1962, and the Air Services Licensing Authority with respect to air transport charges determined in accordance with the Air Services Licensing Act 1951. The prices of some other goods and services such as motor spirits, automotive and diesel oil, and milk and cream prices are fixed by Order in Council.

Goods and services subject to the direct supervision of a statutory pricing authority or Order in Council are generally referred to as Category A goods and services, while other goods and services subject to price restraint under the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974 are termed Category B goods and services.

The Commerce Act 1975—Part IV of the Commerce Act replaces the provisions of the Control of Prices Act 1947. While many of the provisions of this Part closely follow provisions of the earlier Act there are a number of important differences. Besides providing for goods and services to be placed under price control, provision is also made for regulations to be made placing goods and services under price restraint. Decisions take the form of price orders or special approvals as previously. The Secretary of Trade and Industry is required on request to give his reasons for a decision to the applicant or to interested parties. The Commerce Commission, which replaces the former Price Tribunal, sits as a judicial authority for the determination of appeals from decisions of the Secretary of Trade and Industry.

Decisions of the Secretary of Trade and Industry are made following investigations by him, upon receipt of an application in accordance with procedures set out in the Act. Provision is also made for the Secretary to review prices on his own motion with the consent of the Minister of Trade and Industry. Before making a determination in respect of an application or following a review on his own motion, the Secretary is required to fulfil certain duties which accord applicants the benefit of the rules of natural justice which applied under the previous judicial jurisdiction.

Criteria considered by the Secretary of Trade and Industry or the Commerce Commission in dealing with pricing matters include the cost of production and distribution of the goods concerned; the ability of the applicant to absorb costs; profit margins and return on capital; stable internal prices; improvements in productivity and efficiency; market competition; and subsidies or import protection given.

Price increases may be made on Category B items, but only to the extent provided in the Regulations. In general, this may be stated in respect of manufacturers and suppliers of services as the recovery of costs, plus the established percentage margin of profits. In the case of wholesalers and retailers, prices are determined by applying the lawfully established margin of profit to into-store cost.

Unless approval has been obtained from the Secretary of Trade and Industry for a more frequent increase, there must be a minimum interval of 6 months between price increases by manufacturers and suppliers of services. All manufacturers and packers and suppliers of Category B goods and services must maintain a record of their price increase calculations. Any such manufacturer with an annual turnover of $1.6 million is required to send a copy of that record to the department.

Manufacturers with a turnover of $5 million or more and suppliers of services with a turnover of $500,000 or more are required to give 28 days notice of their intention to increase prices. If the Secretary of Trade and Industry does not object to the increase within the 28 days the increase may be implemented. If an objection is made, the trader must await clearance from the Secretary of Trade and Industry before increasing prices.

The maximum profit ceiling provisions of the Regulations require all traders to ensure they do not exceed their maximum profit ceiling in any year. The maximum profit ceiling is the average percentage of profit to sales achieved during the last four years immediately preceding July 1974. If a trader does obtain any excess profit he is required to liquidate it either through reducing prices or charges or absorbing cost increases.

Provision exists in the Regulations for the Secretary of Trade and Industry to grant approval to traders to retain excess profits or to reassess a maximum profit ceiling. In considering such applications the Secretary has regard to the following:

  1. The need for a profit ceiling higher than the enterprise's maximum profit ceiling in order to sustain a programme of capital expansion approved by the Secretary, to effect improvements in productivity, or to provide for investment in the interests of national, regional, or export development.

  2. Demonstrable improvements in productivity that have been achieved in the business of the enterprise.

  3. Whether full compliance with the maximum profit ceiling is affecting or will affect prejudicially the financial stability and viability of the business of the enterprise.

  4. Significant changes in the activities or structure of the business of the enterprise which render its maximum profit ceiling unreasonable.

  5. Any other matters which the Secretary considers relevant, including the need to protect consumers and to maintain the stability of prices.

Except for building services the price freeze implemented on 14 November 1973 on the labour and overhead elements of specified services has been discontinued following the approval of charge-out rates.

The Price Freeze Regulations 1976 came into force on 18 August 1976 and expired on 14 May 1977. During this period other legislative controls on prices were limited in their operation to the extent permitted by the Price Freeze Regulations. With certain exceptions, the normal prices being charged on 17 August 1976 could not be increased on or before 31 December 1976. The exceptions were:

  1. Specified exempted goods and services.

  2. Price increases which were lawful at 17 August but which had not been implemented.

  3. The prices of certain manufacturers of Category B goods and suppliers of Category B services could not be increased until varying dates up to 15 May 1977.

Provision was made for the unit amount of the increased cost of finished imported goods to be passed on in price. Provision was also made for relief to be granted from the Regulations in the case of hardship.

Trade Practices—Part II of the Commerce Act incorporates, with substantial amendments, most of the provisions of the Trade Practices Act 1958.

The Commerce Commission may make orders if it finds certain practices to be contrary to the public interest. Other trade practices are prohibited unless approved by the Commission. Certain prohibited practices are offences.

A trade practice is contrary to the public interest, if in the opinion of the Commission, it has the effect of maintaining certain costs, prices, or profits at an unreasonably high level. Collective pricing agreements need to be approved.

Consumer Information—The basic aims of the Consumer Information Act 1969 are for informative labelling and marking of goods, and for the prevention of deceptive or misleading packaging, labelling and advertising. The Act has general application to goods, including services, but the majority of the sections exclude foods, drugs, and medical devices as these are dealt with by the Department of Health under the food and drug legislation. There are provisions dealing with misleading advertising, misleading packaging, and false representations as to prices, and all goods packaged in New Zealand must show the name and address of the packager on the label. Provision is made for other specific packaging and labelling requirements, including the declaration on the label of the quantitative contents of the package—to be stipulated from time to time by the publication of notices in the Gazette or by regulations made by Order in Council.

CONSUMER COUNCIL—The Consumer Council's functions are to protect and promote the interests of consumers of goods and services and by so doing to encourage the improvement and development of industry and commerce. The Council was established in 1959 and reconstituted an independent body under the Consumer Council Act 1966. The Council consists of 12 members appointed solely on the basis of personal qualifications by a representative Appointments Committee. The Secretary of Trade and Industry, the Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Director-General of Health are also members.

The Council has appointed District Consumer Committees in Auckland, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and encourages the formation of local consumer associations. The Council lays down the policies to be followed by the staff of Consumers' Institute. The Institute's work includes comparative tests and surveys of consumer goods and services; research into and advice on legislative, financial, and welfare matters; representations to parliamentary committees and public inquiries; consumer education; complaints advisory service; assistance to Polynesians; and liaison with business and trade associations.

Citizens are encouraged to become members of Consumers' Institute at an annual subscription of $6. At the end of 1976, around 130,000 members received the monthly magazine Consumer. Members are entitled to receive the quarterly Consumer Review at an annual subscription of $3, and to purchase other Institute publications. Teaching notes are made available to schools, and radio and television broadcasts are also prepared.

Membership subscriptions and sales of publications provide about 70 percent of the Institute's finance. The remainder comes from Government grants. While the Institute liaises and co-operates with others, it maintains complete independence and impartiality.

The Consumer Council is a council member of the International Organisation of Consumers Unions, and co-operates with and assists other consumer organisations throughout the world.

PRICE STATISTICS—Actual prices of many goods and services at various levels are collected periodically by the Department of Statistics. The fields covered are retail prices, wholesale prices, farm input prices, export prices, import prices, share prices, and wool prices. In the case of retail, wholesale, and farm input prices, direct inquiry is made; export and import prices (or strictly, unit values) are mainly derived from trade statistics, share prices from records of the stock exchanges, and wool prices from the New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation. In addition, average prices of many materials and products of manufacture are available from the statistics of industrial production. Some retail prices are shown later in this Section, and a wider coverage is published in the annual Report on Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics; the chief use made of the prices collected is in the compilation of price index numbers. These are, fundamentally, weighted averages of price ratios, the weighting being so arranged that the index numbers give a general indication of price movements in the field covered. The usual technique employs fixed weights with, however, provision for revision of the weighting pattern at suitable intervals.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—The Consumers Price Index (CPI) measures changes in the general level of the prices of the goods and services which households purchase; it thus provides the best available measure of the effect of changes in retail prices on the average household budget. Index series of retail prices have a long history in New Zealand, starting with a food and rent index for the 4 chief centres back to 1891, and increasing in comprehensiveness both as to commodity and geographical coverage over successive series since that time. The most recent revisions to the Consumers Price Index were made in 1949, 1955, 1965, and 1974 (the 1974 revision was the subject of a special article in the 1975 Yearbook).

The salient features of this index may be summarised as follows:

  1. The basic formula used is that of Laspeyres in its aggregative form.

  2. The index relates to the expenditures of all New Zealand residents living in private households.

  3. The number of items regularly priced is 565.

  4. The base expenditures are quantities for 12 months ended June 1974 at prices for the quarter ended December 1974.

  5. The sources of group and commodity weights are the average expenditure per household from the Household Sample Survey of the year ended June 1974 supplemented by crosschecks from other statistical sources. Where considered appropriate, the base weight assigned to selected items represent expenditure on kindred items not selected for pricing.

  6. Prices for most items are collected by field officers in 25 centres, including 3 combined areas. A few are obtained by mail.

  7. Rent movements are determined by means of a quarterly survey of a sample of rented houses and flats.

  8. Special techniques are employed for costs of owner-occupiers, for prices of seasonal fruits and vegetables, and for transport charges.

  9. Index numbers are compiled for all food and its sub-groups at monthly intervals, and for all other groups and sub-groups at quarterly intervals.

  10. Index numbers are published for 7 chief market centres and 10 larger market centres individually. Combined index numbers are also published for each of these two groupings and for all centres combined. Each centre and groupings of centres is shown on its own base and on a common, all-centres, base.

  11. To provide continuous series, the pre-revision all-groups index and food index seriesseries were converted to a base of December quarter 1974.

  12. Expenditures on the following items are, for various reasons, excluded: direct taxation; purchases of shares, bonds or debentures; payments to superannuation funds and the like; savings; collectors' items; gifts; gambling; court fines; legal expenses for traffic cases, criminal and civil case, estates, family settlements, divorces, adoptions, etc; charitable and church donations; wages of domestic servants, home aids, home nurses, jobbing gardeners, etc; catering and other service charges for private receptions; training, racing and stabling fees for race or trotting horses; purchase, boarding and breeding charges for animals; pet requisites (other than pet food); and grazing fees and fees for pony clubs.

A Consumers Price Index Revision Advisory Committee was set up in June 1971 under the chairmanship of the Government Statistician to investigate changes that should be made to the index. It reported in September 1971. Its recommendations in parliamentary paper H. 40 were accepted in June 1972 and the revised index commenced to operate early in 1975.

The revised Consumers Price Index retains its basic objective of providing a multi-purpose indicator of retail price changes of those goods and services which are purchased by New Zealand residents living in New Zealand, and substantially retains the previous group and sub-group structure.

The weights in the revised Consumers Price Index are based on the pattern of expenditure of the population covered by the index rather than on what is consumed by them.

Data to revise and update the Consumers Price Index are to be obtained mainly from continuing household expenditure surveys. These are to be supplemented and tested by additional data on housing, national consumption, production, and expenditure.

The selection of goods and services to be priced—inevitably only a small percentage of goods and services can be priced—has been widened to include more fields of expenditure and more pricing outlets. This reflects more adequately both the expenditure patterns of all New Zealand residents living in New Zealand and the movement in prices of consumer goods and services.

Consumers Price Index (1974 Revision)—The tables which follow relate to the Consumers Price Index (1974 Revision) only.

The first table supplies all-groups index numbers and index numbers of individual groups and subgroups for 25 centres combined. The group and subgroup weights are also shown as percentages of the base expenditure.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX—(ALL GROUPS)—TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED
Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, December Quarter 1974 (= 1000)
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Groups—       
Percentages of base expenditure17.8227.8014.318.5514.7016.82100.00
Calendar year—       
19751074109610741089112610951093
19761273121012891248139412991278
Quarter ended—       
1974—31 Dec1000100010001000100010001000
1976—31 Mar1197116011821174133812251208
30 Jun1254119712831229138012741262
30 Sep1301122713331255141813271302
31 Dec1341125813581332143813701338
1977—31 Mar1403128613881353146614031373
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold Operation
Fruit and VegetablesMeat, Fish, and PoultryOther FoodsRentalsHome OwnershipFuel and LightHousehold FurnishingsHousehold Supplies and Services
Subgroups-        
Percentage of base expenditure2.915.199.723.5024.301.987.954.38
Calendar year—        
197510971019109710991096105210871061
197612511177133012551204138212791265
Quarter ended—        
1974—31 Dec10001000100010001000100010001000
1976—31 Mar12451130121811971155112412041169
30 Jun11911145133112351192139212571282
30 Sep12541186137612911217150413101296
31 Dec13151248139712961252150813451313
1977—31 Mar13701280147913711274154813841323
PeriodApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
ClothingFootwearPublic TransportPrivate TransportTobacco and AlcoholOther SuppliesOther Services
Subgroups—        
Percentage of base expenditure6.951.591.0813.626.425.524.87100.00
Calendar year—        
197510921074109211291058113311011093
197612451259137113951226138612971278
Quarter ended—        
1974—31 Dec10001000100010001000100010001000
1976—31 Mar11751170131313401141132112281208
30 Jun12301228137513811181136312961262
30 Sep12521266139714191262140813211302
31 Dec13221373139914411318145313431338
1977—31 Mar13461387145914661332148214081373

The average level of consumer prices rose by 16.9 percent in 1976, compared with a rise of 14.7 percent during the preceding year. Although price increases were recorded in all main groups of the index the major contributions to the overall result came from the fuel and light, public and private transport, miscellaneous supplies and services, other foods, and household supplies and services subgroups.

The following diagram shows the movement in consumers price index numbers.

The following tables distinguish individual centres and groupings of centres, but the subgroup indexes are omitted. Attention is called, however, to the two-fold method of presentation: in the first table current prices in each centre are compared with prices in the same centre during the base period; in the second, current prices in each centre are compared with average prices over all the 25 centres in the base period.

Where the base is the individual centre, the index numbers are specially designed to show price movements in each centre. Vertical comparisons can also be made but they will show the relative amount of price movements in respective centres, not relative current price levels. In the second method, where the base is average prices over the 25 centres, horizontal or vertical comparisons may be made to compare relative price levels. However, these index numbers do not indicate how much dearer or cheaper it is to live in one centre or another, but only how much higher or lower retail price levels are in one centre than another. The construction of the index assumes the same consumption habits in all centres, regardless of size, climate, etc.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEXANNUAL GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES

Base: Weighted average each centre and grouping, separately, December Quarter 1974 (= 1000)

CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Fourth Quarter 1974Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1974Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1974Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1974Calendar Year
19751976197519761975197619751976

*Includes eight smaller market centres, viz. Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, Gore.

Auckland100010791278100010781158100010661291100010721229
Hamilton100010841266100010991222100010841325100010921239
Napier-Hastings100010691261100010991229100010861282100011091268
Palmerston North100010791288100010991210100010781288100010831267
Wellington-Hutt100010731266100010561150100010811297100010871248
Christchurch100010681276100011261248100010721280100011001248
Dunedin100010691288100010981269100010771276100011011264
Seven chief market centres100010751275100010871189100010741291100010861244
Whangarei100010721252100011071260100010751293100010691202
Tauranga100010731257100010741158100010781267100010971270
Rotorua100010841279100011211268100010601267100011061254
Gisborne100010761269100011261279100010781312100010671188
New Plymouth100010731283100011271239100010801283100011051299
Wanganui100010601268100011301315100010871295100010601232
Masterton100010871288100011021270100010721288100010901223
Nelson100010711256100011911336100010761283100011061276
Timaru100010661259100011281283100010701287100011021251
Invercargill100010581279100010921297100010771287100011051278
Ten larger market centres100010711267100011151262100010751285100010911249
Twenty-five market centres combined*100010741273100010961210100010741289100010891247
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Fourth Quarter 1974Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1974Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1974Calendar Year
197519761975197619751976

*Includes eight smaller market centres, viz. Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, Gore.

Auckland100011201398100011021308100010861262
Hamilton100011221383100010931305100010961284
Napier-Hastings100011131366100010961294100010941279
Palmerston North100011331394100010911290100010941280
Wellington-Hutt100011301386100010991293100010821255
Christchurch100011381406100010911292100011011288
Dunedin100011311397100010921295100010941297
Seven chief market centres100011261394100010971299100010901271
Whangarei100011121382100010881294100010911283
Tauranga100011221387100010871309100010851256
Rotorua100011201380100010991303100011001291
Gisborne100011141365100010791288100010941289
New Plymouth100011381416100010841287100011031293
Wanganui100011321401100010841284100010961303
Masterton100011301379100011061321100010991297
Nelson100011251395100010871288100011171309
Timaru100011301397100010951296100011001296
Invercargill100011381405100010931304100010921309
Ten larger market centres100011261392100010901298100010961291
Twenty-five market centres combined*100011261393100010951299100010931278

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEXANNUAL GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES

Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres combined, December Quarter 1974 (= 1000)

CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
Fourth Quarter 1974Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1974Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1974Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1974Calendar Year
19751976197519761975197619751976

*Includes eight smaller market centres, viz. Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, Gore.

Auckland987106512611129121713079981063128899210641219
Hamilton103311211309953104811659641044127894310291168
Napier-Hastings9951063125590910001118103111201321101811281291
Palmerston North9921071127898910871197103211121329101110951281
Wellington-Hutt10121085128111321195130199810791294103811281296
Christchurch992106012669611082119999110621268104811521307
Dunedin1008107812998459281072104011191327100711081272
Seven chief market centres99910741273104211331239100110751292100810951254
Whangarei10241098128393810391182989106412798989601079
Tauranga10031076126111021183127610131092128495410461212
Rotorua10021087128192910421178999105912669611061205
Gisborne1028110613058479531083972104712751010961220
New Plymouth99810711280933105211571010109112959410421225
Wanganui102410851298801905105395610391238102010811256
Masterton9881073127287496311099941065128099610851219
Nelson1003107512609351114124910241102131596810711235
Timaru994106012518199231050100010701287107411841344
Invercargill97810351251804878104298910651272103911481327
Ten larger market centres100410751272904100811419951070127998510751231
Twenty-five market centres combined*100010741273100010961210100010741289100010891247
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Fourth Quarter 1974Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1974Calendar YearFourth Quarter 1974Calendar Year
197519761975197619751976

*Includes eight smaller market centres, viz. Tokoroa, Whakatane, Taupo, Hawera, Blenheim, Greymouth, Ashburton, Gore.

Auckland102811511437102811331344104111311314
Hamilton968108613399811073128197510691252
Napier-Hastings1062118214509961091128898810811264
Palmerston North970109913529791069126399310871272
Wellington-Hutt98811161370100611051301104111261306
Christchurch9871123138810211114131999210931278
Dunedin1004113614039781068126796210521247
Seven chief market centres100511321401101011081312101511061290
Whangarei1025114114179761062126497710651253
Tauranga9641082133797310581274101711031278
Rotorua970108713399851083128497010681253
Gisborne106118214489651041124396410551242
New Plymouth97110913809851068126897110711256
Wanganui941102136410141099130294310331228
Masterton982111013559691072128095410481237
Nelson989111213799791065126297810931280
Timaru983111013739701063125894710421227
Invercargill1006114514139821073128194110281231
Ten larger market centres993111813829801068127296810611249
Twenty-five market centres combined*100011261393100010951299100010931278

AVERAGE RETAIL PRICES—New Zealand retail prices (weighted average prices over 25 centres) at 15 November 1976 of a number of the commodities which enter into the Consumers Price Index are shown hereunder.

CommodityUnitPrice
  Cents
Apples, eatingkg70.33
Orangeskg76.88
Cabbagekg44.06
Carrotskg54.73
Onionskg38.68
Potatoeskg27.25
Peaches, canned16 oz tin41.40
Peas, green, frozen1 kg pkt94.42
Beef, blade steakkg192.39
Beef, corned silversidekg203.93
Beef, porterhouse steakkg286.14
Beef, prime rib, rolledkg174.72
Beef, rump steakkg258.49
Hogget, chops, middle loinkg200.52
Hogget, cut leg, knuckle endkg198.66
Hogget, forequarterkg128.21
Lamb, leg, wholekg267.63
Pork, cut leg, knuckle endkg266.67
Pork, loin chopskg272.35
Bacon, side rasherslb179.96
Ham, cooked, pressed, slicedlb238.58
Mince, beefkg132.24
Sausages, beefkg106.63
Sole or flounder, wetkg212.65
Fish, fresh, filleted—e.g. tarakihi or groperkg271.47
Salmon, canned7 1/4 oz98.66
Chicken, deep frozenMedium229.24
Eggs, min. 636g/dozenDozen93.09
Milk, delivered600 ml8.02
Butter500 g43.38
Cheese, tastylb82.70
Milk powder, full cream1 kg tin172.88
Bread, sliced, wrapped24 oz28.21
Biscuits, chocolate wheaten225 g48.21
Cake, block, light fruitlb88.14
Breakfast flake biscuits24 oz pkt53.32
Flour, white1 1/2 kg43.77
Oatmeal, packaged1.4kg pkt82.12
Rice, short grain500 g42.32
Honey500 g ctn68.02
Jam, apricot14 oz tin55.62
Coffee, instant100 g151.26
Coffee, ground, packaged250 g125.61
Tea250 g59.91
Margarine, table500g82.49
Salt, iodised2 kg Bag38.18
Soup, tomato16 oz tin37.17
Spaghetti in tomato sauce16 oz tin39.58
Sugar, white3 kg pkt134.02
Vegetable cooking oil500 ml84.75
Aerated waters26 oz bot28.32
Ice cream, vanilla2 litre86.61
Chocolate, block250 g78.77
Meals, coffee and 2 sandwichesEach57.57
Meals, grill, steak and eggsEach269.35
Takeaways, chicken, hotEach263.63
Takeaways, hamburger, hotEach51.44
Timber, dressed, 150 mm x 25 mm finishing tanalised radiata pinePer 100 lineal metres$ 66.37
Concrete blocks, 400 mm x 200 mm x 150 mm waterproofPer 10045.65
Paint, house, waterbased, high-gloss4 Litre tin14.97
Wallpaper, N.Z. plain, sunproofPer roll4.36
Local body ratesAnn. Demand178.87
Coal, delivered1/4 ton16.02
Electricity with water heating1400 units per 2 months23.82
Gas10 therms per month5.66
Electric blanket, single, thermostat controlEach23.49
Clothes drier, tumblerEach178.16
Home-freezer, 11 cu ftEach276.71
Electric radiator. 2500w 4 elementsEach64.93
Radio, transistorised, 8 transistors 6VEach58.06
Electric range, 4 elementEach323.15
Electric razor, double header (in travel case)Each34.39
Refrigerator 11 1/2 cu ft dual temperature, freezer-fridgeEach395.26
Modular stereo, turntable, 3 speed, single playEach506.39
Television set, black and whiteEach410.55
Television set, colour, 26 inchEach1,027.31
Vacuum cleanerEach103.69
Washing machine, spin dry, fully automaticEach417.61
Bedroom suite, 4 ft 6 in. including dressing table, tallboyEach227.60
Motor mower, rotaryEach437.11
Tallboy, 4 drawer, rimuEach69.27
Dining room suiteEach223.87
Lounge suite, 3 pieceEach518.06
Mattress, foam rubber, 4 ft 6 in.Each109.35
Blinds, Venetian, 175 cm wide, 130 cm dropEach64.57
Cot, wooden, painted, dropsideEach54.45
Piano, upright, iron frameEach1,359.80
Carpet, embossed, broadloomPer metre60.87
Carpet, 80/20 broadloomPer metre67.61
Blankets, all wool, singlePair34.80
Sheets, singlePair11.22
Towel, turkish, 24 in. x 48 in.Each3.78
Casserole dish, 3 pint pyrexEach6.35
Clock, alarmEach15.95
Mixing bowl, stainless steel 8 in.Each3.93
Saucepan, 8 in. aluminiumEach14.29
Cup, saucer, plateSet6.12
Forks, table, stainless steel1/2 doz3.33
Hammer, 20 ozEach10.23
PlaneEach16.04
Spade, gardenEach14.53
Bulb, electric light, 100WEach0.60
Cat food, tinned14 1/4 oz0.39
Detergent, liquid, plastic container29 Fl oz0.72
Disinfectant20 oz0.59
Flyspray, aerosol12 Fl oz can1.25
Soap powder40 oz pkt0.78
Washing powder2 lb pkt1.13
Postage, surface letters, 1 ozEach0.08
Telegrams, 15 wordsEach0.90
Telephone rental, privatePer year86.40
Dry cleaning, mens 2 piece suitEach2.36
Television licence, black and whitePer Year27.50
Television licence, colourPer year45.00
Man's cardigan, all wool, fully fashionedEach27.15
HandkerchiefEach0.60
Jeans, navyPair15.44
Raincoat fabricEach55.18
Shirt, businessEach14.75
Singlet, athleticEach2.35
Socks, half-hose, wool/nylonPair2.57
Suit, ready-made two-pieceEach112.06
Swimming trunks, bri-nylonPair6.07
Trousers, sports, terylene or woolPair30.18
Woman's brassiereEach5.36
Cardigan, lightweightEach15.32
Coat, winterweightEach73.96
Frock, lightweightEach17.45
Nightdress, nylonEach9.30
Nightdress, dacron/cottonEach8.87
Woman's Panties, nylonPair1.42
Panty hosePair1.40
Slacks, lightweightPair16.62
Skirt, winterweightEach24.38
Suit, two-piece, heavyweightEach68.93
Swimsuit, nylonEach18.48
Underslip, nylonEach6.12
Vest, at least 50 percent woolEach3.97
Boy's shortsPair5.09
Girl's panties, interlockPair1.53
Pyjamas, heavyweightPair5.28
Socks, ankle, nylonPair1.34
Infant's nursery squares, 30 in. x 30 in.Doz10.59
Infant's vest, eyelet meshEach1.32
Fabric, sailcloth, cotton 90 cmPer metre1.40
Synthetic, dress, lightweight, 115 cmPer metre2.54
Woollen/cotton mixture, 90 cmPer metre4.32
Paper pattern, dressmakingEach1.20
Knitting wool 4 plyPer 25 g ball0.50
double knitPer 50 g ball0.92
Men's boots, heavyweight, commando solePair27.69
Sand shoesPair4.68
Shoes, lightweightPair27.66
Women's fashion shoes (summer)Pair24.16
Fashion Shoes (winter)Pair24.02
SlippersPair6.78
Boy's shoes, schoolPair14.20
Girl's shoes, schoolPair13.03
Car, new, basic without extras 1051–1350 ccEach5,259.00
Bicycle, 21 in. frameEach123.67
Petrol, 96 octanePer 10 litres2.70
Car repairs, overhaul of brakes,Per job59.94
Overhaul of gearbox, (new seals, bearings, and gaskets only)Per job110.36
Cigarettes, filter tippedPkt 200.58
Cigarette tobacco50g Pkt0.93
Beer, in a public bar7oz glass0.15
Wine, N.Z. sherry, medium dryper qt btl1.64
AspirinPkt or 250.46
Make-up, foundation (tinted)1 oz2.42
Lipstick, 12 mm, popular colourEach2.31
Baby talc110g0.59
Razor blades, stainless steelPkt or 50.89
Toilet paperPer 3 rolls0.65
Toilet soap, bath size tabletEach0.20
Toothpaste, family sizePer tube0.57
Ring, diamond, engagementEach387.85
Watch, wrist, man'sEach87.10
Pad, writing, 9 in. x7 in. 40 leaves ruledEach0.32
Long playing recordEach7.48
Construction set, child's toyEach9.11
Teddy bear, 13 in.Each12.34
Tricycle, child'sEach55.77
Bowls, outdoorSet or 480.40
Golf club, no. 5 ironEach23.67
Rifle, 243 calibreEach273.96
Tennis ballsPer pair1.54
Tennis racquet, juniorEach20.44
Newspaper, dailyEach0.10
Library subscription, 14 days1 book0.23
Optician's fee, full examination and spectacles with caseEach35.45
Dental fillingsEach5.03
DenturesPer set159.80
Medical, general practitioner's fee (in excess of G.M.S. benefit)Per visit2.54
Specialist consultation, (in excess of G.M.S. benefit)Per consultation7.60
Private general hospital, medical wardPer day19.82
Cinema admission, adult, eveningEach1.47
Rugby admissionEach0.56
Golf club subscription, adult, male, netPer annum99.80
Rugby club subscriptionPer annum9.88
Tennis club subscriptionPer annum22.89
Motel tariff, 3 star, 2 personsPer night13.77
Funeral, burialEach502.47
Funeral, cremationEach443.19
Haircut, man'sEach1.46
Haircut, woman'sEach2.39
Hairset, woman'sEach3.86

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS—The table overleaf provides a comparison of retail prices between New Zealand and certain other countries. All the prices have been converted into New Zealand currency and the metric liquid and dry measures have been adopted as the basis for common units of quantity.

Comparisons in annual movement of Consumer Price Indexes of selected countries are given in the following table. (The base is December Quarter 1974 = 1000.)

YearNew ZealandAustraliaCanadaFrance (Paris)JapanUnited KingdomUnited States
1972793746803782678745813
1973858817864839758812863
1974953941958954941942958
19751093108210611065105411711045
19761278122811411171115513651106

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL PRICES OF BASIC FOODSTUFFS (At December 1976 in New Zealand currency)

ItemUnitNew Zealand (Average 25 Centres)Australia (Sydney)Great Britain* (London)South Africa* (Cape Town)United States (Average 56 Cities)

*January 1977.

†September 1976.

‡June 1976.

§Cake flour.

∥Processed cheese.

¶Sirloin.

Sources: Australia: Commonwealth Statistician. Great Britain: New Zealand High Commissioner. South Africa: Bureau of Census and Statistics. U.S.A.: Bureau of Labour.

  centscentscentscentscents
Bread750 g23.546.936.120.260.0
Flour1.5 kg43.966.846.754.7§62.5
Tea500 g119.2123.0136.6166.7..
Coffee (instant)100 g151.3134.4114.7..119.7
Sugarkg44.735.345.831.056.0
Milk (fresh)600 ml8.029.420.018.922.1
Butter500 g43.4103.1106.883.1136.0
Cheesekg185.4226.5230.211170.6385.5
Baconkg398.6490.5329.9286.0395.3
Beef, rib roastkg170.6208.1539.4283.4402.1
Lamb, legkg207.1264.8370.9274.7..
Pork—      
Legkg268.8351.1281.0209.9..
Chopskg273.5324.4..215.0431.7
Margarine500 g83.378.651.671.457.4

Prices shown for the United States of America do not include sales tax. A similar table of wholesale prices is shown later. Currency conversion basis: Australia, A$1=NZ$1.25; Great Britain, £1=NZ$1.8325; South Africa, 1 Rand=NZ$1.21; United States, USS1 = NZ$1.0200; France, 1 Franc=NZ21.849c.

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX—This index is not a single wholesale prices index, but a series of price index numbers related to broad groupings of the inter-industry transactions distinguished in the department's input-output tables for the New Zealand economy. Thus each of the index numbers relates to a group of commodity transactions occurring at certain price levels between defined sectors in the economy. Capital goods as well as goods for current consumption or usage are represented in the various commodity flows.

Wholesale Prices Index Numbers—The table which follows is divided into two parts; the first covers "input" prices and the second "output" prices. Within the first part of the table there is a breakup into goods for industrial use (analysed by sector destinations), for consumption, and for export. In each flow imported goods are distinguished from locally produced goods. In this part of the table all prices are inclusive of sales tax and excise duties and net of subsidies; the prices for exports marketed overseas are the prices in these markets brought to an f.o.b. basis, i.e., their "input" prices to other countries.

In the second part of the table the broad producing sectors are distinguished. Here the prices of their outputs are used. They are taken before the addition of sales and excise duties or the deduction of subsidies. The prices for export meat and dairy products are those payable to producers under the different stabilisation and minimum export-meat-prices schemes.

The primary produce processing industries group comprises the two major industries, meat export works and dairy factories, processing farm products mainly for export.

The expression base for the index is the calendar year 1958.

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX

Base: 1958 (= 1000)

Index Numbers of Commodity Prices by Sectors of Destination*
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used byAll Users
Domestic IndustryConsumersDomestic Industry and ConsumersOther Countries (Exported)
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal

*The prices used in this table are those payable by the using or consuming sectors, i.e., including indirect taxation and net after subsidies; the export prices are NZ f.o.b. equivalent of overseas market prices.

¶Provisional.

19581000100010001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
19721597151115401571161216031591154615591867159116151609
19731700180717721652174517231689178617572324168919031849
19742012182718881945192019261996186519001939199618761906
1975x2554189221102397219922452515199621522056251520092136
1976||3079234525872949265827273047245126302927304725542678
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Primary IndustriesPrimary Produce Processing IndustriesAll Other Industries
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
FarmingAll Other Industries

†This consists of manufacturing industries (excluding primary produce processing industries), building and construction, transport and communication, wholesale and retail trade, banking and finance, and public utilities and services.

¶Provisional.

19581000100010001000100010001000100010001000
19721472144314481450159213501358160916171614
19731545200415521746164718261820171618031764
19741877208316941896188416821688202718781945
1975x2436144319921836243215201547256721502338
1976||3022185524422294306319231957308426372839
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Manufacturing IndustriesBuilding and Construction
ImportedHome ProducedTotal
Other Manufacturing IndustriesAll Other IndustriesImportedHome ProducedTotal

‡Other than Primary Produce Processing Industries.

¶Provisional.

19581000100010001000100010001000
19721601160516401611175516961717
19731704172221201806184517921812
19742039190219041972207119902020
1975x2531225219052311285124292583
1976||3021272424482809331528923046
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Transport and CommunicationOther Industries§
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal

§Includes wholesale and retail trade, banking and finance, and public utilities and services.

¶Provisional.

1958100010001000100010001000
1972153614271506149915531532
1973172014831655157116451625
1974208015941947183117561777
1975256520532425231520022089
1976||327426253097286724622574
Index Numbers of Commodity Prices by Sector of Origin*
Calendar YearPrices Received for Commodities Produced in New Zealand
Output ofUsed by
FarmingOther Primary IndustriesPrimary Produce Processing IndustriesOther Manufacturing IndustriesPublic UtilitiesAll Domestic IndustryIndustry and ConsumersOther Countries (Exported)

*The prices used in this part of the table are those receivable by producers, i.e., before addition of indirect taxation or deduction of consumer or user subsidies; prices for dairy produce and meat are those payable to producers under the schemes to stabilise returns from year to year.

†Comprises the outputs of the five sectors mentioned in this part of the table.

‡Provisional.

195810001000100010001000100010001000
196511131231110011091106111211141106
196611181286111711261116112611331105
19671027132710461158117811021134994
196810531431114312301292116711911086
196911191486123612961298123512581161
197011511531127313841308129213311163
197112011700134015121322138214301222
197214201791160716291386155515381613
197320001875191717721427186217862112
197417932039180119221467184618611797
19751617242318342302154197620131855
197621762964232627792033248424482603

COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES

(At November 1976 in New Zealand currency)

For currency conversion basis see page 613

ItemUnitNew Zealand*FranceGreat BritainUnited States

*Fourth quarter.

†October 1976.

‡December 1976.

  $$$$
Wheattonne102.809185.772155.176124.171
Oatstonne105.000..145.207126.993
Flourtonne166.920302.884..189.594
Sugar50 kg21.620....18.867
Butter500g0.3931.6540.9051.123
Cheesekg1.0552.1221.6432.758
Motor spiritlitre0.2430.3620.273..

FARMING COSTS PRICE INDEXES—Three farming costs price indexes are calculated. These cover sheep farming, dairy farming, and all farming. There is also a farming capital expenditure price index. These indexes are designed to measure price movements only as they would affect a fixed quantity and pattern of materials and services used by the farmers in each category.

It is emphasised that these indexes are not cost of production indexes, i.e., they do not purport to measure the actual total costs of running a farm, but only measure the movements in prices paid for commodities and services used by farmers.

Full descriptions of these indexes were published in supplements to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics; the sheep farming index in the September 1973 issue; the dairy farming index in the October 1973 issue; and the all farming index in the March 1974 issue. All these indexes are published regularly in the Monthly Abstract.

The index values for the all-farming index for the latest available 4 years are set out below. The base is the year ended June 1971 (=1000).

ItemPercentage of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
19711973197419751976

*Excludes depreciation 9.63 percent.

†Provisional.

Wages and rations13.7110001232141216231840
Sharemilkers5.431000141116571407x1448
Animal health and breeding expenses3.2110001090124513761527
Electricity1.3210001039106110761309
Feed8.5710001157137115801666
Freight2.8810001110122315151703
Fertiliser and lime11.1910001022126413391320
Seeds1.3210001069153313331387
Shearing expenses3.6310001120126915311714
Weed and pest control1.2810001067132016631943
Other farm working expenses2.8110001121122115091837
Repairs and maintenance8.7310001147125714841779
Vehicle expenses7.5710001122125615301794
Administrative expenses2.8710001170126214241656
Insurance1.0710001064106510701077
Rates3.0810001224137515441806
Interest10.0110001054109111441206
Rent1.6910001013102510591137
All Groups90.37*10001140129514391593

The table below shows a capital expenditure price index for farming. Some expenditure on top-dressing comes into both indexes. Capital expenditure on land development includes topdressing and it is also included as a normal part of farm maintenance in the all-farming cost price, index.

ItemPercentage of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
197119731974*19751976*
Farm buildings17.5210001209135515671831
Transport vehicles19.7610001173124915071979
Tractors and farm machinery24.6910001153117814521948
Land development38.0310001109128915041635
Total100.0010001150126615031815

PRICE AND VOLUME INDEXES OF EXTERNAL TRADE—The aims of these index series are to analyse the changes in the values of imports and exports from period to period (annually and moving 3-monthly) in order to isolate the relative price, or more correctly "unit value", and volume components.

All these index series are of the Fisher Ideal type, which involves the calculation of two indexes (for both price and volume) for each current period on the previous year as base, one index using the weighting pattern of the base year and the other using the weighting pattern of the current period. The averaging method known as the "geometric mean" applied to these two indexes produces the index for the current period on the previous year's base which is then linked on to the index for the earlier year to provide a continuous series. The 3-monthly moving indexes (as published in the Monthly Abstract) are provisional until the calculation of the annual definitive index for the year in which they fall. The indexes for calendar quarters are then aligned to the annual indexes. Revision is also necessary on occasions as a result of corrections made by the Customs Department to provisional external trade data on which the indexes are based. The annual indexes for years ended 31 December and 31 March are calculated from the figures for component quarters.

The indexes use the whole range of data available on external trade and involves imputing trends in prices and quantities of some items to other items where it is impracticable to obtain meaningful quantity and price series. The items for which quantity data are not available and those unsuitable for pricing have imputed to them the average price and volume movements of the remainder of the division in which they are classified, or, in some cases the price and volume movement at the next, higher, level of index aggregation. This means that the weighting system takes account of the value of unpriced items even though these items cannot be used as explicit price or volume indicators. The imputation of movements to the unpriced items is done primarily at the S.I.T.C. (Revised) division level. However, in some cases the values of a whole division are adjusted by imputing to them the price and volume movements obtained by amalgamating the movements of several divisions.

The methodology of the indexes makes the import and export indexes consistent in approach and content with each other, and the adopted internal classifications of commodity groupings of exports facilitates the construction of export index series for industry groupings. The classification is also consistent with the United Nations recommended classification groupings for both exports and imports.

The year ended 30 June 1971 is the standard expression base for price and volume indexes for exports and imports and the tables in which they are published have been standardised in content and constituent components in line with the standardisation of the index methodology.

Although the price and volume indexes are produced as complementary series, only the price indicators are published here. The volume indexes are presented in the section on External Trade.

Export Indexes—The export items explicitly dealt with in the index represent, approximately, 95 percent of the total value of exports. The proportion of manufactured exports so treated is higher than this overall average. To qualify for inclusion as an explicit indicator of price or volume movement in the index a commodity must have an aggregate value of at least $20,000 in the base year and a minimum of $16,000 in the current 3-monthly period. This represents some 525 different items as well as subdivisions of these items. The 5 percent by value of exports that do not have a statistical unit are included in the index by imputation.

The annual indexes on the previous year as base are chain-linked to give longer-term valid comparisons. Provision is made for alignment of individual quarters in both price and volume series once annual indexes are constructed. Because of the varying quantities of particular commodities sold each quarter, the mean price or unit-value, and consequently the index number of any year, is not necessarily equal to the arithmetic mean of the quarterly figures.

Re-exports are not included in the export indexes. The items covered are defined as goods and materials grown or produced in New Zealand, and articles manufactured in New Zealand from imported materials (but not including imported goods which are exported in an essentially unchanged condition).

In the following table are given export price index numbers for years ended 30 June.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX

Base: Year ended June 1971 (=1000)

Year Ended 30 JuneButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and ByproductAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceFood, Beverages. and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsAll Group
197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
19721687144416469881131104011721206105110991160
197313331601153612732260159315551363106318581477
1974x11461708150814972613182217291503117621331653
1975x12771448173011471808138314711378139017261512
197616881843200313702533173717981625173622181857

The next table shows export prices index numbers for all pastoral and dairy produce groups and for all groups combined on a long time series. Separate series are prepared for calendar years and years ended June, the latter relating more closely to the farming year.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX

Base: Year Ended June 1971 (=1000)

YearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll GroupsYearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll GroupsYearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll Groups
    Calendar Year    
192633733419433563571960851843
192733533119443743761961802797
192837436719454054061962818813
192935835319464434441963903890
193027827719475615571964987970
193121021319486246191965950937
193219119419496055991966942927
193318919419508608461967854846
1934236239195110099921968914911
193522823319528067981969972966
193626426619539008881970974971
19373113111954915905197110711052
19382862881955939929197212941266
1939279282195691790619731715x1623x
19403243251957906893197416271596x
19413313341958767761197515511583
19423413421959879868197621482084
    June Year    
192636636119433513521960900889
192733433119443663681961813807
192836936219453983991962797791
192937336719464164171963859850
193030830519475175131964976960
193122722919486236181965957944
193220220419495995941966952938
193318318819506946851967897887
19342352371951108410621968867862
193521722119528098031969957953
193625425719538718591970974973
19373033041954921909197110001000
19382962971955912903197211721160
19392812821956934922197315551477
1940317320195793492319741729x1653
19413273301958781773197514711512
19423423421959814805197617981857

IMPORT INDEXES—The import price and volume index has, since 1959, reflected changes in the c.i.f. value of imports. Price changes at item level are measured at the current domestic valuation in the country of origin and are adjusted by the c.d.v.: c.i.f. valuation ratio at division level.

The reason for the difference between the fluctuation in import prices and in wholesale prices of imported commodities is that, while the Import Prices Index shows the variation in the price-induced cost of imports to the New Zealand economy as a whole before the addition of customs duties and other landing charges, all imports in the Wholesale Price Index are on a duty-paid landed-cost basis. Also the import price index numbers series is based on a greater range of commodities than the index numbers of wholesale prices of imported commodities.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX

Base: Year Ended June 1971 (=1000)

Year Ended JunePetroleum and ProductsTextile Yarn, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery Other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport EquipmentFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
197110001000100010001000100010001000100010001000
19721048105196710761078102610481046102010481044
197310521102100211671056110911601100100910531095
1974x18341245120210811054112713001175117418401230
1975x32391442171513571252135915181496171932481627
197643371742212017721790197119891967219743492143

The following table shows a longer time series of all groups import prices index numbers on the same expression base for years ended March, June, and December.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX

Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)

 Year Ended
Year31 March30 June31 Dec (Calendar Year)
*Provisional.
1951592612679
1952709730741
1953732716698
1954698694689
1955690692703
1956706715721
1957729735745
1958746743742
1959740734724
1960725732734
1961734732738
1962735733721
1963716718721
1964724727732
1965734730732
1966733734734
1967734733745
1968776808878
1969887898912
1970920935967
197198310001027
1972103310441068
1973108410951125x
1974x115412301428x
1975*159016271865x
1976*203021432305

TERMS OF TRADE—The terms of trade is the expression of the ratio of export prices to import prices, i.e., an index of the purchasing power (in units of imports) of a fixed quantity of exports. In the table that follows terms of trade are expressed on base 1957 (=100). However, an index above or below 100 means only that terms of trade are more or less favourable than in 1957. The choice of base year was arbitrarily made and is not intended to indicate that 1957 was a normal or standard year. For the purposes of this table both import prices and export prices indexes have necessarily been converted to a 1957 base.

The table below shows index numbers of import prices, export prices, and terms of trade.

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE—ALL COUNTRIES

Base: Calendar Year 1957 (= 100)

Year Ended JuneImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of Trade

*Provisional.

†Calendar year (base).

‡All quarterly figures from September 1972 published previously have been revised.

1957100100100
196699105107
19679899101
19681089789
196912110788
197012610987
197113411283
197214013093
1973147165113
1974x165185112
1975x21816978
197628820872
PeriodImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of Trade
Quarter   
1973—30 Sep153188122
31 Dec153187122
1974—31 Mar164185113
30 Jun18618197
30 Sep19917487
31 Dec21217382
1975—31 Mar23616570
30 Jun23416671
30 Sep25117770
31 Dec28919969
1976—31 Mar*29721773
30 Jun*31123074
30 Sep*31823774
31 Dec*32224877

SHARE PRICES INDEX—This index is designed to reflect changes in the aggregate value of holdings of parcels of ordinary shares in representative selections of companies listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges and trading in New Zealand. In selecting the companies, the frequency with which shares are traded was used as a criterion as well as the value of the New Zealand shareholding. The weights of the different companies are determined by the New Zealand shareholding, and appropriate methods take account of capital changes in the companies concerned.

The weights used are fixed and are based on the aggregate value in 1960 of the total New Zealand shareholdings in all the exchange-listed companies which qualified for representation in the index.

SHARE PRICES AND DIVIDEND YIELDS—ALL GROUPS INDEX NUMBERS

Base: 1960 (= 1000)

Calendar YearShare PricesDividend Yields
197215001251
197317701183
197414401663
197513281876
197614431736

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY—The Household Survey arose from the acceptance of the Consumers Price Index Revision Advisory Committee's recommendation in 1971 that an essential feature of the revision of the Consumers Price Index should be the establishment of average expenditures of private households and that this information should be a major source for determining the relative importance (or weights, in the statistical sense) of the many items of goods and services to be included in the new index. The first year of collection of the Household Survey designed to provide this basic information ran from 1 July 1973 to 30 June 1974, and the second year from 1 July 1974 to 30 June 1975. A survey for the year 1975-76 was completed too late for inclusion in this section.

Sample surveys are an internationally accepted activity when the collection of information from the total population is either administratively impracticable or would be prohibitive in cost. To meet the needs of the Consumer Price Index revision, the Household Survey was designed to produce data on a national basis, representative of the average New Zealand private household.

A fuller description of the Survey, together with the concepts, definitions, and collection methods involved, was given in a special article in the 1975 Yearbook, and a full description in a separate report, Household Sample Survey, is available from the Government Printer.

The number of responding households in the 1974-75 survey was 2,847, containing a total of 9,499 persons, an average of 3.3 persons per household. Persons aged 15 or over and earning $20 or more per week totalled 4,788, an average of 1.7 earners per household. The following table shows households by income of household.

Weekly Income of Responding HouseholdsNumber of Responding HouseholdsWeekly Income of Responding HouseholdsNumber of Responding Households
$ $ 
Under 30147100-119184
30-3955120-139328
40-4951140-159321
50-59168160-179246
60-6986180-199198
70-79107200 and over711
80-89109  
90-99136Totals2,847

The system used was similar to that in use in many similar surveys overseas. This involved collecting data on the more frequently purchased items by asking respondents to keep a daily record of their spending for a short period (in the New Zealand survey a fortnight of diary-keeping was sought) and at an interview conducted in the household asking respondents to recall their expenditure on major items in the preceding 12 months. The recall action usually concerned expenses of $50 or more, and therefore related to the acquisition of such things as housing units, major household appliances, motor vehicles, etc. Again for practical reasons, the diary-keeping requirement was restricted to those household members aged 15 years and over, expenditures by younger members being recorded in the diaries of adult members.

For the purpose of the Consumers Price Index revision private household expenditure was processed in considerable detail, as is shown in the full report of the Household Survey available from the Government Printer. However, for summary purposes, average expenditure was treated under eight main headings.

Expenditure group coverage—

  • Food—Purchases, including meals away from home where separately recorded by respondents.

  • Housing—Rent, mortgage repayments, repairs and maintenance, and net capital costs of house sale and purchase.

  • Household Operation—Fuel, light, and power; household equipment and appliances; furniture; domestic supplies and services.

  • Apparel—Clothing and footwear.

  • Transportation—Public transport; net cost of vehicle sale and purchase; repairs and maintenance; vehicle insurance, registration fees, etc.

  • Tobacco and Alcohol—Purchases.

  • Other Supplies—Medical, health, and personal goods; recreational, educational, and cultural goods.

  • Other Services—Medical and health services; entertainment charges; education fees; accommodation charges; personal services; licence fees; life insurance premiums.

In each group the expenditures comprised the total cost of particular goods or services, including credit costs, hire and repair charges.

Percentages of the total weekly expenditure of households under each of the eight major expenditure groups as recorded at the first two Household Surveys are shown below.

 1973-741974-75
Food17.617.8
Housing21.518.7
Household Operation14.716.5
Apparel9.08.7
Transportation17.718.7
Tobacco and Alcohol4.04.0
Other Supplies5.85.7
Other Services9.79.9

All expenditures were expressed (either as percentages or in money values) as average weekly expenditure per household in the particular category. Households were categorised according to their total income, number of occupants, the family types of the members (census definition), and the age of the head of the household.

In all cases information as reported by households was given without adjustment. Overseas experience has shown that expenditure on tobacco and alcohol, meals away from home, and food items such as ice cream and confectionery tend to be understated in household surveys. There is reason to believe that this Household Survey collection contained similar features.

Income, as defined in the Household Survey, related to current gross income from all sources (including Social Welfare and other benefits) for each income recipient in the household, the one exception to this being interest from deposits in savings banks. (Unless such interest was $200 or more a year).

No endeavour was made to obtain precise income details from respondents, the method of collection used being on similar lines to that used in the Census of Population, where respondents have a broad-banded range of income categories and mark the category pertaining to themselves.

For statistical purposes, the mid-point in this range was selected to represent the income of the individual responding. The total weekly income of the household was obtained by summing the values attributed to each income earner in the household. In some cases average expenditure appeared to exceed average weekly income. This was caused by the purchase of major items, mainly houses, within the period covered.

A selection of summary tables from the 1974-75 Survey is reproduced here.

PERCENTAGE OF WEEKLY EXPENDITURE BY AGE OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD

Expenditure GroupAge Group (Years) of Head of Household
Under 2020-2425-2930-3940-4950-5960-6465 and OverAll

*Expenditure on women's clothing and men's shoes extremely high in this age group.

† Expenditure on cosmetics, books, records, and sports goods also very high.

‡Low expenditure on housing due to a few house sales without corresponding house purchases.

   Percentage of Weekly Expenditure      
Food14.514.816.617.218.717.518.620.417.8
Housing19.927.521.722.218.214.48.514.418.7
Household operation13.515.917.516.214.316.119.521.116.5
Apparel17.2*6.97.67.79.010.69.19.18.7
Transportation12.316.718.017.418.521.124.417.118.7
Tobacco and alcohol3.45.34.33.73.84.03.73.64.0
Other goods10.24.85.45.86.55.65.95.35.7
Other services9.08.18.99.811.010.710.39.09.9
All groups percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
Total expenditure $95.59120.57121.84136.66143.52127.9987.0459.71116.88
Total households221823396205064932224632,847
HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 1974-75
PERCENTAGE OF AVERAGE WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE BY FAMILY TYPES
Expenditure GroupCoupleCouple 1 ChildCouple 2 ChildrenCouple 3 ChildrenCouple 4 or More ChildrenOne Adult* With ChildrenExtended FamiliesNon-Family Household

*Single, separated, divorced, widowed man or woman with children.

†The category "1 Adult with children with spouse temporarily absent" has been omitted as the figures relate to 6 only of the 2,847 households surveyed and cannot be regarded as representative.

NOTE: Due to rounding, individual items will not necessarily add to total figures.

Percentage of Weekly Expenditure        
Food15.416.717.219.222.621.819.615.7
Housing21.616.321.916.219.112.011.120.6
Household operation18.817.714.614.815.817.516.717.4
Apparel8.17.78.610.08.910.910.07.7
Transportation17.921.617.718.813.619.722.918.7
Tobacco and alcohol4.13.73.83.93.12.95.04.9
Other goods4.66.05.66.46.66.56.25.8
Other services9.410.310.610.710.38.78.59.1
All groups percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
All groups $105.73120.90145.64146.51138.6081.66142.9265.29
Total households638349522381173122176480

PERCENTAGE OF AVERAGE WEEKLY EXPENDITURE BY OCCUPATION GROUPS OF HEAD OF HOUSEHOLDS

Expenditure GroupProfessional and TechnicalAdministrative and ManagerialClericalSales WorkersService WorkersAgricultural*ProductionMembers of Armed ForcesNot Actively Engaged

*Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters.

†Production workers, transport equipment operators and labourers n.e.s.

‡One category containing 1 household omitted.

§Low expenditure due to house sales exceeding purchases.

Percentage of Average Weekly Expenditure         
Food14.715.615.517.319.915.420.019.021.3
Housing23.623.222.720.87.7§20.516.216.711.7§
Household operation15.415.415.114.220.416.016.117.221.7
Apparel8.19.18.49.311.18.68.69.29.2
Transportation18.016.118.719.319.319.019.818.117.8
Tobacco and alcohol3.03.64.23.44.33.35.03.03.9
Other goods6.65.45.75.76.55.25.56.85.7
Other services10.611.69.710.010.812.18.710.08.7
All groups percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
All groups $158.98168.52139.64141.80110.29115.43121.22126.9359.68
Total households37216820015612836782515615

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY 1974-75

PERCENTAGE OF AVERAGE WEEKLY HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE BY TOTAL WEEKLY INCOME

Expenditure GroupTotal Weekly Income of Households ($)All
20-39*40-5960-7980-99100-119120-139140-159160-179180-199200 and Over

*Due to the rise in income levels, there were no responding households with a total weekly income of less than $20 per week.

†Low expenditure due to sale of houses without corresponding purchases.

‡Low expenditure due to sale of vehicles without corresponding purchases. Over 80% of the respondents in this income range are over 60 years of age.

Percentage of Weekly Expenditure           
Food22.221.719.520.821.119.618.618.616.115.417.8
Housing20.820.815.717.07.417.517.513.523.221.118.7
Household operation24.418.920.617.019.117.216.817.914.814.816.5
Apparel7.310.48.47.97.38.78.49.38.89.08.7
Transportation11.113.719.119.224.916.918.219.817.619.318.7
Tobacco and alcohol2.13.13.04.14.55.14.24.44.03.74.0
Other goods5.05.44.96.25.85.46.46.35.75.75.7
Other services7.16.08.87.810.09.610.010.29.811.09.9
All groups percent100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0
All groups $35.4056.6470.3281.3984.66104.38117.52123.13150.55185.74116.88
Total households2022191932451843283212461987112,847

Chapter 23. Section 23 CONSUMPTION OF FOOD

Table of Contents

FOOD AVAILABLE FOR CONSUMPTION—Each year the Department of Statistics prepares statistics of the amount of food available for consumption in New Zealand, from data supplied by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and from other sources. These statistics are estimates of the total amounts of basic foodstuffs available in New Zealand for human consumption during the calendar year, making allowances for estimated quantities which are produced by households for their own consumption, including the households of commercial producers. The estimates are not of the amounts actually consumed, nor of the actual average intake of nourishment. Nor can these figures be reconciled with the figures for the average per household expenditure on food for the year recorded by the Household Survey, as the latter figures are of the expenditure on food in the form it is actually bought, perhaps in a much more highly processed form.

Dairy Products—New Zealanders are the world's largest consumers of butter per head, but are fairly moderate consumers of cheese. The annual amounts available of the main items of dairy produce, eggs, and ice cream, estimated per head of mean population, are shown in the following table.

Food CommodityUnit19381972197319741975

*Includes condensed milk, evaporated milk and cream, milk powders, and sugar of milk.

†Provisional.

Fresh milklitre125143142142142
Creamlitre43333
Processed milk*kg26999
Cheesekg24455
Ice creamlitre216171817
Butterkg19171715x14
EggsNo.240282314320305

Meat, Poultry, and Fish—Gradual changes are taking place in consumption patterns for meat, poultry, and fish, of which the most notable is the increase in the consumption of poultry. New Zealanders remain among the world's largest consumers of meat, judging from the amount available per head.

Estimates of the amounts of meat available per head are expressed on a bone-in dressed carcass basis.

Allowances have been made for non-commercial catches of fish, and for home production of poultry.

Food CommodityUnit19381972197319741975

*Provisional.

†Years ended 30 September.

Beefkg525457107107
Vealkg434
Mutton and lambkg314443
Pigmeatskg121512
Edible offalkg466
Poultrykg277109
Fish—      
Fresh, frozenkg52234
Shellfishkg12111
Cannedkg1112-

Vegetables and Fruits—The estimates in the following table are based on commercial production plus allowances for production in home gardens and orchards. The estimates include, at fresh weights, the fruits and vegetables grown in New Zealand and either quick-frozen or canned for local consumption.

There are considerable variations from year to year for many of the commodities and these are often a reflection of a poor growing season or a bountiful one, consumer resistance to higher prices, fluctuations in the supply of imported fruit, or a change in consumption pattern.

Availability per head of mean population for individual items is estimated as follows.

Food CommodityUnit19381972197319741975§

*Includes asparagus, beans, brussels sprouts, cucumber, leeks, parsnip, spinach, swedes, sweetcorn, etc.

†Includes grapefruit, lemons, mandarins, tangelos, etc.

‡ Includes apricots, nectarines, plums, grapes, pineapples, tamarilloes, kiwi fruit, passionfruit, etc.

§Provisional.

Fresh vegetables      
Potatoeskg54596354x50
Kumaraskg43332
Cabbagekg1412878
Carrotskg510101015
Cauliflowerkg..10546
Lettucekg..6455
Onionskg..510914
Pumpkinkg..7444
Tomatoeskg999911
Other vegetables*kg..9449
Canned vegetableskg117x22x16x21
Quick-frozen vegetableskg..11101516
Fresh fruit      
Orangeskg77467
Other citrus fruitkg33355
Bananaskg91091411
Appleskg2024233024
Pears and quinceskg35545
Berry fruitskg..2222
Apricotskg..223x2
Peacheskg..7810x7
Other fruitkg..11191110
Dried fruitkg..4333
Canned fruitkg88997

Other Foodstuffs—Most of the foodstuffs in the following table show relatively slight fluctuations in the amounts available per head in different years. It is obvious, however, that the consumption per head of wheat has fallen substantially since before the Second World War.

Food CommodityUnit19381972197319741975§

*Includes treacle and golden syrup.

†Includes dried peas, beans, and lentils.

‡Includes barley, and corn used for cornflower and maize used for corn flakes only.

§Provisional.

Refined sugarkg444039x41x35
Syrups, etc.*kg..2231
Honeykg..1121
Pulseskg11x111
Nutskg..3232
Cocoakg12x121
Cereals—      
Wheatkg8173727274
Oatskg4222x2
Ricekg22..21
Otherkg..1111
Lard, tallow, animal fatskg..4333
Vegetable oils and other fatskg..3344

Non-alcoholic Beverages and Tobacco—

 Unit1938195119611971197319741975
Teakg3333322
Coffeekg....12122
Tobaccokg2222222

Alcoholic Beverages—The following table shows the estimated consumption of alcoholic beverages over a long period of years. From 1959 onwards, figures for spirits are expressed in proof litres, a fact to be borne in mind when making comparisons with earlier figures.

Year Ended 31 DecemberTotal ConsumptionConsumption Per Head of Mean Population
BeerWineSpiritsBeerWineSpirits

*Figures are not available for the years 1941 to 1945 inclusive.

†Years ended June.

‡From 1959 onwards, all figures for spirits are expressed in proof litres.

  litres (million)  litres 
192068.71.14.355.30.93.5
192165.11.04.651.10.83.6
192259.50.51.745.60.41.3
192359.10.72.844.50.52.1
192461.70.93.045.60.72.2
192560.21.03.343.50.72.4
192658.81.13.041.60.82.1
192758.11.23.540.40.82.4
192858.40.92.340.10.61.6
192959.20.92.740.20.61.8
193056.00.92.537.50.61.7
193146.00.61.730.40.41.1
193240.30.51.526.40.31.0
193339.30.61.525.50.41.0
193443.80.61.628.20.41.0
193551.11.21.632.70.81.0
193658.71.31.737.30.81.1
193768.71.31.943.20.81.2
193878.11.42.148.60.91.3
193979.21.32.348.60.81.4
194083.31.52.050.90.91.2
1946*134.52.51.176.41.40.6
1947137.72.92.276.61.61.2
1948145.03.12.079.01.71.1
1949150.33.92.280.32.11.2
1950161.94.14.384.82.12.2
1951166.63.85.885.62.03.0
1952175.83.87.788.11.93.8
1953178.83.74.587.31.82.2
1954197.63.55.194.31.72.4
1955211.53.66.398.91.72.9
1956218.73.16.5100.21.43.0
1957231.23.45.8103.61.52.6
1958219.14.24.995.91.92.1
1959209.54.33.689.71.91.5
1960237.45.04.399.92.11.8
1961242.75.04.6100.02.01.9
1962256.65.34.1103.32.11.7
1963256.85.94.8101.22.31.9
1964264.06.65.3102.02.62.1
1965274.07.25.7104.02.82.2
1966288.28.65.7107.43.22.1
1967300.410.05.3110.23.72.0
1968304.511.54.7110.64.21.7
1969309.413.65.0111.34.91.8
1970329.215.95.4116.85.61.9
1971347.419.65.8121.36.82.0
1972353.222.16.3121.17.62.2
1973372.925.67.7125.28.72.6
1974384.027.59.0126.19.12.9
1975413.226.39.6133.98.63.1

PROPORTION OF FOODSTUFFS EXPORTED—New Zealand is a major exporter of dairy produce and meat, and has a growing export trade in fruit and vegetables. The following table shows for these commodities the percentage of the New Zealand production that is exported.

Product19681972197319741975*
*Provisional.
Percentages     
Dairy products     
Processed milk7376997547
Cheese84949294x79
Butter80758384x73
Meat, poultry, fish     
Beef6168x60x65x68
Veal5853445764
Pig meat31......
Mutton6152575652
Lamb9291898989
Offal7670717372
Other meat23192212..
Fresh fish2562564647
Shellfish52215256x55
Fruit and vegetables     
Apples4048483550
Pears1714191410
Berryfruits55272119
Potatoes22445
Onions3539323317
Canned vegetables9934x3
Quick-frozen vegetables302836219
Other foodstuffs     
Barley299....
Honey42834628
Pulses55607883x55
Eggs211357
Tallow and animal fats7772746972

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS—The table which follows, which is taken from the FAO report, The State of Food and Agriculture 1974, shows for selected groups of developed and developing countries the annual rates of growth of population and food production, and the dietary energy supplies per head. In terms of food availability, New Zealand is among the most-favoured nations.

The developed countries, with only about 30 percent of the world's population, accounted in 1971-73 for about 60 percent of the world's food production. The FAO states that, in 1974, malnutrition affected around 460 million people, and that this was a conservative estimate.

 Annual Rates of GrowthPer Head Daily
CountryPopulationFood Production*Domestic Demand for FoodDietary Energy SupplyProtein Supply
Kilo-caloriesRequirement

*Food component of crop and livestock production only (i.e., excluding fish production).

†Supply as percentage of physiological requirements plus 10 percent for waste at household level.

‡Total food, including fish.

Developed Countries percent  percentgrams
Australia2.13.72.43,280123108
Canada2.22.22.53,180129101
Denmark0.71.61.33,24012093
France1.03.02.03,210127105
Germany (West)1.02.51.93,22012189
Japan1.14.33.72,51010779
Netherlands1.33.01.73,32012387
New Zealand2.12.72.03,200121109
Sweden0.70.91.02,81010486
U.S.S.R.1.53.93.03,280131101
United Kingdom0.52.80.73,19012692
United States1.52.01.63,330126106
Developing Countries      
Afghanistan1.91.72.21,9708158
Bangladesh3.51.6..1,8408040
Ethiopia1.82.33.02,1609372
Ghana2.93.93.22,32010149
India2.12.43.02,0709452
Indonesia2.52.02.61,7908338
Nigeria2.42.03.12,2709663
Pakistan3.03.04.22,1609356
Rwanda2.61.81.91,9608458
Somalia2.21.11.51,8307956

SUBSIDIES—Government subsidies on food items apply from time to time as part of the economic stabilisation policy. Milk and eggs have been subsidised for a long period. The average subsidy on milk for the year ended 31 August 1975 was 11.544 cents per litre, and the subsidy on eggs (previous to its abolition) was 3.33c a dozen.

The following table shows the total cost of subsidies paid under the stabilisation vote. Other subsidies, involving farm incentives, etc., are included in other government expenditure. The total amount of all subsidies will be found in the section on National Income and Expenditure.

Subsidy ItemsYear Ended 31 March
19731974197519761977
   $(thousand)  
Bread1,6503,5455,2645,60372
Eggs1,7561,6891,7921,696227
Meat-10,6471,189- 
Milk31,04042,25650,36250,31136,215
Sugar-11,600---
Wool-21,7611,953--
Coal gas1,1901,4521,4602,0562,776
Subsidy on shipping services---2,8592,920
Industrial coal (rail transport)559535493458111
Subsidy to meet losses on—     
Post Office operations-7,00021,00038,000-
Railways operations-11,70046,10068,50016,000
Electric supply--18,53913,070-
Totals36,195112,185148,152182,55358,321

Higher postal charges, rail fares, and electricity charges from early 1976 resulted in sharp cuts in the level of subsidies designed to meet losses in these areas. Milk and bread prices were increased at the same time, and a the end of March 1976 the subsidy on bread and flour was abolished. The egg subsidy was abolished at the end of April 1976.

Chapter 24. Section 24 ECONOMIC AGGREGATES

24 A—NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

GENERAL—The national accounts record the value of goods and services produced by a country and the way in which these are used. Within the accounts the flow of production and disposal of goods and incomes are analysed in various ways to provide information on the inter-relationship between industrial and institutional sectors of the economy and between the economy and the rest of the world. The accounts are used as the statistical framework within which economic policy and planning is formulated and applied, the values of the various items in the accounts providing a quantitative measure of the country's economic performance and a benchmark against which to compare other measures of economic and social well-being.

National Income—The principal aggregate is that of "national income", which, in general terms, measures the total value of all incomes (before deduction of direct taxation) earned by the residents of New Zealand in producing the current output of goods and services.

Income can be earned in a variety of ways, and accrues to individuals according to the manner in which they participate in current production. Salary and wage payments and pay and allowances of armed forces represent the return to labour for services rendered, and included in this concept is supplementary income in kind such as board and lodging provided by the employer.

Rental value of owner-occupied houses is a non-monetary item representing the imputed net rent (before payment of rates, but after deductions for depreciation, mortgage interest, insurance, and repairs and maintenance) of all owner-occupied houses (except farmhouses).

Other personal income (excluding company dividends) represents the aggregate income of professional men, farmers, and individual traders, as well as income other than salary and wages received by salary and wage earners—e.g., rent and interest. Surplus of producer boards and of primary produce stabilisation accounts represents the increase (or, if negative, the decrease) in the revenue balances of producer boards, and the credits relating to primary production stabilisation schemes held by producer boards.

Company income represents the total income (distributed and undistributed) of companies. This means that dividends distributed to individuals are included under this heading, and not as personal income.

Apart from these incomes, which result from current productive activities on the part of individuals receiving them, there are other incomes of a "non-productive" nature in the form of social security benefits, pensions, and interest on public debt. These transfer incomes, as they are called, do not arise from the current production of goods and services and must therefore be excluded from the national income. They do, however, form part of the intermediate concept of private income, which represents the aggregate of earned incomes and unearned transfer incomes received by or accruing to persons. The deduction of direct taxation gives the concept of private disposable income. Capital receipts—e.g., from deceased persons' estates, repayment of debt, etc.—are, however, excluded both from private income and national income.

The addition to private income of Government and local authority trading profits and the deduction of transfer incomes, as already detailed, gives the concept of net national income at factor cost or, more briefly, national income. This may be defined as the income (before tax) earned by or accruing to the factors of production, in or only temporarily absent from New Zealand, in producing the current output of goods and services of all kinds. The further addition of indirect taxes (net of subsidies) is necessary to bring the national income to market price valuation.

Gross National Product—Gross national product is obtained by adding depreciation allowances to national income at market prices, and represents the value of output before deduction of allowances for depreciation and obsolescence attributable to the factors of production supplied by New Zealand residents during the year.

Gross Domestic Expenditure—This represents the total final expenditure of New Zealand residents during the year, irrespective of where the expenditure was incurred. It is the sum of personal expenditure on consumer goods and services, public authority current expenditure on goods and services, gross domestic capital formation, and changes in stocks. These four components are described in more detail in the following paragraphs.

Personal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and Services represents the value of the purchases of households and non-profit-making organisations. Besides the day-to-day expenditure on food, clothing, rent, travel and other services, etc., it includes expenditure on such items as motorcars for private use and household durables. The notable exception is expenditure on the purchase of houses; this is recorded under private capital formation.

Public Authority Current Expenditure on Goods and Services shows the current expenditure of the non-trading organs of the Central Government and local authorities. It does not include payment of pensions, monetary social security benefits or subsidies which are transfers and do not, in themselves, represent an expenditure on production. A more detailed analysis of public authority current expenditure is given later.

Gross Capital Formation represents the expenditure in New Zealand on new assets such as buildings, roads and other construction, plant, machinery and motor vehicles for business use. It does not include the value of land and secondhand assets purchased during the year since these transactions represent the transfer of existing assets. Nor does it include expenditure on financial assets such as company shares; such transactions do not result in direct expenditure but transfer claims from one person or organisation to another.

Change in Stocks—This represents changes in the value of stocks which may be the result of changes in volume, changes in unit values, or a combination of the two.

By adding the value of exported goods and services to gross domestic expenditure and deducting the value of imports, an estimate of the expenditure on gross domestic product is arrived at. This represents the value of goods and services produced in New Zealand during the year. The deduction of payments for the use of overseas-owned factors (capital and labour) completes the reconciliation of expenditure with the value of gross national product.

The following table shows for March years some of the more important aggregates.

PRINCIPAL AGGREGATES OF INCOME AND EXPENDITURE
Item1968-691969-701970-711971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76*
*Provisional.
National income$m3,6974,0974,6845,540x6,4817,4948,1849,522
Gross national product$m4,3554,8095,534x6,452x7,4988,6369,45210,928
Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services$m2,598x2,833x3,336x3,762x4,5655,1135,7936,763
As percentage of gross national product 6059605861596162
Gross capital formation in New Zealand$m9641,0911,2631,4291,6391,9602,3442,891
As percentage of gross national product 2223232222232527
Public authority current expenditure on goods and services$m6507218611,0371,1401,3561,6772,033
As percentage of gross national product 1515161615161819
Private income$m3,9254,3414,9995,878x6,9388,0578,93410,504
Private savings$m531614x584x849x9591,1448461,249
As percentage of private income 1414121414141012

The estimates of national expenditure should be used with some caution, owing to the fact that not all of the items of expenditure can be estimated directly. Whatever inherent error may exist in the absolute values of individual expenditure items, year-to-year changes are likely to be reliable because the method of estimation remains the same.

Full details of the methods used and a description of the items in the tables are given in National Income and Expenditure 1975-76, obtainable from Government bookshops.

CONSTANT PRICE ESTIMATES OF THE MAIN AGGREGATES—National accounting aggregates are, by their nature, summations of the values of all goods and services produced or consumed in a particular year. If the values of goods and services are expressed in current prices (i.e., the market prices prevailing in each particular year) then any comparison between 2 or more years is affected not only by changes in the volume of production between those years but by annual price movements as well. The effect of annual price movements is eliminated if all annual values are expressed in the average prices of a base period; the base used here is the year 1965-66. By expressing the aggregates in constant prices, and not in current values, their real value in terms of goods and services, either produced or available for use, can be better appreciated.

In the following table and the accompanying graph the gross national product is expressed in both current and constant prices, as well as per head of population at constant prices. Other aggregates in both current and constant prices are shown in section 24C Real Gross Domestic Product.

Year Ended 31 MarchAt Current PricesAt Constant 1965-66 Prices
Gross National ProductAnnual Percentage ChangeGross National ProductAnnual Percentage ChangeG.N.P. Per Head of PopulationAnnual Percentage Change
*Provisional.
 $(m)%$(m)%$%
19694,3555.504,0001.631,449.20.71
19704,80910.434,1944.851,503.93.78
1971x5,53415.084,3804.441,547.02.87
1972x6,45216.594,5002.741,564.91.16
1973x7,49816.214,6793.981,598.22.13
1974x8,63615.185,0187.241,680.25.13
1975x9,4529.455,2304.221,716.42.15
1976*10,92815.625,2620.611,699.0-1.01

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT AND EXPENDITURE—The following table gives the composition of the national income by factor shares plus net indirect taxation and depreciation allowances entering into the market prices of all goods and services the production of which can be attributed to New Zealand residents (gross national product); the other side of the product account is a description of final expenditure on gross national product by type of expenditure. Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services is obtained as a residual item in this table, all other aggregates being obtained by direct estimates.

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesRental Value, Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal IncomeSurplus of Producer Boards and Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountsCompany IncomePublic Authority Trading IncomePublic Debt Interest Paid in New ZealandNational Income at Factor CostIndirect TaxationSubsidiesNational Income at Market PricesDepreciation AllowancesGross National Product
*Provisional.
       $(million)       
1968-692,24045130714-6525185-1363,697343-194,0223334,355
1969-702,49347140766-8605202-1484,097377-284,4453644,809
1970-71x3,004561568101644171-1584,684462-525,0944405,534
1971-72x3,555681691,01750653199-1715,540537-895,9884656,452
1972-73x3,993702011,277- 3913220-1906,481603-1016,9835157,498
1973-74x4,767792171,390-101,021250-2197,494687-1348,0465908,636
1974-75x5,678842531,262- 7989158-2338,184725-1328,7776759,452
1975-76*6,476953041,628-191,174123-2599,522871-22910,16476410,928
GROSS DOMESTIC EXPENDITURE
March YearPersonal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and ServicesPublic Authority Current Expenditure on Goods and ServicesGross Capital Formation in New ZealandChanges in StocksGross Domestic ExpenditureExports of Goods and ServicesImports of Goods and ServicesExpenditure on Gross Domestic ProductNet Factor Payments to Rest of WorldExpenditure on Gross National Product
PrivatePublic Authority
*Provisional.
      $(million)     
1968-69x2,598650590374814,2931,123- 9804,436- 814,355
1969-70x2,8337217093821194,7641,273-1,1304,907- 984,809
1970-71x3,3368618314322585,7181,296-1,4055,609- 755,534
1971-72x3,7621,0379324972426,4701,537-1,4816,526- 746,452
1972-73x4,5651,1401,047592207,3641,946-1,6937,617-1197,498
1973-74x5,1131,3561,3755853518,7802,210-2,2238,767-1318,636
1974-75x5,7931,6771,5697751,00610,8202,119-3,3619,578-1269,452
1975-76*6,7632,0331,8691,02225311,9402,674-3,44811,166-23810,928

The following tables provide some more detailed analyses of particular aspects of the national accounts.

Private Income and Outlay—This table gives in detail the break-up of private income and, on the expenditure side, the manner in which these incomes are spent on personal expenditure on consumer goods and services, paid in direct taxation, or saved. An analysis of other personal income is also given.

The total of personal consumption derived from the preceding table is carried forward to this table and this time private savings is obtained as a residual item.

Revenue Account of Public Authorities—The Government sector is discussed in more detail later in this section, but this table gives a consolidated statement of Central Government and local authority revenue and expenditure, showing as a balance that portion of the revenue which was available for capital formation and other capital transactions.

Combined Capital Account—This account indicates the manner in which resources for capital formation have been made available (a) from private savings, (b) from revenue surpluses of public authorities, and (c) from amounts set aside as depreciation. Gross capital formation represents the construction in New Zealand or purchase from overseas of durable capital assets by the private, Central Government, and the local authority sectors, plus the net change in stocks of trading concerns.

Rest of World Account—An account of external economic transactions between New Zealand and other countries; it is, in essence, a balance of payments on current account for the period, presented here in abridged form.

These four tables, then, give a comprehensive picture in broad terms of the changing pattern of New Zealand's economy. One important point to consider when examining the tables, however, is that all the figures are at prices current during the period and consequently are inflated to a greater or lesser extent by price movements over the period.

PRIVATE INCOME AND OUTLAY
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsOther Personal IncomeSurplus of Producer Boards and Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountsCompany Income Before DistributionPrivate Income (Before Tax)
Rental Value of Owner-occupied HousesFarmingBusiness and Investment
*Provisional.
INCOME$(million)         
1968-692,24045278130305409-65253,925
1969-702,49347298140326440-86054,341
1970-713,0045632815632348716444,999
1971-723,5556836616949252550653x5,878x
1972-733,99370488201698x579x-3913x6,938x
1973-744,767x79594217710x680x-101,0218,057x
1974-75x5,67884675253476786-7989x8,934x
1975-76*6,47695846304699929-191,17410,504
March YearPersonal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and ServicesNet Transfers to Rest of WorldDirect TaxationPrivate SavingsPrivate Outlay
Undistributed Profits of CompaniesOther Private Savings
*Provisional.
OUTLAY $(million)
1968-692,598x4x7922193123,925
1969-702,833x6x8882593554,341
1970-713,336x11,078239345x4,999
1971-723,762x-20x1,287232x617x5,878x
1972-734,565x-46x1,460486x473x6,938x
1973-745,113x-55x1,855479x665x8,057x
1974-75x5,793-362,3314573898,934x
1975-76*6,763-502,54261763210,504
REVENUE ACCOUNT OF PUBLIC AUTHORITIES (CENTRAL GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES)
March YearTaxationTrading IncomeDirect Taxes Paid by Public Authority Trading UndertakingsTotal Revenue
DirectIndirect
*Provisional.
REVENUE $(million)     
1968-69806343185-141,321
1969-70904377202-161,467
1970-711,093462171-151,711
1971-721,300537199-142,022
1972-731,478603220-182,283
1973-741,876687250-212,791
1974-75x2,349725158-183,215
1975-76*2,564871123-223,536
March YearCurrent Expenditure on Goods and ServicesTransfer IncomeSubsidiesBalance of Revenue Over ExpenditureTotal Expenditure Plus or Minus Revenue Balances
Social Security Benefits and PensionsNet Transfers to Rest of WorldInterest on Public Debt Paid in New Zealand
*Provisional.
EXPENDITURE $(million)       
1968-696502787136192321,321
1969-707212988148282631,467
1970-718613289158523031,711
1971-721,03736611171893492,022
1972-731,140x48815190101349x2,283
1973-741,356x59421x219134467x2,791
1974-75x1,677675352331324633,215
1975-76*2,033846492592291193,536
COMBINED CAPITAL ACCOUNT
March YearPrivate SavingsRevenue Balances of Public AuthoritiesDepreciation AllowancesTotal SavingsGross Capital Formation in New ZealandChanges in StocksNet Investment OverseasTotal Investments
PrivateCentral Government Trading UndertakingsLocal Authorities Trading UndertakingsPrivateCentral GovernmentLocal Authorities
*Provisional.
  Savings   $(million)  Investments   
1968-69x53123227939151,09559023713681511,095
1969-70x61426330543161,242709235147119321,242
1970-71x58430338044161,328831270162258-1921,328
1971-72x84934940245181,663932309188242-81,663
1972-73x95934944848191,8241,047388204201661,824
1973-74x1,14446751356202,2001,375367218351-1102,200
1974-75x84646359263201,9841,5695232521,006-1,3661,984
1975-76*1,24911966775222,1331,869689333253-1,0112,133

REST OF WORLD ACCOUNT

March YearExports ofImports ofNet Factor PaymentsNet TransfersSurplus on Current Account
GoodsServicesGoodsServicesPrivatePublic Authorities
*Provisional.
$(million)        
1968-69974x149- 721x-259- 81- 4x- 7+ 51
1969-701,112x161- 828-302- 98- 6x- 8+ 32
1970-711,104x192-1,043-362- 75+ 1x- 9-192x
1971-721,305x232-1,071-410- 74x20x-11- 8x
1972-731,665x281-1,224-469-119x46x-15+ 166x
1973-741,841x369-1,585-638-13155x-21-110
1974-75x1,628491-2,579-781-12636-35-1,366
1975-76*2,047628-2,581-867-23850-49-1,011

PUBLIC AUTHORITY SECTOR—The Revenue Account of Public Authorities shown earlier is a consolidation and simplification of two separate and more detailed accounts—the Central Government Revenue Account and the Local Authorities Revenue Account. The consolidated account eliminates all transfers between the two levels of Government and aggregates the respective totals of economically significant flows.

The Revenue Account of the Central Government has been obtained by an analysis of the various accounts within the Public Account. In the case of trading department operations, which are treated separately, profits only are brought into the main account as a revenue item. Expenditure has been taken "net" in all cases, sundry departmental receipts being set off against departmental expenditure. The account covers only current revenue items and therefore excludes capital receipts and payments of all kinds, thus accounting in part for the differences between the details given here and those given in the published statement of the Public Accounts in parliamentary paper B. 1 [Pt. 1].

Although all Government transfer expenditure—social security cash benefits and pensions, interest on public debt, and subsidies—is also paid from the Government's taxation revenue and trading profits, it is not part of Government final consumption. It only becomes final consumption in the hands of recipients, or, in the case of subsidies, can be looked upon as an offset to indirect taxation which reduces prices to consumers. For this reason the best measure of transfers is the national income itself on which they are a charge and which they redistribute.

The balance of revenue over expenditure is the Government's surplus on current transactions and is, together with the depreciation provisions of Government trading undertakings, available for capital formation, lending, and debt repayment. Its magnitude changes appreciably from year to year both absolutely and in relation to total current revenue and is the result of short-term changes in fiscal and economic policies pursued by the administration. Year-to-year changes in the Government's surplus are, however, complementary to changes (in the opposite direction) in private savings. This is of course, merely a reflection of the fact that changes in taxation policies are a major cause of the redistribution of total savings as between the private and Government sector. It is notable that in 1975-76 the Government spent more than it borrowed on current account whereas for many years savings have been in excess of 10 percent of current revenue.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—REVENUE ACCOUNT

Item1970-711971-721972-731973-741974-75x1975-76*
*Provisional.
1. TAXATION      
(a) Direct: REVENUE $(million)    
Income tax957.31,161.11,314.51,697.92,136.02,295.8
Land tax3.13.83.43.33.43.4
Death duties29.224.828.433.841.154.1
Other---0.20.30.2
Totals989.51,189.71,346.31,735.22,180.82,353.6
(b) Indirect:      
Sales tax125.3139.5171.1206.4234.7311.4
Customs and excise duties178.5198.0210.2245.8275.3265.4
Motor vehicles taxation104.0108.6115.7124.8125.3201.4
Payroll tax20.540.846.333.50.8..
Other27.330.537.149.448.653.7
Totals455.6517.3580.4659.9684.7832.0
2. Totals, all taxation1,445.11,707.01,926.72,395.12,865.53,185.6
3. TRADING INCOME126.8154.7174.0219.0124.088.5
4. Less direct taxation paid by trading departments-14.6-13.7-18.0-20.7-18.1-21.6
Totals112.2141.0156.0198.3105.966.9
5. TOTAL REVENUE1,557.31,848.02,082.72,593.42,971.43,252.5
6. CURRENT EXPENDITURE ONGOODS AND SERVICES  EXPENDITURE $(million)   
(a) General administration73.493.5107.7x130.7x168.5199.1
(b) Interest32.136.338.3x34.1x41.368.8
(c) Law and order20.726.631.539.149.964.6
(d) Development of primary and secondary industries64.564.283.498.9121.6151.2
(e) Health103.7114.0103.0120.5151.9187.9
(f) Education214.9279.6309.1367.2432.6499.3
(g) Other social services5.87.820.324.427.044.7
(h) Defence122.8121.8135.5140.5165.5193.2
(i) Rehabilitation1.00.90.80.80.9..
(j) Maintenance of public works and services18.921.541.1x43.7x36.766.5
Totals657.8766.2870.7x999.9x1,215.91,475.3
7. TRANSFERS      
(a) Monetary social security benefits and pensions319.5361.4483.9590.3671.1839.6
(b) Family benefit advances8.54.53.63.34.16.8
(c) Net transfers to rest of world9.310.715.121.434.749.3
8. Interest on Central Government debt paid in New Zealand120.9130.5146.5166.2179.7201.2
Totals458.2507.1649.1781.2x889.61,096.9
9. TRANSFERS TO LOCALAUTHORITIES      
(a) Hospital boards135.0169.1230.8269.6329.0401.6
(b) Other44.047.956.260.169.288.8
Totals179.0217.0287.0329.7398.2490.4
10. SUBSIDIES51.689.4100.7133.7131.8229.4
11. TOTAL EXPENDITURE1,346.61,579.71,907.5x2,244.5x2,635.53,292.0
12. Balance of revenue over expenditure210.7268.3175.2x348.9x335.9-39.5
13. TOTAL EXPENDITUREPlusREVENUE BALANCES1,557.31,848.02,082.72,593.42,971.43,252.5

Local Authorities—The revenue account of local authorities is in all respects similar to that of the Central Government and has been obtained by an analysis of the accounts of all local authorities including hospital boards. In 1975-76 the Central Government contributed 63.3 percent of the revenue of local authorities through transfers. Trading profits contributed a further 4.5 percent, and rates and licence fees at 32.2 percent continued the pattern of recent years.

Current expenditure on goods and services by local authorities in 1975-76, at $557.8 million, was 20.9 percent higher than in the previous year, whereas the increase in Central Government current expenditure on goods and services was 21.3 percent. The limitation in the scope of local government activities as compared with those of the Central Government do not call for a detailed analysis of expenditure items and therefore current expenditure on the provision of goods and services by local authorities is shown as a single total.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES—REVENUE ACCOUNT
Item1970-711971-721972-731973-741974-75x1975-76*
*Provisional.
14. TAXATION REVENUE $(million)    
(a) Direct: Rates103.6110.5131.6140.7168.6210.3
(b) Indirect: Licence fees, petrol tax, etc.6.019.422.326.640.638.8
Totals109.6129.9153.9167.3209.2249.2
15. Trading income44.044.646.430.734.334.6
16. Transfers from Central Government179.0217.0286.9329.7398.2490.4
17. TOTAL REVENUE332.6391.5487.2527.7641.7774.2
  EXPENDITURE $(million)    
18. Current expenditure on goods and services202.8270.7269.6356.0461.5557.8
19. Interest on local authority debt paid in New Zealand37.540.644.053.252.957.8
20. TOTAL EXPENDITURE240.3311.2313.6409.2514.3615.7
21. Balance of revenue over expenditure92.380.3173.6118.5127.4158.5
22. TOTAL EXPENDITUREPlus REVENUE BALANCES332.6391.5487.2527.7641.7774.2

24 B—BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

GENERAL—A country's balance of payments is an account of economic transactions which take place between that country and all other countries. The balance of payments is part of the national accounting system. The present series of New Zealand balance of payments estimates is largely based on the principles set out in the Balance of Payments Manual published by the International Monetary Fund and is in conformity with the methods used in other countries. For a more detailed description of statistical concepts and methods used in preparing balance of payments estimates, refer to the Report on the Balance of Payments for the year 1975-76, obtainable from the Government Printer.

The statement is divided into a current and capital account. The balances on both accounts are, by definition, the same, the capital account showing how the surplus or deficit on current account was financed.

Current Account—The current account records all transactions between New Zealand and the rest of the world other than changes in overseas assets and liabilities. As far as possible transactions are recorded on a gross credit-debit basis rather than on the basis of net settlements. The current account includes credits and debits for goods, services (invisibles), and transfers (donations). The difference between current credits and current debits is the balance of payments surplus (deficit) on current account. This is the measure of the extent to which a country does or does not live within its current income and it is the most significant datum emerging from a balance of payments compilation.

Capital Account—The capital account records changes in claims on, or liabilities to, the rest of the world. These may consist of changes in overseas private investments in New Zealand and New Zealand private investments overseas; borrowing or repayments overseas by the Government and official institutions and changes in Government overseas cash balances, net overseas assets, monetary gold, multilateral transfers, and other capital movements. Of the items comprising the capital account, the category of net overseas assets (the overseas exchange holdings of New Zealand's banking system) is most widely known and appreciated. Its importance lies in the fact that it records changes in overseas liquid resources which, by their nature, can be made immediately available for purposes of imports, public debt repayments, capital investments, etc. Within the confines of the balance of payments capital account the movement in net overseas assets is only one of several other capital movements with which it forms an integral part; it is the combination of all these capital changes which must be studied in order to understand the financing of the current surplus or deficit.

MERCHANDISE TRANSACTIONS: Exports—The source of export figures is Custom's export entries (exclusive of ships' stores) at f.o.b. valuation; exports from New Zealand to its island territories have been excluded, but exports from island territories to other countries have been added to New Zealand totals. The remaining adjustments are for items which are not included in export and import entries (relief supplies, and some ships and aircraft), items where the valuation requires correction, or items which are accounted for elsewhere in the balance of payments (export of gold)

Imports—The basic import figures originate from import entries. Some aircraft and ships not included in imports by Customs Department are added. New Zealand imports from its island territories have been excluded, but imports into island territories from other countries have been included.

It is necessary to comment here on the valuation method adopted for imports. Balance of payments accounts treat freight and marine insurance payments on imports (as far as they are made to non-residents) as invisible payments. As a result, merchandise transactions are shown on a f.o.b. valuation basis for imports and exports alike. This method of treatment has many advantages, and international comparability of merchandise movements is one of them. A special estimate is therefore made of imports f.o.b. for balance of payments purposes.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND EXCHANGE RECORD—There are several very important differences between a balance of payments statement and the statistics of overseas receipts and payments which are included in an exchange record, such as is given in Section 28, Banking and Currency. The main differences are:

  1. The balance of payments attempts to show all economic transactions between residents of one country and residents of other countries, whereas the exchange record shows only transactions involving remittances.

  2. The import and export figures in the balance of payments are based on trade statistics, which enable goods to be valued at a definite and uniform valuation boundary—viz, f.o.b, country of export; the exchange record, on the other hand, records remittances for imports and exports whenever these are made and without adhering to any valuation basis (f.o.b. or c.i.f.). The result is a difference both in timing and valuation between the two statements.

  3. Whereas exchange statistics record net settlements resulting from a number of possible contra-entries or offsets, the balance of payments shows these transactions as far as possible on a gross basis.

Other differences arise from the fact that the balance of payments is constructed on a basis of country of purchase for imports and country of destination for exports, country of residence of remittor or remittee, and nationality in the case of shipping companies, whereas the record of exchange transactions is based on the country of monetary settlement.

In essence, the exchange record is a statement of cash flows, or using the terminology of commercial accounting it is the "cash book" of the nation's transactions with other countries; the balance of payments statement on the other hand approaches an "income and expenditure" account.

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION—The regional break-up of the balance of payments is on a geographical (as distinct from a currency) basis. This means that it is not the currency in which any economic transaction is settled but the residence of New Zealand's immediate partner in the transaction which determines in which regional column the transaction is recorded. Any exception to this rule is due to statistical necessity—insufficiency of basic data, etc., rather than choice.

The New Zealand figures include transactions of New Zealand's dependent island territories. In this respect they differ from the rest of the world account included in the national income and expenditure estimates where the rest of the world account refers to New Zealand only, and does not cover the island territories. However, this difference in coverage only slightly affects the gross figures, and the final outcome of the balance of payments current account differs very little from the rest of the world account.

United Kingdom (including Channel Islands).

Australia (including Norfolk Island, but excluding Papua New Guinea).

USA and Canada—United States of America, Canada, Newfoundland, Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, and other American islands in the Pacific.

EEC Countries—The 6 members of the European Economic Community which formed a common market in 1958; Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy and the Federal German Republic, together with their associated and dependent overseas territories. From and including 1973-74 Denmark and Ireland are included with EEC. The United Kingdom has also become a member of the EEC but it is being shown separately.

Other Countries—All countries not included in any other group.

International Organisations—Transactions with the United Nations and its agencies, the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Finance Corporation, the Asian Development Bank, South Pacific Air Transport Council, and other international organisations.

ACCOUNTING PERIOD—All estimates are for financial years ended 31 March.

RESIDENTS AND NON-RESIDENTS—The balance of payments is a record of economic transactions between residents and non-residents.

Residents are all people living permanently in New Zealand (and who have their "centre of interest" in New Zealand). Subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies are treated as residents, while subsidiaries and branches of New Zealand companies operating overseas are regarded as residents of the country in which they operate.

In order to simplify the rather complex operations of overseas shipping companies, the shipping transactions of their branches in New Zealand (such as their receipt of freights, port disbursements, administrative expenses in New Zealand, etc.) are regarded as transactions of non-residents, by way of exception to the general rule stated above; on the other hand, their investment activity is included in the data on New Zealand branches of overseas companies and conforms to the general rule.

SUMMARY TABLES, CURRENT AND CAPITAL ACCOUNTS—The following table summarises current transactions with all countries.

CURRENT ACCOUNT
Item1971-721972-731973-741974-75x1975-76*

*Provisional.

Minus (—) sign denotes excess of imports over exports or payments over receipts.

NZ$(million)
   Credits  
Exports f.o.b.1,299.41,659.71,834.31,621.82,038.2
Non-monetary gold     
Transportation132.0134.4194.2264.5349.0
Travel45.157.478.5107.0143.1
Insurance0.25.87.323.821.1
International investment income—46.855.884.777.076.0
Income from direct private investment13.010.417.320.624.3
Other private investment income14.414.416.414.517.9
Government and official institutions19.431.051.041.933.8
Government transactions—17.831.531.136.441.9
Foreign Government expenditure11.020.421.627.030.6
New Zealand Government receipts6.811.19.59.411.3
Miscellaneous receipts37.352.157.759.572.5
Transfers—69.299.6122.9123.1142.7
Government transfers-----
Personal remittances and other donations49.255.458.161.078.6
Migrants' funds14.635.157.355.152.4
Legacies5.49.07.56.911.7
Total credits1,647.92,096.12,410.72,313.02,884.4
   Debits  
Imports f.o.b.1,070.31,222.41,582.72,576.62,579.1
Non-monetary gold     
Transportation189.1203.8294.4391.9423.9
Travel75.598.2143.4180.3193.4
Insurance4.910.520.825.226.7
International investment income—121.0175.0214.9202.9313.5
Income from direct private investment78.4116.7165.1111.8135.7
Other private investment income9.620.815.840.574.1
Government and official institutions32.937.334.050.5103.6
Local authority interest0.10.1-0.1-
Government transactions—39.946.252.069.359.2
New Zealand Government expenditure39.946.252.069.359.2
Miscellaneous payments100.9110.2127.5114.8164.3
Transfers—59.468.689.0121.8141.5
Government transfers and contribution to Colombo Plan10.715.121.434.648.5
Personal remittances and other donations and transfers17.317.720.525.733.2
Migrants' funds22.626.237.451.649.9
Legacies8.89.69.79.810.0
Total debits1,660.91,934.82,524.73,682.73,901.5
Balance on current account-12.9161.4-114.0-1,369.7-1,017.1

The consolidated capital account shown below summarises capital transactions with all countries; some of the items are presented in simplified form (by adding or offsetting capital movements where these have occurred in respect of equally defined items).

CAPITAL ACCOUNT

Item1971-721972-731973-741974-75x1975-76*
Increase inIncrease inIncrease inIncrease in+Increase in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities

Minus (—) sign denotes decrease.

*Provisional.

†Allocation of special drawing rights and holdings in New Zealand currency are not increases in liabilities, but are entered here as contra entries to maintain the correct balance of the capital account.

Long-term capital (Private)—    NZ$(million)     
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand..97.5..106.4..152.7..175.6..109.2
New Zealand direct investment overseas10.7..2.7..13.5..15.0..17.7..
Other long-term capital movements-7.085.6-9.480.3-7.743.31.5209.8-8.2213.4
Long-term capital (Government)—          
Government investments12.2..8.9..13.8..104.1..0.5..
Public debt..72.2..-49.6..-58.1..300.9..422.3
Local Authority debt..-1.4..—1.1..-0.5..—0.7..—0.8
Asian Development Bank—          
Holdings of New Zealand securities..-1.2..1.1..1.3..2.5..
Encashment of securities--0.3-0.4..0.2..0.6..
New Zealand subscription-2.0..1.9..2.1..2.5....
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)—Holdings of New Zealand securities..0.4..-............
New Zealand subscription and security0.4..-..-..........
Other-0.50.8-0.79.8-0.834.90.239.50.264.6
Monetary institutions—          
Reserve Bank of New Zealand—          
International Monetary Fund—          
Drawings and repurchases..----45.1100.5-192.4....
Allocation of Special Drawing Rights..19.1..-..-..---
Increase in quota-..-..-..--....
IMF holdings in New Zealand currency..-..-..-........
Other borrowing and lending..-5.4--4.8106.14.5114.4....
Monetary gold-..-..-..........
Other......5.4............
Reserve Bank of New Zealand and other banks—Assets of New Zealand banking system159.0..318.9..46.8..-218.7..66.1..
Special Drawing Rights of IMF27.9..4.9..-..-47.2..4.9..
Official export credits4.3..0.5..0.3..3.4..3.9..
Short-term capital (Government)—          
Government cash balances-..-..-..........
Other57.6..73.1..-38.4..-89.6..19.8..
Other short-term capital movements including errors and omissions-8.6-92.824.1-..167.4..11.4
Balance on capital account-12.9161.4-114.0-1,369.7-1,017.1

ANALYSIS OF CURRENT ACCOUNT—The balance of payments estimates show that for the year ended 31 March 1976 New Zealand's balance with the rest of the world on current account was a deficit of $1,017.1 million. It was $1,369.7 million in deficit for the 1974-75 financial year.

  1. Merchandise Transactions—As compared with 1974-75 the value of exports increased by $416.4 million to $2,038.2 million, and imports (measured f.o.b. country of purchase) were $2.5 million greater than in 1974-75 at $2,579.1 million. The resulting deficit on merchandise transactions of $540.9 million was only the third such deficit since balance of payments estimates were first published in 1950-51.

    In recent years major changes have occurred in New Zealand's trading patterns. In 1955-56, 64.9 percent of New Zealand's exports, by value, were sold in the United Kingdom; by 1970-71 this proportion had fallen to 35.7 percent and by 1974-75 it had further declined to 22.2 percent.

    In 1975-76 it stabilised at 23.3 percent of New Zealand's exports. Conversely the percentage of exports sold in "other countries" has increased from 23.4 percent in 1970-71 to 40.6 percent in 1975-76. Similar changes have occurred with imports; the percentage of imports purchased from the United Kingdom declined from 29.3 percent to 21.0 percent and the percentage of imports purchased from "other countries" increased from 24.2 percent to 33.6 percent between 1970-71 and 1975-76.

    The following table shows how trade with each area has moved.

    Year Ended 31 MarchUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States and CanadaEEC CountriesOther Countries*Total, All Countries

    *Includes International Organisations and other Sterling Countries.

    † Provisional.

    Exports (f.o.b. N.Z.)    NZ$(million) 
    1972-73485.5124.8303.3244.5501.61,659.7
    1973-74417.3156.7357.2213.4689.71,834.3
    1974-75358.8181.5266.7180.7634.11,621.8
    1975-76475.5243.2285.7208.2825.72,038.2
    Annual Change      
    1973-74-68.2+31.9+53.9-31.1+188.1+174.6
    1974-75-58.5+24.8-90.5-32.7-55.6-212.5
    1975-76+116.7+61.7+19.0+27.5+191.6+416.4
    Imports (f.o.b. Overseas)      
    1972-73302.5318.1202.386.2313.31,222.4
    1973-74320.2421.3283.4137.6420.31,582.7
    1974-75554.6544.6482.5220.5774.52,576.6
    1975-76542.2506.2480.9183.8866.12,579.1
    Annual change—      
    1973-74+17.7+10+81.1+51.4+107.0+360.3
    1974-75+234.4+3.3+199.1+82.9+354.2+993.9
    1975-76-12.4-38.4-1.6-36.7+91.6+2.5
    Balance of Trade (Exports Less Imports)      
    1972-73182.9-193.4101.0158.3188.4437.3
    1973-7497.1-264.673.875.8269.3251.6
    1974-75-195.8-363.1-215.7-39.9-140.4-954.8
    1975-76-66.7-263.0-195.2+24.4-40.4-540.9
    Annual Change—      
    1973-74-85.8-71.2-27.2-82.5+81.0-185.7
    1974-75-292.9-98.7-289.5-115.7-409.8-1,206.4
    1975-76+129.1+100.1+20.5+64.3+100.0+413.9
  2. Invisibles—The deficit on invisibles for 1975-76 was $477.4 million against $416.2 million in 1974-75 and $399.5 million in 1973-74. This outcome confirms the historical trend of a widening deficit on "invisibles" account which has continued over the years with only temporary reversals.

    In 1975-76 3 out of the 5 categories making up invisibles showed decreased deficits over the previous year. The largest increase in deficit was $111.6 million in the deficit on International Investment Income. This was a movement of 88.6 percent. The other category to show an increased deficit was "other transactions" (non-merchandise insurance and miscellaneous transactions), which increased by $40.7 million, a movement of 71.8 percent.

    Categories showing decreased deficits were Transportation (a decrease of $52.5 million or 41.2 percent), Travel ($23.0 million or 31.4 percent), and Government ($15.6 million or 47.4 percent). The smaller deficit on transportation was accounted for by a rise of $84.5 million in Transportation credits and a much smaller rise of $32.0 million in Transportation debits.

    The transportation debit item includes freight on imports, passenger fares to non-resident shipping lines and air carriers, and disbursements overseas by New Zealand carriers (such as port disbursements, ships' stores, and bunkers). The freight component of this item was affected by both the increase in volume of imports and the rise in freight rates.

    Investment income credits include income from New Zealand direct investment overseas, other private investment income and interest on investments of Government and official institutions. The debits include income derived from overseas direct investment in New Zealand, other private investment income and interest on Government and local authority debt.

    Investment income credits declined from $77.0 million to $76.0 million in 1975–76. The major portion of the decrease came from interest on Reserve Bank and Government investments overseas. On the other side of the account, income debits, there was an increase (from $202.9 million to $313.5 million) caused by increases in every category, but particularly by an increase of $53.1 million in interest paid by "Government and official institutions".

    The following table gives details of invisible transactions by areas.

    NET DEFICIT ON INVISIBLE ACCOUNT BY AREAS

    YearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
       NZ$(million)   
    1973–74x-187.2-64.4-67.9-28.6-51.5-399.5
    1974–75x-165.8-34.6-71.0-41.9-102.9-416.2
    1975–76–202.4+17.5-117.6-72.8-102.1-477.4

    In 1975–76, transactions with the United Kingdom accounted for 42.4 percent of the invisible deficit; those with Australia accounted for 3.7 percent surplus; those with the United States and Canada for 24.7 percent of the deficit; those with the European Economic Community countries for 15.3 percent; and those with other countries for 21.4 percent.

  3. Transfers—Transfers consist of legacies, personal remittances, migrants' funds, Government contributions to international agencies, gifts and donations in cash or kind, for which there is no quid pro quo. Transfer receipts rose from $123.1 million to $142.7 million, an increase of 16.0 percent. Transfer debits rose from $121.8 million to $141.5 million, an increase of 16.2 percent.

    Analysis of Capital Account—The capital account of the balance of payments records changes in claims on and liabilities to other countries; such changes have direct reference to current transactions and the net difference between acquisition of new claims and the increase in liabilities explains how the current account was funded.

    An analysis of the 1975–76 capital account is now presented.

    Nature of CapitalNet Outflows of Capital (Increase in Claims)Net Inflows of Capital (Increase in Liabilities)
     NZ$(million) 
    Long-term private-313.2
    Long-term Government-484.9
    Monetary institutions-227.4
    Short-term Government19.8-
    Other short-term (including errors and omissions)-11.4
    Excess of capital inflows over outflows (equals balance on current account)1,017.1-
    Totals1,036.91,036.9

The two main categories of private long-term capital movements are direct investment in New Zealand by overseas firms in branches and subsidiaries, and other private long-term capital movements. In 1975–76 the inflow of direct investment capital was $109.2 million compared with $175.6 million in 1974–75. Other private long-term capital movements showed a net inflow of $221.6 million, compared with an inflow of $208.3 million in 1974–75. This increase was largely due to overseas borrowing by New Zealand firms.

The main component of Government long-term capital movement is the external public debt which increased by $422.3 million during 1975–76. Also short-term Government investments overseas increased by $19.8 million during 1975–76.

Under the heading monetary institutions, are the international transactions entered into by the Reserve Bank and the trading banks. The main components for 1975–76 were overseas borrowing by the Reserve Bank (from the International Monetary Fund's oil facility and from the Bank of International Settlements), which rose by $306.8 million, and the assets of the New Zealand banking system, which rose by $66.1 million.

It should be noted that movements in claims and liabilities caused by changes in exchange rates are excluded from the balance of payments.

Finally, the inflow of short-term private capital, timing errors, and omissions amounted to $11.4 million. No precise breakdown of this figure can be given. It is a residual and shows the amount by which the ascertained capital movements do not account for the balance on current account. Such a residual is very sensitive to relatively small timing or other errors in the very large magnitudes of both the current and capital accounts

BALANCES BY AREAS—The following tables for current account and capital account for 1975–76 respectively, analyse the balance of payments by area.

A. CURRENT ACCOUNT BY AREAS 1975–76*

ItemUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesInternational OrganisationsTotal, All Countries
*Provisional.
  CreditsNZS(million)    
Exports f.o.b.475.5243.2285.7208.2825.7...2,038.2
Non-monetary-gold.....................
Transportation146.7107.653.918.322.5...349.0
Travel12.594.226.11.58.7...143.1
Insurance15.93.5-2.00.23.5...21.1
International investment income—       
Income from direct investment overseas3.314.70.9-5.3...24.3
Other private investment income0.116.01.4-2.63.0...17.9
Interest on investments of Government and official institutions26.6-0.11.25.9...33.8
Government transactions—       
Expenditure by foreign governments in New Zealand1.05.43.60.519.90.230.6
New Zealand Government current receipts from overseas2.63.34.80.10.5...11.3
Miscellaneous receipts17.029.011.34.111.1...72.5
Transfers—       
Government transfers-- --...-
Personal remittances and other donations and transfers27.825.312.24.49.0...78.6
Immigrants' funds27.217.43.11.72.9...52.4
Legacies6.82.41.10.70.7...11.7
Total credits763.0562.1402.2238.2918.70.22,884.4
Imports f.o.b.542.2506.2480.9183.8866.1...2,579.1
Transportation195.681.660.839.945.9...423.9
Travel48.170.032.65.637.1...193.4
Insurance24.3-2.00.8-0.23.8...26.7
International investment income—       
Income from direct investment in New Zealand67.239.324.5-0.45.2...135.7
Other private investment income3.18.551.16.25.1...74.1
Interest on Government debt19.6-5.532.745.8...103.6
Interest on local authority debt-------
Government transactions—       
Current Government expenditure17.88.210.53.619.2-59.2
Miscellaneous payments52.550.832.08.620.4-164.3
Transfers—       
Government transfers and contributions to Colombo Plan2.21.92.1-36.06.448.5
Personal remittances and other donations and transfers6.75.92.51.320.3-3.533.2
Emigrants' funds14.818.77.40.98.0-49.9
Legacies4.03.81.20.30.7-10.0
Total debts998.0792.9711.8282.31,113.62.93,901.5
Balance on current account (minus sign (-) denotes deficit)-235.0-230.8-309.6-44.1-194.9-2.7-1,017.1
B. CAPITAL ACCOUNT BY AREAS 1975–76*
ItemUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited States and Canada
Increase inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities

*Provisional.

Minus (-) sign denotes decrease.

Long-term capital (private)—  NZS(million)   
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand..26.8..38.2..27.1
New Zealand direct investment overseas3.9..5.0..8.4..
Other long-term capital movements-6.948.0-1.7-16.81.7112.7
Long-term capital (Government)—      
Government investments-22.3..-..0.7..
Public debt..-6.6..-..85.7
Local authority debt..-..-..-
Asian Development Bank holdings of New Zealand securities............
Encashment of securities............
New Zealand subscription............
Other..-01-0.7-3.0
Long-term capital (monetary institutions)—      
Reserve Bank of New Zealand—      
Other borrowing and lending------
Reserve Bank of New Zealand and other banks—      
Assets of New Zealand banking system22.4..25.7..11.4..
Official export credits-..-..-..
Short-term capital (Government)-0.2..-..-0.6..
Other short-term capital movements including errors and omissions-119.0-237.7-102.8
Multilateral transfers............
Balance on capital account..-235.0..-230.8..-309.6
ItemEEC CountriesOther CountriesInternational OrganisationsTotal, All Countries
Increase inIncrease inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities

*Provisional.

†Allocation of Special Drawing Rights and holdings in N.Z. Currency are not increases in liabilities but are entered here as contra entries to maintain the accounting of the capital account.

Minus (-) sign denotes decrease.

    NZ$(million)    
Long-term capital(private)        
Overseas direct investment in New Zealand..6.5..10.7......109.2
New Zealand direct investment overseas0.1..0.3......17.7..
Other long-term capital movements-0.356.5-1.013.0....-8.2213.4
Long-term capital (Government)—        
Government investments25.8..-7.0..3.3..0.5..
Public debt..227.4..122.8..-6.9..422.3
Local authority debt..-..-0.8..-..-0.8
Asian Development Bank holdings of New Zealand securities........2.52.52.52.5
Encashment of securities........--0.6..-0.6
New Zealand subscription................
Other-48.2--12.8....-64.6
Long-term capital (monetary institutions)—        
Reserve Bank of New Zealand.        
I.M.F.-Drawings and Repurchases..........-192.4..192.4
Allocation of Special Drawing Rights........-..--
Other borrowing and lending--3.1114.41.4-4.5114.4
Reserve Bank of New Zealand and other banks Assets of New Zealand banking system50.8..0.6......66.1..
Special Drawing Rights of I.M.F.........4.9..4.9..
Official export credits-..3.9......3.9..
Short-term capital (Government)24.1..-..3.5..19.8..
Other short-term capital movements including errors and omissions194.0-78.1..176.0--11.4
Multilateral transfers..........   
Balance on capital account-44.1-194.9-2.7-1,017.1

The following diagram shows New Zealand's balance of payments by monetary areas for the latest 5 years.

SURVEY OF COMPANIES WITH OVERSEAS AFFILIATIONS—The picture of international capital movements would be incomplete without the consideration of investment flows originating with private commercial firms. While such investment takes place in response to usual economic motivations, its effect on a country's balance of payments differs in no respect from other capital movements, such as Government lending or borrowing abroad, investment or repatriation of assets from abroad by private individuals, etc.

The type of investment referred to here is that defined as direct private investment. Subsidiaries (i.e., New Zealand companies under control of an overseas company), branches of overseas companies, companies where many of the shareholders reside overseas, or any other companies where overseas shareholders exercise a controlling interest, fall under this category. The question of control is decided in some cases on the strength of the parent company's holdings (a 25 percent holding of the subsidiary's ordinary share capital is deemed as the qualifying minimum), in others on the actual circumstances of the case. The same criteria apply for direct investment by New Zealand companies and residents overseas.

Direct investment flows assume various forms; they may be by remittances of cash, the provision of plant, machinery, or goods without corresponding payments, charging up of services rendered by the parent company, the re-investment in New Zealand of undistributed profits, or the partial remittance only of declared dividends and branch earnings. The inclusion of undistributed profits may require some explanation: the non-remittance abroad of the whole of the current year's earnings, or any portion of them involves, where no statutory constraints exist on remittances of current profits, a decision to invest which is in every respect equal to a decision to bring additional investment capital into the country. By treating, as already mentioned previously, total earnings of subsidiaries and branches of overseas firms in New Zealand as a current account debit or payment to the rest of the world, the unremitted portions of such earnings are treated as an inflow of investment capital which, together with other forms of investment capital (cash, goods, services), make up the total of the private direct investment item in the capital account.

The information tabulated in the following tables is based on an annual survey of companies with overseas affiliations in which the companies report on the distribution of paid-up capital and its changes, dividends and dividend remittances, intercompany accounts with the parent company or affiliated company, and head office accounts in the case of branches.

It should be noted that investment figures given in the following four tables are in terms of annual changes at current prices. The total worth of direct investment assets is extremely difficult to establish in view of the fact that book values may bear little relationship to what such investments would realise on sale; annual changes on the other hand are capable of precise expression, and define exactly their relationship to other capital movements.

Overseas Private Direct Investment in New Zealand—Data on overall private investment in New Zealand are shown in the following table. The figures are totals reflecting investment changes in firms resident in New Zealand and controlled from overseas irrespective of their legal organisation.

They include therefore subsidiaries incorporated in New Zealand, companies incorporated in New Zealand which have a majority of shareholders resident overseas or are controlled by overseas residents, and New Zealand branches of overseas companies.

The figures shown in the country or regional area columns refer to the country of incorporation of the New Zealand firm's parent company, head office, or other subsidiary of the parent associate company from which the investment flows, or to which the New Zealand company owes or is owed on outstanding accounts, or the country of residence of individual shareholders who collectively hold a controlling interest (as defined above) in the New Zealand company.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries

*Provisional.

†Other Sterling Countries included with other Countries after 1972-73.

   NZ$(million)    
1971-72-7.236.02.167.6-8.07.097.5
1972-7338.335.72.325.13.02.0106.4
1973-7461.936.148.83.52.4152.7
1974-7550.557.345.40.721.6175.6
1975-76*26.838.227.16.510.7109.2

The graph now presented shows changes in the overseas direct investment in New Zealand.

Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table provides a subdivision of total direct investment income derived by all enterprises controlled from overseas and operating in New Zealand. The investment income is given net (after payment of New Zealand taxation). The regional totals as well as the "All Countries" total correspond to the "Income from Direct Investment" debits shown in the regional current accounts.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries

*Provisional.

†Other Sterling Countries included with other Countries after 1972-73.

   NZ$(million)    
   Dividends    
1971-729.47.60.68.41.62.029.6
1972-7310.510.10.77.32.03.033.6
1973-7413.310.3..9.41.82.837.6
1974-75x12.110.8..7.10.22.532.7
1975-76*13.49.4..6.10.43.332.7
    Undistributed Earnings   
1971-7214.911.20.215.1-0.2-3.837.4
1972-7334.814.50.218.9-1.1-3.264.1
1973-7438.929.0..26.71.43.499.4
1974-75x24.322.3..12.5-0.40.359.0
1975-76*41.622.8..14.2-1.02.580.0
    Net Earnings of Branches   
1971-723.03.80.43.0-1.211.4
1972-7312.03.8-0.22.6-0.31.219.1
1973-7416.28.4..3.10.8-0.428.1
1974-75x1.913.8..2.71.00.820.1
1975-76*12.27.0..4.20.2-0.623.1
  Total Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand     
1971-7227.222.61.126.61.5-0.678.4
1972-7357.328.30.728.80.51.1116.7
1973-7468.447.7..39.24.05.8165.1
1974-75x38.346.9..22.30.83.6111.8
1975-76*67.239.3..24.5-0.45.2135.7

Industrial Classification of Overseas Private Direct Investment and Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table shows details of overseas direct investment and income from overseas direct investment classified by major industry groupings.

Item1972-731973-741974-75x1975-76*
*Provisional.
  NZ$(million)  
  Direct Investment  
Farming, hunting, and fishing--1.81.0-2.4
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying1.3-5.1-1.04.4
Manufacturing—    
Food, drink, and tobacco2.86.221.5-7.8
Meat and dairy products11.89.5-35.218.3
Textiles, clothing, and footwear0.92.04.40.3
Wood, cork, and furniture production-0.2-0.10.40.6
Pulp, paper, and printing11.6-1.413.19.3
Leather and rubber products1.81.65.40.1
Chemical and mineral products10.118.120.320.4
Metalworking-5.7-0.9...9.6
Engineering and transport equipment6.222.535.11.2
Miscellaneous manufacturing4.28.99.93.3
Building and construction2.72.81.30.4
Electricity, gas, water............
Wholesale and retail trade46.071.961.324.5
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property14.29.034.526.5
Transport and communications-2.25.20.3-5.8
Services0.90.73.56.4
Totals106.4152.7175.6109.2
 Income from Direct Investment   
Farming, hunting, and fishing0.20.5-0.3-0.1
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying1.21.20.86.1
Manufacturing—    
Food, drink, and tobacco6.08.87.05.2
Meat and dairy products10.29.6-15.016.9
Textiles, clothing, and footwear1.93.02.40.5
Wood, cork, and furniture production0.20.30.20.4
Pulp, paper, and printing5.24.24.37.3
Leather and rubber products2.11.81.32.1
Chemical and mineral products12.615.49.19.2
Metalworking1.78.60.88.0
Engineering and transport equipment13.920.512.418.0
Miscellaneous manufacturing5.610.15.57.5
Building and construction2.32.92.11.5
Electricity, gas, water............
Wholesale and retail trade35.745.244.930.6
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property15.029.032.322.6
Transport and communications2.02.01.5-2.3
Services1.12.02.52.2
Totals116.7165.1111.8135.7

Investment by New Zealand Companies Overseas—The following table presents the converse picture of those immediately preceding, viz, direct investment and income for direct investment by New Zealand companies in their overseas subsidiaries and branches.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaOther Sterling CountriesUnited States and CanadaOther CountriesTotal, All Countries

*Provisional.

†Other Sterling Countries included with other Countries after 1972-73.

   NZ$(million)   
   Direct Investment   
1971-7210.92.1-0.1-2.80.610.7
1972-73-11.96.63.46.6-2.02.7
1973-747.0x8.9-0.7-1.713.5x
1974-75x4.31.52.17.215.0
1975-76*3.95.08.40.417.7
  Income from Direct Investment    
1971-727.22.32.70.60.213.0
1972-735.71.52.30.80.110.4
1973-745.08.00.53.717.3
1974-75x5.98.01.15.720.6
1975-76*3.314.70.95.324.3

24 C—INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES

As a background to economic policy formation, and particularly with regard to planning of industrial development, it is desirable to have an overall view of the pattern and industrial relationships of all parts of the economy. This applies at a national level and also at lower levels of, say, an industry or group of industries, when decisions involving the direction of growth have to be taken.

Such a view can be provided in the first place by input-output tables, resulting from inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy. These show in matrix form the transactions which took place between industries in the country and what inputs they required in a chosen year to deliver an output of goods and services to final demand users such as households, Government, and export. From these tables of commodity transactions, further tables of co-efficients are computed to show not only the degree of dependence of any one industry directly on other industries and on external producers, but also the indirect requirements of any industry on all others for each unit of its output. The relationships thus established can be held to be reasonably stable for several years in a developed country and also, for major planning purposes, can be up-dated by mathematical procedures which incorporate more recent data which may become available. In this way the tables can be made to serve until completion of a fresh inter-industry study, an undertaking requiring several years of investigation and processing.

One aim of inter-industry studies is to establish a connection between demand for finished products and its implications for production, employment, capacity utilisation, and raw material requirements of industries which may be significantly, even if remotely, involved in meeting this demand.

The Department of Statistics has published 2 major inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy. The Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1959–60 was published in 4 parts and the Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1965–66 was published in 2 parts. In both studies the productive sector is divided into 109 industries, and both include in addition to input-output tables and derived tables a description of the industrial classification and an explanation of the input-output system of analysis.

The Department of Statistics publication Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1965–1966 Part 1 may be used for general guidance to both the 1959–60 and the 1965–66 studies.

It should be noted, however, that because in some cases data were not available from the same source in both years, and for various other technical reasons, conclusions from the latest study regarding shifts in the technological inter-dependence of industries should be made with some caution.

A study based on the year 1971–72 is now in preparation.

The contributions to net output by the 21 industry groupings as adopted for national development planning are shown in the following table for 1965–66.

Industry GroupNet OutputProportion of Total Net Output
 $(m)Percent
Farming and hunting504.315.0
Pastoral products processing104.13.1
Non-pastoral farm products processing17.10.5
Fuel production8.90.3
Other mining and quarrying12.10.4
Fishing3.70.1
Fishery products processing0.3-
Forestry and logging20.30.6
Forestry products processing72.02.1
Other manufacturing502.215.0
Mineral products processing29.30.9
Fuel products processing7.50.2
Transportation200.66.0
Wholesale and retail trade617.418.4
Fuel and power generation and distribution77.42.3
Building and construction253.17.5
Banking and insurance68.82.0
Ownership of property228.06.8
Services to households30.20.9
Services to government284.08.5
Other service activities315.19.4
Totals3,356.3100.0

A special article in the 1975 Yearbook provided a general introduction to inter-industry studies and input-output analysis. Copies of this article are available from the Department of Statistics on request.

24 D—REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

The Gross Domestic Product is the total value of all goods and services produced by the economy in the year. The "Real" Gross Domestic Product for a number of years is the total amount of the goods and services produced in each of those years valued at constant prices, so that the differences in the volume of production are apparent.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT—The Index of Real Gross Domestic Product measures changes in the volume of production, with each sector of the economy represented in proportion to its contribution to gross domestic product at factor cost in 1965–66; the basis for these analyses being the input-output tables for 1965–66. The economy has been divided into eleven industry groupings representing the major divisions of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification (N.Z.S.I.C.), but with major division 1 "Agriculture, Hunting, Forestry and Fishing", split into 3 groups, namely: Agriculture, Hunting and Fishing, Forestry and Logging.

The industry groupings, and the contribution made by each to the gross domestic product in the base year 1965–66, are shown below.

Industrial GroupsPercentage of Base Year Gross Domestic Product
Agriculture15.0
Hunting and fishing0.2
Forestry and logging0.6
Mining and quarrying0.7
Manufacturing21.7
Electricity, gas, and water2.6
Construction7.3
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels18.8
Transport, storage, and communication8.2
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services12.0
Community, social, and personal services12.9
..100.0

Throughout this section, the year used is that ended 31 March.

The Index of Gross Domestic Product is presented in the following table, analysed by the industry groupings.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT

Base for each Industrial Group and for All Industrial Groups combined: 1965–66 (= 1000).

Industrial Groups1965-661970-711971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76*

*Provisional.

†From 1972–73 measures real net output.

Agriculture100011021133101596611031153
Hunting and fishing1000129313781280124412681220
Forestry and logging1000137013271399149414911498
Mining and quarrying1000106811051235140614271319
Manufacturing1000125113031384156616391642
Electricity, gas, and water1000129614561666176918382046
Construction1000103910181156121312961363
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels1000109611091209131913491326
Transport, storage and communication1000113811511233140713631361
Financing, insurance, real estate and business services1000114811841240130613191345
Community, social and personal services1000110811301156118912231257
All industrial groups combined1000114511741226131413671387
Annual percentage increase—All industrial groups combined..3.72.54.47.24.01.5

INDEX OF EMPLOYMENT—The Index of Employment is based on the numbers of persons in the total labour force as estimated by the Department of Labour. The total labour force includes all persons actively engaged for 20 or more hours per week and excludes the unemployed.

INDEX OF REAL GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT PER LABOUR FORCE MEMBER—Increases in real production are due partly to increases in the numbers of persons engaged, and in part to other factors (additions of productive fixed capital assets, improvements in management, organisational measures) as well as to greater labour effort or improved skills of the labour force. While the elements pertaining to labour input are relatively easy to quantify, the measurement of the other factors is exceedingly difficult.

The three indexes are compared in the following table. All three indexes are on base 1965–66 = 1000.

 Real G.D.P.EmploymentReal G.D.P. per Labour Force MemberAnnual Percentage Increase
YearIndexAnnual Percentage IncreaseIndexAnnual Percentage Increase
*Provisional.
1970-7111453.710902.710500.9
1971-7211742.511031.210641.3
1972-7312264.411181.410973.1
1973-74x13147.211593.711343.4
1974-75*13673.011892.611500.4
1975-76*13872.011990.811571.1

NATIONAL AGGREGATES AT CONSTANT PRICES—The index of real gross domestic product is readily convertible into a series of national aggregates expressed in the dollar values of some base year, in this case the year ended March 1966. The following table presents the 3 significant national accounts aggregates at current prices and also at 1965-66 prices.

 In Current PricesAt 1965-66 Prices
YearGross Domestic ProductGross National ProductGross Domestic ExpenditureGross Domestic ProductGross National ProductGross Domestic Expenditure
*Provisional.
   $(million)   
1965-663,8773,8233,981x3,8773,8233,981x
1966-674,0393,9734,111x4,0243,9584,124x
1967-684,1834,1284,193x3,9893,9363,900x
1968-694,4364,3554,293x4,0754,0003,822x
1969-704,9074,8094,764x4,2804,1944,036x
1970-71x5,6095,5345,7184,4394,3804,337
1971-72x6,5266,4526,4704,5524,5004,401
1972-73x7,6177,4987,3644,7534,6794,653
1973-74x8,7678,6368,7805,0945,0185,316
1974-75x*9,5229,39610,7645,2425,1735,669
1975-76*11,02910,79111,8035,3425,2275,297

GROSS DOMESTIC EXPENDITURE—Gross domestic expenditure is derived by deducting exports of goods and services from gross domestic product and adding imports of goods and services. The relationship between gross domestic product and gross domestic expenditure at 1965–66 prices is shown in the following table.

YearGross Domestic ProductExports of Goods and ServicesImports of Goods and ServicesGross Domestic Expenditure at 1965-66 Prices
*Provisional.
  $(million)  
1965-663,877839x9433,981x
1966-674,024883x9834,124x
1967-683,989914x825x3,900x
1968-694,0751,063x8103,822x
1969-704,2801,140x896x4,036x
1970-714,4391,135x1,0334,337x
1971-724,5521,200x1,0494,401x
1972-73x4,7531,2391,1394,653
1973-74x5,0941,1901,4125,316
1974-75x*5,2421,1661,5935,669
1975-76*5,3421,3231,2785,297

EFFECTIVE GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT—In the following table, movements caused by changes in the terms of trade are assessed by showing gross domestic product at 1965–66 prices corrected for the terms of trade. This figure of effective gross domestic product is obtained for each year by deducting the value of exports included in the gross domestic product and replacing this figure by another representing the constant dollar value of the imports they could buy. By making this correction to the gross domestic product at 1965–66 prices a better picture can be obtained of the changes in the purchasing power of the income it represents.

YearGross Domestic ProductExports of Goods and Services Included in G.D.P.Exports of Goods and Services Corrected for the Terms of TradeEffective Gross Domestic Product
*Provisional.
  $(million)  
1965-663,877—839x839x3,877
1966-674,024—883x892x4,033
1967-683,989—914x818x3,893
1968-694,075—1,063x928x3,940x
1969-704,280—1,140x1,014x4,154x
1970-714,439—1,135x967x4,271x
1971-724,552—1,200x1,091x4,443x
1972-73x4,753—1,2391,3164,830
1973-74x5,094—1,1901,4045,308
1974-75x*5,242—1,1661,0075,083
1975-76*5,342—1,3239935,012

24 E—ECONOMIC PLANNING

GENERAL—Before the establishment of the New Zealand Planning Council in April 1977, the Government was assisted in long-term economic planning and the development of natural resources by a Planning Advisory Group and a number of councils with a wide coverage of the economic, social, and cultural life of New Zealand. These councils, most of which were originally sector councils under the now-defunct National Development Council, were the Agricultural Production Council, Manufacturing Development Council, Forestry Development Council, Mineral Resources Council, Tourist Development Council, Trade Promotion Council, Building Industry Advisory Council, Transport Advisory Council, Distribution Council, National Research Advisory Council, Education Development Council, Environmental Council, Social Development Council, National Conservation Council, Land Use Advisory Council, Vocational Training Council, the Committee on Women, and the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council.

It is intended that such sector councils shall have close links with the Planning Council, but not be part of its formal structure.

The need for long-term planning in order to achieve a faster, more balanced, economic growth-rate coupled with a proper consideration for environmental, social and other non-material factors first came to the fore in the early 1950s.

During the 1950s and 1960s, "key sector" conferences were held on housing and industrial export, and agricultural development*. These conferences reflected a changed attitude regarding the Government's role in growth and development. As a result of the work of the Agricultural Development Conference, in particular, medium and long-term projections were accepted as the basis for planning. Targets were set for agricultural production up to 10 years ahead. Another feature was the formation of continuing machinery after two of the conferences, namely a Trade Promotion Council and an Agricultural Production Council.

The Agricultural Production Council's purpose was to review agricultural sector targets and to advise the Government on how to achieve them. Other sectors became interested in this approach to planning within sectors. Preparations were being made by the end of 1967 for conferences on forestry and tourism to be held in early 1969. One drawback of this type of action was that each sector tended to view its problems and future in isolation. The Government decided therefore to hold a National Development Conference, with plenary sessions in August 1968 and May 1969, to set economic planning on a national basis. The outcome of the conference was the adoption of national and sector growth targets and 631 recommendations. Two-thirds of these recommendations were later implemented.

The National Development Council (NDC) was set up on the recommendation of the National Development Conference, with senior Ministers as chairman and deputy chairman. Members represented a broad range of interest groups. The Council's terms of reference were to review and propose changes where necessary in New Zealand's long-term planning objectives, and the policies necessary to achieve them.

In March 1974 the Government decided that the top committee of Cabinet responsible for establishing policy and priorities should assume the functions which the National Development Council had undertaken since 1969. Individual ministers were to become more closely involved in sector planning and each sector council was to report primarily to the Minister holding the relevant portfolio. The Ministers, in turn, were to report to the Cabinet Committee on Policy and Priorities and this committee would invite the chairmen of sector councils and others to participate in its deliberations as appropriate.

In May 1975 the Government announced that the Tariff Development Board was to be replaced by a smaller Industries Development Commission to study industrial needs. The aim was to enable comprehensive long-term assessments to be made of each industry's performance and prospects as a basis for determining Government assistance. It was stated that approaches from any industry wishing to instigate a study would be welcome and the Government would be prepared to extend financial and other assistance, provided that the study did not conflict with the basic programme or draw too heavily on the Government's own resources.

During 1976 the Government established a task force on social and economic planning, under the chairmanship of Sir Frank Holmes.

The objectives were to review past planning activities in New Zealand, to advise on major trends and issues, and to recommend a planning mechanism that would assist in the development of New Zealand's economy and society. The task force completed the exercise in October 1976, and issued its report entitled New Zealand at the Turning Point in December. As a result of its recommendations a New Zealand Planning Council was set up in March 1977 as a first step towards the development of a national planning system as envisaged by the task force.

PRODUCTIVITY CENTRE—A Productivity Centre was established within the Department of Trade and Industry in January 1973 to promote improved productivity in New Zealand's manufacturing and servicing industry. It has developed a comprehensive programme aimed at improving the efficiency of the individual firm or organisation through the use of specific productivity techniques.

The centre's programme includes the promotion of:

*National Housing Conference 1953; Industrial Development Conference 1960; Export Development Conference 1963; Agricultural Development Conference 1963-64.

Interfirm Comparisons—These survey the key business results of similar firms in an industry group and reveal those areas requiring remedial attention. The centre sponsored 19 interfirm comparisons in 1976, and provided follow-up services through its industry liaison officers.

Productivity Groups—These are self-sustaining groups of businessmen from a particular geographic area who examine and exchange productivity ideas and experience. Twenty-six groups, serviced by the centre's industry liaison officers, were operating in 1976.

Productivity Improvement Teams—PI teams are in-company groups set up to improve the productivity of an organisation by utilising the skills, knowledge, and experience already present.

The centre also provides:

  1. Workshop sessions and seminars on specific management topics, particularly in smaller centres where few formal management education facilities exist.

  2. An industry liaison officer service. These officers, based in the Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin offices of the Department of Trade and Industry, are available to help diagnose practical problems in individual companies, at the invitation of management, and to direct to them advice and assistance from the wide range of facilities available.

  3. A monthly newsletter and a quarterly magazine, guidesheets and booklets on specific management topics, and a directory of advisory services.

The centre's programme also includes general publicity to ensure widespread understanding of the concept, techniques, and benefits of productivity improvement, research into productivity measurement, and liaison with productivity organisations both in New Zealand and overseas.

The centre's work is guided broadly by a 12-member Productivity Advisory Council, whose members represent both the Government and private sectors.

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT—Regional development policies are basically concerned with creating balanced growth among the different geographical areas of a country as it develops. These policies assume that the economic and human resources of all the regions of New Zealand must be fully utilised to maximise the quality of life. They are particularly concerned to maintain the social and economic welfare of those regions with lagging growth rates, and to promote an adequate range of good employment opportunities within them.

The regional development programme has initially concentrated on encouraging manufacturing growth as the fastest way of increasing employment opportunities in regional areas. The Department of Trade and Industry administers a scheme of regional development financial incentives to industry. The measures in this programme include interest-free suspensory loans for plant and machinery, and buildings in appropriate cases; assistance with costs of approved training programmes, with employee housing where necessary, and with transfer costs of key employees; industry relation grants; and a small business grants scheme. Eleven regional development councils ensure regional participation in policy implementation and identify potential growth points. These operate in Southland, Otago, Southern Canterbury, West Coast, Marlborough, Wairarapa, Wanganui, Taranaki, King Country, East Coast, and Northland. These councils have a responsibility for making recommendations on applications from their areas for regional development assistance and for conducting research into local development potential.

In recognition of the increasing importance of its regional policy the Government established a separate portfolio to cover this area in 1975 and appointed a Minister of Regional Development responsible for all areas of regional development policy. The Government has also recognised that regional development must be a total balanced process and that development needs and assistance techniques will vary region by region.

The Development Finance Corporation, as part of its statutory role of promoting development of New Zealand industry, takes a sympathetic attitude towards applications for finance for projects in regional development priority areas. The Corporation's team of skilled analysts works in co-operation with the Department of Trade and Industry in the implementation of the regional development programme. The Corporation itself offers a wide range of commercial assistance, including loans and guarantees on loans and bank overdrafts, which can often be combined with regional development incentives to give maximum assistance to desirable projects in priority areas.

Chapter 25. Section 25 CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

25 A—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

GENERAL—Central Government is concerned with the future of the nation and therefore with the economic, social, and cultural development of the people as a whole and the quality of their environment. In New Zealand the State is fairly broadly concerned in national development and social welfare. The Central Government budgets for and controls expenditure on capital works such as electricity supply, land settlement, housing, public buildings, forest development, railway and road construction, telecommunications, and on other functions such as social security, health, education, defence, and paying interest on the public debt.

Taxing, charging, and borrowing are the three alternative avenues of raising revenue to meet Government expenditure. The problem of choice between these avenues can be described as the choice of the most efficient and equitable way of paying for publicly-provided services. However, the problems of finance and of raising revenue cannot be considered in isolation. In the first place some Government expenditures, such as subsidies and transfer payments (for example, pensions and child benefits), can and do alter the equity of the tax system. For instance, subsidies and monetary benefits can be regarded as refunds of tax. In the second place, it is now generally accepted that a system of raising revenue must be in accord with the general objectives of Government economic policy. In the final analysis any system of Government finance, embracing both expenditure and the raising of revenue, must be designed to achieve the economic objectives of growth, full employment, price stability, and external balance of payments in an efficient manner, tempered by the prevailing views about freedom and the equitable distribution of income.

Central Government, by budgeting for a surplus (revenue exceeding expenditure) or a deficiency or by varying the impact of taxation or the level of Government expenditure on certain sectors of the economy, now uses these powers to regulate internal economic activity.

The Public Revenues Act 1953 is the governing legislation on the administration of public money.

THE PUBLIC ACCOUNT—This is a single financial account held at the Reserve Bank. The following funds and accounts controlled by the Treasury are included in the Public Account; the Consolidated Revenue Account, Works and Trading Account, Trust Account, Loans Redemption Account, National Development Loans Account, Reserve Fund, and National Roads Fund. The Trust Account represents only lodgements or withdrawals of (mainly) non-Government money. (The Loans Redemption Account is dealt with in the subsection on indebtedness.)

The receipts and payments of the Consolidated Revenue Account over a long period will be found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume.

Fuller details of the Public Account are given in parliamentary paper B. 1 (PT. 1) The Public Accounts and in the Budget (parliamentary paper B. 6), both obtainable from Government bookshops.

Financial Year—The financial year commences on 1 April and ends on 31 March. The expenditure of public money is authorised by an annual Appropriation Act, which lapses at the end of the financial year. However, the Minister of Finance is authorised to pay money for services for a period of 3 months from the commencement of the next financial year, pending the granting of supplies by Parliament.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—The following table shows gross Government expenditure and the net amount of expenditure which requires financing from the Public Account. The functional classification is intended to focus attention on the broad areas in the economy in which there is substantial Government activity. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

It is to be remembered that the Public Accounts as shown in this section are prepared on a receipts and payments (cash) basis, and consequently the accounts of the operations of various departments (prepared on an accrual basis) shown in other sections will differ to some extent from those appearing here.

The functional classification of Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

Item1973-741974-751975-76
GrossNet*GrossNet*GrossNet*

*Net expenditure is generally arrived at by deducting trading and departmental receipts from gross expenditure.

†The reason for net expenditure being greater than gross expenditure is that the increase in imprests outstanding of $10 million for 1973-74 and $21.8 million in 1974-75 has been included in arriving at net expenditure. Net miscellaneous investment transactions exclude Maui project credit of $4.5 million in 1974-75, and $20.2 million in 1975-76.

Administration—  $(million)   
General administration85.078.1111.0101.7126.5113.3
Law and order63.346.379.261.098.177.8
Government services60.647.186.370.192.070.6
Miscellaneous services17.75.119.75.423.76.2
Stabilisation120.1120.1162.1162.1208.0208.0
 346.7296.7458.3400.3548.3475.9
Foreign Relations—      
Defence140.5138.7166.9163.0193.5188.4
Foreign Affairs38.537.752.351.286.282.6
 179.0176.4219.2214.2279.7271.0
Development of Industry—      
Land use194.374.7255.5151.4391.3286.1
Fuel and power165.631.5244.589.0314.3149.2
Other industrial services48.143.760.756.384.579.2
 408.0149.9560.7296.7790.1514.5
Education—      
Education442.7440.2529.8526.6631.8627.0
Social Services—      
Social welfare621.0616.2711.0703.4884.7876.1
Other social services34.730.691.886.1122.1120.9
 655.7646.8802.8789.51,006.8997.0
Health—      
Health401.9401.1493.6492.3606.5605.7
Transport and Communications—      
Transport321.6144.3392.1172.3489.9212.8
Communications235.224.4287.138.9345.862.0
 556.8168.7679.2211.2835.7274.8
Debt Services and Miscellaneous—      
Debt services201.9201.9221.8221.8272.8272.8
Miscellaneous investment transactions56.464.945.661.7117.339.1
Miscellaneous financing transactions86.686.6196.5196.5308.1308.1
 344.9353.4463.9480.0698.2620.0
Totals3,335.72,633.24,207.53,410.85,397.14,385.9

The following table shows financing of Government expenditure.

Item1973-741974-751975-76

*Includes the sale of Government securities to the Reserve Bank of $131.1 million in 1973-74, $170.5 million in 1974-75, and $252.3 million in 1975-76.

†Excludes Treasury bills issued and redeemed of $478.1 million in 1973-74, $182.3 million in 1974-75, and $452.3 million in 1975-76.

‡Excludes supplier's credit and currency realignments adjustments.

Expenditure $(million) 
Administration296.7400.3475.9
Foreign relations176.4214.2271.0
Development of industry149.9296.7514.5
Education440.2526.6627.0
Social services646.8789.5997.0
Health401.1492.3605.7
Transport and communications168.7211.2274.8
Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions266.8283.5311.9
Subtotal2,546.63,214.34,077.8
Miscellaneous financing transactions86.6196.5308.1
Total expenditure2,633.23,410.84,385.9
Financed from   
Taxation—   
Income tax1,697.92,136.02,295.8
Customs, sales tax, and beer duty452.2510.0576.9
Highways tax103.2104.8101.2
Motor spirits tax--76.3
Other taxation141.5114.5135.1
Total taxation2,394.82,865.33,185.3
Interest, Profits, and Miscellaneous ReceiptsDr. 3.3155.1198.9
Total taxation, interest, etc.2,391.53,020.43,384.2
Amount to be financed from borrowing241.7390.41,001.7
Borrowing in New Zealand*460.9209.61,100.9
Less repayments in New Zealand130.1144.7414.4
 330.864.9686.5
Plus sales (less purchase) of investments-67.9+75.0+15.7
Net borrowing in New Zealand+262.9+139.9+702.2
Internal surplus (+) deficit (-)+21.2-250.5-299.5
Borrowing overseas1.5316.8483.1
Less repayment overseas66.635.1156.6
 -65.1281.7326.5
Less purchase of overseas investments+50.9-35.6-39.4
Net borrowing overseas-14.2246.1287.1
Cash surplus (+) deficit (-)+7.0-4.4-12.4

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—By including the receipts of both the Consolidated Revenue Account and the National Roads Fund the following table shows the total receipts of direct and indirect taxation during the latest five years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19721973197419751976

*Interest received by State Advances Corporation, which was later restructured into two separate corporations, the Housing Corporation and the RBFC.

†Includes transfer from Reserve Fund ($115 million) and temporary transfer from National Development Loans Account ($55 million).

Direct taxation—  $(million)  
Income tax1,161.11,314.51,697.92,136.02,295.8
Estate and gift duty25.028.633.841.1x54.2
Land tax3.83.43.33.43.4
Property speculation tax---0.30.2
Total—Direct taxation1,189.91,346.51,735.22,180.82,353.6
Indirect taxation—     
Motor vehicle fees and charges18.920.021.620.623.9
Customs duty157.3168.3201.2229.1217.0
Beer duty40.741.944.746.248.4
Sales tax139.5171.1206.4234.7311.4
Racing duty15.616.519.221.926.7
Other stamp duties14.219.929.425.926.2
Motor spirits tax----76.3
Highways taxation89.795.7103.2104.8101.3
Payroll tax40.846.333.50.8-
Other taxation0.30.30.40.60.5
Total—Indirect taxation517.0580.2659.6684.5831.7
Total—Taxation receipts1,706.91,926.62,394.82,865.33,185.3
Interest—     
On capital liability—     
Electric supply38.341.445.250.959.5
Post Office14.715.516.718.019.9
Housing Corporation21.2*25.1*28.7*20.527.6
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation13.318.3
Other22.824.024.426.734.0
On other public moneys9.413.012.516.325.6
Total—Interest106.4119.0127.5145.6184.9
Profits from trading undertakings15.422.316.025.711.8
Departmental receipts80.265.574.588.9104.9
Special and miscellaneous receipts3.398.22.525.3299.9
Total—Other205.3305.0220.5285.5601.5
Total—Receipts1,912.22,231.52,615.33,150.83,786.8
Total taxation as percentage of national income x30.8%29.7%32.0%35.3%33.9%

The following table shows expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1973197419751976

*Includes Reserve Bank compensation for depreciation of bank's investments because of devaluations of currency

†Former Vote Marine now classified under Agriculture and Fisheries, and Transport.

‡Excludes Expenditure on Developmental Roading now funded from Works and Trading Account.

Permanent appropriations— $(000)  
Under Special Acts of Legislature—    
Civil List1,1281,5601,6021,730
Debt services—    
Interest184,817200,323221,030270,013
Transfer to Loans Redemption Account—    
New Zealand Loans Act 1953—    
Section 5938,39841,51644,33448,433
Section 57 (c)11,6028,4845,6661,567
Administration and management1,6891,6017362,748
Total—Debt services236,506251,924271,766322,761
Special Acts—    
Superannuation Act 195619,15518,87922,146x25,332
Miscellaneous7,5278,05812,395x7,269
Total—Special Acts26,68226,93734,54132,601
Total—Permanent appropriations264,316280,421307,909357,092
Annual Appropriations—    
Administration—    
General Administration—    
Vote—    
Accident Compensation-202225
Audit1,3461,5761,7252,040
Broadcasting28417073
Customs5,0946,0096,6367,785
Inland Revenue11,32413,19317,29522,507
Internal Affairs11,57617,23422,29427,594
Legislative1,6282,0682,3232,836
Prime Minister's Department137227389639
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation......913
Housing Corporation15181618
State Services Commission6,1539,3749,90823,788
Statistics3,2864,5184,6035,910
Treasury3,0413,2914,1124,601
Valuation2,9703,5144,6845,258
Total—General administration46,59861,08374,087103,087
Law and order—    
Vote—    
Crown Law302357416574
Justice21,18523,82029,69837,698
Police26,24932,28840,61849,434
Security Intelligence Service504628728802
Total—Law and order48,23957,09371,45988,508
Government services—    
Vote—    
Government Printing Office9,58711,66816,58418,594
Works39,81432,48347,43140,156
Total—Government services49,40244,15164,01658,750
Stabilisation—    
Vote—    
Stabilisation36,195112,185148,152182,553
Total—Administration180,433274,512357,714432,898
Foreign relations—    
Defence—    
Defence129,823140,511166,854193,465
Foreign affairs—    
Foreign affairs22,49432,45447,68381,393
Total—Foreign relations152,317172,965214,537274,858
Development of industry—    
Land use—    
Agriculture and Fisheries96,99978,272102,337205,106
Forest Service4,9465,7466,7858,459
Lands and Survey8,89810,36412,76616,005
Total—Land use110,84394,382121,888229,570
Fuel and power—    
Energy Resources-170197574
Mines1,7451,1683,1413,367
 1,7451,3383,3383,941
Other industrial services—    
Trade and Industry7,0799,78015,70317,765
Labour9,9389,92811,47423,484
Scientific and Industrial Research16,15418,92422,90027,220
Tourist and Publicity7,1977,5538,2399,486
Total—Other industrial services40,36846,18558,31677,955
Total—Development of industry152,956141,905183,542311,466
Education—    
Education379,353442,660529,803631,751
Social services—    
Social Welfare509,535621,003710,959884,663
Maori Affairs11,02611,91915,0586,715
Internal Affairs-1,9793,0255,377
Total—Social services520,561634,901729,042896,755
Health—    
Health339,575399,044491,367602,546
Transport and communications—    
Transport—    
Marine5,336
Roads, etc.5,3907001,25016,350
Transport29,44136,65147,40958,492
Total—Transport40,16837,35148,65974,842
Total—Annual appropriations1,765,3632,103,3382,554,6653,225,116
Adjustment on currency realignment12,85714,369--
Unauthorised expenditure3,3935,97118,73821,241
Defence credits and other special entries95,097*95,680*3,57780,642*
Additional contribution to Loans Redemption Account-10,00030,000-
Transfer to National Development Loans Account--120,000-
Total Payments2,141,0262,509,7793,034,8893,684,091

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT LOANS ACCOUNT—Particulars of receipts and payments of the National Development Loans Account were as follows.

Item1973-741974-751975-76

*Electric supply, $31,003,795; Railways, $26,115,983; State Coal Mines, $974,841.

†Including half interest in petroleum mining licence for Maui Field.

‡The State Advances Corporation has been restructured into two separate corporations–the Housing Corporation and the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation.

Receipts $(thousand) 
Stock issued370,837500,8701,116,634
Securities issued to Asian Development Bank—   
Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes1,1421,2552,487
Securities issued to IMF—   
Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes--10,682
Transfer from Consolidated Revenue Account-120,000-
Totals371,979622,1251,129,803
Payments   
Contribution to Consolidated Revenue Account-Capital Equipment credit arrangements--2,128
Charges and expenses on raising and repaying loans-3,4337,618
Transfer to Works and Trading Account—   
Public Works85,000144,500115,000
Electric supply86,500147,000208,500
Land settlement-24,00029,500
State Coal Mines-1,70010,500
Railways13,51420,00049,500
Capital equipment credit arrangements4,4267,91658,095*
Advances to—   
Post Office21,00032,00053,000
New Zealand National Airways Corporation1,5002,0002,000
State Advances Corporation63,000--
Development Finance Corporation18,750-14,142
Tourist Hotel Corporation3,0874513,235
Broadcasting Council of New Zealand-13,00016,900
Natural Gas Corporation1,7698,2545,947
Offshore Mining Company Ltd.1,17418,35380,688
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Ltd.2,1592,1982,011
Housing Corporation of New Zealand..132,250310,000
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation..60,50093,000
New Zealand Export-Import Corporation-3201,680
Linen Flax Corporation--139
Calls on shares in Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Ltd.7,710--
Acquisition of shares in Air New Zealand Ltd.--4,000
Acquisition of shares in Development Finance Corporation4,8256,0001,000
Acquisition of shares in Tasman Pulp and Paper Company Ltd.7,920--
Acquisition of shares in Offshore Mining Company Ltd.30,000--
Encashment of securities in favour of Asian Development Bank350200650
Currency subscription to Asian Development Bank766806-
Security in favour of Asian Development Bank1,1421,2552,487
Security in favour of IMF--10,682
Encashment of securities in favour of IBRD202040
Temporary transfer to Consolidated Revenue Account--55,000
Totals354,612626,1561,137,443
Balances at end of year65,33761,30653,667

WORKS AND TRADING ACCOUNT—The Works and Trading Account receipts and payments are shown in the following table.

Receipts1973-741974-751975-76

*Expenditure now met by Housing Corporation.

†Expenditure now met from Railways vote.

Administration—$(000)$(000)$(000)
General Administration   
Works2,3801,3281,993
Government Services   
Works711789757
Development of Industry—   
Land Use   
Forest Service40,79539,90937,647
Lands and Survey50,50037,39542,960
Maori Affairs17,58715,24418,597
Fuel and Power   
Electric Supply116,613117,461128,147
Mines16,17015,75920,054
Foreign Relations—   
Foreign Affairs--591
Health—   
Health17-
Social Services—   
Works2,0643,938-
Transport and Communications—   
Transport   
Railways153,753158,184172,337
Transport4542
Works6716120
 400,645390,035423,245
Contributions from National Development Loans Account—   
Electric Supply86,500147,000208,500
Land Settlement-24,00029,500
Public Works85,000144,500115,000
Railways13,51420,00049,500
State Coal Mines-1,70010,500
 185,014337,200413,000
Capital equipment credit arrangements—   
Electric supply4,4261,41631,004
Railways-6,50026,116
State Coal Mines--975
 4,4267,91658,095
 189,440345,116471,095
Contributions from Consolidated Revenue Account—   
From vote "Mines": For losses in State Coal Mines4502,5002,600
From vote "Stabilisation":......
For losses incurred in Railways11,70046,10068,500
For losses incurred in Electric Supply-18,53913,070
Excess of payments over receipts-8,674-
 602,235810,964978,510
Balances at beginning of year—   
Cash7,27310,4871,367
Investments859058
Imprests outstanding3,1411,4721,950
 10,49912,0493,375
Excess of receipts over payments1,550-514
Total12,04912,0493,889
Payments1973-741974-751975-76
Annual Appropriations—   
Administration—$(000)$(000)$(000)
General Administration   
Works (Construction of Public Buildings)12,84217,33523,968
Law and Order   
Justice3,1034,3425,024
Police1,9452,0542,923
Government Services   
Works12,96416,83624,160
Development of Industry—   
Land Use   
Agriculture and Fisheries1,7793,5483,461
Forest Service52,01661,52478,704
Lands and Survey26,33133,93938,391
Maori Affairs16,73429,10136,354
Fuel and Power   
Electric Supply147,348218,678275,104
Mines15,59320,96832,995
Other Industrial Services   
Scientific and Industrial Research1,8981,9272,241
Foreign Relations—   
Foreign Affairs6,0004,5784,833
Health—   
Health2,8362,2313,858
Social Services—   
Works (Programme VIII—Construction of Housing)20,71071,475*
Transport and Communications—   
Transport   
Railways166,063217,968274,780
Transport—Airport Development4,6913,3624,336
Works—Construction of Railways7,530
Works—Developmental Roading2,0002,2192,721
 502,383712,084813,853
Contributions to Superannuation scheme5,5526,4779,546
Interest on capital liability paid to Consolidated Revenue Account—   
Electric Supply45,16650,77358,672
Land Settlement11,17311,28911,711
Railways2,5182,5703,590
 58,85764,63273,973
Contributions to Loans Redemption Account for redemption of securities26,31815,43717,644
Capital equipment purchased under credit arrangements4,4267,91658,095
Land acquired other than under annual votes2,7224,0214,448
Miscellaneous expenditure428396435
Unauthorised expenditure---
Excess of receipts over payments1,549-514
 602,235810,964978,510
Excess of payments over receipts-8,674-
Balances at end of year—   
Cash10,4871,3671,413
Investments905833
Imprests outstanding1,4721,9502,443
 12,0493,3753,889
Totals12,04912,0493,889

Works Programme—Details of the works programme and roading expenditure by special categories are shown in the following table.

ItemYear ended 31 March
 197319741975*1976*

*Maintenance, and some capital expenditure for smaller departments, are no longer included in the Works programme.

†Now included in the first item.

‡Represents only the works programme component of the Housing Corporation, previously undertaken by Ministry of Works and Development.

Administration— $(million)  
Works—    
National water and soil conservation9.210.58.114.1
Public building maintenance3.33.2--
Irrigation and water supplies2.12.42.1
Public Buildings—    
Government services6.67.410.515.0
Law and order5.35.16.47.9
Miscellaneous3.33.84.77.6
Totals29.832.431.844.6
Foreign relations—    
Defence6.27.52.95.9
Public buildings—overseas posts5.66.74.64.8
Totals11.814.27.510.7
Development of industry—    
Forestry4.25.76.47.6
Land utilisation2.73.76.58.2
Electricity103.999.0146.4210.4
Tourism0.40.40.3x2.5
Mines0.30.81.69.3
Natural Gas0.31.79.9x6.0
Miscellaneous2.12.11.82.2
Totals113.9113.4172.9x246.2
Education—    
Primary, secondary and special education—    
Buildings37.143.657.672.8
Maintenance7.38.8--
Tertiary education—    
University buildings20.018.619.8x26.4
Technical institutes3.72.56.513.6
Teachers' Colleges2.83.84.37.3
Totals70.977.388.2x120.0
Social services—    
Housing construction10.618.267.4x89.1
Public buildings—child welfare1.11.31.41.8
Totals11.719.568.890.9
Health—    
Health and hospital buildings4.42.32.23.9
Transport and communications—    
Railways11.115.116.420.1
Roading104.1101.5116.6128.3
Transport8.16.84.25.9
Post Office33.036.947.1x56.7
Broadcasting1.61.01.72.2
Totals157.9161.3186.0x213.2
Grand Totals400.4420.4557.4x729.5

NATIONAL ROADS FUND—The National Roads Act 1953 established a National Roads Fund within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Consolidated Revenue Account. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Receipts and payments of the National Roads Fund were as follows.

Item1972–731973–741974–751975–76
Receipts $(thousand)  
Motor spirits duty78,60885,41185,33380,829
Other taxation, etc.17,09817,75519,44720,422
Contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account3,0007001,2501,350
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account 2,000
Miscellaneous9061,5852,9063,003
Interest929710141
Totals99,704105,548109,037122,645
Payments    
State highways maintenance15,72516,74519,67625,909
State highways construction38,02935,97340,75941,681
Local authorities' subsidised works39,38839,34344,30447,445
Administration and general expenses8,5707,4589,61510,527
Unauthorised expenditure9348
Totals101,72299,522114,358125,570
Balance at end of year2,2768,3012,98156

SUMMARY OF BALANCES—A summary of the balances in the Public Accounts is given in the following table.

AccountBalance at 31 March
1973197419751976
*Cash received but not yet allocated.
  $(thousand)  
Consolidated Revenue Account45,98848,37459,54357,957
Works and Trading Account10,49912,0493,3753,889
Loans Redemption Account144,537140,935109,555232,756
National Development Loans Account47,97065,33761,30653,667
National Roads Fund2,2768,3012,98156
Reserve Fund95,28292,125105,6142,588
Suspense Account*100369296803
Trust Account18,42231,63834,50438,137
Totals365,075399,128377,174389,852

The composition of the total balances is shown in the following table.

NatureAt 31 March
1973197419751976
  $(thousand)  
Cash83,23690,22585,85073,388
Imprests13,23523,29045,04746,404
Investments in New Zealand33,971101,83426,80211,152
Investments overseas234,632183,779219,474258,908
Totals365,075399,128377,174389,852

25 B—TAXATION

TOTAL TAXATION—A summary of taxation revenue during 6 recent March years is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchIncome TaxTotal Taxation
AmountPercentage of Total Taxation (All Sources)Amount
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population
 $(million)$ $(million)$
19721,161.1403.80x68.01,707.2593.72x
19731,314.5448.99x68.21,926.9658.16x
19741,697.9568.53x70.92,395.1801.96x
19752,136.0701.01x74.52,865.6940.46x
19762,295.8741.2972.83,185.61,028.44
19772,828.5906.4174.13,845.21,232.20

The following table shows receipts, under the various heads, of taxation during 5 recent years. Figures for the latest year are included in the Latest Statistical Information section at the back of the Yearbook.

ItemRevenue for Year Ended 31 March
19721973197419751976
*Included in National Roads Fund.
Consolidated Revenue Account—  $(million)  
Customs revenue157.3168.3201.2229.1217.0
Beer duty40.741.944.746.248.4
Motor spirits tax75.4
Motor vehicles fees and charges18.920.021.620.623.9
Sales tax139.5171.1206.4234.7311.4
Film-hire tax0.30.40.40.60.5
Mileage tax****0.9
Estate and gift duties25.028.633.841.154.2
Duty on instruments11.316.425.822.022.1
Racing taxation15.716.519.321.926.7
Payroll tax40.846.333.50.8
Other taxation3.23.74.14.54.6
Land tax3.83.43.33.43.4
Income tax1,161.11,314.51,697.92,136.02,295.8
National Roads Fund—     
Highways revenue (less rebate)89.795.7103.2104.8101.3
Totals1,707.21,926.92,395.12,865.63,185.6

The sources of revenue arc shown in the following diagrams.

A comparison of taxation revenue and total private income and national income is afforded by the following table, which also shows taxation as a percentage of private income and national income

YearNational Income at Factor CostxCentral Government Taxation
Total RevenuePercentage of National Incomex
*Provisional.
 $(million) percent
1971–72x5,5401,707.230.8
1972–73x6,4811,926.929.7
1973–74x7,4942,395.132.0
1974–75x8,1842,865.635.0
1975–76*9,5223,185.633.5

Figures of total taxation for some years as shown in this section differ slightly from those shown in the previous section. The reason is the inclusion in taxation figures in this section of New Zealand's share of the Victorian (Australia) Government's lottery tax which represents the tax on tickets sold in this country. This figure ($305,886 for the year ended March 1976) is included elsewhere as a Treasury receipt.

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION—Revenue under the headings of Customs does not include receipts from motor spirits tax paid into the National Roads Fund. The following table shows customs and excise revenue, for ordinary revenue purposes, for the latest seven years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCustoms Duties*Beer DutyTotal Customs and Excise DutiesProportion of Total Taxation

*Including excise duties other than beer duty.

†Includes gross motor spirits duty.

  $(thousand) percent
1970119,51837,282156,80013.3
1971138,87539,653178,52812.4
1972157,27440,700197,97411.6
1973168,33841,901210,23910.9
1974201,16344,674245,83710.3
1975229,08146,233275,3149.6
1976217,02448,374265,3988.3

Information in regard to Customs and excise duties generally is contained in Section 21D—Customs Tariff and Revenue.

ROADS TAXATION—The National Roads Fund derives its revenues from a tax on motor spirits, heavy traffic licence fees, and a mileage tax on vehicles not using motor spirits. Other revenues of the fund, which are not classed as taxation, consist of a Government contribution, interest earned, and miscellaneous receipts—e.g., from the sale of materials, etc. For 1968–69, tax on petrol paid to the fund was 14.8c per gallon. From 1 April 1969 the rate was increased to 17.1c per gallon by the transfer to the fund of 2.3c per gallon previously credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account, and from 1 April 1971 to 18.1c per gallon by the transfer of a further 1c a gallon.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities in 21 tax areas covering the country to levy a local authorities petroleum tax at the rate of 1, 2, or 3 cents a gallon on motor spirits and 0.5, 1, or 1.5 cents a gallon on diesel fuel delivered in a tax area. All tax areas decided to make the levies at maximum rates from February or March 1971. The proceeds of any tax imposed may be applied to projects for the benefit of the region or distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenues. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of taxpayers.

Taxation receipts for roads purposes paid into the National Roads Fund have been as follows during the latest five years. Refunds have been deducted.

Year Ended 31 MarchPetrol TaxMileage TaxFeesTotal
  $(000)  
197273,1355,99610,53689,667
197378,6085,78211,26595,655
197485,4115,79711,958103,166
197585,3336,91512,32104,781
197680,8297,38313,038101,250

SYSTEM OF TAXATION—The following precis of the New Zealand tax system takes into account all relevant amending legislation effective up to the year ended 31 March 1977.

Income tax is levied under the Income Tax Act 1976.

Tax Year—The New Zealand tax year is from 1 April to 31 March.

Income Tax—Income tax is chargeable on most forms of income received by individuals, companies, and estates.

Income, because of its many forms, is not exhaustively defined, but includes income from the following: property; labour or effort; pensions, estates, and trusts; (Pensions paid by countries with which New Zealand has a double tax agreement, are generally exempt from tax in the country of origin and subject to tax in New Zealand. If a pension is taxed in the country of origin, credit is allowed in a New Zealand income tax assessment for the overseas tax paid); value of benefit allowances received in cash or kind; wages or income (earnings-related compensation) paid by the Accident Compensation Commission where a taxpayer is unable to work because of personal injury or incapacity.

Capital Gains—There is no capital gains tax but certain "gains" are deemed to be income.

These are profits on sale of patent rights, and profits on sale of property (land and buildings). Generally profits from ordinary sales of a person's private residence, business, or farm property, are exempt from tax.

Apart from ordinary sales of a person's residence, business, or farm property, profits on sale of property are subject to Property Speculation Tax, where the property is owned for less than 2 years, but there are exemptions (see later page), and also income tax, where the property is not liable for Property Speculation Tax but the owner has acquired the property for the purpose or intention of resale, deals in property, is a builder, makes a profit which is primarily due to rezoning or likely rezoning, subdivides property within 10 years of purchase, or subdivides property more than 10 years after purchase and carries out extensive subdivisional work before selling. (Only the "development profit" is taxable in this case.)

Exempt Income—Income is exempt from tax in New Zealand only if provisions are made in the New Zealand tax Act.

Some of the more common items exempt from tax are the following: maintenance or alimony payments; the first $200 of interest from the Post Office Savings Bank, private savings banks, and trustee savings banks; the first $100 of interest from all sources; Social Welfare benefits (except the Superannuation Benefit); war pensions and service disability pensions paid by any Government; interest on National Development Bonds (not exceeding $500 in any one year); income derived by charitable and welfare organisations; proceeds of sickness insurance policies; and lottery and raffle prizes.

"Pay as You Earn" System—A "Pay as You Earn" (PAYE) system of collecting income tax is used for individuals and for companies.

How the PAYE System Works—Income for PAYE purposes falls into two general classes—

Salaries and wages and all other forms of remuneration. With these, PAYE tax is deducted at time of payment.

Business, farming, investment, and professional incomes. With these incomes, tax is not deducted at time of receipt but the taxpayer pays "provisional tax", usually based on the income tax paid for the previous year.

In both cases an adjustment or "square-up" is made when the return of income for the particular year is furnished.

Tax, which is called "Terminal tax", is assessed on the basis of the annual return, and credit is allowed for the tax deductions or provisional tax paid during the year.

If there is an overpayment the taxpayer will receive a refund or credit against future tax—if insufficient tax was paid there will be further tax to pay.

Income Tax and the Individual:Residents of New Zealand—New Zealand residents are liable to New Zealand tax on all income including income from outside New Zealand. Credit is allowed for any overseas tax paid, but this is limited to the New Zealand tax payable on that income.

Who is a Resident?—A New Zealand resident, for New Zealand tax purposes, is a person whose home is in New Zealand. As a general rule a person is regarded as having a home in New Zealand, if he lives in New Zealand for longer than 15 months, or if leaving New Zealand is away for less than 15 months.

Generally this means persons who come to New Zealand with the intention of residing permanently or to stay more than 15 months, are taxed on their total income from all sources, both inside and outside New Zealand, as from the date of arrival.

How the Wage Earner is Taxed—At the beginning of the year, or when a new job is started the wage earner fills in a Tax Code Declaration. This form fixes the tax code used to work out tax deductions. The codes are—

  • • "S" for a single taxpayer, or for a married man whose wife receives income in excess of $375

  • • "M" for a married man with a dependent wife.

  • • "SEC" for a secondary job in addition to the person's regular job. Tax is deducted from these earnings at a rate of 19c in each dollar.

  • • "S & F" For those taxpayers with at least one child under 5 years of age and who are entitled

  • • "M & F" to claim the young family rebate.

Employers Take Off Tax—The employer, when working out the tax, uses a tax table divided into "tax codes". The tax payable is taken off the employee's earnings and paid to the Inland Revenue Department.

The Tax Code Declaration also incorporates a Tax Deduction Certificate. This is returned to the employee on termination of employment or at the end of the financial year.

The certificate shows the following: income earned; tax deducted; overtime hours worked; shifts worked; superannuation deducted; and the period of employment.

This information is used when the employee fills out a tax return at the end of the tax year.

Annual Returns of Income—Most salary and wage earners file tax returns each year and over 80 percent of these receive refunds of overpaid tax. Refunds can arise as a result of exemptions and rebates being claimed which are not allowed for in the Tax Code Declaration, or of the wage earner having been employed for part of the year only.

Most salary and wage earners use the return form IR 5. It is required to be completed and sent to the Inland Revenue Department by 7 June. Salary and wage earners are assessed on their total taxable income, less any deduction for expenses and special exemptions. Rebates and the taxes previously paid are deducted from the tax assessed to give either a refund or further tax to pay. For more about exemptions and rebates see later pages.

All Other Individuals—Individuals who are self-employed, in partnership, or who receive income from investments pay provisional tax. Provisional tax is payable in instalments; generally in two payments, one in September and the other in the following March. Provisional tax is calculated using as a base the income received during the previous year.

Provisional taxpayers use form IR3 which is required to be furnished by 7 September. Expenses are deducted from the gross business or investment income and tax is calculated on the net income less any special exemptions. Credit is given for the provisional tax already paid and for any rebates. If there is an overpayment the taxpayer will receive a refund or credit against future tax. If insufficient tax was paid there will be further tax to pay.

Deductions for Expenses:Persons in Business, Shearers, Woolclassers, and Ministers of Religion—Expenses which are incurred in producing income, and relevant and incidental to deriving that income, may be claimed as a deduction from income. Expenses of a private, domestic, or capital nature are not deductible.

Salary and Wage Earners may claim from 1 April 1977 2 percent of salary or wages up to a maximum claim of $50 without receipts, or actual and reasonable income-related expenses. Special exemptions, which must be supported by receipts or other appropriate evidence, are shown below.

ExemptionAmount
School fees and charitable donationsUp to $200.
Life insurance, personal accident and sickness premiums paid for self, wife, or children, and superannuationThe amount paid or contributed up to a maximum exemption of—
 $800 if a member of an employer-subsidised superannuation fund for the whole year with proportionate increases if a member for only part of the year.
 $1,000 in other cases.

Rebates—Rebates are deducted from the total tax payable. Rebates for the year ended 31 March 1977 are shown in the following table.

RebateAmount
Personal$155
Wife$155 decreases by 40 cents for each dollar by which wife's income exceeds $375. Where wife's income exceeds $763—no rebate allowable.
HousekeeperLimited to the smaller of 40 cents for each complete dollar of payments made; or $155.
Dependent relativeLimited to the smaller of 40 cents for each complete dollar contributed to the support of a relative; or $60.
Back pay6 cents per $1 of back pay received which relates to a previous income year.
Overtime10 cents per hour for every hour of qualifying overtime worked.
Shift40 cents for each qualifying shift worked.
Young familyAllowable to principal income earner in a family with at least 1 child under 5 years of age. The rebate is $312 where the sole or principal income earner derives less than $5,200 per annum. Rebate decreases by 15 cents for each dollar of income over $5,200 per annum.
Special Home or Farm Ownership Account45 cents for each $1 of annual savings increase in Special Home or Farm Ownership account. Maximum rebatable savings are:
 Home ownership—$2,000 per year (rebate $900).
 Farm ownership—$4,000 per year (rebate $1,800).

Rates of Tax—The following table shows the rates of income tax payable for the year ended 31 March 1977 on each dollar of taxable income. "Taxable income" is the income after deducting exemptions and expenses.

Taxable IncomeRate per dollarCumulative Total
$ $
Up to 2,00020.0400.00
2,001–2,50021.0505.00
2,501–3,00023.5622.50
3,001–3,50026.0752.50
3,501–4,00028.5895.00
4,001–4,50031.01,050.00
4,501–5,00033.51,217.50
5,001–5,50036.51,400.00
5,501–6,00039.51,597.50
6,001–6,50042.51,810.00
6,501–7,00045.52,037.50
7,001–8,00045.52,492.50
8,001–9,00048.02,972.50
9,001–10,00048.03,452.50
10,001–11,00049.03,942.50
11,001–12,00049.04,432.50
12,001–14,00050.05,432.50
14,001–16,00051.06,452.50
16,001–18,00052.07,492.50
18,001–20,00054.08,572.50
20,001–22,00057.09,712.50
Over 22,00060.0

Taxes for Visitors and Intending Residents:Who is a Visitor?—Generally a person who comes to New Zealand and intends to stay less than 15 months is taxed as a visitor or non-resident. If he stays for a longer period he is normally deemed to be a resident for tax purposes. A person not resident in New Zealand is liable to New Zealand tax on income from New Zealand but not on income from outside New Zealand.

How the Visitor is Taxed—A visitor to New Zealand is taxed on income from a New Zealand employer for personal services while in New Zealand; income from an overseas employer for personal services in New Zealand (there are certain exemption periods which are outlined in the following paragraphs); and any other income from New Zealand sources.

Income From a New Zealand Employer—The employer deducts the tax from the salary or wages of a visitor in the same way as for a resident.

Special Exemptions and Rebates Allowable in an Annual Assessment—In an assessment the visitor is allowed a proportion of the rebates allowable to the New Zealand resident. The proportion is based on the amount of time spent working in New Zealand, e.g., present in New Zealand for 30 weeks of which 20 were spent working for wages, the proportion of personal rebate allowable is 20/52 of SI55 = $59.62. Visitors are not entitled to claim any special exemptions in respect of donations, school fees, life insurance, or superannuation payments.

Income from an Overseas Resident—A visitor (other than a public entertainer) who performs personal (including professional) services in New Zealand for an overseas resident is exempt from New Zealand tax if the length of the visit is not more than 92 days whether or not the period of the visit falls into one or more income years; the period in New Zealand in any one income year is 92 days or less, whether in one visit or several visits in the same income year; and the income is chargeable with tax in the country where the visitor normally resides.

Public Entertainers—Public entertainers are subject to a withholding tax of 20 percent on the gross income derived by them. This is a final tax unless the entertainer considers that the true rate will be lower. To be taxed at a lower rate a return of the income received and expenses incurred in New Zealand must be furnished.

Visitors from "Double Tax" Countries—Agreements to avoid double taxation have been entered into between New Zealand and Australia, Canada, Fiji, Japan, Malaysia, Singapore, Sweden, the United Kingdom, and the United States of America.

A visitor from one of these countries who gets income for personal services in New Zealand from an overseas employer should refer to the relevant Agreement. Depending on the circumstances and the terms of the particular Agreement, the exemption period of 92 days could be extended.

Non-Residents:Who is an Absentee?—An absentee is a person whose home has not been in New Zealand during the income year but who derives income from a New Zealand source. An absentee is not entitled to any exemptions or rebates.

Withholding Tax on Non-residents—There is a withholding tax on non-residents who get dividends, interest, royalties, or payments for technical knowledge and know-how from New Zealand.

The rate of tax is 15 percent on the gross payments except for interest payments to Australian residents (10 percent), and royalties paid to United Kingdom residents (10 percent).

It is a final tax on dividends, cultural royalties, and on interest where the borrower and the lender are not associated persons. On other royalties and other interest it is a minimum tax. A later assessment may be made if the rate of income tax on the income is greater than the withholding tax.

These provisions may be varied by the double tax agreements and the relevant agreement should be referred to.

Taxation of Companies—Companies in New Zealand are taxed in a different way to individual taxpayers.

The main differences are that—

  1. A company does not get any of the special exemptions or rebates which the individual taxpayer may claim.

  2. A company does not get the interest exemptions.

  3. Dividends received by a company incorporated in New Zealand are treated as "non-assessable" income.

  4. The rate of income tax is different.

New Zealand Companies:Income Tax—Resident companies pay tax on their income at the fat rate of 45 cents in the dollar.

Bonus Issue Tax—A special tax of 17 1/2 cents in the dollar on the bonus issues made from income sources is levied on the company. Shareholders receive these issues tax-free.

Excess Retention Tax—Privately controlled New Zealand investment companies are liable for an "excess retention tax".

Excess retention tax is payable if the investment company does not pay a dividend equal to at least 40 percent of its tax-paid profits and 100 percent of its dividends from other companies.

The rate of excess retention tax is 35 cents in the dollar on any "insufficient distribution".

A refund of excess retention tax paid will be made, if in a later year, the investment company declares a dividend greater than the amount needed for that year.

Special Types of Companies—Differing methods of assessment apply to overseas shipping companies, life insurance companies, and certain types of mining companies.

Non-Resident Companies—Non-resident companies are taxed in the same way as resident companies except that they pay an additional tax of 5 percent of their income on top of the 45 percent rate payable by a resident company; income received from dividends, interest, royalties, and "know-how" is liable to a withholding tax of 15 percent (10 percent in the case of interest received by Australian companies and royalties received by United Kingdom companies). This is the final liability except for interest paid between associated persons, royalties (other than "cultural" royalties), and "know-how" payments, when there may be an end-of-year assessment.

These provisions may be varied by a double taxation agreement and the relevant agreement should be referred to. Special concessions apply to non-resident investment companies receiving dividends or interest from approved "development investments", and processors of minerals to the primary metal stage under a "special development project".

Incentive Legislation—There are tax incentives to help New Zealand's export drive and to encourage agricultural development, mining, fishing, winemaking, and other industries. Full details of these are obtainable from the Inland Revenue Department.

Property Speculation Tax—Property speculation tax is payable on the assessable profit derived from the sale of real property owned for less than 2 years.

Certain transactions are exempt from property speculation tax. These include properties which have been held for more than 2 years, properties acquired for personal residences or business premises and subsequently sold for purposes other than for realising a profit, properties in respect of which substantial development costs have been incurred, and properties which have been substantially renovated.

Rates of tax are set out below.

Where the Period between Date of Acquisition and Date of Disposition isRate of Tax on Assessable Profit
 Percent
6 months or less90
Exceeding 6 but not exceeding 9 months85
Exceeding 9 but not exceeding 12 months80
Exceeding 12 but not exceeding 15 months75
Exceeding 15 but not exceeding 18 months70
Exceeding 18 but not exceeding 21 months65
Exceeding 21 but not exceeding 24 months60

Land Tax—Land tax is assessed on the total "land value" of land owned at 31 March each year after allowing any special exemption. Both companies and individual taxpayers are liable to land tax which is due and payable on 7 October each year. The last day for payment is 7 November.

Various types of land, including land used solely or principally for farming or agricultural activities, and various land owners are exempt from land tax.

Special Exemption—The exemption is $175,000 reduced by $1 for every $1 by which the "land value" of the land exceeds $175,000. Thus no exemption is allowable when the "land value" exceeds $350,000.

Rates of Land Tax—Land tax is charged at a graduated rate according to the amount of the taxable balance after deducting any allowable special exemptions. These rates are as follows: 0.2 cents in the dollar up to $20,000; 0.4 cents in the dollar on excess over $20,000 up to $30,000; 0.6 cents in the dollar on excess over $30,000 up to $40,000; and 0.7 cents in the dollar on excess over $40,000.

Special Adjustments—There are special adjustments for absentee owners and in addition companies and estates can be subject to a special basis of assessment.

Estate Duty—Generally estate duty is a tax on the total net wealth of a deceased person. There is recognition, however, of the dependency which a widow, widower, or child may have on the estate and special exemptions and reliefs from estate duty are provided for. These are explained later.

Property Liable to Estate Duty—Estate duty is payable on the following: all property in New Zealand which passes under a deceased person's will or intestacy; all property outside New Zealand if the deceased was domiciled in New Zealand at the date of his death (relief is given if death duties have been paid overseas on the same property); and certain property, usually called "notional estate" which, although it doesn't pass under the will or intestacy, forms part of the dutiable estate. Examples of "notional" assets are gifts made within 3 years before death; property held by the deceased and another as joint tenants, except the joint family home; property disposed of by the deceased before death, but in such a way that income was received from it by the deceased during his lifetime; property in annuities or other interests, bought or provided by the deceased so that a beneficial interest in them arises on his death; and policies of life insurance on life of deceased assigned to relatives within 3 years of death.

Rates of Estate Duty—Estates with a net value of $25,000 or less are exempt from duty. When the final value is between $25,000 and $27,000 the rate is 7 percent on the amount over $25,000. The rates then gradually increase according to the value of the estate, but the overall rate never exceeds 40 percent.

Examples of the duty payable when there are no special exemptions are shown in this chart.

Net Value of EstateAmount of Duty
$$
25,000Nil
35,000900
45,0002,300
55,0004,200
75,0009,300
95,00015,000
125,00024,300
175,00041,700
255,00072,200

Special Reliefs from Estate Duty: Widow/Widower Relief—The duty at scale rates is reduced by the duty on the lesser of the value of her or his succession, or the sum of $60,000.

Infant Child Relief—If property is left to infant children the duty payable at scale rates is reduced for each child by the duty on the lesser of the benefit received from the estate, or the sum of $1,000.

The allowance for infant children is in addition to that for the widow or widower.

Succession of Orphan Infant Child—The infant child relief is substituted by relief for the succession of orphan infant children where a child suffers the loss of both parents before attaining the age of 20. The relief is calculated on the same formula as for the widows relief. The table of rates is as follows:

AgeRelief for Child
Under 5$10,000
Over 5 but under 10$7,500
Over 10 but under 15$5,000
Over 15 but under 20$2,500

Quick Successions—It sometimes happens that a person who gets property from another estate dies shortly afterwards. The property to which he succeeded may then become liable to estate duty again. Relief is available if the second death is within 5 years of the first.

Special Exemptions from Estate Duty:Joint Family Homes—A home registered under the Joint Family Homes Act 1964 is excluded from the dutiable estate of the first spouse to die.

Matrimonial Home Allowance—Where the deceased had an interest in a matrimonial home (other than a joint family home) a matrimonial home allowance may be made if the home or other property passes to the surviving spouse.

Pensions from Superannuation Funds—These are excluded from the estate up to $2,000 per annum if payable to the deceased's wife for the rest of her life or for widowhood.

Personal Chattels—The first $4,000 of furniture and personal effects is excluded from the dutiable estate.

Charitable Bequests—Bequests to charities of up to $25,000 are exempt from duty.

The leaflet Estate Duty, available from the Inland Revenue Department, supplies more information.

Stamp Duty—Stamp Duty is payable on documents, executed in New Zealand or elsewhere, affecting property situated, or to be situated, in New Zealand.

The rates of duty are shown in the chart below—

Type of DocumentRate of Duty
Transfer of 
—Mortgage, debenture, shares, share rights, mining rights.40 cents for each $100 or part of $100 of the value of the property.
—All other property including land$1 for each $100 or part of $100 of the value of the property.
Leases 
—Rentals40 cents for each $100 or part of $100 of 1 year's rent.
—Premiums, fines, consideration other than rentSI for each $100 or part of $100 of the consideration.
Deed$1
Duplicate or counterpart40 cents
Cheques2 cents for each form or 5 cents for 3.

Gift Duty—Gifts, whether to one or more persons, are liable for gift duty if the total value exceeds, $8,000 in any 12-month period. In some cases small gifts, or those made for charitable purposes or for the maintenance or education of relatives, are exempted from gift duty.

Examples

Total Value of Donor's Gift within 12 monthsAmount of Gift Duty
$$
8,000Nil
10,000180
12,000380
20,0001,380
24,0002,000
30,0003,080
36,0004,340
40,0005,280
Exceeding 40,0005,280 plus 25 percent of excess over$ 40,000

If gift duty has been paid and, on the death of the donor, the gift becomes liable to estate duty, the gift duty is credited to the estate or whoever paid the duty.

The net revenue received from estate duty and gift duty during each of the latest five years is given below.

Year Ended 31 MarchEstate DutyGift DutyTotal Estate and Gift Duties
  $(thousand) 
197223,6701,37925,049
197326,7141,85328,567
197431,0182,80433,822
197538,3602,75141,111
197650,5243,64454,168

Taxation Review Authority—The Inland Revenue Department Act provides for the establishment of one or more authorities. There is at present only one such authority. Every authority consists of one person who is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of not less than 7 years practice and is appointed by the Governor-General. The functions of the authority are to sit as a judicial authority for hearing and determining such objections to assessments of tax or duty or the decisions or determinations of the Commissioner as are authorised by the relevant legislation. A determination of an authority is subject to an appeal to the Supreme Court as to any question of fact where the tax or duty exceeds $1,000 and to any question of law.

ESTATES PASSED FOR DEATH DUTY—Particulars of certified estates of persons who died during the year ended 31 March 1975 are given in the tables following. Totals for the previous 2 years are appended. Estates of Maoris, other than hereditary interests in Maori land, are included.

The following table analyses the estates certified by size of estate value.

Size of Estate (Net Value)Estates of MalesEstates of FemalesTotal EstatesAggregate Net Value of EstatesEstate Duties Assessed
$(000)  $(000) Number $(000)$(000)
Under 24244708941,092
2 and under 46325951,2273,671
4 and under 66435751,2186,084
6 and under 86094731,0827,558
8 and under 105504159658,6471
10 and under 125323108429,236
12 and under 144112886999,11827
14 and under 1639130669710,48098
16 and under 1835727863510,812147
18 and under 2033628061611,703223
20 and under 2230826056811,905289
22 and under 2428720248911,239319
24 and under 306205491,16931,4041,212
30 and under 406054911,09637,6751,981
40 and under 5039127166229,4772,138
50 and under 6030014544524,3392,091
60 and under 7022312034322,1392,425
70 and under 801516021115,7611,804
80 and under 901225017214,5822,033
90 and under 1001073514213,4192,013
100 and under 1201472817519,1893,222
120 and under 140933813116,9563,113
140 and under 16073189113,5642,796
160 and under 18053217412,5882,856
180 and under 200455509,4242,296
200 and over1213515654,51816,358
Totals, 1974–758,5316,31814,849416,58047,442
Totals, 1973–748,1185,76513,883342,76937,613
Totals, 1972–737,6995,73113,430276,73226,232

The average net value per certified estate of persons who died during 1974–75 was $28,054 (males $32,275; females $22,355), compared with $24,689 (males $28,863; females $18,813) in 1973–74. Duty on estates of males amounted to $33.3 million and on estates of females $14.1 million, the respective figures for 1973–74 being $27.1 million and $10.5 million.

The law relating to death duties is contained in the Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968 which came into force on 1 January 1969. From 26 June 1969 the exemption for both a widow and a widower has been $40,000 and, from 29 July 1976, estates up to a value of $25,000 are exempt from duty.

The average amount of duty assessed within each of the various estate groups is now given. The rates of average duty to average estate value are also given.

Size of Estate (Net Value)Average Duty AssessedAverage Duty as Percentage of Average Value of Estate
Estates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined AverageEstates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined Average
$(000)$$$percentpercentpercent
Under 10
10 and under 12
12 and under 142358380.20.40.3
14 and under 161001911400.71.30.9
16 and under 181503362310.92.01.4
18 and under 202325183621.22.71.9
20 and under 223477015091.73.32.4
22 and under 244988716522.23.82.8
24 and under 307681,3381,0362.85.03.8
30 and under 401,3562,3621,8073.96.95.3
40 and under 502,6934,0043,2306.09.07.3
50 and under 604,0566,0254,6987.411.08.6
60 and under 706,0269,0067,0689.314.011.0
70 and under 807,63710,8468,55010.214.511.4
80 and under 9010,86514,13911,81712.816.613.9
90 and under 10012,83518,26314,17313.619.115.0
100 and under 12017,60222,66318,41216.120.516.8
120 and under 14021,94328,20623,76016.922.018.4
140 and under 16029,72334,78430,72519.923.520.6
160 and under 18036,10244,87938,59321.226.222.7
180 and under 20045,55549,13245,91324.225.724.4
200 and over110,43585,593104,86130.428.330.0
All estates, 1974–753,9052,2353,19412.110.011.4
All estates, 1973–743,334x1,8282,709x11.59.711.0
All estates, 1972–732,3811,3771,95310.08.59.5

A summary showing gross assets, notional estate, and debts and charges, classified in broad groups according to size of estate, is now given. This refers to the certified estates of persons who died during the year ended March 1975.

ItemSize of Estate (Net Value)All Estates
Under $6,000$6,000–$9,999$10,000–$19,999$20,000–$23,999$24,000–$39,999$40,000–$99,999$100,000–$199,999$200,000 and Over
Gross Assets—  $(000), except average per estate $      
Cash5,0885,60713,2534,70913,43518,2967,6165,45873,461
Average per estate1,5232,7383,7984,4555,9319,26314,61834,9854,948
Furniture, effects, etc.5977781,7786081,6262,2981,0528019,537
Average per estate1783805095757171,1622,0195,132642
Farm stock, implements, etc.4449112344001,5393,1532,0937,425
Average per estate132432321777796,05113,416500
Private business interests421034141979994,4064,0221,79411,977
Average per estate12501181874422,2337,71911,498807
Assurance policies1,3661,4994,6001,7704,1547,2553,7561,28525,684
Average per estate4087321,3181,6741,8343,6737,2088,2341,732
Loans6181,5645,1472,0898,39320,75111,0627,95257,576
Average per estate1857631,4741,9763,70510,50621,23250,9763,882
Shares, stocks, etc.7101,0813,8441,8216,60618,09512,94713,82758,931
Average per estate2125281,1011,7222,9169,16224,85088,6343,972
Real property3,3134,92519,07110,91428,69437,41223,39416,055143,779
Average per estate9932,4065,46610,32512,66818,94244,901102,9189,693
Other property4066251,7266562,6764,9622,3291,91115,291
Average per estate1213054946201,1812,5124,46912,2491,029
Notional estate6761,4944,2611,3934,2667,4784,1342,86926,569
Average per estate2017291,2201,3171,8833,7907,93418,3871,790
Foreign property821534622379552,7432,8063,36610,803
Average per estate24741312254211,3905,19321,575722
Debts—         
Unsecured1,2569661,9787761,9793,3112,3711,87814,515
Secured8397071,3415101,1452,2062,1771,0139,938
Total2,0951,6733,3191,2863,1255,5174,5482,89124,453
Average per estate6278179501,2161,3792,7938,72918,5341,647

Realty comprised 33.5 percent of gross New Zealand assets, while the proportion of cash was 17.1 percent.

In the following table deceased persons estates for 1974–75 are analysed by occupations.

Occupational GroupUnder $6,000$ 6,000 to 9,999$ 10,000 to 19,999$ 20,000 to 23,999$ 24,000 to 39,999$ 40,000 to 99,999$ 100,000 and overTotals
 Number of Estates
Physical life scientists, technicians, etc.1318401331399163
Architects, engineers, technicians, aircraft and ships officers43346723584413282
Medical, dental, and related workers1712337193311132
Teachers, clergy and jurists21255616555822253
Artists, authors, athletes, sportsmen and related workers232223812795
Administrative and managerial workers806915174156240124894
Clerical and related workers14912625566125783802
Transport and communication workers46395820279199
Sales workers83681304779748489
Protective service workers, armed forces, etc.171237518105104
Housekeepers, cooks, waiters, maids, etc.35201461085
Caretakers, launderers, hairdressers, and related service workers23181984678
Farmers and farm managers119106229852695052901,603
Agriculture, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters6535721720144227
Miners, quarrymen, well drillers, etc.211213450
Metal and chemical processers111513410356
Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers, etc.2271361058
Food, beverage and tobacco processers593347101063168
Tailors, dressmakers, etc.781054539
Shoemakers and leather goods makers1031025
Machinery fitters, assemblers, instrument makers, electrical fitters and related electrical and electronic workers145831813886486587
Glass formers, potters, printers and related workers9810313952
Painters, bricklayers, carpenters and other related construction workers1349118451695819606
Stationary engine operators, material and freight handlers, transport equipment operators1701421754462274624
Labourers, and occupations not stated or not in employment2,0171,0411,6524981,1167051497,178
Totals3,3392,0473,4881,0582,2651,97567714,849

NOTE: In this table for the separate occupation classes, estates in any value group which has less than three in it have been included with the number for the value group below; where this was not possible no net estate distribution has been shown. As the full distribution for each occupation or value group has been given in the totals, this procedure means that in some cases the sum of individual groups will not agree with the totals.

RACING TAXATION—The Government taxation on totalisator turnover from 1 September 1976 is at the rate of 8.5 percent on gross on-course investments and 9.0 percent on gross off-course investments, subject to a rebate of 2 1/2 percent on the first $100,000 of gross investments received by a club in any one year. Total deductions from gross on-course investments are as follows: (a) totalisator duty, 8.5 percent; (b) club or Totalisator Agency Board's commission, 7.5 percent in respect of win and place dividends and 10.18 percent on doubles, quinella and trebles investments; (c) 0.5 percent levy for the purposes of the Stakes Subsidy Account; and (d) 0.5 percent levy for the purposes of the Amenities Account. In the case of special races, win and place investments, commission of 8 percent is deducted and on special doubles, quinellas, and trebles, commission of 10.68 percent is deducted, and in these cases the 0.5 percent levy for the Amenities Account is waived.

The Racing Act 1971 came into operation on 1 August 1972. Under this Act the 1/2 percent levy on gross turnover for racecourse improvements, and an additional 1/2 percent levy for supplementary stakes paid by clubs on specified races, are paid to the New Zealand Racing Authority for distribution to totalisator clubs. The Totalisator Agency Board pays its profits to the authority which determines its distribution to totalisator clubs.

The Minister of Internal Affairs granted totalisator licences for 456 days in the racing year 1975–76. Of these 456 days, 295 were allocated to racing and hunt clubs and 161 to trotting clubs.

The following table gives figures of totalisator duty, and the amount of turnover retained by clubs or the Totalisator Agency Board.

ItemYear Ended 31 July
19721973197419751976
*Retained by clubs and T.A.B.
  $(thousand)   
Totalisator duty15,95217,42320,022x23,18027,932
Amount of totalisator turnover retained by clubs or T.A.B.15,04917,44320,02923,02328,035
Unpaid fractions*7618169391,1351,230
Amenities Account8699991,1481,3271,462
Stakes Subsidy Account1,0071,1541,3331,511

For the financial year ended 31 March 1976, Consolidated Revenue Account receipts from racing taxation amounted to $25.8 million, as compared with $22.6 million in 1974–75.

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on 31 July.

ItemGallopingTrotting
197419751976197419751976
Racing days No.287295295148161161
Races No.2,5152,6232,6461,3271,4471,448
Stakes $0005,4295,8796,2702,4632,8992,981
Average per race $2,1592,2412,3691,8562,0032,059
Totalisator Turnover—  $(million)   
On course59.264.969.127.832.633.6
With T.A.B.102.4120.7153.341.448.364.6
Totals161.6185.6222.469.280.998.2
Amount paid in dividends131.2150.8180.656.265.779.9

Totalisator turnover for the year ended 31 July 1976 rose by 20.2 percent, from $266.6 million in the previous year to $320.6 million.

25 C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS

GENERAL.—The principal legislative measure which is concerned with public indebtedness is the New Zealand Loans Act 1953.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of New Zealand. No portion of the public estate is pledged for either principal or interest.

Whereas in 1934, 56 percent of the public debt was owing to overseas investors, the percentage has in recent years dropped as low as 12.5 percent, and at 31 March 1976 was slightly over 26 percent. Over 40 percent of the public debt is held by Government-owned institutions, and by reserve accounts set up for the benefit of the primary industries. Internal public debt as at 31 March 1976 comprised $4,095 million of the total public debt of $5,558 million.

Most of the present public debt was borrowed for national development. A National Development Loans Account was established within the Public Account, as from 1 April 1942, into which moneys for national development are paid. Moneys are transferred from this account as required, the amounts transferred during the last three years being given in Section 25A.

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT—Movement of the overseas public debt in recent years can be gauged from the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchLondon, Europe, etc.United States and World BankTotal Overseas Debt
New BorrowingsRepayments*Balance of DebtNew BorrowingsRepaymentsBalance of Debt

*Includes debt transferred to New Zealand register.

†Includes currency adjustments.

    NZ$(thousand)   
197158,9632,703397,81613,97319,603178,618576,434
1972132,13935,820494,1356,29325,505159,406653,541
197346,641111,890428,8864,60328,914135,095563,981
19745,94682,924351,9082,52024,313113,302465,210
1975348,86118,130682,64084,03917,230180,111x862,751
1976517,77142,1151,158,295239,341f114,544304,9081,463,203

A summary of movements in the public debt during 1975–76 is given in the following table.

ItemAmount
External DebtNZ$(million)
Loans Raised— 
For national development571.7
Defence credits7.3
Total value of securities issued579.0
Increase in debt due to international currency realignments178.1
Gross increase757.1
Loans redeemed— 
Multi-currency credit agreement93.8
London20.1
Europe12.5
New York6.5
World Bank6.9
Capital equipment credit arrangements6.8
U.S. military credits6.2
U.K. military credits3.8
Total securities redeemed156.6
Decrease by transfers to N.Z. register0.1
Gross decrease156.7
Internal DebtNZ$(million)
Loans raised— 
For national development— 
Public issues184.4
Special issues360.6
Reserve Bank indemnity71.2
Registered Treasury Bills485.7
 1,101.9
For loans redemption (special issues)522.5
Conversion issues— 
Public issues61.0
Special issues905.2
 966.2
Increase by transfers from London register0.1
Gross increase2,590.7
Loans redeemed— 
Public issues50.6
Special issues292.6
Reserve Bank indemnity71.2
Registered Treasury Bills452.3
 866.7
Conversion cancellations— 
Public issues61.0
Special issues905.2
 966.2
Gross decrease1,832.9
Net increase in external debt.600.4
External debt at 31 Mar 1975862.8
Outstanding at 31 Mar 19761,463.2
Net increase in internal debt757.8
Internal debt at 31 Mar 19753,336.9
Outstanding at 31 Mar 19764,094.7

A detailed allocation of the public debt as at 31 March 1976 is now given.

Allocation of DebtLoan CapitalInterest on Loan CapitalEquity Capital*Total Allocation

*The following dividends have been received during 1975–76:

(a) Air New Zealand Ltd. $1,500,000.

(b) Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd $869,333.

(c) Bank of New Zealand $3,905,000.

(d) New Zealand Steel Ltd. $1,020,847.

†Interest capitalised and payment deferred until such time as the industry has recovered its initial deficit and is operating profitably.

‡Free of interest—position under review.

§Interest on loan capital remitted each year.

∥Interest position under review.

¶Interest during construction to be capitalised.

**Includes calibration aircraft $1,106,969.

(a) Loans and investments in trading undertakings—$(000)percent$(000)$(000)
Air New Zealand Ltd.  34,00034,000
Broadcasting Council of New Zealand30,9006–10 30,900
Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.6,6006 1/411,920 
Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.3864 1/42,00020,906
New Zealand Export-Import Corporation  2,0002,000
New Zealand Steel Ltd.6,0005 1/29,900 
New Zealand Steel Ltd.2,7507 18,740
New Zealand National Airways Corporation4,0008 1/2–9 1/29,82513,825
Bank of New Zealand shares  12,65612,656
Development Finance Corporation of New Zealand3,0007 3/411,825 
Development Finance Corporation of New Zealand32,8926 1/2–7 1/447,717
Offshore Mining Co. Ltd.15,3871030,000 
Offshore Mining Co. Ltd.1,9516 3/4  
Offshore Mining Co. Ltd.27,071,8 74,409
Railways112,750 206,283319,033
Railways (IBRD Railway projects)26,321Var. 26,321
Railways (Third Cook Strait Ferry)3,2925 1/2 3,292
Railways (Fourth Cook Strait Ferry)7,7257 1/2 7,725
Railways (North Island sleeper train)9946 994
Railways (G.E.C. Locomotives)15,441Var. 15,441
Railways (Silver Fern railcars)5786 1/4 578
Railways (1500 L wagons)10,8998 1/8 10,899
Railways (150 containers)1,7548 1/2 1,754
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Ltd.6,3687–87,71014,078
Housing Corporation802,2284 1/2 802,228
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation273,2954 1/2  
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation153,5005 1/2 426,795
State Coal Mines§41,8064 1/2  
State Coal Mines (Huntly project)9557 42,761
Tourist Hotel Corporation1,948 4,000 
Tourist Hotel Corporation7,0708–10 13,018
Electric power1,196,1195  
Revenue money57,5005  
Electric power (IBRD projects)27,1965 1/2–6 1/4  
Electric power (New Plymouth power station)17,4325 1/2  
Electric power (Stratford/Whirinaki)24,958Var.  
Electric power (Stratford power station)2,3438  
Electric power (Huntly power station)3,4607 1,329,008
Post Office459,5045 459,504
Land settlement255,7074 1/2  
Revenue money8,0004 1/2 263,707
Linen Flax Corporation139  139
IBRD Harbour projects5,0785 1/2 5,078
Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand38,2436–8 38,243
Earning interest but not at full rate—    
Housing Account (Housing Corporation)529,0393–4 1/2 529,039
    4,564,788
(b) Not earning interest though represented by permanent assets or development works—    
Airport development**   38,098
Forests (State)   147,339
General public works200,286   
Revenue money54,500  254,786
International finance organisations—    
Cash portion of subscriptions   25,012
    465,235
(c) Non-productive debt—    
Consolidated Revenue Account—    
Temporary transfer from N.D.L. Account   55,000
Defence   29,699
State Services Commission (EDP equipment)   2,166
Reserve Bank indemnity   71,180
Currency adjustments   284,386
National Development Loans Account   53,667
Loans Redemption Account   151,816
    5,677,937
Less total revenue money   120,000
Total public debt   5,557,937

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS—The gross indebtedness of the Central Government and the amount of indebtedness per head of population are given in the following table. Figures for previous years are shown in a table in the Statistical Summary.

At 31 MarchAmountPer Head of Population
 $(m)$
19713,0071,051.06
19723,1871,096.55x
19733,5031,180.75x
19743,7351,232.07x
19754,2001,359.17x
19765,5581,776.05

INTEREST—The following table shows the payments of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchInterestInterest on Overseas Debt as Percentage of Export IncomeRecovery of Interest from Government Enterprises and InvestmentsNet Interest CostNet Cost a Percentage of Total Taxation
OverseasNew ZealandTotal
   NZ$(thousand)    
197132,076120,943153,0192.897,71255,3073.8
197236,260130,548166,8082.7106,40260,4063.5
197338,318146,499184,8172.3118,97065,8473.4
197434,056166,266200,3221.9127,49872,8253.0
197541,309179,721221,0302.5145,62175,4092.6
197668,817201,196270,0133.1184,91385,1002.7

RECENT LOANS—Details of loans for preceding periods are given in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

External Loans—The following is a list of official overseas borrowing undertaken by New Zealand during 1975 and 1976.

During January 1975 three Deutschemark loans were raised, one for DM 100,000,000 and two for DM50,000,000, totalling NZ$58 million.

In February 1975 a Dutch guilder loan of approximately NZ$21.3 million was arranged.

In May 1975 a loan of NZ$18.3 million in Swiss francs was arranged with a Swiss banking syndicate.

In June 1975 the Reserve Bank arranged a loan equivalent to NZ$113 million from a Middle-East source.

In July 1975 New Zealand purchased the equivalent of NZ$47 million in I.M.F. special drawing rights under the Fund's facility for compensatory financing of fluctuations in export receipts.

Borrowings on the Euro-dollar market during July amounted to NZ$39 million. Early in August 1975 further Euro-dollar loans to the value of NZ$79 million, made through a consortium of international bankers, were announced by the Government. Later in August, 3 new overseas loans were arranged: a Deutschemark loan of approximately NZ$44 million; a Swiss franc loan of approximately NZ$52 million; and a purchase from the I.M.F. under the oil facility of approximately NZ$55 million.

In October 1975 a loan of 75 million Dutch florins (approximately NZ$26 million) was arranged in the Netherlands, and a loan of NZ$31 million in Japan by the public offer of Japanese yen bonds. Also in October, the Government arranged a placement of US$50 million (approximately NZ$47.6 million) on the Euro-dollar bond market.

A further purchase of the equivalent of NZ$36.8 million in I.M.F. special drawing rights (SDRs) under the oil facility was made early in November 1975.

In December 1975 the Government borrowed US$200 million to finance its half interest in the development of the Maui gas field.

New borrowings overseas during the year ended December 1976 totalled NZ$700 million and repayments NZ$336 million, giving a total figure for net overseas borrowing during the 1976 calendar year of NZ$364 million. Official capital receipts and payments are shown in the following table (source: Reserve Bank).

New official borrowing—NZ$(million)
International Monetary Fund171
Bank for International Settlements24
Euro-dollar loans157
Deutschemark loans78
International revolving credit48
Swiss loans127
Middle East loans74
Other loans and credits22
Total new borrowing700
Less repayments336
Net borrowing overseas364
Other official payments3
Net official capital inflow361

The amounts set out above for new official borrowing represent the New Zealand dollar equivalents of loan proceeds received at various times during the year and do not take into account exchange rate changes since the date of receipt which will affect the amount repayable in New Zealand dollar terms when the various loans fall due.

Internal Loans—The following is a list of cash and conversion loans for New Zealand Government stock during 1975 and 1976.

Cash Loans—Two Government cash loans were offered during 1976. The first, which opened on 22 March and closed on 15 April 1976, offered stock (at par) at 5.25, 6.75, and 8.00 percent maturing in 1978, 1981, and 1986 respectively. The second, in October, offered stock (at par) at 7 and 8 percent repayable in 1978, 1981, and 1986.

Conversion Loans—Five conversion loans were offered during 1976. Rates offered ranged from 5.00 percent to 8.00 percent and maturity dates from 1978 to 1994.

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT—The maturity years of the debt outstanding at 31 March 1976 are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between overseas and internal debt. All amounts shown may be regarded as being either in New Zealand dollars or in nominal amounts.

Loans Maturing in Financial Year Ending 31 March*DueTotal Debt (Nominal Amount)
OverseasNew Zealand
PublicDepartmental and Other
*In respect of many of the loans, the Government has the option to redeem the securities at an earlier date.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
197795,531154,14290,887340,560
197889,30985,512109,574284,395
197969,101198,809171,438439,348
1980474,111175,392109,635759,138
1981217,73643,761185,407446,904
1982198,10786,809173,225458,141
198394,372107,423103,767305,562
198443,81896,06866,076205,962
198525,334106,96638,815171,115
198630,66077,621261,859370,140
198731,43597,735282,318411,488
19885,26258,00055,922149,184
19895,07839,83153,34298,251
19903,45992,60458,600154,663
199122,434172,295106,216300,945
1992..149,756146,621296,377
199327,45625,020161,179213,655
1994..27,25678,438105,694
Registered Treasury Bills..46,415..46,415
Totals1,463,2031,841,4152,253,3195,557,937

OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC DEBT—As shown in the preceding table, a large proportion of the public debt outstanding is held by various Government departments and quasi-Government organisations. A summary of these investments for the latest three years is as follows.

StockholderAt 31 March
197419751976
*Stock held by State Advances Corporation.
  $(thousand) 
Investments held by accounts within the Public Account95,97820,9785,976
Earthquake and War Damage Commission157,244182,144208,144
Government Life Insurance68,65670,89180,091
Government Superannuation Board259,587301,987351,887
Maori Trustee6,9585,1642,250
National Provident Fund90,39455,81025,809
Post Office788,228833,228891,728
Post Office: National Savings200200200
Public Trustee2,9332,8762,876
Reserve Bank131,529302,015554,355
Housing Corporation58,112*35,67945,192
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation19,81520,815
State Insurance Office8,6108,3856,385
Meat Industry Account72,63967,25657,611
Wool Commission Account17,669
Totals1,758,7371,906,4282,253,319

Other holders of Government stock at 31 March 1976 included trustee savings banks ($412.2 million), private savings banks ($355.5 million), life insurance companies ($369.5 million), and trading banks ($443.1 million).

Chapter 26. Section 26 LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The constitution and franchise of local authorities are described in Section 2, History, Government, and International Relations.

Local government is concerned with the provision of facilities for the population of a limited area, with finances levied from that area. The major authorities are city, borough, and county councils. These authorities raise money mainly by rates on property and by loans. They expend it on the provision of roads, water supply, sewerage, transport, recreational, and other services. Electric power boards and harbour boards, among the larger of the other local authorities, collect revenue from consumers or users in payment for the facilities or services provided.

Detailed statistics relating to each local authority, other than hospital boards, are contained in the Report on the Local Authority Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics. Hospital boards, which supply their returns to the Department of Health, are omitted from most of the statistics contained in this section. A special note is made where they are included, while summarised data relating to hospital boards will be found in Section 5B.

In general, the local authority year ends on 31 March. Exceptions are harbour boards (other than Greymouth) where the year ends on the preceding 30 September, the Hutt Valley Drainage Board and the Wellington Regional Water Board where the year ends on the last day of February, the Marlborough Forestry Corporation where the year ends on the last day of November, and the Marlborough Nassella Tussock Board where the year ends on the last day of December.

RATING—Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are, except where the assets purchased provide revenue to meet the loan charges, ultimately liquidated by rate revenues—known then as special rates. The law relating to the making and levying of rates is contained in the Rating Act 1967. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:

  1. General, for general purposes.

  2. Special rates imposed to secure the repayment of loan money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be; and

  3. Separate rates levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land and buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

There are three main systems of rating: (a) by capital (land and improvements) value; (b) by annual value; and (c) by unimproved value or land value (as values are revised, the unimproved values system is being phased out in favour of land valuation).

For rating on either the capital value or the unimproved value, the rating roll is based on the district valuation roll prepared by the Valuation Department. Where the rating is on the annual value, the local authority generally prepares its valuation roll on the basis of the valuations made by its own valuers. Separate rates require to be struck on the annual value, and when the annual value has not been entered in the valuation roll, the annual value is required to be taken as 6 percent of the capital value. Provision is made for the Valuer-General to act as a local authority valuer where an annual roll is to be prepared.

For Chatham Islands county, import and export dues are charged in lieu of rates on land. In the case of pest destruction boards the system normally used is by rating on an acreage basis, though occasionally some boards rate according to the number of sheep and/or cattle carried.

The system of rating normally attributed to a local authority is that applicable to the general rate, but it is stressed that, in many instances, subsidiary rates of the local authority are levied in accordance with other systems.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities in 21 tax areas covering the country to levy a local authorities petroleum tax at the rate of 1, 2, or 3 cents a gallon on motor spirits and 0.5, 1, or 1.5 cents a gallon on diesel fuel delivered in a tax area. All tax areas voted to levy the tax at the maximum rate mostly from 1 February 1971. The proceeds of any tax imposed may be applied to projects for the benefit of the region or distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenue. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of ratepayers.

With harbour boards, two types of rates are applicable, namely: (a) harbour improvement rates, based on so much per ton of cargo by weight or measurement; and (b) harbour rates on rateable property, which are levied according to the system of rating in force by each of the local authorities within the harbour boards' rating areas. However, the Rating Act 1967 gives to harbour boards the power to have a system of rating different from that in force in all or some of its constituent local authority districts.

RATING BY TERRITORIAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Total rate receipts have remained as a relatively constant percentage of gross national product, national income, and private disposable income, despite short term fluctuations. This is shown in the following table.

Financial Year ended 31 MarchRates and LeviesAnnual IncreaseRates and Levies as % of GNPRates and Levies as % of N.I.Rates and Levies as % of P.D.I.
 $(m)PercentPercentPercentPercent
195536.511.31.962.282.67
196051.55.52.122.482.81
196577.213.02.212.573.01
1970108.18.22.262.663.23
1971117.99.12.152.583.02
1972126.37.12.022.352.86
1973148.517.62.112.442.91
1974153.83.61.781.912.49
1975192.225.02.052.362.98

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The sources of revenue of all local authorities including electric power boards, are shown by broad classes in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRates, Levies, Fines, etc*.Grants from Central and Local GovernmentSales of Commodities and ServicesOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts
*Includes rates, $141,403, and other taxes and fines, fees, etc., $26,2861. in 1974 and rates, $168,576, and other taxes, fines etc. $26,480 In 1975
   $(000)  
1974167,69176,738383,98233,240661,651
1975195,056100,928429,00739,023764,014

Rates were equivalent to $59.19 per head of mean population in 1973–74, and to $70.54 per head during 1974–75.

A fairly large proportion of the receipts of urban local authorities result from the sales of commodities or services, for instance, sales of electric power and gas, and fares collected for public transport.

The payments of all local authorities during each of the latest 2 years has been as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchLabour and Related CostsPurchases of Commodities and ServicesAll InterestOther PaymentsTotal Payments
   $(000)  
1974202,090301,49942,48238,172584,244
1975237,014367,44446,28656,529707,274

Receipts and payments of the various classes of local authorities during 1973–74 and 1974–75 are shown below.

Receipts

Local AuthorityRates, Levies, Fines, etc.Grants from Central and Local GovernmentSales of Commodities and ServicesOther ReceiptsTotal Receipts
  $ (thousand)   
   1973–74  
City and borough councils110,00517,256117,56916,126260,956
County councils45,06423,91819,4134,57492,969
Electric power boards2430148,0421,769150,243
Harbour boards68410441,7495,21947,757
Regional authority159,32815,5542,57427,471
Urban drainage boards5,1061,6212454487,420
Catchment boards3,0336,2432,2841,28612,846
Fire boards813,17430621413,702
Pest destruction boards1,8532,634121974,706
Urban transport board978951,9211723,166
Other local authorities9431,93336,77876140,415
Totals167,69176,738383,98233,240661,651
   1974–75  
City and borough councils134,83827,934132,28218,311313,365
County councils46,34928,00618,7855,65598,795
Electric power boards2436158,1102,014160,562
Harbour boards69615549,5685,40055,819
Regional authority2910,65118,0654,14032,885
Urban drainage boards5,7801,7183875458,430
Catchment boards3,1638,2502,3301,54115,284
Fire boards817,63233524818,222
Pest destruction boards1,9272,8371281014,993
Urban transport board1,276982,0372183,629
Other local authorities9883,21146,98185052,030
Totals195,056100,928429,00739,023764,014

Payments

Local AuthorityLabour and Related CostsInterestPurchases of Commodities and ServicesOther PaymentsTotal Payments
  $(thousand)   
   1973–74  
City and borough councils78,82516,678112,61817,324225,445
County councils26,2903,58743,5406,02279,438
Electric power boards31,4984,980101,0983,026140,602
Harbour boards22,6697,39711,0685,52146,655
Regional authority11,5554,4743,9341,03020,992
Urban drainage boards2,2822,0121,006535,354
Catchment boards4,2573712,3894417,458
Fire boards10,3203451,84880013,313
Pest destruction boards2,718261,3482034,295
Urban transport board2,2841343832033,003
Other local authorities9,3932,47822,2673,55037,688
Totals202,09042,482301,49938,172584,244
Local AuthorityLabour and Related CostsInterestPurchases of Commodities and ServicesOther PaymentsTotal Payments
   $(thousand)  
   1974–75  
City and borough councils94,52218,384142,07829,415284,399
County councils28,6953,25451,8144,85488,616
Electric power boards35,9985,647109,9428,640160,227
Harbour boards25,9677,80612,9526,25152,976
Regional authority14,2105,20511,2631,28131,959
Urban drainage boards2,5952,0751,360746,104
Catchment boards4,9083813,4785389,305
Fire boards12,7444011,93787215,954
Pest destruction boards2,938251,6851954,842
Urban transport board2,5491395873433,618
Other local authorities11,8892,96930,3474,06849,273
Totals237,01446,286367,44456,529707,274

TERRITORIAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The following table shows total receipts and payments of territorial local authorities for the years ended 31 March 1974 and 1975. The local authorities petroleum tax introduced in March 1971 produced $16.7 million in 1972–73, $18.0 million in 1973–74, and $17.8 million in 1974–75 for the general purposes of territorial authorities.

Item1973–741974–75
 Receipts $(million)
Rates and grants in lieu129.3155.3
Other taxes and fines26.126.2
Grants and contributions from Central Government41.151.3
Grants and contributions from local authorities9.615.3
Sales of main product72.986.1
Other commodities and services79.783.2
Interest6.27.4
Miscellaneous current receipts17.120.8
Total382.0445.6
 Payments $(million)
Labour and related costs116.8137.5
Interest paid24.826.9
Levies and grants to Central Government and local authorities17.426.6
Bulk purchase for resale34.539.1
Other commodities and services125.9166.3
Other current payments7.19.0
Sub-total326.4405.4
Less capitalised payments22.525.6
Total303.9379.8

A wide variety of public utilities and amenities are provided by territorial local government, the main activities being electricity supply, water supply, roading, sewerage, drainage, and refuse collection. The table below shows the current receipts and payments for a number of selected activities for the years ended 31 March 1974 and 1975.

Excluded from the figures are sales and purchases of fixed assets and repayment of loan monies.

Activity1973–741974–75
ReceiptsPaymentsReceiptsPayments
  $(000)  
Electricity supply51.246.052.547.7
Passenger transport16.716.118.520.0
Water supply28.427.333.234.6
Road construction and maintenance53.767.362.372.0
Refuse, sewerage, and drainage24.527.325.735.0
Abattoirs4.54.85.85.8
Libraries5.66.05.57.4
Parks and domains14.314.412.818.5

Many of the services provided are also trading undertakings. Generally speaking, territorial local authorities are restrained from operating trading undertakings that are particularly profitable. Public transport undertakings, which are usually a substantial burden upon ratepayers, are particularly unprofitable. The only major exception is electricity distribution from which a few territorial local authorities make surpluses.

Grants and Subsidies—A substantial portion of local authority revenues is derived from grants and subsidies, especially those from the National Roads Board. Notes on some of these grants and subsidies are given below.

National Roads Board—The finance available from the National Roads Fund represents an important source of revenue for territorial local authorities. (See section 11D.)

Forest Service Fifths—The New Zealand Forest Service distributes to territorial local authorities grants equal to one-fifth of net revenue received from the sale of timber, and in the case of national endowment land, one-tenth of net revenue from the sale of timber.

Water and Sewerage Subsidies—From 1960 until 1969 a sewage treatment subsidy was available to local authorities with populations of less than 20,000. In 1969 this scheme was replaced by a more comprehensive water and sewerage subsidy scheme administered by the Department of Health, which provided assistance towards certain loan repayments on existing works and towards the capital costs of new works. There was a subsidy limit of $100,000 for any one project. Up to 31 March 1972 $5.9 million had been approved in respect of this and the earlier scheme. In 1972 the subsidy limit was abolished. In 1974–75 water and sewerage subsidies totalled just over $8 million compared with $4.5 million the previous year.

Rural Water Supply Scheme—-The Rural Water Supply Scheme is administered by the Ministry of Works and Development and provides for subsidies towards the cost of piped water supply to rural areas. As from December 1974 the Government subsidy rate has been $1 for $1.

Housing for the Elderly—Since 1950 this form of housing has been recognised as being, in the main, the responsibility of local authorities, with the Government providing the necessary finance through subsidies and long-term concessional loans. The cost of flats for the elderly is met by a $3,500 loan per flat, with the balance of the approved cost provided by subsidy. During the year ended 31 March 1975 some 618 flats were completed and the subsidy totalled $4.849 million. During the 5 years 1971 to 1975 the total subsidy was $10.6 million.

Urban Renewal—Grants for urban renewal have been available for local authorities since 1945. Since the passing of the Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act in 1969 a number of local authorities have exhibited a renewed interest in urban renewal projects. In 1974–75 the total was approximately $639,000.

Civil Defence—A dollar-for-dollar subsidy towards some items of civil defence costs is paid by the Ministry of Civil Defence.

Rural Electricity Distribution—The Rural Electricity Reticulation Council has since 1947 provided subsidies towards the cost of rural electricity distribution lines. The chief beneficiaries have been power boards, but small amounts have been paid to territorial local authorities.

Noxious Weeds Eradication—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates the subsidy scheme on the cost of noxious weeds eradication.

Urban Passenger Transport—Municipal and private urban passenger transport operators receive subsidies based on the heavy traffic licence fees they pay. The annual payments are approximately $1 million. The scheme is administered by the Ministry of Transport.

Local Authorities Petroleum Tax—Local authorities receive a tax of 3c per gallon on petrol and 1.5c on diesel fuel. For 1974–75 this tax produced $17.8 million, compared with $18.0 million in 1973–74.

BORROWING—Under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Authorities Loans Board.

As a general rule local authorities may raise a loan by special order and without a poll of ratepayers, but in the case of a local authority that is a rating body, a poll of ratepayers is to be taken if—

  1. The Local Authorities Loans Board requires a poll to be taken; or

  2. Before the date fixed for the meeting of the local authority to confirm the resolution to raise the loan not less than 5 percent of the ratepayers demand a poll; or

  3. The local authority itself decides to take a poll.

A poll cannot be required in cases such as renewal loans, loans raised for emergency expenditure by reason of flood, storm, earthquake, etc., or loans for work of national and local importance and carried out by an agreement between the Government and a local authority.

Where a poll is required it shall be deemed to be carried if a bare majority of the valid votes recorded is in favour of the proposal. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospitals Act 1957 a hospital board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow. Harbour boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour works from special empowering legislation and similar authority is given for the capital works of certain other local authorities.

The Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 places the determination of rates of interest in the hands of the Local Authorities Loans Board, subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance of the maximum rate.

The interest rates current on and from May 1976 are as follows: 1 year, 6.5 percent; 2 years, 7.0 percent; 3 years, 8.0 percent; 4 years, 8.25 percent; 5 years, 9.25 percent; 6 years and over, 9.5 percent.

Loans Sanctioned, Authorised, Raised, and Uplifted—The following summary of the operations of the Local Authorities Loans Board during 5 recent years shows concisely the trend of local authority borrowing during that period. Hospital boards are included in this instance.

YearValue of Total ApplicationsSanctioned
New WorksRedemption Loans
 $ (million) 
1971–72184.9133.413.0
1972–73170.0x110.821.4
1973–74262.0x183.816.0
1974–75358.9285.129.3
1975–76441.7297.021.2

The following table shows loans authorised during year ended March 1976, with amounts raised and uplifted to 31 March 1976 on these authorisations.

Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised Year Ended 31 March 1976Amounts Raised to 31 March 1976Balance Not Raised at 31 March 1976Amounts Uplifted to 31 March 1976
  $(thousand)  
Catchment districts11,24948610,763486
Cities and boroughs99,94119,82080,12119,072
County Councils17,9266,08511,8414,626
Electric power and gas boards38,18211,97326,20911,920
Fire boards1,956861,87086
Harbour boards50,5997,03443,5657,034
Harbour bridge authority34032614326
Hospital boards55,9013,78252,1193,782
Museum trust boards500112388112
Pest destruction boards29722176192
Regional authority12,5751,23511,3401,235
River boards515131
Town districts133498449
Urban drainage boards4,9301,4753,4551,384
Urban transport boards5,5002215,279221
Valley authority2518718
Totals300,10552,974247,13150,574

The following table shows comparative debt figures. Hospital boards are included.

Year Ended 31 MarchAmounts Sanctioned by Loans BoardGross Indebtedness at Beginning of YearAmount UpliftedPrincipal RepaidGross Indebtedness at End of Year
  $(thousand)   
197197,340706,02790,87650,047746,856
1972146,500746,85695,94259,830782,969
1973132,200782,969129,27247,929864,312
1974199,700864,312132,70179,211917,802
1975314,400917,802161,70592,439987,067

The following table shows, per. head of the population, the gross public debt of local authorities and the annual charge thereon for the latest 5 years.

At 31 MarchGross Public DebtAnnual Loan Charge
AmountRate Per HeadAmountRate Per Head
 $(000)$$(000)$
1971629,814220.0162,81721.94
1972667,086229.2567,60323.23
1973722,431242.8673,54924.73
1974787,397258.7793,70830.77
1975840,853271.19107,61334.71

In the following table gross public debt is classified by types of local authority. It should be noted that the debt of electric power districts shown in the following table does not represent the complete local authority debt on account of electric power activities, since a considerable portion of the city and borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose.

At 31 MarchCities, Boroughs and Town DistrictsCountiesElectric Power DistrictsHarbour DistrictsUrban Drainage DistrictsUrban Transport DistrictsOther DistrictsTotal
    $(thousand)    
1971264,97748,14873,802111,14132,7441,39497,608629,814
1972277,31253,62876,269121,51134,0651,974102,328667,086
1973300,36361,32985,628127,70935,5712,194109,637722,431
1974321,07770,57395,113136,89335,9132,134125,694787,397
1975355,66867,993101,941140,48636,9862,171135,608840,853

Chapter 27. Section 27 INCOMES AND INCOME TAX

Table of Contents

GENERAL—Particularly in times of relatively rapid inflation, comparisons between money incomes in different years should be made with caution. To be meaningful, comparisons should be made in terms of effective or real income, i.e., money in relation to the costs of goods and services. However, it is not easy to measure these changes as there is no one index that adequately gives a measure of the changing purchasing power in all circumstances. This is because the purchasing power of money is conditional to a large extent on the patterns of expenditure out of income, and these may and do differ substantially from person to person.

The elements of individual and company income and the taxation requirements of a modern welfare state are closely related. Statistics of incomes and income tax are compiled annually by the Department of Statistics. Complete details and methods of compilations are given in the annual statistical report on Incomes and Income Tax.

TREND OF INCOMES: Individuals—The data required for statistical compilation of incomes do not become available for a lengthy period after the end of the income year. This, coupled with the necessary time taken by the statistical processing, means a long time lag before final results of the compilation are available. To meet this situation provisional estimates are made on the basis of a restricted sample. Most of the tables in this section are presented on this basis.

The following table gives data for the principal sources of incomes of individuals.

Source of Total IncomeIncome Years
1973–74x1974–75x1975–76
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
Self-employment— $(m) $(m) $(m)
Agriculture and livestock production—      
Sheep farming24,200205.724,000148.824,000199.2
Dairy farming26,000145.625,900142.425,750146.8
Other farming23,400126.423,000117.323,000138.0
Totals, farming73,600477.772,900408.572,750484.0
Manufacturing6,00032.75,90036.65,90040.7
Construction14,90092.015,250111.415,250121.1
Wholesale and retail trade11,50061.011,50071.311,50077.0
Transport4,70024.34,85030.35,00032.9
Services—      
Professional9,800147.610,050166.510,320189.3
Other11,10050.011,30061.011,50074.8
All other industries7,50030.08,00032.08,50034.0
Totals, self-employment139,100915.3139,750917.6140,7201,053.8
Salary and wages1,360,0004,871.51,390,0005,841.71,420,0006,710.4
Investment incomes107,500280.5110,000306.5112,500332.0
Grand totals1,606,6006,067.31,639,7507,065.81,673,2208,096.2

The estimates for 1974–75 showed a decrease of $69.2 million in the incomes of all farmers, with the incomes of sheep farmers showing a decrease of $56.9 million, while the incomes of dairy farmers and other farmers decreased by $9.1 million and $53.2 million respectively. In 1975–76 the estimated incomes of sheep farmers increased by $50.4 million, while the incomes of dairy and other farmers increased by $4.4 million and $20.7 million respectively.

The estimate of the incomes of the non-farming section of self-employed individuals showed an increase of $80.3 million in 1973–74 followed by increases of $71.5 million and $60.7 million in 1974–75 and 1975–76 respectively.

The following table shows an analysis by the amount of total income for the three major sources (self employment, salary and wages, and investment incomes) combined.

ALL SOURCES

Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1973–74x1974–75x1975–76
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
*An "unknown" group has been included to cover cases still under investigation mainly because of problems in matching tax deduction certificates for broken periods of work; this applies to salary and wage earners with incomes of less than $2,600 who were not required to furnish a return of income. This group has been provisionally estimated at a fixed value of $35.0 million for the years 1973–74 to 1975–76 inclusive on the basis of past experience.
$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)3,5504,0003,800
1–999306,300153.0275,300137.5252,800126.3
1,000–1,19945,10049.538,40042.232,70035.9
1,200–1,39941,10053.434,00044.230,50039.6
1,400–1,59941,10061.635,10052.631,60047.4
1,600–1,79940,50068.836,20061.532,50055.2
1,800–1,99943,20082.137,40071.033,90064.4
2,000–2,19946,00096.638,00079.634,60072.6
2,200–2,39944,900103.237,00085.033,70077.5
2,400–2,59945,800114.438,80096.734,40086.0
2,600–2,79945,200122.038,500103.934,20092.3
2,800–2,99945,200131.039,900115.635,500103.0
3,000–3,19946,200143.241,900129.836,700113.8
3,200–3,39944,500146.839,700130.935,200116.1
3,400–3,59945,600159.542,000146.936,800128.8
3,600–3,79952,400193.849,800184.240,800150.9
3,800–3,99949,900194.551,200199.643,000167.6
4,000–4,39993,700393.596,500405.393,000390.5
4.400–4,79983,800385.495,300438.3101,000464.5
4,800–5,19976,300381.590,700453.593,800469.0
5,200–5,59965,600354.274,900404.479,900431.4
5,600–5,99954,800317.764,500374.073,900428.5
6,000–6,39941,600257.950,800314.961,500381.2
6,400–6,79930,400200.638,700255.351,000336.5
6,800–7,19926,100182.735,500248.545,700319.9
7,200–7,59922,900169.528,900213.839,800294.4
7,600–7,99921,000163.828,400221.436,100281.5
8,000–9,99942,700384.164,200577.882,700744.3
10,000–11,99921,700238.632,200354.144,100485.0
12,000–13,99913,600176.722,650294.431,350407.5
14,000–15,9998,550128.114,650219.619,650294.7
16,000–17,9996,350107.711,150189.516,200275.3
18,000–19,9993,85073.05,500104.48,950169.9
20,000–39,9996,050181.36,700201.010,000299.6
40,000–59,99977038.492045.91,35067.3
60,000 and over28024.238033.552042.8
Unknown*35.035.035.0
Totals1,606,6006,067.31,639.7507,065.81,673,2208,096.2

The next table provides an analysis of the incomes of self-employed individuals by the amount of total income.

SELF-EMPLOYED PERSONS

Amount of Total Income    Income Years
1973–74x1974–75x1975—76
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)1,9002,4002,200
1–9997,3003.66,3003.15,1002.5
1,000–1,1991,9002.01,9002.01,5001.6
1,200–1,3991,9002.42,0002.61,5001.9
1,400–1,5992,1003.12,0003.01,6002.4
1,600–1,7991,9003.21,8003.01,4002.3
1,800–1,9992,0003.82,2004.11,6003.0
2,000–2,1992,5005.22,4005.01,8003.7
2,200–2,3992,6005.92,6005.92,1004.8
2,400–2,5992,9007.22,7006.72,1005.2
2,600–2,7993,0008.13,0008.12,5006.7
2,800–2,9993,2009.23,60010.43,0008.7
3,000–3,1993,40010.53,70011.43,1009.6
3,200–3,3993,30010.83,20010.52,4007.9
3,400–3,5993,30011.53,50012.23,00010.5
3,600–3,7993,50012.93,60013.33,30012.2
3,800–3,9994,10015.94,10015.93,70014.4
4,000–4,3996,10025.65,70023.94,90020.5
4,400–4,7996,80031.27,10032.66,60030.3
4,800–5,1996,50032.56,70033.56,70033.5
5,200–5,5996,50035.16,70036.16,60035.6
5,600–5,9996,70038.87,40042.97,70044.6
6,000–6,3994,60028.54,70029.15,30032.8
6,400–6,7994,60030.34,80031.65,00032.9
6,800–7,1994,20029.44,60032.24,80033.6
7,200–7,5994,50033.34,30031.85,00036.9
7,600–7,9994,40034.34,60035.85,30041.3
8,000–9,99910,20091.69,60086.410,90098.1
10,000–11,9996,80074.76,20068.18,00087.9
12,000–13,9995,00064.94,90063.76,50084.5
14,000–15,9993,20047.93,20047.94,10061.5
16,000–17,9992,60044.12,80047.63,80064.5
18,000–19,9992,20041.72,30043.63,30062.6
20,000–39,9992,90086.82,55076.53,400101.8
40,000–59,99940019.945022.470034.9
60,000 and over1009.415014.722018.6
Totals139,100915.3139,750917.6140,7201,053.8

The incomes of salary and wage earners are analysed by income group in the following table.

SALARY AND WAGE EARNERS
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1973–74x1974–75x1975–76
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
*An "unknown" group has been included to cover cases still under investigation mainly because of problems in matching tax deduction certificates for broken periods of work; this applies to salary and wage earners with incomes of less than $2,600 who are not required to furnish a return of income. This group has been provisionally estimated at a fixed value of $35 million for the years 1973–74 to 1975–76 inclusive on the basis of past experience.
$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)900900900
1–999270,000134.9240,000119.9220,000110.0
1,000–1,19937,00040.731,00034.126,00028.6
1,200–1,39934,00044.227,00035.124,00031.2
1,400–1,59933,00049.528,00042.025,00037.5
1,600–1,79932,00054.428,00047.625,00042.5
1,800–1,99935,00066.529,00055.126,00049.4
2,000–2,19938,00079.830,00063.027,00056.7
2,200–2,39938,00087.430,00069.027,00062.1
2,400–2,59939,00097.532,00080.028,00070.0
2,600–2,79939,000105.332,00086.428,00075.6
2,800–2,99939,000113.133,00095.729,00084.1
3,000–3,19940,000124.035,000108.530,00093.0
3,200–3,39939,000128.734,000112.230,00099.0
3,400–3,59940,000140.036,000126.031,000108.5
3,600–3,79947,000173.944,000162.835,000129.5
3,800–3,99944,000171.645,000175.537,000144.3
4,000–4,39985,000357.088,000369.685,000357.0
4,400–4,79975,000345.086,000395.692,000423.2
4,800–5,19968,000340.082,000410.085,000425.0
5,200–5,59958,000313.267,000361.872,000388.8
5,600–5,99947,000272.656,000324.865,000377.0
6,000–6,39936,000223.245,000279.055,000341.0
6,400–6,79925,000165.033,000217.845,000297.0
6,800–7,19921,000147.030,000210.040,000280.0
7,200–7,59918,000133.224,000177.634,000251.6
7,600–7,99916,000124.823,000179.430,000234.0
8,000–9,99931,000279.053,000477.070,000630.0
10,000–11,99914,000154.025,000275.035,000385.0
12,000–13,9998,000104.017,000221.024,000312.0
14,000–15,9995,00075.011,000165.015,000225.0
16,000–17,9993,50059.48,000136.012,000204.0
18,000–19,9991,50028.53,00057.05,400102.6
20,000–39,9992,70081.03,600108.06,000179.8
40,000–59,99929014.535017.550024.9
60,000 and over1108.615011.720015.5
Unknown*35.035.035.0
Totals1,360,0004,871.51,390,0005,841.71,420,0006,710.4

The next table gives corresponding data for individuals whose incomes were principally derived from investment, i.e., from interest, rents and royalties, "estate" income, and also company dividends if there was no other major source of income.

INVESTMENT INCOMES
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1973–74x1974–75x1975–76
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)750700700
1–99929,00014.529,00014.527,70013.8
1,000–1,1996,2006.85,5006.15,2005.7
1,200 1,3995,2006.85,0006.55,0006.5
1,400–1,5996,0009.05,1007.65,0007.5
1,600–1,7996,60011.26,40010.96,10010.4
1,800–1,9996,20011.86,20011.86,30012.0
2,000–2,1995,50011.65,60011.65,80012.2
2,200–2,3994,3009.94,40010.14,60010.6
2,400–2,5993,9009.74,10010.04,30010.8
2,600–2,7993,2008.63,5009.43,70010.0
2,800–2,9993,0008.73,3009.53,50010.2
3,000–3,1992,8008.73,2009.93,60011.2
3,200–3,3992,2007.32,5008.22,8009.2
3,400–3,5992,3008.02,5008.72,8009.8
3,600–3,7991,9007.02,2008.12,5009.2
3,800–3,9991,8007.02,1008.22,3008.9
4,000–4,3992,60010.92,80011.83,10013.0
4,400–4,7992,0009.22,20010.12,40011.0
4,800–5,1991,8009.02,00010.02,10010.5
5,200–5,5991,1005.91,2006.51,3007.0
5,600–5,9991,1006.31,1006.31,2006.9
6,000–6,3991,0006.21,1006.81,2007.4
6,400–6,7998005.39005.91,0006.6
6,800–7,1999006.39006.39006.3
7,200–7,5994003.06004.48005.9
7,600–7,9996004.78006.28006.2
8,000–9,9991,50013.51,60014.41,80016.2
10,000–11,9999009.91,00011.01,10012.1
12,000–13,9996007.87509.785011.0
14,000–15,9993505.24506.75508.2
16,000–17,9992504.23505.94006.8
18,000–19,9991502.82003.82504.7
20,000–39,99945013.555016.560018.0
40,000–59,999804.01206.01507.5
60,000 and over706.2807.11008.7
Totals107,500280.5110,000306.5112,500332.0

In the 3 years covered in the above table, persons with certain types of investment income were not required to complete income tax returns unless they were normally in receipt of income from self-employment or were applying for refunds. Returns were not required if:

  1. all income was from dividends and was less than $1,150 in 1973–74, $1,480 in 1974–75, and $1,530 in 1975–76.

  2. all investment income was from dividends and total income was less than $960 in 1973–74.

These changes affect the numbers of returns in the table.

Average and median incomes have been estimated from a restricted sample on a provisional basis. The averages are based on total income derived from all sources and not on income from self-employment alone or salary and wages income alone. Incomes of self-employed persons include an element of interest return on capital investment as well as a reward for the person's own efforts.

The following table gives estimates of average and median incomes of self-employed persons in selected industries.

SELF-EMPLOYED PERSONS
Type of Self-employmentIncome YearIncome Year
1973–74x1974–75x1975–761973–74x1974–75x1975–76
*Arithmetic mean.
 Average* $Medians $
Agriculture and livestock production—      
Sheep farming8,5006,2008,3007,2505,3507,100
Dairy farming5,6005,5005,7005,0004,9505,300
Other farming5,4005,1006,0004,2004,0004,800
Manufacturing5,4506,2006,9004,4504,8505,650
Construction—      
Builders6,9008,2008,5005,6506,5507,500
Building ancillary trades5,6006,6007,5004,8005,5506,100
Wholesale and retail trade5,3006,2006,7004,0504,7505,200
Transport—      
Road passenger4,2504,7505,0004,4504,8005,200
Road freight6,7008,5008,9005,8506,9507,100
Services, professional—      
Medical practitioners (including surgeons, specialists, and physicians)18,90022,25024,50017,65020,50023,000
Dental practitioners12,75016,25018,00012,10015,55018,200
Legal practitioners21,10019,85022,50019,55017,95019,700
Public accountants12,60014,30015,50012,40013,55013,900
Services, other4,5005,4006,5003,0503,5504,000

Companies—The provisional estimates of assessable income for companies are given in the next table. They are calculations based on the income trends revealed by a small sample of returns. The sample is confined to those income returns which are available at an early date. Companies with balance dates later than 30 June would be almost completely unrepresented in the sample.

The estimates are given with the warning that the figures are subject to a possible considerable margin of error and should therefore be used with caution.

Industry Group1973–74x1974–75x1975–76
Number of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income
 $(m) $(m) $(m) 
Agriculture and livestock production6,60025.66,85018.57,20025.5
Manufacturing11,400343.211,800317.612,400350.0
Construction6,05042.26,30047.56,60056.3
Commerce—      
Wholesale and retail trade20,650328.921,500305.022,500340.6
Other19,900219.420,700218.021,500240.5
Transport, storage, and communication2,75021.32,85022.53,00025.0
Services6,70026.77,00027.07,25032.0
All other industries9504.81,0004.71,0504.7
Totals75,0001,012.178,000960.881,5001,074.6

FINAL DATA ON INCOMES—As stated at the begining of this section, final data on incomes do not become available until a considerable time after the end of the income year. The previous tables in this section are all provisional estimates based on restricted samples of tax returns. The summary tables following show final figures, with 1972–73 as the latest year. Final figures are published in detail in the annual report Incomes and Income Tax, published by the Department of Statistics.

In the case of individuals, the statistics are in normal years substantially based on a 5 percent sample for all incomes of less than $8,000; there is a complete enumeration of all incomes of $8,000 and over.

The broad principle adopted in calculating the assessable income is that any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of assessable income for any year may be deducted from the total income from any assessable source for that year. Depreciation is allowed, varying rates for different classes of assets being fixed. The assessable income is approximately equivalent to the net profit as determined by the normal commercial accounting systems after the deduction of special taxation incentive allowances. Before the deduction of these allowances it is on the whole, rather higher than the commercial net profit, since certain types of expenditure which are regarded as a revenue charge in commercial accounts are not permissible deductions for income tax purposes.

Capital profits are not assessable and capital losses are not deductible.

Classes of Taxpayers—"Individuals" comprise all assessments for individual persons. Partnership returns are ignored in the compilation, as the individual shares of partnership income are included in the individual tax assessments. The incomes of deceased persons' estates are not included, as the greater part of these are transferred to assessments of the beneficiaries.

The term "companies" not only covers companies incorporated under the Companies Act and other Acts relating to the formulation of companies, but also includes local and public authorities, associations (incorporated or unincorporated), and aggregations of individuals (other than partnerships) which form separate and distinct entities for income tax purposes. Government departments which are liable to pay income tax are included, but local and public authorities are generally not taxable even in respect of their trading operations, and consequently are not included in these statistics.

Summary—The following tables summarise the main items of information for income years.

INDIVIDUALS
YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersTotal IncomeExemptionsTaxable IncomeOrdinary Income Tax Assessed*

*Includes social security income tax.

†There was no annual equivalent for exemptions and taxable income available where incomes and tax data were derived from tax deduction certificates prior to 1969–70. From 1969–70 exemptions and taxable income were estimated. The special exemption of $135 for each child was reduced to $35 for 1972–73 and repealed as from 1 April 1973.

   $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1968–691,367,6401,291,0302,993,1601,353,8401,289,620475,050
1969–701,414,3501,296,9503,273,720781,9202,470,480524,350
1970–711,460,8201,359,6403,805,600842,4202,944,670689,290
1971–721,517,4901,420,4904,457,350892,9503,551,250873,810
1972–731,574,4601,487,1805,124,480830,3304,279,1201,021,900
COMPANIES
YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersAssessable Income*Returnable IncomeIncome Tax Assessed
OrdinarySocial Security
*In ascertaining assessable income any expenditure exclusively incurred in the production of the income for the year may be deducted.
   $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1968–6960,62843,623540,057591,358204,52137,741
1969–7062,97245,066622,795682,066278,426
1970–7166,52247,476660,701737,473292,654
1971–7268,63948,408672,955738,591271,100
1972–7371,30450,299861,553942,853352,996

A strict comparison of the figures for any year with those of another is not possible, as changes in compilation practice and numerous amendments in income tax law have affected the comparability of the figures.

The next table shows some additional data concerning companies which relate to the income year 1972–73.

Industry GroupStocks at End of PeriodIncomeExpenditureGross Profit
Sales and ServicesInterest and RentsPurchasesSalaries and WagesInterest and RentsDepreciation
 $(million)
Agriculture and livestock production80.3306.44.476.768.621.215.3170.3
Forestry, hunting, and fishing1.133.70.5..9.31.32.814.5
Mining and quarrying3.368.90.5..14.54.75.1..
Manufacturing—        
Food, beverages, and tobacco245.12,222.26.81,452.5270.525.843.6432.3
Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear92.3487.72.7256.8123.512.110.4136.9
Metals and metal products193.01,173.33.7665.7241.634.434.0295.7
Other290.21,724.69.2877.9379.438.554.9530.1
Construction123.0859.14.4408.0200.211.819.2226.2
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1.411.74.62.80.70.73.5
Commerce—        
Wholesale and retail972.37,355.937.25,764.8611.8115.160.31,306.3
Other42.6664.0475.540.4171.3189.124.2..
Transport, storage, and communication3.5508.73.321.3153.916.736.3..
Services, community and business, and recreation16.8437.26.2152.0135.323.416.6113.7
Totals 1972–732,064.815,853.3554.59,720.72,382.7494.9323.43,229.5
1971–721,874.813,289.5492.07,958.82,076.8425.2282.22,606.0
1970–711,714.811,968.3430.07,306.81,798.6360.0262.82,273.5

One point which should be noted is that the purchases figures have not been given for the forestry and mining industry groups. It was found that there was a considerable lack of uniformity in such data for these two groups, which was probably connected with differing treatments of royalty and equivalent payments.

The amount of gross profit shown in the accounts is used in these statistics, despite the wide variations in the conceptions of gross profit. No attempt has been made to secure uniformity of calculation for individual companies, but of course the total gross profit for each industry should correspond with that industry's average conception of gross profit. In some industries, such as the transport industry, it is not normal practice to calculate gross profit, and in some cases the gross profit is recorded in these statistics as nil. Estimates of the amount of gross profit were, however, made when any company did not calculate the gross profit, and it was the custom of the industry concerned to show this figure.

The abridged version of the full industry classification for which data are given in this publication does not reveal the individual industries where the gross profit is not generally calculated. Apart from "Mining and quarrying", "Commerce—other", and "Transport, etc.", there are a number of industries included in "Services, community" which do not show gross profit.

Companies with Overseas Affiliations—Two types of companies operating in New Zealand but subject to some degree of overseas control have been indentified. The two types are:

  1. branches of overseas organisations operating in New Zealand;

  2. New Zealand-registered companies with 25 percent or more of their equity shareholding subject to overseas control.

The second category includes not only companies in which overseas residents have a 25 percent or greater shareholding, but also companies which are subject to this degree of control without themselves having any overseas owners. For instance, if a New Zealand company was 50 percent owned by another New Zealand company, which itself was 50 percent overseas owned, the company would qualify as having 25 percent overseas control. These are generally termed "second generation" companies.

Overseas companies whose only New Zealand income is from investments, patent rights, royalties, copyrights, and the like, are not included in the 1,388 companies selected, as they are not considered to be active in the New Zealand economy. Also excluded are those overseas companies such as air and shipping lines, which enjoy exemption from New Zealand income tax under the terms of double taxation agreements with their own countries.

The 25 percent minimum equity criterion used to classify objectively a New Zealand company as subject to some degree of overseas control, approximates the definition of international private direct investment used by such organisations as the International Monetary Fund. Although the measure of overseas control of New Zealand firms varies according to a great number of circumstances, a minimum holding of 25 percent does provide a consistent and practical criterion for determining its presence.

In the following table, six significant values for the 1,388 overseas controlled companies are shown in industry groups both as absolute values, and as percentages of the totals for all companies assessed for income tax in the 1972–73 income year. The figures for assessable income (and, incidentally, for shareholders' funds) indicate that overseas-affiliated companies are, on average, larger units than are wholly New Zealand controlled companies. On the other hand it must be remembered that the New Zealand companies include Government trading departments which may follow profit policies different from private sector companies and for which capital values are not included in shareholders' funds. The figures would also suggest that there is some concentration of branches and subsidiaries of overseas companies in the four manufacturing groups and mining and quarrying; these industries offer scope to large concerns with access to capital and technical expertise.

Industry Group Number of ReturnsAssessable IncomeIncome Tax AssessedSalaries and WagesDividends Paid

*Companies with overseas affiliation.

†All New Zealand companies including those with overseas affiliations.

‡Percentage of companies with overseas affiliations to all New Zealand companies.

    $(000)  
Agriculture and livestock production, forestry, hunting, and fishingOverseas*2326411738211
 All N.Z.6.84726,8429,95977,8653,516
 Percent0.31.01.20.50.3
 Overseas*416192771,3292,673
Mining and quarryingAll N.Z.3623,0931,31514,5183,502
 Percent11.320.021.19.276.3
Manufacturing—food, beverages, and tobaccoOverseas*5427,20512,72264,0344.249
 All N.Z.92194,49642,766270,48527,399
 Percent5.928.829.723.715.5
Manufacturing—textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textilesOverseas*284,5472,03118,6301,477
 All N.Z.96923,40210,229123,4856,296
 Percent2,919.419.915.123.5
Manufacturing—wood, paper and chemical products, and miscellaneous manufacturingOverseas*20747,32621,42393,78817,070
 All N.Z.3,774121,11153,389379,39752,292
 Percent5.539.140.124.732.6
 Overseas*15220,5789,23453,8293,889
Manufacturing—metals and metal productsAll N.Z.4,93560,80225,868241,60811,599
 Percent3.133.835.722.333.5
 Overseas*301,8518778,715134
ConstructionAll N.Z.5,92733,66713,458200,2494,216
 Percent0.55.56.54.43.2
 Overseas*
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary servicesAll N.Z.673341352,797276
 Percent
 Overseas*37177,58534,938100,93211,018
Commerce—wholesale and retailAll N.Z.19,646263,458113,774611,81453,600
 Percent1.929.430.716.520.6
 Overseas*37376,51224,48883,56319,872
Commerce—otherAll N.Z.19,388189,37463,792171,34072,732
 Percent1.940.438.448.827.3
 Overseas*435,8232,47028,0941,270
Transport, storage, and communicationAll N.Z.2,58422,2199,250153,8517,194
 Percent1.726.226.718.317.7
 Overseas*661,7286365,946156
Services-community, business and recreationAll N.Z.5,88422,7569,061135,3045,133
 Percent1.17.67.04.43.0
 Overseas*1,388264,038109,213459,24261,819
All industriesAll N.Z.71,304861,553352,9962,382,713247,756
 Percent1.930.630.919.325.0

CENSUS 1976: INCOMES OF INDIVIDUALS—The following statistics on incomes were compiled from a representative sample of personal questionnaires from the Census of Population and Dwellings taken on 23 March 1976.

The table divides into income groups the persons actively engaged in the labour force and also the total population, including those not actively engaged in employment.

The question asked for income for the year ended 31 March 1976 from all sources without deduction of taxes, superannuation, life insurance, rates, etc. Social security benefits (age, family, etc), and war pensions were not included.

Income GroupPersons Actively EngagedTotal Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
$      
Nil- 99924,90042,48067,380659,3301,098,0201,757,350
1,000–2,99971,300123,190194,490105,290200,720306,010
3,000–3,99985,59085,300170,89094,65097,480192,130
4,000–4,999128,86067,350196,210134,59074,010208,600
5,000–5,999160,30048,710209,010164,22052,670216,890
6,000–6,999111,64020,560132,200113,97022,530136,500
7,000–7,99981,89010,26092,15083,25011,13094,380
8,000–8,99957,2304,64061,87058,2605,35063,610
9,000–9,99935,2002,08037,28035,9002,71038,610
10,000–14,99965,8703,08068,95067,5404,59072,130
15,000 and over28,9401,10030,04029,6901,78031,470
Not specified9,8405,81015,65010,6208,00018,620
Total861,560414,5601,276,1201,557,3101,578,9903,136,300

Persons actively engaged but with relatively small incomes would include considerable numbers of school leavers who began work late in 1975 or in early 1976 as well as persons unemployed but seeking work, and those assisting relatives without pay.

In the following table incomes of actively engaged persons from the population census on 23 March 1971 are related to highest levels of educational attainment or attendance. Comparable data from the 1976 Census are not available.

Highest Formal Educational Qualification Income GroupTotal Incl. Not Specified
Under $1,000$1,000–$2,999$3,000–$5,99956,000–$7,999$8,000 or over
*Most of this group have attended secondary school.
University degree or diplomaM1,2825,17316,3176,6218,13337,721
 F9993,0943,4753041448,057
University Entrance or higher secondaryM3,01016,79328,4535,1063,82057,386
 F4,74119,1005,4741116329,675
School Certificate (incl. endorsed)M4,45730,59628,3382,0121,37367,149
 F9,07637,2224,245627251,244
Other secondaryM9728,17119,8612,2041,39832,816
 F3,26112,2612,381884818,262
Primary, nil and not specified*M25,748260,103257,29218,00816,637589,897
 F60,656145,85812,670614592226,628
Totals, actively engagedM35,469320,836350,26133,95131,361784,969
 F78,733217,53528,2451,179919333,866

Income Earners in Each Household—An analysis of income earners in each household was made from a representative sample of questionnaires from the Census of Population in 1976. For this analysis an income earner was defined as one who received $500 or more a year, excluding social security benefits, universal superannuation, and war pensions. A summary of the analysis is given in the following table.

Number of OccupantsNumber of Households with—Total Households
No Income Earners1 Income Earner2 Income Earners3 Income Earners4 Income Earners5 or more Income Earners
158,95091,720150,670
245,17089,040129,840264,050
39,32059,82054,04028,910152,090
44,88077,67058,27020,15010,120171,090
52,93046,18037,75013,4306,5502,250109,090
61,49019,88017,2607,7403,8201,99052,180
76107,5706,5403,8202,0001,21021,750
83503,0303,0601,8301,09070010,060
9 or more3502,0802,0201,6201,1301,1608,360
Total124,050396,990308,78077,50024,7107,310939,340

Chapter 28. Section 28 BANKING AND CURRENCY

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The core of the New Zealand banking system comprises a central bank (the Reserve Bank of New Zealand) and five commercial or trading banks. There are also 12 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank, while each trading bank has had a private savings bank since 1 October 1964. In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call—virtually a system of cheque issuing. Particularly during the 1960s, an expansion in the size and scope of near-banks (or non-banking financial institutions) was a feature in New Zealand as in many other countries, but this trend has been reversed to some extent in recent years. Report No. 10 of the Monetary and Economic Council, The New Zealand Financial System, published in March 1966, presents a comprehensive description of the financial and credit system, and Report No. 24, published in December 1972, reviews recent developments in the financial system.

RESERVE BANK—The Reserve Bank was originally established in 1933 as a privately-owned institution, but became a fully State-owned institution in 1936. A brief survey of its historical development was included in this section in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks. The 1933 Act establishing the Bank was the culmination of proposals ranging back to 1886 that a central bank or a State trading bank should be set up in New Zealand. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 and amendments provided the Reserve Bank with powers in line with modern central banking practice and monetary policy. It provided the Government and the Reserve Bank with flexible authority to take such monetary action as might be appropriate to the times with respect to any financial institution.

Functions of the Bank—Section 8 is the most important section in the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act. As amended in 1973, it restates the primary functions of the bank, its basic relationships with Parliament, the Government, and the Minister of Finance, and lays down the criteria for Government monetary policy. The section reads:

  1. The primary functions of the bank shall be—

    1. To act as the central bank for New Zealand; and

    2. To ensure the availability and conditions of credit provided by financial institutions are not inconsistent with the sovereign right of the Crown to control money and credit in the public interest; and

    3. To advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking, and overseas exchange; and

    4. Within the limits of its powers, to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated in writing to the bank under subsection (2) of this section, and to any resolution of Parliament in relation to that monetary policy.

  2. For the purposes of this Act, the Minister may from time to time communicate to the bank the monetary policy of the Government, which shall be directed to the maintenance and promotion of economic and social welfare in New Zealand having regard to the desirability of promoting the highest degree of production and trade, and full employment and of maintaining a stable internal price level.

  3. The bank shall, as directed by the Minister, regulate and control on behalf of the Government—

    1. Money, banking, banking transactions, any class of transactions of financial institutions, credit, currency and the borrowing and lending of money;

    2. Rates of interest in respect of such classes of transactions as may from time to time be prescribed;

    3. Overseas exchange and overseas exchange transactions.

  4. The bank shall make such loans to the Government and on such conditions as the Minister decides from time to time, in order to ensure the continuing full employment of labour and other resources of any kind.

The Bank also has a number of subsidiary functions including:

  1. Banking functions for the Government, Government trading organisations, and the primary produce marketing authorities as well as for the trading banks.

  2. Management of the note and coin issue.

  3. Management of public and local authority debt.

  4. Management of foreign exchange reserves.

  5. The administration of various acts including the Overseas Investment Act 1973, the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948, and the Private Savings Banks Act 1964.

  6. The administration of various regulations including the Companies (Limitation of Distributions) Regulations 1976, the Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1974 (as applied to financial institutions), and the Limitation of Directors' Fees 1976, as well as regulations concerning the trustee and private savings banks and the public sector securities requirements of other financial institutions.

  7. Maintaining relations with international organisations such as IMF, IBRD and OECD.

  8. Economic research.

Whilst the bank must give effect to Government monetary policy, or to resolutions of Parliament related thereto, the directors are given a fair degree of independence and responsibility in the carrying out of the policy laid down, and in the management of the bank and the conduct of its business.

The exercise of the Reserve Bank's powers is at the discretion of the directors, but the consent of the Minister of Finance is required in certain special cases. The consent of the Governor-General in Council is required before the bank can engage in trade or have a direct interest in any commercial, industrial, or financial institution, or purchase, or lend against, the shares of a trading bank or financial institution. The Government is required to entrust to the bank, and the bank to undertake, free of charge to the Government, all Government banking transactions.

The Reserve Bank has 10 directors, comprising the Governor, the Deputy Governor, the Secretary to the Treasury, and seven other directors appointed by the Governor-General in Council.

Bank Notes—The bank retains the sole right of issue, and has authority for the calling in, with the consent of the Minister, of any note or series of notes issued by the bank. Notes called in cease to be legal tender, but remain a liability of the bank. Provisions covering the defacing of bank notes and their reproduction or imitation without the prior consent of the bank are in the Reserve Bank Act.

Overseas Exchange—Part IV of the Reserve Bank Act 1964 deals with overseas exchange and other transactions affecting the overseas resources of New Zealand. The bank has the authority to fix the actual exchange rates used in its operations, and may also prescribe or approve rates of exchange to be used by other persons in foreign exchange transactions. In December 1968 an amendment to the Act gave the Minister of Finance the right, after consultation with the Governor, to determine the par value of the New Zealand dollar in terms of the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund. The Governor, with the prior consent of the Minister, may temporarily suspend dealings in foreign exchange.

In recognition of the fact that the holding of external reserves is dependent on aspects of economic policy and conditions beyond the control of the Reserve Bank, its duty is described as "to endeavour, within the limits of its powers, to maintain, in addition to any holdings of gold, an adequate level of overseas reserves". The ban keeps the Minister of Finance informed of the overseas exchange position and prospects, and of the level of overseas exchange reserves it regards as adequate. To assist it in carrying out this duty to hold reserves, the bank has a statutory power to require trading banks to sell to it their foreign exchange holdings in excess of maximum amounts prescribed by the Reserve Bank.

Comprehensive permissive provisions for exchange control regulations are set out in Part IV of the Act, as are provisions for regulations covering dealings in gold.

Regulation of Banking and Credit—In Part V of the 1964 Act, trading banks are required to make monthly returns to the Reserve Bank detailing their principal liabilities and assets. Statutory authority has been provided for obtaining such subsidiary returns and other information from trading banks as the Reserve Bank may require.

There is complete flexibility, subject to the approval of the Minister, in the application of reserve ratios or assets ratios. The trading banks may be required to hold balances at the Reserve Bank or to hold assets of a specified kind including balances at the Reserve Bank. The minimum requirements may be laid down as a percentage of deposit liabilities or of assets, as a percentage of parts of such deposit liabilities or assets, or as percentages of both, or in any other manner. Different percentages may be laid down for different classes of deposit liabilities or assets. Under earlier legislation, the minimum requirements could not be reduced below 7 percent of demand plus 3 percent of time liabilities; there is now no minimum.

The Reserve Bank is authorised to give directions to trading banks as to the policy to be followed in relation to advances, discounts, and investments and in relation to rates of interest or discount.

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act 1973 extended the controls previously exercised over the trading banks to include all financial institutions. The Amendment Act provided the monetary authorities with forms of control over non-bank financial institutions including the power to make recommendations or give directives, to specify rates of interest, to require the holding of specified assets, and to inspect books and request information. Fuller information on instruments of monetary control and their operation is given later in this section.

Statistics collected from finance companies, the short-term money market, the commercial bill market, life assurance companies, stock and station agents, and all savings banks appear regularly in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Bank Profit—The low profit of $3.8 million for the year ended March 1977 was mainly due to the heavy drain of the servicing and interest charges at market rates on overseas debt. While these charges amounted to $40.2 million, marketing organisations, mainly the dairy industry, were charged minimal interest rates of 1 percent, giving a return to the Bank of only $2.8 million.

This net profit of $3.8 million was transferred to the Investment Reserve to meet possible losses which may arise from the realisation of securities under fluctuating market conditions.

The indemnity arrangement between the Reserve Bank and the Government in the event of an exchange rate adjustment was re-enacted in 1973 in an amended form because the section of the Act was not adequate to deal with the new situation of floating exchange rates. The latest amendment enables the indemnity arrangement to be adjusted in the event of any prolonged floating of any one or more of the major currencies. While a currency is "floating" or has been allowed to depart from its declared I.M.F. parity but the requisite formalities to establish a new parity have not been completed, the Minister of Finance now has the power to declare a basic rate between that currency and New Zealand currency for the purposes of making a settlement between the bank and the Government.

Liabilities and Assets—Details of the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank at the end of June for the latest 3 years, and weekly averages for calendar years are shown in the following tables.

LIABILITIES OF RESERVE BANK

YearBank NotesDemand DepositsOther LiabilitiesTotal Liabilities
StateMarketingBanksOther
   $(million)    
Weekly Average for Calendar Year       
1974305.8154.721.125.0165.1328.81,000.5
1975343.5136.316.826.6350.3309.41,182.9
1976382.8145.022.412.4466.7357.01,386.3
At End of June       
1974293.1107.920.3115.2346.4882.9
1975331.1119.214.543.6346.9363.71,219.0
1976367.5110.419.10.1472.1320.91,290.1
ASSETS OF THE RESERVE BANK
YearOverseas AssetsInvestments in New ZealandAdvances in New ZealandAll Other Assets in New Zealand
GoldShort-termInvestmentsSpecial Drawing RightsStateMarketing OrganisationsOther Advances and Discounts
    $(million)     
Weekly Average for Calendar Year         
19740.772.4258.427.7256.254.8248.119.962.3
19750.7108.1139.93.0322.0164.8340.138.466.0
19760.7178.853.49.9583.393.3369.636.460.7
At End of June         
19740.719.8222.351.7285.10.4234.716.551.8
19750.7135.5114.90.5258.8272.6369.719.447.1
19760.7148.437.16.5564.011.8416.226.878.5

TRADING BANKS—There have been trading banks in New Zealand since the early days of settlement and they have conducted their business according to the general principles which have long been traditional in British banking institutions. With the exception of the Bank of New Zealand, which became a fully State-owned bank with the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act 1945, the banks are owned by private shareholders and their shares are traded on the stock exchanges. New Zealand has a branch banking system with nearly 1,100 branches and agencies in New Zealand and a world-wide network of agents and correspondents. The general business of banking is governed by the Banking Act 1908. Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act 1908 and the Cheques Act 1960 are the law relating to cheques drawn on a bank.

Banks accept deposits from the public for either a fixed term or on an "on demand" basis. Fixed term or time deposits bear interest, but unlike demand deposits cannot be operated on by cheque. Cheques drawn on current accounts are efficient and widely used instruments for the settlement of commercial and private debts. The fundamental principle of bank advances policy is to confine advances as far as possible to financing customers' current trade or seasonal requirements. The major form of bank lending to customers is still by way of overdraft but term lending, mainly for medium terms of from 2–5 years, has grown rapidly from approximately 3 percent of total bank lending in December 1971 to 33 percent in December 1975.

With the enactment of the private Savings Banks Act 1964 the trading banks established savings banks from 1 October 1964 on a similar basis to that of the Post Office Savings Bank, offering ordinary, investment, thrift club, home lay-by, and special purpose accounts.

There are five trading banks in New Zealand, two of these institutions—the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand Limited—being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of New Zealand, although the National Bank is domiciled in the United Kingdom. The other three banks—the Australia and New Zealand Banking Group Limited, the Bank of New South Wales, and the Commercial Bank of Australia Limited—are predominantly Australian institutions.

The close Australian affiliations of the Australian banks operating in New Zealand resulted in the past in an interlocking between the Australian and New Zealand financial structures, the separation of New Zealand business being one of the major motives leading up to the founding of the Reserve Bank.

The 5 trading banks jointly own a computer company, Databank Systems Ltd. Databank had a national network of computer centres operating by the end of 1969. This network handles the daily operations of the banks, including the clearing of cheques.

Bank of New Zealand—The Bank of New Zealand became a wholly State-owned trading bank on the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act in 1945. At 31 March 1976 it had 220 branches and 194 agencies in New Zealand, and overseas branches in London, Australia, and Fiji. It also has representative offices in Japan and Singapore and owns 50 percent of the shareholding of the Bank of Western Samoa. In addition, in common with other trading banks, it operates a savings bank. A finance company promoted by the bank commenced operations on 1 April 1966, and a merchant bank in which the bank has a 40 percent shareholding was established in 1973.

Trading income (including income from securities and investments) of the Bank of New Zealand, during the year ended 31 March 1976, was $66.0 million compared with $55.2 million the previous year. Of this total of $66.0 million, operating expenses took $54.1 million and provision for taxation $6.0 million, leaving a net profit of $5.9 million compared with $6.8 million in 1974–75.

The total assets of the Bank of New Zealand as at 31 March 1976 amounted to $1,601 million. Among the main items were advances and bills discounted ($987.0 million), Government and local body securities ($327.0 million), and cash in hand, items in transit, and deposits with bankers ($172.2 million). Bank properties and equipment were valued at $52.7 million. The principal item of liabilities was deposits at $1,428.0 million.

Liabilities and Assets of Trading Banks—Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of certain liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. Monthly averages for the latest 3 calendar years and figures as at the last Wednesday in June are given in the next table.

SELECTED LIABILITIES OF TRADING BANKS*
YearLiabilities in New ZealandLiabilities Outside New ZealandTotal Liabilities
DepositsOther Liabilities
DemandTime
*Trading bank business only, excludes liabilities of savings bank subsidiaries, shareholders' funds, capital liabilities to overseas head offices, contingencies, interbank accounts, and transit items within New Zealand.
  $(million)   
Monthly Average for Calendar Year     
19741,106.0960.049.442.22,157.6
19751,139.51,042.540.073.2x2,295.2x
19761,305.81,329.160.484.52,779.8
At End of June     
19741,111.5938.986.135.72,172.2
19751,149.4979.656.072.02,257.0
19761,353.91,329.375.584.92,843.6

SELECTED ASSETS OF TRADING BANKS

YearCoinReserve Bank NotesDemand Deposits Held in Reserve BankOverseas AssetsInvestmentsLoans*Other AssetsTotal Selected Assets

*Includes advances, discounts and term lending but excludes interbank lending.

†Includes interbank lending, land and buildings.

    $(million)    
Monthly Average for Calendar Year        
19744.961.426.592.8465.01,490.3114.22,255.1
19755.265.022.1143.3452.21,611.8114.82,414.4
19765.568.914.1183.7666.31,814.5141.32,894.3
At End of June        
19744.654.083.4442.41,536.8138.92,260.1
19755.355.343.6138.2413.81,594.4125.32,375.9
19765.062.3199.1736.01,780.6140.72,923.7

Deposits and Advances of Trading Banks—The weekly averages of total deposits (together with the amount per head of mean population), and of total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits for each of the latest 3 calendar years, are given in the following table.

YearDepositsAdvances
Not Bearing Interest*Bearing InterestTotal*Per Head of Mean PopulationTotal AmountRatio to Deposits

*Including Government deposits.

†Inclusive of transfers by the Bank of New Zealand to its Long-term Mortgage Department but includes advances, discounts and term loans.

  $(m) $$(m)percent
19741,015.41,048.42,063.7680.75x1,486.972.0
19751,038.71,134.02,172.7703.89x1,612.674.2
19761,193.01,420.72,635.0845.581,808.684.6

The following diagram illustrates the movements that have occurred in deposits and advances, the figures used, as in the earlier table, being the weekly averages for calendar years.

Interest rates on trading banks advances are given in the following table.

Rate Charged PercentPercentage of Total Advances at Each Rate at 31 Marc
1973197419751976
Less than 5 1/24.93.93.810.4
5 1/2 and less than 638.939.340.228.6
6 and less than 6 1/213.013.517.812.3
6 1/2 and less than 714.015.114.712.9
7 and over29.229.123.635.8
Weighted average6.106.116.016.10

The maximum permitted average interest rate on bank overdrafts was 6 percent from 31 August 1965 until 3 March 1976, when the restrictions on overdraft rates were abolished. This control had been in operation since early in World War II.

An analysis of overdrafts and term lending by the New Zealand trading banks is given in the following table.

Group14 March 197313 March 197412 March 197510 March 19769 March 1977
1. Farming, forestry, hunting, and fishing—  $(million)  
(a) Mainly dairy farming30.140.943.245.751.9
(b) Mainly sheep farming27.642.253.450.454.4
(c) Other farming27.643.853.257.574.7
(d) Farm services7.010.813.213.517.4
(e) Forestry, hunting, and fishing6.87.78.69.113.5
Sub-totals145.4171.5176.13.6211.8
2. Mining and quarrying3.52.92.63.64.9
3. Manufacturing—     
(a) Dairy companies, factories, etc.6.513.420.321.928.1
(b) Freezing works, meat companies, etc.150.1189.2195.6206.2266.4
(c) Other food, beverages, and tobacco26.932.149.450.557.3
(d) Textiles, footwear, and clothing25.530.134.740.064.8
(e) Pulp and paper and paper products14.818.723.432.125.8
(f) Metal products, machinery, and engineering50.970.285.880.3112.6
(g) Transport equipment13.623.128.923.127.7
(h) Other manufacturing62.280.3115.291.6128.7
Sub-totals350.4457.1553.2545.7711.5
4. Construction37.468.171.082.6113.9
5. Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services2.03.96.28.64.7
6. Transport, storage, and communication18.431.534.038.645.0
7. Commerce, trade, and finance—     
(a) Wholesalers, mainly importers37.447.368.4101.371.9
(b) Wholesalers, other23.129.531.933.146.2
(c) Retailers52.876.681.597.8141.8
(d) Woolbuyers67.261.148.284.6104.7
(e) Stock and station agents4.336.659.426.653.9
(f) Finance companies (mainly hire-purchase)3.912.411.65.822.1
(g) Other financial institutions27.450.558.954.362.1
Sub-totals216.1314.1360.1403.6502.7
8. Local bodies, n.e.i.3.73.76.97.39.9
9. Services57.187.192.3111.0157.3
10. Personal—     
(a) For housing purposes31.673.276.8125.7196.3
(b) Other103.1141.7138.4120.5174.4
Sub-totals134.8214.9215.2246.1370.7
Totals922.41.328.61,513.01,623.22,132.3

The following diagram illustrates the level of trading bank advances in March of the last three years.

Trading Bank Credit Authorities—The following table shows calendar-year averages and end of June figures for unexercised overdraft and term-loan authorities, total credit limits, and the percentage utilisation of credit limits.

YearUnexercised Overdraft and Term Loan AuthoritiesTotal Credit LimitsUtilisation of Credit Limits
 $(million)$(million)Percentage
 Average for Calendar Year  
1974536.42,026.773.4
1975619.22,231.072.7
1976787.42,601.969.8
 At End of June  
1974522.42,059.274.6
1975598.02,192.472.3
1976750.82,531.470.3

RECENT MONETARY CONDITIONS AND POLICY—During 1972 and early 1973, the monetary policy stance was one of ease as credit expansion was encouraged in an endeavour to revive demand in a below-capacity economy. This, coupled with the expansionary budgets of 1972 and 1973 and a balance of payments inflow, resulted in an excessive monetary expansion. The growth of bank lending that occurred in December 1972 and early 1973 was extremely high, being equivalent to over 50 percent in annual terms. Several measures were announced in mid-1973 to pen the rate of credit expansion and reduce existing private sector liquidity including the introduction of the reserve asset ratio scheme relating to trading banks at a high level; a subsequent 2 percentage point policy increase in the ratios; and the introduction of a farm income equalisation scheme.

The tightening of the supply of loanable funds as a result of these measures and the impact of a marked turnaround in the balance of payments happened suddenly. The institutions whose borrowing rates were controlled tended to lose funds and experience liquidity problems while the uncontrolled financial sector attracted funds by raising interest rates.

The reserve asset ratios of the trading banks were progressively eased because of the liquidity drain on bank reserves throughout most of 1974. By October, the trading banks' lending to deposit ratio had reached what was considered a maximum prudent level and the Reserve Bank introduced a special deposits scheme. The reserve asset ratios were maintained at a constant level and the level of special deposits approved by the Reserve Bank became the variable element.

The tight liquidity situation was felt strongly by the housing sector. To maintain investment in housing, the Government security ratios of the trustee and private savings banks were reduced on 3 occasions during 1974 and again in March 1975. The Housing Corporation also expanded its lending activities significantly.

The liquidity position in the economy improved during 1975, primarily as a result of a large Government sector deficit which more than offset the balance of payments drain, but also because of demand factors. The special deposit assistance for the trading banks was phased out except for some special aspects relating to particular categories of trading bank lending. From July 1975, the reserve asset ratios were adjusted monthly so as to maintain a constant pressure on bank lending. In January 1976 a policy adjustment was made which increased the reserve asset ratios. The higher reserve ratios were introduced so that the growth in credit limits would fall to a more acceptable level.

The introduction of two policy packages in 1976 has important implications for monetary policy in New Zealand; the wool and export meat price stabilisation schemes should dampen the influence of external factors on monetary aggregates in New Zealand, and the measures announced in the 2 March 1976 package represent a move towards a more flexible interest rate policy and a more meaningful public debt policy. The 2 March measures included:

  • • the revocation of the Interest on Deposits Regulations;

  • • the freeing from control of trading bank term deposit interest rates, except on deposits of $12,000 or less;

  • • freeing the trading banks from the 6 percent maximum average rate on overdrafts;

  • • the raising of investment account interest rates at savings banks;

  • • more realistic prime lending rates for the Housing Corporation and the Rural Bank;

  • • higher interest rates for new Government and local body stock.

In addition, to further reduce the demand for imports, tighter hire-purchase controls on motorcars and colour television receivers were announced. The Government security ratios on trustee and private savings bank deposits were lowered by 2 percentage points, to make additional funds available to home buyers. Other policy measures introduced during the first half of 1976 were the introduction of a limited import deposit scheme and increases in Government charges and reductions in subsidies. A selective tight monetary policy has been maintained throughout 1976; and price and rent freezes, and a stringent incomes policy were also maintained.

In the latter half of the year, the tighter budgetary stance of the Government was offset by the growth in lending to the private sector, especially from the finance companies and trading banks. Consequently there was no general tightening in monetary conditions.

MONETARY INSTRUMENTS: Trading Banks—An instrument of credit used by the Reserve Bank from 1942 to 1962 was a selective control of bank advances to restrict the availability of credit to certain kinds of borrowers for certain purposes. This was supplemented in 1952 by a quantitative control of advances and reliance was placed mainly on the quantitative method of control through the reserve ratio procedure and discount rate policy. The minimum balances the trading banks were required to maintain at the Reserve Bank were adjusted from time to time through the reserve ratio procedure so as to reduce the margin of free cash (balances in excess of the minimum required) held by them. From 1957 a flexible policy of control was followed. The aim generally was to allow for a small growth in advances. Quarterly targets for bank advances were used generally from 1962 on, but from 1966 targets were established on a two-month basis. Generally, some small growth was permitted in the targets for advances, particularly in the export field. Targets were set for farming and export advances and for "other advances" on a differential basis. If these targets were met, banks were allowed small margins of free cash, the reserve ratios being changed as often as necessary to achieve this. If the targets were exceeded the ratios were raised sufficiently to ensure that the banks were required to borrow from the Reserve Bank. This method of controlling Bank advances was replaced in October 1969 by another whereby each bank was penalised according to the level of its non-priority sector advances in relation to the official ceilings for those advances.

Also in 1969, Treasury bills were introduced and the trading banks were permitted to invest freely in Treasury bills and Government stock, subject to their maintaining statutory minimum cash balances at the Reserve Bank. In July 1971, the banks were given a growth guideline for total bank lending for the following twelve months.

In June 1973, a new system of controlling trading bank operations was introduced. The reserve assets ratio scheme consists of a conventional liquidity requirement with the minimum ratios expressed as percentages of trading bank demand and time deposits. The ratios are varied on two grounds. Firstly, to take account of seasonal and random influences on bank liquidity and, secondly, to put into effect a change in credit policy. A bank unable to meet its reserve requirement has to borrow the shortfall from the Reserve Bank on conditions determined by the Reserve Bank. The percentage requirements, which are usually set monthly, are less for time deposits than for demand deposits, in order to continue to give the banks an incentive to compete for term deposits. Reserve assets consist of trading banks' holdings of notes and Government securities and of the time and demand balances of the trading banks at the Reserve Bank. Details of the reserve ratios are published in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Savings Banks—All Post Office Savings Bank deposits are invested in Government and public corporation securities apart from cash requirements and personal loans (introduced April 1973).

The trustee and private savings banks have been required to invest a proportion of their deposits, after allowing for statutory cash requirements, in Government securities. The savings banks' ratios have been high compared with other financial institutions. Since March 1968 the ratios have been reduced in stages, primarily to increase investment in housing mortgages.

Finance Companies—Capital issues control on finance companies was abolished in 1962 and "voluntary" agreements on investments existed until capital issues control was reintroduced in February 1967. These controls were abolished again in June 1969. The finance companies were then required to invest a prescribed percentage of their "borrowings" in Government securities. The initial ratio of 10 percent which was to be attained by July 1970 was phased in over four quarters. This ratio has been varied since as a tool of monetary policy. In October 1975 it was increased from 10 percent to 15 percent.

Life Insurance Companies—Between 1965 and 1969 there were several "voluntary" agreements with the insurance companies regarding investment in Government securities. In October 1969 the bases of the present controls were introduced. The insurance companies "voluntarily" agreed to invest 30 percent of their "assets" in public sector (Government and local authority) securities with a minimum of 22 1/2 percent in Government securities. By October 1973 when this arrangement was formalised the minimum Government securities ratio had been reduced to 22 percent and it has since been reduced to 20 percent while retaining the overall ratio at 30 percent.

Building Societies—From November 1970 the building societies were required over a five-year transitional period to reach and maintain 5 percent of their "assets" in public sector securities (with a minimum of 3 percent in Government securities). The savings banks' operations of authorised building societies are also required to invest a proportion of their deposits in Government securities.

Private Superannuation Funds—In June 1970 the private superannuation funds were given a five-year transitional period in which to place 30 percent of their assets in public sector securities in order to qualify for tax exemptions. This agreement was formalised in August 1975 and provision was made for the ratio to increase by 2 percent annually to 40 percent by April 1980. Up to 10 percent of the increased requirements could be met by authorised "housing" investments.

Official Money Market Dealers—From the time of their official recognition late in 1962, dealers have been subject to deposit limits and controls on assets they can hold.

Discount Rate—In effect, the Reserve Bank's discount rate is the minimum rate at which trading banks may borrow from the bank if they need to do so in order to maintain the statutory minimum ratios, and the rate at which the bank lends to approved short-term money market dealers. The discount rate does not apply to advances to the State or marketing organisations. Between October 1970 and March 1971 a sliding scale was introduced for the trading banks in which borrowing was charged in three tranches of 7 percent, 8 1/2 percent, and 10 percent. In March 1974 these tranches were reimposed, but the first two tranches were increased to 1 percent of a bank's total deposits as compared with 1/2 percent during the earlier period. The borrowing rates for reserve asset purposes were raised by 1 1/2 percent in March 1976 to the following schedule of rates:

TrancheLending Rate (%)
Up to 1 percent of average total deposits8 1/2
Between 1 percent and 2 percent10
Greater than 2 percent11 1/2

Interest Rate Controls—Until March 1976, when the fixed rates were changed to maximum rates, the interest payable on deposits at trustee and private savings banks was, like the POSB, absolutely controlled. While there have been no changes in the rate of interest on "other" accounts, the interest rates on investment accounts have been increased several times in recent years to make them more competitive with other deposit instruments.

As part of its stabilisation policy, the Government introduced the Interest on Deposits Regulations in March 1972. These regulations prescribed maximum rates of interest payable by non-bank financial institutions. After being amended in 1974 and 1975, the regulations were revoked in March 1976.

Directives—The Reserve Bank can also issue directives to supplement the other instruments. For many years, the trading banks have been subject to qualitative lending directives which specify high and low priority lending categories. At present, farming, exporting, and housing are high priority sectors while personal (excluding housing), importing, and lending to financial institutions are low priority. The savings banks have also been issued with directives concerning the investment of funds released by reductions in the Government securities ratios in housing mortgages.

INTEREST RATES ON DEPOSITS: Savings Banks—The interest rate paid on ordinary, thrift club, special purpose, and home lay-by accounts at the Post Office, trustee and private savings banks is set at 3 percent. The Post Office Savings Bank (POSB) and trustee savings banks also offer school, home ownership, and farm ownership accounts with the same rate of interest. In addition qualifying home lay-by, home ownership, and farm ownership account holders are eligible for grants and subsidies of various sorts aimed at encouraging saving for home and farm purchase.

Deposits can earn 3 1/2 percent interest in National Savings Accounts with the POSB and some trustee savings banks after a qualifying period.

No interest is paid on personal cheque accounts but non-profit institutions may receive 3 percent interest on accounts with cheque facilities.

The interest rates paid on new deposits since 2 March 1976 on investment accounts at any savings bank are 5.5, 6.5, 7.0, and 8.0 percent for 1/2, 1, 2, and 3-year terms respectively. These rates arc adjusted for broken periods if withdrawn before maturity.

Housing bonds, which were introduced in September 1976 by the POSB and trustee savings banks, can earn 9 percent interest for a five-year term.

The above interest rates are maximum rates for the trustee and private savings banks but represent the actual rates offered by the POSB.

Trading Banks—On deposits up to $12,000 the trading banks can offer up to the maximum rates of interest payable by the savings banks on investment accounts. Interest is not payable on cheque accounts. All other interest rates are free from control.

Other Deposit-Taking Institutions—The Interest on Deposits Regulations were revoked in March 1976 and deposit rates with non-banks are now free from control.

Other Deposits and Interest Rates—References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section 29A (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section 25c (State Indebtedness), and interest on local authority debt in Section 26 (Local Government Finance).

SAVINGS BANKS—Savings banks include the Post Office Savings Bank, the trustee savings banks, and the savings banks operated by the trading banks. In recent years there have been major changes in savings bank operations. Following an amendment to the Trustee Savings Bank Act passed in 1957, the five trustee savings banks that had survived from the middle of the last century were joined by eight new trustee savings banks between 1959 and 1964. In 1972 two of these banks merged and there are now 12 trustee savings banks. Another major change was the formation of private savings banks by the five trading banks, following the passing of the Private Savings Bank Act in 1964.

As from April 1973 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been able to advance personal loans. In March 1973 the responsibilities for the administration of the trustee savings banks and the private savings bas was transferred from the Treasury to the Reserve Bank. Trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been allowed to offer cheque facilities since 1974.

The following table shows the total amounts of transactions in savings bank accounts, including accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank, trustee savings banks, private savings banks, National Savings accounts, and School Savings Bank Accounts, but excluding National Savings bonds.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestAmount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March
*Includes interest paid out on Investment accounts.
   $(million)  
19721,923.154.71,917.959.91,830.7
19732,413.960.42,256.8217.52,048.2
19743,157.465.82,969.3253.92,302.1
19753,339.069.93,290.3118.62,420.7
19764,158.075.73,964.9268.72,689.4

In the following table the accounts in the three types of savings banks are classified by amount groups. It will be noted that almost two-thirds of the accounts have balances of less than $200.

Balances in the Post Office Savings Bank and the trustee savings banks are as at 31 March 1976. In the private savings banks, balance dates range between 31 March and 31 October. National Savings and school savings accounts are included.

SAVINGS BANK ACCOUNTS BY AMOUNT GROUPS
BalancePost Office Savings BankTrustee Savings BanksPrivate Savings Banks
Number of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of Total
$      
Under 2612,42920.9281,63515.2118,77610.7
2- 1991,586,80554.0933,86450.3585,88152.7
200- 999450,90815.4387,29020.8253,58622.8
1,000-1,999132,1984.5129,4817.078,4347.0
2,000-3,99989,1543.079,7554.348,5324.4
4,000 and over65,6162.245,2572.426,8952.4
All accounts2,937,110100.01,857,282100.01,112,104100.0

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK: Operation—The business of the Post Office Savings Bank started on 3 February 1867, when branches were established at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hokitika. At 31 December 1976 there were 1,193 branches of the bank throughout New Zealand. Deposits may be made at any of these branches. A full demand withdrawal service is provided at 180 branches which have ledgers, and a limited service is provided at the remaining were non-ledger offices.

Two new Savings Bank services were introduced during the year ended 31 March 1976. These were 6 month and 3 year investment accounts.

The following table covers the activities of the Post Office Savings Bank.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestTotal Amount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits, Plus Interest, Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

*Includes interest paid out on investment accounts.

†Includes Ordinary National Savings and School Savings Accounts.

 (000)  $(thousand)  
19722,769x663,54028,941676,16716,314962,388
19732,838x782,36430,478736,50776,3351,038,723
19742,94x912,98531,921843,803101,1031,139,827
19752,954x976,64934,138963,69847,0901,186,917
19762,9371,175,69435,3071,132,13478,8661,265,783

The Post Office Savings Bank assets as at 31 March 1976 included investments in the name of the Postmaster-General totalling $1,238 million, made up as follows:

$(000)
Government Stock889,928
Housing Corporation of New Zealand Stock217,408
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation of New Zealand Stock122,700
Personal loans7,529
 1,237,565

Depositors and bondholders balances held at 31 March 1975 and 1976 are set out in the following table.

Accounts19751976
 $(000)
Ordinary747,722769,851
6 months investment..2,582
1 year investment109,610103,042
2 year investment116,231118,651
3 year investment..28,191
National savings22,96519,879
Thrift club34,65535,717
Home ownership5,9628,366
School5,7736,283
Home lay-by550445
Farm ownership19110
Cheque11,77310,108
Bonus bonds100,282128,088
National Development Bonds27,02427,576
New Zealand Savings Certificates4,3276,809
New Zealand Savings Bonds and coupons214212
Adverse Event Bonds711
Balance in transit7959
Total1,187,1931,265,980

PRIVATE SAVINGS BANKS—The Private Savings Bank Act 1964 came into force on 1 October 1964. Under this Act the five trading banks all formed private savings banks. These savings banks may transact business only in premises ordinarily occupied and used by the parent bank. In addition to ordinary deposits, these banks may accept investments similar to the trustee savings banks, by way of deposits in Home Lay-by, Investment accounts, Thrift Club, and Special Purpose accounts.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
    $(thousand)  
1972806,456x412,861424,254-11,39410,986352,059
1973885,313575,032540,21934,81312,627399,500
1974953,657811,351773,03238,31912,824450,642
19751,075,142x862,600857,5195,08112,632468,354
19761,112,1041,103,0441,029,04174,00314,490556,848

Private savings banks assets at 31 March 1976 included $358.9 million invested in Government securities, $21.0 million in local authority securities, $176.8 million in mortgages and other loans. Government securities must be held for amounts equal to 62 percent of deposits in ordinary accounts and 72 percent of deposits in investment accounts.

TRUSTEE SAVINGS BANKS—The trustee savings bank movement is generally regarded as having originated in Scotland in 1810. The movement spread quickly, and the first such New Zealand bank was established in Wellington in 1846, 20 years before the New Zealand Post Office Savings Bank commenced business. By 1870 nine trustee banks were in existence, but four, namely, Lyttelton, Wellington, Napier, and Nelson did not survive the turn of the century. The five remaining banks—Auckland (1847), New Plymouth (1850), Dunedin (1864), Southland (1864), and Hokitika (1866), grew in strength and their activities became an important factor in New Zealand's economic structure. Since 1957 a number of new trustee savings banks have been established, and the total is now 12.

The legislation dealing with trustee savings banks is contained chiefly in the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948. In March 1976 the Government Stock requirement of the trustee savings banks was reduced from 49 percent to 47 percent of investments in order to provide greater funds for new housing. A proportion of depositors' balances must be kept as cash in hand or on current account, namely 5 percent up to $20 million, and 2 1/2 percent of the amount in excess of $20 million. Repayment of deposits is guaranteed by the State.

In addition to ordinary deposits, trustee savings banks may accept investments similarly to the Post Office Savings Bank, by way of deposits in Investment accounts. The maximum rates of interest payable on deposits are fixed by Order in Council. Maximum rates payable on these and other deposits are given later in this section.

The following tables relate only to trustee savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

NOTE—This statement includes national savings accounts.

 No.  $(thousand)  
19721,432,436x846,700817,51129,18914,817516,236
19731,548,5531,056,494980,07176,42317,285609,945
19741,648,415x1,433,0611,352,43480,62721,059711,631
1975l,750,518x1,499,7321,469,03730,69523,101765,427
19761,857,2821,879,2281,803,76975,45925,930866,816

The following table shows the results of the transactions inclusive of National Savings accounts, of each of the trustee savings banks during 12 months ended 31 March 1976.

BankNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

NOTE—Hawke's Bay and Gisborne/Manawatu-Wairarapa merged as Eastern and Central Savings Bank as from November 1972.

 No.  $(thousand)  
Auckland749,173659,135627,31331,82211,009368,755
Waikato148,399141,891139,0952,7951,82057,601
Bay of Plenty94,432120,438116,0704,3681,23941,424
Taranaki82,27675,50573,3952,1101,40741,664
Eastern and Central123,930146,761142,9943,7661,41947,477
Wanganui50,48057,29355,6211,67264419,885
Wellington District90,35681,97477,1734,80183130,284
Westland20,06716,35915,92043938311,269
Canterbury250,924293,786279,27714,5103,282113,236
South Canterbury30,25835,20934,0491,16045215,231
Otago134,096107,228102,2195,0101,87463,133
Southland82,891143,649140,6433,0061,57056,857
Totals1,857,2821,879,2281,803,76975,45925,930866,816

Following is a summary of trustee savings banks' assets at 31 March 1976. The total assets include an amount of $955,000 securing National Savings deposits all of which is invested in New Zealand Government securities. Under the Trustee Savings Banks Act, however, National Savings deposits are not regarded as assets of the Trustee Savings Banks, and for this reason are shown separately.

BankMortgagesNew Zealand Government SecuritiesLocal Authority DebenturesCash in Hand and on Call at BankTotal Assets* (Includes Other Assets but not National Savings Deposits)National Savings DepositsTotal Held Including National Savings Deposits

*Total assets include $43 million in fixed deposits and money at call.

NOTE—The Hawke's Bay and Gisborne and Manawatu-Wairarapa Savings Banks merged on 1 November 1972 under the name of Eastern and Central Savings Bank.

    $(thousand)   
Auckland149,808174,46528,4901,894379,164615379,779
Waikato23,22526,9023,1962,35758,211-58,211
Bay of Plenty18,86219,2369451,32241,733-41,733
Taranaki19,25619,3579878142,5735042,623
Eastern and Central19,99221,54442492346,629-46,629
Wanganui8,5019,20187416719,954-19,954
Wellington District13,76313,8231,16037830,522-30,522
Westland5,2435,24321831811,552-11,552
Canterbury48,19653,1206,5432,220112,998-112,998
South Canterbury5,3156,9951,36349915,564-15,564
Otago28,65329,8682,0421,99264,69924064,939
Southland17,97626,6577,0952,45958,1585058,208
Totals358,790406,4152,44815,310881,757955882,712

STOCK AND STATION AGENTS—Many of the existing stock and station agents first commenced business as general merchants or retailers in the early days of the country's settlement. However, during the greater part of their history, the main financial operations have been in the supply of merchandise, machinery and implements, and the provision of finance to the farming community. The companies have developed a specialised banking business involving the maintenance of current accounts for farmers, the acceptance of time deposits and the granting of secured and unsecured advances. It is a widespread practice for farmers to have current accounts with their stock and station agents to which the proceeds of the sale of livestock and produce are placed and farm and personal expenses charged. Any surplus may be left on current account or placed with the agents on fixed deposit. Stock and station agents have top-tier borrowing priority with the trading banks in order to obtain additional funds to lend for seasonal and farm development needs.

Financial data as at 30 June are given of deposits, advances, etc., for the stock and station agents operating in New Zealand. The statistics refer to the whole of the companies' trading operations including, in some cases, activities additional to normal stock and station transactions, such as retail trading in consumer goods.

The deposit figures include only moneys received for an agreed term and rate of interest and exclude amounts secured by mortgage or debenture, and amounts in credit on current account. Secured advances to customers include those made on mortgage or chattel security. The figure for merchandise and commodity stocks includes all types of trading stock which are regarded as current assets, but excludes livestock, goods held on consignment, or motor vehicles used by the company.

The following table summarises the financial statements of 21 stock and station agents. Quarterly information, including details of interest rates, is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemAt 30 June
19721973197419751976
   $(thousand)  
Deposits held37,76857,96543,92736,24138,786
Customers' credit balances on current account38,51775,11857,77347,47779,974
Advances to customers—     
(a) On current account (unsecured)77,84377,188104,12286,90881,128
(b) Other advances (secured)44,00430,62650,37856,64942,690
Investments—     
(a) Government securities5,4951,9151,8041,6171,443
(b) Fixed deposits12,01461,5784,5825,65312,889
(c) Other investments16,45922,19817,05212,48825,913
Cash balances (in hand and at bank)6,6219,8582,7411,168607
Bank overdrafts outstanding16,77317,41249,47136,94024,055
Merchandise and commodity stocks44,82544,82462,18760,56169,259
Interest rates paid on deposit— Percentage of Deposits   
Under 5 percent36.052.026.723.414.7
5 percent and under 6 percent29.822.431.320.820.8
6 percent and under 7 percent30.921.832.733.729.2
7 percent and over3.33.89.322.135.3

FINANCE COMPANIES—In 1971 there were 27 finance companies designated "large" by the Reserve Bank for statistical purposes, and their assets were 90 percent of the total assets of 526 surveyed finance companies. There has been rapid growth of these large companies in recent years as people have responded to higher interest rates on deposits and debentures and to the improved services offered. The large finance companies have developed simple and easily operated means of accepting money. Furthermore, many companies offer flexible deposit plans to depositors with large sums. By March 1975 amalgamations had reduced the number of companies designated as "large" to 24 out of a total of 399 surveyed firms.

A much smaller proportion of the companies' lending is now channelled to individuals in the form of hire-purchase loans for consumer durables, either directly or through retailers, although hire-purchase advances for cars are still an important form of lending. Large short-term industrial loans have become more common than they were in the sixties, the finance company usually taking a floating second debenture charge against all the assets of the company. The bulk of industrial lending by finance companies, however, is still by way of hire purchase and is primarily used for commercial vehicles, machinery, and plant. In recent years several companies have begun to specialise in leasing. In addition they offer limited import and export services, and factor book debts. Another new development fostered by a few of the larger finance companies is the commercial bill market which began slowly in 1969 and started to expand more rapidly after the merchant banks entered the market in 1971-72. In September 1973 when statistics on the bill market were first collected, the total amount of commercial bills outstanding was $79 million. As at the end of August 1976 the total amount of commercial bills outstanding for the seventeen dealers included in the Reserve Bank's bill dealers survey amounted to $197 million.

Statistics of deposits, debentures, and notes held by the large companies for which the Reserve Bank collects statistics are shown in the following table.

TermAt 31 March
19721973197419751976
   $(m)  
At call25.323.031.827.319.7
Under 3 months14.818.321.916.919.6
3-5 months12.324.722.716.615.3
6-11 months18.832.729.913.513.0
12-23 months28.432.034.225.315.8
2 years and over70.077.972.299.7214.4
Totals169.6208.6212.7199.3297.8

Gross loans and advances of these finance companies are shown in the following table.

Type of loanAt 31 March
19721973197419751976
Motor vehicles  $(m)  
Commercial25.637.747.642.765.4
Private48.667.587.576.073.5
Television sets0.60.80.91.61.7
Other consumer durables7.413.818.212.316.8
Machinery and equipment—     
Industrial29.535.747.741.359.0
Agricultural6.17.27.76.512.9
Property loans20.427.944.042.362.0
Other34.535.040.131.735.5
Total172.7225.7293.8254.4326.8

A common feature of finance company lending is the regular repayment required on most loans and the short turnover period of assets, often averaging less than a year. This enables finance companies to switch their lending rapidly from one purpose to another. Interest rates range from about 12 percent to a more common 17 to 20 percent for most instalment loans. Despite the high costs, businesses have grown to appreciate the fast and efficient services offered by finance companies, which process loan applications quickly and accept greater risks than other lenders.

MERCHANT BANKS—The major expansion of merchant banking in New Zealand occurred in 1971, when the Government allowed overseas companies to participate in their establishment. At the present time there are seven companies which are considered to be active in merchant banking. They offer a wide range of financial services to industrial clients and also manage investment portfolios and deal in and accept commercial bills. The merchant banks engage in underwriting new share issues by companies, advise on and finance mergers and takeovers, and lend money for expansion to growing companies. The merchant banks played an important role in the expansion of the commercial bill market.

STRUCTURE OF FINANCIAL SYSTEM—The changing structure of the New Zealand financial system is shown by movements in the money supply and other major liquid assets of the public; a comparative table of selected liquid assets is now given. (Source: Reserve Bank Bulletin.)

Deposits, etc.At 31 MarchPercentage at 31 March
1975x19761975x1976
(a) On an institutional basis$(m)$(m)  
Trading banks1,892.02,290.538.339.7
Private savings banks468.3556.99.59.6
Sub-totals2,360.32,847.447.749.3
Post Office Savings Bank1,186.51,273.724.022.1
Trustee savings banks766.1858.015.514.9
Stock and station agents76.292.51.51.6
Finance companies220.0328.64.55.7
Official money market25.831.80.50.5
Notes and coin311.7342.36.35.9
Total selected liquid assets4,946.65,774.3100.0100.0
(b) On a functional basis    
Money supply1,331.91,596.026.927.6
Other demand deposits1,845.81,999.637.334.6
Sub-totals3,177.73,595.664.262.3
Time and fixed deposits1,768.92,178.735.837.7
Total selected liquid assets4,946.65,774.3100.0100.0

COINAGE AND CURRENCY: Decimal Currency—Under the Decimal Currency Act 1964 a system of decimal currency was introduced in New Zealand on 10 July 1967 with the dollar as the monetary unit. The dollar is equivalent to the previous 10s. The equivalent in decimal currency of the shilling is 10c. There are coins for $1 (not in general circulation), 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c, and Reserve Bank notes for 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 100 dollars. The coins are cupro-nickel, except for the one and two cent pieces which are bronze. Notes and coins have distinctive New Zealand designs.

Issue of Notes and Coin—Since 1 August 1934 the Reserve Bank has had the sole right to issue bank notes in New Zealand. Coin is the responsibility of the Treasury but is distributed by the Reserve Bank. Notes and coir, are issued solely in response to the demands of the public. In assessing likely requirements there are seasonal factors to be considered, as well as basic economic conditions, such as national income, the levels of salaries and wages, changes in price levels generally, and in the total volume of money. In addition, methods and frequency of payments affect the amount to be issued.

Legal Tender—Under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 notes issued by the Reserve Bank are constituted legal tender up to any amount. In terms of the Decimal Currency Act 1964, dollar coins are legal tender for any amount, coins of 5, 10, 20, and 50c for any amount not exceeding five dollars, and coins of 1 and 2c for any amount not exceeding 20c.

Restrictions on Export of Currency—Under the Exchange Control Regulations 1965 the taking or sending of money from New Zealand is forbidden except with the consent of the Reserve Bank. The Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1965, Amendment No. 8, permits travellers to take out up to $50 of New Zealand money in notes of $5 or $2 or $1 or in coin up to $4. The export of any other New Zealand notes or coin or the currency of any other country requires specific consent. (See also Exchange Control, paragraph (b), Export and Import of New Zealand notes.)

NEW ZEALAND EXCHANGE RATES: The relationship between the New Zealand pound and sterling previous to the 1960s was described in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

In 1961, New Zealand became a member of the International Monetary Fund, an institution established in 1948 at a United Nation's conference at Bretton Woods, U.S.A. In accordance with one of the principal objectives of the Fund—the promotion of a stable international monetary system based on fixed exchange rates—each member country was required to establish a par value for its currency, expressed in gold. New Zealand adopted the relationship NZ£1 = 2,47130 grammes of fine gold (the equivalent of US$2.7809). Par values could be altered with the consent of the IMF to correct a fundamental disequilibrium in member's balance of payments; although if the proposed change, together with all previous changes, did not exceed 10 percent of the initial par value, the Fund's concurrence was automatic.

Until 1971 members were required to confine buying and selling rates for spot foreign exchange transactions within a margin of one percent either side of the par value, and in the case of other than spot transactions, buying and selling rates could not differ from parity by more than a margin that the Fund considered "reasonable".

Following the United Kingdom devaluation by 14.3 percent on 18 November 1967, New Zealand devalued its dollar by 19.45 percent, to move to parity with Australian currency. The new par value for the New Zealand dollar was NZ$1 = 0.99531 grammes of fine gold. This was equivalent to US$1.12 and the sterling relationship on par values was NZ$2.1429 = £1 sterling. New Zealand continued to maintain sterling as its intervention currency and the fixed public telegraphic rates upon sterling were established at equal margins either side of the revised sterling rate, at NZ$2.1492 (selling) and NZ$2.1367 (buying).

World Currency Realignment—During 1971 the value of the United States dollar underwent severe pressure on currency markets. The United States Government reacted by suspending the gold convertibility of the dollar in August 1971. The U.S. dollar was then floated against all other currencies, against which it rapidly depreciated.

The breakdown of the Bretton Woods international monetary system and the introduction of widespread floating necessitated a re-establishment by the International Monetary Fund of a system which while being more flexible, would promote an orderly basis for conducting foreign exchange transactions. The Smithsonian Agreement of December 1971 was intended to facilitate the resumption of fixed par values and stable exchange rates on a more liberal basis. The United States dollar was devalued at this time by a change in the official price for fine gold from US$35 to US$38 per troy ounce and there was a general realignment of several other important currencies.

As part of the arrangements, member countries had the choice of maintaining their existing par values against gold as the basis for their exchange rates, or of establishing a "central rate" against another currency as its "official" exchange rate. To retain an existing par value resulted in a currency revaluation against the United States dollar (after the change in gold price to US$38 per ounce); New Zealand along with the United Kingdom and Australia opted for this arrangement. At the same time New Zealand, like Australia, nominated the United States dollar as its intervention currency instead of sterling as previously. This enabled New Zealand to quote fixed rates upon the United States and fluctuating rates for sterling.

In addition, the Smithsonian arrangements established wider margins within which spot exchange rates were permitted to move and New Zealand availed itself of this facility. The new margins were 2 1/4 percent either side of parity or central rate (previously 1 percent) and, where an intervention currency was used to establish rates for other currencies, twice this margin for currencies other than the intervention currency. New Zealand established its fixed United States dollar selling rate (US$1.1887) at the maximum permissible level below the crossed par value/central rate for the United States dollar (US$1.2160) and allowed its rate on other currencies to vary up to 4 1/2 percent either side of the crossed rates of the "official" rates.

The Smithsonian Agreement did not completely resolve the problems of the world's monetary system and it was soon evident that the arrangements made to promote exchange stability were not flexible enough to accommodate the rapidly changing economic circumstances between nations. A further breakdown occurred in 1972 when 18 currencies including sterling were floated, and the United States dollar again came under severe pressure. In February 1973 the United States dollar was devalued by 10 percent to US$42,222 per fine ounce of gold (from US$38). New Zealand maintained its gold parity, thus appreciating against the United States dollar to an equivalent par value of US$1.35111 = NZ$1. The fixed telegraphic selling and buying rates NZ/USA became US$1.3207 and US$1.3337, respectively.

New Zealand's Currency Basket and Recent Exchange Changes—With the continuation of widespread floating through 1973, the New Zealand dollar, tied to the United States dollar, was experiencing a gradual depreciation against most other currencies, as most were strengthening with respect to the United States dollar. This depreciation was not warranted as far as New Zealand's balance of payments was concerned, and as it was producing inflationary pressures on the economy, it was decided to terminate the fixed relationship between the New Zealand and United States dollars.

On 9 July 1973, the New Zealand dollar was adjusted upwards by 3.24 percent relative to the United States dollar, the amount needed to restore the relationship existing in mid-February, immediately following the devaluation of the United States dollar. From 9 July the value of the New Zealand dollar was calculated daily in such a manner as to preserve the average relationship that existed on 15 February with the currencies of New Zealand's main trading partners on a trade-weighted basis. Movements in the currencies of these countries would be reflected by alterations in the value of the New Zealand dollar according to their relative importance in New Zealand's international trade. This method of calculating New Zealand's exchange rates obviates some of the fluctuations that would occur in some rates if its currency were pegged to one particular currency. At the time New Zealand advised the IMF that it would no longer maintain a fixed relationship relative to the United States dollar.

On 9 September 1973, the New Zealand dollar was revalued by a further 10 percent in view of a very strong balance of payments and in an effort to reduce domestic inflation. After that date the exchange rates were calculated by the same method as previously with the base rate, to which daily adjustment was made, being altered to 10 September 1973.

A devaluation of the New Zealand dollar by approximately 6.2 percent against the basket of currencies was made on 24 September 1974. At the same time the Australian dollar was devalued by 12 percent. This was a time of reversal in New Zealand's terms of trade and a heavy drain on overseas reserves following rapid domestic expansion. From this time, 25 September 1974 became the date for the basis of daily adjustments to the rates.

In view of a continuing deterioration in the terms of trade and weaknesses in the balance of payments, the New Zealand dollar was again devalued on 14 August 1975. This time by 15 percent against the basket of currencies. It had become evident that the anticipated increase in export receipts expected to follow from a recovery from the world trade recession of 1974 was not eventuating. The objective of the devaluation was to restore the income of farmers and to stem New Zealand's rising import bill. Following the devaluation of the Australian dollar by 17.5 percent from 29 November 1976 the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 7 percent relative to the U.S. dollar and all other currencies, except the Australian dollar, with effect from 30 November 1976. After a number of minor revaluations of the Australian dollar during December 1976, the New Zealand dollar was revalued by 2 percent on 20 December 1976. New Zealand's exchange rates are still calculated daily employing the basket of currencies of New Zealand's main trading partners.

OVERSEAS RESERVES—The trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals showing among other things overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on account of New Zealand business.

Statistics of New Zealand's official overseas reserves are shown in the following table. The figures are as at the last Wednesday of the month. (Source: Reserve Bank of New Zealand.)

As atAssets of N.Z. Banking System*Treasury-held Overseas SecuritiesGovernment-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldReserve Position at I.M.F.Special Drawing Rights§Total

*Comprises foreign exchange and overseas investment of the Reserve Bank and the trading banks in respect of New Zealand business. A small item "Liabilities in Other Currencies" has been deducted from the Reserve Bank's overseas assets while gross foreign liabilities on account of New Zealand business have been deducted from the trading banks' overseas foreign assets.

†Gold holdings of the Reserve Bank at NZ$31.25 a fine ounce.

‡Equal to the gold subscription less any drawings of the gold tranche.

§Allocations less exchange transactions.

    NZ$(million)   
    End of June   
1972425.2216.218.90.745.151.6757.7
1973764.3209.122.30.745.151.91,093,5
1974289.4185.021.70.745.151.7593.6
1975316.2222.923.90.7-0.5564.2
1976299.1239.326.30.7-6.5571.9
    End of December   
1972435.7209.825.60.745.152.1768.9
1973502.202.522.50.745.151.9824.8
1974335.8220.724.20.7-0.5581.8
1975288.7x224.126.40.-4.6544.5x
1976359.3285.323.90.7-9.8679.0

The following diagram shows the overseas reserves.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS—In the year ended December 1976, a current account deficit of $623.1 million was recorded, representing an improvement of $362.4 million on the deficit recorded in the previous year. Substantially higher export receipts, partly offset by a somewhat smaller increase in import payments and an increased "invisible" deficit, were responsible for the 1976 result.

Export receipts, $2,923.3 million, were 56 percent higher than the $1,875.8 million recorded in 1975. All categories of exports contributed to the increase of $1,052.5 million, with wool, meat and manufactured goods showing the greatest growth in receipts in 1976.

Total import payments of $2,937.8 million for calendar year 1976 were 19 percent higher than the level of $2,475.6 million recorded in 1975. The increase was entirely due to higher import prices since import volumes fell slightly from the low level to which they dropped in 1975.

The "invisible" transactions balance deteriorated sharply in 1976 from the deficit of $385.6 million registered in 1975 to one of $613.6 million. Large increases in payments, in particular for freight on exports, travel, and interest on overseas borrowing, overshadowed the more modest increases in invisible receipts. Payments increased by 32 percent to $1,246.2 million while receipts increased by 13 percent to $632.7 million.

Capital transactions during the year to December 1976 resulted in a net capital inflow of $617.1 million. This inflow comprised net official receipts of $360.9 million (including drawings of $170.8 million from the I.M.F.) and a net private inflow of $256.2 million. In the preceding year the net official inflow was $622.8 million and private net receipts totalled $202.5 million. The totals given for these loans are the New Zealand dollar equivalents received at various times during the year by the New Zealand banking system and do not take into account exchange rate changes since the date of receipt which will affect the amount repayable in New Zealand currency terms when the loans fall due.

At the end of December 1976 official reserves amounted to $679.0 million, an increase of $134.5 million when compared with December 1975. To take account of exchange rate changes, the New Zealand currency value of official overseas reserves was increased in December 1976 by $31 million.

A full classification of overseas exchange transactions for the three latest calendar years is now given.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS: YEARS ENDED DECEMBER
Item197419751976
U.K.TotalU.K.TotalU.K.Total

NOTE—Minus sign (—) denotes a deficit.

 NZS(millions)    
Exports—Receipts     
Meat166.7532.9193.4513.7242.9783.6
Wool60.3337.146.6318.999.5610.7
Butter85.2109.6121.0146.8143.3199.0
Cheese11.444.420.273.729.471.2
Other dairy products0.2167.80.5171.01.6241.2
Other animal products21.7130.919.3132.624.9206.8
Forest products0.2142.90.3153.70.5243.0
Other primary products20.974.319.085.512.8120.3
Manufactured exports7.0195.35.9266.87.3435.8
Miscellaneous0.711.60.313.10.616.6
Total export receipts374.31,746.7426.41,875.8562.82,928.3
Other Current—      
Cook Islands exports---..-0.2
Transport70.5109.786.8145.4104.2182.2
Insurance5.014.25.719.66.714.9
Travel (excluding fares)11.794.514.2130.410.2157.1
International investment income—      
Interest and dividends36.554.032.447.518.642.3
Other investment income0.54.30.86.81.08.9
New Zealand Government receipts and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand7.122.63.921.45.730.0
Miscellaneous—      
Commissions, royalties4.617.16.320.45.020.2
Expenses of business firms1.610.31.310.51.813.8
Personal receipts, legacies and immigrants' transfers62.6119.162.7135.052.2137.7
Other current transactions3.717.25.723.75.425.3
Totals, current578.32,209.6646.22,436.4773.53,561.0
Capital Transfers—      
Government borrowing-232.7-511.4-430.9
Other official receipts-106.1-166.7-98.0
Private66.2270.452.8360.760.7435.8
Totals capital66.2609.252.81,038.660.7964.7
I.M.F.—      
Drawings-78.5-161.1-170.8
Allocations of SDRs------
Total Receipts644.52,897.3699.03,636.4834.34,696.5
Imports—Payments     
Private571.62,179.4692.82,286.0648.22,784.1
Government41.497.567.8189.658.3153.7
Totals, import payments613.02,276.9760.52,475.6706.42,937.8
Other current—      
Cook Islands imports-0.4-0.20.10.5
Transport108.0175.6138.5243.5173.6334.0
Insurance—      
Premiums4.15.15.36.68.09.7
Claims0.31.10.31.00.31.4
Other transfers5.312.19.218.29.519.7
Travel (excluding fares)44.6179.247.0186.552.8235.4
International investment income—      
Private15.575.022.1103.819.3147.1
Government interest27.636.331.589.611.4156.9
Local authority interest-0.1----
Government expenditure overseas6.072.317.176.216.578.0
Miscellaneous—      
Commissions, royalties, and rebates5.428.96.230.18.046.5
Expenses of business firms19.353.929.477.928.890.0
Film hire and entertainment0.76.30.75.40.55.3
Religious and charitable1.210.60.917.91.717.7
Personal remittances, legacies, and emigrants' transfers21.862.021.656.826.370.3
Transfers by temporary residents4.714.63.420.83.624.2
Other current transactions1.815.14.311.61.09.7
Totals, current879.43,025.41,098.13,421.91,067.84,184.0
Capital Transfers—      
Government debt repayments27.749.210.5136.423.9234.8
Other official payments-5.6-80.1-104.0
Private36.2128.517.1157.433.1179.7
Local authorities debt repayment-0.7-0.8--
Totals, capital64.0184.027.6374.657.0518.4
I.M.F. Repurchases-----
Total Payments943.43,209.41,125.63,796.51,124.84,702.5
Surplus of receipts over payments-298.9-312.0-426.6-160.1-290.5-6.0

The next table gives overseas exchange transactions in summary form for a number of June years, which fit more closely to the farm-production export season than do calendar years.

ItemYear Ended 30 June
19721973197419751976
   NZ$(million)  
  Receipts   
Exports—     
Meat447.7585.7565.4484.8674.5
Wool252.5436.3371.4286.1512.1
Butter145.3106.3108.5113.2185.9
Milk powders69.984.491.4116.4116.7
Other dairy products111.6119.4114.286.7171.0
Forest products89.196.7120.1145.8197.6
Manufactured exports105.7130.0171.0208.1343.6
Other165.3214.3205.8216.9289.2
Total exports1,387.11,773.11,747.91,658.02,490.5
Other current receipts266.0349.9423.7493.1616.9
Total current receipts1,653.12,123.02,171.62,151.13,107.4
Capital receipts—     
Government borrowing112.14.20.5497.6393.5
Other official receipts--14.092.7190.6
Private175.7187.0189.4378.5381.3
Total capital receipts287.9191.2204.0968.8965.4
I.M.F.—     
Drawings---100.5250.2
Allocation of SDRs19.1----
Total Receipts1,960.12,314.22,375.63,220.44,323.1
  Payments   
Imports—     
Government66.165.968.7147.1172.7
Private1,006.51,182.81,780.42,227.62,554.2
Total imports1,072.61,248.71,849.02,374.72,727.0
Other current payments—     
Government77.598.295.5147.1203.1
Private372.8451.1561.0696.1881.7
Total current payments1,522.81,798.02,505.53,217.93,811.8
Capital payments—     
Government debt repayments49.992.967.732.5237.4
Other official repayments2.8-7.04.9181.0
Private94.591.6190.4103.0198.5
Total capital payments147.2184.5265.0140.4617.0
I.M.F. repurchases-----
Total payments1,670.11,982.52,770.53,358.34,428.9
Balance on trade transactions-314.5+524.4-101.2-716.7-236.5
Balance on current account "Invisible" transactions-184.2-199.4-232.8-350.1-468.0
Balance on current account+130.3+325.0-333.9-1,066.8-704.4
Balance on capital account+140.7+6.8-61.0+828.4+348.4
I.M.F. transactions (incl. SDRs)+19.1--+100.5+250.2
Change in official overseas reserves+298.4+335.8-499.9-29.4+7.7

Overseas Travel Allowances—Since 1938, there have been restrictions on the amount of overseas travel funds made available for non-business purposes. From June 1973 trading banks have been able to sell overseas exchange to travellers up to $1,000 a month with a maximum of $4,000 a year. Requests for higher amounts need to be referred to the Reserve Bank, which is prepared to approve all reasonable requests.

Exchange Control—Transactions affecting overseas exchange are governed by the Exchange Control Regulations 1965, made under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964. The exemption in respect of dealings in sterling area currencies and securities in the hands of New Zealand residents was continued by the Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1965.

Certain new measures in exchange control and related fields were introduced by the Minister of Finance in the Budget of 16 June 1966, and are set out in paragraphs (a) to (d).

  1. Overseas Securities and Currencies: The facility previously available to New Zealand residents to sell overseas sterling area securities for New Zealand currency or other assets in New Zealand was withdrawn. These securities could then be sold only for other sterling area securities or for sterling area currencies. Therefore, if a New Zealand resident sought cash in New Zealand for his sterling area securities the only avenue available at law was to sell overseas and transfer the proceeds to New Zealand through the banking system.

    This measure, in effect, closed the market in sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency. A limited market has since been re-opened (see (f) below)

    In June 1972 the United Kingdom made changes in its exchange control system. As a result the sterling area and the non-sterling area were redefined. For New Zealand exchange control purposes the sterling area incorporates the United Kingdom (including the Channel Islands, the Isle of Man, and Gibraltar) and the Republic of Ireland. The non-sterling area covers all other countries outside New Zealand except Rhodesia. Exchange control transactions with Rhodesia are strictly limited because of the United Nations sanctions against that country. Therefore, all currencies and securities domiciled outside New Zealand (except Rhodesia) may now be dealt with freely, i.e., in the same manner as sterling area currencies and securities were previously. (see also paragraph (f).

  2. Export and Import of New Zealand Notes: A limit was set in June 1966 on the export of notes at $10 for all travellers, regardless of destination.

    The importation of New Zealand money (including postal notes, money orders, cheques, and promissory notes, but excluding travellers' cheques) was also prohibited, except that travellers to New Zealand could bring in with them up to $10 in New Zealand notes.

    From June 1971 travellers from New Zealand have been able to take out up to $50 (of which not more than $4 may be in coin and the denominations of the notes may not exceed $5). For travellers to New Zealand there is now no restriction on bringing in notes of $1 or $2 or $5 or coin of any denomination.

  3. Supervision of Non-Residents' Accounts in New Zealand: The Reserve Bank was given power to exercise supervision over specific accounts in New Zealand of non-residents, with banks or elsewhere.

    The following accounts were initially declared to be controlled accounts:

    1. Those of non-resident banks;

    2. Those of non-resident travel agents;

    3. A group of seven individual accounts connected with international currency dealers.

    A subsequent notice to banks had the effect of bringing under control any accounts for the credit to which New Zealand money was received from overseas without the consent of the Reserve Bank. No change of policy was involved, this being a technical measure to ensure that transfers of funds outside the banking system were not facilitated by the operation of New Zealand accounts.

  4. London-domiciled New Zealand Government Stock: In 1920 provision was made for New Zealand residents to transfer holdings of London-domiciled New Zealand stock to the New Zealand register, a facility which provided a means of transferring funds to New Zealand outside the banking system. The volume of such transactions in recent years became excessive, and the following conditions were therefore applied to transfers to the New Zealand register on 16 June 1966:

    1. Stock must have been registered in the applicant's name for at least six months;

    2. After stock has been transferred to the New Zealand register it may not be sold for six months.

    Since 5 September 1969 the transfer to the New Zealand register has been limited to stock held on or prior to that date. Stock purchased subsequently may not be transferred to the New Zealand register.

  5. Overseas Investment in New Zealand: In 1973 the Overseas Investment Act was passed to make better provision for the supervision and control of overseas investment in New Zealand. The Overseas Investment Commission established under that Act administers the Overseas Investment Regulations 1974 which came into force on 28 May 1974 to give administrative effect to the Act. The secretariat for the Overseas Investment Commission is at the Reserve Bank.

    The new legislation consolidated and repeated the provisions of the Capital Issues (Overseas) Regulations 1965 and the Overseas Takeovers Regulations 1964 which formerly governed overseas investment in New Zealand. In addition, the opportunity was taken to close some avenues through which the existing takeover regulations could in some circumstances be evaded.

    The Overseas Investment Regulations cover such transactions as borrowing overseas by any New Zealand incorporated company; borrowing in New Zealand or overseas, or the issue of any shares by any New Zealand incorporated company which is 25 percent or more overseas owned; borrowing in New Zealand by a New Zealand branch of an overseas company; and the issue of shares to overseas residents by a New Zealand incorporated company.

    Consent under these regulations is also required to the acquisition by any overseas resident individual or organisation of

    1. 25 percent or more of the shares of a New Zealand incorporated company where such shares carry voting rights at any general meeting of the company,

    2. all, or substantially all, of the property in New Zealand used in carrying on a business in New Zealand where the value of the property is more than NZ$100,000.

    Any New Zealand incorporated company also requires the prior consent of the Reserve Bank before it borrows overseas or issues shares to overseas residents.

  6. Market in Overseas Securities: Trading in overseas sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency is confined to New Zealand residents, and to securities which were registered in the names of New Zealand residents on 16 June 1966. All dealings must be effected through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, and both seller and purchaser must supply details of the transaction to an approved depository, with whom the scrip must be lodged. Securities so purchased may be sold for New Zealand currency under the same conditions, or sold for overseas currency through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, provided the proceeds are either remitted to New Zealand or re-invested in similar securities within three months. The new scrip must also be lodged with an approved depository. The approved depositories are the Reserve Bank in Wellington and its branches in Auckland and Christchurch and the Bank of New South Wales (in respect of its own shares only) Up to 31 December 1975 some 103,000 transactions involving approximately 52,000,000 shares had taken place under these arrangements.

Administrative details on import and export control and exchange allocation are set out in Section 22A.

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION—New Zealand became a member of these three organisations on 31 August 1961 under the International Finance Agreements Act 1961. The organisations are specialised agencies of the United Nations, and their objectives and the implications of New Zealand membership are set out in parliamentary paper A. 12, 1961. One of the purposes of the International Monetary Fund is to give confidence to members by making the fund's resources available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity. By paying in some gold and the balance of its fund quota in its own currency a member is able to draw against its gold for a nominal cost. New Zealand's fund quota was increased in March 1966 and again in December 1970, with a resultant increase in drawing rights under the gold and credit tranches. Such drawings up to January 1976 were permitted up to 100 percent of quota with increasing conditionality attached to drawings under successive tranches. After January 1976 the maximum access under the four credit tranches (but not the gold tranche) was increased by 45 percent in anticipation of an impending quota increase. In addition, drawings may be made under the fund's compensatory financing arrangements, and under the Oil Facility.

New Zealand's position with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) as at the end of a number of recent years is shown in the following table.

As at End of YearQuotaDrawing Outstanding*General Account Position*Special Drawing Rights (SDRs)
GoldN.Z. Currency SubscriptionGold TrancheCredit TranchesOil FacilitiesCompensatory FinancingIMF Holdings of N.Z. CurrencyHolidays as % of QuotaAllocationHolidays by N.Z.

*Drawings are made by obtaining usable foreign exchange from the Fund in return for New Zealand currency which the Fund then holds in its General Account until drawings are repaid.

†From time to time the IMF allocates SDRs to members with the objective of increasing international liquidity and promoting world trade. Holdings alter when SDRs are sold or purchased in exchange for foreign currency, or when payments in SDRs are made to the IMF in settlement of interest or other charges.

‡From 1 July 1974 the previous exchange rate of SDRs 1.12 = NZ$1 was replaced by a system of fluctuating rates determined by the IMF in consultation with participating nations. At the end of 1974 the exchange rate was SDRs 1.0744 = NZ$1; at the end of 1975 it was SDRs 0.8916 = NZ$1; and at the end of 1976 it was SDRs 0.8177 = NZ$1.

    SDR(millions)      
196639.2317.839.230.8--187.8120--
196739.2317.839.290.8-29.2277.0176--
196839.2317.839.220.8--177.8113--
195939.2317.839.2---157.0100--
197050.5151.5----151.07526.40.4
197150.5151.5----151.57548.027.7
197250.5151.5----151.57569.457.8
197350.5151.5----151.57569.458.
197450.5151.550.5-85.7-287.714269.40.5
197550.5151.550.5-191.750.5444.222069.40.8
197650.5151.550.5-238.7151.5592.229369.48.4

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) and the International Finance Corporation (IFC) are designed to promote the international flow of capital for productive purposes and to assist in financing the development of the resources of developing member countries.

Whereas the IBRD lends moderately concessional finance to governments or government agencies, IFC lends on basically commercial terms to private sector or para-statal business enterprises.

New Zealand paid $24.4 million in gold and $1 million in New Zealand currency to join the three agencies, and in addition $77.2 million of non-negotiable non-interest bearing bonds were lodged with the Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

These payments covered the purchase of New Zealand's quota at the IMF and the paid-up portion of New Zealand's capital subscriptions to the IBRD and the IFC. Further payments have been, and will be, made in respect of quota and subscription increases which have been negotiated subsequent to New Zealand joining these organisations.

The IBRD made a loan of $5.6 million to New Zealand in November 1963. The loan is for a term of 25 years and bears interest at 5 1/2 percent, including the 1 percent commission which is allocated to the Bank's special reserve. It has assisted in financing improvements at the ports of Auckland, Lyttelton, Napier, Timaru, and Whangarei, and applied to the overseas-currency content of capital works. A loan of $23.4 million was received for the Cook Strait electricity cable project. These loan agreements are set out in parliamentary papers A. 21 and A. 23, 1964.

In December 1965 the IBRD agreed to lend $30.2 million for railways modernisation and $14.7 million for power development. The railways loan was used to buy additional diesel locomotives and rolling stock, while part was used to pay for the second rail-road ferry Aranui. The electricity development loan was used to meet the overseas costs in the building of the thermal power station at Marsden Point, Whangarei. The term of the loans is 15 years with interest at 6 1/4 percent.

A second loan for railways development was arranged in 1971 but only a portion was drawn before the Government cancelled the facility. New Zealand is now considered sufficiently developed not to justify further borrowing from the IBRD.

INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION—New Zealand joined the International Development Association (IDA) effective from January 1975 having earlier made a voluntary contribution of NZ$5 million to IDAs resources to be spread over the years 1970–71 to 1975–76. IDAs funds are replenished every three years by grant contributions from richer member countries. New Zealand contributed NZ$7.9 million to the fourth replenishment of IDA funds, these funds to be drawn upon by IDA over the period 1975 to about 1981. IDA lends on highly concessional terms to the very poorest of its member countries for specific development projects. IDA shares the same staff as IBRD (and to some extent also IFC) the two organisations being distinguished mainly by the nature of their sources of funds, loan terms and the countries which are eligible for loans. The combination of IBRD and IDA is now known as the World Bank.

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK—New Zealand is participating in the Asian Development Bank whose main objective is to accelerate the economic development of the FSCAP region. New Zealand's initial contribution to the capital stock of the bank is US$22.56* million, half of which is callable. Of the paid-in portion, 50 percent is paid in convertible currency, a total of US$5.64 million, while the balance is paid in New Zealand currency. In 1971 the capital subscription was increased 150 percent, increasing New Zealand's contribution from US$22.56 million to US$56.4 million. Of the increase 20 percent is paid in and 80 percent is callable, with a total of US$3.24 million to be paid in convertible currency.

New Zealand also makes contributions to three special funds—the Technical Assistance Special Fund to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$450,000, the Multi-purpose Special Fund to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$822,370, and the Asian Development Fund to which New Zealand has contributed NZ$4.05 million (US$6 million).

Further payments fall due to the Asian Development Fund after this financial year. New Zealand's contributions to each of these funds, as with the New Zealand currency portion of the equity capital of the bank, have been tied to the procurement of goods and services from New Zealand.

*The contributions to the bank are expressed in United States dollars as at their 1966 value.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL—The Monetary and Economic Council was established in 1961. Its principal functions are to report from time to time on the extent to which stability in the prices of goods and services, economic growth, full employment, and higher standards of living are being achieved, and to make recommendations as to measures that should be taken to promote such developments. Among other matters, the council is required to consider the provision of finance for the expansion of primary and secondary industries and of services, and the ensuring of a balanced relationship between the creation and issue of money and the production and provision of goods and services, A series of reports have been made to the Government and have been published.

The Council has also reported on particular segments of the economy that it considered warranted special attention. For example, Report No. 22 dealt with Inflation and the Labour Market and Report No. 26 dealt with Growth.

DEVELOPMENT FINANCE CORPORATION—This Corporation is an industrial development bank established by Act of Parliament for the purpose of encouraging investment in, and providing financial assistance and advisory services to industry. The share capital of the Development Finance Corporation is owned by the Crown and is vested in the Minister of Trade and Industry, who appoints a board of directors to control the Corporation's business. The board consists of two Government officials and four others drawn from the private sector.

The Corporation's principal activity is the provision of term loan finance to manufacturing, processing, construction, transport, and service industries for the purchase of plant and equipment. Other forms of financial assistance including equity participation, hire purchase and leasing finance, commercial bill and mortgage money, and sub-underwriting are also provided. In addition it offers guarantee schemes to other institutions for the provision of mortgage and overdraft facilities. It also administers two suspensory loan schemes on behalf of the Government for the specific encouragement of export industries and regional development.

The Development Finance Corporation is concerned primarily with the support of projects which will advance the economic growth of New Zealand, make better use of the country's natural resources and provide employment opportunities.

The Corporation's Act requires it to "evaluate each proposal having regard to the economic worth of the industry concerned, its usefulness to the New Zealand economy, the extent to which it will be owned or effectively controlled by persons domiciled in New Zealand, and the prospects of it becoming profitable within a reasonable time"

During the year ended June 1976 the Corporation gave assistance, mainly in the form of loans, to a total value of $51.7 million.

In the 1976 Budget it was announced that, in order to rationalise Government assistance in the development of new industrial products and processes, a number of Government agencies were to be amalgamated under the administration of the Development Finance Corporation. These agencies were the Inventions Development Authority, the Industrial Research and Development Grants Scheme, and the National Research and Development Scheme.

Chapter 29. Section 29 INVESTMENT AND FINANCE

29 A—MORTGAGES

MORTGAGE LAW—The borrowing of money on mortgage is a principal means of financing the erection or purchase of houses and commercial buildings, and the purchase of farms. Under the Land Transfer Act 1952 "mortgage" means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing:

  • The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt.

  • The repayment of future advances, or payment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise.

  • The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge.

  • The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, see Section 10E, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act; they take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property reregistered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

SUMMARY OF MORTGAGES REGISTERED—A table is given showing the number of registrations and amounts involved.

Year Ended 31 MarchMortgage RegistrationsAreaAmount Secured
0.4 Hectares and underOver 0.4 HectaresTotalOver 0.4 Hectares0.4 Hectares and UnderOver 0.4 HectaresTotal

NOTE—These figures exclude certain miscellaneous registrations, but may include minor duplications.

 hectares
  No. (000)$(m)$(m)$(m)
197180,03917,90397,9422,448488.4214.6703.0
197285,44617,454102,9002,463544.5215.3759.8
1973101,04417,960119,0042,339684.0256.7940.7
1974117,94221,051138,9932.341958.9342.71,301.7
1975110,79920,871131,6702,1621,067.1410.11,477.2
 Under 2 Hectares2 Hectares and overTotalTotal AreaUnder 2 Hectares2 Hectares and OverTotal
1976126,030No. 21,620147,650hectares (000) 3,344$(m) 1,213.9$(m) 398.6$(m) 1,612.4

The 147,650 mortgages in 1975-76 were in the following categories: first table, 41,718; first flat, 44,173; subsequent table, 20,291; subsequent fiat, 30,056; increases in amount, 11,412.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED: Value by Districts—The total amount for which mortgages were registered under the Land Transfer Act, together with the number of mortgages and the area of properties involved, is shown by registration districts in the following table.

Auckland urban area, the largest centre of population in New Zealand, is in the North Auckland district.

Land Registration District1974-751975-76
NumberAmountAreaNumberAmountArea
  $(m)hectares $(m)hectares
   (000)  (000)
North Auckland50,936589.133248,609560.9358
South Auckland16,502200.735419,281222.6459
Gisborne1,35514.7781,53217.3164
Hawke's Bay5,60061.31366,17782.4202
Taranaki3,98547.01604,63450.3189
Wellington20,929222.426530,249309.7567
Marlborough1,65818.31151,64716.1166
Nelson2,25521.5453,75036.195
Westland4905.0257156.555
Canterbury16,849182.732619,068197.2509
Otago7,16866.81907,21862.4281
Southland3,94347.71474,77051.0300
Totals131,6701,477.22,172147,6501,612.43,344

Classification by Amounts—The following table shows mortgages by amount groups for 1974–75 and 1975–76.

Amount Group1974–751975–76
NumberAmountPercentage of TotalNumberAmountPercentage of Total
$ $(000)  $(000) 
Under 1,0001,9901,1830.16,0621,1200.1
1,000- 1,9996,5158,5600.66,7258,9440.6
2,000- 3,99917,10746,4433.119,73553,7513.3
4,000- 5,99913,83564,3484.419,28290,0455.6
6,000- 7,9999,38461,9724.29,63463,5073.9
8,000- 9,9998,47372,9294.97,62965,1104.0
10,000-14,99929,009347,02323.528,245350,70021.8
15,000 and over28,915874,77259.235,328979,22860.7
Unspecified16,442--15,010--
Totals131,6701,477,230100.0147,6501,612,405100.0

Rates of Interest—The average rate of interest on new mortgages over the last 50 years is given in a table in the Statistical Summary at the end of this Yearbook.

The average rate of interest for 1975–76 was 8.61 percent. The comparable rate for 1974–75 was 8.29 percent.

In 1975–76 the number of 3-percent mortgages increased from 877 to 1,501 and the amount advanced increased from $13.1 million to $24.3 million.

An analysis showing amounts classified by interest rate groups is given below. It should be noted that some mortgages, notably those of trading banks, do not specify the rate of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchNot Exceeding 5%Over 5% to 5 1/2%Over 5 1/2% to 6 1/2%Over 6 1/2% to 7 1/2%Over 7 1/2% to 8 1/2%Over 8 1/2% to 9 1/2%Over 9 1/2% to 10%Over 10% to 12%Over 12%
     $(million)    
197326.4135.249.4203.8288.567.552.79.011.9
197430.4125.043.0284.8464.8121.272.616.819.9
197546.3163.647.8189.9342.3233.7205.468.531.0
197664.1253.144.5146.1217.6183.8294.8176.169.6

A similar analysis by interest rate groups is shown (together with the annual average interest rate) in the following diagram.

Mortgages by Class—In this section, mortgages are tabulated by class, i.e., as first flat, subsequent flat, first table, subsequent table, and as increases on existing mortgages. The majority of housing mortgages, especially those from Government agencies, are table (or instalment) mortgages. At the 1976 Census, out of a total of 939,340 inhabited permanent private dwellings, 391,860 were owned with mortgage, 260,590 dwellings were owned without mortgage, 253,340 were rented or leased, and the balance of the dwellings were free with job, loaned without payment, or the tenure was unspecified.

The following table shows the amounts advanced and average interest rates of mortgages by class. Mortgages for which the interest rates are not specified are excluded from the calculations of average rates.

Year Ended 31 MarchClass of Mortgage
First FlatSubsequent FlatFirst TableSubsequent TableIncrease of MortgageTotal
   Amount Advanced $ (m)   
1973338.376.5416.881.627.5940.7
1974514.1111.5559.583.732.91,301.7
1975592.2162.4551.994.576.11,477.2
1976585.2209.7603.3125.588.71,612.4
Year Ended 31 MarchClass of Mortgage
First FlatSubsequent FlatFirst TableSubsequent TableIncrease of MortgageTotal
 Average interest rate (percent)
19738.198.326.997.647.157.60
19748.358.587.267.847.437.85
19759.079.257.237.958.368.29
19769.789.857.128.468.878.61

From 12 February 1958 the State Advances Corporation and its successor, the Housing Corporation, have made housing loans with provision for rebate of interest to 3 percent where the income of applicants does not exceed prescribed limits. If mortgages at 3 percent interest are excluded from the calculations, the average rate of interest on all mortgages during recent years becomes 6.98 percent in 1970–71, 7.45 percent in 1971–72, 7.63 percent in 1972–73, 7.66 percent in 1973–74, 8.34 percent in 1974–75, and 8.70 percent in 1975–76.

SOURCES OF MORTGAGE FINANCE—The following table indicates the sources of finance for mortgages registered. Of the new mortgages registered in 1975–76, 23.0 percent of the aggregate advances were obtained from Government agencies (of which the principal one is the Housing Corporation) compared with 19.0 percent in 1974–75

Year Ended 31 MarchProducer EnterprisesCentral Govt.Local Govt.Trading Banks*Trustee Savings BanksBuilding SocietiesInsurance and Pension FundsHouseholdsOtherTotal
*includes related savings banks from 1976. 
     $(million)     
    0.4 Hectares and Under      
1971..95.71.14.734.966.049.6126.4110.2488.4
1972..92.50.64.337.561.351.6144.6152.1544.5
1973..127.20.78.259.071.054.9150.0213.0684.0
1974..142.31.410.473.7108.979.2174.4368.7958.9
1975..198.21.715.868.395.979.9233.4373.91,067.1
    Under 2 Hectares      
1976228.6268.42.832.880.573.192.7241.1193.91,213.9
    Over 0.4 Hectares      
1971..67.40.11.96.27.818.076.137.0214.6
1972..78.60.11.44.86.515.572.735.7215.3
1973..83.90.11.48.37.919.082.653.4256.7
1974..79.70.22.39.713.328.8106.5102.2342.7
1975..82.90.32.97.111.828.7160.6115.8410.1
    2 Hectares and Over      
197647.7102.50.73.05.17.227.0143.262.2398.5

Points to note in considering statistics of mortgages by source of finance are that most trading bank mortgages specify neither interest rates nor the amounts involved; and that, from 1976, the Government Life Insurance Office and the State Insurance Office have been included among Insurance and Pension Funds, not Central Government, as previously.

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED—Details of mortgage discharges for the latest 2 years are given in the following table.

Land Registration District1974–751975–76
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
North Auckland36,369228.632,699240.5
South Auckland10,76083.110,45481.5
Gisborne1,0566.19787.2
Hawke's Bay3,77923.53,69024.0
Taranaki2,71019.02,66618.5
Wellington15,15595.820,058134.7
Marlborough1,0636.99816.2
Nelson1,7199.22,36213.3
Westland3631.74511.6
Canterbury12,35376.312,26478.3
Otago5,86129.45,14527.1
Southland2,98822.02,81521.3
Totals 94,176..601.694,563654.1

Many discharges are not registered, particularly in the case of leaseholds and also of second or other further mortgages when the power of sale has been exercised by the first mortgagee. The figures for discharges are further affected by the high proportion of table mortgages. This is particularly so in cases where the mortgage is approaching maturity, since the whole amount remains on the register until finally discharged, despite the fact that the original amount of indebtedness has been considerably reduced.

29 B—STATE FINANCE FOR FARMS AND OTHER PRIMARY INDUSTRY

The Government first entered the field of mortgage finance in 1894 with the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act—the objective being to provide loans at economic interest rates and on stable terms and conditions to farmers for land development purposes. The functions of the office, later known as the State Advances Department, were subsequently enlarged to allow loans for the erection and purchase of houses and to local authorities for the provision of public facilities. A public corporation was established with the passing of the Mortgage Corporation Act 1934-35—the share capital of $2,000,000 being subscribed equally by Government and public. In terms of the State Advances Corporation Act 1936, the Government acquired the privately-owned share of the Mortgage Corporation, extended its functions and changed its name to the State Advances Corporation of New Zealand. Under the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974 the rural lending activities of the State Advances Corporation passed to the newly-established Rural Banking and Finance Corporation from 1 April 1974.

RURAL BANKING AND FINANCE CORPORATION—The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation is the organisation through which Government loans are channelled to individuals or companies engaged in any type of farming, to the fishing industry, or to support industries in these areas. The Rural Bank consists of a chairman and four other directors appointed by the Minister of Finance. Two of the directors are appointed after consultation with the Federated Farmers of New Zealand (Inc).

The principal functions of the Rural Bank are to carry on the business of making loans and providing other assistance in its discretion for farming, other primary industries, and related service industries. Its powers include the acquisition of land and other property by purchase or lease and the management, development, sale, or lease of such property. The Rural Bank also has powers to give guarantees and indemnities to other lenders. In the execution of its functions and powers it is required to give effect to Government policy.

Farm Purchase—Loan finance is granted by the Rural Bank for the purchase of farm properties. Present policy is directed towards assisting young farmers and farm workers who can demonstrate a need for finance from the Rural Bank, and who have not previously owned an economic property. Loans may be granted for the purchase of land and improvements and for stock and plant.

The policy of average amounts for particular types of loans, which allows a higher sum to be granted in appropriate cases, has been continued. These lending guidelines now run at $50,000 for dairy farms and $70,000 for sheep farms.

Farm Development—Loan policy in the area of farm development is to stimulate increased production, strengthen marginal farms, and provide buildings and other essential development. In appropriate cases, loans may be advanced on second or subsequent mortgage.

Refinance—The Rural Bank has limited funds for refinancing mortgages but will normally not provide assistance unless the mortgagor is facing serious hardship through inability to obtain a renewal.

Loans on Stock and Plant—Loans which are essentially for the purchase of stock and plant, e.g., sharemilking propositions, are available on the security of the stock and chattels being purchased.

Sharemilkers' Suspensory Loans—A sharemilker or other short-term lessee, purchasing his first farm, who faces a tax liability through having to reduce stock may qualify for a suspensory loan if the carrying capacity of the farm he is purchasing is less than that of the property he has been farming and the stock reduction is more than 20 head. The loan is calculated on $30 per cow reduction with a maximum of $7,000 and is interest free. Subject to the borrower owning and farming the property for 10 years the suspensory loan may be written off.

Co-operative Rural Intermediate Credit Associations—Loans may be granted by the Rural Bank to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations operating in terms of the Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927 and amendments. At 31 March 1976 there were four co-operative rural intermediate credit associations in operation. The loans authorised through this channel during the year 1975–76 amounted to $2,146,256.

Farm Mortgage Guarantees—In recognition of the need for farmers to have access to more capital for future reorganisation and reconstruction than the Rural Bank can make available by direct loans, the Rural Bank operates a Farm Mortgage Guarantee Scheme. Under this scheme the Rural Bank protects prudent lenders with soundly administered mortgage against loss of capital.

Forestry—Where it is considered that tree planting is the best use of the land the Rural Bank will lend to farmers for forestry projects and associated development works.

Climatic Relief—In adverse conditions, such as drought, flooding, or damage to crops from gales, the Rural Bank may provide by way of loan, emergency funds to enable a disaster victim to resume or continue operations. The criterion is need—whether or not adequate security is available—and the motive is relief, not compensation for loss.

Farm Ownership Savings—The Farm Ownership Savings Scheme, administered by the Rural Bank, allows farm workers, sharemilkers, others associated with farming, and also students the opportunity of opening savings accounts for the purpose of buying a first farm or for the purchase of stock and plant to go sharemilking or share farming for the first time. These accounts can be opened with the Post Office Savings Bank, Trustee Savings Banks, and some Building Societies. Depositors have the option of operating one or other of the following types of accounts under the scheme:

  1. Ordinary Farm Ownership accounts which provide for tax free purchase grants; or,

  2. Special Farm Ownership accounts which allow depositors tax benefits on their savings.

INDUSTRIAL LENDING—Loans are available to those industries in the rural sector which have export potential, which will assist regional development, or which service the primary industries. Examples include veterinary clinics, packing sheds, cool stores, grain dryers, and milk treatment plants as well as agriculture contractors. Consideration is also given to assisting soundly-based operators to purchase plant and machinery of an innovatory nature for demonstration and evaluation in New Zealand conditions.

Export Suspensory Loans—To promote the export of non-traditional agricultural and horticultural products, the Rural Bank will grant to exporters suspensory loans of up to 40 percent of qualifying expenditure on plant and equipment. Upon achievement of an export target, each loan is converted to a grant and written off.

Fishing Industry—It is the policy of the Rural Bank to encourage the development of the fishing industry on a sound basis, and, to this end will lend for the purchase, building, or refinance of larger or more efficient vessels. Loans are also available for carrying out improvements, including re-engining to already owned vessels. Similar loans are offered for the acquisition of replacement or additional fishing gear. The Rural Bank also helps with the purchase of modern equipment and buildings for the handling, storage, freezing, and discharge of fish. Rock oyster and mussel farmers are eligible for loan assistance for development work provided they hold a lease or licence and themselves contribute a minimum of 50 percent of the risk capital.

Loan Authorisations—A summary of loans authorised by the Rural Bank during the year ended 31 March 1976 is given in the following table.

Type or Purpose of LoanNumberAmount
  $(m)
For the purchase of farms93643.80
For development (including irrigation and additional land)3,11041.23
Sharemilkers' suspensory loans1240.33
Stock and plant loans (including Rural Intermediate Credit Associations)1,0519.22
Climatic relief350.20
Refinance1,51916.96
Industrial loans27316.10
 7,048127.84

In addition during 1976, 2,615 loans for $11.42 million were advanced to farmers and apiarists under the Seasonal Finance Support Scheme.

29 C—STATE FINANCE FOR HOUSING

HOUSING CORPORATION OF NEW ZEALAND—Under the Housing Corporation Act 1974 the functions of the State Advances Corporation in housing were amalgamated with those previously performed by the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works and Development to constitute the Housing Corporation of New Zealand, responsible to the Minister of Housing.

Housing Loans—The Housing Corporation continues to concentrate the bulk of its residential lending on the provision of loans for the erection of houses or the acquisition of houses not previously occupied. Loans to assist home seekers to purchase previously occupied houses, reinstated in 1964, are available to the extent of available funds and to applicants within strictly defined priority categories.

All loans are made on security of a first mortgage of land. Each case is considered on its merits, taking into account the financial position of the applicant and the cost of the proposition. Each applicant is expected to make the maximum possible contribution from available resources.

There are no fixed loan limits but an average loan concept is applied which provides loans of a greater amount in areas where housing costs are highest. The maximum loan available for either erection or purchase will, however, generally not exceed 90 percent of the Corporation's assessed value of the security offered.

The standard interest rate at present is 7 1/2 percent and this rate is subject to review at 3-yearly intervals. The rebated interest rate of 3 percent is still available and from May 1974 an intermediate interest rate of 4 1/2 percent was introduced. This intermediate rate was increased to 5 1/2 percent in March 1976. To qualify for a rebated interest loan, borrowers must not have owned a property within 5 years prior to the date of the loan application and the breadwinner's gross income (including overtime, bonus payments, and secondary employment) must not exceed certain limits—for 3 percent $80 per week increased by $5 for each dependent child, and for 5 1/2 percent between $80 and $90 similarly increased by $5 for each dependent child. Loans now being granted at 3 percent provide for the interest rate to be automatically increased to 5 1/2 percent after 3 years and to 7 1/2 percent (or the then prime rate) after a further 3 years. Loans bearing an initial interest rate of 5 1/2 percent increase to 7 1/2 percent (or the then prime rate) after 3 years.

Of the 15,360 housing loans approved during the year ended 31 March 1976 (involving $232.4 million), 7,172 loans (involving $75.85 million) carried interest rebates.

Loans are also granted for essential alterations and alterations to Corporation securities as where the housing of an elderly or dependent relative is involved. Loans, together with any prior mortgage debt, must be within 90 percent of value and where housing of an elderly relative is involved may be by way of second or subsequent mortgage security.

Housing improvement loans, introduced in 1972, were extended in 1975 to all localities, but with particular emphasis continuing to be placed on the inner areas of the four main centres. Loans are entertained for owner-occupier or tenanted properties on subsequent mortgage for the purposes of upgrading of older housing stock.

Loans to refinance existing mortgages on a residential property where family income is under undue strain caused by high interest rates and/or onerous terms of repayment, were introduced in the 1973 Budget and for the year ended 31 March 1976 a total of 368 loans for $2.0 million were advanced. Security may be on first and subsequent mortgage.

Family Benefit Capitalisation—Applications for advances under the Family Benefit (Home Ownership) Act 1964 are received only from applicants who have already been declared eligible by the Department of Social Welfare. For the year ended 31 March 1976, 6,012 advances totalling $8.2 million were authorised by the corporation under this agency, compared with 4,450 advances totalling $5.95 million in 1974-75.

Mortgage Guarantee Scheme For Housing—The corporation has statutory authority to guarantee mortgages and operates schemes whereby an approved lender may be guaranteed either repayment of that portion of a housing loan granted by the institution in excess of its normal limits (usually two-thirds of the value) or the whole of the amount advanced. In 1975-76 there were 1,028 guarantees involving $5.46 million.

Loan Authorisations—A summary of loans authorised by the corporation for the latest 2 financial years ended 31 March is given in the following table.

Class of Loan1974-751975-76
NumberAmountNumberAmount
Housing loans— $(m) $(m)
Erection9,040126.411,659177.9
Purchase5,14072.33,70154.5
Other purposes1,1113.73,49414.6
Refinance6133.13682.0
Totals, housing15,904205.519,222249.0
Loans to industry182.4142.1
Grand totals15,922207.919,236251.1

The above figures include rehabilitation loans to ex-servicemen for housing purposes.

A summary of the number of loans under administration as at 31 March 1976 is as follows:

Loans on Mortgage
Urban145,706
Industrial157
Hotel investment loans38
Local authority313
Urban housing939
Rural housing618
Gas companies11
Approved securities130
Total147,912

HOUSING ACT 1955—In addition to its lending activities the Housing Corporation has the function of administering the Housing Act 1955 on behalf of the Crown. The following are the main operations:

  1. Letting and administration of Corporation rental houses and flats.

  2. Sale of State rental houses to tenants desiring to purchase.

  3. Loans to local authorities for the erection of rental accommodation.

Corporation Rental Housing—The number of additional dwelling units taken over by the Corporation during the year ended 31 March 1976 totalled 3,042 including 25 older houses purchased by the Corporation. Rental properties under administration on a tenancy basis at 1 April 1975 were 52,437. After adding the new units taken over and allowing for sales and repurchases, there was a net total of 55,059 at 31 March 1976.

Rental accounts in arrears at 31 March 1976 were 8.14 percent compared with 8.08 percent a year earlier.

Rents received from tenancies amounted to $29,536,883. In addition the sum of $514,757 was recouped by deduction of interest payable on National Development Loans capital to offset rental concessions granted to pensioners, etc., thus bringing the total receipts to $30,051,640 compared with $25,001,696 for 1974-75. Apart from interest, the largest single item of expenditure charged against rentals was the provision for maintenance of rental houses. For the year ended 31 March 1976 this amounted to $12,000,000 against $8,443,000 for the previous year. Rates payable to local authorities showed an increase for the year ended 31 March 1976, totalling $5,822,363 compared with the previous year's figure of $4,698,989.

The interest rate payable on National Development Loans capital is 3 percent. References to Corporation housing construction are contained in Section 18 (Building Construction and Housing).

Sale of Rental Houses—The Government reintroduced the sale of rental houses to tenants in March 1976 on the following terms:

  1. Sale price to be the current market value of the property.

  2. The minimum deposit to be 20 percent of the purchase price.

  3. The balance of the purchase price together with interest payable over a term of up to 30 years on an instalment table basis.

  4. Interest at 7 1/2 percent reducible to 5 1/2 percent or 3 percent reviewable 3-yearly while conditions of sale are complied with in the case of purchasers who would qualify for these rates for a Corporation housing loan.

From the inception of the sale of rental houses up to 31 March 1976 the number of sales finalised amounted to 27,451 dwellings (excluding pensioner units transferred to local authorities) for a total consideration of approximately $177.11 million.

29 D—BUILDING SOCIETIES

GENERAL—Building societies are a relatively popular means of saving and investment in New Zealand and have over 460,000 members. There are 62 building societies with total assets of $497.6 million. They provide finance for home ownership to the extent of over $80 million a year. Building societies have assisted the national economy by developing the field of saving. They are encouraged by legislation, as in other countries, and are exempt from income tax except for income derived from the letting of property. The relevant legislation is the Building Societies Act 1965, the Building Societies Savings Bank Regulations 1966, and the Building Societies Regulations 1967.

The Building Society Amendment Act 1974 brought the sale of shares by terminating societies under provisions along the lines of those of the Door to Door Sales Act 1967.

In 1970 a measure was introduced requiring building societies to hold 5 percent of their assets in the form of public securities.

TERMINATING SOCIETIES—Although some of these societies issue preference shares and accept deposits, most of their funds are obtained from periodical subscriptions paid by members on their shares. In general members contract to subscribe for a minimum period of 10 years. Subscriptions cannot be withdrawn within 10 years of membership without penalty. Field staffs are employed to recruit by direct canvassing new members who take up subscription shares, each share entitling a member to compete for a loan of $400, with a contractual payment of 10 cents weekly per share. As funds allow, ballots are held for interest-free loans. A member winning an interest-free loan may use it to finance a home, but the popular feature of these societies is that they offer to ballot-winners, as an alternative to an interest-free loan, a tax-free lump sum payment which is accepted by the great majority of ballot-winners in preference to the interest-free loan.

Members may also compete for interest-bearing loans by a process of tendering or by application. Over 90 percent of the loans granted are on an interest-bearing basis and generally if a member receives an interest-bearing loan he is then excluded from ballots. Terminating societies do not pay an annual dividend or interest on subscription shares but shareholders who have not received a loan and withdraw their shares after 10 or more years of membership receive their subscriptions back in full plus such an amount as the directors may determine. Shares are segregated into groups which terminate after some 30 years when those remaining financial members who have not won a ballot nor received an interest-bearing loan receive a share of profits in addition to a return of their subscriptions. In 1975 there were 12 terminating societies with 405,365 shareholders and 488 terminating groups; the number of mortgagors was 42,842.

During 1975 1,026 interest-free loans won by ballot were taken up, while in 5,598 cases members elected to receive payments for rights won by ballot; 1,170 advances were made through tender or auction process, and 3,125 other interest-bearing advances were made on mortgage to members.

PERMANENT SOCIETIES—Whilst encouraging systematic savings these societies rely more substantially for their funds on single investment deposits and fully paid shares. Some of these societies are authorised to conduct savings banks in a manner substantially similar to the Post Office and other savings banks. A number of permanent societies maintain financial ratios which have enabled them to qualify for designation as societies with which trustees may invest trust funds by way of deposit.

Permanent societies do not conduct ballots but make loans available to members on application. The structures of permanent societies differ, some being purely co-operative, others being partly proprietary and partly co-operative, and others being fully proprietary with all fixed capital somewhat similar to finance companies. In 1975 there were 47 permanent societies (3 had amalgamated during the year) with 55,433 shareholders; the number of mortgagors totalled 19,807.

Item 197319741975

* Figures from 3 societies in the course of dissolution have not been included.

† Allows for amalgamation of 3 societies during 1975.

Permanent Societies    
Number of societies..504947
Paid-up capital$(000)60,72072,19186,770
Number of shareholders..48,42953,74355,433
Terminating Societies*    
Number of societies..131212
Paid-up capital$(000)223,006246,60270,083
Number of shareholders..405,947408,643405,365

ACTIVITIES OF SOCIETIES—Societies do not have a common balance date. The following tables have been prepared from the annual returns of societies as at their various balance dates during the 1975 calendar year.

A summary of receipts and payments is given in the following table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
*Ten Societies are authorised by the Act to accept deposits on conditions substantially similar to the conditions pertaining to the Post Office, trustee, and private savings banks.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Receipts   
Share subscriptions (excluding subscriptions on borrowing shares)40,29452,71693,010
Deposits received—   
Savings bank*5,0461785,224
Other88,53816,719105,257
Interest and principal repaid—   
Advances on mortgage (including subscriptions on borrowing shares)29,54251,82281,364
Advances on shares3307,3417,671
Investments realised14,38240,47554,857
Payments   
Share moneys withdrawn27,23027,26254,492
Deposits and interest withdrawn—   
Savings bank*5,1212375,358
Other98,03622,726120,762
Advanced on mortgage26,14855,10981,257
Advanced on shares2738,7359,008
Investments made15,31542,32257,637

A summary of income and expenditure for financial years ended in 1975 is given in the following table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
*Mainly agency commissions.
Income
Interest earned on—$(000)$(000)$(000)
Advances10,08818,70628,794
Investments1,0821,9082,990
Fees, commissions and fines2338591,092
Incomes from properties62401463
Net credit from shares forfeited or withdrawn at a discount31,6791,682
Members' contributions to reserves2379381
Other*56552608
Total Income11,52624,48436,010
Expenditure
Interest incurred on borrowings3,4072,3785,785
Directors' emoluments154128282
Auditors' fees5174125
Salaries7703,1443,914
Other administrative expenses4421,9532,395
Selling and establishment expenses—written off302,9753,005
Payments for ballot loan rights—written off..4,3224,322
Expenses on properties, including depreciation46428474
Discount on shares paid in advance—written off..5555
Other62845*907
Total expenditure4,96216,30221,264
Excess of income over expenditure6,5648,18214,746

The purposes of advances on mortgage in the 3 latest available years are shown in the following table.

Purpose of LoanPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
197319741975197319741975197319741975
  $(m)  S(m)  $(m) 
Dwellings—         
Erections3.05.75.57.09.79.410.015.414.9
Purchases21.827.215.936.338.122.458.165.338.3
Other purposes3.54.62.720.428.119.523.932.722.2
Business and other properties3.85.32.15.35.03.89.110.35.9
Totals32.142.826.168.980.855.1101.0123.681.3

The following table summarises balance sheets for the financial year ended during 1975.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

*Most terminating societies bring the principal outstanding on interest-free loans into their balance sheets at its face value.

†In previous years included in either "Advances on security of mortgage" or "Other".

Assets$(000)$(000)$(000)
Land and buildings1,26915,70116,970
Other fixed assets1611,2571,418
Advances on security of mortgage (less credits on borrowing shares)*133,735271,264404,999
Advances on security of shares38311,94212,325
Investments20,33737,28457,621
Cash and bank419192611
Appropriations in trust debit balances..1,5271,527
Other1722,0022,174
 156,476341,169497,645
Liabilities
Paid-up capital (excluding borrowing shares)86,770270,083356,853
Reserves8,09519,34627,441
Retained profits1,00629,21730,223
 95,871318,646414,517
Less fictitious assets9020,15220,242
 95,781298,494394,275
Deposits—   
Savings bank2,6561332,789
Other54,78026,96381,743
Appropriations in trust credit balances..1,9141,914
Provisions1,4841,5413,025
Bank overdraft1,5664,2335,799
Other2097,8918,100
Total liabilities156,476341,169497,645

29 E—COMPANIES

GENERAL—The method of carrying on business by companies is now a proved system, a system for the incorporation of persons into a separate entity for trading purposes and providing a convenient method for the investment of capital and for the limitation of liability of the people associated in the company. The incorporation of a company with limited liability provides the framework of commercial and industrial life; private companies have become a usual form of business organisation for the smaller trader.

LEGISLATION—Comprehensive legislation relating to companies is contained in the Companies Act 1955, which came into force on 1 January 1957. An important principle in the legislation is the protection of shareholders, creditors, and the general public by the requirement that there must be the fullest practicable disclosure of information concerning the activities of companies. The annual financial statements must exhibit a true and complete account of a company's affairs and transactions. A prescribed form of presentation is required, and comparative figures for the previous year must be shown. A prospectus must be deposited with the Registrar of Companies before it is issued.

Any number of persons from 2 to 25 may form a private company; a public company must have at least 7 members. A private company of not less than 7 members may, under certain conditions, be re-registered as a public company.

The Companies Amendment Act 1963 restricts company takeovers. The Companies Amendment Act 1966 deals with deposits and debentures, and came into force on 1 January 1967.

NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED—The following table shows for the latest available 5 years the number and aggregate nominal capital of new private companies registered.

In comparing one year with another it should not be overlooked that reregistrations, on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons, are included. Such reregistrations of large companies may have a considerable effect on the year's total, so far as capital is concerned.

The nominal capital shown for overseas companies is the total nominal capital of these companies and, of course, bears no relationship to their capital resources employed in New Zealand. It is shown merely as some indication of the relative size of overseas companies commencing business in this country. Because of possible inaccuracies in the source data all figures should be regarded as approximate only.

YearPrivate CompaniesPublic CompaniesOverseas Companies
NumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal Capital

*Two companies are limited (as to capital) by guarantee.

†One company limited (as to capital) by guarantee.

  $(000) $(000) $(000)
1971*5,42538,5233142,17534278,291
1972*6,48482,931104,672534,183,507
19738,75390,3453251,04552108,034
1974*7,698158,525158,15036305,135
19757,75363,7461720,2114520,594

The following table gives a classification of new companies registered in 1974 and 1975 according to the amount of nominal capital.

Amount of Nominal CapitalPrivate CompaniesPublic CompaniesOverseas Companies
NumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal Capital
$ $(000) $(000) $(000)
1974
Under 2,0002,8771,9451- -21
2,000–3,9991,5273,534----
4,000–5,9991,1885,522---5
6,000–7,9993652,284--16
8,000–9,9992251,901--19
10,000–1,9997077,097--771
12,000–13,999981,192----
14,000–15,9991011,500----
16,000–17,99933542----
18,000–19,99923419----
20,000–29,9992705,772120120
30,000–39,999762,355----
40,000–99,9991115,8172805339
100,000–199,999424,78233004490
200,000 and over53113,86377,75013304,194
Limited by guarantee, etc.2-1-1-
Totals7,698158,525158,15035305,135
Amount of Nominal CapitalPrivate CompaniesPublic CompaniesOverseas Companies
NumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal Capital

*Includes 2 companies with no stated capital.

†Includes I company with no stated capital.

$ $(000) $(000) $(000)
1975
Under 2,0003,1052,1447*367
2,000–3,9991,4373,31612--
4,000–5,9991,1725,46514--
6,000–7,9993412,121----
8,000–9,9992321,942----
10,000–11,9997257,276--11114
12,000–13,9991051,277----
14,000–15,999941,391----
16,000–17,99930489--117
18,000–19,99915275----
20,000–29,9992435,103120125
30,000–39,999521,611----
40,000–99,9991105,5512826330
100,000–199,999475,105--101,094
200,000 and over4520,680520,1001019,006
Limited by guarantee, etc.------
Totals7,75363,7461720,2114520,594

The extent of changes in the number and nominal capital of new registrations of private companies between 1964 and 1974, expressed as percentages of the totals is shown in the following table.

Amount of Nominal CapitalNumberAmount of Capital
1964197419641974
$percent
Under 2,00025.037.42.01.2
2,000–9,99957.642.925.28.4
10,000–19,9999.812.513.56.8
20,000 and over7.67.259.383.6
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

Compiled from published sources, the following summary gives the stated objects of all new companies registered during the latest available 3 years.

Industry Group197319741975

*Includes leather industries.

†Excludes restaurants and hotels.

‡Includes restaurants and hotels.

Agriculture and livestock production852635547
Forestry, hunting, and fishing845459
Mining and quarrying332530
Manufacturing—   
Food, beverages and tobacco917471
Footwear and apparel185154158*
Machinery (including electrical)310280298
Wood, cork, furniture and fixtures12510997
Transport equipment41919287
Other565419502
Construction1,1121,1501,004
Electricity, gas, and water1-10
Commerce—   
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and hotels2,3232,2672,754
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services1,1609521,209
Transport, storage, and communication322278259
Community, social, and personal services1,2451,124719
Other103611
Totals8,8377,7497,815

Changes of Nominal Capital by Registered Companies—In the calendar year 1975, 1,796 public and private companies which previously had a total nominal capital of $438.6 million increased their nominal capital by $342.3 million to $780.9 million. There were 50 cases with increases of $1 million or more and these accounted for $252.7 million of the total increase.

Overseas companies registered in New Zealand, but not included in the preceding figures, increased their nominal capital by $74.6 million, from $94.6 million to $169.2 million.

In 31 cases local companies reduced their nominal capital by a total of $19.2 million from $146.8 million to $127.6 million.

Companies on Register—At 31 December 1976 there were 106,106 companies on the register compared with 101,666 at the same date in 1975. Included in these figures are overseas companies which amount to 642 and 523 respectively. These figures were supplied by the Registrar of Companies.

Companies Gazetted as Deleted From the Company Register—During 1975 there were 4,806 companies deleted from the Company Register, their total nominal capital being $52.4 million. In the previous year 2,304 companies with total capital of $175.7 million were deleted. Overseas companies ceasing to have a place of business in New Zealand are not included.

ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC COMPANY FINANCIAL STATEMENTS—Since 1953 the Reserve Bank of New Zealand has undertaken an analysis of the annual financial statements of a sample of public companies in New Zealand to obtain information concerning company finance and the capital market. Results of these analyses are published in a supplement to the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

The basis of coverage includes only companies of New Zealand domicile whose income is wholly or mainly from New Zealand sources.

The 1975 survey covers the analysis of the accounts of 243 companies whose accounts were received during the calendar year 1975. Company balance dates varied. Of the 243 companies, 209 balanced during 1975 (100 of them in March) and 34 in 1974 (30 of them in the last quarter).

Proportionate changes in sources and use of funds over the latest 3 years are shown in the following table.

 197319741975
Source of Funds— percent 
Retained profits and depreciation37.538.234.7
Other long-term sources28.515.944.6
All long-term sources66.054.179.3
Short-term sources34.045.920.7
Totals100.0100.0100.0
Use of Funds—   
Property and plant40.936.946.1
Long-term investment8.71.51.9
All long-term use49.638.448.0
Stocks7.629.440.6
Debtors25.426.93.8
Other short-term17.45.37.6
Totals100.0100.0100.0

Appropriation of income of 243 New Zealand public companies in the latest 2 years is shown in the following table.

Item19731974
 $(000)
Income for year—  
Trading524,773490,194
Investment income16,64918,479
Other non-trading income1,5422,416
Total income542,964511,089
Deductions—  
Depreciation107,720125,414
Interest on fixed liabilities47,92465,875
Directors' fees2,4582,731
Tax on current year's income141,854110,930
Minority interests6,0816,727
Total deductions306,037311,677
Net profit after tax236,927199,412
Other years' adjustments—  
Tax4641,081
Other17,9284,100
Available for appropriation255,319204,593
Appropriations—  
Goodwill, etc., written off17,41915,350
Ordinary dividends89,48094,636
Preference dividends1,8562,033
Retained in reserves146,56492,574
Total appropriations255,319204,593

Net Profits and Net Profit Ratios—Net profits (after tax) and net profit ratios are shown in the following table. The analysis reflects trading conditions mainly from April 1974 to July 1975 and most industry groups experienced significant falls in net profits during this period. The beverages group was adversely affected by increased costs while low prices for wool and falling prices for meat had the effect of cutting back sharply the profits of the stock and station agents and the meat freezing companies. In particular, meat freezing companies were badly affected by the high opening lamb schedule for the 1973-74 season, and stock and station agents' profits were reduced by the lower commissions earned on the sale of wool.

Aggregate net profits of the 243 companies in this survey were 15.8 percent down on the previous year's figure compared with the rise of 36.4 percent between 1973 and 1974 recorded in last year's survey.

It should be noted that because of the relatively high rates of inflation during the period covered by the survey and the fact that profits have been reported in accordance with conventional accounting procedures, the real rates of growth in profits are likely to be less than that shown.

Of the twenty company groups, five had profit movements against the overall trend of declines in profits. These were the metals and machinery, electrical machinery and appliances, non-metallic minerals, gas, and property investors groups. Meat processing companies and stock and station agents experienced considerably greater than average profit falls. Typical comments of company chairmen in their annual reports were references to the additional working capital required to finance the same volume of business, squeezed profit margins, and in the earlier part of the year to the higher costs of imported raw materials.

Type of CompanyNumber of CompaniesNet ProfitReturn
TotalChange From Previous YearOn Share-holders FundsOn Total Resources

* For note on balance dates see opening paragraphs of this sub-section.

†The return on shareholders' funds is net tax-paid profit expressed as a percentage of shareholders' funds. This ratio demonstrates the earning power of the funds invested in the business by the shareholders.

‡The return on total resources is an expression of the percentage of net tax-paid profit to total tangible assets. This ratio is an indicator of the earning power of the business.

  $(000) percent 
1975*     
Manufacturing     
Meat processing692-8,8610.10.1
Beverages68,678-4,3556.62.9
Other food87,094-2,4827.43.9
All food2015,864-15,6985.22.5
Woollen mills59,526-3,3959.74.7
Clothing manufactures72,230-7169.95.3
Forestry and wood734,713-66912.26.0
Printing and publishing147,646-1,41110.16.3
Drugs and chemicals1210,579-44811.66.2
Non-metallic minerals76,636+36211.36.7
Metals and machinery2025,477+1,47812.65.6
Electrical machinery and appliances147,110+1,10114.97.0
Other manufacturing1610,954-16213.26.8
Manufacturing other than food102114,871-3,86011.96.0
All manufacturing122130,735-19,55810.35.1
Other (excluding financial)     
Construction911,122-38610.74.7
Gas5844+9815.64.6
Mainly wholesale2818,183-25010.94.7
Mainly retail3114,430-3,3299.54.8
Stock and station agents179,855-12,1305.72.0
Transport124,618-79211.45.3
Property investors92,112+15610.24.5
Total other (excluding financial)11161,164-16,6339.33.9
Total (excluding financial)233191,899-36,1919.94.7
Financial107,513-1,32413.12.1
Grand Total243199,412-37,51510.04.5

Chapter 30. Section 30 INSURANCE

30 A—LIFE ASSURANCE

DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE ASSURANCE—Life assurance is no longer restricted to its original function, but has been encouraged for its avenue of contractual savings accumulating to considerable capital investment. Its additional role as the basis of many private superannuation schemes gives to a large segment of the labour force a protection not available to it a generation ago. Whole-life assurance has been widely supplemented by endowment assurance. Under this category there are policies with titles such as "family-income", "education", "mortgage-protection", or "retirement", and persons taking out policies regard them as a means of systematic saving. Government encouragement is given by way of income-tax concessions on premiums paid, this approach being common to the governments of many countries.

The steady flow of funds to insurance companies by the payment of premiums are in the form of contractual saving, and the investment of these funds has become a major influence on the financial market. Life-assurance companies are leading lenders of long-term funds to the private sector and important investors in Government and local authority securities. Growth in life-assurance assets has exceeded $100 million a year in recent years and in 1975-76 they totalled $2,248 million of which 30.9 percent is invested in mortgages on property, 27.6 percent in central Government and local authority securities, and 15.8 percent in company stocks, shares and debentures.

In the year 1975-76 there were 228,161 new policies issued for a total sum assured of $3,392.0 million, or approximately $1,095 per head of population. The total number of policies in force at the end of the year was 2,673,000 for a total life assurance of $15,150 million. (These figures exclude annuities.)

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON—On the basis of the ratio of the value of life assurance in force to the national income, New Zealand is fourth to Japan, Canada, and the United States, as shown in the following table. This survey covered 43 countries. (Source: Life Insurance Fact Book, 1975.) Selected countries are listed in the following table.

Country19681973
*Data is for 1972.
 percent
Canada155154
United States150150
Sweden139140*
New Zealand140144*
Japan102161
Australia100123
Netherlands110104
United Kingdom87101

In Sweden the introduction in 1963 of a large national group life plan sponsored by the Government but underwritten by private life companies helped to increase the ratio markedly. Term life cover is believed to constitute a higher proportion of the total coverage in Canada and the United States than in New Zealand, where permanent life cover is relatively high. (Purchase of assurance for a set term provides maximum immediate cover at the lowest cost and can be used to cover mortgage repayments on a house; insurance for a short term for travel purposes is also popular in the United States and Canada.) Group life plans are negotiated by groups of workers in other countries and typically provide for a death benefit equal to one or two times annual earnings.

GENERAL—The statutory provisions affecting life assurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act 1908, the Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910, and the Government Life Insurance Act 1953.

There are 32 life-assurance offices conducting business in New Zealand at the present time. Of these, 13 are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, Capital Life Assurance Ltd., Cuna Mutual Insurance Society, New Zealand Insurance (Life and General) Co. Ltd., Metropolitan Life Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd., the South British Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Superannuation and Mutual Savings Ltd., Primary Industries Insurance Co. Ltd., A.A. Mutual, Tasman Mutual Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Fidelity Life Assurance Co. Ltd., A.G.H. Insurances Ltd., and the Equitable Life and General Insurance Co. Ltd., whilst three, the Provident Life Assurance Co., Commercial Union Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd. (formerly Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand Ltd.), and the Monarch Life Insurance Co. of New Zealand, are registered in this country. The balance dates of the offices vary between July and June of the following year, the financial year of the majority ending in December. The statistics given here relate exclusively to business transacted in New Zealand. Further information is available in the annual report Insurance Statistics prepared by the Department of Statistics and available in Government bookshops.

LIFE ASSURANCE: Ordinary and Industrial—The progress of life assurance in New Zealand is illustrated by the following diagram, which shows the amount of new business transacted.

A summary of annual life-assurance business is given in the following table.

YearValue of Policies IssuedValue of Policies DiscontinuedValue of Policies Existing at End of YearAnnual Premiums on Existing PoliciesNumber of Policies in Force
*Includes policies (value $12.1 million) transferred.
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)(000)
1970-711,173.9*434.56,894.5146.62,230
1971-721,560.5462.07,996.4168.62,337
1972-731,988.1563.09,445.0196.32,443
1973-742,212.9x677.910,984.7221.82,534
1974-752,535.1x792.4x12,858.9x248.92,637x
1975-763,392.01,109.315,150.2284.12,673

While the upward trend shown in the figures has been influenced both by the rate of monetary depreciation and the normal growth of population, the course of life-assurance business, particularly during the past decade, has been one of steady progress. In the last 12 years the face value of new business underwritten annually and the amount of cover in force has increased almost fourfold.

Total discontinuances include surrenders and lapses, as well as policies maturing or terminated by death.

A prominent feature of new insurances of recent years has been the increase in the average amount of the sum assured per policy.

YearAverage Amount*
* Excludes annuities and Industrial policies.
 $
1970-716,159
1971-727,174
1972-738,575
1973-749,916
1974-7511,210x
1975-7614,990

Reasons for the growth in the average amount of the sum assured per policy shown in the above table include the changing types of policies being issued, and the increasing numbers of such policies which have a high cover (for example, cover for staff superannuation purposes by business concerns, temporary insurance with a high death-risk cover, multiple death benefit and family benefit policies having a high initial cover, and "unit" policies whereby a single premium provides a high initial death cover). A further reason is the relatively high rate of inflation in recent years.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS—The principal items in the balance sheets of life-assurance companies are summarised below for the 3 latest years. As in the previous tables the figures relate to New Zealand business only. In the case of some companies other branches of insurance business are included.

Liabilities1973-741974-75x1975-76
  $(000) 
Paid-up share capital5,1895,9626,009
Life-assurance and annuity funds1,783,3261,960,9562,165,188
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds30,28823,78226,157
Claims admitted but not paid14,08114,07316,035
Other liabilities29,23044,25635,044
Totals1,862,1152,049,0292,248,435

The assets of the New Zealand branches at the end of each of the 3 latest years were as follows.

AssetsAmountPercentage of Totals
1973-741974-751975-761973-741974-751975-76
  $(m)  percent 
Mortgages on houses, etc.602.6656.9x695.432.432.131.0
Loans on policies92.4108.0119.95.05.35.3
Central Government securities389.5404.7x440.220.919.819.6
Local authority securities141.4156.0x181.47.67.68.1
Real estate261.8323.6x373.014.015.816.6
Company shares and debentures308.3325.9353.916.515.915.7
Outstanding premiums18.520.521.91.01.01.0
Interest accrued, etc.19.721.725.31.11.01.1
Cash12.315.2x14.70.70.70.6
Other assets15.616.5x22.70.80.81.0
Totals1,862.12,049.0x2,248.4100.0100.0100.0

The Government has made agreements with the life-insurance companies regarding the proportion of their new funds invested in Government and local authority securities. By 1970 the life-insurance companies were investing 30 percent of their new investable funds in public sector securities, of which not less than 22.5 percent would be in Government stock and 7.5 percent in local authority stock. From 1 October 1970 life insurance companies were asked to invest an additional 5 percent of their new funds in public sector securities, and from July 1974 the local authority content of these was allowed to be increased to 9 percent.

For 1975-76 the average rate of interest earned on the life funds of insurance companies was $7.59 percent, compared with $7.30 percent during 1974-75.

The following diagram illustrates the expansion that has taken place in recent years in the assets of the New Zealand branches of life-assurance companies and the manner of their investment. In composite-insurance offices, receipts of life assurance and annuity business must be treated as a separate fund, and the interests of the policyholders are safeguarded by the fact that these funds are available only for liabilities arising from such business.

30 B—ACCIDENT INSURANCE

GENERAL—Until 1974 there were three principal classes of accident insurance transacted in New Zealand. These were: (a) personal, covering accidents, sickness, etc.; (b) employers' liability under statutory or common law; and (c) motor vehicle insurance. Other classes of accident insurance include the insurance of plate glass, television sets, luggage, and livestock.

The Accident Compensation Act 1972, effective from 1 April 1974, provides continuous cover against accidents of all persons in regular employment, whether at work or not, through an earners' scheme financed by levies averaging 1 percent of incomes payable by employers on behalf of employees: the levies replace employers' liability premiums under the Workers Compensation Act. (See Section 34B—Industrial Injuries.)

Until 1974 there were two classes of motor vehicle insurance—comprehensive coverage, and compulsory third-party risks cover. Owners of motor vehicles were compelled to insure against their liability to pay damages on account of the death or bodily injury of another person caused through the car-owners negligence. However, this compulsory scheme was replaced from 1 July 1974 by a new scheme under the Accident Compensation Act 1972. The new scheme provides financial compensation for personal injuries suffered in motor vehicle accidents irrespective of blame. It is financed by levies similar to the previous insurance premiums paid by motor vehicle owners.

The number of accident insurance offices represented in the statistics for 1975-76 was 64. The head offices of the companies concerned were in the following countries: Great Britain, 17; Australia, 11; United States of America, 3; Hong Kong, 1; and New Zealand, 32.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The following table shows the principal items of revenue and expenditure. Premiums and claims are net, i.e., after deductions for acceptances of reinsurance, whether effected locally or overseas, have been taken into account.

YearNumber of OfficesRevenueExpenditure
PremiumsOther RevenueTotal*ClaimsCommissionSalariesOther ExpensesTotal*
*Excluding reserve provisions.
     $(million)    
1970-717588.04.892.865.85.69.48.689.4
1971-7267106.25.7111.977.27.011.38.6104.1
1972-7367126.26.3132.586.58.012.213.3120.0
1973-7464137.49.1146.599.88.713.213.0134.7
1974-7562121.912.1134.0103.48.713.815.8141.7
1975 7664120.810.1130.997.59.415.311.0133.2

Premium receipts in 1975-76 were 0.9 percent below the 1974-75 figure, while claims fell by 5.7 percent.

A review of the expenses incurred in transacting all accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of 6 years are shown in the form of percentages of revenue to expenditure under various heads. The percentages do not take into account reserve provisions.

YearClaims to PremiumsCommission to PremiumsSalaries to PremiumsOther Expenses to PremiumsTotal Expenses (other than Claims) to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to Total Revenue
    percent   
1970-7174.86.310.79.826.8101.596.3
1971-7272.76.610.68.125.398.093.0
1972-7368.56.39.710.526.695.190.6
1973-7472.66.39.69.525.498.092.0
1974-7584.87.111.313.031.4116.2105.8
1975-7680.77.812.79.129.5110.2101.7

Working expenses (excluding taxation) amounted to $32,228,000 in 1973-74, $36,772,000 in 1974-75, and $34,889,000 in 1975-76. The ratios of working expenses to premium income for each of the 3 years were respectively 23.5, 30.2, and 28.9 percent.

30 C—FIRE INSURANCE

GENERAL—Fire is still the main cause of property damage, but today many property owners seek protection not only against fire damage, but also against a wide range of other dangers including water, windstorm, explosion, breakages, theft, aircraft, and impact by motor vehicles. Under houseowners' and householders' comprehensive policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, many thousands of additional claims are now dealt with each year. Increasing numbers of commercial property owners, too, are extending their fire policies to include damage from other causes.

In 1975 there were 48 fire-insurance companies conducting business in New Zealand. Of these the head offices of 24 were in New Zealand, 16 were in Great Britain, 5 in Australia, 2 in the United States of America, and 1 in Hong Kong. The statistics in this section relate to the calendar year for about two-thirds of these companies; for the remaining companies the financial year nearest to the calendar year is used.

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS—The statistics in the following summary of business relate to the business conducted with the insuring public. Reinsurance transactions are not taken into account. While the bulk of the claims represent fire losses the figures also include the numerous, frequently minor, claims made under comprehensive policies for damage from other causes.

YearPolicies at 31 DecemberGross Cover at 31 DecemberPremium IncomeGross LossPercentage of Claims to Premium Income
 No.$(m)$(000)$(000)percent
1970-712,032,10516,069.437,45614,80639.5
1971-722,068,97018,309.443,33917,34940.0
1972-732,092,71121,223.754,49220,86038.3
1973-742,149,59824,832.860,77524,80440.8
1974-752,259,377x32,842.5x77,90233,145x42.5x
1975-762,274,69541,131.997,91545,59646.6

LIABILITIES—The following table shows whole-world liabilities of fire-insurance offices. The figures refer to all departments of business underwritten. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act 1908 life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available for other classes of insurance transacted. Of the 48 fire offices, 11 also engage in life-assurance business, but only 2 of these conduct such business in New Zealand.

Item1973-74 Total1974-75 Total1975-76
Overseas CompaniesLocal CompaniesTotal
   $(million)  
Paid-up capital524.6614.4747.444.4791.8
Reserves3,946.93,480.44,398.592.94,491.4
Other liabilities8,202.08,362.810,870.8344.911,215.7
Totals12,673.512,457.616,016.5482.216,498.7
Life funds11,374.810,499.113,575.11.713,576.8
Total liabilities24,048.322,956.729,591.6483.930,075.5

ASSETS—The following table gives the amount of assets in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last 5 years classified under various heads. The figures given include all investments in New Zealand securities and do not relate merely to the assets held by the New Zealand branches of the companies concerned. The assets of other departments—accident, life, marine, etc.—are also included.

Assets in New Zealand1971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76
   $(million)  
Real estate36.0941.2947.2156.062.7
Central Government securities29.9331.7733.8635.832.9
Local authority securities25.4728.4031.4034.328.8
Company shares and debentures58.7579.0288.93104.5109.7
Mortgages, etc.35.2137.2241.1649.548.4
Outstanding premiums27.7631.4334.9139.7x46.2
Cash and other assets in New Zealand40.9751.7569.2867.952.6
Total New Zealand assets254.17300.88346.75387.6381.3

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—A statement of the total revenue and expenditure, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross figures include reinsurance business accepted, while the net figures comprise insurances with the public, plus reinsurances accepted, and less amounts reinsured with other offices.

It is insurance practice at the closing date of the accounts of a fire-insurance company to transfer to a reserve a proportion of the income received during the year, to allow for policies whose currency extends into the following accounting year. Thus, if the amount transferred to reserve at the end of the current year is greater than that transferred at the end of the previous year, the net effect is equivalent to an increase in this year's expenditure and the difference is therefore shown as expenditure. Similarly, if the amount transferred this year is less than last year, then the difference will be shown as revenue.

The entry of change in reserve provision in the gross figures, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the actual net reserve to the net premium income.

Item1974-751975-76
GrossNetGrossNet
Revenue$(thousand)
Change in reserve provisions13814793
Amount of fire premiums received during year98,27164,396118,70875,099
Interest and dividends5,1515,1515,8475,847
Rents1,0171,0171,1441,144
Other revenue1,4721,4721,7431,743
Totals105,92472,044127,58983,926
Expenditure    
Change in reserve provisions8,023x5,7888,6506,225
Amount of fire claims paid during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage35,21225,277x51,49637,061
Fire authority levies8,7906,58312,2868,536
Central Government taxes2,629x1,906308-846
Rents912913x1,0141,014
Depreciation815816x887887
Allowance and commissions on premiums to agents, subagents, and others10,9166,267x12,9487,719
Salaries and wages, including commissions, on profits or bonuses11,38111,32312,96012,722
Other expenses of management6,0396,029x7,0387,095
Totals84,717x64,902107,58780,413

30 D—STATE INSURANCE

LIFE ASSURANCE—The New Zealand Government Life Insurance Office was founded in 1869 at a time when New Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities in regard to life assurance. The payment of all policies has always been guaranteed by the Government.

From a total of 59 policies, assuring a sum of $60,005, issued during 1869-70, the business of the office has grown to a stage when, at the end of 1975, policies numbered 458,900 and the total sum assured reached $1,865 million. Among life assurance companies, the Government Life Insurance handles the second largest volume of business in New Zealand.

Income and expenditure figures of the Government Life Insurance Office are now given for each of the latest 3 years.

YearPremium Income (Including Purchase of Annuities)Total IncomeManagement Expenses and CommissionsTotal ExpenditureRatio of Management Expenses to Total IncomeRatio of Management Expenses to Premium Income
  $(thousand)  percent 
197332,51452,7725,23724,104x9.9216.11
197433,015x55,6586,08626,269x10.93x18.43
197541,25866,5957,18235,65410.7917.41

During the year ended December 1975 7,218 policies became claims by death of the life assured or by maturity. The amount paid in respect of these claims was $13,237,155, a further sum of $568,573 was paid to annuitants, and $13,033,043 was paid to policyholders who cashed bonuses or surrendered policies.

Figures showing the progress of the office during the latest 3 years are contained in the next table. Annuities are excluded.

YearNew BusinessPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies in Force at End of Year
Number of PoliciesSum AssuredAnnual* PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
*Excludes single premiums.
  $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m)
197330,585228.53.819,17273.91.7446,2521,458.527.5
197420,251267.34.021,19081.91.7453,3131,643.929.7
197529,390340.23.723,803118.72.7458,9001,865.430.8

The following table shows the progress of business of the Government Life Insurance Office from the date of establishment until 31 December 1975.

Policies
NumberSum assuredReversionary BonusesAnnual PremiumsAnnuities
  $(million) $(000) 
Total issued1,000,2752,849.7228.454,06229,380
Total void541,375984.375.523,24916,927
Total in force at 31 Dec 1975458,9001,865.4152.930,81212,453

The office's total assets at 31 December and their class of investment are shown in the following table.

Class of InvestmentAmountPercentages
197319741975197319741975
*Mainly premiums and interest due and accrued interest.
  $ (million)  percent 
Mortgages on freehold property125.5142.4153.938.8440.5040.21
Loans on policies19.421.924.06.016.236.27
Government securities68.770.477.721.3520.0220.30
Local authority securities27.427.931.38.497.948.18
Real estate31.334.040.19.699.6710.48
Company shares and debentures43.146.346.313.3313.1412.10
Miscellaneous assets*7.78.89.32.292.502.43
Totals323.2351.6382.7100.00100.00100.00

FIRE, ACCIDENT, AND OTHER INSURANCE—The State Insurance Office is empowered to carry on any class of insurance business other than life assurance. As the State Fire Office it commenced business in 1905. In 1925 accident business was transferred to it from the Government Life Insurance Office and since 1947 it has undertaken marine insurance.

Its growth is indicated in the following table.

YearNet PremiumsClaimsWorking Expenses
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
197334,40524,2635,092
197433,83129,4765,545
197542,25934,5695,912

Prior to 1974, the main classes of accident insurance transacted were motor vehicle (comprehensive and third-party risk), employer's liability, personal accident, public risk, and plate glass. With the implementation of the Accident Compensation Act on 1 April 1974, all classes of business involving the insurance of liability for personal injury by accident ceased to be risks insured by the office. The major classes of business affected were employer's liability insurance and Transport Act insurance.

Fire insurance is more accurately described as property insurance, since the houseowners' and householders' policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, provide coverage not only against fire but also against a wide range of other possible causes of damage. Commercial property owners, too, are increasingly extending their fire policies to cover other dangers.

The total assets of the State Insurance Office at 31 December 1975 amounted to $69.6 million which included $48.5 million in the form of investments ($8.3 million in Government securities, $14.7 million in local body securities), and $15.2 million in fixed assets, mainly land, buildings, and plant. Of the total liabilities, reserves amounted to $25.6 million, unexpired risks to $18.2 million, and unadjusted claims to $8.3 million.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE INSURANCE—The Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944 is administered by a Commission, of which the Minister of Finance is chairman. All property insured against fire is deemed to be insured to the extent of the indemnity value against earthquake and war damage. Premiums at the rate of 5c for each $100 of insurance cover are collected by the insurance companies and paid into the Earthquake and War Damage Fund (less commission of 2 1/2 percent).

Advances may be made from the Consolidated Revenue Account if at any time the amount in the Earthquake and War Damage Fund is not sufficient to meet the claims thereon.

"Earthquake damage" is defined as damage occurring as the direct result of earthquake or of fire occasioned by or in consequence of earthquake. In 1950 an extension of the scheme was instituted to provide some measure of protection to the insured against storm and flood of an abnormal or widespread nature. In 1954 the definition of disaster damage was extended to include volcanic eruption, and authority was given to the commission to accept insurance against landslip. This latter type of cover does not apply automatically. Finance is provided by crediting 10 percent of the premiums compulsorily collected under the Act to a special Disaster Fund.

Since 1 June 1967 the commission has had power to underwrite the geothermal activity insurance on a voluntary basis.

The following is a comparative statement for the last 6 years of the financial operations under the Earthquake and War Damage Act.

Item1970-711971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76

*At end of each period.

†From commencement in November 1949.

Income—$(thousand)
Premiums—      
Earthquake and war damage7,3117,9019,62310,75113,62317,247
Disaster8108821,0691,1951,5141,916
Interest6,7257,6728,7809,85311,41413,342
Totals14,84616,45619,47221,79926,55132,505
Outgo—      
Claims—      
Earthquake and war damage3521127392420182
Disaster890563436x5771,2635,211
Salaries and expenses of management73x64x63657094
Discount to insurance offices204215269298378479
Totals1,2021,0521,0401,0322,1315,966
Surplus13,64515,40418,43220,76724,42126,540
Earthquake and War Damage Fund*134,929150,306164,886181,969208,270239,968
Disaster Fund1,5901,9502,600x3,2493,677499

For the year ended 31 March 1976 a total of 11,709 claims were received, compared to 7,146 for the previous year. The breakdown of claims was as follows: earthquake 1,728; extraordinary disaster 9,711; landslip 270. Respective figures for the previous year were 4,274; 2,550; and 322.

Earthquake Claims—The amount paid, including an estimate for outstanding claims, was $181,757. No major earthquake was recorded during the year, but shocks of 5 or over on the Richter scale were recorded on 14 occasions. The Wairoa earthquake of 21 March 1976, which registered 5.5, was of a shallow nature and gave rise to 829 claims. The balance of the claims were from minor earthquakes in the West Coast (South Island), Canterbury, Wellington, Wairarapa, Manawatu, Hawke's Bay, and Taranaki areas.

Disaster Claims—Disaster claims paid, with an estimate for outstanding claims, totalled $5,017,346. The severe storm of 1 August 1975 which affected Otago. South Canterbury, Canterbury, and as far north as Wairarapa accounted for a large number of claims. The amount paid out for this storm was $4,333,910, greatly exceeding the $1,785,787 paid out for the Wahine storm in 1968.

Landslip Claims—The cost of landslip claims, including an estimate for outstanding claims, was $194,130. The Commission stated that in many cases damage could have been avoided had there been a greater appreciation of the landslip problem. With the adoption of guidelines by all local authorities, however, it felt that the incidence of landslip damage should reduce.

Chapter 31. Section 31 EMPLOYMENT

Table of Contents

LABOUR FORCE—Important factors affecting the proportional size of the labour force include the age-structure of the population, the usual age of completion of full-time education, the percentage of married women engaged in full-time paid employment, and net migration flow. The fluctuations in the growth of the labour force follow those of births some 15 years earlier. There is a relatively greater importance of the 15-25 year age group in the labour force as the majority of females are actively engaged at this period of their lives before taking on home-making responsibilities. At the time of the 1971 Census, 26.6 percent of the female labour force was below 21 years of age, compared with 12.4 percent of the male labour force.

The percentage of the male population in active employment was 57 percent in 1956, 55.3 percent in 1961, 55.5 percent in 1966, 54.9 percent in 1971, and 55.3 percent in 1976. Females actively engaged rose from 18 percent in 1956 to 18.7 percent in 1961, 21 percent in 1966, 23.3 percent in 1971, and 26.3 percent in 1976. Married women working (as a percentage of all married women) rose from 12.9 percent in 1956 to 16 percent in 1961, 20 percent in 1966, 26.1 percent in 1971, and 32.4 percent in 1976. In recent years, increasing numbers of married women have re-entered the labour force as their children have grown less dependent and family responsibilities have lightened.

The estimated annual growth of the labour force in recent years is shown in the following table.

As at AprilMalesFemalesTotalLabour Force as a Percentage of Total Population
NumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual Increase
 (000)percent(000)percent(000)percentpercent
1972796.90.9326.01.21,122.91.038.9
1973814.72.2335.52.91,150.22.438.7
1974834.22.4357.16.41,191.33.639.2
1975843.21.1364.52.11,207.71.438.9
1976849.50.7372.52.21,222.01.239.1

The following table shows the male and female members of the labour force by age groups at five censuses.

Age Group (Years)19561961196619711976

*Includes Not Specified ages at 1956 census.

†Provisional.

Under 20 (m)53,84862,39678,66975,973162,580
 (f)48,88958,22474,35872,598
20-24 (m)66,40775,68291,155108,686196,380
 (f)33,63438,88449,32163,367
25-34 (m)155,628153,128159,117175,557300,670
 (f)32,65830,58636,87551,687
35-44 (m)138,820149,691164,492158,185238,910
 (f)32,55838,31746,54557,206
45-64 (m)184,497209,456229,693244,476354,270
 (f)42,34654,93868,60884,098
65 and over (m)22,93520,15322,46922,09223,310
 (f)3,7933,9084,7374,910
Totals* (m)622,758670,506745,595784,9691,276,120
 (f)194,094224,857280,444333,866

Though year-to-year fluctuations were considerable during the 10 years to 1967 the average migration gain to the population was about 10,000 a year, representing approximately one-fifth of the annual increase in the population as a whole. As immigrants as a body have a higher proportion in the working-age group than the normal cross-section of population, a period of high net immigration adds rapidly to the percentage of the population in the labour force and is particularly valuable where vacancies requiring particular skills are filled by migrants. In 1968 and 1969 there was a migration loss with a loss of some workers to Australia and a consequent slowing down of the labour force growth. During the years ended March 1970 to 1974 the net annual inflow from migration rose from only 800 in 1969-70 to 33,576 in 1973-74. There was a slight decline to 29,643 in 1974-75, followed by a sharp decline to 6,567 in 1975-76.

During the latest March year, 1976-77, there has been a substantial population loss from net migration. Among permanent and long-term migrants, provisional figures for the year ended March 1977 showed 37,020 arrivals and 56,092 departures, a net loss of 19,072 compared with a net gain in this category of 5,300 in 1975-76. Of this net loss of 19,072, 15,484 (81.2 percent) were actively engaged in the labour force. Of these, 2,638 were in the occupational division, professional, technical, and related workers (these were mainly teachers and nurses) and 3,258 were in the clerical division. The greatest loss was in the division, craftsmen, production process workers, and labourers, which had a net loss of 6,034. It was significant, however, that of the 15,484 of these migrants who had belonged to the labour force, 11,258 (72.7 percent) were in the 15 to 24 years age group, which suggests that a considerable number could have been young people investigating employment opportunities overseas before deciding to settle down.

EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE—The growth of population has been accompanied by a changing emphasis in employment. In the nineteenth century the major activities of farming, mining, and lumbering gave rise to manufacturing industries and to commercial and professional occupations. In 1881, 11.2 percent of the total population was engaged in agriculture, 13.1 percent in industries, which included mining, and 6.6 percent in commercial and professional occupations. By 1901 the proportion in tertiary activities and farming had increased while that in secondary industries had remained constant, and mining had declined relatively in importance. The proportions were then 14.5 percent in farming, 13.1 percent in industry, and 11 percent in services.

The more recent rapid development of larger urban centres has been associated with a trend away from primary into secondary industries, a trend which developed noticeably after the depression of the 1930s and which was given marked impetus by the war. The broad changes in the economy are indicated by the following table. Decreases in the proportions engaged in primary production are typical of advanced economies, although it has to be noted that the farming community makes greater use of the services sector in the development of farm productivity.

Group1966 Census1971 Census1976 Census*
Persons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour Force
*Provisional.
Primary production140,93613.7134,15912.0133,30010.8
Secondary industry381,58937.2388,07134.7423,01034.1
Services503,51449.1596,60553.3683,30055.1

From April 1971, estimates of the industrial distribution of the total labour force have been made according to the revised New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification. Only the figures for "Total in industry" and "Total labour force" are comparable with earlier estimates.

The following figures show the estimated size and distribution of the labour force in April 1975 and April 1976.

Industrial Group N.Z.S.I.C.April 1975April 1976
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
  (000)  (000) 
Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing125.715.8141.5126.115.9142.0
Mining and quarrying4.30.24.54.30.24.5
Manufacturing industry—      
Food, beverages, and tobacco57.312.870.158.712.971.6
Textiles, wearing apparel and leather16.730.647.317.129.846.9
Wood and wood products22.12.324.422.32.524.8
Paper and paper products, printing and publishing21.47.929.321.27.728.9
Chemicals, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastics15.55.921.415.65.921.5
Non-metallic mineral products10.91.212.110.51.311.8
Basic metals, metal products, machinery and equipment, and other manufacturing industries74.116.290.375.717.593.2
Totals, manufacturing industries218.076.9294.9221.177.6298.7
Electricity, gas, and water13.61.515.114.11.515.6
Construction91.43.394.789.53.593.0
Wholesale and retail trade111.382.8194.1110.382.5192.8
Transport, storage, and communication89.820.8110.689.921.9111.8
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.42.933.676.543.734.1.8
Community, social and personal services—      
Public administration, etc.36.315.151.438.316.654.9
Sanitary and similar services4.92.37.24.62.47.0
Social and related community services52.293.5145.753.796.5150.2
Recreational services7.13.911.07.44.311.7
Personal and household services33.512.946.433.612.446.0
Totals, community and personal services134.0127.7261.7137.6132.2269.8
Total in industry831.0362.61,193.6836.6369.41,206.0
Armed forces in New Zealand10.30.711.010.40.711.1
Registered unemployed1.91.23.12.52.44.9
Total labour force843.2364.51,207.7849.5372.51,222.0

LABOUR FORCE PROJECTIONS—A series of labour force projections has been prepared by the Department of Statistics for the period up to 2001. These projections are fully integrated with the complementary (31 March 1971 base) population projections contained in the 1975 Yearbook and based on similar assumptions in respect of fertility, mortality, and net immigration. Labour force participation for males is projected to decline marginally in the youngest age groups, increase marginally in the middle age groups and decline for the 65 years and over age group. Female labour force participation is projected to decline marginally for the 15-19-year age groups, and increase steadily for the 20-64-year age group. As these projections have a different time-base and incorporate different assumptions to the (31 March 1974 base) population projections contained in Section 3 of this Yearbook, care should be exercised when comparing the two series of projections.

More-recent projections on a 1976 base and taking account of recent migration experience are included in the Latest Statistical Information section.

PROJECTED TOTAL LEW ZEALAND LABOUR FORCE (SEX SPECIFIC) 1971-2001
As At 31 MarchProjected Total Labour Force* Assuming Age-specific Labour Force Participation Rates Change in Accordance with the "Medium" Participation Assumption and Net Annual Immigration of:
5,000 Total10,000 Total15,000
MalesFemalesTotal

*These projections have as a base the estimated labour force at 31 March 1971. The mortality, fertility, and net immigration assumptions on which these projections are based are the same as those used for the complementary (31 March, 1971 base) population projections contained in the 1975 Yearbook.

†The projections based on "Medium" labour force participation assume the continuation of 1956-71 general trends in male, female age-specific labour force participation rates (whether increasing or decreasing) for five years (until 1976), with a subsequent continuation of these general trends, somewhat flattened until 1986. Because of the uncertainty in projecting labour force participation experience for longer than 15-20 years ahead, age-specific labour force participation rates which make up the "Medium" participation assumption have been kept constant from 1987 until 2001, at the levels projected for 1986.

  (000)   
1971 (base)1,1181,1187843341,118
 "Constant" Fertility Assumption*
1976x1,2431,2558773901,268
1981x1,3681,3949784421,420
1986x1,4851,5261,0754911,566
19911,6121,6681,1835411,724
19961,7731,8451,3106071,918
20011,9562,0461,4576782,135
 "High" Fertility Assumption*
1976x1,2431,2558773901,268
1981x1,3681,3949784421,420
1986x1,4851,5261,0754911,566
19911,6121,6681,1835411,724
19961,7761,8481,3126091,921
20011,9662,0561,4626832,145
 "Medium" Fertility Assumption*
1976x1,2431,2558773901,268
1981x1,3681,3949784421,420
1986x1,4851,5261,0754911,566
19911,6041,6611,1795371,717
19961,7451,8171,2955941,889
20011,8951,9841,4206522,072
 "Low" Fertility Assumption*
1976x1,2431,2558773901,268
1981x1,3681,3949784421,420
1986x1,4851,5261,0754911,566
19911,5961,6531,1755331,709
19961,7121,7831,2775781,855
20011,8221,9091,3766201,996

EMPLOYMENT SITUATION—In the post-war years up to 1967 the labour situation was characterised by overfull employment and a high number of vacancies in industry. In 1967, following deflationary measures, there was a sharp rise in the number of unemployed persons. By the middle of the year when seasonal workers found difficulty in obtaining off-season jobs the number of unemployed rose to over 6,000, or about 0.6 percent of the labour force. Unemployment became stabilised at about this level until the autumn of 1968, when it rose further to 8,500 and remained about this figure during the following winter. From a peak of 8,560 in July 1968 the number of unemployed fell steadily, except for occasional monthly increases, to under 1,200 in March 1971. The number of unemployed rose to average 5,684 for 1972 but for 1973 dropped to an average of 2,321. During 1974 the average monthly total of unemployed was 955, the lowest figure since 1966, but the later months of the year were showing a rising trend, and the monthly average for 1975 was up to 4,166. In 1976 it was 5,356. Vacancies, which moved from a general level of about 8,000 to a level between 2,000 and 4,000 during 1967 and 1968, increased to approximately 6,000 in late 1969, and averaged 2,648 for 1972, 3,538 for 1973, 4,556 for 1974, 2,051 in 1975, and 1,666 in 1976.

PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT—The functions and duties of the Department of Labour are set out in the Labour Department Act 1954. On the employment side the duties include: the provision of a complete employment service for the purposes of placing workers in employment, assisting employers to provide employment, helping persons to find better or more suitable employment, and aiding persons who require occupational readjustment or training; the collection and publication of information relating to employment and unemployment; the making of surveys and forecasts of the classes of employment required or available; the promotion of voluntary placing of suitable persons in such employment; and in general the promotion and maintenance of full employment. The department also operates hostels for workers, and arranges for the selection of immigrants.

To sum up, the department seeks to maintain a policy of full employment at the highest productive level. As an aid to this, it operates 22 district employment offices and 4 sub-offices, and administers employment schemes, subsidised where necessary, for those unfit to compete in the ordinary labour market.

Seven hostels are operated by the department, comprising an industrial workers' hostel, immigration hostels, Public Service hostels, and a Maori youth hostel.

The department's employment service is being restructured and strengthened to cater for the needs of a much wider spectrum of the work force and potential members of it. The aim of the new service is to provide the co-ordinating point for employment and related services for the labour force. It offers advice and assistance to both workers and employers to promote the best use of available labour resources. Piloted initially in Auckland, the new service has been extended to Whangarei, Manukau, Tauranga, Hamilton, Rotorua, Palmerston North, Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Greymouth, and Invercargill. Remaining districts are being upgraded as accommodation and other resources permit, but their staff has been strengthened by the appointment of employment officers (special duties) as a preliminary step to the development of a full range of advisory employment and placement services.

A feature of district employment service developments is the involvement of community interests in the work of the new service. The Auckland Employment Advisory Committee, established in 1972, has been restructured to facilitate its role in the further development of the Auckland Employment Service. A small management committee now guides the work of sub-committees (concerned with the particular employment problems faced by the disabled, young people, ethnic groups, and women returning to the work force) and reports on other matters in which the main committee is interested. It also co-opts the services of persons (other than committee members) with particular skills or specialist knowledge to participate in working parties on employment matters. The latter have made a valuable contribution to working parties concerned with the employment problems of Maoris and Pacific Islanders in the Auckland area and with elderly persons returning to the work force.

Small but representative employment advisory committees have been established in Whangarei, Palmerston North, Napier, and Invercargill.

A core responsibility of the new service is to match the training, experience, aptitudes, and desires of workers or potential workers, with the job opportunities offering. To help achieve this, considerable emphasis is placed on personal contact and continued liaison with employers and other organisations. This, in turn, leads to the notification of an increased number and wider range of vacancies as well as a better appreciation of the regional labour market. The result is that clients can be interviewed in greater depth and more and better matched placements made.

The restructuring of the department's employment service also recognises that many clients do not wish to formally register for employment. They do, however, require informed advice to satisfy their own employment or training needs. In this category are short-term, part-time, farm or seasonal workers, apprenticeship, trade and vocational inquiries, school leavers, women contemplating returning to the work force, those seeking employment or training opportunities in other districts, and many others. Advisory type of discussions or interviews have become a marked feature of the Auckland employment service. This level of assistance also encompasses the development of better written information resources, occupational and careers displays, and facilities for a "job self service".

MANPOWER PLANNING—Changes in the structure of industry and in technology are occurring at an ever-increasing rate. This fact has led to a growing emphasis on forecasting manpower supply on the one hand and likely manpower requirements on the other, with a view to equating the two by means of relevant manpower policies. The forecasts are based on certain assumptions concerning the growth of population, net migration and labour force participation rates on the supply side, and on production plans and productivity rates on the demand side. As the bases of the forecasts are volatile, the latter need to be revised at frequent intervals. The forecasting process is therefore never completed, but is an on-going task which must take account of the dynamic forces operating in the labour market. During the past year the Department of Labour's National Manpower Forecasting Section has prepared a comprehensive series of industry employment studies. These have gathered together a variety of historical information pertaining to manpower in each industry. The next step is to prepare forecasts of manpower requirements for each industry for periods of 2 and 5 years ahead. A similar exercise has been underway for occupational employment studies and for similar forecasts of manpower requirements on an occupational basis.

VOCATIONAL TRAINING—A cornerstone of improved productivity growth rates is education in the field of vocational training, including managerial competence. The organisation and orderly development of training on a national basis is the responsibility of the Vocational Training Council.

The council has the following membership, appointed jointly by the Ministers of Education and Labour: a chairman; the Director-General of Education; the Secretary of Labour; two members nominated by the N.Z. Employers' Federation: two members nominated by the N.Z. Federation of Labour; one member nominated by the N.Z. Manufacturers' Federation; one member nominated by the Technical Institutes Association; one member nominated by the Technicians Certification Authority of New Zealand; and not more than five other members—(two appointments have so far been made under this provision).

In addition, the council has three associate (non-voting) members: an appointee of the State Services Co-ordinating Committee; an appointee of the Combined State Services Organisations; and the Chairman of the University Grants Committee.

Under the Vocational Training Council Act 1968 the council's functions are prescribed as advisory to Government, State departments, industry, commerce, agriculture, social welfare, and other interested organisations. Recommendations may relate to improved training, the development of new or established facilities, the co-ordination of training schemes, levies or other methods for the financing or encouragement of training, the award of scholarships, the fostering of research, the carrying out of inquiries and investigations in any field of training, and the maintenance of an adequate information service.

However, the activities of the council considerably exceed that of an advisory or recommendatory role. Council has been, and still is, deeply involved in the promotion of fully integrated and meaningful training in the majority of industries and local authorities.

The Vocational Training Council, encourages a systematic approach to training at all levels in all sectors of the economy, linked to proper manpower development policies with in-built tangible recognition for proven efficiency. There is emphasis on industry self-help.

Representative voluntary industrial and commercial training boards have been established for 28 industries. Boards include members from employer, employee, educational, and other specialist groups. A major incentive has been the Government grant of $15,000 a year to encourage the appointment of executive training officers to work for industry training boards. There are now 33 of these officers. Industry training boards, among other things, examine existing training and assess the need for revised or new schemes. This involves both the identification of the level of ability of the person required (machine operator, graduate, tradesman, supervisor, etc.) and the numbers required at each level.

In addition, the council has concerned itself with "back-up" research and investigational studies, for example, apprenticeship and trade training, women and employment, technician training, management and supervisory training, and Polynesians in the work force.

Trade Training and Apprenticeships—Perhaps the major changes with which the Vocational Training Council and the industrial training boards have been associated, are in the field of apprenticeships and related trade training. "Time served" principles are being more closely integrated with "performance level reached" philosophy. Continuity and adaptability to change becomes the central objective, whilst refresher and updating training becomes the norm on a lifelong basis.

The Vocational Training Council's major task has been to change attitudes and draw attention to changing conditions—not only technological change in the shape of volume-type industries but important social changes.

At present, eight industrial training boards, in collaboration where relevant with New Zealand Apprenticeship committees, the Trades Certification Board, and educational authorities are deeply involved in a new approach to trade training.

In 1974 Government approved a new policy for trade training together with an incentive scheme of assistance with the wages of apprentices during their period of attendance at block courses. It is now possible for trades to have up to 21 weeks of block course instruction. Two trades have already availed themselves of these changes and carpenters and joiners and fitter-turners moved on to the new and lengthened training schemes in 1975. Negotiations with other trades, such as printing and photo-engraving, indicate that modifications and extension in these trades will commence in 1976. Many other trades have expressed interest in these developments and are working towards implementation in the near future.

APPRENTICESHIPS—Under the Apprentices Act 1948 orders governing apprenticeships are made by the Industrial Court, which consists of a judge, a workers' member, and an employers' member. Orders are made on the recommendations of New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees, which consist of four representatives of employers, four representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of each committee. The New Zealand committees are in effect policy-making committees. There are 37 committees, which normally meet once or twice a year. Committees covering larger industries, e.g., engineering, carpentry, printing, meet three or four times per year.

Day-to-day administration of the Apprentices Act and the apprenticeship orders is carried on by local apprenticeship committees, of which there are 245. They consist of three representatives of employers, three representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the District Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of all committees for the district for which he is appointed. District Commissioners delegate chairmanship to other officers of the Department of Labour when necessary.

In the majority of industries there are provisions in apprenticeship orders for the attendance of apprentices at technical classes, both during working hours and in the evening. n most industries technical training is concentrated into an annual course of three or four weeks' duration. In some cases courses are longer with the advent of extended institute training, as in the carpentry and joinery, engineering and aircraft engineering industries.

The general policy regarding apprentice education is determined by the Department of Education in co-operation with New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees. That department itself operates a Technical Correspondence Institute, which provides courses of instruction for those apprentices who live too far from any school to allow them to attend evening classes.

A statutory body, the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, conducts examinations for apprentices (see Section 7A, Education). The examinations are voluntary and, except in the electrical trade and in plumbing (where registration is required), no examination test is required for the practice of a trade. Trades which have extended trade training, e.g., carpentry and engineering, have the option of internal assessment in place of the 1st and 2nd qualifying examinations. There is very close liaison between New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees and the board, the Commissioner of Apprenticeships being a member of the board.

In 1972 the Apprentices Act was amended so that apprenticeships in all trades are now open to women as well as to men.

The number of apprenticeship contracts registered and the number completed during the two latest March years, and in force at the end of each year, are indicated in the following table.

TradeApprenticeship Contracts
Registered During Year Ended 31 MarchCompleted During Year Ended 31 MarchIn Force at 31 March
197519761975197619751976
Aircraft1001017262414438
Baking85615048258234
Boilermaking85624046264249
Bricklaying92754949287284
Carpentry2,1361,3471,3451,0986,6656,468
Clothing55274556183130
Coachbuilding5525373933751,8711,840
Dentistry-1331513
Electrical6516944964632,1802,263
Engineering8447456425632,7812,807
Footwear repair and making182389
Footwear manufacturing32481621119121
Furniture3412522211881,034989
Greenkeeping-18-7-53
Hairdressing5396192712191,3341,461
Heating and ventilation27312020115115
Horticulture68803229212240
Industrial instrumentation-5---5
Jewellery48345019169162
Masonry33-1810
Motor trades1,5991,3941,2421,1865,5755,416
Moulding1516665963
Painting and paperhanging249228133100732763
Glazing62472633211203
Signwriting20222628117102
Photo-engraving53374448147119
Piano repairing and tung123253
Plastering69622332188183
Plumbing3743351741731,3031,331
Printing3052482512971,014872
Radio1391227079438444
Refrigeration engineering42494338154153
Retail meat3963512011689671,019
Saddlery, leather etc2328887486
Sheetmetal working1031086281388372
Shipbuilding49401818152148
Timber industry42502133103108
Woollen milling---2-4
Others43441617126140
Totals9,2437,9316,1145,61929,67029,420

In addition to the numbers of apprentices shown above, there were at 31 March 1976 2,571 Government apprentices under the Railways Act, the Post Office Act, and the State Services Act.

TRAINING COURSES FOR MAORIS AND POLYNESIANS FROM THE PACIFIC—Trade training is one approach that has been adopted to broaden employment opportunities for Maori and Polynesian youths.

The trade-training schemes have the approval of the educational and apprenticeship authorities. Time spent on a course is credited towards the normal apprenticeship, which is completed with employers in the usual way. The schemes are run in conjunction with the technical institutes at Auckland, Hamilton, Petone, and Christchurch. Special tuition is also given in other subjects to help the boys adapt themselves to urban living.

Entry into the schemes is generally restricted to school leavers from country areas where apprenticeships are not normally available. Trainees taken into the schemes, and their parents, enter into a training agreement with the Maori Affairs Department, whereby the trainees are required to live at approved hostels, regularly attend evening technical classes, and to sit the appropriate trade examinations. The trainees are paid a weekly training allowance.

Training is provided in 12 trades—carpentry (all four centres), motor mechanics (Auckland, Hamilton, and Christchurch), plumbing, electrical wiring (Auckland and Hamilton), diesel mechanics and sheetmetal work (Auckland), fitting and turning (Hamilton and Christchurch), plastering (Petone), painting, panelbeating, and bricklaying (Christchurch), and meat retailing (Auckland), with a total intake of 314 trainees each year. The training courses last for 1 year, except that carpentry is a 2-year course and includes 1 year on practical house building works for the department. From the time of the pilot scheme in 1959 up to 31 March 1976, 3,352 school leavers have entered the scheme and 1,595 have completed their apprenticeships with private employers and become qualified tradesmen.

The number of identified Maori and Island apprentices in recent years is shown in the following table.

At 31 MarchRegistered Maori or Island ApprenticesPercentage of Total Registered Apprentices
19711,3755.3
19721,4895.6
19731,4715.3
19741,5135.1
19751,2144.1
19761,4255.1

Farm Training—Special arrangements have been made for 8 Maori boys to enter Telford Farm Training Institute each year. This is a comprehensive one-year course covering important theoretical and practical aspects of farming and farm management. The department meets full cost of board and school fees at the Institute.

Shorthand Typists—Each year up to 12 Maori girls from rural districts are trained as shorthand typists. Their mornings are spent at a local commercial college and afternoons in practical instruction at the Maori Affairs Department under the supervision of the head typist. On completing their training the girls are expected to take up employment in Government departments.

City Pre-employment Courses—Special pre-employment courses to help Maori and other Polynesian boys and girls from country areas coming to cities for work are conducted early each year by the Maori Affairs Department in conjunction with the Wellington Polytechnic and the Auckland, Christchurch, and Waikato Institutes. The Education, Health and Police Departments and local, civic authorities also co-operate in the schemes. The courses, which last about four weeks, are specially designed to help with initial adjustments to city life and with the selection of suitable employment. At the end of the course the students take up suitable employment in the city. Accommodation is provided at hostels. The present annual intake of students into the course is: Wellington, 60 boys—75 girls; Auckland, 30 boys—20 girls; Hamilton, 15 girls; and Christchurch, 15 girls. By 31 March 1976 a total of 1,810 young people had passed through pre-employment courses.

STATISTICS OF EMPLOYMENT: Half-yearly Surveys—The Department of Labour carries out at half-yearly intervals a general survey of employment in New Zealand. These surveys are conducted by means of inquiries sent out to employers of labour, the results being published in the Labour and Employment Gazette. Returns are required from all establishments in which at least two persons (including working proprietors) are engaged. Government and local authority employment is included. Employers in farming, hunting, trapping, fishing, waterfront work, seagoing work, private domestic service, and armed forces are not required to submit half-yearly returns. The following tables are based on these surveys. (A survey of farm employment is given on page 798.)

A summary of employment is given in the following table.

Date of SurveyFull-time Employees and Working ProprietorsPart-time WorkersHalf-yearly Percentage Rate of Labour Turnover*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemales
*The relationship between the number of terminations over the previous half-year and the average number of employees during the same period.
April—      percentpercent
1974622,111284,966907,07733,54288,147121,6892739
1975634,937293,178928,11532,78693,302126,0882334
1976641,961299,754941,71532,13196,623128,7542029
October        
1974618,226287,111905,33734,48996,625131,1142635
1975625,552291,850917,40232,61396,070128,6832027
1976628,342299,289927,63132,895100,806133,7011926

EMPLOYMENT BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Employees of local authorities are principally engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric and water supply, and transport), and community services.

In the following table particulars are given of the number of all direct wage-earning employees who were actually in the employ of the various classes of local authorities (hospital boards excluded) at 31 March of each of the latest five years inclusive. Besides permanent staff, including administrative and professional employees, the statistics include part-time, casual, and temporary employees, and subsidised workers, but exclude those employed by contractors.

Local Authority*Employees at 31 March
19711972197319741975

*For numbers see Section 2.

†As at 30 September.

‡Includes Forestry District employees (8 in 1972 and 1973).

§Included in counties.

∥Gas board employees are included with electric power board employees.

¶Total includes employees of licensing trusts (2,681 employees in 1975) and hydatids districts (27 employees in 1975).

Catchment boards762761780773823
City and borough councils16,66616,90217,11016,72318,643
County councils6,0456,2696,1675,6375,662
Electric power boards5.6465,7945,9036,0996,391
Fire boards1,3871,5501,9932,1012,090
Gas boards485949
Harbour boards3,8143,8863,8453,6993,855
Harbour bridge authority150135136129131
Land drainage boards9182793644
Local railway board1515151010
Museum authority1181466468133
Nassella tussock boards3431354147
Plantation board8-88
Pest destruction boards1.2071,1221,080875737
Regional authority1,521,6832,0302,1912,313
River boards32302586
Road tunnel authority4244403940
Town boards—     
Dependent26221715§
Independent675448233
Underground water authorities444--
Urban drainage boards453466470699458
Urban transport boards423445411428446
Valley authority2725303134
Water supply boards55446123
Totals38,65239,53840,34341,89144,735

PUBLIC SERVICE EMPLOYMENT—Permanent staff in the Public Service as at 31 March 1976 totalled 59,558, of whom 40,633 were males and 18,925 females. In addition, the Public Service gave employment to 1,99 temporary staff and 17,702 wage workers, giving a total for all employees of 79,199 (55,216 males and 23,983 females) compared with 76,795 as at 31 March 1975. These figures do not include the staffs of the Post Office, the railway service, the Police (except civilian staff), education boards, or universities.

UNEMPLOYMENT—Except for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available. Such information is, however, available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Department of Labour (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade unionists were collected from trade union secretaries by the Department of Statistics from 1925 to 1930. A table showing figures of unemployment from June 1931 to March 1939 will be found on page 854 of the 1940 Yearbook. Monthly average figures of registered unemployed for each year from 1946 are given in the Statistical Summary near the back of this Yearbook.

Census Data on Unemployment—The great disadvantage of the census inquiry as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only. Unemployment figures from the 1971 Census were 8,757 males and 7,411 females. Provisional figures from the 1976 Census give a total of 14,560 males and 12,650 females. Of these, 4,120 of the males and 6,370 of the females were in the 15–19 years age group.

The following table gives relevant census data on unemployment during this century. Prior to 1951 Maoris were not included.

CensusNumber of Males UnemployedProportion per 1.000 Male Wage and Salary Earners
31 March 19018,46748
12 April 19068,18939
2 April 19117,1523
15 October 19165,92026
17 April 192111,06139
20 April 192610,69434
24 March 193635,77496
25 September 19455,82316
17 April 19517,90218
17 April 19565,55812
18 April 19614,6749
22 March 19665,1258
23 March 19718,75713
23 March 197614,56021

The 1936 figure includes men on rationed relief work, but excludes men (16,222) partly unemployed but not on relief work. The 1945 figure includes ex-servicemen recently returned from overseas who had not then resumed work. At the time of the 1951 Census the waterfront strike was in progress and it was estimated that approximately 15,000 workers in that and other industries were on strike. Evidently many of these were not returned as unemployed; it is likely that a number changed to other industries, while some may not have considered themselves to be unemployed.

Unemployment Benefit—Unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act have been payable since 1 April 1939. The number in force at 31 March 1976 was 5,127 compared with 2,894 at the same date in 1975, 483 in March 1974, and 1,782 in March 1973.

Subject to the conditions set out in Section 6A, the unemployment benefit may be claimed as of right. Registration at a district office of the Department of Labour is a compulsory prerequisite to eligibility for the benefit. Hence it is considered that the great majority of workers becoming involuntarily unemployed would register for employment in order to validate a claim for the benefit.

Close liaison is maintained between the Social Welfare Department and the Department of Labour to prevent the payment of benefit where work is available. In addition to the requirement that a benefit applicant must register for work at an employment office, all unemployment beneficiaries must report once weekly at the employment office.

VACANCIES, PLACEMENTS, AND UNEMPLOYED PERSONS—In addition to the half-yearly survey of the employment position, the Department of Labour maintains a weekly record of registered unemployed persons and a half-monthly record of vacancies and placements. The following tables are derived from this record and hence relate only to the department's operations as an employment service.

The following table contains a summary of the numbers of notified vacancies, placements, and registered unemployed persons as recorded by the Department of Labour.

DateNotified Vacancies at End of MonthPlacements During MonthRegistered Unemployed Persons at End of Month
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
    Monthly Average For Calendar Years     
19721,7908572,6471,5293961,9254,3681,3165,684
19732,6269123,5381,3123941,7061,5917302,321
19743,3861,1704,5561,0673451,412607348955
19751,6404112,0512,0235432,5662,7131,4534,166
19761,2873791,6662,3567793,1353,1332,2235,356

Registered unemployed, vacancies, and placements are classified by occupation in the following table on the basis of monthly averages.

Occupation GroupRegistered Unemployed (Monthly Average)Vacancies (Monthly Average)Placements (Monthly Average)
197519761975197619751976
Professional, technical, and clerical34751114313996131
Sales25235950735984
Farming, fishing, logging2642873146198206
Transport and communications1601996032464862
Manufacturing and trades1,3831,489929824444479
Service37651785107142165
Labouring9791,234123161963463
All other occupations40576087706161,545
All occupations4,1665,3562,0511,6662,5663,135

A finer breakdown of the monthly average numbers of unemployed by usual occupation and sex is shown in the following table for the two latest calendar years.

Usual Occupation19751976
MalesFemalesMalesFemales

*Includes typists, machinists, and other related workers.

†Includes sawmill workers.

‡Includes those who have been attending university full-time.

Professional, technical, and clerical*116231165347
Storemen, packers1302012927
Sales workers, shop assistants, etc.6418884275
Farm and forestry workers19667181106
Drivers14481829
Tradesmen10911423
Freezing workers408934215
Process/factory workers289418287544
Cooks and other domestic workers, etc.8629084433
Labourers97351,21815
All other occupations9655144113
School leavers (no previous full-time job)102161175336
Totals2,7131,4533,1332,223

STATISTICS FROM CENSUS OF POPULATION—Provisional figures of the industrial and occupational distribution of the labour force by industry major divisions and occupation major groups at the 1976 Census of Population are given in the two following tables.

Industry Major DivisionAge Group (Years)Total
15-2425-4950 and Over
Agriculture, hunting, forestry, and fishing28,40071,82029,090129,310
Mining and quarrying7602,1901,0403,990
Manufacturing86,880159,36062,250308,490
Electricity, gas, and water3,4507,1003,99014,540
Construction30,68063,87019,970114,520
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels57,840111,49049,190218,520
Transport, storage, and communication27,57060,51022,670110,750
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services28,42039,00013,69081,110
Community, social, and personal services77,870130,70049,810258,380
Activities not adequately defined17,09014,1405,28036,510
Total358,960660,180256,9801.276,120
Occupation Major GroupAge Group (Years)Total
15-2425-4950 and Over
*Includes related workers.
Professional and technical*54,220100,11029,600183,930
Administrative and managerial1,64028,58013,10043,320
Clerical*76,34091,24039,320206,900
Sales workers25,47071,15030,930127,550
Service workers22,63049,31020,08092,020
Agricultural, animal husbandry, and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters28,44071,74030,550130,730
Production workers*, transport equipment operators, and labourers137,660237,84089,540465,040
New workers seeking employment4,860110-4,970
Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described4,6408,2103,45016,300
Workers not reporting any occupation3,0601,8904105,360
Total358,960660,180256,9801,276,120

It should be noted that, because the 1976 Census figures in the previous tables and the following table are provisional figures based on a sample of mesh blocks, the totals differ from final totals shown elsewhere in this Yearbook. For example, the sample-based national population estimate is 3,136,300, as shown in the following table, whereas the final full census count was 3,129,383.

Occupational Status—The following table shows the occupational status of persons in the work force, and also the persons not actively engaged including children at the two latest censuses.

Occupational Status1971 Census1976 Census*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*Provisional.

†Including those of unspecified status.

Employer59,8158,10367,91876,27012,86089,130
Self employed62,18510,10172,28678,68015,15093,830
Wage or salary earner651,499307,064958,563689,220370,9201,060,140
Unemployed8,7577,41116,16814,56012,65027,210
Relative assisting, unpaid2503536037502,3103,060
Totals, actively engaged784,969333,8661,118,835861,560414,5601,276,120
Not actively engaged645,8871,097,9091,743,796695,7501,164,4301,860,180
Grand totals1,430,8561,431,7752,862,6311,557,3101,578,9903,136,300

Industrial Distribution: Divisions—The industrial distribution of the labour force by industrial major divisions and divisions as recorded at the 1971 Population Census is shown below. At the time of going to print, the detailed figures of industrial and occupational distribution shown in this and the following table were not available for the 1976 Population Census.

Industrial Major Division and DivisionMalesFemalesTotalPercentage
Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing—    
Agriculture and hunting101,31017,962119,27210.7
Forestry and logging6,8571967,0530.6
Fishing2,498712,5690.2
Total110,66518,229128,89411.5
Mining and quarrying—    
Coalmining2,054472,1010.2
Crude petroleum and natural gas production19818216
Metal ore mining23011241
Other mining2,6061012,7070.2
Total5,0881775,2650.5
Manufacturing—    
Food, beverages and tobacco54,08111,12665,2075.8
Textile, wearing apparel and leather industries17,71733,18150,8984.5
Wood and wood products including furniture19,3171,58020,8971.9
Paper and paper products, printing and publishing21,0297,32028,3492.5
Chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products16,7236,41723,1402.1
Non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal9,3821,31210,6941.0
Basic metal industries3,7952834,0780.4
Fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment62,94710,89873,8456.6
Other manufacturing industries2,0971,9054,0020.4
Total207,08874,022281,11025.1
Electricity, gas and water—    
Electricity, gas and steam11,1881,15312,3411.1
Waterworks and supply917159320.1
Total12,1051,16813,2731.2
Industrial Major Division and DivisionMalesFemalesTotalPercentage
Construction90,6713,01793,6888.4
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels—    
Wholesale trade43,60413,22156,8255.1
Retail trade60,96749,121110,0889.8
Restaurants and hotels12,66618,73631,4022.8
Total117,23781,078198,31517.7
Transport, storage and communication—    
Transport and storage66,9786,83873,8166.6
Communication17,88311,48229,3652.6
Total84,86118,320103,1819.2
Finance, insurance, real estate, and business services—    
Financial institutions10,5528,32918,8811.7
Insurance8,7685,01213,7801.2
Real estate and business services18,49113,62232,1132.9
Total37,81126,96364,7745.8
Community, social and personal services—    
Public administration and defence34,65111,80046,4514.2
Sanitary and similar services3,7933,1146,9070.6
Social and related community services42,50974,973117,48210.5
Recreational and cultural services8,3023,68211,9841.1
Personal and household services21,10811,83932,9472.9
International and other extra-territorial bodies5242327560.1
Total110,887105,640216,52719.4
Activities not adequately defined8,5565,25213,8081.2
Grand total actively engaged784,969333,8661,118,835100.0

Occupations—The occupational classification in major and minor groups is given for 1971 in the following table.

Occupational Major Groups and Minor GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
Professional and technical*—   
Physical scientists and technicians3,1331,3144,447
Architects, engineers and technicians22,6391,06223,701
Aircraft and ships officers2,82142,825
Life scientists and technicians2,7071,6014,308
Medical, dental, and veterinary workers*9,32722,25431,581
Statisticians, mathematicians, systems analysts and technicians1,2902481,538
Economists42251473
Accountants7,1702647,434
Jurists2,683502,733
Teachers18,44625,83444,280
Workers in religion2,8305013,331
Authors, journalists and writers*1,9186682,586
Sculptors, painters (artists), photographers2,7149263,640
Composers and performing artists1,0627921,854
Athletes, sportsmen*702139841
Professional, technical n.e.c.*2,0861,7323,818
Total81,95057,440139,390
Occupational Major Groups and Minor GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
Administrators and managerial workers—   
Legislative officials and government administrators62413637
Managers (excluding those in wholesale and retail trade, catering and lodging services and in farming)26,7241,04227,766
Total27,3481,05528,403
Clerical workers—   
Clerical supervisors4,0594654,524
Government executive officials4,6261924,818
Stenographers, typists and punch machine operators52633,86634,392
Bookkeepers, cashiers*13,74016,17229,912
Computing machine operators5966,7337,329
Transport and communication supervisors5,8481505,998
Transport conductors6362638
Mail distribution clerks2,1521,5543,706
Telephone and telegraph operators1,5715,5687,139
Clerical n.e.c.*36,28045,64581,925
Total70,034110,347180,381
Sales workers—   
Managers (wholesale and retail trade)16,0172,28018,297
Working proprietors (wholesale and retail trade)8,3194,11112,430
Sales supervisors, and buyers8,0198638,882
Technical salesmen, commercial travellers and manufacturers' agents12,98630713,293
Insurance, real estate, securities and business services salesmen and auctioneers9,78138410,165
Salesmen and shop assistants*21,33130,70252,033
Sales workers n.e.c.9036126
Total76,54338,683115,226
Service workers—   
Managers (catering and lodging services)1,9931,1883,181
Working proprietors (catering and lodging services)3,1452,2345,379
Housekeeping and related service supervisors2542,9703,224
Cooks, waiters, bartenders*6,33612,47418,810
Maids and related housekeeping workers n.e.c.1,0599,04910,108
Building caretakers and cleaners*5,3314,2129,543
Launderers, drycleaners and pressers1,2582,7914,049
Hairdressers, barbers, beauticians*1,5104,6676,177
Protective service workers7,4522187,670
Service workers n.e.c.3,3415,8999,240
Total31,67945,70277,381
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters—   
Farm managers and supervisors5,798705,868
Farmers58,8296,45665,285
Agricultural and animal husbandry workers39,05810,62849,686
Forestry workers5,337405,377
Fishermen and hunters*3,393413,434
Total112,41517,235129,650
Occupational Major Groups and Minor GroupsMalesFemalesTotal

*Includes related workers.

Note: n.e.c.—not elsewhere classified.

Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers—   
Production supervisors, overseers and general foremen (non-clerical) (and excluding Agricultural, transport, sales and service supervisors, overseers and foremen)13,1441,01314,157
Miners, quarrymen, and well-drillers*2,699-2,699
Metal processers2,5071202,627
Wood preparation workers and paper makers7.5662047,770
Chemical processers*2,2933142,607
Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers*5,5124,52010,032
Tanners, fellmongers and pelt dressers1,3171651,482
Food and beverage processers36,7703,84440,614
Tobacco preparers and tobacco product makers162360522
Tailors, dressmakers, sewers, and upholsterers*4,76421,01625,780
Shoemakers and leather goods makers2,1462,8945,040
Cabinet makers and related woodworkers4,8942065,100
Stone cutters and carvers1971198
Blacksmiths, toolmakers and machine tool operators6,7606017,361
Machinery fitters, machine assemblers and precision instrument makers (except electrical)46,4451,02747,472
Electrical fitters and electrical and electronics workers23,2852,19625,481
Broadcasting station and sound equipment operators and cinema projectionists33098428
Plumbers, welders, sheet-metal and structural metal preparers and erectors22,46777323,240
Jewellery and precious metal workers657168825
Glass formers and potters*2,3014832,784
Rubber and plastics product makers4,0721,7945,866
Paper and paper-board products makers8456941,539
Printers*8,2932,60510,898
Painters12,28815312,441
Production and related workers n.e.c.2,8161,7264,542
Bricklayers, carpenters and other construction workers44,275944,284
Stationary engine and related equipment operators n.e.c.3,27643,280
Material handling and related equipment operators, dockers and freight handlers37,9757,80545,780
Transport equipment operators41,1781,01742,195
Labourers n.e.c.24,9342,14927,083
Total366,16857,959424,127
Workers not classifiable by occupation—   
New workers seeking employment9961,6322,628
Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described4,1591,7835,942
Workers not reporting any occupation (excluding armed forces)2,8711,3694,240
Armed forces10,80666111,467
Grand total, actively engaged784,969333,866x1,118,835

WOMEN IN THE LABOUR FORCE—During the past 40 years there has been a marked change in the composition of the New Zealand labour force. The female component of the labour force has increased from 20.9 percent in 1926 to 32.5 percent in 1976.

Female labour force participation rates for women aged 15 to 64 years have been: 1926, 25.6; 1936, 26.5; 1945, 29.0; 1951, 28.4; 1956, 29.7; 1961, 31.9; 1966, 35.4; 1971, 38.9; and 1976, 42.6.

Between 1936 and 1976 the male work force increased by 63.3 percent while the female labour force grew by 192.0 percent.

Despite these marked increases the New Zealand female participation rate in the labour force is not as high as that of some overseas countries.

The following table shows for a selected group of countries the percentages of the females in each age group and in the female population as a whole who are actively engaged in the labour force. As with all international statistics, comparisons should be made with caution owing to differences in definitions of "actively engaged" (especially as regards women assisting without pay in family businesses), different methods of collection and tabulation, and the different age-structures of the populations.

CountryAge Groups (Years)Total Female Population
15-2425-4445+

Source: Based on data in LO Yearbook 1975.

   Percentage 
Japan (1970)54.752.646.239.1
United Kingdom (1971)58.150.332.732.9
Sweden (1970)42.449.628.229.9
United States (1970)41.847.534.729.5
Canada (19)49.344.229.928.3
Australia (1971)55.341.523.126.7
New Zealand (1971)55.933.221.423.3

Compared with Australia and New Zealand, the United States and Sweden report considerably lower participation rates by 15 to 19 year old girls, reflecting the longer time spent in formal education. This trend is also appearing in New Zealand and may be expected to continue. There is a rather lower New Zealand participation rate in the 25 to 29 years age group and this may be due to the higher incidence of marriage, the higher New Zealand birth rates, and the social attitudes in New Zealand which expect a mother to care for her own children. It seems apparent that the likely continued rise in the female labour force will be due mainly to the re-entry of married women after their children have reached school age.

Married women in paid employment have increased until, in 1976, 55.8 percent of the total female labour force consisted of married women.

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of the female labour force are given in the following table.

Item193619451956196619711976*
*Provisional.
Married women in labour force11,29131,95862,033116,314166,472231,380
Percent of female labour force8.517.732.041.549.8558

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of all married women increased from 3.5 in 1926 to 32.4 in 1976, with every indication that this momentum of increase is being sustained.

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of all married women in the same age group are given in the next table.

Age (Years)193619451956196619711976
    percent  
16-195.718.218.523.530.340.7
20-244.317.419.426.734.344.1
25-293.710.311.715.820.729.5
30-343.68.011.316.424.331.1
35-393.68.413.921.831.841.8
40-443.98.716.626.935.345.0
45-494.47.817.527.235.943.7
50-544.26.115.525.230.737.3
55-594.24.610.818.522.025.2
60-642.82.55.29.511.211.1
65+1.61.01.62.12.42.5
All ages—      
16+3.77.712.919.926.132.4

A table in the 1976 Yearbook showed the occupations of married women in the labour force in 1971 by age groups.

Participation of married women in the labour force may be said to follow this pattern—higher than average percentages below 25 years of age when the economic desirability of a second income in the purchase and furnishing of a home is likely to be at its greatest; lower than average percentages between 25 and 34 years when younger families are being cared for; higher than average percentages at 35-54 years when family responsibilities have diminished; and lower than average percentages at 55 years and beyond when retirement causes increasing withdrawals from the labour force.

The increasing tendency for women to continue in employment after marriage until the birth of the first child and to re-enter the labour force as family responsibilities lessen has been aided by a combination of factors, including the progressively younger ages at marriage, changing social attitudes particularly toward the role of married women, and possibly to a greater awareness and readier acceptance of family planning and improved methods of contraception.

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS—The Census of Population and Dwellings 1971 included a question on the highest educational qualification obtained. An analysis by occupational major groups of the labour force is given in the following table. Additional information is given in the census reports, Volume 4, Industries and Occupations, and Volume 6, Education.

Occupation Major GroupUniversitySecondary
DegreeDiploma or otherScholarship, H.L.C., U.E.*School CertificateOther Examination
*U.E.—University Entrance; H.L.C.—Higher Leaving Certificate.
Professional and technical M24,0073,60319,00310,6745,604
F5,0691,37017,55916.5003,077
Administrators and managers M1,6427304,5982,3242,509
F68611286129
Clerks M1,45350012,59611,8776,156
F7571638,24924,9589,780
Sales staff M7799647,0717,6394,343
F99531,0752,8481,549
Service workers M1381201,3412,0341,462
F96701,0552,5381,639
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters M5611,8624,9389,0192,189
F78988561,680631
Production workers, transport operators and labourers M5075516,79321,2619,921
F66315982,0541,336
Workers not classifiable by occupation M231681058
F617222729
Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately described M386697362
F13-327342
Workers not reporting any occupation M298638236
F102195915
Armed Forces M173268462,061526
F-14822135
Totals, persons with examination qualifications M29,3508,37157,38667,14932,816
F6,2621,79529,67551,24418,262

WORKING LIFE EXPECTANCIES—A table of working life displays the manner in which rates of participation in, entry to, and withdrawal from the labour force vary with age for the given population group. Also included are expectancies of future working life and retirement life, assuming that the rates displayed in the table continue unchanged. The main applications of these tables are to economic and social studies relating to large groups of people. Individuals frequently do not conform to group patterns and, therefore, applications of any statistics from the tables must be made with caution.

Abridged tables of working life for males and females, based on labour force data from the 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings and the 1970-72 Life Tables (Total Population), are now given.

Exact Age (Years)Percentage of Population in Labour ForceNumber in Labour Force, per 100,000 Live BirthsChanges in the Labour Force in the following 5 Years of Age, per 100,000 Live BirthsExpectation of Work Life of Person in Labour Force (Years)Expectation of Retirement Life of Person in Labour Force (Years)
Total Entries*Total Withdrawals

*Entries of females into the labour force below the horizontal line are secondary entries by those who withdrew at younger ages for family formation.

†The working life expectancies for females allow for the possibility of a second spell of labour force membership after a period of non-membership due to family formation.

‡Difference between life expectancy and working life expectancy.

§These are withdrawals at all ages 80 and above.

    Males 1971  
15--82,37546646.78.7
2084.881,90911,14671042.08.8
2596.492,3451,96762837.38.9
3098.493,68433171732.58.9
3598.893,298151,05527.89.0
4098.892,258-1,90923.19.1
4598.490,349-3,40218.59.2
5097.386,947-6,04214.19.2
5595.080,905-15,26710.09.4
6083.565,638-29,4736.59.2
6552.436,165-22,2164.87.8
7024.713,949-9,5954.25.6
7510.54,354-3,0633.83.6
805.11,291-1,291§3.22.4
   Females 1971   
15--88,10718,36618.243.0
2071.569,7416,611*39,54316.240.1
2537.836,8091,61812,29922.129.4
3026.926,1288,6343,25125.121.5
3532.631,5116,8942,11422.619.3
4037.936,2913,1261,26618.818.3
4540.338,1511,8034,27614.418.2
5038.435,6786247,68910.717.4
5531.728,6131019,9928.015.9
6021.618,722-10,1945.714.0
6510.58,528-5,1935.011.0
704.63,335-2,2254.48.0
751.81,110-7624.05.4
800.8348-348§3.13.6

Chapter 32. Section 32 WAGES

Table of Contents

GENERAL—For many years the basis for determination of wages and salaries for the majority of employees has been a system of conciliation and arbitration supplemented by general wage orders. About half of New Zealand's wage and salary earners are subject to awards and collective agreements falling under the jurisdiction of the Industrial Relations Act 1973.

The State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, provides for determinations covering salaries and conditions of service for State employees to be made by employing authorities. A State Services Co-ordinating Committee has been established as the principal coordinating body for Government and as the main official negotiating body on issues having significant inter-service or "across the board" application. Hospital and Education Services Committees have been appointed to conduct negotiations on matters affecting respectively the hospital service alone and the education service (teachers) alone. There is a State Services Tribunal to hear appeals by employee organisations, and also a Government Service Tribunal, a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, a Post Office Staff Tribunal, and a Hospital Service Tribunal, all with a common chairman.

Pay and allowances for the Armed Services are prescribed by the Secretary of Defence in accordance with provisions of the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969. A Police Staff Tribunal established under the Police Act 1958 makes orders as to the remuneration and conditions of service of members of the Police.

The State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969 provides for the wages and salaries of all State servants to be adjusted half-yearly on the basis of an index of general movement from the half-yearly survey of wages and salaries conducted by the Department of Labour, but the operation of the October 1973 and April 1974 adjustments was suspended by the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1973 and the Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 further suspended this provision.

A significant feature of recent years has been the exceptionally high rate of wage and salary increases. Average weekly earnings have increased at nearly three times the average annual rate of 4.8 percent for the 10 years prior to 1970. Following the 1970 experience of a rise of 13.6 percent, consideration of deflationary measures began with discussions between the Government and representatives of the Employers' Federation and the Federation of Labour, with a view to slowing down the accelerated trade-by-trade leap-frogging which was occurring with wage bargaining. These discussions showed that the relativities issue was but one aspect of a total problem contributing to the inflationary spiral. Attention then turned to positive wage and salary stabilisation as part of an overall stabilisation programme, and on 25 March 1971 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act was passed. This Act stipulated that new awards and agreements had to remain in force for at least 12 months and established an independent Remuneration Authority to administer certain arrangements under the Act. The Remuneration Authority continued to operate until December 1972, although in April 1972 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act was superseded by the Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations.

After the abolition of the Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations in December 1972 there was a return to free collective bargaining within the framework of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954. However, in response to increasing pressure on the level of wage settlements during the early part of 1973, direct Government intervention in the wage-fixing process was again deemed necessary and the Economic Stabilisation Regulations became effective on 10 August 1973. Under the regulations a partial wage pause until June 1974 was introduced with a Wages Tribunal being established to deal with various administrative aspects of the regulations, including the settlement of wage relativity anomalies caused by the regulations.

Following the expiry of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations on 30 June 1974, and in response to continued inflationary pressures within the economy, Government introduced long-term wage stabilisation measures. The Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 became effective on 1 July 1974 and form an integral part of a much wider economic stabilisation policy.

In their original form the Wage Adjustment Regulations represented a significantly less restrictive and more flexible wage control system than that previously operating; one of the major relaxations was a return to free collective bargaining for wages and conditions of employment. However, subsequent amendments to the regulations, particularly changes made in 1976, greatly tightened the criteria under which increases in remuneration might exceed those general adjustments prescribed under the regulations.

GENERAL WAGE ORDERS—The General Wage Orders Act 1969 is presently suspended by the Wage Adjustment Regulations gazetted in June 1974. Prior to this the Act had been suspended during the currency of the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971 and later by the Economic Stabilisation Regulations in August 1973. However, a 1976 amendment to the Wage Adjustment Regulations provided for the making of a "wage order" on the basis of criteria similar to those of the General Wage Orders Act 1969 and, as described later in this section, such an order was made in March 1977.

Historically, general wage orders have been the principal source of a large number of general adjustments made to salary and wage payments in the economy. Before 1970, general wage orders were made by the Court of Arbitration under the authority of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1953. Since 1970 the empowering legislation has been the General Wage Orders Act 1969; and, following the enactment of the Industrial Relations Act 1973, responsibility for making such orders has lain with the Industrial Commission.

When the Act is operational, general wage orders can be made by the Industrial Commission of its own initiative, or on the application of any industrial union or industrial association of employers or workers. The general purpose of the Act is to provide for the making of a just and equitable review of rates of remuneration in awards and industrial agreements. Every such review has to consider whether an adjustment should be made to rates of remuneration, in order to: (a) maintain and promote living standards, so far as it is within the capacity of the economy to sustain such an agreement; (b) promote industrial harmony; and (c) maintain and promote exports by New Zealand industry.

General wage orders from 1964 have been as follows:

Date of OrderEffective DateIncrease in Minimum Wage Rates
*Application limited to first $40 a week for male workers, $30 for female workers and $25 for junior workers. Earlier, in June 1968, after a general wage order hearing, the Court had decided not to issue a general wage order.
  percent
19 August 196410 September 19646
10 November 19661 December 19662 1/2
5 August 196819 August 19685*
3 November 197023 November 19703

Amendment 9 to the Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974, dated May 1976, made provision for the establishment of a Wage Hearing Tribunal. On the application of the New Zealand Federation of Labour or the New Zealand Employer's Federation Inc., the Tribunal is empowered to make an order simultaneously amending the rates of remuneration prescribed in awards and collective agreements. In determining the amount of such an order paramount importance is to be given to the promotion of economic stability in New Zealand. Other criteria to be considered are very similar to those provided for under the General Wage Orders Act 1969.

INCOME STABILISATION—Stabilisation of Remuneration—On 25 March 1971 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971 was passed which, among other things, limited the renegotiation of new agreements affecting remuneration to a minimum period of 12 months (subject to certain exceptions), and generally aimed to restrict the annual increase in such agreements to a maximum of 7 percent. In addition, a Remuneration Authority was established to administer certain arrangements under the Act.

Under the Act the Remuneration Authority was required to make cost of living orders as soon as possible after the Consumers' Price Index had been prepared by the Government Statistician for the quarters ended 30 June 1971 and 31 December 1971. Two orders were made by the Remuneration Authority—the first of 4.8 percent applying from 21 July 1971, and the second of 9.1 percent (including the order of 4.8 percent) applying from 31 January 1972. The orders applied automatically to all awards and agreements which, based on the rate of 1 January 1971, had not changed.

As from 1 April 1972, increases in pay were subject to the Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations 1972, which were made under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948. The Remuneration Authority continued to operate until 17 December 1972 when it was discontinued with the change in Government.

In accordance with a provision made by the Government, a cost-of-living order of 4.2 percent was made by the Remuneration Authority following publication of the Consumers Price Index for the September 1972 quarter. The order applied automatically from 26 October 1972 to minimum rates in awards and industrial agreements as at 1 February 1972 and, by agreement between the parties, could be applied to other rates of pay.

As with the orders made under the 1971 Act, negotiated increases effective from February 1972 were offset against the order. But increases approved by the authority explicitly on the grounds of productivity not involving price increases were not to be offset.

Economic Stabilisation Regulations—Following the abolition of the Remuneration Authority in December 1972, New Zealand experienced a return to free collective bargaining during the earlier part of 1973. However, in response to the high level of wage and salary increases in the period of free bargaining, deflationary measures were considered necessary and resulted in the promulgation of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1973. These regulations became effective on 10 August 1973, the section relating to wages being designed to expire on or before 30 June 1974.

The main features of the regulations are now covered.

All instruments in force at the date of making of the regulations were to continue in force without amendment until the expiry of the regulations. All new instruments made subsequent to 10 August 1973 were to cover a period of not less than 12 months.

A wage adjustment order of 8.5 percent, up to a maximum of $5.80 per week, was introduced to be applied to all rates payable under any award or industrial agreement. The increase could also be applied to other rates of pay by agreement between the parties concerned. However, this order was to be offset by any increase effected during the period 1 February to 10 August 1973 (inclusive). The application of the wage adjustment order to State employees was limited to 6.2 percent up to a maximum of $4.60 per week.

A Wages Tribunal was established to remove or relieve any serious anomalies created by the regulations. Provision was also made for the tribunal to consider applications for wage increases on the basis of productivity gains.

Under the regulations a further wage adjustment order effective from 11 February 1974 was made on the basis of movements in the Consumers Price Index during the 6 months ended 31 December 1973. The amount was 2.7 percent based on a 4.7 percent rise in the index over the period abated by 2 percent.

Wage Adjustment Regulations—Subsequent to the expiry of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations on 30 June 1974, a new long-term wage stabilisation policy became effective. The Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 provide for the control and adjustment of salaries and wages in both the private and State sectors and, as well, delineate specific guidelines for the control of special salaries such as those of members of Parliament and senior employees in the State services, public bodies, and local authorities.

Upon introduction, the Wage Adjustment Regulations created an initial round of adjustment in 3 distinct tiers. The first of these provided for a general wage adjustment of 9 percent, effective from 1 July 1974, applying automatically to the rates of remuneration payable on 30 June 1974 under all awards and collective agreements. Its application to other types of industrial instrument (such as ruling rates or house agreements) was subject to agreement between the parties to the instrument concerned. State employees and officers of public bodies and local authorities automatically received the 9 percent order but the salaries of members of Parliament were specifically excluded from its scope. The general increase applied to every payment expressly stated in money terms, including piece rates and allowances.

In addition to the wage adjustment order the regulations restored freedom for a majority of those groups in the State and private sectors to negotiate a supplementary increase of up to 2.25 percent of the rate of remuneration payable on 30 June 1974. Members of Parliament and specific groups in the higher salaries category were excluded from this provision. Freedom for all groups to negotiate improvements in conditions of employment (such as sick leave, annual holiday, etc.) was restored.

The third tier of wage adjustment contained in the regulations enabled parties to negotiate wage and salary increases beyond the 2.25 percent limit, subject to the consent of the Industrial Commission or other appropriate wage-fixing tribunal.

As first introduced, the Wage Adjustment Regulations also empowered the Industrial Commission to grant cost-of-living increases (based on movements in the Consumers Price Index) at intervals of not less than 6 months. The filing of applications for such orders was restricted to a central organisation (i.e., the Employers' Federation or the Federation of Labour) or to the Minister of Labour. All groups covered by the regulations received the cost-of-living orders, although in the private sector their application was subject to the same conditions that applied to the general wage adjustment of 30 June 1974.

In addition to the provision for making cost-of-living orders the Wage Adjustment Regulations established a Higher Salaries Commission; its functions include the determination of salaries and allowances of members of Parliament, the salary of the highest paid executive officer of each of a number of corporations and other public bodies, salaries of the highest paid officers of local authorities, and the salaries of certain university positions.

The Industrial Commission (private sector) and the State Services Tribunal (public sector) were vested with the authority to approve wage increases in order to remove or relieve any "serious anomalies".

Since their promulgation the Wage Adjustment Regulations have been the subject of considerable amendment. The major amendments have been as follows: Amendment 3 provided for the first cost-of-living adjustment to be applied as from 15 January 1975; the amount was 4 percent on the first $75 of gross weekly earnings.

The main purposes of amendment 4 were to absorb the 15 January cost-of-living order into a new cost-of-living order and to extend the coverage of the regulations to individual worker/employer instruments. Under this amendment every ordinary time rate of remuneration lawfully payable on 14 January 1975 was increased on and from 9 July 1975 by 11 cents per hour or $4.40 per week or $230 per year as appropriate. Piece rates were increased by 4.5 percent. In contrast to earlier provisions, the 2.25 percent free bargaining margin was negotiable on the 14 January 1975 rate, as increased by the application of the 9 July cost-of-living order.

A third cost-of-living order was made under amendment 7. As from 27 January 1976 rates of remuneration payable in any award or collective agreement as at 26 January were increased by 9 cents per hour or $3.60 per week or $188 a year as appropriate. The second tier of the regulations, which enabled parties to negotiate a further 2.25 percent in addition to general adjustments, was removed.

Amendments 9 and 10 introduced in May and June 1976, respectively, substantially amended the Wage Adjustment Regulations. From a wage bargaining viewpoint, the net effect of these two amendments was to considerably tighten the conditions under which wage increases could be obtained. In summary form, amendments 9 and 10 provided for—

  1. A cost-of-living order of 7 percent to a maximum of $7 per week or $365 in any one year. Application was to all taxable earnings and the order was effective on and from 25 June 1976.

  2. The establishment of a Wage Hearing Tribunal with power to make an order effecting a general wage increase under similar criteria to those of the General Wage Orders Act 1969.

  3. A change in the definition of "remuneration" to include conditions of employment such as paid leave (sick leave, annual holidays, etc.)

  4. A further tightening in the criteria under which the parties to an industrial instrument could negotiate, and have approved, wage increases in the excess of those provided for by general orders. Under the "exceptional circumstances" clause employers and workers are required to make a joint application to the appropriate wage fixing authority when seeking approval to increase rates of remuneration payable under any industrial instrument. Increases in remuneration can also gain approval if they form part of a new genuine productivity agreement or are matters specifically deferred until the next renegotiation of the instrument.

  5. Continued freedom to negotiate reimbursing payments and conditions of employment not involving rates of remuneration. Coincident with amendment 9 to the Wage Adjustment Regulations, separate regulations were introduced to "freeze" professional charges and to limit directors fees and company distributions to shareholders for a period of 12 months.

In November 1976 the Federation of Labour lodged an application for a wage order to be made under the Wage Adjustment Regulations. Following a series of hearings from interested parties, the Wage Hearing Tribunal made a General Wage Order for a 6-perccnt increase on basic rates applicable from 14 March 1977.

Wage increases authorised under the stabilising legislation are summarised as follows:

AuthorityEffective DateRate of Increase

*This increase absorbed that effective from 21 July 1971.

†Limited to 2.8 percent for State employees

‡Maximum $5.80 per week, application to State employees limited to 6.2 percent (maximum $4.60 per week).

§A supplementary increase of 2.25 percent could be negotiated.

∥On first $75 of gross weekly earnings.

¶$4.40 per week, $230 per year. Piece rates increased by 4.5 percent. A supplementary increase of 2.25 percent could be negotiated.

**Cost-of-living allowance which applies each time the rate of remuneration changes. Maximum $7 per week.

††Applies to rates of ordinary pay only, not to cost-of-living allowances.

Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 197121 July 19714.8 percent
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 197131 Jan 19729.1 percent*
Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations 197226 Oct 19724.2 percent
Economic Stabilisation Regulations 197311 Aug 19738.5 percent
Economic Stabilisation Regulations 197311 Feb 19742.7 percent
Wage Adjustment Regulations 19741 July 19749.0 percent§
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197415 Jan 19754.0 percent
Wage Adjustment Regulations 19749 July 197511.0 cents per hour
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197427 Jan 19769.0 cents per hour
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197425 Jun 19767.0 percent**
Wage Adjustment Regulations 197414 Mar 19776.0 percent

EQUAL PAY—The Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Equal Pay (Parliamentary paper H.54 1971) was tabled in Parliament in September 1971. An Equal Pay Act giving effect, in the main, to the Commission's recommendations was passed in October 1972. It provided for the phasing in of equal pay in five annual steps, ending in 1978, but an amendment to the Act in 1973 required the phasing in to be completed by 1977.

INSTITUTIONAL SECTORS—A classification of salary and wage payments by institutional sectors is given in the following table.

Institutional SectorPayments
1973-741974-75
Producer enterprises—$(million)
Private—  
Corporate2,586.03,123.8
Non-corporate415.3472.6
Producer boards6.98.2
Government producer enterprises389.2463.8
Local government producer enterprises83.599.2
Totals3,480.94,167.6
Financial intermediaries—  
Central bank Trading banks - Central Government and private49.161.9
Insurance and pension funds—  
Central Government Local Government Private77.893.0
Other financial intermediaries—  
Central Government Local Government Private31.237.7
Totals158.2192.6
General Government—  
Central Government934.01,098.0
Local Government121.6140.9
Totals1,055.61,238.8
Private non-profit organisations serving households Households72.590.4
Rest of world0.60.8
Totals4,767.85,690.2

INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION OF SALARY AND WAGE PAYMENTS—The data in the following table represent the results of an industrial classification of the salary and wage payments to employees during the latest three years ended 31 March. This information is extracted from returns required in connection with "pay as you earn" income tax.

Actual gross payments made during a year are not the exact equivalent of the earnings of the employees during that year. Accrued wages at the beginning of the year are taken into account but those accrued at the end of the year are not. The effect of this is normally insignificant.

The "enterprise" concept has been used in this classification. Under this concept where an individual or a company is concerned in two or more industries for which separate classifications are provided, the whole of the wage payments have been classified according to the predominant activity. In most statistical analyses the enterprise is subdivided into separate units where two or more industries are involved, and each unit is then appropriately classified. A minor exception to the general rule has been made in the case of the road passenger transport and the electricity supply services of local authorities. These activities have been included in the appropriate industries.

Industry GroupSalary and Wage Payments
1972-731973-741974-75
 $(million)
Agriculture and livestock production146.0170.7190.3
Forestry, hunting, and fishing12.615.318.0
Mining and quarrying17.420.022.9
Manufacturing, food, beverages, and tobacco292.3338.9399.2
Manufacturing, textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles124.3149.4185.7
Manufacturing, wood, paper, chemical, etc., products (including miscellaneous manufacturing)415.5508.0610.5
Manufacturing, metals and metal products296.2367.9454.6
Construction317.8380.5458.0
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services (not construction)61.570.081.9
Commerce—wholesale and retail trade594.0703.9831.2
Commerce—other203.0241.7282.3
Transport, storage, and communication474.0556.1672.5
Services, community, business, recreation, and personal1,037.51,244.91,482.6
Activities not adequately described0.50.60.5
Totals3,992.74,767.85,690.2

Percentage rates of increase during the latest years were: 1969-70 to 1970-71, 20.2 percent; 1970-71 to 1971-72, 18.2 percent; 1971-72 to 1972-73, 12.1 percent; 1972-73 to 1973-74, 19.4 percent; and 1973-74 to 1974-75, 19.3 percent. It should be noted that the labour force has grown over the period.

WEEKLY EARNINGS—The Department of Labour carries out surveys at half-yearly intervals; returns are required from all establishments in which at least two persons (including working proprietors) are engaged; Government and local authority employment is included, but not farming, hunting, fishing, waterfront and seagoing work, domestic service in private households, and armed forces.

The following table shows the average weekly wage payout per person (covering males and females, adult and juvenile) derived from this survey during the latest 5 years. Comparison is made with the weighted average nominal wage rate for adult males as used in the wage rates index covering rates prescribed by all determining authorities.

Date of SurveyWeekly Wage Payout per Person
Aggregate Payout (Including Overtime, Bonus Earnings, etc.) for One Week Divided by—Aggregate Ordinary-time Earnings Divided by Full-time and Half Part-time EmployeesNominal Minimum Weekly Wag for Adult Ma* as at End of Preceding Month
Full-time and Part-time EmployeesFull-time and Half Part-time Employees
*Nominal minimum weekly wage, which relates to adult males only, is the weighted average of the sample rates used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index.
 $$$$
1972-April63.93267.62260.97063.415
October65.01669.00662.63263.830
1973—April71.75576.10367.88668.957
October74.93780.00771.81875.176
1974—April80.89586.32477.07077.422
October88.46994.87785.63387.000
1975—April94.388100.83691.60590.656x
October97.333104.20595.662x95.559x
1976-April104.994112.227102.835100.215
October110.773118.809109.748106.636

HOURLY EARNINGS—In the following table average hourly earnings from the half-yearly surveys are shown; estimated average ordinary time worked by full-time employees has been obtained by dividing aggregate ordinary-time hours worked during one week by the sum of full-time employees plus half of the part-time employees; hence if there are any part-time workers the sum of the average ordinary-time hours and overtime hours will not be equal to the average time worked by full-time and part-time employees as shown in the last column.

DateAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For: All Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For: Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $$$hourshourshours
1972—April1.6402.4421.69437.22.937.7
October1.6902.4561.74037.12.837.4
1973—April1.8282.7011.89437.13.237.9
October1.9342.8181.99837.13.137.5
1974—April2.0683.0002.13937.33.337.8
October2.3043.2602.37237.23.137.3
1975—April2.4533.4822.52137.42.837.4
October2.5683.6092.63037.22.537.0
1976—April2.7643.9842.83737.22.537.0
October2.9474.0483.01037.22.436.8

The preceding table combines all industries. A dissection by industrial groups of the last line of that table according to the major headings of the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification, relating to October 1976, is now provided.

Industrial GroupAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Paid For: All Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesAverage Hours Paid For Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $$$hourshourshours
Forestry and logging2.8574.0622.92137.32.139.0
Mining and quarrying3.2103.9153.29537.55.242.2
Manufacturing—      
Seasonal food processing3.1644.2833.28335.94.339.7
Other food, beverages and tobacco2.6493.8092.78537.15.438.8
Textiles, clothing and leather2.5073.5152.55836.72.136.4
Wood and wood products2.7463.9482.85237.63.740.2
Paper and paper products, printing and publishing3.1204.8513.26537.63.639.1
Chemicals, petroleum, rubber and plastics3.0973.9933.17937.13.839.6
Non-metallic mineral products2.8213.9832.96837.15.541.6
Metal products and engineering2.9394.0783.06137.14.640.5
Machinery2.8714.0672.97038.03.540.4
Electrical equipment2.7023.6972.77037.12.838.5
Transport equipment2.9494.3323.04936.32.938.7
Other manufacturing2.6023.4582.64436.82.036.5
Subtotals2.8654.0842.97136.93.639.0
Electricity, gas and water3.1874.3463.25537.72.439.6
Construction2.9063.9423.00338.74.042.7
Wholesale, retail etc.—      
Wholesale trade3.0353.6993.05738.11.437.8
Retail trade2.4293.5242.46137.01.432.4
Restaurants, hotels etc.2.4733.3232.51632.92.824.9
Subtotals2.6693.5462.69936.71.632.7
Transport and communication—      
Transport and storage3.0834.5353.24238.24.842.0
Communication2.8834.3602.95239.42.040.0
Subtotals3.0024.4983.12938.73.741.2
Finance, insurance etc.—      
Finance3.1663.8103.17238.00.437.0
Insurance3.4274.5903.43437.50.236.5
Real estate and business services3.2094.0093.22436.70.734.6
Subtotals3.2344.0013.24437.30.535.8
Community and personal services—      
Government services (not elsewhere classified)3.5814.7833.59237.30.437.0
Local Authorities (not elsewhere classified)3.2593.9593.29138.01.938.5
Sanitary services etc.2.4883.7842.53631.52.521.5
Education services3.2703.3423.27035.60.133.2
Research and scientific institutes4.0234.9514.03437.30.537.0
Health services3.0013.4393.01438.61.535.0
Other community services2.9653.8572.98036.10.830.2
Recreational services3.1343.8683.17334.42.429.8
Personal and household services2.5083.7472.55838.01.737.0
Subtotals3.1163.7593.13136.91.034.3
Totals, all surveyed industries2.9474.0483.01037.22.436.8

NOMINAL WAGE RATES—The present index dates from 1966, with a recent change of expression base to 31 December 1974 (= 1000), and is designed to represent the movements in all minimum or mandatory rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Industrial Commission or any special industrial tribunal, or determined from time to time by some statutory authority. Within this wider index a major sub-index is provided of minimum rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Industrial Commission. The residue then provides a second major sub-index of mainly mandatory rates fixed within the jurisdiction of other industrial tribunals or determined by some other statutory authority. Within the "All Jurisdictions" index and both the "Commission" and "Other Jurisdictions" major sub-indexes, further sub-indexes give analyses firstly by industry groups and secondly by occupation groups.

Complete details regarding the computation of this index are contained in the Report of New Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index for Adult Males published as a special supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics in August 1968.

The next table shows the index numbers of nominal wage rates of adult males for industry and occupation groups. For revisions of recent quarters see Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Base: For each group the average rates for that group at 31 December 1974 (= 1000)*.

Industry GroupAverage for Calendar YearAs at
1975x197631 Dec 197431 Dec 1975x31 Mar 197630 Jun 197630 Sep 197631 Dec 1976
*Comparisons of the index numbers for one grouping of rates with those for other groupings indicate the relative movements in the average rates for the different groupings, not the relative levels of the average rates of wages and salaries in the different groupings.
Part I—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of the Industrial Commission
Industry Groups        
Primary industries10491161100010801127119511961206
Manufacturing10611186100010991145122212221264
Food, beverages, and tobacco10531159100010791124119211921249
Meat processing and dairy factories10501151100010751117118311831244
Other food, beverages, and tobacco10641195100010941154123512351272
Textiles and apparel10591177100010901138121712171240
Wood, pulp, paper and their products10551194100011051149122912291276
Printing and allied industries10591184100011011143122212221281
Metals, machinery and transport equipment10721203100011141159123912391274
Other manufacturing10641196100010991155123612361262
Construction10551201100011141158123912391277
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services10741231100011361189126912691301
Commerce10541180100010911138121612161262
Wholesale and retail trade10541184100010911141122012201271
Finance, insurance and real estate10521158100010871123119311931207
Transport, storage and communications10661191100011061149122512311257
Service industries10611192100011071152123212331250
Occupation Groups        
Professional, technical, managerial10481170100010791126120012001284
Clerical10581172100010911133120912101239
Sales10531175100010831133121212121246
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining10511165100010831129120112021216
Transport10651189100010991146122412251253
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers10601194100011061152123012311272
Service occupations10691207100011251167124812481263
All (industry or occupation) groups combined10591189100011011147122512251264
Part 2—Rates Prescribed by Wage and Salary Determining Authorities Other Than the Industrial Commission
Industry Groups        
Primary industries10841279100011771233131813271334
Agriculture and livestock10961327100012201283137413781378
Other primary10591178100010881128120112211242
Manufacturing10601170100010921131120412041222
Construction10571171100010891126119311931253
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services10531161100010811115117911791244
Commerce10511144100010781108116511651209
Transport storage and communications10581164100010911128119411941216
Service industries10491143100010791108116011601207
Education and health services10491139100010811107115611561193
Government community, business, personal, and recreational services10491148100010771110116411641220
Occupation Groups        
Professional, technical, managerial10461130100010741098114611461184
Clerical10521150100010811113117411741210
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining10841279100011781234131913271334
Transport10641173100011031139120512061217
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers10601174100010921132120312031241
Service occupations10541183100010881133119111911292
All (industry or occupation) groups combined10581172100010971133119711981232
Part 3—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of All Determining Authorities
Industry Groups        
Primary industries10751250100011531207128812951302
Manufacturing10611185100010981144122112211262
Construction10551194100011081151122812281271
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services10651204100011151160123512351279
Commerce10541179100010901137121412141260
Transport, storage and communications10601174100010961135120512071230
Service industries10521155100010861118117711771217
Occupation Groups        
Professional, technical, managerial10461138100010751105115811581206
Clerical10551162100010871124119311941226
Sales10531175100010831133121212121246
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining10731242100011471200128012861295
Transport10651183100011001143121712171239
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers10601190100011031148122512261266
Service occupations10631196100011101152122312231276
All (industry or occupation) groups combined10591183100011001142121512161253

Allowances for housing, board and lodging, or rations are included in cases where these are normally provided in addition to the cash pay.

EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES—The index numbers quoted in the foregoing paragraphs relate to nominal weekly wage rates only—that is, they are based on actual or equivalent money rates without any allowance being made for changes during the period under review in the prices of those goods and services which are purchased out of wages earned. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance, for a rise in wage rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing power of money. Index numbers of effective (or "real") wage rates are arrived at by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices (both series of index numbers having first been set on a common time base) and multiplying the result by the base value of 1000.

The following table accordingly shows a comparison of nominal and effective weekly wage rates of adult male workers. The base of the index numbers is in each case 31 December 1974 (= 1000).

YearConsumer Prices (All Groups)Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Adult MalesEffective Weekly Wage Rates Adult Males
1970672548815
1971742672906
1972793734926
1973858819955
1974953932978
197510931059x969x
197612781183926

The continuous index of consumer prices required for the foregoing table has been obtained by linking together the successive series of the Consumers Price Index and converting the whole to the base: quarter ended 31 December 1974 (= 1000).

In making use of these results it should not be overlooked that the index numbers of nominal rates apply only to full-time employment at award or mandatory rates of pay. They do not take into account either, on the one hand, above-award rates or overtime earnings, or on the other, short-time deductions. Nor do the consumer prices index numbers take cognisance of all classes of household expenditure; income tax, charitable and other gifts, overseas travel, domestic help, etc., are omitted.

MINIMUM WAGE—Enforceable minimum wage rates are determined under various statutes, the most universally applicable being the Minimum Wage Act 1945. This Act provides that workers of age 20 years and upwards must receive not less than the rates prescribed under the Act. In the great majority of cases, however, workers are subject to wage orders, awards, or industrial agreements relating to the particular industries in which they are employed and which provide somewhat higher enforceable minimum rates. The minimum wage for males is currently set at a rate which is lower than the standard rate for unskilled labour.

As from 15 March 1977 the minimum rates for male workers became 162c an hour if paid by the hour or on piecework, $12.89 a day if paid by the day, and $64.41 a week in other cases. On and after 1 April 1977, minimum rates for female workers became the same as for males.

AVERAGE MINIMUM WEEKLY WAGES—A table showing minimum wages in various occupations is given in the annual statistical report Prices, Wages, and Labour available in Government bookshops.

FARM EMPLOYEES—The numbers of paid permanent employees on farms at 30 June 1974 and the aggregate totals of salaries and wages (including bonuses) paid during the year ended 30 June 1974 are shown by types of farm in the following table. The table does not include paid part-time employees (of whom there were 9,595 at 30 June 1974) or paid casual employees. of whom there were 11,340 at the same date.

Farm TypePaid Permanent Employees on 30 June 1974Salaries and Wages Year Ended 30 June 1974
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
   $(000)$(000)
Dairy4,5961,12816,1231,922
Sheep5,12657317,558714
Beef7091232,480202
Pigs264261,20639
Cropping2101375721
Dairy with Sheep1803956360
Dairy with Beef4371071,513177
Dairy with Other1232841448
Sheep with Dairy45713111
Sheep with Beef4,40939815,624490
Sheep with Cropping419421,42636
Sheep with Other1062037219
Beef with Dairy421314422
Beef with Sheep591862,002110
Beef with Other591218421
Cropping with Sheep22622802181
Cropping with Other2931063
Pig with Other4671469
Mixed Livestock2,90033710,044462
General Mixed Farming894883,008109
Poultry Farming4211581,543376
Market Gardening4921132,017248
Orchards8221403,092315
Tobacco Growing1027137274
Other Farming2,2193158,546573
Total All Types25,4673,86990,1736,242

Chapter 33. Section 33 INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND WORKING CONDITIONS

Table of Contents

GENERAL—The Industrial Relations Act 1973 was the first major restructuring of New Zealand's industrial legislation and institutions since 1894. It provided a new charter for the conduct of industrial relations. It replaced the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954, the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913, and the Industrial Relations Act 1949 and it provided for a separation of the functions of the former Court of Arbitration in the belief that the more strictly legal functions of interpretation and enforcement should not be carried out by a body which has an arbitral role.

The Industrial Commission has taken over the arbitral functions of the former Court of Arbitration. The commission has jurisdiction for the settlement of disputes of interest (i.e., disputes during the negotiation or renewal of an agreement) and for the making of awards. Collective agreements negotiated voluntarily by the parties to a dispute of interest are registered with the commission. Registration of collective agreements is an important provision in that agreements will be binding on the parties.

The Industrial Court is the ultimate court of appeal on disputes of rights (i.e., disputes over the interpretations of an instrument, personal grievances, and other disputes arising while an instrument is in force). The Court also hears and determines enforcement and recovery actions.

An Industrial Relations Council has been established as an advisory body comprising representatives at national level of employer organisations, worker organisations, and Government. Establishment of the council recognises the need for permanent machinery for central consultation on industrial affairs. The council gives advice to the Government on ways of improving current industrial legislation in order to accommodate changes in the industrial environment. Some specific matters to which the council gives consideration are: the formulation and implementation of manpower policies; the formulation of codes of practice relating to industrial relations; ways and means of improving industrial relations, industrial organisations, and industrial welfare.

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES—The Industrial Relations Act 1973 defined two classes of disputes—disputes of interest, and disputes of rights.

Disputes of Interest—A dispute of interest was defined as a dispute created with intent to procure a collective agreement or award settling terms or conditions of employment of workers in an industry.

The Act recognised the right of parties to a dispute to negotiate a voluntary settlement, or a conciliated settlement resulting in a collective agreement. The procedures available for the settlement of disputes of interest include: (a) the Industrial Mediation Service; (b) the Industrial Conciliation Service; (c) the Industrial Commission.

Industrial Mediation Service—The Industrial Mediation Service provides assistance to employers, workers, and their respective organisations to prevent or settle disputes (including disputes of interest) at an early stage. The mediator, however, has no jurisdiction over an industrial dispute which is the subject of conciliation or arbitration proceedings. The service consists of mediators, appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister after consultation with the central organisations of employers and workers.

In carrying out his duties and responsibilities a mediator has the following functions and powers:

  1. To use his best endeavours to prevent industrial disputes.

  2. Where he, or any employer or union considers that an industrial dispute is likely to arise, to offer his services to the parties to assist in preventing the dispute.

  3. When an industrial dispute arises, to offer his services to the parties to assist them in bringing about a settlement of the dispute.

  4. In giving such assistance, to inquire fully into the dispute and all matters affecting its merits and to make such suggestions and recommendations and do all such things as he thinks right and proper for inducing the parties to come to a fair and amicable settlement.

  5. Where the parties to an individual dispute agree, to decide such matters as they may refer to him for decision.

  6. To maintain a close and continuous liaison with the parties in industry, and to carry out such studies and surveys as will enable him to exercise his functions.

  7. To exercise such other functions as conferred on him by the Act.

The service operates independently of any Government department, and any mediator may exercise his function within any part of New Zealand.

One of the major causes of industrial disputes is a breakdown in communications. This may occur either between union officials and their members, or between management and those same workers, or any combination of both. The Industrial Mediation Service performs an invaluable role in ensuring a constant dialogue between parties where normal channels have broken down, and in facilitating prompt settlement of an industrial dispute before an unnecessary stoppage or severe deterioration in industrial relations occurs. The co-operation and assistance of employers, workers, and their organisations with the mediator is essential, particularly in advising him of problems and seeking and accepting his assistance when the need arises.

Industrial Conciliation Service—The Industrial Conciliation Service (now attached to the Industrial Commission) continues to be available to assist the parties to reach a conciliated settlement over a dispute of interest. Conciliators are appointed for a term of 3 years by the Governor-General on recommendation of the Minister. Their general functions are to convene conciliation councils, and ensure that the parties enter properly into the process of reconciling their differences.

In performing his duties the conciliator has the following functions and powers: to appoint dates for the hearing of disputes in consultation with representatives of the parties; to appoint assessors and constitute conciliation councils; to join or strike out parties to a dispute; to call conferences; to record the proceedings of conciliation councils; to report to the commission the terms of settlement of any industrial dispute; to refer unsettled disputes to the commission.

Either party to a dispute of interest may make application to the Industrial Commission for the dispute to be heard by a conciliation council. Where an award or collective agreement is in force, application must be made not more than 6 months before the expiry of the instrument (3 months for disputes affecting a single district). The applicant must cite the respondent parties to the dispute, and prepare a detailed statement of the claims against the respondents. The Industrial Commission, when it receives the application, will appoint a conciliator to hear the dispute.

Copies of the application, incorporating the claims, must be forwarded to the Registrar of the Industrial Commission, the conciliator, the central organisations, and the respondent parties, not less than 6 weeks before the commencement of the hearing. The respondents are to prepare their counter claims, and forward the requisite copies not less than 2 weeks before the commencement of the hearing. Each party is then entitled to nominate up to seven assessors, or up to four in a dispute affecting a single industrial district, to act on their behalf in the conciliation council. Where it is claimed by the applicants or respondents that more than 7 or 4 assessors are needed to represent them adequately, the conciliator will have the power to increase the numbers of assessors up to 10 (6 in the case of a dispute affecting a single district) as he thinks fit. Before appointing the assessors nominated by the parties, the conciliator must be satisfied that they are fully representative of the parties to the dispute and have the authority to make a settlement. The assessors and the conciliator form the conciliation council.

The primary function of the conciliation council is to reconcile conflicting viewpoints and reach a settlement in the dispute. In deciding matters of procedure before the council a decision of a majority of assessors will suffice, or where the assessors are equally divided, the conciliator will have the casting vote.

Where complete agreement is reached in conciliation, the terms of the conciliated settlement are referred to the Industrial Commission for registration. A copy is retained at the office of the commission and copies are also sent to the central organisations, to the representatives of the parties, and to the Secretary of Labour. The commission will be responsible for printing and publishing collective instruments.

By force of the Act, unless agreed otherwise, a collective agreement binds every union, association, or employer who is connected with the industry to which the agreement applies.

Any party to such an agreement may, within 1 month of the agreement coming into force, apply to the Industrial Commission for a total or partial exemption. The commission may grant such an exemption, either in whole or in part, and subject to such conditions as it thinks necessary.

In New Zealand, conciliation has always played an important and integral role in the formal industrial relations system. Indeed, in by far the majority of disputes, complete agreement has been reached in conciliation. It has been considered essential, therefore that the characteristics of the conciliation service should be retained in the new industrial relations legislation.

The emphasis in conciliation is on negotiation and compromise. However, where the parties have reached a deadlock in negotiations, the conciliator, by ascertaining the parties' true position, can assist in reconciling their differences. In so doing, he can substantially reduce the area of conflict.

Industrial Commission—If the parties are unable to reach a settlement in conciliation, the dispute, with any partial settlement, is referred to the Industrial Commission for arbitration. The commission comprises five members, two of whom are appointed on recommendation of the workers and employers central organisations, the remaining three not representing any sectional interest. Of the three, one is appointed president of the commission and another deputy president. The appointment of the president and deputy president is made after consultation with the central organisations (and after taking into account the views of non-affiliated organisations).

The jurisdiction of the commission is exercised only if the parties fail to reach complete agreement in conciliation. Before arbitrating, the commission will first hear representations from the parties to the dispute. However, the exercise of the commission's arbitral powers is by no means automatic. Indeed, if the commission is not satisfied that the parties have made a genuine attempt to settle, it may refer the matter back to the conciliation council. This provision is in line with current legislation. The commission might also, with the consent of both parties, refer the dispute to a mediator if it is satisfied that this might assist the parties to reach agreement.

When the Commission arbitrates, an award is made which is binding on the parties to the dispute and every other union, association or employer who is connected with or engaged in the industry and area to which the award applies. Exemption may be sought in the same manner as for collective agreements settled in conciliation.

Voluntary Settlements—Apart from the formal machinery available to the parties for the conciliated settlement of interest disputes, the parties may jointly agree to negotiate a collective agreement for the voluntary settlement of the dispute. In these cases, a negotiating committee will be formed, comprising an equal number of properly appointed representatives of employers and the union of workers. The voluntary settlement is recorded in writing by the parties and forwarded to the Industrial Commission for registration as a collective agreement. The registered agreement will bind only the signatory parties. Any union or association or employer within the locality of the agreement may, with the consent of the original parties, become a party to the agreement by filing with the Registrar of the Industrial Commission a notice of concurrence.

Disputes of Rights—Disputes of rights are defined as those concerning the interpretation, application, or operation of a collective agreement or award; interpretation, application, or operation of an enactment or contract of employment, being a matter related to a collective agreement or award; any dispute that is not a dispute of interest; or a personal grievance arising from a claim that a worker has been unjustifiably dismissed by his employer, or his employment otherwise adversely affected by action not generally applicable to workers in similar circumstances.

Every award or collective agreement is to contain procedures for determining disputes of rights and personal grievances. Disputes committees comprising representatives of the union and the employer and a chairman agreed on by the parties or a conciliator or a person appointed by him are to determine disputes of rights other than personal grievances. If the members of the committee are unable to reach a settlement the chairman may either make a decision or refer the dispute to the Industrial Court for settlement. There is a right of appeal to the Industrial Court against a decision of the committee.

If a worker has grounds for personal grievance, the matter is to be taken up initially with his supervisor and in turn the union representative may take it up with the employer. If settlement is not reached, it will go before a disputes committee comprising a maximum of three representatives from each side. If the committee cannot reach a decision the matter goes to the Industrial Court for decision.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS—The New Zealand system of conciliation and arbitration is based on the voluntary registration of industrial unions and industrial associations. The Industrial Relations Act 1973 simplified and consolidated procedures developed over the years under the former Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. A sliding scale operates to determine the minimum number required to form a union depending on the number of industrial districts in which the union has coverage. A union of employers with coverage of up to one full industrial district is to have a minimum of six members or more than 75 percent of employers engaged in the industry in the area concerned who together employ more than 75 percent of the workers so engaged, with an absolute minimum of three. A union of workers with coverage of up to one full industrial district is to have a minimum of 30 members or more than 50 percent of the total number of workers engaged in the industry in the area concerned with an absolute minimum of 10 members. The prime minimum and the absolute minimum figures increase progressively with coverage of a greater number of industrial districts. If the membership of a union falls below the minimum requirements the union may be deregistered.

The great majority of unions of workers and employers in the private enterprise field are registered under the Industrial Relations Act. The wages and conditions of the majority of agricultural workers have been determined by wage orders made under the Agricultural Workers Act 1962 but it is now proposed to bring them within the scope of the Industrial Relations Act.

Further provisions of the Industrial Relations Act 1973 operate to deter multiple unionism and simplify the procedures for amalgamation of unions. It is hoped that this will give impetus to amalgamation of unions.

Restrictions on the exercise of welfare activities by unions have been removed and unions are able, subject to membership approval, to devote any percentage of subscription to welfare activities. A union may apply funds to furtherance of political objects if this is decided by a secret ballot of members.

Awards and collective agreements may, by agreement of the parties or by wish of the majority of the workers concerned, contain a provision making membership of a union a condition of employment, but not so as to restrict an employer's right to engage a worker who at the time of engagement is not a member of the union. Where no such "unqualified" preference provision is inserted, the award or collective agreement will contain a "qualified" preference provision. This requires the employer to give preference to a unionist over a non-unionist if the non-unionist is engaged and subsequently fails to become or remain a member of the union, provided that the non-unionist has been requested by a representative of the union to become a member and that a union member is ready and willing to be engaged and is equally qualified to do the particular work required. In fact, since the provision was first introduced the representatives of the parties involved in all negotiations for new awards or agreements have unanimously agreed to include the "unqualified" preference provision.

UNIONS OF WORKERS—In the years subsequent to 1936, when changes in the law enabled national unions of workers to be formed and introduced compulsory membership of unions, two tendencies were visible. The first was the immediate creation of many new small unions, the number of unions jumping from 410 in 1935 to 499 in 1937, as many small groups of workers for the first time became unionised and secured an award. Later, a tendency for small unions to amalgamate into New Zealand unions became evident, so that the total number of unions declined at the same time as the number of larger unions increased. By 1942 the result of these changes was to leave the number and membership of the small unions little different from what they were in 1928, but substantially to increase the number of larger unions, and to increase greatly their membership.

Compulsory unionism resulted in a great numerical strengthening of the existing unions with consequential increase in their financial strength, while the legislation enabling national unions to be formed helped to consolidate these gains: at the same time it resulted in the unionisation of many small groups of workers who were previously unorganised. Since 1962 the State has not imposed compulsory union membership.

The union movement remains diverse, with 292 separate registrations and some important unions and the professional associations outside it*. In size, the registered unions range from over 43,000 members down to 6, with many of them having fewer than 100. Amalgamation is proceeding and significant consolidation has occurred in recent years.

*Mainly the State Services organisations, and the pulp and paper workers.

†The Engineers Union.

Most unions are still occupational, or craft-based, and the industry agreements that are becoming more common—especially at the informal bargaining level—require the co-operation of numerous unions*.

The Act provides for a worker to seek a certificate of exemption from any union-membership provision on grounds of conscience.

Federation of Labour—The great increases in the membership of the trade unions brought about by compulsory unionism and the formation of national unions were factors facilitating the formation of the Federation of Labour in 1937 as an organisation representative of the trade union movement as a whole on a national basis.

The supreme authority of the Federation of Labour is the annual conference of delegates representing affiliated unions. Between conferences the business of the federation is carried on by a National Executive Committee and a National Council. The executive consists of the president, vice president, secretary, and six members elected directly by the conference. The National Council which meets regularly twice a year, and at other times as required, consists of members of the National Executive and is representative of each local trades council. It is the governing body of the federation between meetings of the conference. The local organs of the federation are the local trades councils, 20 in number, and one trade union committee, to which all local unions and branches of unions affiliated to the Federation of Labour are entitled to send representatives. The trades councils meet once a month to carry on the local business of the federation and they maintain close contact with the National Executive by means of exchange of minutes of meetings. Within each district the trades council has local autonomy, but where any matter affects other districts the National Executive or the National Council usually deals with it.

UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS—By registering, the employers secure all the rights of a union and can exercise them, with only minor differences, in the same manner as a union of workers.

Compulsory membership of unions does not apply to employers and in many cases their unions are maintained with a nominal membership.

Employers are more organised for negotiations with unions than figures of membership and the prevalence of local unions of employers might suggest. The New Zealand Employers Federation is the central organisation of employers and the chief co-ordinating body of employers in all matters of industrial relations and employment. It comprises four regional divisions (the Auckland Provincial, Wellington Regional, Canterbury, and Otago-Southland Employers Associations) plus national and North or South Island organisations that are admitted to membership of the Federation's General Council. There are nearly 70 in this latter category.

Individual company membership of the four regional divisions of the federation now exceeds 10,000 and these employers receive advice, assistance, and representation from the associations specialist industrial staff. In addition to work in the negotiations and advocacy field, the Employers Federation has staff handling research and information services.

A new constitution adopted by the federation in 1971 was designed to achieve greater unity amongst employers and employer organisations associated with the federation, and greater employer sector participation has been provided in the formulation of the federation's policies.

STATISTICS: Unions of Workers—The numbers and membership of workers' unions at the end of the year according to industry groups is shown in the following table. Where the members of a union are employed in more than one industry they have been classified to the predominant industry for the union concerned.

*More than a dozen, for example, in the forest products agreements and in the Hutt Valley motor vehicle assembly plants agreement.

Industrial Group197319741975
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.514,551512,356517,354
Mining and quarrying442444764473
Manufacturing—      
Metal products and engineering1550,8501550,6751651,042
Textiles, clothing, and leather2332,3582331,0392230,291
Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal4544,7144447,9504348,715
Wood and wood products, including furniture915,561917,248916,838
Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing411,48749,700510,027
Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics93,720104,211104,047
Non-metallic mineral products51,7876x1,832x71,740
Other manufacturing10989111,1009735
Construction1441,7771341,3361245,178
Road and rail transport1734,1261735,2011736,291
Air transport51,47951,73951,868
Shipping and stevedoring3614,8053514,4823114,239
Finance, insurance, real estate etc.3160,4852961,6152966,090
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.3472,1423377,9833380,146
Government and local authority1411,5781411,7451012,483
Recreational services104,528104,718104,902
Social community services including health, education, etc.45354x831x41,277
Other personal and community services119,7961110,3861111,255
Total305427,692302436,62329254,991

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership.

At 31 DecemberUnder 100100-199200-299300-499500-9991,000-1,9992,000-2,9993.000-4,9995,000-9,99910,000 and OverTotal
Number of Unions
1973923624304230189168305
19749029322941291711159302
197590262333343418101410292
Membership
19734,0605,2505,65111,83828,48242,79543,76533,174106,702145,975427,692
19744,0954,1427,95211,64428,76140,63039,28238,669101,626159,822436,623
19754,3243,5985,70513,27823,75045,13543,65636,497100,476178,572454,991

Note—Since 1968 unions in process of cancellation for which no membership figures were available have been deleted.

The following table shows the total membership of industrial unions of workers at the end of each of the latest 42 years. The most noticeable feature is the steep rise in 1936. This was as a result of the 1936 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act which made union membership compulsory whenever an award or industrial agreement existed.

YearNumber of MembersYearNumber of MembersYearNumber of Members
193580,9291949275,9771963334,128
1936185,5271950275,7791964346,338
1937232,9861951272,9571965353,093
1938249,2311952283,4961966362,760
1939254,6901953290,1491967366,884
1940248,0811954299,2541968364,872
1941231,0491955304,5201969366,523
1942218,3981956308,0311970378,465
1943214,6281957317,1371971386,275
1944223,0271958324,4381972394,748
1945229,1031959327,4951973427,692
1946247,4981960332,3621974436,623
1947260,3791961324,7471975454,991
1948271,1001962332,8011976464,453

Unions of Employers—The numbers and membership of registered industrial unions of employers as at the end of the year are shown in the following table according to industrial groups. Some are employers belonging to two or more unions.

Industry Group197319741975
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.93,030104,020104,116
Mining and quarrying------
Manufacturing—      
Metal products and engineering, etc.91,16791,16791,171
Textiles, clothing and leather104371145811463
Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal226112259222587
Wood and wood products, including furniture952895179506
Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing144101442314425
Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics524452458230
Non-metallic mineral products245245245
Other manufacturing123122166
Construction534,995555,438566,849
Road and rail transport51,74851,74751,811
Air transport234234234
Shipping and stevedoring141231413713133
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.2328367641,101
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.5914,4745815,0725815,545
Government and local authority n.e.c.540354014373
Recreational services1901103190
Social community services, including health, education, etc.278028152822
Other personal and community services772577357736
Totals23130,19523532,64723835,103

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS—Associations of two or more unions in different districts in the same industry can be registered as industrial associations. As at 31 December 1975 there were 15 industrial associations of employers and 31 of workers, the former having 122 affiliated unions and the latter 144.

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS—The following table shows the proportion of workers belonging to registered unions to the total number of wage earners in the country. The figures for total wage earners are derived from census enumerations.

Census YearTotal Wage EarnersEnd of Year Nearest to Census DateNumbers of Workers on Rolls of Registered Unions*Percentage of Wage Earners on Rolls of Registered Unions*

*There are a number of associations of employees not registered. These include many State servants and mine workers, chemical fertiliser workers, agricultural workers, etc.

†Provisional.

1956 (Apr)653,3581955304,52047
1961 (Apr)750,8821960332,36244
1966 (Mar)870,8131965353,09341
1971 (Mar)958,5631970378,46539
1976 (Mar)1,276,1201975454,99136

STATISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES—In the tables which follow only those disputes are included which resulted in a strike, penalty, or lockout, or where organised "go slow" or other passive-resistance methods were clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes. Stoppages in which no demand is made on the employer (or the employees in the case of a lockout) are not included—for example any stoppage which is the result of disagreement by workers with measures taken (or not taken) by Government or other authority, as distinct from employers, is excluded. To avoid confusion with the term "dispute" as used in industrial relations legislation, these statistics have been called "industrial stoppages". A ng-term series of stoppages is given towards the back of this Yearbook.

The figures for stoppages include details of stopwork meetings unless, as on the waterfront, provision is made for these in the relevant award or agreement. In all cases unauthorised stopwork meetings are included, also unauthorised delays in resuming work after recognised stopwork meetings. A single stoppage may include or may consist of one stopwork meeting or several stopwork meetings; if several such meetings are included, these may be held at different times or at different places, provided all relate to the same issue.

The following table shows incidence rates of stoppages during recent years.

YearNumber of Wage and Salary Earners*Workers Involved in Stoppages as Percentage of Wage and Salary EarnersWorking Days Lost per 1,000 of Wage and Salary Earners
*October estimates.
 (000)  
1971935.89.19173.77
1972948.56.37141.81
1973987.411.73275.17
 (000)  
19741,015.86.98180.83
19751,024.57.30209.50
19761,034.319.44472.24

Industrial stoppages during recent years are summarised in the following table. The totals of stoppages include lockouts (if any). Where several occasions have been grouped as one stoppage the largest number of firms affected and the largest number of workers involved on any one day have been included under the relevant headings. Workers indirectly involved have also been included. "Partial strike" indicates a reduction of the normal rate of output.

Calendar YearNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms Affected*DurationNumber of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostAverage Days Lost per Worker InvolvedApproximate Loss in Wages
Complete StrikePartial StrikeTotalTotal (Working Days)Average (Working Days)

*Stoppages sometimes affect a large number of firms of which the full total is not available.

†Includes lockouts.

       (000)(000) $(000)
196916181693256834.04441393.151,384
1970310103236931,3944.321102772.522,425
1971288223135901,3894.44861631.892,109
1972232312663721,2574.73601342.231,951
1973355363945951,8924.801162722.354,289
1974348293805331,5304.03711842.593,332
1975396314287131,8294.27752152.874,219
1976453344879441,9864.082014882.4310,840

In the following table industrial stoppages are classified according to the industry in which they took place. The figures relate to stoppages which terminated during 1976.

IndustryNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedDuration (Working Days)Number of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages

*Some stoppages affected a large number of firms of which the full total is not available.

†From 1976, when there were 16 cases, a stoppage which involved workers in more than one industry has been counted once in each respective industry but as a single stoppage in the total of all industries.

      $(000)
Agriculture, hunting17*171,91916,373391.4
Forestry, logging3331,2191,21931.5
Fishing------
Mining, quarrying557 1/237246011.5
Meat export works118283*344102,821227,2965,178.9
IndustryNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedDuration (Working Days)Number of Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostApproximate Loss in Wages
      $(000)
Other slaughtering, preparation, and preserving meat131435 1/27761,78641.9
Dairy products; fruit, vegetable, and fish preserving; vegetable and animal oils99297002,67948.4
Grain milling, bakery products, sugar, confectionery, etc.1112318-
Beverage and tobacco industries525631,71211,111223.3
Textile, wearing apparel, leather goods1012*241,7132,53046.1
Wood, wood products1164502,70052.5
Paper, paper products; printing, publishing204869 1/212,13339,248925.0
Chemicals; chemical, petroleum, and coal products2234106 1/2*1,2983,79377.0
Rubber and plastic products1520*823,69036,858962.3
Non-metallic mineral products1625742,5106,83595.2
Basic metal industries1113653,5888,585244.2
Metal products; machinery including electrical2839*170 1/23,8416,536143.7
Transport equipment3137117 1/28,03015,246310.3
Professional and scientific equipment------
Other manufacturing1112002003.8
Electricity, gas, water111 1/213200.8
Building contracting3641*18810,12814,972336.1
Civil engineering, contracting2021176 1/22,19917,461469.5
Owner builder and allied trades55192373,85020.5
Wholesale trade164288 1/29132,28249.6
Retail trade32*7189330.5
Restaurants and hotels1113434-
Land transport12107*2911,08524,175455.3
Water transport8518119420,14031,789524.7
Air transport------
Services allied to transportation225341072.2
Communication------
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.11164165612.1
Community, social, and personal services915*50 1/22,1072,56927.6
Several industries2*117,0707,020154.3
Totals4879441,986201,085488,44110,840.3

The following table gives a more detailed analysis of stoppages by duration during 1976.

DurationNumber of StoppagesNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostEstimated Loss in Wages
    $(000)
1 day and less20483,70369,9821,704.5
Over 1 day but not over 2 days10120,60434,306757.5
Over 2 days but not over 3 days4711,80030,714738.9
Over 3 days but less than 1 week248,56818,692460.4
1 week but less than 2 weeks6428,68674,5771,579.7
2 weeks but less than 4 weeks3630,831111,0102,370.4
4 weeks but less than 8 weeks815,416138,2003,007.7
8 weeks and over31,47710,960221.0
Totals487201,085488,44110,840.3

CAUSES AND RESULTS—In the next table the causes and results of stoppages occurring during 1975 are shown. Under the heading "Wages" are included stoppages concerning wages, overtime, or rates for piecework.

Stoppages concerning the employment or dismissal of persons are included under the heading "Employment". Stoppages on the subject of employment usually concern the dismissal of a worker on allegedly insufficient grounds.

"Other working conditions" are of diverse nature, and include such causes as the following: distribution of work in coal mines and on wharves, conveyance to and from work, atmospheric conditions in coal mines, accommodation on ships, numbers of men to be allocated to certain duties, supply of food, and the method of handling cargo.

Under the heading "Sympathy" are included all stoppages caused by workers striking not on account of a grievance arising out of their own wages or conditions, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

In compiling this table no stoppage has been included as ending in favour of either party unless the result has been beyond question. In cases where workers have made more than one demand, succeeding in one or more and failing in one or more, or where they have made one or more demands and in respect of each have been partially successful only, the result has been treated as a compromise. Where strikers have returned to work without any definite decision being arrived at regarding the demands made, or where (as in the case of a sympathetic strike) no definite demand has been made, or when a strike is merely by way of a protest, the result has been recorded as indeterminate.

ResultCause
WagesHoursEmploymentOther Working ConditionsSympathyOtherTotal
 Number of Stoppages
In favour of either party1622616-969
Compromise3362229-11101
Indeterminate901659521526258
Totals13924107971546428

Methods of Settlement—Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes causing stoppages in 1975. Negotiations supposedly under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and the Labour Disputes Investigation Act were treated as "Intervention of third party". "Voluntary return to work" includes such cases as "Protest" absence and stopwork meetings.

Method of SettlementNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostEstimated Loss in Wages
     $(000)
Private negotiations between parties14521925,25178,2481,769.7
Intervention of third party12121016,56279,7901,513.5
Substitution1192113-
Voluntary return to work14827032,01051,811872.8
Other13139054,67063.5
Totals42871374,820214,6324,219.5

WORKING CONDITIONS—A considerable proportion of the persons comprising the labour force of New Zealand have their working conditions determined either directly or indirectly by virtue of the provision of the Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971, the Factories Act 1946, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Shops and Offices Act 1955, the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Agricultural Workers Act 1962, the Construction Act 1959, the Machinery Act 1950, the Disabled Persons Employment Act 1960, the Bush Workers Act 1945, the Sharemilking Agreement Act 1937, the Shearers Act 1962, and the Industrial Relations Act 1973. Legislative authority covering the working conditions of substantially the greater portion of the remaining participants in the labour force is contained in the State Services Act 1962, the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, the Government Railways Act 1964, the Post Office Act 1959, the Police Act 1958, the Education Act 1964, the Hospitals Act 1957, the Hospital Employment Regulations 1963, and the Waterfront Industry Act 1953.

Notes on Acts which have as their prime purpose the protection of workers from accidents in the course of their employment have been included in Section 34D—Occupational Safety.

HOURS OF WORK—Employees in most occupations have had the benefit of a 40-hour 5-day week since 1946, with the first legislation in this regard being enacted in 1936.

HOLIDAYS—The Annual Holidays Act 1944 provides for an annual holiday of 3 weeks duration paid at the workers average weekly earnings during the year of entitlement. A worker who has been employed for less than 1 year, on termination of his employment, is entitled to holiday pay for the period of employment. An employer is required to keep a record (holiday book) containing particulars of employment, annual holidays, and amounts paid in respect of each worker in his employment.

Public holidays include Christmas Day, Boxing Day, New Year's Day, 2 January (or a day in lieu), Waitangi Day, Good Friday, Easter Monday, Anzac Day, Labour Day, the Sovereign's Birthday, and the provincial anniversary day (or a day in lieu). Labour Day is deemed to be the fourth Monday in October. Waitangi Day is 6 February. Anzac Day (the 25th day of April) is a day of commemoration, being the anniversary of the first landing of troops on Gallipoli in 1915, and in terms of employment is observed as if it were a holiday. Observance of Waitangi Day and Anzac Day cannot be transferred to another date.

Other statutes dealing with holidays are the Anzac Day Act 1966, Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952, and the Waitangi Day Act 1976.

FACTORIES ACT—The Factories Act 1946 applies to "any building, office, or place in which two or more persons are engaged or in which one or more persons are employed . . . directly or indirectly, in any handicraft, or in preparing or manufacturing goods for trade or sale . . .".

Restrictions on Employment—No boy or girl under 16 years of age may be employed in any factory unless a certificate of fitness is issued by an Inspector of Factories.

Safety, Health, and Welfare—The safety measures have reference to dangerous liquids, harmful noise, means of access and safety of employment, and means of escape in case of fire. The employer is required to keep a register of all accidents of which he has any knowledge, and first-aid appliances must be provided and maintained. The health and welfare provisions are very extensive and include reference to such matters as air space, cleanliness, ventilation, canteens, the care of employees, amenities, and other things to be supplied by the employer to secure employees' health or welfare.

SHOPS AND OFFICES ACT: Hours of Work—For shop assistants the hour of commencing work for persons under 16 years must not be earlier than 7 a.m., except that newspapers may be delivered from 6 a.m. by persons aged 12 years and under 16, and milk by persons aged 14 years and under 16 from the same hour. Persons under 18 years may not be employed after 10.30 p.m. The Act also provides that persons under 18 years cannot be employed in restaurants before 5 a.m. or after 10.30 p.m.

Sunday Trading—Sunday trading is prohibited except: (a) if provision is made in an award, the prior consent of the Minister being required to such inclusion; (b) for sale of exempted goods listed later; (c) if individual shops are granted exemption by the Shops and Offices Exemptions Tribunal or the Minister to permit them to open on Sunday. This is designed to offer a relaxation to enable shops to cater for the essential needs of the public after work and on weekends.

Exempted Goods—The Shops and Offices Exempted Goods Order 1975 permits the sale of various commodities including bakers' and pastrycooks' lines, building supplies and handyman's requisites, condiments, cooked foods, dairy produce, drinks, fish, frozen foods, fruit and vegetables, fuels, gardening supplies, miscellaneous groceries, magazines and periodicals, meats and small goods, medicinal and household goods, photographical goods, prepared or cooked foods, and some miscellaneous items. Non-exempted goods must be properly locked away from the view of the public after normal closing hours.

Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions—The Act also makes provision for the welfare, health, and safety of assistants. Particular matters that are covered relate to dangerous liquids and noxious gases, limitation of loads, safe means of access, construction and maintenance of floors, passages, stairs, fire precautions, lighting, cleanliness, ventilation, drinking water, drainage, washing facilities, clothing, accommodation, seating and first-aid facilities, rest rooms for women, sanitary conveniences, temperature and heating appliances, accommodation for meals, etc.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT—Under the Agricultural Workers Act 1962 regulations have been made setting out minimum standards of accommodation to be supplied for agricultural workers.

Restrictions on Employment of Children—Under the Agricultural Workers Act no child under the age of 15 years may: (a) be employed in any agricultural work during such times as the child is required to attend school under the Education Act; (b) be required to lift any weights, or to perform any task, likely to be injurious to his health; (c) work more than 8 hours in any 1 day.

SHEARERS ACT—Under the Shearers Act 1962 an employer is required to provide amenities for all shearers employed by him. Where five or more shearers are to be accommodated on the farm suitable accommodation must be provided. Minimum standards of amenities and accommodation are prescribed by the Shearers Regulations 1963.

SHIPPING AND SEAMEN LEGISLATION—The general superintendence of matters relating to merchant ships and seamen in New Zealand is the responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport.

Competence, Safety, and Welfare Provisions—The Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 makes provision to ensure competence on the part of navigational officers, engineers, and certain crew members. Rules or regulations under that Act set out the qualifications and examination standards for persons to obtain the appropriate certificates in New Zealand, and there are provisions for the acceptance of certain certificates granted in other Commonwealth countries. The number and qualifications of persons required to man ships of various classes are set out in statutory scales.

The seaworthiness of ships is covered by annual survey for compliance as to condition and equipment, and regulations govern the day-to-day operations of ships to ensure their safe navigation and operation.

The pay and many conditions of employment are determined by industrial awards or agreements between shipowners and employee organisations. There are also legislative measures to ensure compliance with some of the international conventions or recommendations relating to the employment of seafarers.

MINING LEGISLATION—Consolidating legislation was passed as the Mining Act 1971 and this became law after its attendant regulations were gazetted early in 1973.

Working Conditions—In the coal-mining industry working conditions are determined by agreement reached at annual conferences between the coal-mine owners and the employee organisations.

Restrictions on Employment—No person under the age of 16 years may be employed underground in any coal mine, or in any alluvial mine, or on or about any dredge; while the minimum age in respect of underground work in a quartz mine is 19 years. No youth may be employed in a mine for more than 8 hours per day or 48 hours per week except in cases of emergency.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY—Measures for occupational safety, involving the Machinery Act 1950, the Construction Act 1959, and a number of other Acts, are discussed in Section 35D.

WORKING CONDITIONS OF STATE SERVANTS—Apart from remuneration (which is discussed in Section 32, Wages) the working conditions of State servants are controlled by legislation set out in the following paragraphs.

Members of the Public Service are governed by the State Services Act 1962 and the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969. Included in the functions of the State Services Commission are the provision of suitable office accommodation, the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions, and also the regulations of a variety of points connected with control—e.g., leave, hours of work.

The Government Railways Act 1949 furnishes the legislative framework for determination of the working conditions of railway employees. There is a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, the principal functions of which are to prescribe conditions in regard to hours of work, etc.; and terms and conditions in respect of leave of absence, railway concessions, etc.

Working conditions for Post Office employees are determined by the administrative authority, the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. Power is vested in the Minister by virtue of the Post Office Act 1959. There is a Post Office Staff Tribunal whose function it is to make recommendations to the Minister on such matters as may be referred to it by the Minister, the Director-General, or the New Zealand Post Office Association (Incorporated).

There are other legislative enactments which apply to the relevant sections of general Government employees. Members of the Police are governed by the Police Act 1958 and the Police Regulations 1959, while there is also a Police Staff Tribunal. The three armed services are controlled by the Defence Act 1971.

The Education Act 1964 and amendments authorise, either by regulation or through the agency of education boards, the determination of the conditions of employment, leave of absence, etc., for the members of the teaching profession.

LEGISLATIVE PROVISION FOR CERTAIN OTHER GROUPS: Hospital Board Employees—The provisions relating to working conditions of hospital board employees, such as nurses, etc., will be found in the Hospitals Act 1957 and the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969.

Waterfront Industry—The legislation at present governing waterside work is contained in the Waterfront Industry Act 1953, which defines waterside work as "the loading and unloading of ships, barges, lighters, and other vessels; and, in relation to any port where the harbour board acts as wharfinger, includes the work of receiving and delivering cargo customarily performed by waterside workers at that port". Under the Act functions of government are shared between two types of bodies—one legislative and judicial, the other administrative only.

The legislative and judicial body is the Waterfront Industry Tribunal which consists of a chairman and two other members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour. The tribunal is appointed for a term of 3 years and is a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The functions of the tribunal are, firstly, to prescribe the terms and conditions of employment for waterside work, and here the tribunal's procedure is similar to that followed by the Government Service Tribunal. To assist with this function, the Act also provides for the setting up by the Minister of Labour of a National Conciliation Committee to be appointed for a term not exceeding 2 years and consisting of eight employer and eight worker representatives, with an independent chairman, to conduct conciliation proceedings on any application to the tribunal which concerns two or more ports. Secondly, the tribunal is required to settle any disputes that arise in relation to waterside work, and for this function has the assistance of Port Conciliation Committees which consist of an equal number of employers' and workers' representatives with an independent chairman. Thirdly, the tribunal is a general appeal court from decisions of Port Conciliation Committees (with certain limitations), the National Amenities Committee, and orders of the Waterfront Industry Commission imposing levies or charges.

The Waterfront Industry Commission which is the administrative body, consists of one commissioner appointed for a term of 5 years by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour. The functions of the commission are, firstly, to carry out all administrative work in connection with the engagement of, and payment of wages to waterside workers, including administrative work in connection with guaranteed minimum payments, annual and statutory holiday payments, and systems of payment by results for waterside workers. Secondly, the commission is responsible for the provision of amenities for waterside workers (subject to the direction of the National Amenities Committee) and for the equipping, operation, and management of these amenities which include waiting rooms or assembly halls, restaurants, canteens, and first-aid rooms. The National Amenities Committee, which is associated with the commission in the function of provision of amenities, consists of six nominated representatives of employers, workers, and harbour boards, and the Waterfront Industry Commissioner as chairman, and is appointed by the Minister of Labour. This committee acts in an advisory capacity to the commission, authorising amenities costing not more than $10,000 each at any port, and approving schemes for the provision by harbour boards of amenities costing more than $10,000 each at any port.

The organisation of "registered" waterside workers is on the basis of separate port unions with one association or federation of unions. The port unions and the association are registered through the Registrar of Industrial Unions in the Department of Labour.

Chapter 34. Section 34 PERSONAL SAFETY

34 A—ACCIDENT PREVENTION, REHABILITATION, AND COMPENSATION

ACCIDENT COMPENSATION ACT—The Accident Compensation Act 1972, which took effect from 1 April 1974, is undoubtedly one of the most significant developments in social welfare for many years.

The 3 main objectives of the legislation are: (a) to promote safety in every walk of life; (b) to urge forward the concept of prompt and effective rehabilitation of all people injured by accident so as to restore them to the fullest physical, mental, social, vocational, and economic usefulness of which, they are capable; and (c) to provide prompt, fair, and reasonable compensation so that every accident victim will be treated according to his real needs. Cover, embracing all 3 objectives, extends to virtually everyone in New Zealand, from the smallest child to the oldest citizen.

Accident prevention, which is of great importance to the Accident Compensation Commission, is promoted by a safety division which aims at co-ordinating existing organisations and maintaining its own advisory programme.

Similar stress is laid on rehabilitation, and a staff of field officers has been established in main centres to make personal contact with the injured person and to ensure that all necessary rehabilitative measures are effectively undertaken.

As fr as compensation is concerned, the Accident Compensation Act:

(a) provides immediate benefits for every injured person, regardless of his or her fault and wherever the accident occurred in New Zealand; (b) entitles the injured person to compensation both for permanent physical disability and also for loss of earnings on an income-related basis; (c) provides for regular adjustment in the level of payment to injured persons in accord with variations in the value of money; and (d) provides for everyone an effective insurance against personal injury by accident in New Zealand.

In all, New Zealand has a comprehensive system, the essence of which is that the community itself recognises its responsibility for both the accident toll and its effects, and finances and provides for the victims of all accidents however their injuries are caused.

ACCIDENT COMPENSATION COMMISSION—To administer the Act, the Accident Compensation Commission, comprising 3 persons, is appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour.

The head office of the commission, based in Wellington, has safety, medical and rehabilitation, compensation, legal, research and planning, finance, and administration divisions each headed by a director. There is a branch office in Dunedin. Regional offices are in Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, and Christchurch; and district offices at Whangarei, Rotorua, New Plymouth, Napier, and Invercargill.

SAFETY—By virtue of its legislative duty as a matter of prime importance to take an active and co-ordinating role in the promotion of safety in all the different areas where accidents can occur, the commission is involved in the prevention of accidents of every kind, whether they happen at work, on the roads, in the home, on the playing field, or in the outdoors. It has been recognised by industry that accidents have no economic boundaries, since a worker's productivity is affected equally whether he is injured on the job or off the job.

As accidents are reduced there is a corresponding reduction in the need for compensation and rehabilitation and a lessening of the financial drain on the whole community of which compensation and other "direct" costs are only a portion.

The commission's safety division comprises specialists in various aspects of accident prevention—including occupational, rural, home, and recreational safety—many of the specialists having extensive practical experience as former members of the staff of the National Safety Association. This association ceased to function on 1 October 1975; and while the best features of the work done by this and other organisations are being retained, the resources of the commission enable it to attack accidents on a scale that has never before been possible in New Zealand.

Education and training form the cornerstone of the commission's safety promotion. An extensive range of residential and in-plant training courses is available, each course tailored to meet the requirements of a different level of employee—top and middle management, safety officers and engineers, supervisors, apprentices, and the rank-and-file worker.

The safety division also assists and co-ordinates the efforts of organisations already doing valuable work in accident prevention, and makes financial grants for specific projects.

REHABILITATION—Prompt and successful rehabilitation reduces the need for compensation by returning people to economic usefulness more quickly, as well as in some cases providing them with a vocation and self-respect they might otherwise have lost altogether.

In many ways, however, rehabilitation goes hand in hand with compensation. By removing anxiety and economic fear, adequate compensation in itself helps to achieve rehabilitation of the injured. From the outset, earner and non-earner alike are assured of retaining a reasonable enjoyment of life and a reasonable standard of living, despite even the most severe disability.

The commission's interests in rehabilitation extend to co-operating with existing work—some of it of an extremely high standard already—and to developing the whole concept to give the injured person the best possible treatment.

Rehabilitation extends to such matters as reducing the possibility of permanent disability; assisting those who are disabled to make the best possible use of what ability remains or can be inculcated by new training, further education, or other special help; re-establishing people in employment; modifying homes or workplaces to provide for incapacitated people; providing a wide assortment of rehabilitation aids; and adapting a car to hand-control so that transport to work is available.

COMPENSATION—People are covered against injury by accident under 3 schemes in the accident compensation system:

  1. Earners' scheme—This provides for everyone who receives remuneration either as an employee or as a self-employed person. Persons who have cover under the earners' scheme are entitled to both earnings-related compensation and other benefits as summarised below.

  2. Motor vehicle accident scheme—This covers everyone injured by the use of a motor vehicle. Motor accident victims qualify for all benefits including, if they are earners, earnings-related compensation.

  3. Supplementary scheme—This brings in all those not otherwise covered, among them tourists and visitors to New Zealand; and people not earning, such as housewives, children, students, and retired people. Persons who have cover under the supplementary scheme do not normally qualify for earnings-related compensation but they are eligible for all other benefits.

BENEFITS PROVIDED: Earnings-Related Compensation—The earners' scheme provides for the payment of compensation under a formula which gives 80 percent of the averaged earnings after the first week of incapacity through accident (supported by a medical certificate). For the day of the accident and the next 6 days earnings-related compensation is never payable to a self-employed person, nor is it payable to an employee unless he has been injured in the course of his employment. All other benefits under the Act always apply immediately. Earnings-related payments begin if incapacity extends beyond the first week. If the accident arises out of and in the course of the employment, the employer pays the employee at his normal rate of pay (excluding overtime) for the time lost during the first week.

If the injured person has more than one job he receives full pay for the first week from his employer on the job on which the accident occurred, and the commission will pay compensation based on the amount he would have earned from the other jobs.

After the first week's incapacity, the maximum payable to both employees and the self-employed is $240 a week, being 80 percent of $300.

Weekly payments generally cease at age 65 years, but can continue until the normal retiring age for a particular job. If the accident occurs after age 60 years, payment continues for a further 5 years; if it occurs after age 65 years then up to age 70 years; and if the accident happens after age 70 years compensation is payable for 1 year; assuming in all these cases that the injured person was an earner at the time of the accident.

In some special circumstances, compensation for loss of potential earnings may be awarded.

Earnings-related compensation is taxable, although other forms of benefits are not taxable.

Other Compensation—Provision is made for a wide range of benefits, including compensation for medical and hospital expenses, cost of transport to hospital, or wages paid to an attendant or nurse, and for reasonable expenses resulting directly from the accident.

In addition, the injured person may qualify for payment of a lump sum for permanent loss or impairment of bodily function up to a maximum of $7,000; and for loss of capacity to enjoy life, for pain and mental suffering, and for disfigurement, up to a maximum of $10,000.

Fatal Claims—In the event of a fatal accident, the commission pays reasonable funeral expenses.

Also, the dependent widow of an earner who has died as a result of an accident can qualify for half the earnings-related compensation her husband would have received had he been totally incapacitated but still living. For each dependent child up to a total of 3, an additional one-sixth may be paid, so that a widow with 3 or more children could qualify for the full earnings-related compensation her husband would have received had he been totally incapacitated. In addition, a lump sum of up to $1,000 is payable to the dependent widow, plus up to $500 for each dependent child, to a maximum of $1,500 for the dependent children.

Housewives—As well as the appropriate benefits listed under "Other Compensation" and "Fatal Claims", housewives who are injured in an accident may, if justified, qualify for the cost of home help; or, in certain circumstances, the husband may be compensated for loss of earnings while he is looking after the house until the injured wife can resume her duties.

FINANCING OF COMPENSATION FUNDS—Accident compensation is a form of compulsory insurance in which the community as a whole accepts responsibility for the accidents which inevitably will afflict a proportion of its members, as a consequence of the kind of life that society today demands as its right.

The community pays in these ways:

  1. Levies on employers (including the Crown) and on the self-employed to pay for the earners' scheme. They are paid through the Inland Revenue Department (as agent for the commission).

  2. Levies on vehicle owners are paid to another agent for the commission, the Post Office, to pay for the motor vehicle accident scheme.

  3. General taxation pays for the supplementary scheme through the Consolidated Revenue Account.

The employer pays levies on a risk-related scale, ranging from 25 cents to $5 per $100 of wages paid, and he classifies his employees for the appropriate levy in accordance with the industrial activity in which he is engaged. There are special classes for staff on clerical-management and commercial travelling duties, so that the employer can pay for them at a lower levy rate than that for employees engaged directly in his industrial activity. The maximum amount on which levy is payable is $15,600 a year for each employee.

A levy of 1 percent of earnings applies to self-employed people, regardless of their industrial activity, but the limit of income on which the levy may be imposed is $15,600 a year. Hence, the maximum payable by any self-employed person is $156 a year.

Levies for the motor vehicle accident scheme are collected when motor vehicles are registered or re-registered.

HANDLING OF CLAIMS—The commission itself deals with claims in Otago. In all other areas the State Insurance Office is the claims handling agent for all cases except New Zealand seamen, whose claims are dealt with by P. & I. Services Limited. Claims are made by a worker injured at his place of employment notifying his employer and filling in a claim form which the employer then forwards to the State Insurance Office; or, in other cases, by direct notification to the State Insurance Office. Claims need to be supported by a medical certificate.

It is intended that there should be no long delays in providing compensation. An injured worker who is hurt at work will receive his pay in full from his employer for the first week he is unable to work. If his incapacity continues beyond the first week, earnings-related compensation should become available promptly, so that, effectively, there is no break in his flow of income. He will continue to be paid locally, without delay.

The commission's objective for the self-employed is that earnings-related payments should begin equally promptly, after the first week. Difficulties often arise, however, in determining the weekly amount which on a fair and just basis truly reflects loss of earning capacity. More complex arrangements are necessary and these are set out in pamphlets available from all commission and State Insurance offices.

Naturally, it will take time to assess permanent disability, loss of faculty, potential earnings, pain and suffering, loss o enjoyment of life, and the like; but here again it is firmly intended that delays will be minimised and early payments made once the disability has reached a stable condition.

REVIEWS AND APPEALS—Decisions by the commission acting either itself or by its agents are subject to a right of appeal. The claimant can first apply to the commission for a review of the decision. This review will be conducted by the commission itself, or by a hearing officer appointed by the commission. From any decisions made on a review there is a right of appeal to an Appeal Authority, who has full power to confirm, modify, or reverse any decision by the commission. There is a further right of appeal to the Supreme Court, on a question of law, a matter of general or public interest, or a matter which for any other reason should be heard by the Supreme Court, and to the Court of Appeal on questions of law only.

34 B—INDUSTRIAL INJURIES

GENERAL—Statistics of industrial injuries have become increasingly important with the ever-increasing mechanisation of industry and the growing labour force. For programmes of training in industrial safety they provide both a means of measuring the success or otherwise of the safety education being provided, and an indication of "black spots" where additional safety measures or training are required.

The far-reaching scheme for compensation for personal injuries, which took effect from 1 April 1974, is described in the previous section. One of the duties of the Accident Compensation Commission, the statutory body set up to administer the scheme, is the compilation of data on accidents resulting in more than one week's disability and for which compensation is paid by the commission. In the past, returns of accidents which qualified for compensation under the superseded Workers Compensation Act have been generally notified to the Department of Statistics shortly after the accident, while compensation-claim details have been supplied to the Department later when settlement has been achieved. Pending the publication of later statistics by the Commission, this section includes reprinted tables referring to the last year for which data of industrial injuries was processed by the Department of Statistics.

The statistics cover compensable accidents, which require that the injured worker is paid compensation for an absence from work of one day or longer. Considerable numbers of accidents involving reimbursement of medical expenses only, i.e., "no time lost" cases, are thus excluded from the statistics. The statistics exclude accidents to working proprietors and similar persons not insurable under the Workers Compensation Act 1956. This limits the scope of the statistics in the farming industry especially. Coverage does, however, extend to organisations exempt from insurance under the Act.

PRINCIPAL STATISTICS—The following table gives a summary of the principal statistics for compensable accidents during 1973:

*Claims settled but reported cases numbered 60 in 1973.
Number of accidents resulting in— 
Fatality53*
Permanent total disability2
Permanent partial disability501
Temporary disability66,810
Totals67,366
Compensation paid (incl. damages)— 
Total $(m)9.8
Average per accident $146
Calendar days lost— 
Temporary disability only (000)925.0
Average days per accident14

NATURE OF INJURIES—The nature of injuries is shown by industry divisions in the following tables for 1973. The most common types of injuries were sprains, or strains, closely followed by lacerations, punctures, and open wounds. In 1973, injuries of the first type made up 35.3 percent of all compensable injuries, and injuries of the second type, 29.0 percent. Bruises or contusions, the third most common type of injury, made up 9.0 percent.

Nature of InjuryAgriculture, forestry, hunting and fishingMining and quarryingManufacturingBuilding and ConstructionElectricity, gas, water and sanitary servicesCommerceTransport, storage, and communicationServicesActivities not adequately describedTotals
Traumatic amputation or enucleation5-3010-311151
Fracture588361,19661910026444126413,509
Dislocation without fracture42470439184229-257
Sprain, strain1,9823019,4033,8807501,5192,8111,800922,455
Laceration, puncture or open wound2,25914510,9332,3174341,4341,098941219,563
Superficial injury (scratch, abrasion, etc.)497722,62083516838556929335,442
Bruise, contusion426612,8101,04218237775243126,083
Foreign body in eye or ear112271,397532466417346-2,397
Burn, scald238252,1444287513113140933,584
Injury to nerve or spinal cord13-41202108101105
Internal injury (not eye or ear)9-1231196..41
Multiple8-9415142-43
Other551221,64256512623230943763,890
Totals6,73069332,30710,2981,8944,4436,3584,6692867,420

PERMANENT PHYSICAL DISABILITY—Where a permanent disability results from an accident, the percentage of disability is determined by, or assessed from, the First Schedule to the Workers Compensation Act 1956. For example, the loss of both eyes, both hands, or both feet, the total and incurable loss of mental powers involving ability to work, or the total and incurable paralysis of the limbs are considered total disabilities. The total loss of an arm is an 80 percent disability, and of a leg, a 75 percent disability. Loss of one eye is a 50 percent disability; of a thumb, a 30 percent disability. Loss of a forefinger is a 20 percent disability; of a little finger, a 12 percent disability; and of a big toe, a 10 percent disability.

During 1973 there were 503 accidents which involved permanent physical disabilities. Of these, 289 involved 15 percent or less permanent disability, 86 involved 50 percent or more, and an additional 2 involved total disability.

The largest proportions of permanent total and permanent partial disabilities occurred in the agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing; manufacturing; building and construction; and transport; storage, and communication industries. Fatalities and permanent disabilities during 1973 are shown by industry division in the following table.

Industry DivisionFatalityPermanent Disability—Claims Settled Cases
Reported CasesClaims Settled CasesTotal DisabilityPartial Disability
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing1715153
Mining and quarrying---8
Manufacturing871256
Building and construction1512-87
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services77-6
Commerce22-26
Transport, storage, and communication76-38
Services33-26
Activities not adequately described11-1
Totals60532501

Those accidents in which weekly compensation was paid for more than 3 months' duration of incapacity are shown as follows.

Duration of IncapacityTemporary IncapacityOther
*Excludes some of the longer-term absence cases for which claim settlements have not been received.
Over 3 months and up to 6 months64481
Over 6 months and up to 1 year13769
Over 1 year3557
Totals816207*

The following table shows, for 1973, the calendar days lost through industrial injuries, and the compensation and damages paid.

Industry DivisionCalendar Days LostCompensation (Including Damages)
  $(000)
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing431,9081,271
Mining and quarrying47,144230
Manufacturing1,023,7214,169
Building and construction468,0461,631
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services106,003303
Commerce130,082591
Transport, storage, and communication215,8671,038
Services131,392584
Activities not adequately described17,19918
Totals2,571,3629,835

Excluding fatalities and cases of permanent total disability, 64.2 percent of other industrial injuries in 1973 involved absences from work of from 3 days to 2 weeks. Almost 24 percent involved absences of over 2 weeks, and just over 11 percent, 1 or 2 days.

AGE GROUPS—A feature of industrial injury statistics over a number of years has been the high percentage of accidents involving male workers under 21 years of age. In 1973, for example, this age group made up 14.28 percent of the male labour force, but included 23.09 percent of males sustaining industrial injuries.

Victims of industrial accidents during 1973 are shown by sex and age group in the following table.

ItemAge Group (in years)Total
Under 2121-2425-3435-4445-5455-6465 and over
    Males    
Number of accidents13,1599,21213,4799,0897,4774,00955656,981
Percentage of accidents involving males23.0916.1723.6615.9513.127.040.98100.00
Percentage of male labour force at 1971 Census14.2812.4722.6518.9517.3111.892.45100.00
   Females     
Number of accidents1,9868091,0761,1911,122419456,648
Percentage of accidents involving females29.8712.1716.1917.9216.886.300.68100.00
Percentage of female labour force at 1971 Census27.2114.5015.2816.7816.848.041.35100.00

Note—3,791 accidents in which the age of the injured worker was not stated are excluded from the table.

TIME OF ACCIDENT—Records of times at which industrial accidents take place suggest that the most dangerous time of the day for industrial workers is the middle of the morning. Year after year, the greatest number of accidents occur between 10.30 a.m. and 11.29 a.m., with the next largest number occurring between 9.30 a.m. and 10.29 a.m.

A factor to be considered, however, is that these are the times when (allowing for part-time workers, shift workers, and the growing practice of glide-time) the number "at risk" is likely to be at its peak.

ACCIDENTS BY TYPE, SOURCE, AND AGENCY—Industrial accidents are analysed by type, source, and agency.

The definitions of the three characteristics are as follows:

Type of Accident—Occurrences such as falls; stepping on, striking against, or being struck by objects; over-exertion or strenuous movements; exposure to, or contact with, electricity or harmful substances, etc.

Source of Injury—The source of injury covers the object that inflicted the injury on the worker, e.g., a machine or tool; the ground when someone falls from a ladder.

Agency of Accident—The direct cause of the accident, e.g., if a workman strikes his finger with a hammer then the hammer is both the source of injury and the agency of the accident. However, in the instance of an impact with a surface following a fall, e.g., floor, then the floor would be taken as the source of the injury but not the agency. The agency would be a slipping ladder or some such other cause.

Agencies of accidents in 1973 are analysed in the next table.

Agency of AccidentNumber
Machines— 
Prime movers and pumps (excluding electric motors) and transmission machinery195
Metal-working machines2,715
Wood-working machines1,539
Other machines2,736
Means of transport and lifting equipment— 
Lifting machines and appliances915
Means of transport3,777
Other equipment— 
Tools, implements, and appliances including electric hand tools8,785
Other equipment2,174
Materials, substances, and radiations— 
Objects stepped on, struck against, or being handled20,296
Other materials, substances, and radiations9,019
Working environment and other agencies15,269
Totals67,420

The following table analyses the types of accidents in 1973.

Type of AccidentNumber
Falls of persons13,802
Struck by falling objects4,711
Stepping on, striking against, or struck by objects (excluding falling objects)16,918
Caught in or between objects7,036
Over-exertion or strenuous movements13,515
Exposure to or contact with extreme temperatures2,260
Exposure to or contact with electricity675
Exposure to or contact with other harmful materials, substances, or radiations4,787
Other types of accident3,716
Totals67,420

Fuller data on industrial accidents and injuries during 1973 is contained in the report Industrial Injuries 1972 and 1973 issued by the Department of Statistics.

34 C—FARM ACCIDENTS

GENERAL—-In the preceding section on industrial injuries the statistics include farm employees but not self-employed farmers.

The high degree of mechanisation on the 67,000 farm holdings of 1 hectares or more is responsible in large part for the high output per unit of labour engaged in farm production; but it has been responsible too for an increase in the hazards associated with rural work. Nearly 10,000 harvesters 19,000 wool presses, 30,000 internal combustion engines, 120,000 electric motors, 95,000 agricultural tractors, 21,000 milking plants, 68,000 shearing machines, as well as farm trucks, cultivating and harvesting implements, and other farm equipment and installations have taken a high annual toll in accidents and deaths, especially in recent years when there has been rapid growth in the use of heavy machinery, both for normal farm activities and for bringing new land into production.

The increasing use of chemicals in agriculture for weed control, and as pesticides and therapeutants, has added to the hazards to which those engaged in the agricultural industry are subjected. The Department of Agriculture undertakes educational activities to endeavour to reduce the accident rates.

Tables in this section present information compiled by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health on accidents and deaths sustained on farms. Domestic accidents or accidents in farm homes are excluded.

Accidents on Farms—The following table shows the number of patients discharged from, or dying in, public hospitals in 1973 after treatment for injuries sustained in farm accidents (excluding motor vehicle accidents). Readmissions are included.

Cause of AccidentsAge of Patients (in Years)Total Patients
0-1415-2425-4445-6465 and Over
Machinery, n.e.c.11211817471
Falls8946556520275
Animals201124985815496
Accidental poisoning109116-36
Firearms1742-14
Fires and flames5642-17
Hot substances, corrosive liquids, or steam71032325
Struck by falling object16111518464
Cutting or piercing instruments185969282176
Other and unspecified farm mishaps807492687321
Totals, 1973438367369266551,495

Deaths from Accidents on Farms—Causes of deaths from accidents on farms are shown in the following table. Injured persons who died after admission to a public hospital are also included in the preceding table. (Motor vehicle accidents on a farm are included.)

Cause of Fatal AccidentAge of Deceased (in Years)Total Deaths
0-1415-2425-4445-6465 and Over
197319741973197419731974197319741973197419731974
Farm machinery54524727-41624
Electric current----1--2--12
Falls131-----1-33
Firearms111-1--1--32
Blow from falling or projected object1---232-2275
Drowning or submersion4----------4
Other and unspecified53311-312-145
Totals1711103910711564841

34 D—OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

GENERAL—The legislation on occupational safety is principally contained in the following statutes (and the regulations made under them). The last 2 items were actually made under the Public Works Act 1928 but are always quoted in their own right.

The Factories Act 1946, sections 44 to 79; the Machinery Act 1950; the Bush Workers Act 1945; the Construction Act 1959; the Shops and Offices Act 1955, First Schedule; the Accident Compensation Act 1972; the Coal Mines Act 1925; the Mining Act 1971; the Explosives Act 1957; the Dangerous Goods Act 1974; the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950; the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952; the Quarries Act 1944; the Health Act 1956 so far as it relates to occupational health (see Section 5A); the Petroleum Act 1937; the Geothermal Energy Act 1953; the Electricians Act 1952; the Electric Linemen Act 1959; the Electrical Wiring Regulations 1961; and the Electrical Supply Regulations 1967.

Department of Labour—This department has the largest overall responsibility for the prevention of accidents in industry. The principal statutes it administers are: the Factories Act 1946, which is concerned with safety, health, and welfare in factories; the Construction Act 1959, which covers safety, health, and welfare of workmen on construction work as defined in the Act; and the Machinery Act 1950, which is concerned with the inspection of all machinery (with some exceptions covered by other legislation) in work places and the safety of persons working with such machinery. The department also administers regulations under these acts, and other statutes dealing with specific spheres of occupational safety, health, and welfare, e.g. the Bush Workers Act 1945 and the Shops and Offices Act 1955. In addition the department supervises more than 800 collective agreements and awards, many of which include specific safety, health, and welfare provisions relating to particular occupations and processes.

The administration of this safety legislation is based primarily on regular inspection of work places and requisitioning for improvements, together with investigation of reported breaches of legislation by employers and workers and investigation of a large number of accidents including serious and fatal accidents in industries coming within the scope of the legislation. The department employs some 150 inspectors of factories (including 10 who specialise in bush undertakings), together with some 47 safety inspectors appointed under the Construction Act 1959, all of whom are qualified by special examination. Their work is substantially preventive. The Department also engages in a large amount of occupational safety education.

A joint Committee on Occupational Health and Safety of the Departments of Labour and Health and the Accident Compensation Commission ensures that the educational work in this field is coordinated and that unnecessary overlapping of functions is avoided.

Machinery Act—The Machinery Act 1950, with certain exceptions, applies to all machinery and places an obligation on the owners of machines to securely fence moving and dangerous parts. The Act also covers amusement devices, which require a certificate from a registered engineer that the device is mechanically and structurally safe for the purpose intended. The Act also requires the testing and certification of tractor safety frames used in agricultural operations.

Construction Act—The Construction Act 1959, the provisions of which are in addition to and not in substitution for the safety provisions of any other Act promotes the safety and welfare of persons engaged in construction work, a description which covers a wide variety of work including new construction, maintenance and demolition of buildings, roads, harbour works, railways, canals, bridges, dams, pipelines, earthworks, etc. Certificates of competency are issued after examination for scaffolders, safety supervisors, construction blasters, and powder-powered tool operators.

A register of divers competent and fit to undertake underwater construction work is maintained.

Ministry of TransportSafety of Ships—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960 and the International Load Line Convention 1930, to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. Both conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

Aircraft—The Ministry of Transport is responsible for promoting the safety of aircraft and crews engaged in private and commercial carriage of the public and commercial carriage of goods, including agricultural aviation.

Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes—All boilers and power cranes are inspected and certificated once per year and lifts twice per year. In the calendar year 1975 there were 22,785 inspections of boilers, 6,370 inspections of lifts, and 4.150 inspections of cranes.

Mines Department—The Mining Act 1971 and the Quarries Act 1944 make provision for the safety of persons working in mines (both undergound and opencast) and in quarries. The definition of a quarry covers the construction of electric power generation works, dams for public water supply, tunnels, and opencast coal quarries.

New Zealand Electricity Department—The Electricity Department is responsible for the administration of Acts designed to ensure the safety of electrical apparatus and installations and of electrical workers.

Department of Internal Affairs—The Department of Internal Affairs, through its Explosives Branch, administers legislation which has as its purpose the protection of life and property from the hazards associated with the handling, storage, transport, manufacture, and use of explosives and dangerous goods.

Ministry of Works and Development—On each major construction project the Ministry of Works and Development appoints a senior technical officer to act in the capacity of safety officer.

Occupational Health Centres—The Department of Health provides occupational health centres at strategic points in Auckland, Rotorua, Mount Maunganui, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Attendances at occupational health centres and waterfront clinics in 1975 totalled 25,339 first attendances and 26,813 re-attendances.

Chapter 35. Section 35 OVERSEAS TERRITORIES, AND COOK ISLANDS AND NIUE

Table of Contents

GENERAL—New Zealand is responsible for Tokelau and the Ross Dependency, also for the defence and international relations of the Cook Islands and Niue.

Self-governing Territory—The 15 Cook Islands achieved a status of self-government in free association with New Zealand in 1965. The Cook Islands were proclaimed a British Protectorate in 1888, and in 1901 they were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act 1895.

Niue, which was also brought within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901, achieved internal self-government in 1974. Constitutional changes negotiated between the Niue Legislative Assembly and the New Zealand Government culminated in the granting of self-government to Niue in October 1974.

Non-self-governing Territory—Tokelau became a legal part of New Zealand in 1949. The group of islands had formerly been part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, although New Zealand had administered it on behalf of Britain since 1925.

Reports on progress in Tokelau are forwarded annually to the United Nations and, in June 1976, a delegation from the UN Committee on Decolonisation visited Tokelau to gather facts on special problems and to ascertain the wishes and aspirations of the people.

Administered Territory—New Zealand administers the Ross Dependency. The Ross Dependency has been inhabited for some years by parties of persons maintaining the permanent scientific bases.

South Pacific Commission—The South Pacific Commission is an advisory and consultative body comprising the governments of Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, the United States, Western Samoa, Nauru, and Fiji. The functions of the commission are to recommend to the member Governments means for promoting the social, economic, and medical welfare of the peoples in the region, and to this end several programmes are in effect. The South Pacific Health Service advises member Governments on health matters, collects and distributes epidemiological information, assists in the maintenance of professional staffs, and encourages medical research and the training of indigenous people as assistant medical practitioners and nurses.

There is a training scheme under which selected students from the Cook Islands, Niue, and Tokelau receive education and vocational training in New Zealand, Fiji, Western Samoa, and elsewhere. The Department of Education's Officer for Islands Education assists with the appointment of New Zealand teachers on secondment, the publication of school journals and textbooks in the vernacular of the different groups, and the supply of modern teaching equipment.

By arrangement between the Governments of Fiji and New Zealand, young Cook Islanders, Niueans, and Tokelauans receive training at the Fiji School of Medicine and the Central Nursing School in Suva to equip them for duty in their own territories as medical officers, assistant dental officers, pharmacy and laboratory assistants, and assistant health inspectors. Students receive diploma level instruction in tropical agriculture in Western Samoa and Fiji.

COOK ISLANDS: Descriptive—There are 15 islands in the Cook Group, scattered over an area of some 850,000 square miles of ocean, and extending from Penrhyn, situated 9° south of the equator, to Mangaia, which is just north of the Tropic of Capricorn. The Cook Islands are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th meridians of west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd parallels of south latitude. The total land area of the 15 islands is approximately 93 square miles.

Of the islands of the Southern Group, Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Atiu, Mitiaro, Mauke, and Mangaia are elevated and fertile, while Manuae and Takutea and the islands of the Northern Group, comprising Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Pukapuka, Palmerston, Nassau, and Suwarrow, are sea-level coral atolls. As a consequence the southern islands support the greater population. The Northern Group island of Penryhn possesses a good harbour while Avatiu harbour in Rarotonga can accommodate vessels of approximately 1,000 tons.

All of the Cook Islands lie within the hurricane zone, and a number of destructive storms have been experienced. The Cook Islands are covered by a meteorological service with headquarters in Fiji, and advance warning of the intensity and path of tropical storms is available and enables precautions to be taken to protect life and property. From December to March the climate is warm and humid, and there is always the possibility of serious storms. In the remaining months of the year the climate of the Southern Group is mild and equable. The mean annual temperature in Rarotonga taken over the last 40 years was 23.6°C, and the average yearly rainfall over the same period was 213.4 cm.

Administration:Executive Government—The Executive Government of the Cook Islands is vested in the Crown in the right of New Zealand. The Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964 provides for the appointment by the Governor-General of a High Commissioner of the Cook Islands as the representative of Her Majesty the Queen in the Cook Islands, and also as the representative of the Government of New Zealand.

Executive Government lies with a Cabinet of Ministers comprising the Premier of the Cook Islands and six other Ministers. The Premier is appointed by the High Commissioner as the member of the Assembly commanding the confidence of the majority of members in the Assembly, and the other Ministers are appointed by the High Commissioner on the advice of the Premier. An Executive Council of the Cook Islands, consisting of the High Commissioner of the Cook Islands and the members of Cabinet, may be summoned by the High Commissioner or the Premier to consider any Cabinet decision, and has power to ask Cabinet to reconsider its decisions. If Cabinet, after reconsideration, reaffirms its original decision, this decision is forthwith put into operation.

The departments of the Cook Islands Government are structured in the following Ministries: Financial Services, Economic Services, Social Services, Supportive Services, Outer Island Affairs, Labour and Commerce, Justice and Land Development. The Premier is responsible for the portfolios of Civil Aviation, External Affairs, Police, and Tourism.

The House of Ariki—The House of Ariki of the Cook Islands consists of up to 15 Ariki, representing all islands in the group, and is required to meet at least once every 12 months. The House considers any matters relative to the welfare of the people of the Cook Islands which may be submitted to it for consideration by the Legislative Assembly and has such other functions as may be prescribed by law.

Island Councils—Island councils exist in each of the main islands of the Cook Islands and have done so for many years. All island councils were reconstituted by the Local Government Act 1966, the major effect of which was to provide that the chairman was to be elected from among the councils' members. Previously the Resident Agent (except on Rarotonga) was Chairman ex officio. The Resident Agents are still members ex officio, but without vote, and their primary function is of advisers.

The councils meet regularly and are empowered to make bylaws for the imposition of tolls, rates, taxes, and other charges (except customs duties); to regulate, control, or prohibit many activities; and to carry out various works and services on each island.

Legislative Government—The Legislative Assembly of the Cook Islands, as constituted by the Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964 consists of 22 members, all elected by secret ballot under a system of universal suffrage by the electors of the following islands: three members from Aitutaki and Manuae; two members each from Atiu and Mangaia; one member each from Manihiki, Mauke, Mitiaro, Penrhyn, and Rakahanga; one member from Pukapuka and Nassau; nine members from Rarotonga and Palmerston.

General elections are normally held at four-yearly intervals, the latest being held in April 1972. There is a common roll for both Maoris and non-Maoris. The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly is elected by members from persons within or without the Assembly.

The Legislative Assembly may make Acts for the peace, order, and good government of the Cook Islands. (These powers extend to the making of laws having extra-territorial operation.) The responsibilities of the Crown in right of New Zealand for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands are discharged after consultation by the Prime Minister of New Zealand with the Premier of the Cook Islands.

The Constitution of the Cook Islands is the supreme law of the Cook Islands and the Legislative Assembly alone has power to amend or repeal it. Such repeal or amendment, however, can only be made by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the Assembly followed by an interval of not less than 90 days.

By virtue of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948, Cook Islanders remain British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

Population and Vital Statistics—The Cook Islands Maori is Polynesian and has a common ethnic origin with the New Zealand Maori. There is a strong resemblance between the two peoples in tradition, language, and custom. Many of the tribes in both places are able to trace their descent back to a common ancestor.

A census of the Cook Islands taken on 1 December 1971, recorded a total population of 21,317, an increase of 2,070 or 10.75 percent as compared with the Census of 1 September 1966. Details of population of the islands of the group as at 1 December 1971 are set out in the following table.

IslandArea Sq kmMalesFemalesTotal
Rarotonga67.085,8945,53911,433
Aitutaki18.131,4431,4122,855
Mangaia51.801,0331,0472,080
Atiu26.947606951,455
Mauke18.39368395763
Mitiaro22.27172159331
Manuae6.222-2
Palmerston2.07333972
Pukapuka1.29373381754
Nassau1.299672168
Manihiki5.44239213452
Rakahanga4.14167172339
Penrhyn9.84329283612
Suwarrow0.521-1
Takatea1.29---
Totals236.5010,91010,40721,317

An inter-census "quick count" of population as at 1 December 1973 gave a total of 20,348, and at the end of March 1975 the population was estimated to number 18,068. The population loss was due to an excess of departures in the migration figures.

Considerable numbers of Cook Islanders go to New Zealand to seek employment or learn trade skills.

Health—All Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment. School and pre-school children also receive free dental treatment.

Although lying within the tropics, the Cook Islands are singularly free from the common diseases prevalent in other tropical islands. Malaria is unknown, but filariasis is endemic, and this provides the main health problem of the group.

A general hospital equipped with dispensary, X-rays, and laboratory facilities, is maintained in Rarotonga. In the outer islands dispensaries with accommodation for a few patients are operated by assistant medical practitioners. Cottage hospitals have been built at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mauke Penrhyn, Manihiki, Pukapuka, and Mangaia.

Education—Primary education in the Cook Islands is provided by the Government, the Roman Catholic Mission, and the Seventh Day Adventist Mission. The Government also provides secondary education.

Education is free, compulsory and secular from the time of a child's sixth birthday to his fifteenth birthday. At 31 March 1975 the total number of pupils on the rolls was 6,615, and there were 360 teachers.

Labour and Employment—On the atolls in the Northern Group the people subsist largely on coconuts and fish, and apart from making copra, there is little opportunity for them to engage in other economic pursuits. It is in the fertile islands of the Southern Group that most of the population is concentrated, and labour is required for the growing, harvesting, packing, and shipment of fruit. As most of the land in these islands is held by family groups under customary title, many of the people are engaged in work on their own plantations. There is, however, opportunity for wage and salary earners in Government departments, in plantation work, in the handling of fruit for export, and in commerce.

In Rarotonga secondary industries have been established in the form of two clothing factories, a fruit cannery, and factories manufacturing local artifacts. Products from these industries are exported to the New Zealand market.

Agriculture—Fresh fruit exports are now almost limited to bananas and mandarins, but canned pineapple and fruit juices processed locally have become major exports. The following are the estimated areas planted in the principal crops in a recent year: coconuts, 5,747 hectares; citrus fruits, 598 hectares; taro, 96 hectares; bananas, 195 hectares; tomatoes, 11 hectares; pineapples, 148 hectares; maniota, 125 hectares; kumaras, 61 hectares; yams, 2 hectares; and coffee, 6 hectares.

Transport and Communications—The New Zealand Shipping Corporation operates fortnightly shipping services between the Cook Islands and New Zealand ports.

An international airport was opened for full international services in December 1973. Rarotonga is connected by jet service with Auckland, Nandi, and Tahiti.

Radio communication has largely removed the former isolation of the islands, there being now no permanently inhabited island without a radio station. The chief station is Rarotonga Radio, which maintains direct communication with the substations and with Wellington, Apia, and Suva. Postal and telegraph services are available in all the islands. There is a telephone service in Rarotonga and smaller services operate on Aitutaki and Mangaia.

Trade—There is free trade between the Cook Islands and New Zealand, which takes almost all the exports of the Cook Islands and supplies over 80 percent of their imports. Import licences are required for goods imported from countries other than New Zealand.

The principal exports are fruit juice, canned fruit, and fruit pulp; copra; and bananas. The main imports are foodstuffs, followed by drapery and piece goods, petrol and oil, and vehicles and spares.

Public Finance—The New Zealand Government has continued to give financial aid to the Cook Islands Government through grants for social services and ordinary administrative expenditure, plus grants and loans for capital works and economic development. The level of aid is reviewed triennially.

NIUE: Descriptive—Niue Island, discovered by Captain Cook in 1774, became part of New Zealand in 1901, when the boundaries of New Zealand were extended to include the Cook Islands. The island is situated in latitude 19°2' south and longitude 169° 52' west, approximately 483 km east of Tonga, 653 km south east of Samoa, and 933 km west of Rarotonga. The island, which has an area of 26,265 hectares, is an elevated coral outcrop with a coral reef fringing a precipitous and broken coastline. The central saucer-shaped plateau, rising to a height of 67 m, is encircled by a narrow terrace about 27 m above sea level. The soil, though fertile, is not plentiful, and this feature, combined with the rocky and broken nature of the country, makes cultivation difficult. The climate is mild and equable, but the island is in the hurricane belt. The mean annual temperature is 24.7°C, and the average rainfall is 217.7 cm.

Administration—On 19 October 1974 (Constitution Day), Niue became self-governing in free association with New Zealand. The Leader of Government became the Premier of Niue and the Executive Committee became the Cabinet. Under the Constitution the Niue Assembly consists of 20 members elected by universal suffrage, 14 members each representing a village constituency, and 6 members elected on a common roll.

It is written into the Niue Constitution Act 1974 that New Zealand will continue to be responsible for the external affairs and defence of Niue and for providing necessary economic and administrative assistance.

Niueans are Polynesians with close ethnic ties with the Tongans and Samoans. The language is a Polynesian dialect peculiar to the island, but closely related to that of Tonga and Samoa, with some elements from eastern Polynesia. Niueans are British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

The population census at 28 September 1971 was 4,990 comprising 2,507 males and 2,483 females.

The inhabitants are distributed amongst 13 villages, of which Alofi is the largest.

The population at 30 September 1974 was estimated to be 3,992, the continued decline being principally due to emigration to New Zealand.

Niue, although situated in the tropics, is largely free from diseases prevalent in tropical countries. The Niuean standard of general hygiene is very good by Pacific standards.

The extremely rocky nature of the ground makes all agriculture difficult, as practically the whole of the arable land is confined to small pockets of soil among the coral rocks. Of the total area of some 26,265 hectares, approximately 20,600 hectares are available for agriculture, while some 5,500 hectares are in forest. The remaining 165 hectares are in roads and buildings. The Agriculture Department has a programme for soil study and plant improvement, rehabilitation of coconut areas, and rearing of cattle for local consumption. At the end of 1973 there were about 700 head of cattle in Niue.

As the Niuean depends for his livelihood upon his family lands, alienation is prohibited, so that there are no landowners apart from the Niueans and the Government.

Apart from taxis and a Government bus service for the conveyance of school children there are no internal transport services. The transport of goods and produce to and from the port of Alofi is carried out by Government and privately-owned motor vehicles. There are some 124 kilometres of all-weather roads on the island.

At Alofi there is an open roadstead only, and cargo is handled by lighters.

Full postal services are provided at Alofi, where there is a Post Office Savings Bank. A single-line telephone system connects all villages on the island, and a radio station is maintained by the Government for overseas communication.

An airport with a sealed runway of 1,645 metres was completed in October 1970 and became fully operational for commercial air services in 1971.

During 1973 total cargo handled was 5,166 tonnes. As usual, the bulk of the trade was with New Zealand.

The principal exports of Niue are passion fruit, copra, plaited ware, and honey.

TOKELAU: Descriptive—Situated some 480 kilometres to the north of Western Samoa, between 8° and 10° south latitude and between 171° and 173° west longitude, forming a border area between Micronesia and Polynesia, are the 3 atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo, of the Tokelau Group. A fourth island, Olosega, belonging to the United States of America and lying 160 kilometres to the south of Fakaofo, completes the group.

Each atoll is composed of a number of coral islets surrounding a central lagoon. These islets vary in size from 100 metres in length, while none is wider than 400 metres nor, with but few exceptions, higher than 3 metres above sea level. The land area of each atoll is approximately as follows: Fakaofo, 263 hectares; Atafu, 202 hectares; Nukunonu, 546 hectares. The atolls do not lie in close proximity, there being 64 kilometres of open sea between Fakaofo and Nukunonu, and 92 kilometres between Nukunonu and Atafu.

Owing to the absence of humus in the soil, the vegetation is practically restricted to coconut palms, although one islet of each atoll is reserved for growing the tauanave, a short stubby tree, which yields to the people of Tokelau their only timber for the construction of canoes and utensils.

Administration—Tokelau was included under the protection of Great Britain in 1877. In 1916 the islands, at the request of the inhabitants, were formally annexed to Great Britain by an Order in Council, which also extended the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony to include the Tokelau Group (then known as the Union Islands) and their dependencies. The group was governed by the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific and administered by the District Officer at Funafuti, in the Ellice Group. In 1925 the New Zealand Government, at the request of the British Government, agreed to administer the islands. By Order in Council the group was separated from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and by a further Order in Council in the same year the Governor-General of New Zealand was empowered to make laws for its peace, order, and good government.

By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 the Tokelau Group was included within the territorial boundaries of New Zealand; legislative powers are now vested in the Governor-General in Council. The inhabitants of Tokelau are British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

Because of the very restricted economic and social future in the atolls, the Tokelauans agreed to a proposal put to them by the Minister of Island Territories in 1965 that over a period of years most of the population be resettled in New Zealand. Up to the end of March 1975, 528 migrants had entered New Zealand as permanent residents under Government sponsorship. Many others have settled in New Zealand of their own accord. However, as a result of the assisted resettlement scheme, overpopulation is not at present a problem and, in 1975, with a decline in the number of people seeking resettlement assistance and a threat of social distortion through the drain of able-bodied manpower to New Zealand becoming apparent, the Tokelauan people agreed to the suspension of the scheme.

Village affairs are managed by the Council of Elders "fono" comprising representatives of the families, and this body also exerts influence over the "aumaga" or village labour force. In this way the traditional form of patriarchal authority has been preserved and regulates Tokelau society, performing a service alongside, and in addition to, the public duties of government which are carried out by local officials such as the Faipule and the Pulenuku.

Population—The people are closely allied to the Samoans.

On 25 September 1975 a census showed a total population of 1,603.

IslandMalesFemalesTotal
Atafu269295564
Fakaofo316349665
Nukunonu175199374
Totals7608431,603

General Economic Conditions—The physical characteristics of the atolls allow very little scope for economic development and the few natural resources are sufficient only to meet the needs of the simple pattern of life followed by the people. There has, until recent years, been little demand for the material standards of more developed countries, but increasing contacts with Western Samoa and New Zealand have stimulated a desire among the people for wider opportunities to advance their living standards. The high copra price assisted the economy during 1974-75.

The economy of the Tokelau Islands is based mainly on the resources of the sea and on the coconut and pandanus palms. Employment on the works programme has diverted much of the island's labour force from food gathering and copra production although care is taken to limit such dislocation. Most families obtain part of their cash income from relatives working in New Zealand. Funds are also sent by the Tokelau communities in New Zealand for village and church projects.

Logistical problems, and difficulties in recruiting New Zealand overseers have caused delays in the works programme begun in 1966. The rate of progress is also partially determined by the use of unskilled labour and the need to ensure the minimum disruption in the routine life of the small communities. Projects completed so far include houses for the education officers and building overseers, three schools, three radio stations, copra sheds, watertanks, an office block, and a hospital.

Work has progressed well on the three new hospitals, and that on Atafu was opened in April 1976.

Land Tenure and Usage—The numerous uninhabited islets at each atoll are used as food plantations. Local timber is used for canoe making, house building, and domestic utensils, while woodwork and plaited ware are marketed on a small scale. The coconut palm, which is predominant in the atolls, provides a staple export in the form of copra.

Practically all land is held by customary title in accordance with the customs and usages of the inhabitants. Land holdings pass from generation to generation within the families, being held by the head of a closely related family group, although some land is held in common.

Apart from the manufacture of copra, agricultural products are of a basic subsistence nature. Food crops consist of coconuts, pulaka, breadfruit, ta'amu, pawpaw, the fruit of the edible pandanus, and bananas. Numerous other seeds have been tested but because of the poverty of the soil very poor results were achieved.

Livestock consists of pigs which, except in Fakaofo, are kept apart from the village areas, and fowls. Ocean and lagoon fish and shellfish are available in quantity and form a staple constituent of the diet, the most common species of fish caught being tuna, bonito, trevally, and mullet.

Labour and Employment—Copra production and the manufacture of plaited ware and woodwork are the only industries and no supervision of employment conditions in these industries is necessary. Between trading calls the people devote their labour to procuring food from lagoon, ocean, or plantation, to village maintenance, and to the production of woven mats, fans, and curios. Many of the men also work on the administration's building projects.

Housing Conditions—Tokelau housing is constructed of kanava and pandanus timbers with walls and roofs of plaited pandanus. The style of house is well suited to the climate.

The villages are well laid out. The people of Atafu live in one village which occupies part of a motu (islet). At Nukunonu the village occupies about half of one motu which is connected by bridge to a neighbouring motu where some families have settled.

The village at Fakaofo is situated on a small but comparatively high and well-shaded motu. Until recently some overcrowding has been evident but emigration to New Zealand has lessened this. The Administration is helping to establish a new village on a larger, nearby motu where the school is located and the new hospital and other facilities are being built.

Health—The health authorities in Tokelau receive advice and guidance from Apia. The incidence of disease in the islands is comparatively slight.

A Fiji-trained Tokelauan medical practitioner is stationed on each atoll. Other medical staff consists of staff nurses, nurses, and dressers, who obtain their training at Apia hospital in Western Samoa. In addition, each atoll has an active women's committee, and to these committees much credit is due for their work in village health and sanitation.

Education—During 1975-76 there were 31 trained Tokelauan teachers and 16 teacher-aides in the islands. There were also two qualified New Zealand teaching couples whose duties were to assist the Tokelauan staff to improve teaching standards and to help prepare intending migrants for life in New Zealand. All necessary school equipment, stationery, and textbooks are supplied by the New Zealand Government; the schools also receive copies of the Samoan Teachers Monthly Guide and of Samoan and New Zealand School Journals. In addition, they are equipped with filmstrip and movie projectors and also with radio sets so that the daily educational broadcasts of the Western Samoan Education Department may be utilised. Attendance at schools is very close to 100 percent, parents being most enthusiastic in supporting the schools.

Tokelau pupils are included in the training scheme for education in New Zealand, and selected students also receive schooling and training in Western Samoa and Fiji.

Communications—Trading voyages between Western Samoa and the Tokelau Islands are made at regular intervals by an Administration-chartered vessel.

Radiotelegraph receivers and transmitters are operated on each atoll. In addition, radio receiving sets are installed in all villages and enable the people to listen to broadcasts from the Apia broadcasting station.

Trade and Finance—The quantity of copra shipped for the year ended 31 March 1976 amounted to 108 tonnes valued (in Tokelau) at $22,658. Apart from copra, the only other exports are handicrafts.

Revenue is derived principally from export duty on copra, Customs duty of 12 1/2 percent ad valorem on all goods entering the islands, trading profits, radio and telegram services, and the sale of postage stamps. Total revenue for 1975-76 was $63,817. Expenditure for the year 1975-76 was $709,585.

Some principal items in the expenditure account were education ($163,765), capital works development ($169,747), administration ($69,598), and health ($79,890). Financial aid, totalling $1,400,000, from New Zealand for the triennium 1974-75 to 1976-77 was announced in February 1974. Additional aid, totalling $112,650, was announced in 1974, and a further $245,000 in 1975.

Under the Tokelau Islands Copra Regulations 1952 a Copra Stabilisation Fund was established by a levy on purchases of copra for export, and is used to supplement the prices received by the producers, or by the purchasers on resale after export, as may be necessary from time to time. At 31 March 1976 there was $22,447 in the fund.

ROSS DEPENDENCY: Descriptive—The Ross Dependency comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160° east and 150° west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60° south.

Within these boundaries there are an estimated 400,000-450,000 square kilometres of land and 330,000 square kilometres of permanent ice shelf. The land is virtually entirely covered by ice, but has bases inhabited by scientific personnel.

Administration—By Order in Council of 30 July 1923 under the British Settlements Act 1887 (Imp.) the territories of the Ross Dependency were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government. From time to time laws for the Dependency have been made by regulations promulgated by the Governor-General of New Zealand.

Administrative powers are vested in the Governor-General of New Zealand, and administrative officers (commonly referred to as Administrators) have been appointed from time to time since 1923. Since 1956, the Leader of the New Zealand Expedition at Scott Base has been vested with the powers of Magistrate, Justice of the Peace, and Coroner. The Officer in Charge has jurisdiction over all New Zealand nationals in Antarctica and is responsible for the implementation of the Antarctic Research Programme as directed by Antarctic Division, DSIR.

Antarctic Division, DSIR, is responsible for detailed planning and implements the programme. The division employs staff and obtains supplies and equipment for all Government projects. University projects are financed and equipped from university sources. The operation and control of all projects is directed by the Antarctic Division through the Officer in Charge, Scott Base.

New Zealand's international relations on Antarctic affairs are conducted at the political level by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Whilst scientific contact with other countries and institutions engaged in Antarctic research is maintained at all levels, the primary channel is the Ross Dependency Research Committee, which is also New Zealand's National Committee on Antarctic Research.

In 1959 New Zealand was one of the 12 nations to sign the Antarctic Treaty which requires that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only, promotes international co-operation, freedom of scientific investigation and exchange of information and scientific personnel, but does not require New Zealand to renounce her territorial claim to the Ross Dependency. Delegates from the 12 signatory nations met in Wellington for the Seventh Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting from 30 October to 10 November 1972. The Treaty has been completely successful in all its aims and has allowed freedom of scientific research in Antarctica. On the issue of mineral exploration and exploitation—whether or not they should be permitted to take place in Antarctica, and, if so, under what conditions—the Eighth Consultative Meeting held in Oslo in June 1975 faced one of its greatest challenges.

The Antarctica Amendment Act 1970 provides means of enforcing the regulations contained within the Antarctic Treaty (known as the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora) and the prevention of pollution to the Antarctic Continent and surrounding waters.

Exploration and Field Activities—Various expeditions have operated within the area of the Dependency since the coastline was explored by Sir James Clark Ross in 1841. These include the two expeditions of Scott 1901-04 and 1910-13 and that of Shackleton 1907-09.

In January 1957 the first New Zealand expedition under the leadership of Sir Edmund Hillary established Scott Base near Cape Armitage on Ross Island. The purpose of the expedition was twofold: to take part in the crossing of the Continent from the Weddell Sea to Scott Base by the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition and to participate in the Antarctic programme of the International Geophysical Year. In the summer of 1957-58 the expedition established depots for the use of the crossing party and Sir Vivian Fuchs's successful crossing party reached Scott Base on 2 March 1958.

Field Work—Since 1958 remote field parties using dog teams and sledges, but more recently mechanical transport, have almost completely mapped the Ross Dependency. Geological survey parties have completed a reconnaissance of the Dependency and resulting from various interesting finds, work is now directed to specialised research in these particular areas. The Lands and Survey Department has issued a series of 48 maps based on survey work carried out by New Zealand field teams during the past few years.

Scientific Programme—During the International Geophysical Year 1957 New Zealand maintained at Scott Base and jointly with the United States at Hallett Station a scientific programme in close accord with the aims and objects of the I.G.Y. (References to these activities are contained in Appendix (d) of the 1958 Yearbook.)

Since its establishment Scott Base has been continuously occupied each year by teams of scientists and supporting base personnel. The summer population may rise to 70 or 80 people but only about 12 winter-over to continue the scientific programme of continuous observations in the fields of seismology, geomagnetism, ionosphere physics, micropulsations, aurora and airglow, very low frequency radio propagation, satellite tracking, meteorology, glaciology, and oceanography.

In 1968 a new scientific station was built near Lake Vanda in the Wright Valley of Victoria Land, some 130 km west of Scott Base. It is the first New Zealand base actually on the Antarctic Continent.

For the first 2 seasons after its opening Vanda Station was manned on a year-round basis to enable scientists to carry out environmental investigations in this ice-free area and also to undertake studies in upper air physics and earth sciences in co-ordination with the programme at Scott Base. Blowing dust collection in the vicinity of the station is continuing as part of the study of weathering in the Dry Valleys. Synoptic weather observations are made and other meteorological data collected at the base and at satellite stations in the Wright Valley region.

The station was used only as a summer base during 1970-71 and 1971-72, but was opened again during the full year of 1974 to implement further scientific work. In the 1974-75 season it reverted to a summer base only.

Since the summer of 1972-73 New Zealand scientists have been involved with scientists from Japan and the United States in a Dry Valley drilling project, with the object of studying the sub-surface of the McMurdo Sound region by means of deep drill holes in various areas.

The New Zealand Oceanographic Institute has also inaugurated a study of trace element chemistry of Ross Sea sediments.

Biological Programme—Biological studies have been conducted each summer season at various localities within the Dependency.

In the McMurdo Sound and Cape Hallett areas, scientists continue the census and tagging of the seal population. Marine plankton samples are taken from under the sea ice near Scott Base, and further marine research is concentrated in the Cape Bird area. Studies continue of penguin and skua gull behaviour at Cape Bird and Cape Royds.

Whaling—Regulations dated 24 October 1929 prohibit whaling in the territorial waters of the Ross Dependency without a licence. New Zealand is a member of the International Whaling Commission, the purpose of which is to enforce conservation of whale stocks.

Review of Development—Since 1959 New Zealand has achieved many of its earlier aims and ambitions. A topographic survey has been made of the Ross Dependency bringing to an end the era of long and arduous traverses. The numerous maps produced have provided detailed geographic information, particularly important for subsequent field research programmes.

A geological reconnaissance has been conducted of the same area. During recent years New Zealand has been involved in specialised work which has provided evidence indicating that the southern land masses were once linked together to form one super continent—Gondwanaland. Recent fossil discoveries in Antarctica, including land animals similar to those found in South Africa and Australia, seem to confirm this theory. Oceanographic and paleomagnetic researchers also add credence to it. Their studies show that continental drift has been, and still is, taking place at a quite rapid rate of about 3 cm to 5 cm a year. These findings have impelled scientists to revise completely their earlier ideas on the earth's history, the forming of the continents, the causes of earthquakes, and the future physical changes to the surface of the earth that can now be predicted with reasonable certainty.

Detailed hydrographic charts of the Ross Sea area have given considerable information about the ocean floor lying between New Zealand and Antarctica. Oceanographers and marine biologists have carried out intensive studies of the marine life of the Southern Ocean. Results show that the waters surrounding the Antarctic continent contain the richest marine life found anywhere—a great potential food source for the increasing human population.

Extensive studies have been made by biologists of the fauna and flora of Antarctica, enabling accurate assessments of the likelihood of survival of various species. This has given a better understanding of how the many primitive life forms adapt and survive in the narrow life-support zone of Antarctica.

There has been a substantial contribution to man's knowledge of the ice budget of Antarctica—not only important to the study of Antarctica itself but also necessary to a better understanding of the global climate changes that have occurred and the present position of the earth in the cycle of the ice ages. Antarctica contains about 95 percent of the world's ice and small changes in this amount would have a significant if not catastrophic effect on the rest of the world. This southern continent about 80,000,000 to 100,000,000 years ago enjoyed a tropical climate and more recently there have been warm periods.

Continuing studies and monitoring of the upper atmosphere from Scott Base and other Antarctic Stations have provided significant information, when correlated with satellite and space vehicle data, towards new concepts of the sun-earth relationship. Practical application of some of this new knowledge has led to vastly improved methods of radio communication.

Years of intensive studies of meteorology in Antarctica have improved the understanding of the significant part Antarctica plays in the world's weather pattern, the balance of the world's heat budget and the relationship between the atmosphere and oceans.

There have been major changes in the methods of supporting work in Antarctica. Transportation by ship between New Zealand and Antarctica used to take 7 to 10 days. Now, flights take 5 to 8 hours. New Zealand's ability to operate in Antarctica depends entirely on logistic support from the jointly-operated United States/New Zealand transport pool, using mainly heavy C-130 cargo planes and helicopters.

In 1973 a joint DSIR/Victoria University of Wellington expedition made the first attempt at descending the crater of Mount Erebus (3,743 m) on Ross Island. Although the crater floor was not reached, samples of volcanic gas were recovered, and the party discovered an active lake of molten lava in the inner crater.

During the summer of 1974-75 a substantial expedition was mounted under New Zealand aegis to study the summit area and the volcanic activity of the mountain and to attempt a descent into the crater to recover uncontaminated samples of the magmatic gases. The joint American/French/New Zealand team achieved many of its objectives but the ultimate objective, a descent into the inner crater, had to be abandoned for safety reasons owing to erratic explosive activity within the crater.

In 1973-74 the United States Navy flew 232 helicopter-hours in support of the New Zealand Antarctic research programme. Dog teams have been almost entirely replaced by motor toboggans to support small mobile field parties. With the formation of metal-and-snow compacted roads around McMurdo and Scott Base, tracked vehicles have been replaced by wheeled vehicles.

The emphasis in Antarctica is swinging away from basic scientific studies to meet the more specialised demands of man's increasing knowledge and so yield rewards of value to society. Despite the many changes and developments Antarctica has largely retained its IGY status as a unique natural laboratory for man to study the earth as a whole. It should continue to be the last relatively undisturbed area on earth from which may also be monitored the effect of man on the remainder of our global environment.

Chapter 36. Section 36 TRAVEL AND TOURISM

Table of Contents

BOOM IN TRAVEL AND TOURISM—Travel between countries in and around the Pacific has boomed in recent years and international jet air services have made New Zealand fairly easily accessible to international tourists of all countries. During the last two decades the tourist industry has become a fast-growing sector in international commerce; in some countries it has become the largest industry. The industry has grown so fast and is having such an impact on the international balance of payments that the economics of tourism are receiving increasing attention.

In New Zealand a healthy domestic tourist industry has led to the growth of all the services necessary for New Zealand's wider participation in this booming industry. There has been a considerable surge in building of hotels and motels and the provision of complementary transport and other service facilities. New scenic routes have been developed, while facilities have been improved and extended in major resort areas. There is a network of convenient air services.

Travel Arrivals and New Zealand Residents Departing Temporarily—Overseas travel, until recent decades largely the prerogative of the wealthy or the adventurous, has become something of at barometer of economic conditions in developed countries. Holidays overseas are among the most easily dispensable luxuries when money becomes tight and the economic future uncertain. Between 1965 and 1970 the surge in overseas travel resulted in almost doubling the annual total of overseas visitors to New Zealand. In more recent years the rate of increase has slackened, reflecting less favourable conditions on the world economic scene.

The following table shows overseas visitors to New Zealand during recent years.

OVERSEAS VISITORS
 TouristsPersons on BusinessTemporary Work or Working HolidayOtherTotal Overseas Visitors*Total
Year Ended 31 MarchHoliday or VacationStay with Relations or Friends 
*Does not include through passengers, defined as passengers (mainly on cruise ships) who do not stay ashore in New Zealand. They totalled 117,441 in 1974-75 and 136,927 in 1975-76
1972141,69034,872176,56224,20813,59013,220227,580
1973157,04642,649199,69526,78315,82012,346254,644
1974187,82257,013244,83533,00020,48519,924318,244
1975217,96567,367285,33234,44621,31320,103361,194
1976243,24869,576312,82437,98610,95022,826384,586

The numbers of New Zealanders going overseas on temporary visits have been affected by economic conditions in the same way as overseas visitors coming to New Zealand. Between 1970 and 1975 the annual total more than doubled, but the latest available year (1975-76) shows an actual reduction on the previous year's total.

New Zealand residents departing temporarily (i.e., for less than 12 months) are shown in the following table.

NEW ZEALAND RESIDENTS DEPARTING TEMPORARILY

 Tourists TotalTotal NZ Residents Departing Temporarily
Year Ended 31 MarchHoliday or VacationStay with Relations or FriendsTotalPersons on BusinessTemporary Work or Working HolidayOther 
197276,54526,369102,91418,7158,2134,036133,878
197388,41632,296120,71221,7777,1975,306154,992
1974120,19044,941165,13125,93911,8515,393208,314
1975151,07149,879200,95028,19511,7079,032249,884
1976136,70850,362187,07031,39410,56011,634240,658

Some of the permanent movement shown in migration statistics in Section 3 concerns travel. Persons intending to be absent for 12 months or more are shown as permanent departures; when they return to New Zealand after 12 months' absence they are shown as immigrants intending permanent residence. Persons arriving on working holidays or for educational purposes are not normally classified internationally as visitors or tourists.

Auckland is the main point of arrival and receives initially 64 percent of all visitors: most of the visitors arrive by air.

Travel Receipts and Payments—Travel receipts and payments (excluding fares) as recorded by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchAustraliaUnited StatesCanadaUnited KingdomJapanOtherTotal
   $NZ (million)    
   Receipts    
197445.215.71.311.60.44.378.5
197566.518.21.613.50.56.7107.0
197694.224.12.012.50.89.4143.1
   Payments    
197458.615.71.640.91.025.5143.4
197572.122.22.446.01.136.5180.3
197670.029.53.148.11.141.6193.4

From a survey made by the Tourist and Publicity Department a few years ago it was estimated that overseas visitor expenditure in New Zealand during the 12 months ended October 1973 was $76.7 million. This was broken down into expenditure per visitor from selected countries and regions as shown in the following table.

ItemVisitors from
AustraliaUnited States and CanadaUnited KingdomJapanEuropeOther
Total expenditure ($m)41.717.94.71.42.28.8
Expenditure per tourist ($)—      
Accommodation1068974969173
Meals353637273835
Transport576648465650
Excursions12798107
Social181225142016
Souvenirs and gifts373231332229
Personal9793520
Other1620931610
Total290269242230258240
Average length of stay (days)16.511.327.45.716.620.0

This survey refers to all overseas visitors. In addition to tourists, it includes persons from overseas visiting relatives or friends, and expenditure by persons in New Zealand on business.

Countries of Origin—The countries or areas of origin of all visitors other than through passengers to New Zealand during years ended 31 March are given in the following table.

Country or Area1971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76
Australia109,788125,466169,390x213,301231,358
Canada8,39210,25811,364x12,23012,550
United States52,93554,21154,998x46,31349,540
United Kingdom14,09618,23922,854x23,68726,412
Other countries42,36946,47059,638x65,66364,726
All countries227,580254,644318,244361,194384,586

Visitors who are not New Zealanders require permits to enter the country, and temporary permits or student permits are issued as appropriate. Those people who are accorded the right of free entry are not required to apply to make visits. They are granted entry on arrival. Others may make visits without visas under agreements we have entered into with a number of countries, including Japan and United States. Residents of other countries must obtain entry authorities before they set out and these are obtained through the various New Zealand posts overseas. The British posts also have some authority to act in the absence of an accredited New Zealand post. Short-term visitors are asked to submit to very little formality. Those coming under the visa abolition agreements must intend remaining no longer than the periods set out in the agreements, which vary from 30 days to 3 months, and all visitors must have sufficient funds for maintenance, and fully paid tickets which will take them out of the country.

In 1975-76 48 percent of New Zealanders touring overseas went to Australia, and 13.6 percent to Fiji. In order of popularity, Fiji was followed by the United Kingdom, with 10 percent, and the United States, with 6 percent. The balance was spread over a large number of countries.

Internal Tourism—The Tourist and Publicity Department estimates that New Zealanders' aggregate expenditure on holiday travel within New Zealand is of the order of $215 million annually. This includes accommodation and miscellaneous holiday expenditure.

ACCOMMODATION IN NEW ZEALAND—Leading hotels in the main centres, and Tourist Hotel Corporation hotels and others in the main resort areas, all provide first-class accommodation. Most of these hotels and motor hotels have a private bathroom or shower and toilet with every bedroom. These establishments usually operate on a room-only basis, with meals an optional extra.

There are 12 Tourist Hotel Corporation hotels. Mostly these are built in areas where, for reasons of isolation, private enterprise finds it uneconomical to operate. In many cases, the Tourist Hotel Corporation hotel has formed the nucleus on which private enterprise has developed.

Tourist Hotel Corporation hotels are situated at the following places:

North IslandSouth Island
Waitangi, Bay of IslandsMount Cook, Southern Alps
Waitomo (glow-worm caves). King CountryGlencoe, Southern Alps
International, RotoruaLake Wanaka, Southern Lakes
Wairakei, near Lake TaupoFranz Josef Glacier, West Coast
Tokaanu, Lake TaupoLake Te Anau, Fiordland
Mount Ruapehu, central North Island ski-ing fieldsMilford Sound, Fiordland

There are large numbers of good-quality motels throughout New Zealand, and scores of motor camps.

Motor camping is a popular form of holidaymaking during the summer months (December to Easter). Campers provide their own tents and equipment (a number of companies specialise in hiring out camping equipment) and the camps provide community washing, cooking, and toilet facilities. Some camps offer limited cabin accommodation.

Tourist arrivals are highest from October to March. These arrivals taken in conjunction with the demand from the New Zealand summer holiday period, can impose a strain on available hotel accommodation at the major tourist resorts.

Inventory of Accommodation—An inventory of accommodation has been compiled by the Tourist and Publicity Department. It relates only to hotels licensed to supply liquor and to motels. Licensed hotels have been grouped, as far as possible, according to physical standards provided:

  • Group 1—are hotels having all or most rooms with private bath/shower and toilet, ample good quality public rooms, and excellent standards of maintenance.

  • Group 2—are hotels of good overall quality. They have a sufficient proportion of their room with private bath/shower and toilet to meet normal demands from people requiring these facilities. A much greater proportion than of Group 1 are older hotels.

  • Group 3—are hotels providing good, simple accommodation but generally without any pretentiousness.

Establishments of a motel character having a tourist hotel licence or restaurant licence are counted as hotels in that they may provide full hotel facilities for their guests. Motel units when run as part of a hotel are included as accommodation of that hotel.

Motels are defined as establishments providing self-contained units or apartments with bath/shower and toilet. They may include kitchen and dining-room facilities. They may (but usually do not) provide restaurant services on the premises. Tourist flats and holiday flats which do not supply ready made-up beds and where linen, etc., is available for hire, are excluded.

Private hotels and guest houses (and also holiday flats not catering for overnight travellers) have not been included. Private hotels and guest houses, however, provide a significant proportion (up to 20 percent) of all available commercial accommodation. In the following table statistics for licensed hotels and motels are set out by regional areas, as at 31 March 1976.

RegionRooms in Licensed HotelsUnits in Motels
Group 1Group 2Group 3

NOTE—Licensed hotels are here grouped principally according to availability of rooms with private facilities: Group 1—all or most rooms so equipped; Group 2—sufficient private facilities for general availability; Group 3—a smaller proportion of rooms with private facilities.

Northland237264200861
Auckland1,4204382101,383
Waikato129157146510
King Country92641960
Coromandel-Thames2626129322
Rotorua - Bay of Plenty7243601911,422
Taupo20510528492
East Coast64142166300
Hawke's Bay23566192543
Taranaki13651198362
Wanganui - Tongariro National Park1839596311
Manawatu-Horowhenua11255160329
Wairarapa67-7697
Wellington938253165254
Marlborough107-226364
Nelson191-146304
Westland479100125344
North and Mid Canterbury1,213104272859
South Canterbury - North Otago39151172309
Otago961202198699
Southland135133168228
Fiordland430--78
Totals8,4752,6663,28310,431

Assistance to the Hotel Industry—Between 1962 and 1973 the New Zealand Government made available loan and guarantee finance to encourage the building of new hotels and motor hotels and the extension of existing hotels in areas where there was a shortage of accommodation for overseas visitors.

Under this scheme, the Government made available $10.6 million by way of loan guarantees and $3.9 million by way of loans, resulting in the availability of an additional 3,253 first-class beds. This scheme was renewed in 1976 on a guarantee basis.

A similar scheme of financial assistance in respect of tourist facilities other than accommodation was introduced in 1969, to encourage private-enterprise operators to develop amenities, where necessary, in focal tourist areas.

There are special depreciation allowances for taxation purposes which apply to approved visitor accommodation.

WIDE RANGE OF ATTRACTIONS—With features such as the amazing thermal areas, magnificent lakes and fiords, glaciers, alpine regions, and unrivalled hunting, fishing, and other sporting opportunities, New Zealand combines in a comparatively small area a host of attractions. In addition to these natural attractions, the dignity and charm of the Maori race offers for study a culture which is unique to New Zealand.

Resort Development—A major development in New Zealand was the opening of the Haast Pass road in November 1965. It links the southern lakes region on the eastern side of the Alps with the West Coast and opens up one of the greatest scenic round-trip drives in the world.

In Rotorua a Maori Arts and Crafts Institute was established to preserve and foster traditional Maori culture. The institute has assumed control of the Whakarewarewa Reserve and displays Maori arts and crafts in traditional settings as well as presenting traditional songs and dances. One of the highlights is the Maori Carving School.

A new ski-field was opened at Mount Hutt in Canterbury during 1974-75.

A cattledrome, featuring various breeds of dairy and beef cattle, has been opened in Queenstown.

The uphill facilities at Coronet Peak have recently been expanded by the introduction of a triple chairlift.

The second presentation of Tourist Design Awards was held in the latter half of 1976. Thirty-eight entries were received in all, representing accommodation, restoration of buildings of historic or tourist interest, landscape protection and design, and other tourist amenities. Twelve awards, including six merit awards and six commendations, were made to an attractive and varied range of well-designed tourist facilities throughout New Zealand.

Weather—New Zealand lies wholly within the South Temperate Zone. The weather is sunny and rather changeable, but is neither excessively hot in summer nor uncomfortably cold in winter. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours of sunshine a year.

Seasons—The seasons in New Zealand are the opposite of those in the Northern Hemisphere:

  • Summer: December, January, February

  • Autumn: March, April, May.

  • Winter: June, July, August

  • Spring: September, October, November

TRANSPORT—All main cities, towns, and tourist resorts are served by regular road or rail services and there is an extensive network of internal air services. In addition to the inter-island air services, the North and South Island are also linked by roll-on roll-off steamer services operating between Wellington and Picton.

Several international and national car rental companies, in addition to locally based companies, supply self-drive cars. All main centres also have chauffeur-driven cars available. Coach tours of a high standard and covering a range of prices and periods are operated by a number of companies.

At several locations, but particularly in the alpine and lake regions of the South Island, set or charter air tours are available.

Travel Services—Fully accredited travel agencies are available throughout New Zealand. Most of the major international agencies are represented or have affiliates in the country and there are the Government Tourist Bureaus which offer a national service for overseas visitors and New Zealand travellers.

SPORTING ATTRACTIONS:Fishing—A wide variety of salt-water fish abound in the coasts, bays, and harbours and in both North and South islands many streams, rivers, and lakes provide excellent rainbow and brown trout fishing.

Sizes of New Zealand trout vary from district to district depending on environment, climate, food available, and angling pressure. Average trout weights are as follows: North Island—rainbow 2-2 1/2 lb and brown 5 lb in the Rotorua lakes, rainbow 4 1/2 lb and brown 5 lb in Lake Taupo, rainbow and brown 2 lb in river systems; South Island—rainbow and brown 2-3 lb in lake systems, sea-run brown 5 lb in West Coast rivers sea-run "Quinnat" salmon 12 lb in the east coast rivers, landlocked salmon 2-2 1/2 lb.

Big-game Fishing—The warm waters off the east coast of the North Island provide some of the best surf, line, and scuba fishing in the world. The main bases for line fishing from charter boats are at Whangaroa, Bay of Islands (Russell, Otehei Bay, and Waitangi), Tutukaka, Mercury Bay (Whitianga), and Tauranga (Mayor Island).

The most prized catches are broadbill, black marlin, striped marlin and blue marlin, while other types of big game fish found in New Zealand waters are mainly tiger shark, hammerhead shark, mako shark, thresher shark, kingfish (yellow tail), and tuna. The best catches are usually made in February but fishing is good from December to April.

Shooting and Hunting—The principal game birds are duck, swan, pheasant, quail, geese, and chukor, but the sport is limited, the main season usually extending for about 6 weeks from early May.

There are fewer restrictions, however, on stalking—no limit on the number of game animals that can be taken, no licence required, and the season is open all year round. The top trophies are chamois and thar but good hunting also includes red deer, fallow deer, wild pigs, goats, and wallaby; other species present in lesser numbers and somewhat scarce are wapiti (elk), sambur deer, rusa deer, sika deer, and whitetail deer. A guide is essential for results.

Ski-ing—The ski-ing in New Zealand extends from mid-July to late October in the North Island and from early July to late September in the South Island. With the operation of ski planes from the airstrip at Mount Cook very good spring ski-ing is also available for experienced skiers on the South Island glaciers.

In the North Island the main ski-ing centre is Mount Ruapehu in the Tongariro National Park. Equipment and instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include three chairlifts, a T-bar, three Poma lifts, and two rope tows. Mount Egmont is the North Island's other principal ski area, with fields at Dawson Falls, Stratford, and North Egmont.

In the South Island the principal areas are Mount Cook (for ski touring), Coronet Peak (Queenstown), Mount Hutt, Lake Ohau, Porters Pass, Wanaka and Arthur's Pass. Coronet Peak, 7 miles from Queenstown, has the best powder snow conditions in New Zealand lying on extensive undulating slopes of varying gradients; equipment and professional instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include chair lifts and a series of ski tows.

Mountaineering and Tramping—The proximity of mountain and forest to the main centres of population encourages tramping in New Zealand. Both North and South Islands have appealing tramping routes and parties can set out to enjoy the beauty and challenge of lonely country.

In the Waitakere and Hunua Ranges near Auckland, the central ranges of the North Island, at Mount Egmont, Tongariro National Park, and the Urewera area, and in the South Island's Fiordland, there are numbers of tracks with high mountain traverses and passages through beautiful scenery.

Other Sports—A wide range of other sports is available. Golf courses are to be found in all parts of the country. Horse racing takes place throughout the year. Rugby football and cricket are widely played during their seasons. There are facilities for bowls, tennis, skating, squash, and most other sports in most parts of the country.

Scenery and Recreation—The scenic attractions of New Zealand have frequently been the subject of Yearbook pictorial supplements. These have included "Scenic New Zealand" (1960), "New Zealand's National Parks" (1962), "Outdoor Recreation in New Zealand" (1965), "Attractive New Zealand" (1967), "Forests of New Zealand" (1969), "Natural New Zealand" (1970), "New Zealand Environment" (1972), "Leisure in New Zealand" (1973), and "Vistas of Colourful New Zealand" (1975).

A special article to celebrate the seventy-fifth anniversary of the Tourist and Publicity Department, "Tourism: The Invisible Export", appeared in the 1976 Yearbook together with a pictorial supplement "Seeing New Zealand—Then and Now" featuring photographs taken at the turn of the century and today.

Thermal Areas—New Zealand is distinctive in having a wide range of volcanic phenomena and associated thermal spas. The chief concentration is in the volcanic belt north-east from the three major volcanoes, all usually quiet, in the centre of the North Island. Most notable in the Rotorua locality are a variety of geysers, mud-pools, pools of boiling water, and steam blow-holes.

Many mineral springs are reputed to have a beneficial effect and mineral baths are maintained by private interests in many places.

Rotorua, with its great variety and abundance of hot springs, is a well-known New Zealand spa. At Taupo and Wairakei hot mineral waters feed into attractive swimming pools.

Shopping and Souvenirs—Articles of a particularly New Zealand character include attractive jewellery made from paua shell, greenstone, and g stones, Maori carvings in native timbers, records of Maori singing, pottery depicting Maori emblems, and natural or dyed lambskin rugs and clothing.

Tourist and Publicity Department—Under the Tourist and Publicity Act 1963 the principal functions of the department are to encourage and develop the New Zealand tourist industry and tourist traffic to, within, and beyond New Zealand; to carry out extensive analysis of statistical information and to engage in marketing research activities which will assist the department and the industry to effectively promote New Zealand; to operate publicity, information, and public relations services; and to maintain a travel service.

The department is responsible for the promotion of New Zealand overseas as a tourist destination and also operates a comprehensive travel service. Bureaus are sited in Auckland, Rotorua, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill, with agencies in other parts of New Zealand. There are overseas offices in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, London, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York, Tokyo, and Frankfurt. The department also supplies general New Zealand publicity material, publications, films, photographs, and displays for use within New Zealand and overseas to create a background knowledge of New Zealand, its people, and way of life.

Other Tourist Organisations—The New Zealand National Travel Association, an organisation representing private travel interests in New Zealand, is also concerned with the development of the tourist industry.

New Zealand is a foundation member of the Pacific Area Travel Association which was formed in 1952 as a tourist promotional body for the Pacific area.

Chapter 37. Section 37 MISCELLANEOUS

Table of Contents

METRICATION—The Metric Advisory Board was set up by the Government n 1969 to encourage, advise, and assist the progressive adoption within New Zealand of the metric system of weights and measures. The conversion to this system was substantially completed by the end of 1976.

New Zealand's decision to change to the metric system was based almost entirely on the necessity to keep in step with her overseas trading partners. The metric system is not only simpler and more efficient than the imperial system but also has the benefits of internationally agreed definition and standardisation. The modern version of the metric system known as the "International System" (also called SI—"Systeme International d' Unites") has been adopted for use in New Zealand. This system is also being adopted by all those other countries that have recently changed, or are in the process of changing, to the metric system.

The Metric Advisory Board recommended the following units for use in New Zealand:

CategoryUnitSymbolRelationship
temperaturedegree Celsius°C 
lengthmillimetremm 
 centimetrecm1 cm = 10 mm
 metrem1 m = 100 cm
 kilometrekm1 km = 1000 m
areasquare centimetrecm2 
 square metrem21 m2 = 10,000 cm2
 decaredaa1 daa = 1000 m2
 hectareha1 ha =10 daa
volumecubic centimetrecm3 
 cubic metrem31 m3 = 1,000,000 cm2
capacitymillilitreml 
 litre111 = 1000 ml
weightgramg 
 kilogramkg1 kg = 1000 g
 tonnet1t = 1000 kg

In addition to the above 16 units, the decimetre (dm) is taught to children as a convenient unit of length (1 dm = 10 cm). A table showing the relationships between British (Imperial) units and SI (Metric) units is included in the front pages of this Yearbook.

Some Commonplace Units of Measurement

ItemMetricImperial Measure
Man's height1.72 m (metres)5 ft 8 in.
Man's weight74.8 kg (kilograms)11 st 11 lb
Woman's weight57.0 kg (kilograms)9 st 0 lb
Body temp. (normal)37.0° C (degrees centigrade)98.4°F
Door height2.00 m (metres)6 ft 7 in.
Car length4.70 m (metres)15 ft 6 in.
Oil drum capacity200 l (litres)44 gal
Building section's area1,000 m2 (square metres)1/4 acre
Dunedin to Christchurch370 km (kilometres)230 miles
Altitude of Mt. Cook3,764 m (metres)12,349 ft

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE MARKS—The legislation concerned with patents, designs, and trademarks is the Patents Act 1953, the Trade Marks Act 1953, and the Designs Act 1953. The total number of applications for the grant of letters patent, and for the registration of designs and trade marks during the financial year 1975-76 was 7,642 which was 415 more than in the previous year.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade marks and designs for March years.

YearPatentsTrade MarksDesigns
1970-713,5733,385315
1971-723,4973,593468
1972-733,5183,515343
1973-743,5664,041369
1974-753,2383,618371
1975-763,3983,828416

Patents—The applications received during 1975-76 were broadly classified as follows: chemistry, 1,041; mechanical engineering, 971; electrical engineering, 341; building construction, 441; primary industries, 215; home science and miscellaneous, 389.

Applications originating in New Zealand totalled 1,307, the United States 770, Great Britain 402, West Germany 144, Australia 193, with the remaining 582 distributed among 33 other countries.

Trade Marks—During the year 1975-76 applications for trade marks covered the whole of the 34 classes prescribed, the most favoured being: Class 5, pharmaceutical and sanitary substances, etc., 458; Class 25, clothing, boots, shoes, etc., 326; scientific equipment, etc., 264; Class 16, stationery, etc., 207; and Class 3, soaps, detergents, perfumery, cosmetics, etc., 202.

The countries from which the applications originated were: New Zealand, 1,565; United States, 888; Great Britain, 393; Australia, 302; with the remaining 680 distributed among 36 other countries.

Renewal of registration of 3,456 trade marks was effected during the year.

Designs—A total of 322 industrial designs was registered during the year 1975-76.

INVENTIONS DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY—In the 1976 Budget it was announced that there was to be an amalgamation of the Inventions Development Authority, the Industrial Research and Development Grants Scheme, and the National Research and Development Scheme, the new arrangement to be administered by the Development Finance Corporation. The purpose of this reorganisation, which came into effect on 1 November 1976, was to effect some rationalisation of the various programmes of assistance in the development of new products and processes in the industrial sector.

In the year ended 31 March 1976, 23 inventions were submitted to the Inventions Development Authority from public research sources and 90 from private inventors; there were 113 other inquiries involving requests for information, advice, or assistance on patenting, development, and exploitation of inventions.

COPYRIGHT—Under the Copyright Act 1962, copyright comes into existence automatically upon the completion of any original literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic work (including photographs). No registration is necessary (or even possible), nor is any other formality required for securing copyright protection.

Copyright also exists in New Zealand for sound recordings, cinematograph films, broadcasts, and published editions (typography) of literary, dramatic, and musical works.

Copyright in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works (except photographs) continues until 50 years after the author's death, if the works are published in the author's lifetime, and until 50 years after publication or 75 years after death (whichever is shorter) if they are unpublished at the death of the author. Copyright in photographs, sound recordings, cinematograph films, and broadcasts continues until 50 years after the making, and in editions until 25 years after publication.

Copyright in New Zealand in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works and in cinematograph films extends to all countries which are parties to the International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Berne Copyright Union) and to all countries which are parties to the Universal Copyright Convention. In some cases sound recordings, broadcasts, and published editions are also protected overseas. New Zealand is a party to both conventions. Most countries of the world have acceded to the one or the other or to both conventions.

In 1976, New Zealand acceded to the Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms against Unauthorised Duplication of their phonograms. The Convention obliges each contracting state to protect the producers of phonograms (i.e., records, cassettes, and other exclusively aural fixations of a performance or other sounds) against the unauthorised reproduction of their phonograms, and against the importation and distribution to the public of such unauthorised reproductions.

In New Zealand certain disputes relating to performing rights of copyright works, sound recordings, or films may be determined by the Copyright Tribunal.

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN COUNCIL—The New Zealand Industrial Design Council was established under the Industrial Design Act 1966 to promote the development of industrial design with the object of improving the quality, efficiency, packaging, and appearance of goods produced in New Zealand. It works closely with relevant Government departments and other statutory bodies and with the New Zealand Society of Industrial Designers, and maintains regular contact with the manufacturers' and retailers' federations and other organisations interested in industrial design. Products which meet high standards of design and manufacture are awarded the prestige Designmark label and included in the Index of Designmark Products. The Council publishes a monthly magazine Designscape and, on request, can recommend designers to industry through its Designer Service.

STANDARDS COUNCIL—The Standards Act 1965 established the Standards Council as the governing body of the Standards Association of New Zealand (SANZ). Its aims are to improve efficiency and stimulate development in industry and commerce by providing standards documents, which will also assist in promoting public and industrial welfare, health, and safety. The association administers the standard certification mark scheme, which encourages improved quality control in industry with consequent improvement in the quality of consumer goods.

The council regards international standardisation as an important factor in facilitating international trade. The association is the New Zealand member of the International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) and the Pacific Area Standards Congress (PASC). It has limited membership of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). The library of the association includes about 167,000 overseas or international standards. The association publishes new and revised standards and amendments in addition to the quarterly New Zealand Standards Bulletin (circulation about 5,800) and the monthly Standards Association Newsletter. New Zealand, British and all other overseas standards, and the publications of ISO and IEC, can be obtained from the SANZ sales section.

The association depends on the subscriptions of members and on sales of standards for a large proportion of its income. Sales of standards exceed $170,000 annually and the subscribing membership of the association, which includes most of the more prominent manufacturers and local authorities, totalled 1,430 at 31 March 1976.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE—In the early years of settlement in New Zealand those who wished to make provision for the administration of their estates on their deaths often experienced difficulty in selecting a suitable person competent and willing to act as trustee. That difficulty was natural in a new country where the colonists were fully occupied with their own affairs, and were unable to give to the property or business of another the close attention that was demanded.

In these circumstances the Public Trust Office was established in 1872 (it is now constituted under the Public Trust Office Act 1957) under the administration of the Public Trustee, a corporation sole with perpetual succession and a seal of office. The main purpose of the original Act was to provide a means of overcoming the difficulties that have been mentioned and to make available to the public a trustworthy administrator of the estates of deceased persons at a reasonable cost, the integrity of the Public Trustee and his officers being guaranteed by the State. That continues to be the chief function of the Office, but since its establishment the range of services has been very considerably extended. The Public Trustee now acts in many capacities, e.g., as administrator in intestate estates; executor and trustee under wills; trustee under marriage and other settlements; trustee of benefit or relief funds; agent or attorney for absentees or persons desiring to be relieved of business worries; sinking fund commissioner for local authorities; administrator of unclaimed lands and property; manager of the estates of protected patients; manager (when so appointed by the court) of the estates of aged and infirm persons unable to attend to their own affairs; and trustee of compensation moneys. The wills of persons desiring the Public Trustee to act as their executor and any subsequent will or codicil may be prepared and held in safe custody by him, free of charge. With certain qualifications the Public Trustee may act jointly with another person or persons.

In lieu of obtaining probate or other grant of administration, the Public Trustee may file in an office of the Supreme Court an election by him to administer an estate (testate or intestate) if the gross value of the property in New Zealand is estimated not to exceed $7,500. If after the filing of the election the value of the property is found to exceed $10,000 the Public Trustee must obtain a grant of probate or administration in the ordinary way.

During the year ended 31 March 1977, 8,277 estates and funds valued at $96,727,560 were accepted for administration. The administration of 4,978 estates and funds was completed. Estates and funds under administration at 31 March 1977 numbered 25,922 and were valued at $398,665,496.

Capital moneys becoming available for investment either form part of the Common Fund of the Office or, at the option of the testator or settlor, are invested in such securities as he may specify. Interest is allowed on moneys in the Common Fund at the rate fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council and is free of all commission and other charges. Both capital and interest are guaranteed by the State, thus affording the complete security that it is the object of the Office to provide. On the other hand, moneys directed to be invested in specific securities do not carry the State guarantee and, subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee, any loss resulting from their investment falls upon the estate concerned. Commission is charged on the collection of the interest.

Charges and commission rates are contained in the Public Trust Office Regulations 1958.

New investments completed during the year ended 31 March 1977 totalled $15,378,239. The investments held by the Office at 31 March 1977 totalled $100,141,888. These figures relate exclusively to Common Fund investments, and do not include other special investments made on behalf of estates, or investments which constitute assets of estates when the latter came under the Public Trustee's administration and which are still held as assets of those estates.

During the year ended 31 March 1977, 16,713 wills appointing the Public Trustee executor were deposited with him for safe custody. The total number of such wills held on deposit at 31 March 1977 was 283,034. During the year ended 31 March 1977 effect was given in 11,533 cases to changes desired by testators.

BANKRUPTCY—The law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Insolvency Act 1967 and the Insolvency Regulations 1970. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the court. A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of $10 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of the court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in this case. Not less than $200 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due to them. In such a case, after approval of the court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the assignee on a resolution by creditors. A person adjudged bankrupt is discharged three years after the date of adjudication unless discharged sooner.

Another form of financial failure is covered by private assignments, of which there were 6 in 1969, 5 in 1970, 6 in 1971,2 in 1972, 1 in 1973, and 2 in 1974. Private assignments are not included in official bankruptcy statistics, There were none in 1975 or 1976.

Transactions in Bankruptcy—The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last 5 years is now given. A long-term record of the more important features will be found in the Statistical Summary given later in this volume.

YearBankruptciesCourt Orders for Liquidation of CompaniesTotal Commercial Failures
Petitions by DebtorsAdjudications on Petitions by Creditors
*Includes 2 estates relating to 1975.
19723246572461
19732094674329
19742044674324
197524969169487
1976209100150459*

In the case of a partnership, each partner is counted in the total of transactions and also the partnership. The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by official assignees.

In some cases of company liquidations, subsequent court orders are given for the winding up of companies to be transferred to private liquidators. There were 3 such cases in 1971, 1 in 1972, 1 in 1973, 2 in 1974, 1 in 1975, and none in 1976; these are not included in the above table and succeeding tables.

The table following shows for each of the last 6 years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the proportion of dividends, preferential claims, and secured claims, to debts.

YearAverage Debts Proved per EstateProportion of Dividends, etc., to Debts
 $percent
19717,27813.7
19728,97711.9
19739,09120.9
19749,28718.8
197518,7315.0
197620,7867.0

Apart from dividends, preferential and secured claims, and Government commission, payments made from assets realised include cost of actions, solicitors' fees, and expenses incurred in managing estates for the benefit of creditors.

In the following table bankruptcies are classified according to amount groups of stated liabilities. With all partnerships the liabilities for each partner are included, but not the partnership. Company liquidations are included.

Liabilities19721973197419751976
*Excludes partnerships, 1972, 3; 1973, 4; 1974,6; 1975, 6; and 1976, nil, for which no statement of liabilities was received; also companies 9 in 1972; 7 in 1973; 6 in 1974; 21 in 1975; and 7 in 1976. Also excludes 1 private bankruptcy for which no statement was received in 1976.
Under $5003123151718
$500- $9996045443222
$1,000-$1,9997749445862
$2,000-$3,9997763578289
$4,000-$9,999917171107115
$10,000 and over1136781164145
Totals449*318*312*460*451*

Industry Groups of Bankrupts—All persons adjudged bankrupt (whether self-employed, employers of labour, or salary and wage earners) have been classified in the following table according to the industry in which they were last employed.

Industry Group19721973197419751976

*Excludes partnerships as follows: 1972, 9; 1973, 6; 1974, 6; 1975, 6; and 1976, nil.

†Excludes 2 1975 estates shown in total figures for 1976.

Agriculture and livestock production3112292334
Forestry, hunting, and fishing2291414
Mining and quarrying2-152
Manufacturing—     
Food and beverages158347
Footwear and textiles3-223
Wood and wood products52144
Paper, printing, and publishing22-21
Machinery and equipment12127612
Other1078510
Construction6950475660
Wholesale and retail trade, restaurants, and hotels6459487039
Transport, storage, and communications3724242925
Financing, insurance, real estate, and business services1110141921
Personal, social, and community services4321162626
Industry not adequately described3820162639
Persons not gainfully employed in any industry1613142124
Totals*380249244312307

The types of activity in which bankrupts were engaged at the time of failure frequently bear little relationship to the fact of insolvency. Personal extravagance or business incompetence are probably much more important factors in the majority of cases.

The occupational status of individual bankrupts is given in the following table. With all partnerships the occupation of each partner is included, but not the partnership.

 Occupational Status
YearWorking for Salary or WagesEmployer of LabourWorking on Own Account But Not Employing LabourNot Gainfully EmployedTotal*

*Excludes partnerships as follows: 1972, 9; 1973, 6; 1974, 6; 1975, 6; and 1976, nil.

†Excludes 2 estates relating to 1975 and 1 for which the occupational status is not known.

19721578611621380
197397528713249
197486549014244
197598949921312
1976122619924306

INTERNATIONAL INDICATORS OF STANDARDS OF LIVING—Relative standards of living cannot be compared by taking per-head incomes or expenditure alone. Environmental and other factors are being increasingly recognised as components of quality of life, a much less easily measured concept. In assessing standards of living, the United Nations Economic and Social Council is now giving consideration to the development of social indicators parallel with purely economic terms of measurement. These include health and personal safety; equality of educational opportunity; employment and quality of working life; leisure satisfaction; social security provisions; social opportunity and quality; social, cultural, and communication capabilities; housing and community; and the physical environment.

Methods of measurement of these factors are being recommended on an international basis. In these wider terms of reference New Zealand's position is appreciably improved.

Some comparative indicators related to standards of living are set out in the following table. In other sections of the Yearbook there are international comparisons on food consumption, life expectancy, infant mortality, medical and dental services, energy, libraries, and newspaper circulation.

ItemNew ZealandUnited StatesCanadaAustraliaUnited KingdomSwedenJapan
*1972.
Number per 1,000 of population—       
Passenger cars (1974)371492377358254323145
Commercial vehicles (1974)6611210685342196
Radios (1973)9111,75286521469732658*
Television sets (1973)247x523348227309339229
Telephones (1976)502695572390375661405
Consumption per head (1974)—       
Coffee (kg)2.05.43.52.11.812.50.8
Sugar (kg)60.64.543.857.4..46.830.4
Steel (kg)406680692561412774691
Wool (kg)3.70.30.91.21.10.81.2
Cotton (kg)9.87.57.810.14.57.86.3
Artificial and synthetic fibres (kg)8.714.411.712.59.311.37.0
Newsprint (kg)38.244.634.236.329.532.620.2
Public education expenditure as a percentage of GNP at market price (1973)5.26.78.15.0..7.74.3*
Persons per hospital bed (1973)93145106811106678

SOCIAL GOALS—New Zealand, in its approach to the matter of social goals and social indicators, has proceeded along the guide lines proposed by the United Nations. In this approach, goals are defined as pragmatically as possible and indicators are sought which are both statistically valid and currently available and have been collected over a number of years. The choice of social indicators is not unduly influenced by matters of immediate concern but reflects the long-run social objectives of the society. The Social Council in a statement of a general goal and objectives for social development in New Zealand, set out the following:

Goal for Social Development—A social, cultural, physical, and economic environment which provides the maximum opportunity for each person now and in the future to achieve self-fulfilment in a caring community concerned for the rights and well-being of all.

Objective A—To strengthen the spirit of community by ensuring each person has the maximum opportunity to:

  1. Create and belong to family and other social units based on mutual co-operation and responsibility, affection, whanaungatanga, and aroha.

  2. Participate in community decision-making.

  3. Contribute towards the generation of community objectives.

  4. Contribute his or her unique qualities towards the achievement of community objectives.

  5. Share in the benefits of attaining community objectives.

Objective B—To enhance the dignity, freedom, and independence of the individual by ensuring that:

  1. Each person is regarded as having dignity and as being worthy of respect.

  2. Each person has the maximum freedom of choice and action without encroaching upon the rights of others.

  3. Decisions relating to community objectives take account of the views and situations of all persons living in the community.

  4. Each person is encouraged to understand and appreciate the views and religious, political, ethnic, and cultural differences of other persons and groups.

  5. Each person has adequate access to the processes of law and equal rights before the law.

Objective C—To preserve life and promote health by ensuring that:

  1. Each person has the opportunity to be as physically healthy and fit, and emotionally healthy and stable as his potential allows.

  2. A stable environment (family or other intimate group) is provided for children growing up (and dependent adults).

  3. Adequate and readily available health services are provided.

  4. The hazards of injury, accident, and crime are kept to a minimum.

Objective D—To share resources fairly by ensuring each person has:

  1. The opportunity of a material standard of living at a level which enables him or her to enjoy a sense of belonging to and participating in the community.

  2. The opportunity to own and enjoy property and possessions.

  3. Access to the knowledge and skills which will lead to the development of the individual and the well-being of the community.

  4. Vocational opportunities which are satisfying and within his or her capabilities.

  5. Ready access to leisure time activities.

  6. Ready access to the community social welfare services.

Objective E—To enhance man's environment by:

  1. Ensuring the ecological balance between man and his environment is such that his use and enjoyment of the environment does not endanger the quality of life of future generations.

  2. Preserving community access to and enjoyment of the country's physical endowments and attractions.

  3. Promoting the social, intellectual, artistic, creative, and physical pursuits which enrich people's lives.

  4. Helping people in other parts of the world in their efforts to achieve a better life.

  5. Promoting world peace and justice and international understanding.

The Department of Statistics has gathered a number of series of social statistics into a compendium Social Trends in New Zealand.

LOTTERIES—Under the Gaming Act 1908 the Police may license raffles where the value of prizes does not exceed in aggregate $50 or the value of any one prize does not exceed $20. The Police may also approve specified organisations conducting raffles, where the aggregate value of prizes in any one raffle does not exceed $10, without the necessity for individual licences. Raffles with prizes exceeding the above maximum values may be licensed by the Minister of Internal Affairs. There were 28,072 licences issued under the Minister's authority during the year ended 31 March 1976 to local, provincial, and national organisations. The Gaming Act precludes the issue of licences to conduct raffles for the purpose of private gain. Otherwise, the Police and the Minister may issue licences subject to such conditions as they think fit.

The Minister of Internal Affairs promotes "Kiwi Jackpot", "Kiwi Super", and special sweepstake lotteries. The number of tickets in each lottery is restricted to 250,000 at $1 each in the case of the "Kiwi Jackpot", 150,000 at $2 each in the case of the "Kiwi Super", and 150,000 at $5 each in the case of the "Special Sweepstake". The aggregate financial results of these lotteries are shown for the last 5 years.

Item1971-721972-731973-741974-751975-76
*57 Kiwi Jackpots, 5 Kiwi Supers, and 4 special sweepstakes.
Number of lotteries4549506266*
Gross sales $(000)6,3749,7509,50011,15011,624
Commission on sales $(000)6278258201,0021,022
Expenses $(000)209241318430521
Prizes $(000)3,3785,1585,0446,4916,234
Lottery duty $(000)6379759501,2151,162
Direct profit $(000)1,5232,5512.3682,9872,685

The net profits from these lotteries are required by the Gaming Amendment Act to be distributed for charitable, philanthropic, or cultural purposes or for other purposes beneficial to the community. A lottery board of control has the responsibility of apportioning profits of lotteries to various distributing authorities which consider applications for assistance and make grants. Allocations made by the board in 1975-76 were as follows: $450,000 for the welfare of aged persons; $500,000 for social welfare, including various mayoral and other funds for relief of distress; $445,000 for national water safety, national mountain safety, and surf lifesaving organisations; $250,000 for medical research; $250,000 for scientific research; $250,000 for capital works in connection with theatres and concert auditoria; $285,000 to the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council of New Zealand; and $310,000 for miscellaneous purposes.

LIQUOR LICENSING—The principal source of the liquor law of New Zealand is the Sale of Liquor Act 1962. The principles on which the liquor law of New Zealand rests are that no liquor may be sold without a licence, that new licences are not to be authorised unless they are shown to be necessary or desirable in the locality, and that there should be close regulation of the conduct of the trade and of the provision and standard of accommodation, amenities, and services.

There is a Licensing Control Commission whose principal functions are to ascertain the requirements of the public as to the provision of accommodation, services, and other facilities on licensed premises; to determine what new hotel, tavern, and tourist house premises licences, restaurant licences, and wholesale licences are needed and to authorise their issue; to review provisional hotel licences and determine whether the licence to be issued in their place should be a hotel or tavern premises licence; to prescribe and enforce standards of accommodation, amenities, and services; to grant club charters; and to hear appeals from licensing committees. There is a right of appeal to the commission from most decisions of a licensing committee except on a matter of law or character in which case the appeal is to the Supreme Court. Many of the commission's decisions are themselves subject to appeal to the Supreme Court, and an appeal may be brought in any case on a point of law. Appeals now lie to the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court.

In 1976 2 new kinds of licence were introduced, the caterer's licence and the general ancillary licence. These licences will be available to caterers, sports clubs, and other associations where the consumption of liquor will be incidental to some principal activity.

Also, two types of permit were created. A vineyard bar permit is available to the holder of a winemaker's licence authorising the sale of wine made by him for consumption on his premises, and a permit may be issued to authorise the consumption of liquor in unlicensed restaurants where the liquor is brought to the restaurant by the patron.

Licences either in force or authorised at 31 March 1976 comprised 781 hotel premises licences, 307 tavern premises licences, and 78 tourist house premises licences.

At 31 March 1976 a total of 303 chartered clubs were in existence. Wine resellers licences authorised totalled 354 and wholesale licences totalled 182.

New Licences—The Licensing Control Commission decides after a public inquiry whether the issue of a hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licence, or a wholesale or wine reseller's licence is desirable in a particular locality. In the case of a hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licence, the commission prescribes the minimum standards of accommodation, services, and other facilities that must be provided. It may direct that any bar-room of a hotel or tavern shall contain facilities for sit-down drinking. There is provision for a poll of residents on the question whether a hotel or tavern premises licence is not desired in the locality, and if the majority of votes recorded at the poll is against the licence the commission may not authorise one unless special circumstances exist.

Subject to the result of any such poll the commission (or in the case of a wholesale or wine reseller's licence, the Licensing Committee) then calls for applications for the licence, and grants it to the most suitable applicant.

Hours of Sale—The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 governs the hours of sale. A special general poll was held on 23 September 1967 concerning the closing hours for the sale of liquor in hotel, tavern, and chartered club bar-rooms. The closing hour had been 6 p.m. since 1917. Voting for later closing was 641,105 and for 6 p.m. closing it was 353,662. Under the Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1967 the usual hours of opening and closing of hotels or taverns were fixed at 11 a.m. and 10 p.m. respectively, and the new hours applied from 9 October 1967. The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1976 allows for further extensions upon application for particular hotels or taverns. Orders may be made permitting these to remain open until 11 p.m. on any Friday or Saturday or on Christmas Eve and until 12.30 a.m. in the morning of New Year's Day. Any extension to usual hours is in addition to the 11 hours per day during which premises are at present open for the sale of liquor to the public. Sales from hotels and taverns are prohibited on Sundays, Christmas Day, and Good Friday.

Legislation in 1960 authorised hotels to serve liquor to guests and lodgers partaking of a meal for consumption with the meal. The 1976 amendment extends the hours, which are now 9 a.m. on any day to 1 a.m. the following morning.

By the 1960 Act the hours during which licensed restaurants could sell and serve liquor to diners were fixed as 12 noon to 2.30 p.m. and 6 p.m. to 11.30 p.m. on any day. The 1976 amendment extended these hours, which are now 12 noon on any day to 1 a.m. in the morning of the following day. The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 authorises the commission to grant permits to an hotel for the sale of liquor in a lounge or lounge bar to diners during hours fixed by the Commission, but not later than 11.30 p.m. This has been extended to 1 a.m. It also provides for theatre, cabaret, and airport licences, and prescribes the hours of sale in each case. The hours in respect of theatres and cabarets have also been extended.

The hours of sale under a general ancillary licence are set by the Licensing Control Commission when granting the licence and are generally between 9 a.m. and 10 p.m. on any day. Caterer's licences authorise the sale of liquor between 9 a.m. on any day (except Good Friday) and 1 a.m. the following day. The permits for unlicensed restaurants authorise consumption by patrons of their own liquor until 11.30 p.m. on any day, and the vineyard bar permit authorises sales until 9 p.m. except on Sundays, Good Friday, or Christmas Day.

Drinking Age—The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1969 made provision from 24 October 1969 for the sale of liquor to persons of the age of 20 years; liquor may also be supplied to persons of 18 years and over if the person is accompanied by a spouse of 20 or more years of age or a parent. The 1976 amendment to the Act also provided for a family lounge permit, whereby parents may take their underage children into designated parts of hotels, taverns, or chartered clubs. Liquor may be supplied to an unaccompanied person 18 years or over as part of a meal provided in accordance with the provisions of the Act.

Licensing Trusts—The system of trust control in New Zealand is an alternative to the traditional means of controlling the sale of liquor through privately held licences supervised by licensing committees, and the Licensing Control Commission gives the public an indirect control over the conditions under which liquor is sold. In the case of trusts, public control is direct since the whole of the liquor trade in a trust district is conducted by the trust, which is elected by the residents and is responsible to them.

The first licensing trust in New Zealand was set up in 1944 following the carrying of restoration in the former Invercargill no-licence district. There are now eight district trusts—Ashburton, Clutha, Geraldine, Invercargill, Masterton, Mataura, Oamaru, and Porirua. In addition an increasing number of local trusts scattered throughout the country are operating hotels. Because of the circumstances of the remaining no-licence districts and their relation to the metropolitan areas as a whole, legislation was enacted in 1963 providing a special procedure if any of them should carry restoration, and introducing a new form of trust control known as suburban trusts.

Prior to 1975 six suburban trusts had been constituted—Johnsonville, Terawhiti, and Wellington South (in Wellington) and Mt. Albert, Portage, and Waitakere (in Auckland). These trusts held licences under the Sale of Liquor Act but had a preferential right to all hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licences, or wholesale licences authorised in their areas. In 1975 these trusts and the Birkenhead Local Licensing Trust were converted into district trusts which do not hold licences, are not under the jurisdiction of the Licensing Control Commission, and are free to choose the nature of the liquor outlets and where and when they will establish them.

The 1976 Licensing Trusts Amendment Act converted these trusts into suburban trusts, bringing them back under a degree of Licensing Control Commission supervision but not to the same extent as that which prevailed prior to 1975. The trusts are still free to establish what outlets they see fit without the need to hold licences, but Licensing Control Commission approval must be obtained first. This allows the commission to consider the accommodation requirements of the greater metropolitan area of which a suburban trust is a part, as well as providing an appropriate forum in which objections to the trust's proposals may be heard.

GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS—A general election of parliamentary representatives was held on 29 November 1975, voting in New Zealand for both General and Maori electorates taking place on that day.

The strength of the political party representation among members of Parliament after the 1975 election was National 55, Labour 32. The relative strengths after the eight preceding general elections were as follows: September 1951, National 50, Labour 30; November 1954, National 45, Labour 35; November 1957, Labour 41, National 39; November 1960, National 46, Labour 34; November 1963, National 45, Labour 35; November 1966, National 44, Labour 35, Social Credit 1; November 1969, National 45, Labour 39; November 1972, Labour 55, National 32.

The total numbers of electors on the roll for the election in 1975 was 1,938,108, of whom 1,611,020 (83.12 percent) recorded their votes.

The following table shows for the last four general elections the number of votes recorded by the main political parties, along with the percentages that the various party votes represent of the total valid votes.

Political PartyVotes RecordedPercentage of Total Valid Votes
19661969197219751966196919721975
Labour499,392592,055677,669636,31941.4444.1848.3739.70
National525,945605,960581,422760,36543.6445.2241.5047.44
Social Credit174,515121,57693,231119,12314.489.076.657.43
Values......27,46783,213......1.965.19
Others5,24320,57721,3633,7570.441.531.520.23
Total valid votes1,205,0951,340,1681,401,1521,602,777100.00100.00100.00100.00
Informal votes7,03211,6459,0888,243............
Total votes recorded1,212,1271,351,8131,410,2401,611,020............

A statement of voting in individual electorates at the general election in 1975 was included in the 1976 Yearbook. Voting in recent by-elections is given at the end of this section.

NATIONAL LICENSING POLL—The licensing poll of 29 November 1975 held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the seventeenth at which the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. Official figures of the 1975 poll, together with those of five preceding polls, were as follows.

Voting Issue196019631966196919721975
For national continuance765,952791,767817,760903,962931,7781,094,445
For State purchase and control138,644157,581176,946242,499244,003235,374
For national prohibition255,157235,959198,859176,055203,791250,640

POLL ON TERM OF PARLIAMENT—On 23 September 1967 a special general poll was held on a proposal that the term of the House of Representatives be changed. Votes for a maximum of 3 years as at present totalled 678,960; votes for a maximum term of 4 years totalled 317,973.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS—One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand. The New Zealand Gazette of 31 October 1868 contained a Government announcement to the effect that the time corresponding to longitude 172° 30 east of Greenwich (exactly 11 1/2 hours in advance of Greenwich time) was to be adopted as the New Zealand Mean Time throughout the colony.

This New Zealand Mean Time, 11h 30 min. in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), was observed continuously up to 1927, when on 6 November clocks were advanced 1 hour until 4 March 1928. Summer Time, with clocks advanced only 30 minutes (to 12 h ahead of G.M.T.), became standard practice in the summer months under the Summer Time Act 1929.

The Daylight Saving Emergency Regulations of 1941 provided for the continuance of Summer Time throughout that year, and its continued observance during subsequent war years was provided for by regulations made annually.

By the Standard Time Act of 1945 the time of the meridian 180° east of Greenwich (12 h in advance of G.M.T.) was adopted as the Standard Time for New Zealand. Thus, what was formerly known as "Summer Time" became "New Zealand Standard Time" as from 1 January 1946.

The Time Act of 1974 consolidated the Standard Time Act of 1945 and also enabled the Governor-General, by Order in Council, to introduce 1 hour of daylight saving for specified periods. This time is designated New Zealand Daylight Time, and is 13 h in advance of Universal Time (or Greenwich Mean Time). The first period specified for the use of New Zealand Daylight Time was from 3 November 1974 to 23 February 1975.

Time in the Chatham Islands is 45 minutes ahead of that kept in New Zealand.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the New Zealand Time Service, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as correct as possible by comparison with radio signals from observatories in other parts of the world, and the error rarely exceeds a few milliseconds.

The Observatory provides a time service over Station ZLW and stations operated by TV1, TV2, and Radio New Zealand.

BOOK PUBLISHING—The following table classifies the publications for 1975 and 1976 which have been included by the Alexander Turnbull Library in the New Zealand National Bibliography.

Subject19751976
BooksPamphletsTotalBooksPamphletsTotal
General244064222648
Religion, theology, philosophy316495224971
Sociology, statistics3561965163114
Political science6613019664158222
Law, public administration, social welfare661061727061131
Education53661195062112
Trade, communications, transport293463203353
Linguistics, philology81220113344
Sciences791532327968147
Technology, and trades5496150108115223
Agriculture, forestry4459103375794
Domestic science18123020424
Commercial management172138162440
Fine arts, etc.5068118434790
Entertainment, sport383270532578
Literature75431188165146
Geography, travel434891352560
History, biography813111210038138
Totals8111,0761,8878829531,835

The New Zealand National Bibliography, which commenced publication in 1967, is issued monthly and cumulated annually by the National Library of New Zealand. It lists works published in New Zealand and also works published overseas by authors normally resident in New Zealand, and works that in whole or part with New Zealand. It includes books, pamphlets, art prints, maps, new periodicals, and periodicals that have ceased publication.

As at 31 January 1977 there were 3,141 periodicals (other than parish and school magazines) being received regularly under the provisions of the Copyright Act.

COMPUTERS—The first computer was imported into New Zealand in 1960, by 1968 the total had risen to 87, and after 14 years there were in excess of 200 machines in use. There are now over 400 systems involving more than 2,000 programmes in total.

The use of computers continues to expand, particularly with the development of the minicomputer. Computers are used in business analysis, in the preparation of the customer billing statements and employee payrolls, and in all the tasks of accounting, auditing, analysis, and reporting that business usually does. Increasingly computers are being used as an aid in running business directly with customers and other companies, in activities such as retrieving facts from a file, making an hotel or airline booking, and communicating with a branch office.

PUBLIC HOLIDAYS—These are listed below.

Holiday19751976197719781979
*Date of Queen's Birthday, 21 April 1926.
New Year's Day1 January1 January1 January1 January1 January
Waitangi Day6 February6 February6 February6 February6 February
Good Friday28 March16 April8 April24 March13 April
Easter Monday31 March19 April11 April27 March16 April
Anzac Day25 April25 April25 April25 April25 April
Queen's Birthday*2 June7 June6 June5 June4 June
Labour Day27 October25 October24 October23 October22 October
Christmas Day25 December25 December25 December25 December25 December
Boxing Day26 December26 December26 December26 December26 December

In addition to the above, there is in each provincial district a holiday for the provincial anniversary. The actual anniversary days are as follows: Northland, 29 January; Auckland, 29 January; Taranaki, 31 March; Hawke's Bay, 1 November; Wellington, 22 January; Marlborough, 1 November; Nelson, 1 February; Canterbury, 16 December; Westland, 1 December; Otago and Southland, 23 March.

When Anniversary Day falls on Friday or later, the holiday is observed on the next Monday; if earlier, it is observed on the preceding Monday. In some cases the holiday is taken on the local show day or some other day; in Taranaki it is the second Monday in March to avoid a clash with Easter observance.

RACE RELATIONS—The Race Relations Act 1971 is designed to affirm and promote racial equality in New Zealand and implements the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Discrimination is unlawful on the grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins, for: (a) access by the public to places, vehicles, and facilities; (b) provision of goods and services; (c) employment (including employment of independent contractors); (d) land, housing, and other accommodation. It is also unlawful to publish or display any advertisement or notice which indicates an intention to commit a breach of any of these provisions.

A breach of any of the provisions may be the subject of an investigation by the Race Relations Conciliator.

The Act also makes it an offence to incite racial disharmony.

The most important role for a race relations mediator is in situations where misunderstanding due to different racial backgrounds or concepts on the part of the parties has occurred. Potential racial incidents can often be avoided by a mediator with an explanatory role. This extension of the conciliator's duties from an area confined to complaints of racial discrimination to one where discrimination may not have occurred, but where racial misunderstanding exists, is in keeping with the aims of the Act of affirming and promoting racial equality in Mew Zealand.

RECREATION AND SPORT—Although New Zealand has traditionally been considered an outdoor sporting nation preliminary results from a recent national survey indicate that activities based around the home may be the most popular form of recreation. Reading, gardening, and sewing appear to be the three most popular recreational pursuits. Other home-based activities such as knitting, visiting and entertaining friends, cooking and baking, and house maintenance are also enjoyed by many New Zealanders for their recreational value. The popularity of dining-out, as providing a change for the busy housewife and a break from the humdrum of everyday living is reflected in the rise, over the last 10 years, in the number of restaurants and eating places catering for a wide variety of tastes and incomes.

Sport, however, does play an important part in the recreation of New Zealanders. Rugby Union is the most popular sporting activity and the leading winter sport. Soccer, netball, and indoor basketball are also popular winter sports. Swimming is a very popular summer activity and salt-water fishing, tennis, boating, and cricket also have large followings. Of the all-year round sporting activities golf is most popular followed by billiards, snooker and pool, indoor bowls, and squash. An interesting feature of sport in New Zealand is the large number of activities that involve small groups, such as swimming, fishing, tennis, boating, golf, etc., as distinct from the team sports. A substantial proportion of these small group activities are enjoyed more for their socially relaxing value than for any competitive element they may contain. As well as participating in sport, many New Zealanders enjoy watching sports as a recreational activity.

The New Zealand outdoors is enjoyed by many in other ways: of those activities regarded as recreational, driving, travelling, climbing, and tramping are all very popular. So too are hunting and shooting and fishing in New Zealand's many rivers, lakes, and streams. Many people enjoy picnics and barbecues.

Cultural pursuits are also an important part of recreation. Music is a popular recreational activity, and painting and sketching, going to the cinema or theatre, ballroom dancing, woodwork, making models and miniatures, and photography (while not as popular as music) are also enjoyed by a lot of New Zealanders.

Many of these recreational activities are organised into local clubs, some of which (especially in the case of the sporting activities) are affiliated to national organisations.

Promising players, performers, and artists have opportunities, through a variety of ways, to reach national levels in their activities. In many sports, the ultimate level to be reached is to represent New Zealand at the Olympic and Commonwealth Games.

Opportunities and facilities exist for those interested in outdoor education and recreation. The Youth Hostels Association of New Zealand operate 50 hostels in centres ranging from Kaitaia in the north to Invercargill in the south. In the more remote areas the New Zealand Forest Service and several tramping clubs have built huts.

Short courses in outdoor recreation are run by the Cobham Outward Bound School in Queen Charlotte Sound, and the Outdoor Pursuits Centre near Turangi. Educational authorities and some voluntary organisations have established outdoor recreation and education camps throughout the country where young people are encouraged to enjoy and make use of the natural environment.

Attempts have been made to introduce social education programmes into the schools and this has involved the introduction of a wider range of recreational activities with encouragement to continue with these activities after leaving school.

Most of the tertiary education institutions have facilities and staff available to serve the physical recreation needs of the student body.

In November 1972 a Minister of Recreation and Sport was appointed. The Recreation and Sport Act 1973 provided for the establishment of a Ministry of Recreation and a New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport. The general functions of the council are to foster and promote the total well-being of, and the fullest use of leisure by, the residents of New Zealand; to advise the Minister on any matters relating to recreation and sport; to investigate developments in recreation and sport, and disseminate knowledge and information about such developments. The sum of $3,284 million was appropriated through the ministry during 1976-77 to support community recreational activities together with an additional $250,000 made available by the Lottery Board of Control. Grants and subsidies from these funds are designed to encourage the provision of new or expanded facilities or services either by local authorities or voluntary organisations. Particular provision is made for assistance for national youth organisations, a sum of $180,000 being set aside for this purpose; and to encourage the wider community use of school recreational facilities. In 1976-77 $345,000 was set aside to provide subsidies for schools providing new or expanded recreational facilities such as gymnasia, auditoria, sports courts, and swimming pools, which are to receive substantial use by the local community.

A new scheme introduced in 1976–77, for which $75,000 was set aside, provides subsidy assistance for the salaries of new recreation officers being employed by local authorities. The employment of such officers is seen as a way of assisting in the planning of recreation development in local authority areas.

The New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport employs advisers in the fields of outdoor recreation, leadership training, and recreation promotion. The Ministry of Recreation and Sport has advisory officers at each of the main centres and in Rotorua. The council's advisors have responsibilities for promoting recreation programmes and working closely with others involved in their fields of interest and the Ministry's advisory officers maintain a more localised advisory service involving a close liaison with local authorities, educational and recreational organisations, and youth groups on the whole recreation and sport programme.

New Zealand is party with other Commonwealth nations in the Commonwealth Youth Programme. Established in 1973 the Commonwealth Youth Programme is a six-point plan of practical action: developing regional youth development centres, administering youth bursaries and study fellowships, investigating applied research, developing youth information services, assisting local youth projects, and supporting youth programmes. In New Zealand the Commonwealth Youth Programme is administered by a National Liaison Committee serviced by the Ministry of Recreation and Sport. The National Liaison Committee is composed of representatives from the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Department of Education, the Department of Maori Affairs, and the National Youth Council. It has developed the Youth Involvement Programme as a means of assisting innovative youth projects; it is investigating youth work training needs; and it participates in Commonwealth-level management of the programme through its representatives on the Commonwealth Committee of Management and Asia-Pacific Region Youth Development Centre Advisory Board.

The New Zealand Mountain Safety Council and the New Zealand Water Safety Council, which are also serviced through the Ministry of Recreation and Sport, received allocations from lottery profits of $75,000 and $130,000 respectively in 1976–77. These councils work closely with 38 local mountain safety committees and 43 local water safety committees in promoting the safe use of New Zealand's mountain, bush, and water areas.

NATIONAL SONG—New Zealand's National Song is God Defend New Zealand, the words being written by Thomas Bracken and the music composed by John J. Woods.

The verses are now given.

  1. God of nations at Thy feet In the bonds of love we meet, Hear our voices, we entreat, God defend our Free Land. Guard Pacific's triple star From the shafts of strife and war, Make her praises heard afar, God defend New Zealand.

  2. Men of ev'ry creed and race Gather here before Thy face, Asking Thee to bless this place, God defend our Free Land. From dissension, envy, hate, And corruption guard our State, Make our country good and great, God defend New Zealand.

  3. Peace, not war, shall be our boast, But, should foes assail our coast, Make us then a mighty host, God defend our Free Land. Lord of battles in Thy might, Put our enemies to flight, Let our cause be just and right, God defend New Zealand.

  4. Let our love for Thee increase, May Thy blessings never cease, Give us plenty, give us peace, God defend our Free Land. From dishonour and from shame Guard our country's spotless name, Crown her with immortal fame, God defend New Zealand.

  5. May our mountains ever be Freedom's ramparts on the sea, Make us faithful unto Thee, God defend our Free Land. Guide her in the nations' van, Preaching love and truth to man, Working out Thy glorious plan, God defend New Zealand.

NEW ZEALAND ENSIGN—The national flag is the New Zealand Ensign described in a Gazette notice of 27 June 1902. Its specifications are given in an Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. The basis is the Union Jack in the upper left quarter, and on a blue ground to the right the Southern Cross is represented by four five-pointed red stars with white borders.

NEW ZEALAND COAT OF ARMS—The New Zealand Coat of Arms was pictured and described as a frontispiece in the 1969 and earlier issues of the Official Yearbook.

SEAL OF NEW ZEALAND—Previous to the passing of the Seal of New Zealand Act on 28 February 1977 certain New Zealand instruments were sealed with the Public Seal of New Zealand and others with the Great Seal of the United Kingdom or one of the lesser United Kingdom seals. The Act established a Seal of New Zealand and the Seal of New Zealand Proclamation 1977 laid down that this should be the Seal used on instruments of the New Zealand Government.

The Seal of New Zealand bears the New Zealand coat of arms and the words, "Elizabeth the Second. Queen. New Zealand".

BY-ELECTIONS—There have been 3 by-elections during the life of the present Parliament—in the electoral districts of Nelson, Mangere, and Pahiatua. Voting in the Nelson by-election was shown in the 1976 Yearbook. Voting in the other two was as follows:

Mangere (26 March 1977)
Grayson (V)739
Lange (L)9,191
Magaffin (A)18
Moss (NZWL)29
Mulrennan (SA)7
Owens (SC)993
Shaw(IL)18
Simich (N)4,897
Informal173
Total16,065
Pahiatua (30 April 1977) 
Falloon (N)9,059
Hislop (SC)844
Levett (L)4,280
McHugh (V)194
Informal31
Total14,408

Chapter 38. Section 38 OFFICIAL

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND

His Excellency Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H. (His Excellency assumed office on 26 October 1977)

Official Secretary—J. Brown.

PREVIOUS VICE-REGAL REPRESENTATIVES

Governors since 1840 and Governors-General since 1917 are listed below.

Vice-Regal RepresentativeAssumed OfficeRetired
THE DEPENDENCY PERIOD  
Lieutenant-Governor  
Captain William Hobson, R.N.30 Jan 18403 May 1841
THE CROWN COLONY  
Governor  
Captain William Hobson, R.N.3 May 184110 Sep 1842
Captain Robert FitzRoy, R.N.26 Dec 184317 Nov 1845
Captain George Grey18 Nov 184531 Dec 1847
Governor in Chief  
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.1 Jan 18487 Mar 1853
THE SELF-GOVERNING COLONY  
Governor of New Zealand  
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.7 Mar 185331 Dec 1853
Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.B. (later K.C.M.G.)6 Sep 18552 Oct 1861
Sir George Grey, K.C.B. (later P.C.)4 Dec 18615 Feb 1868
Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G. (later P.C.)5 Feb 186819 Mar 1873
The Right Hon. Sir James Fergusson, Bt., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., P.C. (later G.C.S.I.)14 Jun 18733 Dec 1874
The Right Hon. the Marquess of Normanby, K.C.M.G., P.C. (later G.C.B., G.C.M.G.)9 Jan 187521 Feb 1879
Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.C.M.G. (later Lord Rosemead, P.C.)17 Apr 18798 Sep 1880
The Hon. Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.C.M.G. (later Lord Stanmore)29 Nov 188023 Jun 1882
Lieutenant-General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B.20 Jan 188322 Mar 1889
The Right Hon. Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G.2 May 188924 Feb 1892
The Right Hon. Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G.7 Jun 18926 Feb 1897
The Right Hon. Earl of Ranfurly, G.C.M.G.10 Aug 189719 Jun 1904
The Right Hon. Lord Plunket, G.C.M.G., K.C.V.O. (later K.B.E.)20 Jun 19048 Jun 1910
The Right Hon. Lord Islington, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., P.C. (later G.B.E.)22 Jun 19102 Dec 1912
The Right Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O.19 Dec 191227 Jun 1917
Governor-General of New Zealand  
The Right Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., P.C.28 Jun 19177 Jul 1920
The Right Hon. Viscount (later Earl) Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O.27 Sep 192026 Nov 1924
General Sir Charles Fergusson, Bt., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., D.S.O., M.V.O. (later G.C.B.)13 Dec 19248 Feb 1930
The Right Hon. Viscount Bledisloe, G.C.M.G., K.B.E., P.C.19 Mar 193015 Mar 1935
The Right Hon. Viscount Galway, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E., P.C.12 Apr 19353 Feb 1941
Marshal of the Royal Air Force the Right Hon. Lord Newall, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.M.G., C.B.E., A.M.22 Feb 194119 Apr 1946
Lieutenant-General the Right Hon. Lord Freyberg, V.C., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., K.B.E., D.S.O.17 Jun 194615 Aug 1952
Lieutenant-General the Right Hon. Lord Norrie, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.OO., C.B., D.S.O., M.C.2 Dec 195225 Jul 1957
The Right Hon. Viscount Cobham, G.C.M.G., T.D. (later K.G., G.C.V.O., P.C.)5 Sep 195713 Sep 1962
Brigadier Sir Bernard Edward Fergusson, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., D.S.O., O.B.E. (later Right Hon. Lord Ballantrae, K.T.)9 Nov 196220 Oct 1967
Sir Arthur Espie Porritt, Bt., G.C.M.G., C.G.V.O., C.B.E. (later Right Hon. Lord Porritt)1 Dec 19676 Sep 1972
Sir Edward Denis Blundell, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.B.E.27 Sep 19725 Oct 1977
Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.26 Oct 1977 

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PRIME MINISTERS

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856

Name of MinistryName of Prime MinisterAssumed OfficeRetired
1. SewellHenry Sewell7 May 185620 May 1856
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May 18562 Jun 1856
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 Jun 185612 Jul 1861
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 Jul 18616 Aug 1862
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug 186230 Oct 1863
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.30 Oct 186324 Nov 1864
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov 186416 Oct 1865
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct 186528 Jun 1869
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 Jun 186910 Sep 1872
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sep 187211 Oct 1872
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse, M.L.C.11 Oct 18723 Mar 1873
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar 18738 Apr 1873
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 Apr 18736 Jul 1875
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 Jul 187515 Feb 1876
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb 18761 Sep 1876
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sep 187613 Sep 1876
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sep 187613 Oct 1877
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct 18778 Oct 1879
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct 187921 Apr 1882
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 Apr 188225 Sep 1883
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sep 188316 Aug 1884
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug 188428 Aug 1884
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug 18843 Sep 1884
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sep 18848 Oct 1887
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct 188724 Jan 1891
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan 189127 Apr 1893
27. SeddonRight Hon. Richard John Seddon1 May 189310 Jun 1906
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 Jun 19066 Aug 1906
29. WardRight Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bt., K.CM.G.6 Aug 190628 Mar 1912
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar 191210 Jul 1912
31. MasseyRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey10 Jul 191212 Aug 1915
32. Massey (National)Right Hon. William Ferguson Massey12 Aug 191525 Aug 1919
33. MasseyRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey25 Aug 191910 May 1925
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C., M.L.C.14 May 192530 May 1925
35. CoatesRight Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, M.C.30 May 192510 Dec 1928
36. WardRight Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, Bt., G.C.M.G.10 Dec 192828 May 1930
37. ForbesRight Hon. George William Forbes28 May 193022 Sep 1931
38. Forbes (Coalition)Right Hon. George William Forbes22 Sep 19316 Dec 1935
39. SavageRight Hon. Michael Joseph Savage6 Dec 19351 Apr 1940
40. FraserRight Hon. Peter Fraser, C.H.1 Apr 194013 Dec 1949
41. HollandRight Hon. Sir Sidney George Holland, G.C.B., C.H.13 Dec 194920 Sep 1957
42. HolyoakeRight Hon. Keith Jacka Holyoake20 Sep 195712 Dec 1957
43. NashRight Hon. Walter Nash, C.H.12 Dec 195712 Dec 1960
44. HolyoakeRight Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.12 Dec 19607 Feb 1972
45. MarshallRight Hon. John Ross Marshall, C.H.7 Feb 19728 Dec 1972
46. KirkRight Hon. Norman Eric Kirk8 Dec 197231 Aug 1974
47. RowlingRight Hon. Wallace Edward Rowling6 Sep 197412 Dec 1975
48. MuldoonRight Hon. Robert David Muldoon C.H.12 Dec 1975 

THE MINISTRY

Right Hon. R. D. MULDOON, C.H., Prime Minister, Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Legislative Department, Minister in Charge of the Audit Department, Minister in Charge of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service.

Right Hon. B. E. TALBOYS, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister of Overseas Trade.

Hon. J. B. GORDON, Minister of Labour, Minister of State Services.

Hon. D. MacINTYRE, D.S.O., O.B.E., E.D., Minister of Agriculture, Minister of Maori Affairs, Minister in Charge of the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation.

Hon. L. R. ADAMS-SCHNEIDER, Minister of Trade and Industry.

Hon. D. S. THOMSON, M.C., E.D., Minister of Justice.

Hon. G. F. GAIR, Minister of Energy Resources, Minister of Electricity, Minister of Mines, Minister of National Development, Minister of Regional Development.

Hon. L. W. GANDAR, Minister of Education, Minister of Science and Technology.

Air Commodore Hon. T. F. GILL, C.B.E., D.S.O., Minister of Health, Minister of Immigration.

Hon. C. A. McLACHLAN, Minister of Transport, Minister of Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services, Minister of Railways.

Hon. W. L. YOUNG, Minister of Works and Development.

Hon. E. S. F. HOLLAND, Minister of Housing, Minister in Charge of Public Trust Office.

Hon. A. McCREADY, Minister of Defence, Minister of Police, Minister in Charge of War Pensions, Minister in Charge of Rehabilitation.

Hon. H. J. WALKER, Minister of Social Welfare, Minister in Charge of the Government Life Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of State Insurance Office, Minister in Charge of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission.

Hon. D. A. HIGHET, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Local Government, Minister of Recreation and Sport, Minister of Civil Defence, Minister for the Arts.

Hon. P. I. WILKINSON, Attorney-General. Minister of Customs, Postmaster-General.

Hon. V. S. YOUNG, Minister of Lands, Minister of Forests, Minister for the Environment, Minister in Charge of the Valuation Department.

Hon. H. R. LAPWOOD, Minister of Tourism, Minister in Charge of Publicity, Minister in Charge of the Government Printing Office.

Hon. H. C. TEMPLETON, Minister of Statistics, Minister of Broadcasting, Associate Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of the Inland Revenue Department, Minister in Charge of Friendly Societies.

Hon. J. B. BOLGER, Minister of Fisheries, Associate Minister of Agriculture.

Parliamentary Under-Secretaries:

K. R. ALLEN, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to the Minister of Trade and Industry.

K. M. COMBER, Parliamentary Under-Secretary to the Minister of Internal Affairs, to Minister of Local Government, to Minister of Recreation and Sport, to Minister of Civil Defence, and to Minister for the Arts.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

  • Prime Minister—Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, C.H.

  • Leader of the Opposition—Rt. Hon. W. E. Rowling

  • Speaker—Hon. Sir Roy Jack

  • Chairman of Committees—J. R. Harrison

  • Clerk of the House—C. P. Littlejohn, LL.M.

NameElectoral District

*Government member.

†Elected at by-election on 28 February 1976 following the death of the Hon. S. A. Whitehead.

‡Elected at by-election on 26 March 1977 following the resignation of the Hon. C. J. Moyle.

§Elected at by-election on 30 April 1977 following the resignation of the Rt. Hon. Sir Keith Holyoake, G.C.M.G., C.H.

For General Electorates 
Adams-Schneider, Hon. L. R.*Waikato
Allen, K. R.*Tauranga
Arthur, Hon. Sir Basil, Bt.Timaru
Austin, H. N.*Hobson
Austin, W. R.*Awarua
Bailey, R. L.Heretaunga
Barclay, B. G.Christchurch Central
Batchelor, Mrs M. D.Avon
Bell, R. L.*Gisborne
Birch, W. F.*Franklin
Blanchfield, P.West Coast
Bolger, Hon. J. B.*King Country
Brill, B. E.*Kapiti
Christie, G.Napier
Colman, Hon. F. MacD.Petone
Comber, K. M.*Wellington Central
Connelly, Hon. M. A.Wigram
Cooper, W. E.*Otago Central
Couch, M. B.*Wairarapa
Courtney, M. F.Nelson
Dewe, Miss C. E.*Lyttelton
Douglas, Hon. R. O.Manukau
Downie, G. P. A.*Pakuranga
Drayton, R. P. B.St. Albans
Elliott, J. G.*Whangarei
Elworthy, J. H.*Oamaru
Falloon, S. J.*§Pahiatua
Faulkner, Hon. A. J.Roskill
Fenton, W. R.*Hastings
Finlay, Hon. Dr A. M., Q.C.Henderson
Fraser, Hon. W. A.St. Kilda
Freer, Hon. W. W.Mount Albert
Friedlander, A. P. D.*New Plymouth
Gair, Hon. G. F.*North Shore
Gandar, Hon. L. W.*Ruahine
Gill, Hon. Air Commodore T. F., C.B.E., D.S.O.*East Coast Bays
Gordon, Hon. J. B.*Clutha
Harrison, J. R.*Hawke's Bay
Highet, Hon. D. A.*Remuera
Holland, Hon. E. S. F.*Riccarton
Hunt, J. L.New Lynn
Isbey, E. E.Grey Lynn
Jack, Hon. Sir Roy*Rangitikei
Jones, D. M. J.*Waitemata
Jones, N. P. H., Q.S.M.*Invercargill
Kirk, N. J.Sydenham
Lambert, B. S.*Western Hutt
Lange, D. R.Mangere
Lapwood, Hon. H. R.*Rotorua
Latter, E. G., M.B.E., E.D.*Marlborough
La Varis, R. J.*Taupo
Lithgow, J. L.*Palmerston North
Luxton, J. F.*Piako
McCready, Hon. A.*Manawatu
MacDonell, B. P.Dunedin Central
MacIntyre, Hon. D., D.S.O., O.B.E., E.D.*Bay of Plenty
McLachlan, Hon. C. C. A.*Rakaia
McLay, J. K.*Birkenhead
Malcolm, A. G.*Eden
Marshall, C. R.Wanganui
Minogue, M. J.*Hamilton West
Muldoon, Rt. Hon. R. D., C.H.*Tamaki
O'Brien, J. G.Island Bay
Prebble, R. W.Auckland Central
Quigley, D. F.*Rangiora
Rogers, F. L.Onehunga
Rowling, Rt. Hon. W. E.Tasman
Schultz, L. C.*Coromandel
Shearer, Dr I. J.*Hamilton East
Talbot, R. L. G.*South Canterbury
Talboys, Rt. Hon. B. E.*Wallace
Templeton, Hon. H. C.*Karori
Thomson, Hon. D. S., M.C., E.D.*Stratford
Tizard, Hon. R. J.Otahuhu
Walker, Hon. H. J.*Papanui
Wall, Dr G. A.Porirua
Walls, R. F.*Dunedin North
Waring, Marilyn*Raglan
Wellington, M. L.*Manurewa
Wilkinson, Hon. P. I.*Rodney
Young, T. J.Hutt
Young, Hon. V. S.*Egmont
Young, Hon. W. L.*Miramar
For Maori Electorates 
Rata, Hon. M.Northern Maori
Reweti, P. B.Eastern Maori
Tirikatene-Sullivan, Hon. Mrs. T. W. M.Southern Maori
Wetere, K. T.Western Maori

PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS

ParliamentPeriod of Session
Thirty-fourth10 June 1964–4 December 1964
27 May 1965–30 October 1965
26 May 1966–1 November 1966
Thirty-fifth26 April 1967–24 November 1967
26 June 1968–19 December 1968
15 May 1969–24 October 1969
Thirty-sixth12 March 1970–13 March 1970
1 April 1970–3 December 1970
25 February 1971–25 March 1971
9 June 1971–17 December 1971
8 June 1972–20 October 1972
Thirty-seventh15 February 1973–16 March 1973
5 June 1973–23 November 1973
4 February 1974–29 March 1974
28 May 1974–8 November 1974
25 March 1975–10 October 1975
Thirty-eighth23 June 1976–14 December 1976
28 February 1977–4 March 1977
19 May 1977

LEGISLATION 1976–During the Parliamentary session of 1976, 168 public Acts, 11 local Acts and 2 private Acts were passed.

PUBLIC GENERAL ACTS OF NEW ZEALAND–The following list shows the departments responsible for the administration of the public Acts of general application in New Zealand which were in force at January 1977 or which had then been passed to come into force at a later date.

The list does not include references to Acts that are spent or expired or to amending Acts, Appropriation Acts, Finance Acts, or other Acts containing miscellaneous provisions, such as Statutes Amendment Acts, Local Legislation Acts, Reserves and Other Lands Disposal Acts, and Maori Purposes Acts.

ActDepartment
Accident Compensation Act 1972Labour
Accident Insurance Companies Act 1908Justice
Acts Interpretation Act 1924Justice
Administration Act 1969Justice
Adoption Act 1955Justice
Admiralty Act 1973Transport
Adult Education Act 196Education
Age of Majority Act 1970Justice
Aged and Infirm Persons Protection Act 1912Justice
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Chemicals Act 1959Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Pests Destruction Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Workers Act 1962Agriculture and Fisheries
Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act 1934Agriculture and Fisheries
Agriculture (Emergency Regulations Confirmation) ActsAgriculture and Fisheries
Air Services Licensing Act 1951Transport
Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971Labour
Airport Authorities Act 1966Transport
Alcoholic Liquor Advisory Council Act 1976Justice
Alcoholics Act 1966Justice
Aliens Act 1948Justice
Animals Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals Protection Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Animal Remedies Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Annual Holidays Act 1944Labour
Antarctica Act 1960Foreign Affairs
Antiquities Act 1975Internal Affairs
Anzac Day Act 1966Internal Affairs
Apiaries Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Apprentices Act 1948Labour
Arbitration Act 1908Justice
Arbitration Clauses (Protocol) and the Arbitration (Foreign Awards) Act 1933Justice
Architects Act 1963Internal Affairs
Archives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Armed Forces Canteens Act 1948Defence
Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971Defence
Arms Act 1958Police
Atomic Energy Act 1945Mines
Auckland Harbour Bridge Act 1950Works and Development
Auctioneers Act 1928Justice
Aviation Crimes Act 1972Transport
Bank of New Zealand Act 1971Treasury
Banking Act 1908Treasury
Berryfruit Levy Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Bills of Exchange Act 1908Treasury
Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951Justice
Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950Transport
British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948Internal Affairs
Broadcasting Act 1976Broadcasting Corporation
Building Research Levy Act 1969Scientific and Industrial Research
Building Societies Act 1965Justice
Burial and Cremation Act 1964Health
Bush Workers Act 1945Labour
Bylaws Act 1910Internal Affairs
Card Tournaments Regulation Act 1933Internal Affairs
Carriage by Air Act 1967Transport
Carriers Act 1948Justice
Charitable Trusts Act 1957Justice
Chartered Associations (Protection of Names and Uniforms) Act 1930Internal Affairs
Chatham Islands County Council Empowering Act 1936Internal Affairs
Chattels Transfer Act 1924Justice
Cheques Act 1960Treasury
Children and Young Persons Act 1974Social Welfare
Children's Health Camps Act 1972Health
Chiropractors Act 1960Justice
Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Act 1956Works and Development
Cinematograph Films Act 1976Internal Affairs
Civil Aviation Act 1964Transport
Civil Defence Act 1962Internal Affairs
Civil List Act 1950Prime Minister
Clean Air Act 1972Health
Clerks of Works Act 1944Labour
Coal Mines Act 1925Mines
Commerce Act 1975Trade and Industry
Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908Internal Affairs
Commonwealth Fabric Corporation Act 1962Treasury
Commonwealth Games Symbol Protection Act 1974Internal Affairs
Companies Act 1955Justice
Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act 1934–35Justice
Companies Special Investigations Act 1958Justice
Construction Act 1959Labour
Consular Privileges and Immunities Act 1971Foreign Affairs
Consumer Council Act 1966Trade and Industry
Consumer Information Act 1969Trade and Industry
Continental Shelf Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Contracts Enforcement Act 1956Justice
Contributory Negligence Act 1947Justice
Cook Islands Act 1915Foreign Affairs
Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964Foreign Affairs
Co-operative Companies Act 1956Justice
Co-operative Dairy Companies Act 1949Justice
Co-operative Freezing Companies Act 1960Justice
Copyright Act 1962Justice
Cornish Companies Management Act 1974Justice
Coroners Act 1951Justice
Costs in Criminal Cases Act 1967Justice
Counties Act 1956Internal Affairs
Counties Insurance Empowering Act 1941Internal Affairs
Courts Martial Appeals Act 1953Defence
Crimes Act 1961Justice
Criminal Justice Act 1954Justice
Crowns Grants Act 1908Lands and Survey
Crown Proceedings Act 1950Justice
Customs Act 1966Customs
Customs Law Act 1908Customs
Dairy Industry Act 1952Agriculture and Fisheries
Dairy Board Act 1961Agriculture and Fisheries
Dangerous Goods Act 1974Internal Affairs
Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act 1952Justice
Decimal Currency Act 1964Treasury
Declaratory Judgments Act 1908Justice
Deeds Registration Act 1908Justice
Defamation Act 1954Justice
Defence Act 1971Defence
Demise of the Crown Act 1908Internal Affairs
Dental Act 1963Health
Department of Social Welfare Act 1971Social Welfare
Deputy Governor's Powers Act 1912Internal Affairs
Designs Act 1953Justice
Development Finance Corporation Act 1973Treasury
Dietitians Act 1950Health
Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities Act 1968Foreign Affairs
Disabled Persons Community Welfare Act 1975Social Welfare
Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1950Labour
Disabled Soldiers' Civil Re-establishment Act 1930Social Welfare
Distillation Act 1971Customs
Distress and Replevin Act 1908Justice
District Courts Abolition Act 1925Justice
District Railways Act 1908Works and Development
Dogs Registration Act 1955Internal Affairs
Domestic Actions Act 1975Justice
Domestic Proceedings Act 1968Justice
Domicile Act 1976Justice
Door to Door Sales Act 1967Trade and Industry
Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944State Insurance Office
Economic Stabilisation Act 1948Trade and Industry
Education Act 1964Education
Education Lands Act 1949Education
Electoral Act 1956Justice
Electric Linemen Act 1959Electricity
Electric Power Boards Act 1925Electricity
Electrical Supply Authorities Association Act 1930Electricity
Electricians Act 1952Electricity
Electricity Act 1968Electricity
Electricity Distribution Commission Act 1967Electricity
Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953Social Welfare
Employment Agents Act 1908Labour
Enemy Property Act 1951Public Trust
Energy Resources Levy 1976Energy Resources
Engineering Association Act 1961Works and Development
Engineers Registration Act 1924Works and Development
English Laws Act 1908Justice
Equal Pay Act 1972Labour
Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968Inland Revenue
Evidence Act 1908Justice
Exhibitions Act 1910Trade and Industry
Explosives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Export Guarantee Act 1964Treasury
Extradition Act 1965Justice
Factories Act 1946Labour
Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964Social Welfare
Family Protection Act 1955Justice
Farm Ownership Savings Act 1974Treasury
Fees and Travelling Allowances Act 1951Treasury
Fencing Act 1908Justice
Fertilisers Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Fire Services Act 1975Internal Affairs
Fishing Industry Board Act 1963Agriculture and Fisheries
Fisheries Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Fisheries (Agreement with Japan) Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Food and Drug Act 1969Health
Foreign Affairs Act 1943Foreign Affairs
Foreign Travel Tax Act 1976Customs
Forest and Rural Fires Act 1955Forest Service
Forestry Encouragement Act 1962Forest Service
Forests Act 1949Forest Service
Franklin-Manukau Pest Destruction Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Friendly Societies Act 1909Treasury
Frustrated Contracts Act 1944Justice
Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 (U.K.)Justice
Gaming Act 1908Internal Affairs
Gaming Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Gas Industry Act 1958Energy Resources
Gas Supply Act 1908Energy Resources
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act 1948Customs
General Wage Orders Act 1969Labour
Geneva Conventions Act 1958Foreign Affairs
Geothermal Energy Act 1953Works and Development
Government Life Insurance Act 1953Government Life Insurance Office
Government Railways Act 1949Railways
Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960State Services Commission
Government Superannuation Fund Act 1956Treasury
Guardianship Act 1948Justice
Harbours Act 1950Transport
Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act 1967Land and Survey
Health Act 1956Health
Hire Purchase Act 1971Justice
Historic Places Act 1954Internal Affairs
Home Ownership Savings Act 1974Treasury
Hospitals Act 1957Health
Hotel Association of New Zealand Act 1969Justice
Housing Act 1955Housing Corporation
Housing Corporation Act 1974Housing Corporation
Hovercraft Act 1971Transport
Human Tissues Act 1964Health
Hunter Gift for the Settlement of Discharged Soldiers Act 1921Lands and Survey
Hydatids Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Illegal Contracts Act 1970Justice
Immigration Act 1964Labour
Impounding Act 1955Internal Affairs
Imprisonment for Debt Limitation Act 1908Justice
Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910Public Trust
Income Tax Act 1976Inland Revenue
Incorporated Societies Act 1908Justice
Indecent Publications Act 1963Justice
Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Design Act 1966Trade and Industry
Industrial Relations Act 1975Labour
Industries Development Commission Act 1961Trade and Industry
Industrial Societies Act 1908Justice
Infants Act 1908Justice
Inferior Courts Procedure Act 1909Justice
Inland Revenue Department Act 1974Inland Revenue
Innkeepers Act 1962Justice
Insolvency Act 1967Justice
Insurance Companies' Deposits Act 1953Justice
International Air Services Licensing Act 1947Transport
International Energy Agreement Act 1976Energy Resources
International Finance Agreements Act 1961Treasury
Invercargill Licensing Trust Act 1950Justice
Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959Mines
Joint Family Homes Act 1964Justice
Judicature Act 1908Justice
Juries Act 1908Justice
Kapuni Petroleum Act 1970Trade and Industry
Kermadec Island Act 1887Foreign Affairs
Kitchener Memorial Scholarship Trust Act 1941Education
Labour Department Act 1954Labour
Lake Coleridge Water Power Act 1915Works and Development
Lake Waikaremoana Act 1971Maori Affairs
Lake Wanaka Preservation Act 1973Prime Minister
Land Act 1948Lands and Survey
Land Tax Act 1976Inland Revenue
Land Drainage Act 1908Internal Affairs
Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952Lands and Survey
Land Transfer Act 1952Justice
Land Transfer (Hawke's Bay) Act 1931Justice
Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948Justice
Law Practitioners Act 1955Justice
Law Reform Act 1936Justice
Law Reform Act 1944Justice
Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Act 1949Justice
Legal Aid Act 1969Justice
Legislative Council Abolition Act 1950Legislative
Legislature Act 1908Legislative
Lesotho Act 1969Foreign Affairs
Libraries and Mechanics' Institutes Act 1908Internal Affairs
Licensing Act 1908Justice
Licensing Trusts Act 1949Justice
Life Insurance Act 1908Justice
Limitation Act 1950Justice
Lincoln College Act 1961Education
Linen Flax Corporation Act 1945Trade and Industry
Litter Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963Internal Affairs
Local Authorities Loans Act 1956Treasury
Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970Internal Affairs
Local Elections and Polls Act 1976Internal Affairs
Local Government Act 1974Internal Affairs
Local Government Commission Act 1967Internal Affairs
Local Railways Act 1914Works and Development
Machinery Act 1950Labour
Magistrates' Courts Act 1947Justice
Malaysia Act 1963Foreign Affairs
Manapouri - Te Anau Development Act 1963Works and Development
Maori Affairs Act 1953Maori Affairs
Maori Affairs Department Act 1968Maori Affairs
Maori Education Foundation Act 1961Education
Maori Housing Act 1935Maori Affairs
Maori Purposes Funds Act 1934–35Maori Affairs
Maori Reserved Land Act 1956Maori Affairs
Maori Soldiers Trust Act 1957Maori Affairs
Maori Trust Boards Act 1955Maori Affairs
Maori Trustee Act 1953Maori Affairs
Maori Vested Lands Administration Act 1954Maori Affairs
Maori Welfare Act 1962Maori Affairs
Margarine Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Marginal Lands Act 1950Lands and Survey
Marine and Power Engineers' Institute Industrial Disputes Act 1974Labour
Marine Farming Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine Insurance Act 1908Justice
Marine Pollution Act 1974Transport
Marine Reserves Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marketing Act 1936Agriculture and Fisheries
Marriage Act 1955Justice
Married Women's Property Act 1952Justice
Massey University Act 1963Education
Master and Apprentice Act 1908Labour
Masterton Licensing Trust Act 1947Justice
Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968Health
Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963Justice
Matrimonial Property Act 1963Justice
Meat Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Control Act 1921–22Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Prices Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966Health
Medical Practitioners Act 1968Health
Medical Research Council Act 1950Health
Mental Health Act 1969Health
Mercantile Law Act 1908Justice
Merchandise Marks Act 1954Trade and Industry
Military Decorations and Distinctive Badges Act 1918Defence
Military Manoeuvres Act 1915Defence
Milk Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Minimum Wages Act 1945Labour
Mining Act 1971Mines
Mining Tenures Registration Act 1962Justice
Ministry of Local Government Act 1972Internal Affairs
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Ministry of Energy Resources Act 1972Energy Resources
Ministry of Transport Act 1968Transport
Ministry of Works Act 1943Works and Development
Minors' Contracts Act 1969Justice
Misuse of Drugs Act 1975Health
Monetary and Economic Council Act 1961Treasury
Moneylenders Act 1908Justice
Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act 1936Treasury
Motor Spirits Distribution Act 1953Trade and Industry
Motor Spirits Duty Act 1961Customs
Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933Trade and Industry
Motor-Vehicle Dealers Act 1975Justice
Municipal Association Act 1939Internal Affairs
Municipal Corporations Act 1954Internal Affairs
Municipal Insurance Act 1960Internal Affairs
Music Teachers Registration Act 1928Education
Mutual Insurance Act 1955Public Trust
Nassella Tussock Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
National Art Gallery, Museum, and War Memorial Act 1972Internal Affairs
National Expenditure Adjustment Act 1932Treasury
National Housing Commission Act 1972Housing Corporation
National Library Act 1965Education
National Parks Act 1952Lands and Survey
National Provident Fund Act 1950Treasury
National Research Advisory Council Act 1963State Services Commission
National Roads Act 1953Works and Development
National Savings Act 1940Treasury
Native Plants Protection Act 1934Lands and Survey
Natural Gas Corporation Act 1967Mines
Nature Conservation Council Act 1962Lands and Survey
Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908Defence
New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement Act 1965Trade and Industry
New Zealand Bank Act 1861Treasury
New Zealand Boundaries Act 1863 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution (Amendment) Act 1947 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Amendment (Request and Consent) Act 1947Internal Affairs
New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1972Education
New Zealand Council of Law Reporting Act 1938Justice
New Zealand Counties Association Act 1949Internal Affairs
New Zealand Debt Conversion Act 1932–33Treasury
New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Act 1974Trade and Industry
New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946Lands and Survey
New Zealand Government Property Corporation Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Library Association Act 1939Education
New Zealand Loans Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
New Zealand National Airways Act 1945Transport
New Zealand Ports Authority Act 1968Transport
New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969Justice
New Zealand Society of Accountants Act 1958Treasury
New Zealand Superannuation Act 1974Treasury
New Zealand Walkways Act 1975Lands and Survey
Newspapers and Printers Act 1955Justice
Ngarimu V.C. and 28th (Maori) Battalion Memorial Scholarship Fund Act 1945Education
Niue Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Niue Constitution Act 1974Foreign Affairs
Noxious Animals Act 1956Forest Service
Noxious Weeds Act 1950Agriculture and Fisheries
Nurses Act 1971Health
Oaths and Declarations Act 1957Justice
Occupational Therapy Act 1949Health
Occupiers Liability Act 1962Justice
Offenders Legal Aid Act 1954Justice
Official Appointments and Documents Act 1919Internal Affairs
Official Secrets Act 1951Justice
Ombudsmen Act 1975Legislative
Opticians Act 1928Health
Orchard Levy Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Overseas Investment Act 1973Treasury
Overseas Representatives Act 1942Foreign Affairs
Partnership Act 1908Justice
Passport Act 1946Internal Affairs
Patents Act 1953Justice
Patriotic and Canteen Funds Act 1947Internal Affairs
Pawnbrokers Act 1908Justice
Payment of Jurors Act 1919Justice
Penal Institutions Act 1954Justice
Perpetuities Act 1964Justice
Petroleum Act 1937Mines
Pharmacy Act 1970Health
Phosphorus Matches Act 1910Labour
Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937Internal Affairs
Physiotherapy Act 1949Health
Plant Varieties Act 1973Agriculture and Fisheries
Plants Act 1970Agriculture and Fisheries
Plumbers, Gasfitters and Drainlayers Act 1976Health
Poisons Act 1960Health
Police Act 1958Police
Police Offences Act 1927Justice
Political Disabilities Removal Act 1960Labour
Pork Industry Act 1974Agriculture and Fisheries
Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation Act 1972Education
Post Office Act 1959Post Office
Potato Growing Industry Act 1950Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Board Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Act: Regulations Confirmation Act 1957Agriculture and Fisheries
Private Investigators and Security Guards Act 1974Justice
Private Savings Banks Act 1964Treasury
Private Schools Conditional Integration Act 1975Education
Property Law Act 1952Justice
Property Speculation Tax Act 1973Inland Revenue
Protection of British Shipping Act 1936Transport
Protection of Depositors Act 1968Justice
Public Authorities (Party Wall) Empowering Act 1919Works and Development
Public Bodies' Contracts Act 1959Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Leases Act 1969Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Meetings Act 1961Internal Affairs
Public Contracts Act 1908Labour
Public Holidays Act 1955Labour
Public Revenues Act 1953Treasury
Public Safety Conservation 1932Justice
Public Trust Office Act 1957Public Trust
Public Works Act 1928Works and Development
Quantity Surveyors Act 1968Works and Development
Quarries Act 1944Mines
Queen Elizabeth The Second Arts Council of New Zealand Act 1974Internal Affairs
Queen Elizabeth The Second Post-graduate Fellowship of New Zealand Act 1963Education
Queen Elizabeth The Second Technicians Study Award Act 1970Education
Race Relations Act 1971Justice
Racing Act 1971Internal Affairs
Radiation Protection Act 1965Health
Rangitaiki Land Drainage Act 1956Internal Affairs
Rates Rebate Act 1973Internal Affairs
Rating Act 1967Internal Affairs
Real Estate Agents Act 1976Justice
Reciprocal Enforcement of Judgments Act 1934Justice
Recreation and Sport Act 1973Ministry of Recreation and Sport
Regulations Act 1936Justice
Rehabilitation Act 1941Social Welfare
Rent Appeal Act 1973Labour
Republic of Bangladesh Act 1972Foreign Affairs
Republic of Botswana Act 1967Foreign Affairs
Republic of Cyprus Act 1961Foreign Affairs
Republic of Gambia Act 1970Foreign Affairs
Republic of Ghana Act 1960Foreign Affairs
Republic of Guyana Act 1970Foreign Affairs
Republic of India Act 1956Foreign Affairs
Republic of Ireland Act 1950Foreign Affairs
Republic of Kenya Act 1965Foreign Affairs
Republic of Malawi Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Republic of Nauru Act 1969Foreign Affairs
Republic of Nigeria Act 1963Foreign Affairs
Republic of Sierra Leone Act 1971Foreign Affairs
Republic of Singapore Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Republic of Sri Lanka ActForeign Affairs
Republic of Tanzania Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Republic of Zambia Act 1965Foreign Affairs
Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964Reserve Bank
Reserves and Domains Act 1953Lands and Survey
River Boards Act 1908Internal Affairs
Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind Act 1963Education
Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Royal Powers Act 1953Foreign Affairs
Royal Society of New Zealand Act 1965Scientific and Industrial Research
Royal Titles Act 1974Foreign Affairs
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974Treasury
Rural Housing Act 1939Housing Corporation
Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927Housing Corporation
Sale of Goods Act 1908Justice
Sale of Liquor Act 1962Justice
Sale of Wool Act 1937Agriculture and Fisheries
Sales Tax Act 1974Customs
Sand Drift Act 1908Lands and Survey
Scientific and Industrial Research Act 1974Scientific and Industrial Research
Sea Carriage of Goods Act 1940Trade and Industry
Seamen's Union Funds Act 1971Labour
Secondhand Dealers Act 1963Justice
Secret Commissions Act 1910Justice
Services Export Development Grants Act 1973Trade and Industry
Sharebrokers Act 1908Justice
Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937Labour
Shearers Act 1962Labour
Shipping and Seamen Act 1952Transport
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973Transport
Shops and Offices Act 1955Labour
Shorthand Reporters Act 1908Justice
Simultaneous Deaths Act 1958Justice
Small Claims Tribunals Act 1976Justice
Social Security Act 1964Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1969Social Welfare
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941Works and Development
Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952Internal Affairs
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971Labour
Stamp and Cheque Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Standards Act 1965Trade and Industry
State Insurance Act 1963State Insurance Office
State Services Act 1962State Services Commission
State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969State Services Commission
State Supply of Electrical Energy Act 1917Electricity
Statistics Act 1975Statistics
Status of Children Act 1969Justice
Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Statutes Drafting and Compilation Act 1920Parliamentary Counsel Office
Statutory Land Charges Registration Act 1928Justice
Stock Foods Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Submarine Cables and Pipelines Protection Act 1966Transport
Summary Proceedings Act 1957Justice
Superannuation Schemes Act 1976Treasury
Surveyors Act 1966Lands and Survey
Swamp Drainage Act 1915Lands and Survey
Swaziland Act 1968Foreign Affairs
Syndicates Act 1973Justice
Taranaki Harbours Act 1965Transport
Taranaki Scholarships Trust Board Act 1957Education
Tarawera Forest Act 1967Maori Affairs
Technicians Certification Act 1958Education
Technicians Training Act 1967Labour
Tenancy Act 1955Labour
Territorial Sea and Fishing Zone Act 1965Foreign Affairs
Testing Laboratory Registration Act 1972Scientific and Industrial Research
Timber Floating Act 1954Forest Service
Time Act 1974Internal Affairs
Tobacco-growing Industry Act 1974Trade and Industry
Tokelau Act 1948Foreign Affairs
Tonga Act 1970Foreign Affairs
Tourist and Publicity Department Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
Tourist Hotel Corporation Act 1974Tourist and Publicity
Town and Country Planning Act 1953Works and Development
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act 1933Customs
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Canada) Ratification Act 1932Customs
Trade and Industry Act 1956Trade and Industry
Trade Unions Act 1908Treasury
Trademarks Act 1953Justice
Trades Certification Act 1966Education
Trading Coupons Act 1931Trade and Industry
Tramways Act 1908Works and Development
Transport Act 1962Transport
Treaties of Peace (Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Finland) Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Peace (Japan) Act 1951Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Waitangi Act 1975Maori Affairs
Trespass Act 1968Justice
Trustee Act 1956Justice
Trustee Companies Act 1967Justice
Trustee Companies Management Act 1975Justice
Trustee Companies Protection Act 1934–35Justice
Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948Reserve Bank
Tuberculosis Act 1948Health
Turangi Township Act 1964Works and Development
Uganda Act 1964Foreign Affairs
Unclaimed Moneys Act 1971Treasury
Underground Water Act 1953Works and Development
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919Labour
Unit Titles Act 1972Justice
Unit Trusts Act 1960Justice
United Nations Act 1946Foreign Affairs
United Nations (Police) Act 1964Police
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration Act 1944Foreign Affairs
Universities Act 1961Education
University of Albany Act 1972Education
University of Auckland Act 1961Education
University of Canterbury Act 1961Education
University of Otago Ordinance 1869 and University of Otago Amendment Act 1961Education
University of Waikato Act 1963Education
Unsolicited Goods and Services Act 1975Justice
Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act 1945Works and Development
Valuation of Land Act 1951Valuation
Valuers Act 1948Valuation
Vegetables Levy Act 1957Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Services Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Surgeons Act 1956Agriculture and Fisheries
Victoria University of Wellington Act 1961Education
Visiting Forces Act 1939Foreign Affairs
Vocational Training Council Act 1968Education
Volunteers Employment Protection Act 1973Labour
Wages Protection Act 1964Labour
Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act 1939Labour
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act 1910Works and Development
Waikato Valley Authority Act 1956Works and Development
Wairarapa Cadet Training Farm Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Waitangi Day Act 1976Internal Affairs
Waitangi Endowment Act 1932–33Forest Service
Waitangi National Trust Board Act 1932Lands and Survey
Wanganui Computer Centre Act 1976Justice
War Expenses Act 1939Treasury
War Funds Act 1915Internal Affairs
War Pensions Act 1954Social Welfare
Waterfront Industry Act 1953Labour
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967Works and Development
Weights and Measures Act 1925Labour
Western Samoa Act 1961Foreign Affairs
Westport Harbour Act 1920Transport
Whaling Industry Act 1935Agriculture and Fisheries
Wheat Board Act 1965Trade and Industry
Wheat Levy Act 1974Trade and Industry
Wildlife Act 1953Internal Affairs
Wills Act 1837 (U.K.)Justice
Wine Makers Levy Act 1976Agriculture and Fisheries
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Act 1965Internal Affairs
Wool Industry Act 1944Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Labelling Act 1949Trade and Industry
Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Proceeds Retention Act 1950Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Testing Authority Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries

ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS–Administrative tribunals have gradually developed over a period of more than 50 years. As a rule they are set up by Act of Parliament or under powers conferred by statute. Their growth is related to the continuing expansion of governmental activity and responsibility for the general well-being of the community. This development is common to many countries. Useful references are The Citizen and Power: Administrative Tribunals–a survey by the Department of Justice, and the reports of the Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee, published annually.

Appeals from Administrative Tribunals–An Administrative Division of the Supreme Court was established by the Judicature Amendment Act 1968. The Division consists of up to four Judges of the Supreme Court, who are assigned to the Division by the Chief Justice. One of the most important functions of the Division is to determine appeals from such administrative tribunals as are specified by statute. It also hears and determines applications for judicial review and for prerogative writs and other classes of applications and proceedings referred to it by the Chief Justice or specified by statute. Judges who are at present assigned to the Division are the Chief Justice, the Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.C; the Hon. G. D. Speight; the Hon. J. C. White; and the Hon. D. W. McMullin.

JUDICIARY

Judges of the Court of Appeal and Supreme Court

Chief Justice: Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.G.

Court of Appeal: Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.G. (ex officio); Right Hon. Sir Clifford Richmond, K.B.E., President; Right Hon. Sir Owen Woodhouse; Right Hon. Sir Robin Cooke; Hon. I. L. M. Richardson.

Supreme Court: Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.G.; Hon. Sir Clifford Perry; Hon. L. F. Moller; Hon. G. D. Speight; Hon. C. M. Roper; Hon. J. C. White; Hon. D. S. Beattie; Hon. J. P. Quilliam; Hon. D. W. McMullin; Hon. P. T. Mahon; Hon. J. B. O'Regan; Hon. M. F. Chilwell; Hon. M. E. Casey; Hon. E. J. Somers; Hon. J. A. Ongley; Hon. R. I. Barker; Hon. J. F. Jefferies; Hon. M. H. Vautier; Hon. J. W. Bain.

OMBUDSMEN

Since 1962 there has been an Ombudsman whose principal function has been to inquire into complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of Government departments and related organisations, including hospital and education boards. Jurisdiction was extended under the Ombudsmen Act 1975 to local authorities and certain national boards and organisations. Provision was made under the new Act for the appointment of a Chief Ombudsman and one or more other ombudsmen, who may be permanent or temporary. The original ombudsman was appointed Chief Ombudsman and two additional ombudsmen (one permanent and one temporary) were appointed. Complaints must be made in writing. Investigations are conducted in private but an ombudsman can decide not to investigate complaints where, for instance, the subject matter is trivial or the complainant has not a sufficient personal interest in the subject matter of the complaint.

An ombudsman is empowered to report his opinion, after such an investigation, to the organisation and to the Minister concerned, and if no action is taken he may report to Parliament. Nearly all complaints held to be justified are rectified by the department or organisation concerned. No complaints of actual malpractice have been found justified.

An analysis of the complaints made to the Ombudsmen and the resultant action both during the latest available year and during the entire period of the office is given in the following table.

Action on ComplaintYear Ended March 19761 October 1962 to 31 March 1976
Outside jurisdiction5133,942
Discontinued2471,816
Withdrawn82894
Investigated and considered justified1341,220
Investigated and considered not justified2743,965
Still under investigation254254
Total complaints1,50412,091

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND HOLDERS OF CHIEF ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS

DepartmentChief Administrative Positions
TitleName
*Director-General of Housing Corporation acts also as permanent head of Rural Bank.
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry ofDirector-GeneralM. L. Cameron, B.AGR.SC.
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralA. C. Shailes, B.A., A.C.A.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralR. C. Savage, LL.B.
CustomsComptrollerJ. A. M. Kean, ACCTS. PROF.
Defence, Ministry ofSecretaryJ. F. Robertson, A.C.A., D.P.A.
 Chief of Defence StaffAir Marshal R. B. Bolt, C.B., C.B.E., D.F.C, A.F.C.
 Chief of Air StaffAir Vice-Marshal C. L. Siegert, C.B.E., M.V.O., D.F.C., A.F.C.
 Chief of General StaffMajor-General R. D. P. Hassett, C.B.E.
 Chief of Naval StaffRear-Admiral J. F. McKenzie, C.B.E.
EducationDirector-GeneralW. L. Renwick, M.A.
Energy Resources, Ministry ofCommissionerR. J. Hogg, B.COM., ACCTS. PROF.
Foreign Affairs, Ministry ofSecretaryF. H. Corner, M.A.
Government Life Insurance OfficeCommissionerL. L. Davis
Government Printing OfficeGovernment PrinterE. C. Keating
HealthDirector-GeneralH. J. H. Hiddlestone, M.D., CH.B., F.R.C.P., F.R.A.C.P.
Housing CorporationDirector-GeneralE. J. Babe, B.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A., DIP.R.V.
Inland RevenueCommissionerT. M. Hunt, A.C.A.
Internal AffairsSecretary and Clerk of WritsSir Patrick O'Dea, K.C.V.O., ACCTS. PROF., D.P.A.
JusticeSecretary for JusticeG. S. Orr, B.A., LL.M.
LabourSecretary of LabourG. L. Jackson, A.C.A.
Lands and SurveyDirector-GeneralN. S. Coad, B.COM., D.P.A., ACCTS.PROF.
LegislativeClerk of House of RepresentativesC. P. Littlejohn, LL.M.
Maori AffairsSecretary and Maori TrusteeI. W. Apperley, D.P.A.
MinesSecretaryI. D. Dick, M.SC.
New Zealand ElectricityGeneral ManagerP. W. Blakeley, F.I.E.E., F.N.Z.I.E.
New Zealand Forest ServiceDirector-GeneralM. J. Conway, M.A.(OXON.)
New Zealand Security Intelligence ServiceDirector of SecurityP. L. Molineaux, M.A., LL.B.
PoliceCommissionerK. B. Burnside, O.B.E., C.V.O.
Post OfficeDirector-GeneralG. M. Peters
Prime Minister'sPermanent HeadB. V. J. Galvin, B.A., M.P.A.(HVD.)
Public Trust OfficePublic TrusteeN. C. Kelly, LL.M.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerT. M. Hayward, F.C.I.T.
Rural Banking and Finance Corp.* 
Scientific and Industrial ResearchDirector-GeneralE. I. Robertson, O.B.E., M.SC., PH.D., (LOND.), F.R.S.
Social WelfareDirector-GeneralS. J. Callaghan, A.C.A., D.P.A.
State Insurance OfficeGeneral ManagerN. R. Ainsworth, ACCTS. PROF.
State Services CommissionChairmanR. M. Williams, M.A., PH.D. (CANTAB.)
StatisticsGovernment StatisticianE. A. Harris, B.A.P M.COM., A.C.A.
Tourist and PublicityGeneral ManagerJ. E. Hartstonge, B.COM., A.C.A.
Trade and IndustrySecretaryJ. W. H. Clark, B.A., ADMIN.PROF., D.P.A.
Transport, Ministry ofSecretaryA. J. Edwards, B.A.(Hon.), M.C.I.T.
TreasurySecretaryN. V. Lough, ACCTS. PROF., B.COM.
ValuationValuer-GeneralM. R. Mander, DIP. V.F.M., R.V.
Works and Development, Ministry ofCommissionerN. C. McLeod, B.E.

FUNCTIONS OF GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS THE STATE SERVICES

The State services comprise, in the widest sense, all servants of the Crown other than those holding political or judicial office. They include the 36 departments of the Public Service, and the Post Office, Railways Department, Legislative Department, Law Drafting Office, and other State organisations such as Government corporations and agencies, the Police, the armed forces, and the teaching and health services.

Under the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, the State Services Co-ordinating Committee is constituted as the principal adviser to the Minister of State Services and the official negotiating body with service organisations on all personnel matters which in the opinion of the committee significantly affect more than one employing authority. The committee consists of the following or their representatives: Chairman of the State Services Commission; Secretary to the Treasury; Director-General of the Post Office; General Manager of Railways; Secretary of Defence; Director-General of Health; Director-General of Education. Other State service employing authorities may be co-opted as members of the committee from time to time.

Apart from proposals concerning salaries and related conditions of employment, the committee discusses more general personnel matters referred to it by the Government, individual employing authorities, and employee organisations, and tries to achieve a reasonable degree of inter-service uniformity.

Brief summaries of the functions of Government departments are now given.

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of–The main functions of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries are to promote and encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, horticultural, and fishing industries with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing their production.

Audit Department–The functions of the Audit Office are, briefly, the auditing of the financial transactions of (a) Government, (b) local authorities, and (c) most of the statutory corporations, marketing and other boards.

In the audit of Government departments a duty is owed to Parliament to ensure that its constitutional prerogatives in financial matters are observed. Thus it is necessary to ensure that revenues are raised under proper authority and that expenditure is both lawful and covered by the appropriation of Parliament. Other duties are concerned with the evaluation of economies and efficiency within organisations; that value for money is being received in public spending; and that programmes are being achieved with the most effective use of resources.

These duties call for a more detailed examination of the nature of and authority for transactions than would a normal commercial audit and are in addition to the ordinary examination of internal systems and control.

Crown Law Office–The primary function of the Crown Law Office is to act as the legal adviser of the Government and Ministers in matters affecting the Crown and Government departments. In addition the Solicitor-General performs most of the statutory and ex officio duties of the Attorney-General's office and is himself entrusted by statute with various specific rights, duties, and functions. In range and activity the legal work of the Crown Law Office corresponds with the activities of the Government itself, and just as those activities have extended in the past 30 years into commerce and social services, as well as the purely governmental sphere, so the scope of the Crown Law Office's legal work has widened accordingly.

Customs Department–A principal function is the collection of indirect taxation–Customs duty, excise duty, sales tax, beer duty, motor spirits duty, foreign travel tax and foreign fishing vessel entry tax. Advice is given to Government in matters of Tariff protection for local industry.

The department is also responsible for the prevention of smuggling and related offences, for the entry and clearance of ships and aircraft, and passenger processing.

Another principal function is the implementation of policy and procedural decisions in relation to import control. This involves the receipt of applications, issuing licences, exercising delegated authority, and ensuring that import licensing requirements are met at the point of importation.

Defence, Ministry of–Functions include the provision of the resources required to enable Defence Headquarters to undertake the central command, control, management, and administration of the defence forces and the Ministry of Defence, and also maintaining and operating the defence communications network.

Education, Department of–The primary objective of the department is to ensure that suitable educational facilities and services are readily available for all children of compulsory school age (from 6 to 15 years), for children who by choice start school at the age of 5 years, for the rapidly increasing number of pupils over the age of 15 who stay on at school, for suitably qualified school leavers who seek or are required to undertake education and training on leaving school in secondary schools, teachers colleges, or technical institutes, and for adults wishing to continue their education, whether for vocational or non-vocational purposes. Associated with this objective is the responsibility for administering Government policy in the maintenance and development of pre-school education.

In carrying out these objectives, the department's main activities are the provision of professional and administrative services for the support of the education system, the administration of primary and secondary education, special education, the training of teachers, technical education and the National Library.

Electricity Department, New Zealand*–The primary purpose of the New Zealand Electricity Department is to operate and maintain the bulk electricity supply system, to extend it so that the electricity needs of New Zealand are supplied safely, continuously, and economically, and to undertake measures to achieve greater economy and efficiency in the use of electricity as a means of reducing the future rate of growth of electricity requirements.

*To be merged with Mines Department and Ministry of Energy Resources to form new Ministry of Energy.

Energy Resources, Ministry of*–The ministry promotes, co-ordinates, and undertakes economic and technical investigations and research into all aspects of the production, supply, distribution, and use of energy in all its forms, and into the total energy resources of New Zealand. It maintains a statistical and information service for the energy sector.

The ministry is responsible for co-ordinating the implementation of policies and also maintains liaison with all parts of the energy sector.

Foreign Affairs Ministry of–The ministry is responsible for the administration of foreign policy and the conduct of New Zealand's external relations generally, including relations with other countries and their representatives in New Zealand, and New Zealand's representation abroad.

The ministry's operating arm overseas is the network of 45 diplomatic posts, consisting of embassies, high commissions, consulates general, and other permanent missions, located in areas of direct and immediate concern to New Zealand. Attendance at international and regional conferences is undertaken both by staff attached to posts and by officials from the head office of the ministry in Wellington. The ministry also maintains liaison with the representatives of other countries accredited to New Zealand and encourages cultural exchanges and visits to New Zealand by overseas journalists, officials, and others.

On 1 April 1975 the ministry also became responsible for the Islands activities of the former Department of Maori and Island Affairs.

Forest Service, New Zealand–Management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards maintaining of an exotic forest estate sufficiently large and diverse enough to meet future domestic timber and other forest produce needs and to provide for exports whilst also protecting, conserving, and, where possible, perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests of the country.

Development and management of a wood resource for new forest-based industries leads to continuing employment opportunities and other socio-economic benefits regionally.

Implementation of a multiple-use forest policy involves the establishment and maintenance of forests for wood production, soil and water conservation, scenery preservation, the provision of recreational areas, and biological reserves.

Government Life Insurance Office–The operations of the Government Life Insurance Office are essentially a single activity which is to provide full and progressive life insurance and superannuation facilities for the people of New Zealand.

The office is a mutual life insurance office operating in active competition with private offices.

Government Printing Office–The function of the department is to supply the requirements of printing, stationery, and allied services to Government departments. It follows that the volume of demand from client departments regulates to a large extent the development or expansion of the Printing Office.

Health, Department of–The principal functions of the Department of Health are:

  1. To administer the Health Act 1956, the Hospitals Act 1957, the Mental Health Act 1969, Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, the Misuse of Drugs Act 1975, the Poisons Act 1960, and all other public Acts relating to the promotion or conservation of human health.

  2. To advise local authorities in matters relating to environmental health.

  3. To prevent, limit, and suppress communicable and other diseases.

  4. To promote or carry out research and investigation in public health fields and the prevention and treatment of disease.

  5. To publish reports, information, and advice concerning the public health.

  6. To organise and control medical, dental, and nursing services, so far as such services are paid out of public moneys.

  7. Generally to take all such steps as may be desirable to secure the preparation, effective carrying out, and co-ordination of measures conducive to public health.

Housing Corporation–The Housing Corporation functions as the chief agency for providing finance for home ownership and as the organisation for the building of Government housing, including State rental houses.

*To be merged with Electricity Department and Mines Department to form new Ministry of Energy.

Inland Revenue Department–The main function of the Inland Revenue Department is to assess and collect various taxes and duties. The principal of these is income tax which is collected in part by PAYE deductions from salaries and wages, in part by the payment of provisional tax during the year of derivation of income, and in part by an end of the year . Of the other revenues collected the most significant comprise stamp duty, estate and gift land tax, and totalisator duty.

Internal Affairs, Department of–The department is primarily responsible for administering Government policies and legislation relating to local government, the development of cultural and recreation al services, and the protection of indigenous wildlife.

The Local Government Division attends to formal constitutional matters relating to the summoning and prorogation of Parliament and administers policies and legislation relating to territorial local government, civil defence, dangerous goods and explosives, the New Zealand Fire Service, servicemen's cemeteries, the Chatham Islands, and the control of Lake Taupo. It also services the Local Government Commission schemes.

The Cultural Branch is responsible for administering Government policies and legislation and a number of funds and fellowships are also administered by this branch. The National Museum, National Art Gallery, the New Zealand Historic Places Trust and the National Archives are serviced by the department. The Film Censor and the Historic Publications Branch are also part of the department.

The Ministry of Recreation and Sport administers Government policy on recreation and sport and services the New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport. The Youth Services Section within the Ministry has the function of encouraging and assisting local community participation in recreation and youth and co-ordinates the work of the Commonwealth Youth Programme within New Zealand.

The Wildlife Service, in addition to managing the wildlife resources of two major acclimatisation districts, is responsible nationally for the protection of New Zealand fauna. It administers legislation on freshwater fishing, game hunting, and the conservation of rare native birds.

The department also administers the legislation relating to horse racing, gaming and lotteries, New Zealand citizenship, passports and visas, and the registration of alien residents. It operates the translation service for Government departments and administers the cleaning of Government offices. Administrative matters relating to the office of the Governor-General and his staff are also the department's responsibility. Reception of guests of the Government, State functions, meeting the costs of internal and overseas travel by Ministers of the Crown and parliamentary delegations are other responsibilities.

Justice, Department of–The functions of the department may be classified broadly under the headings of penal policy and administration; law reform; the administration of justice; commercial affairs (including the administration of the Companies and Insolvency Acts); electoral; registration work including land titles, trade marks, patents, and births, deaths, and marriages; and social measures of a preventive nature. The Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, Legal Aid Act 1969, the Race Relations Act 1971, and the Summary Instalment Order provisions of the Insolvency Act 1967 have taken the department further into the broad area of social administration. The department is, through its Tribunals Division, responsible for the administration of the Sale of Liquor Act 1962, the Indecent Publications Act 1963, the Town and Country Planning Act 1953, together with other various tribunals.

Labour, Department of–The principal responsibilities of the Department of Labour are to promote and maintain full employment through the provision of a complete employment service, to ensure through the work of its field staff that workers are employed under safe and healthy working conditions, to promote good industrial relations, and to collect and publish relevant information. In addition, it administers a complex variety of statutes; among the most important are the Industrial Relations Act, the Factories and Construction Acts, and those dealing with weights and measures, apprenticeship, and immigration.

Lands and Survey, Department of–As the Government's major land administering agency, the department manages, controls, or is involved with the administration of about 10.3 million hectares of land which represents approximately 38 percent of New Zealand's land area. Some 5.8 million hectares of this area is Crown leasehold, 2.6 million hectares is national parks and reserves, 740,000 hectares is being developed for farming purposes while the balance falls into miscellaneous categories (mountain tops, vacant Crown land, lake and riverbeds, etc.)

The department is also the national survey and mapping organisation, thus providing economies and effective co-ordination of all activities. This work includes control surveys as the basis for cadastral surveys and basic topographic mapping, land title surveys, large scale topographical surveys for engineering and management purposes, land development servicing, fixing of marine and air navigation aids and aerodrome obstruction surveys, earth deformation studies, and land environmental planning.

Maori Affairs, Department of–The broad functions of the Department of Maori Affairs are to assist the Maori and Pacific Island Polynesians to become well adjusted citizens of New Zealand; to assist Maori landowners by the way of title reform and capital advances to make full use of their resources; and to assist Polynesian immigrants to New Zealand in their adjustment to new conditions

Through its Social Services Division the department encourages and assists the Maori and Pacific Island people in the fields of education, employment, housing, and health, and in the preservation of their culture. The division counsels groups, individuals, and families to these ends.

Mines Department*–The primary objective of the Mines Department is to encourage the active exploration, and the proper development and use of the country's resources of petroleum and minerals. Within this objective the department has two major activities:

  1. The administration of mining privileges, which includes prospecting rights; the regulation and inspection of mines and quarries to enforce acceptable operating and safety standards; and

  2. The provision of advice and financial assistance to foster prospecting and the development and operation of the mining industry.

The function of State coal mining is the production and marketing of coal from State-owned or leased coal resources.

Police Department–The role of the Police is:

  1. To prevent offences and to detect and apprehend offenders.

  2. To preserve peace and good order.

  3. To protect life and property.

The role of the police in protecting life and property, contrasted with law enforcement, is not governed by statute. Search and rescue features largely in this area of police responsibility, and most search and rescue operations are carried out by the police alone or with the aid of interested voluntary organisations.

Post Office–The Post Office is charged with the operation and development of postal and telecommunications systems, both internal and overseas; the Post Office Savings Bank; and with handling a wide range of payments and receipts for Government departments and other organisations.

Prime Minister's Department—Since December 1975 the Prime Minister's Department has been established as a separately administered department with its own permanent head.

Services provided by the department include servicing the Cabinet, its committees, and the Executive Council; advising the Prime Minister on policy matters as required; and providing a public information service on ministerial matters for the news media. The External Intelligence Bureau centralises the intelligence functions previously carried out by the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Public Trust Office–The Public Trustee provides a wide range of services as trustee, executor, manager, and attorney. He also acts as sinking fund or depreciation fund commissioner for many local authorities when so appointed, and additionally holds other funds on, their behalf. He is required to provide a number of statutory services irrespective of whether these are remunerative.

Railways Department, New Zealand Government—The fundamental and continuing aim of New Zealand Railways is to take its part in the operation and development of the nation's transport services by means of a strong, successful, and efficient organisation consisting of rail, road, and inter-island sea services which will help to increase the wealth and well-being of the community.

The main objectives are:

*To be merged with Ministry of Energy Resources and Electricity Department to form new Ministry of Energy.

  1. To provide services of the highest standard possible consistent with an overall requirement of economic and safe operation, within the constraints imposed by available labour, equipment, and investment capital.

  2. To trade as a business enterprise.

  3. To earn sufficient revenue to cover operating and renewal costs, to build up a contingency reserve, and to provide whatever proportion of development capital circumstances allow.

Rural Banking and Finance Corporation–The Rural Banking and Finance Corporation was established on 1 April 1974 with the principal function of making loans and providing other assistance for farming and other primary industries and for related service industries.

Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of—The department has functions of providing background scientific research for economic development and environmental control in several major areas.

Agriculture–Agriculture is a priority area, it being the mainstay of the country's economy. Increasing emphasis is placed on (a) new crops, including those suitable for irrigated land and mechanical harvesting, to meet the demands of the rapidly expanding food processing industry; (b) the breeding of new and better varieties of pasture, particularly for hill country farming; (c) curing, drying, storage, processing, and packaging of agricultural products.

Manufacturing–Particular emphasis is given to improved industrial liaison and advisory services, electronic and electrical work, metal cutting and forming, industrial vibration and acoustic problems, and new product development.

Minerals–Continuing emphasis is given to prospecting for and testing the processing of local raw materials with a view to substantially increasing the "added value" component before export.

Energy–Aspects of prospecting for, and beneficiation, storage, and processing of energy resources are investigated. Advice is given on building and maintenance of energy-generating installations and on efficiency of use and conversion of energy in buildings and appliances. Processes for production of motor fuels from crops, coal, and wastes are tested, including economic aspects.

Alternative forms of energy, i.e., solar, wind, ocean, are investigated.

Natural Environment–Studies involve freshwater research and pollution problems, and botanical studies associated with major development proposals such as the South Island beech forests and the Manapouri - Te Anau lakes.

Other Scientific Services–There are increasing demands for scientific services from Department of Health (food and drug analysis), Ministry of Transport (blood alcohol analysis), and Police Department (forensic), and for work related to road safety.

Social Welfare, Department of–The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are:

  1. To administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Children and Young Persons Act 1974; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; and the Rehabilitation Act 1941.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities.

  5. Maintain close liaison with and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among any organisations and individuals engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

State Insurance Office—The State Insurance Office transacts all classes of fire, accident, and marine insurance in New Zealand. Its function is to maintain a competitive insurance service.

It also administers the Export Guarantee Office, which provides credit insurance for exporters.

Statistics, Department of–The Department of Statistics has the following broad functions:

  1. To collect, compile, analyse, abstract, and publish economic, financial, production, and social statistics, and to make estimates, forecasts, projections, and statistical models;

  2. To advise and inform the Minister of Statistics on statistical policy matters;

  3. To define and promote standard concepts, procedures, definitions, and classifications;

  4. To examine all proposals by other departments for commencing or commissioning new statistical surveys, and to prepare submissions to the Minister of Statistics for his approval;

  5. To review periodically the collection, compilation, analyses, abstraction, and publication of all official statistics;

  6. To maintain liaison with international organisations or agencies requiring or making use of New Zealand statistics.

Tourist and Publicity Department–The main functions of the Tourist and Publicity Department are to promote travel to, within, and beyond New Zealand; to develop domestic tourism and to stimulate off-season travel; to publicise New Zealand overseas in the national interests of tourism, trade, and prestige; to undertake research in the interests of tourist industry development; to administer schemes for financial assistance for the provision of accommodation and other tourist facilities; to operate and sell tours and provide a booking service to assist overseas travel agents; and to provide, within New Zealand, information and publicity services for Ministers and other departments and Government agencies.

Trade and Industry, Department of–The principal statutory functions of the department are to promote and encourage the improvement and development of industry and commerce and promote and encourage the export trade of New Zealand.

New dimensions to the department's role, however, have emerged recently from New Zealand's rapidly changing economy. The Government's general stabilisation policies have involved the department in the formulation and execution of broader economic matters than formerly, and the development of pricing policy is now inextricably linked with decisions taken in the area of wages and general incomes policy.

The increasing costs of meeting industry's energy requirements, and the need to restructure the economy to adjust to a changing international trading situation are major concerns.

Transport, Ministry of–The ministry is responsible for providing Government with the information and advice necessary for the development of an efficient and economic transport policy.

The principal objective of the Road Transport Division is the development of the safest and most efficient system of road traffic operation through a broad-fronted approach of research, safety education, vehicle inspection, and traffic law enforcement.

The main objective of the Marine Division is to promote the safety of shipping in and beyond New Zealand waters and to ensure the safe handling of cargo at New Zealand ports.

The main objective of the Civil Aviation Division is continuation of the existing high standards of civil aircraft operation. The ministry will continue its programme of providing improved facilities associated with the safe operation of aircraft particularly in regard to navigation aids, surveillance radars, aircraft and airport security, and general aviation supervision.

The principal objectives of the Meteorological Service is the provision of information and advice to all sections of the community on the atmosphere, environment, weather, climatic conditions, and pollution of the air.

Treasury–The role of Treasury is:

  1. To control the receipt, custody, and payment of Government's finances as directed by statute and Government decisions.

  2. To keep Government informed on the existing external and internal economic situation, the effects of existing policy and trends and prospects for the future.

  3. To advise Government on the level and content of its expenditure and receipts, and assess the most effective allocations of limited resources among competing expenditure proposals.

  4. To advise on, and implement, various aspects of Government's financial and economic policies.

These general functions involve the financial, economic, and programme analysis and evaluation divisions of Treasury in the following particular tasks: the allocation of funds to departments; the investment of public funds; the raising, repayment, and conversion of loans; and the preparation of the Budget and the annual Estimates of Expenditure.

Valuation Department–The major activity of the department is the preparation of valuation rolls for all districts in New Zealand, to maintain these rolls up to date with changes in property holdings, ownership, occupancy, and development and to revise the values at not more than 5-yearly intervals.

Works and Development, Ministry of–In addition to the carrying out of Government works, the ministry has responsibility under the Minister's direction of executing projects and undertakings of national significance. Its objectives include investigation, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of these works, having due regard to standards and costs, and the best practical means whereby environmental conditions can be conserved, restored, or enhanced. In most cases, completed works are taken over for operation and maintenance by operating departments such as the New Zealand Electricity Department and New Zealand Railways.

Further roles of the department include the development of natural resources and the encouragement, investigation, and co-ordination of proposals for regional planning, as well as the task of assembling information on the building and construction industries, and the programming of national capital formation including Government works.

Specific statutes administered by the department include the Public Works Act (which inter alia, provides the Crown and local authorities with land acquisition powers), the Town and Country Planning Act, Geothermal Act, National Roads Act (the department services the National Roads Board), Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, Water and Soil Conservation Act (which involves the department in water allocation and quality control activities), and some local Acts.

Staff of State Services–In the following table the staff numbers of the State Services are set out. Hospital board employees are also included as they are paid from state funds.

OrganisationStaff Numbers at 31 March
19721973197419751976
*Estimates.
Public Service74,13269,70372,14776,79579,199
Railways20,68820,89920,93322,02621,658
Post Office32,47333,16534,65236,903x38,907
Education41,17143,06642,99040,566x41,627
Hospital services32,24238,91835,07343,944x46,032
Armed forces12,63712,78912,63012,67012,420
Police3,7023,5603,7404,2864,332
Others*670700730700700
Totals217,715222,800222,895237,890x244,875
Percentage of total labour force19.3819.3718.7219.70x20.04

In New Zealand, with its long tradition of Government activity in many spheres, the work of the State services covers a broad field. The Government decides when a new service is to be provided or a new function undertaken. Work loads increase as a result of population growth, but are offset to some extent by improvements in efficiency. Recent trends have been for more staff for research and resource development and expanded social services.

The relative cost of government as a percentage of gross national product is shown in the following table.

YearGovernment Current Expenditure on Goods and Services*Gross National ProductPercentage

*This figure is net of departmental receipts. It also excludes the operating expenses of trading departments, expenditure of a capital nature, and transfer payments to either persons or local authorities such as social security benefits, pensions subsidies, and interest on the public debt paid in New Zealand.

†Provisional.

 $(million)$(million) 
1971–72766.26,452x12.8x
1972–73870.7x7,498x11.6
1973–74999.9x8,636x11.6x
1974–751,215.9x9,452x12.9x
1975–761,475.310,92813.5

STATE SERVICES COMMISSION–The State Services Act 1962 provides for a State Services Commission of up to four persons appointed by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.

In respect of departments of the Public Service, the Commission is responsible for—

  1. Reviewing the machinery of Government, including the allocation of functions to and between departments, the desirability of or need for the creation of new departments and the amalgamation or abolition of existing departments, the co-ordination of the activities of departments, and the extent and nature of controls exercised by any one department over the operations of another department;

  2. Reviewing the efficiency and economy of each department;

  3. The provision of suitable office accommodation and the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions of all employees in the Public Service;

  4. Approving and reviewing establishments of staff;

  5. Acting as the central personnel authority for the Public Service;

  6. Prescribing basic training programmes, furnishing advice on and assisting with the training of staff, and making recommendations to the Minister on the facilities necessary for the proper training of staff;

  7. Providing management consultation services, including advice as to efficient work and control methods and techniques, data processing equipment, and problems of organisation.

It has complete independence in dealing with individual employees of the Public Service, but is made responsible to a Minister in all other matters.

When directed by the Minister charged with the administration of the Act, at the request of the Minister responsible for another part of the State Services, e.g., the Post Office or the Railways Department, the Commission must associate itself with the head of that particular part of the service in an investigation of its organisation, methods, or procedures. The Commission must also, when requested by the head of or the Minister in Charge of any part of the State Services, provide management consultation services.

Computer Services–The Computer Services Division of the State Services Commission is responsible for the control, co-ordination, planning, and provision of electronic data processing services within the Public Service. The Divisions head office is at the Pipitea Computer Centre, Thorndon Quay, Wellington, and there are three other computer centres at Cumberland House, Willis Street; Trent-ham; and Wairere House, Bate Street, Wanganui.

An engineering and scientific computer centre in the Vogel Building, Wellington, is operated by the Ministry of Works and Development as agent for the State Services Commission.

A law enforcement data system to service the Police, Transport, and Justice Departments has been established at Wanganui.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE: Recruitment–The recruitment of public servants is conducted by the State Services Commission through its district representatives, and by departments in collaboration with the Commission. Details of career openings in the Service are regularly supplied to schools, and career leaflets are published.

Promotion–Promotion in the Public Service is based on merit. Although the Service has clearly defined salary scales and avenues of promotion, it also provides quick promotion with special salary increases to officers of outstanding merit. All vacancies above basic level are widely advertised so that all persons in the Service, and sometimes persons outside the Service, may apply for higher positions. Public servants have certain rights of appeal to the Public Service Appeal Board.

Classification and Grading–Since 1963 the Commission has prescribed occupational classes, according to the nature of the duties required to be performed. Each occupational class is graded according to relative levels of responsibility and skills required.

Remuneration–Salary rates are prescribed in accordance with the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969 and are related to the levels of remuneration of persons doing comparable work in employment outside the Public Service. Adequate margins are maintained for skill and responsibility.

Efficiency and Economy–In fulfilling its responsibility for reviewing efficiency and economy in the Public Service, the Commission, in collaboration with departments, makes full use of inspection of work and analysis of systems, standards and controls; new training methods and materials; modern technical processes and equipment; clearly defined systems of delegation of authority and of discipline.

Staff Training and Education–A comprehensive Service training and education policy is provided.

Statistics: Staff–The detailed distribution of staff among departments in the Public Service is shown in the Commission's annual report to Parliament (parliamentary paper G. 3). At 31 March 1976 there were 59,558 permanent officers and 1,939 temporary staff (excluding casuals) employed; a year earlier the comparable figures were 56,436 and 1,997 respectively. These figures do not include wage workers, who totalled 17,702 in 1976.

STATUTORY BOARDS AND COMMITTEES–The following is a list of the main statutory boards and committees grouped according to the Government department responsible for the administration of the legislation or the servicing of the boards. The order of departments is generally that followed in the Yearbook for coverage of the main subject matter.

Health, Department of

  • Advisory Committee on Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons.

  • Advisory Committee on Tuberculosis.

  • Clean Air Council.

  • Childrens Health Camps Board.

  • Dental Council.

  • Dental Technicians Board.

  • Dental Benefits Central Advisory Committee.

  • Epidemiology Advisory Committee.

  • Nursing Council of New Zealand

  • Medical Council of New Zealand.

  • Medical Research Council of New Zealand.

  • Board of Health.

  • Board of Health, Committee on Care of Aged.

  • Dietitians Board.

  • Plumbers and Gasfitters Board.

  • Maori and Polynesian Health Committee.

  • Maternity Services Committee.

  • Poisons Committee.

  • Food and Drug Advisory and Technical Committees.

  • Food Standards Committee.

  • Hospitals Advisory Council.

  • Radiological Advisory Council.

  • Drug Assessment Advisory Committee.

  • Medical Practitioners Disciplinary Committee.

  • Council of the Pharmaceutical Society.

  • Laboratory Service Advisory Committee.

  • Maternal Deaths Assessment Committee.

  • Maternity Benefits Negotiating Committee.

  • Medical Services Advisory Committee.

  • Medical Technologists Board.

  • Ophthalmological Services Advisory Committee.

  • Otological Services Advisory Committee.

  • Pharmaceutical Advisory Committee.

  • Pharmacology and Therapeutics Advisory Committee.

  • Pharmaceutical Benefits Negotiating Committee.

  • Radiological Services Advisory Committee.

  • Transfusion Advisory Committee.

  • Hospital Medical Officers Advisory Committee.

  • Central Committee on Training Orthopaedic Technicians.

  • Physiotherapy Board.

  • Occupational Therapy Board.

  • Chiropodists Board.

  • Ambulance Transport Advisory Board.

  • Opticians Board.

  • Board of Management of the Disabled Re-establishment League.

  • District Committees, Disabled Re-establishment League.

  • Noise Advisory Committee.

  • Committee on Drainage and Sanitary Plumbing.

Social Welfare Department War Pensions and Rehabilitation

  • War Pensions Board.

  • War Pensions Appeal Board.

  • War Pensions Medical Research Trust.

  • Rehabilitation Board.

  • N.Z. Artificial Limb Board.

  • Advisory Council for the Community Welfare of the Disabled.

Education, Department of

  • Education Boards' Employment Review Committee.

  • Maori Education Foundation.

  • National Commission for UNESCO.

  • National Council for Adult Education.

  • National Library Board of Trustees.

  • Ngarimu V.C. Scholarship Fund Board.

  • N.Z. Council for Educational Research.

  • N.Z. Foundation for the Blind (Board of Trustees).

  • Primary Teachers Appointments Appeal Board.

  • School Certificate Examination Board.

  • Teachers Assessment Appeal Board.

  • Teachers Classification Appeal Board.

  • Teachers Court of Appeal.

  • Teachers Disciplinary Board.

  • Technicians Certification Authority.

  • Trades Certification Board.

  • University Entrance Board.

  • Vocational Training Council. (Joint appointments Ministers of Education and Labour.)

Justice, Department of

  • Borstal Parole Boards.

  • Prison Parole Board.

  • Town and Country Planning Appeal Boards.

  • Legal Aid Board.

  • Legal Aid Appeal Authority.

  • Co-operative Dairy Companies Tribunal.

  • Indecent Publications Tribunal.

  • Copyright Tribunal.

  • Crimes Compensation Tribunal.

  • Chiropractic Board.

  • Licensing Control Commission.

  • Licensing Committees (there are 22 of these committees).

  • Land Valuation Committees (there are 21 of these committees).

  • Motor Vehicle Salesmen Registration Boards.

  • Motor Vehicle Disputes Tribunals.

  • Hotel Investment Account Advisory Committee.

  • Law Reform Council.

  • Property Law and Equity Reform Committee.

  • Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee.

  • Contracts and Commercial Law Reform Committee.

  • Torts and General Law Reform Committee.

  • Criminal Law Reform Committee.

  • Company Law Advisory Committee.

  • Magistrates' Courts Rules Committee.

  • Real Estate Agents Licensing Board.

  • Release to Work Committee.

  • Rules Committee.

Ministry of Defence

  • Armed Forces Canteen Council.

Police Department

  • Police Staff Tribunal.

Transport, Ministry of

  • Air Services Licensing Appeal Authority.

  • Air Services Licensing Authority.

  • Marine Advisory Committees.

  • Marine Council.

  • Maritime Appeal Authority.

  • National Airways Corporation.

  • New Zealand Ports Authority.

  • New Zealand Urban Public Passenger Transport Council.

  • Regional Transport Licensing Authority (Auckland).

  • Road Traffic Safety Research Council.

  • Shipping Industry Tribunal.

  • Shipping Corporation of New Zealand.

  • Transport Advisory Council.

  • Transport Licensing Authorities (5).

  • Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

  • Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Railways Department

  • Government Railways Appeal Board.

  • Government Railways Industrial Tribunal.

Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of

  • Building Research Association of N.Z. Inc.

  • Carter Observatory Board.

  • Cawthron Institute Trust Board.

  • N.Z. Coal Research Association Inc.

  • Commission for the Future.

  • N.Z. Dairy Research Institute.

  • Fruit Research Committee.

  • Hop Research Committee.

  • Independent Fact-Finding Group on Nuclear Power.

  • Logging Industry Research Association.

  • Meat Industry Research Institute.

  • Mineral Resources Council.

  • N.Z. Atomic Energy Committee.

  • N.Z. Concrete Research Association.

  • N.Z. Energy Research and Development Committee.

  • N.Z. Fertiliser Manufacturers Research Association.

  • N.Z. Leather and Shoe Research Association Inc.

  • N.Z. Pottery and Ceramics Research Association.

  • Potato Research Advisory Committee.

  • Research Institute of Launderers, Dry Cleaners, and Dyers, of N.Z. Inc.

  • Ross Dependency Research Committee.

  • Tobacco Research Committee.

  • Wheat Research Committee.

  • Wool Research Organisation of N.Z. Inc.

  • Testing Laboratory Registration Council.

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of

  • Agricultural Chemicals Board.

  • Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

  • Animal Remedies Board.

  • Apple and Pear Prices Authority.

  • British Phosphate Commission.

  • Canterbury Raspberry Marketing Committee.

  • Christmas Island Phosphate Commission.

  • Citrus Canker Advisory Committee.

  • Citrus Marketing Authority.

  • Dairy Cattle Breeding Committee.

  • Dairy Factory Managers' Registration Board.

  • Dairy Industry Loans Council.

  • Dairy Products Prices Authority.

  • Egg Marketing Authority.

  • Fruit Distributors Ltd.

  • Honey Marketing Authority.

  • Hop Marketing Authority.

  • Marlborough Nassella Tussock Board.

  • Meat Export Prices Committee.

  • Milk Prices Authority.

  • National Hydatids Council.

  • Nelson Raspberry Marketing Committee.

  • N.Z. Agricultural Engineering Institute Management Committee.

  • N.Z. Dairy Board.

  • N.Z. Meat Producers Board.

  • N.Z. Milk Board.

  • N.Z. Potato Board.

  • N.Z. Poultry Board.

  • N.Z. Wool Board.

  • N.Z. Wool Marketing Corporation.

  • N.Z. Wool Testing Authority.

  • North Canterbury Nassella Tussock Board.

  • Otago Raspberry Marketing Committee.

  • Raspberry Marketing Council.

  • Veterinary Services Council.

  • Veterinary Surgeons Board. (Excludes advisory or technical committees appointed under section 13 of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953).

Works and Development, Ministry of

  • Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority.

  • Building Industry Advisory Council.

  • Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority.

  • Clerks of Works Registration Board.

  • Engineering Associates Registration Board.

  • National Roads Board.

  • National Water and Soil Conservation Authority.

  • Quantity Surveyors' Registration Board.

  • Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council.

  • Water Resources Council.

Lands and Survey, Department of

  • Land Settlement Board.

  • Marginal Lands Board.

  • National Parks Authority.

  • Maritime Parks Boards.

  • National Parks Boards.

  • Nature Conservation Council.

  • N.Z. Survey Board.

  • N.Z. Geographic Board.

  • N.Z. Walkway Commission.

  • Land Use Advisory Council.

  • National Land Inventory Committee.

N.Z. Forest Service

  • Forestry Development Council.

  • Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee.

  • Forest Disease Control Advisory Committee.

  • Forest Parks Advisory Committees (13).

  • Timber Preservation Authority.

  • Indigenous Forest Timber Advisory Committee.

  • Scientific Co-ordinating Committee for Beech Research.

  • South Island Beech Management and Utilisation Council.

Maori Affairs, Department of

  • Maori Land Board.

  • Maori Purposes Fund Board.

  • Licensed Interpreters Board of Examiners.

Valuation Department

  • Valuers Registration Board.

Housing Corporation of New Zealand

  • Housing Allocation Committees.

Ministry of Energy Resources

  • Offshore Mining Ltd.

  • N.Z. Gas Council.

N.Z. Electricity Department

  • Electricians Registration Board.

  • Electric Lineman Training Committee.

  • Rural Electrical Reticulation Council.

  • Committee on Electric Power Development.

  • Committee to Review Power Requirements.

  • Electrical Wiring Regulations Committee.

Trade and Industry, Department of

  • Advisory Committee on Heavy Engineering Industry.

  • Consumer Council.

  • Development Finance Corporation in relation to invention, development and industrial research and development.

  • Distribution Council.

  • Electronics Advisory Committee.

  • Emergency Protection Authority.

  • Industrial Research and Development Grants Advisory Committee (Finished June 1977).

  • Industries Development Committee.

  • Manufacturing Development Committee.

  • Metric Advisory Board.

  • Motor Spirits Licensing Authority.

  • N.Z. Industrial Design Council.

  • N.Z. Linen Flax Corporation.

  • N.Z. Wheat Board.

  • Pacific Islands Industrial Development Committee.

  • Productivity Advisory Council.

  • Regional Development Councils (11).

  • Standards Council.

  • Tobacco Board.

Overseas Trade

  • Export Guarantee Advisory Committee.

  • Trade Promotion Council.

  • Services Export Development Grant Advisory Committee.

Mines Department

  • Coal Mines Council.

  • Coal Mining Districts Welfare and Research Fund Council.

  • Natural Gas Corporation.

Treasury

  • Monetary and Economic Council.

  • Dominion Salt Ltd.

  • N.Z. Woolpack and Textiles Ltd.

  • Local Authorities Loans Board.

  • National Provident Fund Board.

  • National Provident Fund Investments Committee.

  • Government Superannuation Board.

  • Taxation Board of Review.

  • Co-operative Pig Marketing Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.

  • Co-operative Milk Marketing Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.

  • Co-operative Dairy Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.

  • Snow Loss Reserve Committee.

  • Visiting Experts Advisory Committee.

Labour, Department of

  • Auckland Advisory Committee on Training and Employment.

  • Building Industry Technical Training Council.

  • Exempted Goods Committee under Shops and Offices Act.

  • Higher Salaries Commission.

  • Immigration Advisory Council.

  • Industrial Commission.

  • Industrial Conciliation Service.

  • Industrial Mediation Service.

  • National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women.

  • Public Service Appeal Board.

  • Rent Appeal Boards.

  • Shops and Offices Exemption Tribunal.

  • State Services Tribunal.

  • Research Fund Administration Committee for Society for Research on Women.

  • Vocational Training Council. (Appointments made by Minister of Education and Minister of Labour, acting jointly.)

  • Construction Advisory Committee.

  • Industrial Court.

  • Public Service Classification and Grading Committee.

Internal Affairs, Department of

  • Local Government Commission.

  • Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council.

  • Lottery Board of Control.

  • N.Z. Historic Places Trust.

  • National Art Gallery, Museum, and War Memorial Board.

  • N.Z. Council for Recreation and Sport.

  • Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Board.

  • N.Z. Patriotic Fund Board.

  • Cinematograph Films Licensing Authority.

  • Cinematograph Films Censorship Board of Appeal.

  • Cinematograph Film Projectionists Licensing Board.

  • Film Industry Board.

  • Lottery Profits Distribution Committees (6).

  • Anzac Fellowship Selection Committee.

  • Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

  • Norman Kirk Memorial Trust.

  • Authors' Fund Advisory Committee.

  • Regional Arts Councils (3).

  • Cultural Facilities Advisory Committee.

  • Art Galleries and Museums Advisory Committee.

  • Fauna Protection Advisory Council.

  • Lake Taupo Advisory Committee.

  • Taupo Basin Co-ordinating Committee.

  • N.Z. Racing Authority.

  • Totalisator Agency Board.

  • National Liaison Committee of the Commonwealth youth programme.

  • N.Z. Canteen Fund Board.

Civil Defence

  • National Civil Defence Committee.

  • National Civil Defence Plans Co-ordinating Committee {and 10 subcommittees).

State Services Commission

  • Advisory Committee on Higher Salaries.

  • Classification and Grading Committee.

  • Education Service Committee.

  • Hospital Service Committee.

  • Government Service Tribunal.

  • National Research Advisory Council.

  • Public Service Appeal Board.

  • State Services Co-ordinating Committee.

  • State Services Tribunal.

HONOURS

Since the preceding issue of the Yearbook the following honours have been conferred by Her Majesty the Queen for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:

NEW YEAR HONOURS JANUARY 1977

CIVIL LIST

Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (K.C.M.G.): Hon. John Kenneth McAlpine, C.M.G.

Knight Commander of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.): Dr Charles Alexander Fleming, O.B.E., F.R.S.

Knights Bachelor:

Hon. Mr Justice Robin Brunskill Cooke; Victor Caddy Davies, O.B.E., J.P.; David Norman Perry, M.B.E.

Companion of the Civil Division of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (C.B.): Henry George Lang.

Companions of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.): James Samson Campbell; Hugh Alexander Fullarton; Mrs Dorothy Gertrude Winstone.

Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.): Cecil Lancelot Stewart Cross, O.B.E.; Keith Wilson Hay, O.B.E.; William Terrance Howie (The Reverend Brother Urban); Mrs Bery Dorrien Ibbotson; Hugh Drummond Lambie, O.B.E.; John Henry Rutherford; Lionel Ralph Sceats; Thomas Michael Small.

Officers of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.): Rev. Canon Walter Charles Arnold; Dr Donald Maurice Geddes Beasley; Vivian Percy Blakeley; Henry John Knighton Farey; Dr Arthur Oswald Michael Gilmour; John Waddell Hayward; Norman Bannerman Holland; Edward Durning Holt, J.P.; Gordon Hezlam Jolly; Henry Arthur Selwyn Lloyd, J.P.; Donald Conroy Mclntyre; Mrs Elizabeth Jean McLean; Dr Thomas Christopher Maling; F.ruera Riini Manuera, M.B.E., J.P.; Hon. John Rae; Clifford Trillo; Rev. David Owen Williams.

Companions of The Queen's Service Order for Community Service (Q.S.O.): Charles William Halliwell; Rev. (Miss) Gwendolen Gertrude Meyer; Trevor Steele Robinson, J.P.; Selwyn Featherston Toogood.

Companions of the Queen's Service Order for Public Services (Q.S.O.): Charles Erskine Bowmar; James Bruce Collett; Louis Brassell Harder; Russell Atkinson Hutchinson, J.P.; Maurice Joel, E.D.; Alton Clive Johns, J.P.; Rodger Norman Kerr; Hon. Norman James King; Dr Charles Graham Riley; Richard William Sharp.

Members of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.): Dr Edmund Peter Allen; Sydney Charles Ashton; Albert Noel Boag; Sidney St. David Edwards; Miss Nancy Margaret Fleming; Archibald Walter Gibb; John Ross Gillespie; Sidney Milton Going; William Hawthorn, J.P.; Francis Henry Holz; Mrs Gladys Margaret Hope; Bernard William Joseph Hoult; Mrs Sybil Alexandra Jackson; Royden Hugh Johnston; Stuart Gwyn Jones; Captain Philip Francis Alexander William Herbert Le Couteur; Desmond Patrick Lynskey; Mrs Hazel Maude Ellen McLeod; Mrs Cecilia Evelyn Manson; Miss Margaret Kahurangi Matangi; Frank Mogridge, J.P.; James Leslie Herbert Savage; William Burns Souter; Eruera Kawhia Whakatane Stirling; William Laird Thomson, J.P.; Miss Anita Charlotte Webster; Mrs Norma Mary Williams.

Queen's Service Medal for Community Service (Q.S.M.): Rev. (Miss) Lorna Elizabeth Aberley; Miss Violet Caroline Amy Clarkson; Miss Ada Coleman; Mrs Gwendoline Mary Culverwell; Mrs Alice Maud Deans; Thomas Dennis; Miss Olive Rita Furley; Mrs Betty Esme Goulden; James Edward Craies Graham; Mrs Moana Margaret Pringle Harley, J.P.; Alfred John Walters Hodder, J.P.; Mrs Daphne Horton; Mrs Eveline Amy Jackson; Charles Frederick Jenkins; John Harper Langdale, J.P.; Dr Donald McAllister; Frederick McComish; Mrs Ada Alexandra McDowall; Mrs Eleanor Gwendoline Milne; Mrs Evelyn May Robertson; Miss Cushla Margarete Ryan; Mrs Joyce Helen Ussher, J.P.; Charles Reginald Williams.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.): Miss Ea Gertrude Avenell; Mrs Hazel May Blake, J.P.; Mrs Betty Bourke, J.P.; William Robert Edward Heenan, J.P.; William Hudson; David Caliel Nimaytallah Khouri; Michael Ivan Russell Kidd; William Herbert Prichard; Brian Mowlem Sinclair; Mrs Rhondda Ellen Wishart; Mrs Emily Alice Wylie, J.P.; Lionel Arthur Young.

British Empire Medal, Civil Division (B.E.M.); Henry Sydney Bingham; Miss Margaret Dora Cranswick; Oliver Hunter; Mrs Mary Gertrude Kidd, J.P.; John Harvey McKenzie; Henry Lloyd Parker; Jerzy Wlodzimierz Pobog-Jaworowski, J.P.; Rev. Father Francis Joseph Skinner.

Queen's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.F.S.M.): Bernard Ralph Braithwaite; Frederick William Stringer; George Joseph Thompson.

POLICE LIST

Member of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.): Benjamin Robert Alty.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.): Leslie John Maloney.

Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.P.M.): Arthur Henry Hart.

MILITARY LIST

Companion of the Military Division of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (C.B.): Air Marshal Richard Bruce Bolt, C.B.E., D.F.C, A.F.C.

Commander of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.): Commodore Neil Dudley Anderson, O.B.E., A.D.C.

Officers of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.): Commander Ian Scott Monro; Colonel Ronald Rochfort Harding; Group Captain Ian Murray Gillard, A.F.C.

Members of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.): Lieutenant Commander Richard Donald McBurney; Chaplain Class III Francis Raymond Scott; Warrant Officer Class Two John Hamilton Baird; Warrant Officer Class Two Edward Tataurangi; Warrant Officer Class One Barry Stewart; Warrant Officer Ian David Cochrane; Warrant Officer Gilbert Arthur Dampier.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C.): Wing Commander Albert Edward Thomson.

British Empire Medal, Military Division (B.E.M.): Temporary Chief Petty Officer Electrician Bruce Pukepuke; Chief Petty Officer David McKenzie Cloughley; Staff Sergeant Theodore Marama; Sergeant Malcolm Gerald Amyes; Sergeant James Fraser Mitchell; Sergeant Edmund Ronald Sturm; Warrant Officer Albert Edward Hill.

Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air: Master Air Loadmaster Daniel Scott.

QUEEN'S SILVER JUBILEE AND BIRTHDAY HONOURS LIST 1977

ROYAL COLONELCIES-IN-CHIEF

The Queen was graciously pleased on the occasion of Her Majesty's Silver Jubilee to assume the following appointment:

  • Colonel-in-Chief, Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps.

  • The Queen was graciously pleased on the occasion of Her Majesty's Silver Jubilee to give orders for the following appointments:

  • Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother to be Colonel-in-Chief, Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps.

  • His Royal Highness The Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, to be Field Marshal, New Zealand Army and Marshal of the Royal New Zealand Air Force.

  • His Royal Highness The Prince of Wales to be Air Commander-in-Chief, Royal New Zealand Air Force.

  • Her Royal Highness The Princess Anne to be Colonel-in-Chief, Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals and Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps.

  • Her Royal Highness Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, to be Colonel-in-Chief, Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps.

CIVIL LIST

Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour (C.H.): The Right Honourable Robert David Muldoon, M.P.

Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (K.C.M.G.): The Honourable Douglas Julian Carter.

Dame Commander of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (D.B.E.): Dr Cecily Mary Wise Pickerill, O.B.E.

Knights Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.): Dr Randal Forbes Elliott, O.B.E.: The Right Honourable Sir Clifford Parris Richmond.

Knights Bachelor: Alan Roberts Low; Kenneth Ben Myers, M.B.E.; Jack Newman, C.B.E., J.P.

Companions of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.): Lester John Castle; The Honourable Robert Richmond Rex, O.B.E.

Commanders of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.): Dr Roger Shepherd Duff, F.R.S.N.Z.; Ernest Raymond Elliot; Harold Philip Fowler, O.B.E.; Dr Alan Tutton Johns, F.R.S.N.Z.; Peter John Luxford; Dr William Anderson McGillivray, F.R.S.N.Z., J.P.; Maurice Paykel; Kenneth Edmund Seal; Mark Wallace (Senior), M.B.E., J.P.; David Claverly Williams, C.V.O.

Officers of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.): Miss Patricia Maureen Bartlett; Reginald Seymour Bates; Lloyd Elsmore, J.P.; Dr Morgan Francis Fahey; Lewis William Newlands Fitch; Lester Longueville Charles Griffiths, J.P.; Brother Francis Patrick Henery; Henry Hutchinson; Norman Hayworth Law; Miss Ruth Margaret Lilico; Dr John Colin Lopdell; Miss Patricia Stella McMinn (Mrs Randrup); Te Uira Tuteao Manihera; Dr Diana Manby Mason; Roy Cyril Stoneham; Miss Catherine Wilhelmina Vautier; Mrs Edwina Diana Patricia Walker.

Companions of The Queen's Service Order for Community Service (Q.S.O.): Mrs Ulva Lynn Belsham; James Garfield Johnson; Hilma Bjarne Moen; John Donald Murray, S.M.; Baden Nolan Norris; Mrs Esma Irene Tombleson.

Companions of The Queen's Service Order for Public Services (Q.S.O.): Mrs Joyce Isobel Crowley; Dr Irwin Bruce Faris; Cecil William Franks, M.B.E.; John Kennedy-Good, .P.; Leon Abraham Manning, J.P.; Charles Kenroy Munro, J.P.; Walter Ian Munro, J.P.; Jack Rogers.

Members of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.): Stanley Nicholas Bakulich; William Arthur Black; Raymond Stanley Boyce; Ronald Hugh Davis; Miss Mary Eileen Gillies (Sister Mary Justine); Kenneth Ralph Gillon; Otto Gram; Richard Stopford Higginbotham; Mrs Marie Jean Hobbs; Grenville Frederick Hughes; Mrs Marion Elizabeth Jackman; Mrs Helene Douglas Love McIver; Andrew McNicol; Charles Norman Nicholls; George Alexander Ronald Petrie; Arthur Richard Rackley; Peter Riwaru Ririnui; Mrs Nellie Elizabeth Robertson; Colin Desmond Smith; Victor Gerald Spiller; Frederick John Taylor, J.P.; Mrs Agnes Theodore (Mrs Akinihi Tiatoa), J.P.; Thomas Grace Tyrer; John Thomas Voyle; Alvin Harry Woolven, J.P.

Queen's Service Medal for Community Service (Q.S.M.): Mrs Eileen Lucy Barry; Ronald Edward George Cameron; Francis Herbert Cramer; Mrs Elaine Roma Delicate; Henry John Dowling; Mrs Catherine Ellen Hancox; Mrs Ruth Heaey; Mrs Hyacinth Jordan Jenkins, James Claude Percival Kirkland; William Henry Ross dd, J.P.; Mrs Myrtle Rita McElwain, J.P.; Miss Rose McLaughlin; Mrs Foufoutogia Marion McQuoid; Gordon John Alexander Nicholls; Mrs Barbara Mary Procter; Henry Coffield Bucknall Scott; Ivan Fletcher Somerville; Ivan Stanicich; Mrs Ahenata Taiapa; Mrs Maraea Anne Te Kawa. J.P.; Mrs Violet Mary Tuanui; Henry Arthur Wilkinson; Kenneth Ernest Young.

Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.): Mrs Nora Jean Bourke, J.P.; Miss Edith Isabel Charteris; Victor James Crimp, J.P.; Mrs Patricia Ellen Curtis; John Williamson Dryden Hall, J.P.; Leslie Robertson Hercus; Cyril George Imrie; Albert Melbourne Latta, J.P.; Taylor Samuel Mihaere, J.P.; Miss Veronica Denise Sexton; Douglas Gilbert Simes.

British Empire Medal, Civil Division (B.E.M.): Miss Eleanor Elizabeth Alden; Mrs Ketha Beamish-White; Thomas Ralph Birdsall; William John Burton; James Michael Cashman, J.P.; Miss Jessie Lois Edwards; Carl Rubenstein Prime.

Queen's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.F.S.M.): Samuel Brown Irvine; Emrys Griffith Evans; Robert Stanley Skipage.

Queen's Commendation for Brave Conduct: Michael Thomas Lawson; Kenneth Arnold Lovell; Brian Baker; Ronald Edmund Sanders Lorton.

POLICE LIST

  • Officer of the Civil Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.): John William Overton.

  • Queen's Service Medal for Public Services (Q.S.M.): Leith Fennor Miles.

  • Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.P.M.): Laurence Ferguson Smith; Robert Neville Cuthbert.

MILITARY LIST

  • Companion of the Military Division of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (C.B.): Rear Admiral John Foster McKenzie, C.B.E.

  • Commander of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.): Air Commodore Harold Gordon Moss, A.F.C.

  • Officers of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.): Commander William Stewart Watson; Colonel Maxwell Tebbutt; Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth Montrose Gordon; Group Captain Reginald Thorpe.

  • Members of the Military Division of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.): Lieutenant Commander Victor William Fifield; Warrant Officer Richard Keith Berge; Temporary Major and Quartermaster Clifford Raymond Parker; Warrant Officer Class II Edwin Te Runa Chadwick; Warrant Officer Class II Alan Harold Blackler; Temporary Lieutenant Colonel Lawrence Henry Pilling; Squadron Leader Gordon Thompson; Squadron Leader Donald Bruce Dalzell: Squadron Leader William Henry Hillman.

  • Air Force Cross (A.F.C.): Wing Commander Donald William Pawson.

  • Air Force Medal (A.F.M.): Sergeant Christopher Leonard Frederick Knight.

  • British Empire Medal, Military Division (B.E.M.): Chief Radio Mechanic Gary Raymond Cousins; Chief Petty Officer Peter Ernest Joseph Kneebone; Sergeant Roland Joseph Horopapera, M.M.; Staff Sergeant David George Arps; Temporary Warrant Officer Class II Gordon Arthur Nairn; Temporary Warrant Officer Class II Arthur Richard Tristram; Flight Sergeant Awhetu Te Rangi Waiariki; Leading Aircraftman Michael Andrew Nas.

Royal Visit Honours List

Her Majesty The Queen was graciously pleased to make the following promotion in, and appointments to, the Royal Victorian Order on the occasion of Her Majesty's Visit to New Zealand.

Commanders (C.V.O.): Commissioner Kennedy Berclay Burnside, O.B.E.; Chief Traffic Superintendent Donald Francis Ross, M.V.O.

Members of the Fourth Class (M.V.O.): John Lindell O'Sullivan; Assistant Commissioner Kenneth Owen Thompson.

Members of the Fifth Class (M.V.O.): Cyril Glynn Clea Francis William Gaucheron Diment, B.E.M.; Michael Fitzgerald; Harold Eugene Symonds; Major John Selwyn Thorn, R.N.Z.A.S.C.; Captain Nicholas Clive Thornton, R.N.Z.A.

Royal Victorian Medal (Silver): Gordon George McNab; Mali Ilolahia.

NEW ZEALAND DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION OVERSEAS

Embassies

Arab Republic of Egypt–Ambassador resident in Rome.

Austria–Hollandstrasse 2/X11, A=1020 Vienna. (Postal address: Postfix 1471, A-1011 Vienna.)

Belgium–Boulevard du Regent 47–48, 1000–Brussels.

Burma–Ambassador resident in Kuala Lumpur.

Chile–Avenida Isidora Goyenechea 3516, Las Condes, Santiago. (Postal address: Casilla 112, Correo Las Condes).

China, People's Republic of–No. 1, Street No. 2, East Temple of the Sun, Chao Yang District, Peking.

Czechoslovakia—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Denmark—Ambassador resident in Brussels.

European Communities—Boulevard du Regent 47–48, 1000–Brussels.

Finland—Ambassador resident in Moscow.

France–7 ter, rue Leonard de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

Germany, Federal Republic of—Bonn-Center HI 902, Bundeskanzlerplatz, D-5300 Bonn.

Greece—Leoforos Vasilissis Sophias 29 (Second Floor), Athens.

Holy See—7 ter, rue Leonard de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

Hungary—Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Indonesia—Jalan Diponegoro No. 41 Menteng, Jakarta. (Postal address: Kotak Pos 2439, Dakarta.)

Iran—Avenue Nadershah, Afshin Street, No. 29 (P.O. Box 128) Tehran.

Iraq—2/19 Zuwiya, Jadriyah, Baghdad.

Ireland—Ambassador resident in London.

Italy—Via Zara 28, Rome 00198.

Japan—20–40 Kamiyama-cho, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo 150.

Korea—Publishers Association Building, No. 105–2, Sagan-Dong, Chongro-ku (C.P.O. Box 1059), Seoul.

Laos—Ambassador resident in Bangkok.

Luxembourg–Ambassador resident in Brussels.

Maldives Republic–Ambassador resident in Singapore.

Mexico–Ambassador resident in Washington D.C.

Mongolian People's Republic–Ambassador resident in Moscow.

Nepal–Ambassador resident in New Delhi.

Netherlands–Lange Voorhout 18, The Hague 2005.

Norway–Ambassador resident in The Hague.

Pakistan–Ambassador resident in Tehran.

Peru–Avenida Salaverry 3006, San Isidro (postal address: Casilla 5587), Lima.

Philippines–10th Floor, Philippine Bank of Commerce Building, 6756 Ayala Avenue (P.O. Box 2208, Makati Commercial Center), Makati, Rizal, Republic of the Philippines.

Poland–Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Romania–Ambassador resident in Vienna.

Spain–Ambassador resident in Paris.

Sweden–Ambassador resident in The Hague.

Thailand—Anglo-Thai Building, 64 Silom Road (P.O. Box 2719), Bangkok.

United States–19 Observatory Circle, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008.

U.S.S.R.–44 Ulitsa Vorovskovo, Moscow, 121069.

Vietnam–Ambassador resident in Peking.

Yugoslavia–Ambassador resident in Rome.

High Commissions

Australia–Commonwealth Avenue, Canberra, A.C.T. 2600.

Bangladesh–High Commissioner resident in New Delhi.

Barbados–High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Britain–New Zealand House, Haymarket, London S.W.1.Y. 4TQ.

Brunei–High Commissioner resident in Kuala Lumpur.

Canada–Commonwealth Building, 77 Metcalfe Street, Ottawa, Ontario KIP 5L6.

Cook Islands–P.O. Box 21, Rarotonga.

Fiji—Ratu Sukuna House, corner Victoria Parade and MacArthur Street (P.O. Box 1378), Suva.

Guyana–High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

India–39 Golf Links, New Delhi 110003.

Jamaica–High Commissioner resident in Ottawa.

Malaysia–193 Jalan Pekeliling, (P.O. Box 2003), Kuala Lumpur.

Malta–High Commissioner resident in Rome.

Nauru–High Commissioner resident in Suva.

Papua New Guinea–6th Floor, Australian Government Building, Waigani, Port Moresby. (P.O. Box 1144, Boroko.

Singapore–13 Nassim Road, Singapore 10.

Sri Lanka–High Commissioner resident in Singapore.

Tonga–Room 214, Tungi Arcade, Taufa'ahau Road, Nuku'alofa.

Trinidad and Tobago–Fess Withy Building, 84–86 Independence Square (P.O. Box 823), Port of Spain.

Western Samoa–Beach Road (P.O. Box 208), Apia.

Other Missions

  • Australia–Consulate-General, 60 Park Street, Sydney, N.S.W. 2000 (G.P.O. Box 365, Sydney, N.S.W. 2001).

    Consulate-General, 330 Collins Street, Melbourne, VIC. 3000 (G.P.O. Box 2136T, Melbourne, VIC. 3001).

    Consulate, Watkins Place Building, 288 Edward Street, Brisbane, Qld. 4001. (G.P.O. Box 62.)

    Consulate, 5th Floor, St. George's Court, 16 St. George's Terrace, Perth, W.A. 6000. (G.P.O. Box 2227, Perth, W.A. 6001.)

  • Canada (Toronto)–Consulate-General, Suite 2616, 2 Bloor Street East, Toronto, Ontario, M4W 1A8.

    Consulate, Toronto Dominion Bank Tower, Suite 1150–700 West Georgia Street, Vancouver V7Y, 1B6 (P.O. Box 10071, Pacific Centre), B.C.

  • Hong Kong–New Zealand Commission, 3414 Connaught Centre, Connaught Road (G.P.O. Box 2790), Hong Kong.

  • New Caledonia–Consulate-General, 4 boulevard Vauban, Noumea.

  • Niue–Office of the New Zealand Representative (P.O. Box 78), Niue.

  • O.E.C.D.–New Zealand Mission, 7 ter, rue Leonard de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

  • South-East Asia Treaty Organisation–Anglo-Thai Building, 64 Silom Road, Bangkok, Thailand.

  • Switzerland—Consulate-General, 28B Chamin du Petit-Saconnex, CH–1209 Geneva (Postal address: Case Postale 84, 1211 Geneva 19.)

  • United Nations–New Zealand Permanent Mission, One UN Plaza, New York, N.Y., 10017.

    New Zealand Permanent Mission to the Office of the United Nations in Geneva, 28B Chemin du Petit-Saconnex, 1209 Geneva 19. (Postal address; Case Postale 84, 1211 Geneva 19.)

  • United States–Consulate-General, Suite 530, 630 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y., 10020.

    Consulate-General, Alcoa Building, Suite 970, Maritime Plaza, San Francisco, Ca. 94111.

    Consulate-General, Suite 1530, Tishman Building, 10960 Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles, Ca. 90024.

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION IN NEW ZEALAND

Arab Republic of Egypt—Embassy of the Arab Republic of Egypt, Dalmuir House, The Terrace, Wellington.

Argentina—Embassy of the Argentine Republic, Government Life Insurance Building, Customhouse Quay, Wellington.

Australia—Australian High Commission, I.C.I. House, Molesworth Street, Wellington. Consul-General, ANZ House, Queen St., Auckland. Consul-General, BNZ House, Cathedral Square, Christchurch.

Austria—Hon. Consulate-General, Wool House, 139 Featherston Street, Wellington.

Belgium—Embassy of Belgium, Robert Jones House, 1-3 Willeston Street, Wellington.

Brazil—Hon. Consul, 5 Elliott Street, Auckland.

Britain—British High Commission, Reserve Bank Building, 2 The Terrace, Wellington. Norwich Union Building, Queen Street, Auckland 1. BNZ House, Cathedral Square, Christchurch.

Canada—Canadian High Commission, I.C.I. House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Chile—Embassy of the Republic of Chile, Robert Jones House, Jervois Quay, Wellington.

China, People's Republic of—2-6 Glenmore Street, Wellington.

Costa Rica—Hon. Consul-General, 2-12 Parnell Road, Auckland.

Czechoslovakia—Legation of Czechoslovak Socialist Republic, 12 Anne Street, Wellington.

Denmark—Hon. Consul-General, Challenge House, 105-109 The Terrace, Wellington. Hon. Consuls at Auckland, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

Ecuador—Hon. Consul, General Buildings, Waring Taylor Street, Wellington.

El Salvador—Hon. Consul, Gladstone Buildings, 5 Anzac Street, Takapuna, Auckland.

Fiji—New Zealand Agents for Fiji, L. D. Nathan and Co. Ltd., Fort Street, Auckland.

Finland—Hon. Consul, Commerce House, 126 Wakefield Street, Wellington. Hon. Consul, Enfield Street, Auckland 3. Hon. Consul, 6-8 Kingsley Street, Sydenham, Christchurch.

France—Embassy of France, 14th Floor, 1-3 Willeston Street, Wellington. Hon. Consul, corner of Princes Street and Eden Crescent, Auckland 1. Hon. Consul, 904-908 Colombo Street, Christchurch. Hon. Consul, corner French and Robert Streets, Dunedin.

Germany, West—Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany, Williams City Centre, Wellington. Hon. Consul, Columbus House, 14-18 Customs Street East, Auckland 1.

Greece—Hon. Consul-General, 270 Wakefield Street, Wellington. Hon. Consul, Prudential Assurance Building, 9 Manukau Road, Epsom, Auckland.

Holy See—Apostolic Nunciature, 112 Queen's Drive, Lyall Bay, Wellington 3.

India—High Commission for India, 49 Willis Street, Wellington.

Indonesia—Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, 11 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington 1.

Ireland—Hon. Consul-General, 21 Ghuznee Street, Wellington.

Israel—Embassy of Israel, Williams Parking Building, Wellington.

Italy—Embassy of Italy, 38 Grant Road, Wellington. Hon. Consular Agents in Auckland, Christchurch, Nelson, and Dunedin.

Japan—Embassy of Japan, 18A Oriental Terrace, Wellington. Consulate-General of Japan, Bank of New South Wales Building, 79-85 Queen Street, Auckland. Consular Office of Japan, 210 Oxford Terrace, Christchurch.

Korea—Embassy of the Republic of Korea, Molesworth House, Molesworth Street, Wellington. Hon. Consul, Rainger House, 150 Victoria Street West, Auckland.

Malaysia—High Commission, Chase-NBA House, 163-165 The Terrace, Wellington.

Mexico—Hon. Consul, Tatra House, 96 Tory Street, Wellington 1.

Nauru—Hon. Consul, P.O. Box 9248, Newmarket, Auckland.

Netherlands—Royal Netherlands Embassy, Shell House, The Terrace, Wellington. Hon. Consul, 83 Customs Street East, Auckland. Hon. Consul, 161-163 Kilmore Street, Christchurch.

Norway—Hon. Consul-General, 38-42 Waring Taylor Street, Wellington. Hon. Consul, 13 Brighton Terrace, Mairangi Bay, Auckland 10. Hon. Vice-Consul, 152 Manchester Street, Christchurch. Hon. Vice-Consul, 365 Princes Street, Dunedin.

Papua New Guinea—Papua New Guinea High Commission, Construction House, 82 Kent Terrace, Wellington.

Peru—Hon. Consul, 79-83 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Philippines—Embassy of the Philippines, Williams City Centre, Wellington.

Poland—Embassy of the Polish People's Republic, 17 Upland Road, Kelburn, Wellington.

Portugal—Hon. Consul, P.O. Box 190, Auckland: Hon. Consul, Challenge House, 105-109 The Terrace, Wellington. Hon. Vice-Consul, 352 Stuart Street, Dunedin.

Romania—Consul-General, 100 Evans Bay Road, Wellington.

Singapore—High Commission, Molesworth House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

South Africa—Consul-General, Federation House, 95-99 Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Sri Lanka—Hon. Trade Commissioner, Huddart Parker Building, Wellington.

Sweden—Royal Swedish Embassy, Aurora House, The Terrace, Wellington. Hon. Consul, Church Street, Onehunga, Auckland 6.

Switzerland—Embassy of Switzerland, Panama House, 22-24 Panama Street, Wellington. Hon. Consular Agent, 48 Carr Road, Mount Roskill, Auckland.

Thailand—Royal Thai Embassy, 2 Burnell Avenue, Wellington.

Tonga—New Zealand Agents for the Government of Tonga, Beachcroft Avenue, Auckland 6.

Turkey—Hon. Consul-General, 228 Queen Street, Auckland.

U.S.S.R.—Embassy of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 57 Messines Road, Karori, Wellington.

U.S.A.—Embassy, I.B.M. Centre, 151 The Terrace, Wellington 1. Consul-General, A.M.P. Building, Queen Street East, Auckland. Hon. Consular Agent, 311 Manchester Street, Christchurch.

Venezuela—Hon. Consul, Brooklyn Flats, Emily Place, Auckland.

Western Samoa—High Commission, Europa House, Featherston Street, Wellington.

Yugoslavia—Embassy of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 24 Hatton Street, Wellington.

Countries with diplomatic representation in Canberra, Australia, with responsibility for New Zealand are: Austria, Bangladesh, Brazil, Burma, Denmark, Finland, German Democratic Republic, Greece, Hungary, Iran, Ireland, Laos, Mexico, Norway, Pakistan, Peru, Portugal, Spain, and Sri Lanka.

Countries with diplomatic representation in Tokyo, Japan, with responsibility for New Zealand are: Mongolia, Nepal, and Romania.

NEW ZEALAND TRADE REPRESENTATION OVERSEAS

There are official trade commissioners at the diplomatic missions in Athens, Bangkok, Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Hong Kong, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Manila, Melbourne, Moscow, New Delhi, New York, Noumea, Paris, Peking, Port of Spain, Rome, Santiago, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tehran, Tokyo, Toronto, Vancouver, and Vienna at the addresses given on a preceding page.

Fuller information and also details of official overseas trade representation in New Zealand are set out in the booklet Overseas Representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand Representatives Overseas published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Wellington.

Chapter 39. STATISTICAL SUMMARY

Table of Contents

LIST OF TABLES

PAGE
Total Population and External Migration891
Vital Statistics892
Education893
Justice894
Summary of Price Movements (i)895
Summary of Price Movements (ii)896
Price and Wage Movements897
Labour Force, Unemployment, and Industrial Stoppages898
Postal and Telecommunications899
Government Railways900
Agriculture901
Livestock902
Agricultural and Pastoral Production903
Factory Production904
Coal Consumption905
Summary of Overseas Trade906
Exports of New Zealand Produce907
New Zealand Official Overseas Reserves913
Revenue and Expenditure of Central Government914
Government Current Expenditure on Social Services915
Indebtedness of Central Government916
Finances of Local Authorities917
Post Office Savings Bank918
Mortgages and Land Transfers919
Bankruptcies and New Company Registrations920

Note: Throughout this section, years are Calendar Years unless otherwise defined.

TOTAL POPULATION AND EXTERNAL MIGRATION
YearPopulationMean PopulationNatural IncreaseNet Migration*
At 31 MarchAt 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 March

*Excluding tourists on cruising liners, crews, and members of armed forces, etc.

†Does not include armed forces personnel overseas.

‡Provisional.

19261,409,8121,429,6691,392,0731,413,74317,38711,735
19271,438,1321,450,3561,420,8381,439,00416,67811,664
19281,453,8211,467,3701,443,5511,456,07516,078-1,235
19291,471,1101,486,1341,460,3631,473,41915,639711
19301,489,2031,506,8091,478,0271,493,01915,6772,385
19311,511,7001,522,7621,498,4161,514,21515,8055,109
19321,525,5451,534,7351,517,9401,527,06214,660-3,172
19331,538,0281,547,1241,530,1191,539,59014,342-2,595
19341,550,1251,558,3731,542,6511,551,53213,410-2,335
19351,560,9921,569,6891,554,2971,562,23313,486-3,150
19361,573,9271,584,6171,565,2631,575,23113,737-1,114
19371,587,2111,601,7581,578,7571,589,97214,681-353
19381,604,4791,618,3131,594,2751,606,76313,9712,386
19391,624,7141,641,6391,611,3621,628,51216,9394,963
19401,640,9011,633,6451,633,4471,637,30521,0706,028
19411,636,2301,631,2761,635,7151,630,94822,123714
19421,634,3381,636,4031,630,4191,639,57219,701209
19431,634,0941,642,0411,640,1911,635,63517,562541
19441,643,9001,676,2861,637,5701,655,79520,988107
19451,679,9721,727,8171,664,5851,694,64123,8481,018
19461,756,7561,781,2141,710,6801,759,52629,8042,343
19471,789,4761,817,4531,770,2911,798,26232,2563,038
19481,828,0251,853,8061,807,6111,834,65531,7775,756
19491,864,5601,892,0421,843,7671,871,74831,2634,181
19501,902,8831,927,6291,881,3171,909,09231,2477,880
19511,938,0321,970,5221,917,9341,947,52930,9707,522
19521,984,7302,024,5561,958,7291,996,14932,95015,664
19532,037,5532,074,7812,009,5062,048,82633,53422,032
19542,087,7402,118,4342,061,3762,094,91035,17915,441
19552,130,9272,164,7342,105,7672,138,94636,3717,030
19562,175,3732,209,1322,150,2902,182,83336,8358,092
19572,221,1692,262,8142,194,1082,232,59137,56311,492
19582,275,5152,315,9002,246,0932,285,85240,25515,408
19592,326,1292,359,7462,298,8142,334,61740,6709,992
19602,370,1662,403,5672,345,6022,377,01041,8873,213
19612,414,2962,461,2432,388,0042,426,65443,6081,620
19622,474,5882,515,8352,441,4002,484,87342,93318,832
19632,527,8682,566,9152,498,3572,536,91242,11113,639
19642,582,4072,616,9702,550,1142,589,15039,44115,484
19652,628,9002,663,8432,601,2192,635,35237,07111,991
19662,676,7782,711,3182,647,1962,682,60436,22512,021
19672,725,9142,744,9632,694,6802,727,65838,01514,435
19682,752,6622,772,9332,735,2072,753,51237,648-8,090
19692,777,102,804,0592,760,0772,780,10138,199-10,848
19702,815,9872,852,1372,788,8392,819,60237,210-2,060
19712,860,8732,899,0672,831,2222,864,39240,1517,845
1972x2,906,7002,954,3002,875,5002,912,90038,41410,851
1973x2,967,1003,015,8002,927,7002,970,80035,41525,475
1974x3,030,6003,079,0002,986,5003,031,80034,07533,167
1975x3,089,0003,127,9003,047,0003,087,00031,525x29,141
19763,124,500x3,148,1003,097,500x3,116,20029,6485,192
19773,140,100..3,120,600....-16,270

VITAL STATISTICS

 NumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean PopulationDeaths Under 1 Year per 1,000 Live Births*MarriagesRate per 1,000 of Mean Population
YearLive Births*DeathsDeaths Under 1 YearLive Births*DeathsNumber 
*Figures from 1926 have been revised to exclude registrations under Section 24 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1925 and Section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 (late registration).
192629,90412,5171,31221.158.8543.8710,9947.78
192729,27812,6001,31620.358.7644.9510,7967.50
192828,93812,8601,16619.878.8340.2910,9197.50
192928,85913,2201,08619.598.9737.6311,4037.74
193028,82213,1451,11219.308.8038.5811,4947.70
193128,86713,0621,07719.068.6337.3110,2546.77
193227,53512,8751,03918.038.4337.7310,4926.87
193327,20412,8621,04317.678.3538.3411,0677.19
193427,22013,8101,06017.548.9038.9411,7887.60
193527,15013,6641,12817.388.7441.5512,7448.16
193628,39514,651,16818.039.3141.1314,4489.17
193729,89615,2151,17818.809.5739.4014,9739.42
193830,84516,8741,53719.2010.5049.8315,9599.93
193932,87215,9331,37120.199.7841.7117,79110.92
194036,94515,8751,36222.569.7036.8718,08411.04
194139,17017,0471,56224.0210.4539.8813,8308.48
194237,81818,1171,38823.0711.0536.7012,7757.79
194334,68417,1221,35021.2110.4738.9212,0217.35
194438,03717,0491,47322.9710.3038.7313,6468.24
194541,53417,6861,44924.5110.4434.8916,6939.85
194647,52417,7201,52427.0110.0732.0721,09611.99
194749,69817,4421,48727.649.7029.9219,04710.59
194849,06217,2851,35026.749.4227.5217,7509.67
194948,84117,5781,46826.099.3930.0617,3549.27
195049,33118,0841,36425.849.4727.6517,0998.96
195149,80618,8361,37425.579.6727.5916,9158.69
195251,84618,8961,47525.979.4728.4517,0618.55
195351,88818,3541,33525.338.9625.7317,2248.41
195454,05518,8761,30225.809.0124.0917,5578.38
195555,59619,2251,36525.998.9924.5517,7958.32
195656,53119,6961,31325.909.0223.2317,5318.03
195758,42520,8621,42026.179.3424.3017,6147.89
195860,55620,3011,41626.498.823.3818,3058.01
195961,79821,1281,47726.479.0523.9018,3157.84
196062,77920,8921,42026.418.7922.6218,9097.96
196165,39021,7821,49026.958.9822.7919,4268.01
196265,01422,0811,33126.168.8920.4719,5727.88
196364,52722,4161,26925.448.8419.6719,8567.83
196462,30222,8611,19324.068.8319.1520,7208.00
196560,04722,9761,17422.798.7219.5521,7028.23
196660,00323,7781,06422.378.8617.7322,9498.55
196761,02223,0071,10222.378.4318.0623,5158.62
196862,11224,4641,16422.568.8818.7424,0578.74
196962,36024,1611,05722.438.6916.9524,9718.98
197062,05024,8401,04022.018.8116.7625,9539.20
197164,46024,3091,06622.51x8.4916.5427,1999.50
197263,21524,80198821.70x8.51x15.6326,8689.22x
197360,72725,31298520.44x8.52x16.2226,2748.84x
197459,33625,26192219.57x8.33x15.5425,4128.38x
197556,63925,114x90418.35x8.14x15.9624,535x7.95x
197655,10525,45776617.688.1713.9024,1547.75

EDUCATION

Roll Numbers at Educational Institutions

At 1 July*PrimarySecondaryHigher
State SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsState SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsTechnical Institutes (Full-time Students)Teachers' CollegesUniversity Institutions (Including Extra-mural and Part-time Students)

*Figures earlier than 1928 are for December.

†Does not include kindergarten trainees.

1926225,60826,77822,6502,794..1,1984,653
1927227,77727,35823,4742,932..1,2004,878
1928221,16926,39427,0843,506..1,1154,802
1929220,34726,55628,5133,877..1,1884,623
1930219,27426,61729,2844,513..1,1554,801
1931220,97626,44831,0534,602..1,1655,111
1932217,23626,39030,9444,512..9905,171
1933203,58926,09730,4734,315..4435,085
1934201,87026,58430,9154,430....5,059
1935200,13526,92331,6114,743..4295,101
1936213,49727,54031,8945,108..1,1855,218
1937212,07627,50732,1155,595..1,3465,238
1938209,96128,27134,3456,059..1,5225,707
1939208,64127,97235,6926,266..1,5885,979
1940208,43327,86835,2736,379..1,4575,528
1941208,59527,83633,2536,451..1,5035,065
1942208,72126,98332,3916,483..1,4634,373
1943206,88428,52134,8937,184..1,7755,953
1944207,29229,22340,7238,121..1,6787,267
1945211,74229,58344,2798,933..1,4318,425
1946218,12930,58144,9859,424..1,57511,361
1947229,80431,92945,2499,968..1,63411,874
1948235,24332,81845,1099,793..1,87511,964
1949244,37733,94146,51210,243..2,32111,598
1950254,66435,77548,23210,511..2,68411,515
1951265,23037,10950,68211,045..2,70410,956
1952282,69939,34254,12411,622..2,71010,691
1953298,48141,27759,55812,476..2,76910,831
1954311,54142,79766,34413,627..2,83410,803
1955320,58044,08672,11714,970..2,84710,851
1956332,04946,26175,35415,832..2,96311,077
1957344,95947,95378,84316,265..3,21811,761
1958356,22448,41882,69916,984..3,60212,881
1959365,76151,54989,50817,663..3,75314,388
1960371,82552,88799,36519,293713,83815,809
1961376,47554,079109,63220,7522213,81416,820
1962384,31355,293118,52322,2904414,22317,214
1963392,59556,341124,97823,6035324,53618,303
1964404,25757,15412,70924,4396204,69119,640
1965415,58257,244132,09425,0738574,79022,145
1966429,91656,050136,10425,5851,1635,02224,302
1967445,04554,910141,92226,2321,3555,15626,313
1968455,11953,782152,42227,0201,4856,09628,821
1969461,30552,407155,87327,9101,6616,91231,494
1970465,46050,904157,79728,4411,8827,58734,446
1971467,09751,009160,83929,2672,2367,79137,257
1972468,69250,859166,85129,8043,1188,08838,482
1973470,27350,711171,97830,2013,3787,81138,995
1974473,09950,574177,58231,0143,5617,61639,949
1975474,57850,745187,95031,8043,8407,21142,436
1976475,11349,899197,912x32,3794,5137,00045,032

JUSTICE

YearMagistrates' Courts*Supreme CourtPrisoners in Jail at End of Year (Undergoing Sentence)
Summary ConvictionsRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationPersons SentencedRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1,000 of Population as at 31 Dec

*Revised series. Excludes minor traffic offences as well as applications for prohibition, affiliation, maintenance and separation orders.

†Change in legislation resulting in more offences dealt with in Magistrates' Courts.

‡Provisional.

192625,75918.225690.401,3880.97
192726,11318.155690.401,4831.02
192824,50816.834780.331,4350.98
192925,18617.104730.321,3420.90
193025,19216.875380.361,5231.01
193123,25915.366000.401,6141.06
193223,23615.226360.421,5220.99
193320,35513.225310.341,4100.91
193419,65412.674900.321,1990.77
193519,67212.594720.301,1120.71
193621,45013.624620.299150.58
193723,56314.825070.327900.49
193823,76214.784880.307770.48
193924,77415.215710.358950.55
194025,67015.675470.338630.53
194124,52915.045420.339880.61
1942....4570.281,0340.63
1943....4940.301,0240.62
1944....5600.349450.56
1945....6190.379980.58
1946....6550.379920.56
194720,18711.227400.411,0880.60
194821,91011.947170.399860.53
194922,02111.766760.369410.50
195021,10211.056420.341,0430.54
195122,40911.506440.331,0400.53
195227,15113.607040.351,0830.54
195328,99414.151790.091,0880.52
195431,48815.031480.071,1960.57
195532,44415.161470.071,1180.52
195635,30216.172040.091,3620.62
195736,96916.551990.091,4740.66
195835,39315.482060.091,6420.72
195931,83713.362120.091,7140.73
196033,97014.29260.121,7770.75
196135,31814.552940.121,8180.75
196238,31215.412650.121,7070.69
196339,12815.423090.121,7650.69
196439,54915.242420.091,6890.65
196539,96515.163040.121,6530.63
196642,14915.702800.101,8980.71
196747,49117.403180.121,9830.73
196852,35119.013510.132,0230.73
196954,01019.423140.111,9670.71
197055,56019.703600.132,3650.84
197161,70121.544040.142,6360.91
197265,27422.42x4760.162,5310.86
197368,47723.06x479x0.162,5670.85
197472,76224.00x5450.182,4400.79
197582,65626.786690.222,7520.88
197691,67529.427100.232,8430.90

SUMMARYOF PRICE MOVEMENTS (i)

Base: December Quarter 1974. (= 100 for terms of trade. For all other indexes = 1000.)

YearImport PricesExport PricesTerms of TradeWholesale Prices
Pastoral and DairyAll ExportsImportedHome ProducedAll Commodities

*Provisional.

†Includes only home-produced items used by domestic industry and consumers.

‡Entire series revised.

1927190220214113163204186
1928180245237132159207185
1929176235229130158207184
1930175183179102155199179
193116313813885152175168
193215412512581151165163
193315812412579159162168
193415615515499158167169
193515415015198158180174
1936153173172112158185176
1937162205201125172199190
1938163188187115173203193
1939163183183112175216199
1940188213211112207222222
1941209218216103233234244
194222922422197256245263
194325723423190282248281
194426624624391291253290
194527126626297295258295
194630229123277294263296
1947360364361100300281307
1948367410400109338309342
1949334398387116330315339
1950366565547149350359370
1951429663642150409417431
1952468530516110461452478
1953441591574130438479474
1954435601585134418501469
1955444617601135426502474
1956456602586129437529492
1957471595578123448525498
1958469504492105463537513
1959457578562123474543520
1960464559545117467549522
1961466527515111469545520
1962456537526115470541517
1963455593576127479551527
1964463649627135480579546
1965462624606131489597561
1966463619600130497607570
1967471561547116515617583
1968555601589106578647624
1969576639625109604682656
1970613640628102642722696
1971649704680105691776748
1972675850819121736831799
197371111271050148781960902
1974902106910321149231002974
1975x1188990102386116310731103
19761456*1411*1348*93*1409*1316*1348*

SUMMARYOF PRICE MOVEMENTS (ii)

Base: December Quarter 1974 (=1000)

YearImport Prices (All Groups)Export Prices (All Groups)Wholesale PricesConsumers' PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
ImportedHome ProducedAll CommoditiesFoodAll Groups

*Provisional.

†Entire series revised.

 Year Ended 31 March 
1930....170..192199213..
1935....158170169155173..
1940....180219203209212298
1945....292253290226246395
1950....332319342281285459
1955436591418505471436395536
1960458574472545521477461719
1961464534467549522487465876
1962464510470545520489476807
1963453538471541518491487842
1964457600481557532506497972
19654636204815855505365171091
19664636024926005645485321037
1967464588500608573561549958
1968490547529623592599583882
19695606015876556326226091144
19705816246106906636496381352
19716206336547367097036891303
19726537157047887607587561181
19736858847458588217948041350
197472910728029839239008791504
197597410039759999929879831152
197612631096123311221159112211371161
19771515*1424*1458*1384*1409*132513191215
..Year Ended 30 June
1930..197170..191197212..
1935..143157173170157174..
1940..207187221209211214302
1945..258293254292226247398
1950350443336328348287288472
195543758442150547243939754
1960463575470548522477461772
1961463522468548521489467880
1962463512470543519491479803
1963454550475542520493489860
19644596214805645365125011005
19654616104845905555405211100
19664646074926035665525361018
1967463574506612577572558933
1968511557544628600602588910
19695686165936646416296171217
19705916296176996726596461368
19716326476677507237177071262
19726607507148017727697701191
19736929557548898448148191428
197477710698359969439259001453
19751028978103210121019101010181115
1976135412011300*1184*1223*117311841160
19771552*1472*1508*1445*1466*131813631202

PRICE AND WAGE MOVEMENTS

Bases: December Quarter 1974 for CPI and Share prices (= 1000); 31 December 1974 for wage rates (= 1000).

 Consumers' PricesShare Prices (All Groups)Weekly Wage Rates (Adult Males) 
YearFoodAll GroupsNominalEffective*  

*Index numbers of effective or "real" wage rates are obtained by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices a multiplying by 1000. See Wages section of this Yearbook

1927193212330117552
1928197213341121568
1929199213357121568
1930191208309121582
1931166192249112583
1932152178236103579
193314416927699586
1934152171323100585
1935164178342102573
1936171183325113617
1937188196328123628
1938195202307129639
1939207210292131624
1940211220307135614
1941217228308139610
1942221235310145617
1943223241361150622
1944226245393152620
1945226248414164661
1946226250457171684
1947240258482177686
1948271279467189677
1949279283451200707
1950306299506213712
1951352333552243730
1952388358456255712
1953412375455272725
1954433392523293747
1955443402555303754
1956468416573309743
1957467425625323760
1958474443591327738
1959477460669333724
1960484463855349754
1961488472827355752
1962491484823364752
1963501494931373755
19645295111070385753
19655445291064408771
1966554543985420773
1967594576881442767
19686136011053459764
19696426311317485769
19706856721351548815
19717477421179672906
19727837931282734926
19738708581513819955
19749719531231932978
19751074109311351059x969x
19761273127812331183926
LABOUR FORCE, UNEMPLOYMENT, AND INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES
YearTotal Labour Force*Registered Unemployed, Monthly AverageIndustrial Stoppages
MalesFemalesTotalNumberTotal Duration (Days)Workers InvolvedWorking Days Lost

*Estimated labour force as at 15 April of each year. The Department of Labour publishes estimates as at 15 April and 15 October of each year. April estimates are frequently a little higher than those for the following October because of seasonal employment.

†The National Employment Service was established as from 1 April 1946 under the Employment Act 1945. Prior to 1942 a State Placement Service had operated a system of local labour exchanges. From 1942 to the end of March 1946 this was merged in the Industrial Manpower Division of the National Service Department.

 (000)(000)(000)   (000)(000)
1947540.1167.6707.79213483427.0102.7
1948544.6170.3714.96710160828.593.5
1949550.8172.5723.39212367261.5218.2
1950559.2176.7735.93812956791.5271.5
1951560.4180.3740.7381093,46436.91,1574
1952572.2182.4754.6475010816.328.1
1953588.1178.6766.7857314522.219.3
1954601.8185.2787.0586113616.220.5
1955609.2191.1800.3566521120.252.0
1956619.5194.4813.92595039013.623.9
1957629.6200.3829.93945116515.528.2
1958641.7206.2847.97854915213.718.8
1959651.3210.5861.81,1887322918.829.7
1960660.6215.0875.66336034414.335.7
1961670.5224.8895.33767135316.638.2
1962680.9230.7911.61,0409649839.993.2
1963693.7236.2929.98496036614.954.5
1964709.8248.1957.96509333334.866.8
1965728.9262.5991.451310528715.321.8
1966745.6280.41,026.046314546233.199.1
1967759.4293.11,052.53,828934728.5139.5
1968756.2287.21,043.46,88115362237.5130.3
1969764.7296.51,061.22,92616968344.0138.7
1970779.2311.51,090.71,6003231,394110.1277.3
1971789.8322.21,112.03,1153131,38986.0162.6
1972796.9326.01,122.95,6842661,25760.4134.5
1973814.7335.51,150.22,3213941,892115.9271.7
1974834.2357.11,191.39553801,52070.9183.7
1975843.2364.51,207.74,1664281,82974.8214.6
1976849.5372.51,222.05,3564871,986201.1488.4
POSTAL AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Year Ended 31 MarchMail Posted*TelephonesTollsTelegramsMoney Orders and Postal Notes*RevenueExpenditure

*Calendar year until 1945.

†Installed as at 31 March. At 31 March 1976 there were 1,046,199 subscribers.

 million(000)millionmillionmillion$(m)$(m)
1927248137.39.36.44.4....
1928259144.69.76.24.4....
1929266152.510.76.34.76.86.8
1930271161.311.46.04.77.37.2
1931233161.710.75.53.67.47.4
1932218160.89.53.93.37.56.7
1933231155.69.03.43.56.66.5
1934243155.19.13.54.06.46.4
1935263159.19.93.44.56.66.6
1936267166.611.43.84.67.17.1
1937274178.613.14.34.57.87.7
1938304192.014.54.64.78.58.5
1939296206.215.64.94.39.19.1
1940266217.915.74.53.49.79.2
1941262228.316.14.23.210.19.6
1942..235.416.94.53.110.510.0
1943..238.417.65.73.011.210.4
1944..244.818.16.33.011.810.3
1945237256.719.56.53.012.611.8
1946..265.821.07.3..13.312.7
1947294282.322.77.13.316.414.3
1948301300.623.96.73.417.116.4
1949319322.825.36.73.418.018.0
1950343348.527.16.93.418.118.4
1951358370.027.26.93.321.821.2
1952347394.628.37.03.424.624.8
1953358425.229.37.03.426.626.7
1954359456.331.17.03.431.731.0
1955386496.334.07.33.534.734.0
1956408534.536.57.63.737.136.7
1957412568.338.87.53.640.039.9
1958439605.241.97.53.544.244.1
1959446641.343.97.23.645.345.2
1960464686.047.57.33.848.548.4
1961495744.851.77.54.153.353.2
1962507801.955.57.24.460.160.0
1963526850.658.27.14.264.964.8
1964534902.061.07.24.470.270.1
1965551962.664.47.24.677.876.6
19665731,025.167.67.34.787.084.9
19675761,085.169.17.24.991.593.6
19685681,119.467.76.14.8106.6100.8
19695751,155.568.35.94.9112.8106.6
19705951,202.667.05.74.9119.5117.1
19716151,262.467.95.55.5129.8143.5
19726221,304.764.85.15.4169.8169.5
19736451,358.167.15.05.5186.9188.9
19746691,444.073.94.95.4206.3212.5
19756991,531.277.64.65.2236.5x257.2x
19767071,610.480.74.3..262.9301.6
19776621,674.179.43.6..367.5346.3
GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS
Year Ended 31 MarchKilometres Open for TrafficRevenue Train-KilometresRail Passenger JourneysGoods and LivestockRevenue*Expenditure*
*From 1925-26 figures relate to railway operation only.
  (000)(000)tonnes(000)$(000)$(000)
19275,09217,25926,0027,41714,84612,316
19285,11817,44425,3807,47614,68812,604
19295,29017,88525,5757,73515,05012,750
19305,29019,34725,4147,91414,94813,696
19315,34618,15722,8147,07013,56212,812
19325,33516,36519,1515,91811,57810,604
19335,33515,81818,3675,57910,6789,668
19345,34316,35619,0475,73311,2589,754
19355,34317,10119,6546,12111,81610,278
19365,34317,78320,3586,28812,48811,046
19375,34319,10021,2356,92213,80812,676
19385,34820,56422,4417,63715,18414,584
19395,34121,03923,2667,66016,01015,328
19405,45621,51224,4547,79717,52415,886
19415,45621,82326,2778,56119,38816,814
19425,45622,49728,6118,61020,76817,806
19435,56824,36536,1339,03024,83020,040
19445,63924,67038,6119,17226,93022,732
19455,63920,60432,9959,09824,89623,394
19465,67821,65432,4189,35826,21025,100
19475,67821,19328,8699,47925,64827,290
19485,67522,06725,8879,67627,92830,180
19495,67522,36226,1689,82130,67833,576
19505,67523,20825,89510,10832,12434,722
19515,68322,77724,8249,77037,00037,450
19525,69519,90921,2929,98740,19443,030
19535,68921,58021,45510,18745,17845,510
19545,63922,07923,2729,79047,36447,242
19555,61523,20724,73510,50254,01851,084
19565,50723,95325,07510,84955,74253,550
19575,50124,30425,37710,49157,01457,388
19585,57823,85824,81710,49860,02062,128
19595,50423,50425,43710,53359,64661,010
19605,36923,30326,13410,71260,54261,516
19615,36423,77526,23311,00462,85862,978
19625,36224,05626,32410,99663,39063,632
19635,25123,45625,66510,20562,75266,874
19645,25424,00825,73411,26867,64867,946
19655,23724,66925,13712,16472,78671,932
19665,23224,82923,88912,07974,75373,228
19675,16924,71823,72311,71975,02875,151
19685,01822,27222,18610,75171,65371,880
19694,92921,64122,26110,97174,60272,892
19704,92921,39621,03111,77983,19479,836
19714,84721,87720,78412,04086,99996,502
19724,80721,37620,11511,493101,296107,277
19734,80521,39918,56512,322112,162117,197
19744,79922,44718,94413,378125,789135,363
19754,79722,22918,89412,883124,921166,657
19764,79722,05320,03513,197137,287194,829
19774,72421,30318,47813,601202,419214,796
AGRICULTURE
SeasonWheat for ThreshingYield of
AreaYieldYield per HectareOatsBarleyPeas for ThreshingPotatoes
*Includes yield of beans.
 hectarestonnestonnestonnestonnestonnestonnes
1925-2661,380125,6572.0574,67421,4787,832*146,089
1926-2789,065216,4342.4390,67528,19912,376*118,645
1927-28105,618259,6802.4669,90319,55021,839*123,351
1928-29103,321240,3952.3355,61317,71514,357125,591
1929-3095,482197,0322.0654,47417,1248,008132,195
1930-31100,772206,2742.0561,26518,9996,570153,957
1931-32108,762179,1551.6551,13312,1888,420118,617
1932-33122,430300,8722.4693,11812,72415,933131,151
1933-34115,830245,9242.1258,83216,57819,005133,148
1934-3591,212161,4791.7734,29510,99311,881110,874
1935-36100,620241,1132.4059,92316,90515,315122,946
1936-3789,755195,1102.1763,96516,94113,091128,341
1937-3875,251164,4662.1947,91724,62910,138149,141
1938-3976,599151,4341.9847,26224,42110,53289,078
1939-40104,220218,0032.0937,76020,77015,327143,370
1940-4198,418226,0522.3056,51824,18620,18295,634
1941-42104,410235,9972.2662,50329,40823,19091,042
1942-43116,144267,2432.3050,96223,98724,201141,276
1943-4494,610196,1862.0733,28218,88824,187164,104
1944-4574,416190,3002.5676,37131,41128,238127,704
1945-4665,174148,0292.2750,74742,46422,233142,503
1946-4757,225146,0992.5548,73945,96833,508117,620
1947-4850,080123,5342.4751,77447,35431,008157,506
1948-4959,370162,1542.7367,47051,17432,528111,404
1949-5050,650133,3492.6347,54255,19933,822137,601
1950-5158,584170,6972.9133,16643,14717,031121,700
1951-5236,404105,8752.9144,80749,49219,87670,962
1952-5351,486123,1612.3943,27648,53316,72296,171
1953-5446,059130,1802.8317,15375,64725,957158,445
1954-5542,083111,9512.6629,06845,17624,098146,472
1955-5627,71272,3522.6135,33446,07517,278102,293
1956-5726,60580,2953.0252,40564,74223,015147,578
1957-5833,968101,4372.9926,49380,56528,491159,627
1958-5953,788164,3533.0628,59060,35422,585152,332
1959-6066,028236,7853.5933,11571,14325,142159,324
1960-6175,590253,3573.3542,62777,46725,331193,495
1961-6275,388213,2482.8334,22180,75320,765191,049
1962-6391,357249,1982.7318,66395,29327,230184,357
1963-6482,540273,9973.3228,080130,99529,985203,999
1964-6574,450250,2983.3645,249105,90723,891246,965
1965-6680,745291,7843.6143,520114,07728,798234,563
1966-6793,305347,7593.7328,180134,01432,185187,358
1967-68126,651442,3303.4944,754219,39936,300235,835
1968-69129,975456,6483.5152,148232,56956,617256,350
1969-70108,394287,2122.6557,712174,44649,601253,204
1970-7197,528325,6463.3459,752259,32051,856209,927
1971-72106,596389,1563.6549,457335,49057,519219,970
1972-73107,690376,1113.4944,965258,26159,733244,211
1973-7467,414214,5903.1863,237241,58052,891206,192
1974-7557,656179,8743.1250,219262,88147,522225,522
LIVESTOCK
YearBeef CattleDairy Cows in MilkTotal Dairy CattleTotal CattleSheepPigs
*Coverage to 1959 relates to holdings of 1 acre and over; thereafter to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries, except that Manukau City has been included since Manukau County was absorbed by the city. Since 1970-71 the coverage applies to 1 hectare and over. Figures are as at 31 January of year stated, except for sheep which are as at 30 June.
 (000)(000)(000)(000)(000)(000)
1927..1,182..3,25825,649520
1928..1,243..3,27427,134587
1929..1,291..3,44629,051557
1930..1,390..3,77030,841488
1931..1,479..4,04429,793469
1932..1,562..4,07228,692506
1933..1,703..4,15527,756584
1934..1,796..4,26428,649653
1935..1,807..4,25729,077755
1936..1,803..4,21730,114801
1937..1,785..4,35231,306795
1938..1,743..4,46932,379749
1939..1,724..4,52831,897676
1940..1,719..4,49631,063706
1941..1,759..4,53931,752769
1942..1,757..4,642..689
1943..1,715..4,448..605
1944..1,648..4,43933,200573
1945..1,679..4,59133,975594
19462,0661,6622,6004,667..549
19472,0481,6582,5864,63432,682546
19482,0781,7142,6384,71632,483548
19492,0411,7472,6814,72332,845545
19502,0881,8502,8674,95533,857555
19512,1491,8982,9115,06034,786564
19522,2821,9062,8835,16535,384566
19532,4781,9622,9685,44636,193628
19542,6341,9993,1105,74538,011649
19552,8081,9953,0795,88739,117681
1956........40,255..
19572,8611,9982,9485,80942,382602
19582,9151,9672,9705,88646,026628
19592,9701,9313,0045,97346,876692
1960*3,0191,8872,9735,99247,134660
19613,3341,9293,1116,44648,462655
19623,4621,9683,1366,59848,988686
19633,5581,9973,1336,69150,190766
19643,5682,0113,1286,69651,292771
19653,6282,0323,1746,80153,748716
19663,8562,0883,3627,21857,343667
19674,2412,1313,5067,74760,030603
19684,5492,2323,6988,24760,474614
19694,8122,3043,7938,60559,937553
19705,0482,3213,7298,77760,276578
19715,2802,2393,5398,81958,913617
19725,4142,2003,3608,77460,883580
19735,7332,1903,3559,08856,684507
19746,1422,1403,2739,41555,883507
19756,5282,0803,1259,65355,320500
19766,7692,0923,0089,77756,400505
19776,5052,0742,9669,472..536
AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL PRODUCTION
SeasonWool ProductionMilkfat ProductionSawn Timber Production*Meat Production§
Total Production (Greasy Equivalent)Average Price (Greasy Wool)Total ValueTotal ProductionYield per Cow in MilkAverage Revenue per kg

*Year ended 31 March.

†Milkfat for butter making only. These figures do not include payments for non-fat solids in the whole milk delivered for butter manufacture; therefore they cannot be used as a measure of total income from milk for manufacture.

‡Provisional.

§Year ended September.

 kg(m)c per kg$(m)tonnes (000)kgc per kgm3(000)tonnes (000)
1926-2710923.3225.51179928.48722..
1927-2811530.6235.11209733.07637..
1928-2911927.3432.613110234.00637..
1929-3011915.7218.714210329.39665..
1930-3111710.4312.31469821.12540..
1931-321229.6611.81549820.21363..
1932-331269.4611.918010416.53392..
1933-3413220.3526.819410716.53467..
1934-3512012.0214.418610217.46576..
1935-3613816.7823.119810922.97691..
1936-3713728.8639.720811525.18722..
1937-3813518.4524.919711227.93762..
1938-3914916.8425.118110430.31748..
1939-4014122.4433.219511230.69793..
1940-4115122.4935.521111930.69807..
1941-4215620.5137.019811230.86765..
1942-4315425.6441.318510631.42807..
1943-4415025.6640.217610533.44828..
1944-4516925.6845.319611537.30802..
1945-4616625.5144.116910038.96814550x
1946-4716633.0054.518511043.54835569x
1947-4816446.1475.819010948.881,017558x
1948-4916647.4278.920711751.081,109565x
1949-5017769.78123.421111353.641,128586x
1950-51177161.38285.522211656.951,246538x
1951-5218573.83136.322511763.561,357612x
1952-5319084.86160.924012268.341,357587x
1953-5419392.33178.422311171.471,354598x
1954-5520691.25188.322811370.171,454647x
1955-5621084.86177.823811869.821,477693x
1956-57223100.60224.023511770.001,409681x
1957-5822575.62170.125012767.791,409699x
1958-5924566.27162.325012960.251,503743x
1959-6026282.03214.724512969.451,638785x
1960-6126774.12197.724912861.551,687770x
1961-6226671.98191.724812560.801,635834x
1962-6328178.70221.325312660.451,517841x
1963-64279101.17283.126513164.291,572866
1964-6528377.40218.828213867.621,737836
1965-6631576.46241.129214068.94x1,787x843
1966-6732264.77208.429613868.95x1,770905
1967-6833050.42166.528912965.54x1,6211,002
1968-6933261.86205.430113065.81x1,6971,030
1969-7032856.48185.327812066.18x1,8061,051
1970-7133453.42178.427912570.07x1,8531,055
1971-7232266.46214.229413373.54x1,7491,082
1972-73309143.96444.528312976.77x1,7871,097
1973-74285139.19396.426312176.66x2,054990
1974-7529491.75269.8276x12080.89x2,0861,089
1975-76312157.12489.9299....2,0031,234
1976-77303219.58664.2..........
FACTORY PRODUCTION
YearEstablishmentsPersons* EngagedSalaries* and Wages PaCost of MaterialsOther Expenses of ProductionValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)Value of Land and Buildings, Plant and Machinery

*For the year 1915-16 and earlier years, figures refer to productive employees only.

†Estimates based on results of sample survey carried out during that year.

N.B. Series revised back to 1956-57 to exclude Industry 468—Motor Vehicle Repairs.

 No.No.  $(million)   
1900-013,05938,6515.615.4..33.0..13.1
1905-063,38145,1987.226.6..43.2..19.1
1910-113,42142,142.737.5..57.1..24.0
1915-163,65744,67310.659.7..83.8..31.6
1920-213,89462,9722.5106.0..151.0..51.4
1925-264,64370,21228.3102.614.5156.9..64.8
1930-315,04770,62527.890.616.9143.437.069.0
1933-344,88365,96121.587.015.1131.830.763.9
1934-355,12672,09523.497.716.3146.633.764.8
1935-365,39178,70126.2113.717.3167.537.566.4
1936-375,58487,82232.6135.019.6198.845.368.8
1937-385,78093,53437.4143.519.6213.051.072.6
1938-396,00293,63839.9142.318.6213.253.477.2
1939-406,19899,34943.8160.420.7240.660.882.0
1940-416,252104,78448.6186.022.4274.867.784.3
1941-426,225108,27553.6193.024.1291.275.587.5
1942-435,985106,17958.9203.825.1311.684.089.3
1943-446,062109,22162.8214.127.3329.789.892.0
1944-456,340113,53468.4233.029.1357.296.697.5
1945-466,847118,88675.8234.130.6367.1103.9103.6
1946-477,498124,92583.0262.734.6411.3115.8111.6
1947-487,822130,50495.9349.740.2518.4130.5126.6
1948-497,852132,427102.8390.143.9572.8141.0147.2
1949-507,815133,245112.5430.048.3634.7158.8156.0
1950-518,113138,435130.0533.857.7760.4171.6175.2
1951-528,546144,352150.1581.564.0862.0219.7195.0
1952-538,511143,164157.0637.970.5927.9222.9218.2
1953-548,377146,488173.2665.780.5990.4247.8244.5
1954-558,366153,575196.8730.695.71,101.2278.6276.5
1955-568,515158,238215.9769.6113.11,171.9294.4337.1
1956-576,793143,040203.3766.280.61,152.0277.7334.4
1957-586,774148,641219.8810.588.71,233.4303.5349.9
1958-596,757153,811235.3808.596.71,257.4321.9380.9
1959-606,709156,778250.0846.3101.51,345.0366.8415.7
1960-616,875165,572277.3905.0111.01,441.9393.9462.8
1961-626,984171,108296.9936.7120.51,532.4439.3521.6
1962-637,025174,417312.2964.1128.41,596.7461.9591.8
1963-647,317181,399338.61,115.0139.31,832.0531.7626.5
1964-657,554191,995378.81,292.5156.22,081.6580.6693.3
1965-667,659203,165418.81,360.0174.92,260.7664.0792.1
1966-677,838207,999451.71,402.3193.82,354.9691.0874.3
1967-687,788204,510454.21,427.1203.92,404.9704.0912.2
1968-697,667207,703483.51,591.0224.72,645.8757.1969.0
1969-707,686220,108559.61,791.4255.12,994.8867.11,130.4
1970-717,600229,104676.02,014.6306.73,407.4995.71,239.3
1971-727,783232,424780.32,288.6354.43,874.31,130.71,436.9
1972-737,669235,648875.42,787.2561.54,611.31,301.71,634.0
1973-747,690244,5221,042.23,112.8683.75,250.91,502.4..
COAL CONSUMPTION
YearFactoriesShippingRailGas WorksHouseholdsPublic Hospitals and Central HeatingElectricity GenerationTotal
*Estimated.
    tonnes(000)    
1926522369385233....1182,582
1927500328408232....1552,644
1928510324417225....1802,600
1929506321484232....912,588
1930499251440244....1732,615
1931402180375224....1882,249
1932396151394210....251,941
1933431141388207....82,012
1934443163425208....82,155
1935463157450208....102,240
1936508156466224....102,241
1937517155520225....152,317
1938550154522230....152,312
1939684128538246....342,449
1940693154572262....822,540
1941732125577268....1112,702
1942749148658276....752,759
1943746135671292....762,826
1944765121613305582..492,823
1945758126643315604..672,871
1946747111626320549..622,838
194778893601328607..622,856
1948-78586328630..-2,842
194985856561316650..672,892
195083250486306610..912,778
195187538451264549..642,494
195290437442294599..1312,772
19539083442328355987452,555
195494636405270559881392,651
19551,00429377272528861202,612
19561,04933316265549861362,700
19571,07028273260559761792,627
19581,08825242275559802512,735
19591,04314231280549793632,753
19601,01592232815491006112,965
19611,0038219283544986122,917
1962969819026478963472,474
19631,0499186275251046072,807
19641,046101692624901075952,821
19651,02991432644901224402,664
19661,01010122245488*1284992645
19679286101252427*1442322,270
1968938650231396*1552572,143
1969920513172376*1635462,311
1970910-10154345*1635422,306
1971925-5*109300*1644422,114
1972934*-..99290*1875582,188*
1973948*--91284*1938272,461*
19741,120*--109289*2818142,613*
19751,077*--89234*2448442,488*
SUMMARY OF OVERSEAS TRADE*
YearExportsImports (c.d.v.)Imports (c.i.f.)
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population

*Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency. Gold and specie excluded.

†Previous to 1955 c.d.v., 10 percent.

‡Provisional.

 $(m)$$(m)$$(m)$
192795.966.6681.456.5889.662.23
1928110.275.6681.555.9989.761.58
1929108.973.9188.660.1297.566.14
193088.859.4780.653.9988.759.39
193168.745.4048.231.8253.034.99
193268.945.1044.829.3449.332.28
193379.351.5246.530.2151.233.22
193492.059.2857.036.7262.740.39
193590.257.7266.042.2672.646.49
1936110.770.2880.551.0888.556.18
1937130.582.11102.164.22112.370.63
1938114.271.04100.862.71110.868.98
1939112.869.2989.855.1298.760.63
1940143.687.7089.154.4198.059.84
1941131.380.5089.454.8198.360.29
1942159.197.0597.959.72107.765.69
1943140.685.98173.2105.87190.5116.46
1944152.792.24157.194.87172.8104.35
1945160.794.85100.159.09110.265.00
1946200.2113.80130.173.95143.181.34
1947256.8142.78233.9130.06257.3143.06
1948294.4160.48233.7127.37257.0140.11
1949293.3156.72218.2116.59240.0128.25
1950364.9191.12287.1150.41315.9165.45
1951494.6253.95375.5192.80413.0212.08
1952479.5240.22458.9229.88504.8252.87
1953470.7229.74327.2159.70359.9175.68
1954488.0232.92426.3203.48468.9223.83
1955518.1242.20501.3234.37574.2268.47
1956554.5254.02469.5215.51536.8245.91
1957552.5247.48523.4234.42594.1266.09
1958499.9218.68505.5221.14570.0249.38
1959586.6251.26410.1175.64462.7198.21
1960604.6254.35506.2212.94564.5237.48
1961567.4233.76576.4237.48649.7267.64
Jan-Jun      
1962332.6134.32237.495.88264.3106.74
Year ended      
June      
1963627.5249.42523.7208.16576.6229.18
1964737.3286.72637.4247.88694.0269.91
1965742.2282.95662.7252.64724.5276.20
1966767.3288.54729.4274.31792.8298.13
1967727.2268.57752.2277.79813.2300.32
1968820.5299.04622.9227.03674.7245.91
1969989.1357.56799.2288.91852.9308.32
19701,086.7388.3944.3337.41,007.2359.9
19711,1317398.21,070.6376.71,155.5406.6
19721,375.0476.4x1,152.7399.4x1,239.0429.3x
19731,792.0609.3x1,282.2436.0x1,374.1467.3x
1974x1,787.3595.5x1,861.8620.4x2,036.7x678.5x
1975x1,621.5529.7x2,492.0814.0x2,763.1x902.6x
1976x2,386.9768.72,730.1879.32,961.6x953.8x
19773,183.71,019.23,168.31,014.23,459.81,107.6
EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE
YearWool
GreasyScoured and WashedTotal, including Slipe*
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

*Including fine animal hair.

†Whole fruit only.

 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
192675,54117.47,7412.796,68523.7
192781,29020.36,4822.4100,01825.9
192885,91627.14,9972.2102,87733.4
192989,97825.15,7862.3106,57430.7
193069,95411.25,7401.589,46715.3
193175,0688.25,0120.996,03411.0
193284,6838.66,5971.0108,03611.5
1933104,13011.39,1411.5129,86714.8
193495,07720.27,4992.0116,02825.0
193578,88910.37,1551.5100,99714.2
1936118,72421.17,6581.9142,61426.6
1937106,20430.94,9821.9128,06738.1
1938102,01219.45,7091.6123,05224.4
1939102,74818.45,8591.5125,82323.3
1940104,76224.29,3422.9136,20933.8
194173,31517.411,1643.797,85925.2
194297,77823.317,3985.8139,50136.7
194369,62318.511,3534.093,81327.0
194458,61815.813,4594.885,54725.4
194530,9968.425,1639.575,41425.4
1946119,94935.818,9267.5165,74553.2
1947116,75040.023,02511.6170,24563.9
1948147,23764.818,25311.8190,97289.0
1949148,44766.918,40011.7194,89793.1
1950137,201110.615,09716.4178,704149.3
1951111,820188.510,81524.5143,727256.4
1952154,629122.715,35416.6198,723164.0
1953137,903124.714,68618.2177,630169.2
1954137,692130.816,14220.4178,216176.9
1955146,417138.118,72323.2189,408187.9
1956151,350136.618,44922.0194,163183.1
1957153,478161.219,41125.3195,880212.1
1958162,595122.018,71317.7207,333160.1
1959188,118137.421,20919.4240,037179.5
1960182,542152.923,58925.3236,947205.0
1961197,367152.924,33824.3251,723200.7
Jan-June      
1962128,18697.815,32514.6163,039127.5
Year ended      
June      
1963204,338163.229,59628.5261,724214.5
1964195,139201.832,00939.7256,547271.6
1965180,920149.932,31436.1241,066208.6
1966212,149170.237,15837.8278,228231.9
1967158,468117.736,06732.9227,150174.1
1968182,29799.748,91535.6268,427158.2
1969205,260131.465,91355.1307,915212.4
1970196,430119.374,68463.3303,053204.2
1971173,926100.282,22565.7293,499187.9
1972177,990119.196,62984.1312,374228.6
1973160,325224.294,849152.5288,082424.0
1974x120,927189.366,976131.3213.158361.6
1975x102,871107.786,997125.4218,198261.7
1976142,605220.1105,432197.7272,369456.4
192622,4871.2126,88415.4154,15217.3
192723,2421.390,32616.1120,14618.2
192838,4762.3144,03317.2192,73520.6
192919,7961.3138,77717.2169,48719.8
193021,2891.5173,23319.2205,07121.9
193123,9421.2175,93115.7210,26117.8
193227,1910.9195,63115.0236,00116.9
193347,1641.9193,92716.0264,33019.7
193445,6261.9177,24519.0252,46023.8
193547,0202.2184,48020.0264,50325.5
193643,2262.3177,18520.2260,09824.5
193750,9113.0184,92922.0274,88329.4
193852,5143.6184,85822.4272,97730.2
193962,1114.5203,87922.2300,05130.8
194075,9856.0237,85727.8354,42939.4
194140,2093.5192,19224.5268,48333.2
194246,6144.5221,01027.6291,67635.6
194325,8312.3188,74823.9224,17327.6
19447,1410.6194,01623.0211,13725.0
194529,9232.9243,11430.3287,22935.2
194662,4886.7255,78635.9343,08746.5
194768,4648.7259,64345.1353,36258.7
194868,9768.1253,43343.8349,00857.2
194959,9666.7261,04943.0349,55654.4
195059,9717.0258,00945.6343,44257.2
195143,5675.8212,07439.6278,92950.7
195257,42110.3299,71760.9384,16278.8
195345,0989.9256,12960.5329,04778.8
195460,48714.7281,44878.0367,237100.5
195595,58126.8262,34683.8383,562121.2
1956119,67529.2274,39487.2420,635127.7
1957117,40231.3254,66887.0394,531128.1
1958117,62751.1273,91085.5411,773146.9
195990,27944.4326,81087.0441,574142.4
196099,99244.4350,45497.2474,188152.3
196197,02444.4348,27889.9467,883144.2
Jan-June      
196249,55821.6218,81152.5282,28280.6
Year ended      
June      
1963128,77758.8358,46698.2516,376169.5
1964121,19758.1368,993107.2522,744180.0
1965121,39357.4366,434135.0519,742208.5
1966101,19754.6369,234121.4501,983193.1
1967106,25163.9367,842119.5505,425200.8
1968129,33889.3413,227147.0581,251256.2
1969133,226109.1473,286175.5645,443304.5
1970177,704154.2439,344182.9658,534364.3
1971180,858170.4425,311186.5647,785385.7
1972185,390187.2446,913178.1674,335393.3
1973203,529241.3441,837257.5691,992535.5
1974x183,326235.5348,950256.5570,406529.5
1975x192,445161.8385,263238.7616,545438.0
1976228,111241.4397,408297.4674,867586.2
192659,33917.474,25011.95,1370.7
192773,94521.875,83811.25,6350.7
192873,64222.679,62213.47,8100.8
192984,01726.590,38314.06,2300.7
193095,72423.792,10412.96,8950.7
1931101,02421.383,1308.95,8270.5
1932111,03121.390,9599.97,2730.5
1933133,87723.3100,7389.58,0010.6
1934132,82420.1100,8189.49,7800.8
1935141,70327.287,7648.89,4270.7
1936142,05130.684,24110.210,7690.8
1937151,19234.083,68010.711,2100.7
1938132,82533.081,81811.99,3150.6
1939124,12632.285,20911.711,1340.8
1940133,24036.5103,30716.511,9930.8
1941115,00731.6120,21119.713,4451.4
1942121,80633.9136,53823.712,5131.4
1943102,61929.4102,11018.311,8801.2
1944117,23137.178,95014.98,3601.1
1945105,16738.688,82919.015,3472.0
1946103,43839.776,96216.917,2682.4
1947129,75857.788,44123.220,3023.3
1948137,81167.576,83722.426,9664.4
1949150,04070.995,44625.334,9425.7
1950140,48671.7101,49329.141,2846.6
1951149,83083.0108,33033.347,4637.9
1952186,982112.392,72031.163,73913.1
1953161,660102.9102,98736.764,00112.6
1954134,60789.691,87432.845,9498.2
1955153,388102.086,40727.451,7427.2
1956170,137106.390,30344.552,9168.8
1957147,40376.989,89635.868,79811.5
1958178,20777.790,86324.853,8827.6
1959196,075111.684,79144.271,50911.5
1960159,572100.380,68837.161,28711.1
1961167,68978.889,01339.851,2678.4
Jan-June      
196286,07841.552,99021.330,7264.4
Year ended      
June      
1963167,22790.993,68937.064,3679.5
1964184,875109.689,00035.173,76811.0
1965192,180119.694,74640.788,05018.9
1966193,472109.698,03741.7101,15222.0
1967203,163109.4104,36045.1135,23529.8
1968204,467112.2100,28147.4140,45030.3
1969206,378114.887,66142.6134,73323.1
1970198,021109.790,58244.3184,35131.1
1971194,464113.992,68148.0160,45234.1
1972187,680183.988,46466.3191,92576.5
1973176,619137.195,25579.2197,75787.4
1974x162,146109.568,48161.8278,333130.6
1975x164,171122.164,76348.4159,869103.1
1976206,788204.280,64078.0147,82684.6
19261,8520.213,3130.72,9330.4
19272,3760.39,9070.54,5910.5
19282,1410.318,4241.02,5520.3
19292,9060.318,2991.22,9390.4
19302,9110.324,0821.31,8570.3
19312,6880.224,3161.32,0810.3
19322,1730.128,6771.61,7440.2
19332,4730.226,0981.44,0800.3
19342,9330.328,4311.62,4770.3
19353,3100.318,8591.03,6400.4
19364,1070.422,3791.24,0630.5
19373,9390.517,1100.92,9520.4
19382,1030.228,0531.52,3110.5
19391,9570.119,0081.12,3280.6
19401,2370.110,7540.52,3240.7
19416300.1193-4,4801.1
1942250-148-4,1911.2
19437500.184-4,6091.3
1944305-9-8,0512.9
19458180.172-8,4613.6
19467550.15,5150.37,6513.9
19472,6340.7109-7,4693.3
19484,1901.218,2361.78,8823.4
19495,5481.29,6910.88,2303.0
19505,6271.312,9741.48,3374.2
19515,9871.912,6751.44,4922.5
19528,4982.625,0694.18,3044.2
19538,7452.520,9203.49,1073.7
19548,2772.522,5413.19,3605.6
195512,4873.718,8872.64,0342.7
195613,6234.229,2504.17,4383.2
195714,3554.526,0313.68,2582.4
195820,3866.233,1754.67,5303.0
195929,6488.834,8154.84,6342.0
196028,6558.434,8394.86,5263.4
196129,4948.837,1224.86,7022.6
Jan-June      
196214,9564.640,7565.63,0511.2
Year ended      
June      
196330,2468.433,7844.78,3083.6
196442,18911.338,5495.39,2583.5
196552,59416.844,0666.14,6342.0
196642,98520.051,5927.110,3223.2
196743,26518.640,1555.511,3373.2
196840,92318.141,5435.711,9193.7
196950,02621.744,0756.19,1613.5
197061,98925.857,7429.47,9393.6
197169,53430.255,5969.29,7194.9
197242,11325.460,63510.711,6404.4
197327,72822.069,56913.415,9546.5
1974x39,96528.668,96313.59,3098.9
1975x17,11914.781,11019.711,41110.0
197624,26327.177,93021.26,0714.5
YearHides and SkinsSausage CasingsTallow*
*From 1926 to 1948 figures cover only inedible tallow, and unrendered fats of bovine cattle, sheep, or goats are included in all figures.
 $(m)$(m)tonnes$(m)
19266.41.621,4671.5
19276.51.524,2581.4
19287.71.626,1611.6
19295.91.321,1661.4
19304.41.625,0231.4
19312.50.823,6370.8
19322.10.525,7840.9
19333.70.828,4701.0
19344.41.328,1061.0
19354.81.625,6831.3
19366.61.326,5141.3
19374.51.526,3561.3
19384.81.530,0881.1
19395.11.429,6050.9
19406.51.834,6861.4
19418.21.639,9591.6
19429.51.852,6102.3
19438.82.244,6602.1
19449.02.127,0511.2
194510.02.231,2191.8
194611.52.825,1532.1
194720.83.126,1384.7
194818.94.520,3854.3
194913.44.125,8405.1
195020.05.330,0714.3
195125.77.830,1345.1
195219.99.849,3959.4
195321.44.940,4333.9
195420.96.439,4965.1
195518.48.144,1315.7
195621.29.840,2545.3
195720.29.346,9496.1
195816.69.052,0836.8
195926.58.354,4196.6
196026.67.060,4225.9
196124.37.358,6496.3
Jan-June    
196215.26.036,6353.1
Year ended    
June    
196325.410.560,3524.8
196430.412.077,3517.2
196531.711.158,8557.1
196640.010.951,5866.7
196733.612.066,4137.0
196839.89.974,6377.0
196955.410.971,7426.6
197048.714.073,5519.2
197150.614.165,83810.2
197262.215.469,6518.9
1973x95.914.272,9509.7
1974x67.017.253,76913.8
1975x62.718.871,63716.4
197677.423.596,13025.8
YearTimberWood PulpNewsprint
 $(m)tonnes(000)$(m)tonnes(000)$(m)
19261.0----
19270.9----
19280.8----
19290.9----
19300.6----
19310.3----
19320.5----
19330.5----
19340.6----
19350.7----
19360.5----
19370.4----
19380.4----
19390.3----
19400.4----
19410.4----
19420.2----
19430.1----
19440.1----
19450.1----
19460.3----
19470.4----
19481.0----
19491.1----
19500.7----
19511.5----
19521.2----
19531.340.4--
19541.8201.6--
19552.5282.3--
19562.1484.0263.1
19571.8665.3364.3
19582.9705.5425.3
19594.4785.8445.4
19604.2715.6506.2
19614.4655.0475.4
Jan-June     
19622.6332.7222.3
Year ended     
June     
19634.1705.5738.0
19645.0675.510911.5
19656.5574.711311.9
19666.5716.011911.9
19677.3735.99610.1
196816.5766.212715.8
196928.5897.412316.1
197034.1827.212215.8
197137.1979.411114.0
197240.911311.313116.5
1973x45.614214.112316.2
1974x47.824325.710314.5
1975x28.231243.512120.8
197632.036058.813234.3
NEW ZEALAND'S OFFICIAL OVERSEAS RESERVES
End of QuarterAssets of N.Z. Banking SystemTreasury-held Overseas SecuritiesOther Government-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldInternational Monetary FundTotal
Reserve PositionSpecial Drawing Rights

NOTE: To take account of exchange rate fluctuations, the New Zealand currency value of official overseas reserves was increased by approximately $14 million in November 1967 and reduced by approximately $98 million at various dates during the year ended March 1973. Downward adjustments of approximately $90 million in September 1973, $49 million in December 1973 and $22 million in March 1974 were also made to record exchange rate fluctuations during the year ended March 1974. Upward adjustments of approximately $34 million and $65 million were made in October 1974 and August 1975 respectively.

   $(million)    
1959-Mar149.760.15.81.5--217.1
1960-Mar195.290.95.81.8--293.6
1961-Mar107.077.55.82.0--192.3
1962-Mar113.758.15.80.522.5-200.5
1963-Mar167.265.05.80.522.5-260.9
1964-Mar166.572.65.80.522.5-267.8
1965-Mar159.367.118.10.522.5-267.5
1966-Mar116.361.512.70.2--190.1
1967-Mar116.356.613.10.3--186.3
Jun111.757.113.10.6--182.4
Sep106.358.513.10.5--178.4
Dec145.175.013.90.5--234.5
1968-Mar200.376.914.50.2--291.8
Jun209.376.814.51.2--301.9
Sep169.379.514.50.9--264.1
Dec112.078.014.50.5--205.0
1969-Mar183.180.515.31.2--280.1
Jun229.478.915.31.0--324.6
Sep182.51.715.30.8--280.3
Dec155.186.415.30.8--257.6
1970-Mar204.887.516.10.8-23.6332.7
Jun216.887.916.10.8-23.5345.0
Sep179.8118.516.10.835.00.3350.5
Dec128.6117.516.10.745.10.3308.4
1971-Mar172.4117.317.40.745.119.6372.6
Jun243.9132.817.40.745.119.4459.3
Sep253.4170.717.40.745.119.4506.7
Dec244.1146.517.40.745.124.8478.6
1972-Mar331.4186.318.90.745.147.5629.9
Jun425.2216.218.90.745.151.6757.7
Sep450.6210.218.90.745.152.1777.5
Dec435.7209.825.60.745.152.1768.9
1973-Mar561.9235.022.30.745.152.1917.2
Jun764.3209.122.30.745.151.91,093.5
Sep656.0199.620.00.745.151.9973.3
Dec2.1202.522.50.745.151.9824.8
1974-Mar477.1182.121.70.745.151.9778.5
Jun289.4185.021.70.745.151.7593.6
Sep324.4174.321.70.7-0.8521.8
Dec335.8220.724.20.7-0.5581.8
1975-Mar281.8230.923.90.7-4.8542.1
Jun316.2222.923.90.7-0.5564.2
Sep322.4221.126.40.7-4.8575.4
Dec290.9224.126.40.7-4.6546.7
1976-Mar374.2274.026.30.7-9.7684.8
Jun299.1239.326.30.7-6.5571.9
Sep303.5247.326.30.7-16.1593.9
Dec359.3285.323.90.7-9.8679.0
1977-Mar390.7284.223.90.7-21.2720.6
Jun399.3286.723.90.72.524.7737.8
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsDeficitSurplus
From TaxationFrom Other SourcesTotal

*Excludes duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act; $1.9 million in 1958-59, $4.7 million in 1959-60, $2.0 million in 1960-61, $0.8 million in 1961-62, $0.8 million in 1962-63, $0.8 million in 1963-64.

NOTE—The figures shown in the above table are not on a comparable basis over the whole period.

   $(million)   
   CONSOLIDATED FUND   
192733.816.149.948.7..1.2
192833.716.650.249.9..0.4
192935.711.547.248.41.2..
193039.011.750.750.4..0.3
193137.28.946.149.43.3..
193232.413.145.449.74.3..
193331.213.945.145.1....
193434.112.947.048.41.4..
193540.411.952.349.0..3.3
193643.19.252.351.8..0.6
193753.98.462.361.4..0.9
193863.326.389.688.0..1.6
193964.622.887.485.8..1.6
194065.628.293.893.2..0.6
194168.732.2102.998.5..3.5
194270.338.7109.1105.8..3.3
194372.437.8110.2101.8..8.3
194484.031.1115.1110.7..4.5
194591.428.5119.9117.4..2.4
194696.731.1127.8125.3..2.5
1947181.435.2216.6207.4..9.2
1948192.242.0234.2230.7..3.6
1949202.141.0243.0237.8..5.3
1950207.742.3250.0241.4..8.6
1951244.443.2287.5271.0..16.5
1952313.947.7361.6336.3..25.3
1953308.547.1355.6349.0..6.6
1954312.452.2364.6361.0..3.6
1955325.057.4382.4368.8..13.7
1956334.960.0394.9386.6..8.3
1957345.667.0412.6405.9..6.7
1958317.969.3387.2387.50.3..
1959409.771.1480.8*480.0*..0.8
1960552.976.8629.7*628.4*..1.3
1961474.89.0568.7*567.9*..0.8
1962508.393.0601.3*600.6*..0.6
1963471.5101.8573.3*581.2*7.9..
1964512.6120.6633.2*635.9*2.7..
  CONSOLIDATED REVENUE ACCOUNT    
1965783.2120.5903.7894.5..9.2
1966852.2122.2974.5970.9..3.5
1967918.8132.51,051.31,050.6..0.7
1968949.4147.31,096.71,095.3..1.4
1969992.1162.51,154.61,146.9..7.7
19701,102.0170.51,282.51,275.1..7.4
19711,363.0203.21,566.21,560.9..5.3
19721,617.3203.41,820.71,812.3..8.4
19731,830.9304.92,135.82,141.05.2..
19742,291.6220.52,512.22,509.8..2.4
19752,760.5285.53,046.13,034.9..11.2
19763,084.0598.53,682.53,684.11.6..
19773,737.5490.34,227.84,225.1..2.7
GOVERNMENT CURRENT EXPENDITURE ON SOCIAL SERVICES*
Year Ended 31 MarchHealthEducationSocial Security and WelfareWar PensionsTotal

*Excludes capital expenditure.

†Includes hospital boards.

‡Provisional.

  $(million)   
195137.224.687.811.2160.8
195244.029.297.312.9183.4
195348.831.497.913.3191.4
195451.234.6104.414.5204.7
195556.438.4110.716.0221.5
195663.242.4116.116.9238.6
195771.246.2119.217.9254.5
195878.251.4124.619.6273.8
195983.055.8142.521.9303.2
196089.659.8180.023.2352.6
196197.467.2192.027.4384.0
1962104.071.0196.327.5398.8
1963113.078.8196.528.3416.6
1964121.287.0205.929.7443.8
1965132.099.0210.329.9471.2
1966148.0110.4217.730.5506.6
1967161.7124.4225.430.9542.4
1968168.2136.8244.830.7580.5
1969178.8145.6254.830.8610.0
1970200.1168.4272.032.4672.9
1971238.7214.9301.333.5788.4
1972283.1279.6338.536.1937.3
1973333.8309.1468.540.21,151.6
1974390.1367.2574.244.61,376.1
1975480.9432.6652.850.31,625.1
1976589.5499.3839.451.71,979.9
SOCIAL SERVICES EXPENDITURE (INCLUDING AND EXCLUDING EDUCATION) AS PERCENTAGE OF GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT, AND OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
Year Ended 31 MarchGross National ProductPublic A/c Administrative ExpenditureTotal Social Services ExpenditureSocial Services Expenditure less EducationTotal Social Services Expenditure as Percentage ofSocial Services Expenditure less Education as Percentage of
Gross National ProductTotal Government ExpenditureGross National ProductTotal Government Expenditure
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)%%%%
19511,396282.2160.8136.211.557.09.848.3
19521,446343.9183.4154.212.753.310.744.8
19531,517366.7191.4160.012.652.210.643.6
19541,681388.4204.7170.112.252.710.143.8
19551,860402.1221.5183.111.955.19.845.5
19561,965427.5238.6196.212.155.810.045.9
19572,061462.9254.5208.312.355.010.145.0
19582,208x489.6273.8222.412.4x55.910.1x45.4
19592,297x527.9303.2247.413.2x57.410.8x46.9
19602,463x585.4352.6292.814.3x60.211.9x50.0
19612,650x631.4384.0316.814.5x60.812.0x50.2
19622,752x654.9398.8327.814.5x60.911.9x50.1
19632,953x691.2416.6337.814.1x60.311.4x48.9
19643,231x738.2443.8356.813.7x60.111.0x48.3
19653,530x802.0471.2372.213.3x58.810.5x46.4
19663,823x872.1506.6396.213.3x58.110.4x45.4
19673,973x935.6542.4418.013.7x58.010.5x44.7
19684,128x966.5580.5443.714.1x60.110.7x45.9
19694,355x1,031.8610.0464.414.0x59.110.7x45.0
19704,809x1,142.5672.9504.514.0x58.910.5x44.2
19715,534x1,346.6788.4573.514.2x58.510.4x42.6
19726,452x1,579.7937.3657.714.5x59.310.2x41.6
19737,498x1,907.5x1,151.6842.515.3x60.4x11.2x44.7
19748,626x2,244.5x1,376.11,008.9x15.9x61.3x11.7x45.0x
19759,452x2,635.5x1,625.11,192.517.261.7x12.645.3x
197610,9283,292.01,979.91,480.618.160.112.645.0

INDEBTEDNESS OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—AMOUNT OF DEBENTURES AND STOCK IN CIRCULATION

(Nominal Amounts)

As at 31 MarchDomiciled inTotalPer Head of Population
United States and World BankLondon and EuropeAustraliaNew Zealand
   NZ$(million)  $
1927-265.08.1218.6491.7341.90
1928-279.58.3214.9502.8343.80
1929-298.78.3221.4528.4359.80
1930-293.28.6233.1534.8359.20
1931-309.18.4234.7552.1365.20
1932-268.97.8236.8511.5335.30
1933-270.45.7236.7512.9333.50
1934-269.45.8278.0553.2356.90
1935-269.64.4234.9508.8325.90
1936-265.03.2244512.7325.80
1937-261.11.8260.1523.0329.30
1938-261.51.8264.9528.0329.10
1939-261.31.8292.5555.6341.90
1940-263.31.8328.3593.4361.70
1941-264.41.8380.4646.5395.10
1942-255.11.7461.6718.4439.60
1943-264.21.7609.4875.3535.60
1944-265.91.7733.51,001.1608.90
1945-266.21.7806.51,074.5639.60
1946-189.11.7945.51,136.3646.80
1947-189.11.7966.01,156.8646.40
1948-166.41.6988.21,156.2632.50
1949-159.91.31,068.81,230.0659.70
1950-156.31.31,130.21,287.8676.70
1951-155.6-1,178.81,334.5688.60
1952-155.6-1,151.81,307.3658.70
1953-155.6-1,179.81,335.4655.40
1954-175.6-1,233.21,408.7674.80
1955-195.6-1,261.61,457.2683.80
1956-191.6-1,278.81,470.4675.90
19578.9200.9-1,304.51,514.2681.70
19587.9199.2-1,357.11,564.2687.40
195947.1236.6-1,349.01,633.1702.10
196037.9235.5-1,415.61,689.0712.60
196137.0216.3-1,483.01,736.3719.20
196225.1254.0-1,528.61,807.7730.50
196341.5272.5-1,620.41,934.3765.18
196441.8279.9-1,700.02,021.7782.89
196554.3276.5-1,908.82,139.6813.87
196688.3244.8-1,922.82,256.0842.78
1967107.3283.4-2,021.32,412.0884.42
1968170.7329.4-2,116.52,616.6950.56
1969179.2336.2-2,261.02,776.5999.74
1970184.2341.6-2,351.32,887.11,021.71
1971178.6397.8-2,430.53,007.01,051.06
1972159.4494.1-2,533.03,186.61,096.29x
1973135.1428.9-2,939.13,503.11,180.63x
1974113.3351.9-3,269.33,734.51,232.27x
1975180.1682.6-3,336.94,199.71,359.57x
1976304.91,158.3-4,094.75,557.91,778.82x
1977517.11,309.5-4,462.66,289.22,002.88
FINANCES OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES*
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsTotal Gross Indebtedness
RevenueOther ReceiptsTotal
From Rates and LeviesFrom Other Sources

*Exclusive of hospital boards.

†Debt up to 1967 shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent. As from 1968 the gross public debt is shown in New Zealand currency only, including overseas debt.

‡Includes petrol tax $16.7 million in 1972-73, $18.0 million in 1973-74, and $17.8 million in 1974-75

   $(million)   
19259.314.415.939.638.8106.7
192610.116.015.741.841.8118.8
192710.617.214.041.943.5128.0
192811.219.012.042.144.9132.8
192911.718.412.942.942.6138.6
193012.020.711.944.544.1142.4
193111.320.49.741.444.4145.4
193211.018.110.039.140.2144.8
193310.517.09.837.237.8145.0
193411.016.58.536.135.5142.0
193511.017.29.037.237.4142.5
193611.218.09.939.038.7140.8
193712.019.19.440.540.4137.1
193813.121.19.743.944.1136.1
193914.022.613.550.050.2136.4
194014.624.414.553.551.4139.0
194114.725.410.250.349.5136.0
194214.926.07.248.048.1133.2
194315.527.46.149.046.5130.3
194415.629.64.950.047.6126.5
194515.830.15.050.950.4122.5
194617.330.86.454.454.7120.0
194719.133.08.560.661.0115.6
194819.634.410.064.064.9114.2
194921.638.212.372.071.6113.2
195023.340.716.280.279.3112.6
195125.243.416.785.386.5112.2
195229.048.121.398.497.7115.7
195330.855.231.5117.4116.7128.9
195432.864.641.0138.5136.4146.9
195536.570.642.1149.2148.0158.6
195637.876.850.9165.4167.1176.0
195741.379.160.7181.2181.5198.2
195845.484.771.1201.2196.6229.4
195948.897.869.6216.2213.2255.9
196051.5101.783.6236.8231.2287.1
196155.0108.788.1251.8245.0318.8
196258.0118.978.7255.6267.5337.6
196362.4125.596.2284.1286.5370.2
196468.3153.2120.0351.5329.6401.8
196577.2164.0122.7363.8361.1436.2
196680.5176.4119.0375.8387.5461.4
196785.9191.2119.4396.5401.6485.0
196892.4200.2137.3430.0420.7533.5
196999.9223.7149.1472.6456.6564.3
1970108.1240.2155.1503.3492.1597.2
1971117.9262.7155.5536.1539.2629.8
1972126.3297.6169.6593.5604.7667.1
1973148.5330.9216.6696.0674.2722.4
1974153.8395.3x274.0x823.1799.8787.4
1975192.2431.6345.7969.5985.8840.9
POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK
YearNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest Credited to DepositorsTotal Amount of Withdrawals During Year*Excess of Deposits plus Interest over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

*From January 1958 includes interest paid out on investment accounts; and from October 1969 includes interest paid on National Development Bonds redeemed.

†Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

‡Excludes 15,439 accounts credited with $0.6 million transferred to Apia, Western Samoa.

§Includes School Savings Accounts from 1 April 1964. From 1 October 1969 includes National Development Bonds, and from 1 March 1970 Post Office Bonus Bonds.

¶From 1968-69 includes Ordinary National Savings, and School Savings Accounts, with balance dates as at March, June, and December respectively.

 Number  $(million)  
1926-27783,82758.93.560.32.198.0
1927-28804,72555.23.561.2-2.495.5
1928-29828,29654.53.556.21.897.3
1929-30852,75757.13.659.21.698.9
1930-31878,04349.13.556.1-3.595.3
1931-32877,09038.93.250.9-8.886.5
1932-33797,09733.92.939.3-2.484.1
1933-34798,26238.92.535.65.789.7
1934-35817,61748.42.641.99.198.8
1935-36840,67151.22.847.17.0105.8
1936-37880,85761.33.054.110.3116.1
1937-38920,80566.13.359.310.2126.3
1938-39946,82260.93.569.2-4.9121.4
1939-40960,56550.33.258.9-5.4116.0
1940-411,142,79258.53.350.611.2127.2
1941-421,298,48368.43.750.821.3148.5
1942-431,399,89680.33.853.830.3178.8
1943-441,494,136107.94.471.241.0219.8
1944-451,570,586121.35.584.642.2262.1
1945-461,605,981148.66.5114.041.0303.1
1946-471,634,548155.17.5129.333.3336.4
1947-481,652,765157.78.2143.522.4358.8
1948-491,679,692153.68.7142.020.3379.1
1949-501,730,072197.99.7161.646.0425.1
1950-511,760,541189.310.2179.619.9445.0
1951-521,800,709215.610.8198.927.5472.5
1952-531,835,552216.911.4207.620.7493.3
1953-541,868,788237.212.1214.934.4527.7
1954-551,900,649255.712.8243.624.9552.6
1955-561,927,422255.213.3256.412.1564.7
1956-571,971,731279.116.3265.829.4594.1
1957-582,013,664311.717.9291.238.5632.6
1958-592,052,626294.218.5307.45.3637.9
1959-602,084,837326.318.9311.034.1672.0
1960-612,116,675374.620.1350.144.6716.6
1961-622,143,586383.421.0383.720.7736.7
1962-632,190,757409.122.0397.233.9770.6
1963-642,245,339471.623.6442.952.3822.8
1964-652,563,154506.725.1501.730.0855.8§
1965-662,604,058507.825.8521.911.8867.6
1966-672,639,890525.626.0542.09.6877.3
1967-682,646,284488.127.2512.42.9879.3
1968-692,677,631x487.728.0507.97.8887.1
1969-702,710,202x568.528.2561.834.9922.0
1970-712,745,267x620.929.6626.424.1946.1
1971-722,769,190x663.528.9676.216.3962.4
1972-732,838,441x782.430.5736.576.31,038.7
1973-742,941,206x913.031.9843.8101.11,139.8
1974-752,953,893x976.634.1963.747.11,186.9
1975-762,937,1101,175.735.31,132.178.91,265.8
1976-77..1,328.138.51,296.670.11,335.9
MORTGAGES AND LAND TRANSFERS
Year Ended 31 MarchMortgagesAverage Rate of Interest On New MortgagesLand Transfers
RegisteredDischargedNumberConsideration
*Land sales restrictions removed in 1950.
 $(m)$(m)percent $(m)
192694.267.96.2236,03870.4
192780.058.56.4734,10664.7
192866.448.06.4631,14160.3
192967.150.56.4630,76062.3
193077.756.76.3532,11261.7
193160.440.16.2525,62644.1
193226.820.16.2816,94326.4
193318.316.35.8815,38122.0
193415.618.25.5615,76019.1
193523.727.55.0618,62824.4
193632.535.14.7323,04431.2
193739.439.64.6025,17837.7
193838.038.74.6526,26946.7
193940.133.24.5828,96547.3
194035.228.24.6928,05744.2
194132.531.94.6928,82851.5
194229.130.24.7328,20746.5
194324.333.44.7227,65748.3
194431.240.14.6333,70176.3
194536.242.04.5133,28464.9
194645.046.64.1038,06076.7
194762.251.93.8542,99489.9
194864.150.83.9048,80180.9
194970.646.83.9836,56476.8
195072.046.23.9939,05881.3
1951*91.664.54.0957,938158.7
1952135.974.54.1556,609218.3
1953147.462.84.2948,378201.4
1954140.872.04.4952,615228.8
1955169.282.34.6956,571273.4
1956192.570.74.7649,100241.9
1957182.475.45.0945,334229.4
1958199.192.25.2450,573279.4
1959217.188.85.1549,153255.2
1960239.0102.35.0152,855285.4
1961300.8136.65.0161,412375.6
1962331.5133.85.2757,813360.1
1963295.1135.65.5153,566336.3
1964339.8168.85.7059,836419.9
1965420.0206.85.7869,548536.2
1966487.7230.06.0771,508592.6
1967493.4239.36.3168,639589.2
1968467.8236.16.6463,925541.8
1969482.3260.96.7465,655576.5
1970573.9328.16.7772,624724.4
1971703.0376.56.8883,610918.9
1972759.8415.87.4086,042985.4
1973940.7510.57.60105,1931,339.9
19741,301.7672.97.61125,7962,133.0
19751,477.2601.58.25x96,8472,135.1
19761,612.4654.18.6198,0032,202.8
19771,870.1863.49.48101,9682,691.6
BANKRUPTCIES AND NEW COMPANY REGISTRATIONS
YearBankruptciesNew Company Registrations*
Number of BankruptciesAmount Realised by Official AssigneeAmount of Debts ProvedNumber of New RegistrationsAmount of Nominal Capital

*Public, private, and overseas.

†The extraordinarily high figure for 1934 is due to the inclusion of all overseas companies (numbering 187 with an aggregate nominal capital of $386 million) which had previous to 1934 established places of business in New Zealand and which were reregistered in 1934 under Part XII of the Companies Act 1933.

‡Since 1954 company liquidations are included in the total.

  $(000)$(000)..$(m)
1926752205.81,171.465521.5
1927867217.71,359.069817.4
1928806233.21,534.673622.0
1929687182.41,004.290324.9
1930780166.61,654.789313.4
1931848217.62,084.479516.6
1932661151.31,249.881213.7
1933450123.4979.883014.6
193432689.1517.8933401.5
193525782.1451.081048.5
193626066.0339.794219.9
1937222111.9343.488812.2
1938267129.0460.982413.2
193926788.3451.068117.8
194021384.8250.63917.6
194116570.9142.028822.5
19428259.564.51981.9
19434537.840.12703.1
19445126.9102.14643.0
19454537.1236.47416.8
19465241.997.01,43522.1
19477431.189.51,81319.2
1948148100.6286.61,75117.4
194917976.8406.32,15716.0
195014298.5251.82,07420.4
195114596.5273.62,02025.6
1952168112.5502.31,74466.8
1953215144.3762.02,04186.1
1954277165.1826.92,68555.5
1955304224.8764.62,69536.7
1956390261.11,095.53,25541.2
1957437360.71,564.53,502161.1
1958495369.61,638.33,03461.5
1959618389.81,510.42,73794.2
1960495331.21,337.83,76774.0
1961425303.61,415.83,56771.7
1962591446.12,138.43,35145.1
1963566441.11,660.34,16574.1
1964507325.51,784.95,05490.0
1965507335.62,337.55,56385.8
1966507378.52,033.55,609187.3
1967652373.92,312.24,829102.7
1968820487.23,743.55,010190.1
1969659746.53,743.56,403286.6
1970596466.53,660.16,431282.9
1971477604.43,471.75,490359.0
1972461698.54,138.56,5474,271.1
1973329783.02,991.08,837249.4
1974324606.03,009.07,749471.8
19754871,041.09,122.07,815104.6
19764571,392.09,541.0....

Chapter 40. CHRONOLOGY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS

NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND

1642 European discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769 Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1791 Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792 First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1814 Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1820 Hongi's visit to England.

1823-28 Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1825 First attempt at colonisation, by an expedition under Captain Herd.

1827 Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1831 Tory Channel whaling station established. Application of 13 chiefs for the protection of King William IV.

1833 Mr James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834 Waimate Pa, near Opunake, shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which HM troops employed in New Zealand.

1835 Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of "United Tribes of New Zealand". Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1838 Pelorus Sound discovered.

1839 Governor of New South Wales authorised to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840 Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841 Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842 Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843 Affray with Maoris at Wairau.

1844 Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845 Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846 Arrival of first steam vessel (HMS Driver) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Maori hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847 Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848 Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Otago founded.

1850 Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852 Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854 Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855 First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856 Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857 Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858 New Provinces Act passed.

1860 Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861 Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovery at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862 Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s White Swan, with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened - Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863 Wreck of HMS Orpheus on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Maori affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand, portion of Christchurch-Lyttelton line, opened.

1864 Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including battles of Rangiaowhia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. First major discovery of gold on West Coast of South Island.

1865 Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Maoris defeated at Wairoa.

1866 Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

1867 Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868 Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner Rifleman and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Maoris.

186 Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit of Te Kooti. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870 Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail service. Possession taken of Bounty Island. Inauguration of Vogel public works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University.

1871 Commencement of railway construction under public works policy.

1872 Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873 Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Co.

1874 In pursuance of immigration and public works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants arrived.

1875 Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company.

1876 New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877 Education Act passed, providing for free compulsory education.

1878 Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.

1879 Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal mine explosion, whereby 34 lives lost.

1881 Wreck of s.s. Tararua, with loss of 130 lives.

1882 First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883 Direct steamer communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1885 New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.

1886 Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887 Annexation of Kermadec Islands. Members of House of Representatives reduced to 74, including four Maoris.

1888 British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1889 South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.

1890 Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1891 Inauguration of Liberal regime under Hon. John Ballance.

1892 Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure.

1893 Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Prime Minister. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. Wairarapa, with loss of 135 lives.

1896 Brunner Mine explosion, causing 67 deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898 Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899 Labour Day instituted. New Zealand contingent (the first of 10) sent to South Africa.

1900 Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to 76.

1901 T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902 Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. Elingamite, with loss of 43 lives. Conference of colonial Premiers in London.

1903 Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905 Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to "High Commissioner".

1906 Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier. Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christchurch.

1907 New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908 Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland.

1909 S.s. Penguin wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of 75 lives. Battle cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910 Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911 Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912 Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

1913 Extensive strikes.

1914 Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal mine disaster, with loss of 43 lives.

1915 New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. Pensions for miners introduced.

1916 New Zealand Division transferred to Western Front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918 S.s. Wimmera sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. End of First World War. Great influenza epidemic, causing nearly 7,000 deaths.

1919 Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, Prime Minister.

1920 Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921 Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate. New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington.

1922 Meat-export trade placed under control of a board.

1923 Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed, and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy Produce Export Control Act passed.

1924 Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor Vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licensing of motor vehicles. Pensions for blind persons introduced. S.s. Ripple foundered off Cape Palliser with loss of 16 lives.

1925 New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition at Dunedin. Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand.

1926 Family Allowances Act passed.

1927 Visit of T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York. Summer Time Act passed.

1928 Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea.

1929 Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused 17 deaths. Daylight saving (half hour) permanently adopted for summer months.

1930 Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed.

1931 Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 percent in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.

1932 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.

1933 Exchange rate raised to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraphic transfers). Sales tax instituted. Conversion of internal public debt with reduction in interest rates, and provision made for local authorities interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England.

1934 First official trans-Tasman air mail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. First licensed air transport service commenced operations.

1935 Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. National Government defeated at general election, and Labour Government assumed office for first of four successive terms.

1936 Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalised. System of basic prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour week became operative. Powers of Court of Arbitration restored. Railcar services inaugurated. New Zealand elected to seat on League of Nations Council.

1937 New Zealand represented at Imperial Conference by Right Hon. M. J. Savage. Death of Lord Rutherford of Nelson.

1938 Mr W. J. Jordan, New Zealand's representative on League of Nations, elected President of the League Assembly. Social Security Act passed. Introduction of import selection and control.

1939 Declaration of war with Germany. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Arrangements for purchase of farm products by Britain. New Zealand Centennial Exhibition opened at Wellington.

1940 Centennial celebrations. Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Declaration of war with Italy. RMS Niagara sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine. Ballots for military service. National savings scheme inaugurated.

1941 Daylight saving period extended to cover whole year. First enrolment of married men for military service. Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial Forces mobilised.

1942 Complete mobilisation of Military Forces ordered. Introduction of control of industrial manpower. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of 18 and 65 inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New Zealand. Rationing introduced. Mobilisation of women for essential work.

1943 North African campaign brought to a successful conclusion. Railway accident near Hyde—21 persons killed. 2nd NZEF (3rd Division) took part in action against Japanese in the Pacific Area.

1944 Australia - New Zealand Agreement 1944, providing for collaboration on matters of mutual interest. Mutual-aid Agreement between Canadian and New Zealand Governments signed.

1945 War in Europe ended (8 May). Manpower controls in regard to women and young persons relaxed. Wartime press censorship abolished. War Cabinet dissolved. War in Pacific ended. Japan formally surrenders (15 August). Electoral Amendment Act providing for abolition of the "country quota" passed. South Island Main Trunk Railway opened, through rail connection from Picton to Bluff established.

1946 Restrictions on consumption of electric power imposed in North Island. Remaining manpower controls lifted in June. Family benefit of $1 per week made universal as from 1 April. Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Freyberg, V.C., assumed office as Governor-General (17 June).

1947 $25 million presented to United Kingdom Government by New Zealand. Local Government Commission appointed. First woman Cabinet Minister in New Zealand appointed. Marketing of dairy produce taken over by Dairy Commission. Statute of Westminster adopted by New Zealand Parliament.

1948 Licensing Control Commission appointed. Adjustment of exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August.

1949 Polls on the establishment of off-course betting and on an alteration in hotel hours held in March. Referendum agrees to compulsory military training. Labour Government defeated and National Government assumed office under Right Hon. S. G. Holland.

1950 British Empire Games held at Auckland. Control of land sales, except of farm land, lifted. Control of sterling funds and securities relaxed. Abolition of petrol and butter rationing. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed. Kayforce sailed from Wellington for Korea.

1951 Prolonged waterfront strike resulted in Proclamation of State of Emergency, and issue of regulations under the Public Safety Conservation Act. Servicemen kept essential cargoes moving. Waterfront unions deregistered. Establishment of Civil Emergency Reserve. Off-course betting operations commenced by Totalisator Agency Board. United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed Pacific Security Treaty.

1952 Royal Commission on Railways. Accession of Queen Elizabeth II. New Zealand team at Olympic Games at Helsinki gained one gold and two bronze medals. Report of Royal Commission on the Waterfront Industry released.

1953 Power restrictions suspended in North Island, first time for 12 years. Coronation Day for Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second. Mt. Everest conquered on 29 May by British expedition, the summit being reached by the New Zealander Edmund Hillary and the Sherpa Tensing. Armistice agreement signed in Korea. The London-Christchurch air race won by RAF Canberra No. 3 in record time of 23 hours 51 minutes. National Housing Conference held. New Zealand's worst railway disaster occurred at Tangiwai on Christmas Eve, with a death roll of 154 persons. Arrival of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, on 23 December, the first occasion on which a reigning monarch had visited these shores.

1954 The Queen opened a special session of Parliament. New Zealand took seat on United Nations Security Council. New Zealand won seven gold, seven silver, and five bronze medals at Empire Games in Vancouver. The Executive Council and Cabinet held meetings at Auckland on 25 May to mark the centenary of parliamentary government in New Zealand. New Zealand signed the South-east Asia Treaty at Manila.

1955 New Zealand made contribution to defence of South-east Asia by sending squadron of fighter bombers and part transport squadron to Malaya and, later in the year, an Army Special Air Service Squadron. Pulp and paper mill at Kawerau began operation. Rimutaka tunnel opened for traffic in November.

1956 Report of Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems released. Roxburgh and Whakamaru power stations in operation. Building controls abolished. Team sent to Olympic Games at Melbourne wins two gold medals. Colombo Plan Conference held in Wellington.

1957 New Zealand Antarctic Expedition established Scott Base at Pram Point, McMurdo Sound. Dairy produce given unrestricted, duty-free right of entry to Britain till 1967. Plan announced to almost double generating capacity of New Zealand's power systems by 1970 at cost of $470 million, including the laying of a cable across Cook Strait. Lord Cobham succeeded Lord Norrie as Governor-General on 5 September. Separate Court of Appeal constituted. Sir Leslie Munro elected President of United Nations General Assembly. Labour Government assumed office under Right Hon. W. Nash. Battalion sailed for service in Malaya.

1958 Import selection and exchange allocation brought into force to conserve overseas exchange. Sir Edmund Hillary and companions reached South Pole overland from Scott Base. Royal Tour of Her Majesty the Queen Mother. PAYE taxation on incomes introduced. Electric power restrictions in North Island. New Zealand won four gold, six silver, and nine bronze medals at Empire Games in Cardiff. Power generated from geothermal steam at Wairakei and from coal station at Mercer.

1959 Mr C. M. Bennett, a distinguished Maori, appointed High Commissioner in Malaya. National Consumer Council appointed and four regional consumer committees established. Scheme provided for capitalisation of family benefit for housing purposes. Auckland Harbour Bridge opened (May). Reconstructed Wellington Airport opened for traffic (July). S.s. Holmglen foundered off Timaru with loss of 15 lives. Twelve nations, including New Zealand, signed treaty to preserve Antarctica for peaceful scientific research for all time.

1960 Government signed agreement for company to use power from Te Anau - Manapouri Lakes system for large aluminium smelting industry. Regular television programmes began in Auckland. Commission on Education appointed with Sir George Currie as chairman. Institute of Economic Research established. Industrial Development Conference held in Wellington. New Zealand athletes won two gold medals in one day at Olympic Games in Rome, also one bronze medal. Government Service Equal Pay Act passed. Conference of British Commonwealth Statisticians held in Wellington. Labour Government defeated and National Government assumed office under Right Hon. K. J. Holyoake.

1961 Tasman Empire Airways became wholly owned by New Zealand (later renamed Air New Zealand). New Zealand joined International Monetary Fund, International Bank of Reconstruction and Development, and International Finance Corporation.

1962 Western Samoa became first independent Polynesian State. Cook Strait rail-ferry service commenced with Aramoana. New Tasman cable link completed as part of Commonwealth Pacific cable.

1963 The World Bank loaned $5.6 million for port development.

1964 Three Cook Strait cables, each of 25 miles, laid as part of inter-Island transmission project. Start made on Tongariro hydro-electric power scheme. Oil refinery opened at Whangarei.

1965 Limited free trade agreement negotiated with Australia. Cook Islands became self-governing. Auckland International Airport came into use. Jet airliners (three DC8's) obtained by Air New Zealand. Haast Pass highway opened to link south Westland and Otago. Millionth telephone installed.

1966 Labour force reached 1,000,000. Licensed television sets reached 500,000. Collier Kaitawa sank off Cape Reinga with loss of 29 lives. Visit by the President of the United States, Mr Lyndon B. Johnson.

1967 Matahina electric power station brought into operation. Explosion at Strongman mine caused 19 deaths. Decimal currency introduced on 10 July ($2 equal to former unit of £). Devaluation of the New Zealand dollar by 19.45 percent following United Kingdom devaluation by 14.3 percent of pound sterling.

1968 SEATO Conference held in Wellington. T.E.V.Wahine foundered in Wellington Harbour in severe storm with loss of 51 lives. Jet planes introduced in internal air services.

1969 Electric power generated from giant Manapouri project. Construction of aluminium smelter at Invercargill commenced. First output from steel mill at Glenbrook. Construction of thermal power station at New Plymouth commenced. Oil strike off shore at Taranaki. Voting rights extended to 20-year old persons.

1970 Council for Asian and Pacific Co-operation (ASPAC) met in Wellington. Royal Tour in connection with Cook bi-centenary celebrations. Physical Environment Conference held. Natural gas from Kapuni supplied to Auckland.

1971 Negotiations by Britain with members of European Economic Community secure New Zealand's position by special arrangement for her butter and cheese exports to the United Kingdom; Britain decides to join EEC in 1973 and later signs Treaty of Accession. First container ships loaded at Wellington and Auckland. Major shipments of ironsand to Japan from Taranaki coast. Bluff aluminium smelter in commercial operation and first exports made. All seven generators installed at Manapouri hydro-electric station. Silver Star express introduced on North Island main trunk line. Natural gas reticulation to Wellington completed. Introduction of first steps of metric conversion for weights and measures.

1972 Special measures for stabilisation of remuneration and prices. Sheep retention scheme payments. Containerised shipping service in operation from Auckland and Wellington to United Kingdom and Europe. Legislation passed for Wool Marketing Corporation, Equal Pay, and Accident Compensation. Labour Government assumed office under Right Hon. N. E. Kirk. Third Cook Strait rail ferry in operation.

1973 Britain joins European Economic Community. Wool Marketing Corporation established. Farm income equalisation scheme extended. Trade negotiations with China; embassy opened in Peking. Extension of trade with Peru, Brazil and Che. New Zealand becomes member of organisation for economic co-operation and development (OECD). First DC10 jet aircraft in service with Air New Zealand. Agreement reached for development of Maui field of natural gas offshore from Taranaki. Timber and pulp mill opened at Whirinaki, Napier. New Zealand currency placed on "near float arrangement" of relationships with major trading partners. Revaluations of 3 percent and 10 percent. Colour television introduced. First step of Equal Pay Act in effect. Industrial Relations Act passed. New Zealand Shipping Corporation established. Construction of 100-megawatt Rangipo hydro-power station and 550-megawatt Huntly coal-fired power station approved.

1974 Tenth British Commonwealth Games held in Christchurch. New Plymouth thermal power station in operation and projects approved during the year include three hydro stations, two thermal stations, and more gas turbines. Revised Customs Tariff introduced on 1 July in metric measure. State Shipping Corporation places order for container ship. Fourth Cook Strait rail ferry brought into service. Self-government granted to Niue after referendum. Death of the Prime Minister, Right Hon. N. E. Kirk; succeeded in office by Right Hon. W. E. Rowling. Severe fall in overseas reserves. Shah and Empress of Iran visit New Zealand; trade agreement signed. 1974 Devaluation of 9 percent.

1975 New measures to assist farmers included $50 million for meat and wool income stabilisation schemes, increase in lamb prices of $1 on each lamb sold to export works, minimum wool prices, and suspension of meat inspection fees. Further Government participation in offshore oil exploration announced. (Mar) EEC agreed to a demand by Britain for improved terms for New Zealand's butter exports to the Common Market after present arrangements run out in 1977. New trade deals established with Middle-East countries, Japan, and U.S.S.R. (Jul) New Zealand's terms of trade reached lowest level since the Second World War. (Aug) New Zealand dollar devalued by 15 percent. (Oct) Permanent stabilisation scheme for meat prices announced. Conversion of New Plymouth power station from oil to natural gas under way. Continued oil conservation measures introduced, including steep petrol price rises. Sharp rise in wool shipping freight rates. New Zealand had fourth highest August inflation rates among OECD members. National Government, under Right Hon. R. D. Muldoon, assumed office.

1976 In February, cuts in food subsidies and in subsidies on electricity, rail charges, and Post Office charges resulted in substantial price increases. (Mar) Government review of monetary and housing policies resulted (among other things) in a tightening-up of hire purchase terms and higher interest rates on savings. South Pacific Festival held in Rotorua. (Apr) Subsidies on bread and flour abolished. Mini-budget abolished subsidies on eggs and butter and made cuts in Government spending. Nine-member task-force set up under Sir Frank Holmes to review economic and social planning (reported December). (Jun) Cost-of-living wage order of 7 percent or $7 per week, whichever was less, issued. E.E.C. set import quotas for New Zealand butter in the years 1978-80 of 125,000 tonnes, 120,000 tonnes, and 115,000 tonnes. Rail freight charges raised. (Jul) Wool Income Stabilisation Scheme introduced. (Aug) Price and rent freeze until end of year introduced. New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement extended for further 10 years. Controversy over New Zealand's sporting links with South Africa resulted in African nations walk-out at Olympic Games in Montreal. New Zealand won medals for hockey, running, and rowing. (Oct-Nov) Rises in freight rates for New Zealand exports. Inflation continued as major problem throughout the year. (Nov) New Zealand dollar devalued by 7 percent following Australian devaluation of 17.5 percent. (Dec) New Zealand dollar revalued by 2 percent in wake of Australian revaluation. Storm caused severe flooding in Hutt Valley.

Chapter 41. SPECIAL ARTICLES IN PREVIOUS ISSUES

Special articles published prior to 1940 were listed in the 1976 and earlier Yearbooks.

SubjectYearPage
Plants and fauna194028
Libraries1940928
Tourist attractions: mineral waters and spas1940932
Alexander Turnbull Library1946914
National Film Unit1946724
Retail prices in New Zealand, with reference to the Consumers Price Index1947-49998
Economic policy and national income19501033
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research1951-521066
Standardisation1951-521076
Sources of statistical information19531016
Royal Tour of New Zealand, 23 December 1953 to 31 January 195419541121
New Zealand: Its tourist industry, tourist and sporting attractions19551143
Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems: Summary of report19561201
Consumers Price Index—1955 Revision19571214
New Zealand activities in the Antarctic19581247
New Zealand's international activities19591221
Grassland research in New Zealand19601243
University education for science and technology19611186
New Zealand and the European Economic Community19621150
Visit of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, 6 to 18 February 196319631167
The development of New Zealand's railway system 1863-196319631175
The arts in New Zealand, including the visual arts, literature, music and opera, and drama and ballet19641145
The Maori people as shown by the Population Census 196119651160
Industrial relations—The next ten years and beyond19661131
Population growth and economic development in New Zealand19661136
Scientific research in New Zealand19671118
Recent constitutional changes in the South-west Pacific19681104
National Development Conference 196919691103
Development of forestry and forest industries19691107
Captain James Cook and his three voyages of discovery in the Pacific 1768-7919691116
Metrication19701110
Human pressures on the natural environment19701115
Ministry of Works, 1871-197119711110
Evolution of social security in New Zealand19721015
Evolution of New Zealand dairy industry 1871-197119721024
Development of the meat industry 1922-7219731047
New Zealand membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development19731064
Tenth British Commonwealth Games 197419731068
New Zealand Ports and Shipping Developments19741065
Revision of Consumers Price Index 197419751039
Household Sample Survey 1973-7419751047
Input-output analysis: an abacus for economists19751052
Tourism: the invisible export19761030
One hundred years of Lands and Survey19761046

Chapter 42. Select Bibliography
New Zealand Books

Compiled in the Alexander Turnbull Library, National Library, Wellington

THE following list of books has been compiled to give New Zealand and overseas readers a selective approach to the country's literature and sources of information. Entries are arranged alphabetically under appropriate subject headings which are in approximate order of the Dewey Classification. Emphasis has been placed on works which are known to be in print. Selection has covered books published in New Zealand as well as books published overseas about New Zealand or written by resident New Zealanders. Works which are clearly university or school texts have been omitted unless they represent the most concise and authoritative treatment of a subject. Works of less than 75 pages have been indicated by an asterisk.

The standard current bibliography of New Zealand books and pamphlets as from 1967 is the New Zealand National Bibliography issued by the Alexander Turnbull Library for the National Library of New Zealand. Prices of New Zealand imprints are as shown in the Associated Booksellers' New Zealand books in print, in publishers' catalogues and from other sources, but prices of overseas publications are given at the overseas rate.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY, LIBRARIES, AND ENCYCLOPAEDIAS

ALEXANDER TURNBULL LIBRARY. Union Catalogue of New Zealand and Pacific Manuscripts in New Zealand Libraries. Wn, 1968-1969. 2 v.

BAGNALL, A. G., ed. New Zealand National Bibliography to the Year 1960. Wn, Govt. Print., 1890-1960. 3 v. A-H $10; I-O $13.50; P-Z $22.50.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF NEW ZEALAND, edited by A. H. McLintock. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. 3 v. $15. o.p.

FAIR, A. P. R. Guide to Book Values, New Zealand - Australia - Pacific - Antarctic; Book Auction Records 1971-1974. Wn, the author, 1975. $5.

GENERAL ASSEMBLY LIBRARY. Copyright Periodicals Currently Received 1971. Wn, 1972. $2.

HOCKEN, T. M. A. A Bibliography of the Literature Relating to New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1909. o.p. Reprinted. Wn, Newrick Associates, 1973. $20.

MCELDOWNEY, W. J. The New Zealand Library Association 1910 60 and its Part in New Zealand Library Development. Wn, New Zealand Library Association, 1962. $1.80.

NEW ZEALAND BOOKS IN PRINT 1976. Wn, New Zealand Book Publishers Association, 1976. $9.95.

NEW ZEALAND LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. Bibliography of New Zealand Bibliographies. Wn, 1967.

OXFORD NEW ZEALAND ENCYCLOPAEDIA. London, O. U. P., 1965. o.p.

RODGER, D. M. Theses on the History of New Zealand. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1968-72. 4 v.

TAYLOR, C. R. H. A Bibliography of Publications on the New Zealand Maori, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1972. $3.50.

TAYLOR, C. R. H. A Pacific Bibliography. 2nd ed. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. o.p.

UNION CATALOGUE OF NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS PRESERVED IN PUBLIC LIBRARIES, NEWSPAPER OFFICES, AND LOCAL AUTHORITY OFFICES. 2nd ed. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1961. $1.30

UNION LIST OF SERIALS IN NEW ZEALAND LIBRARIES. 3rd ed. Wn, National Library of New Zealand, 1969-1970. 6 v. $25. Interim edition on microfiche. 1976. $45.

UNION LIST OF THESES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NEW ZEALAND, 1910-1954. Wn, New Zealand Association, 1956. o.p.

Supplement, 1955-1962. $1.25. Supplement, 1963-1967. $4. Supplement, 1968-1971. $4. See also Rodger above.

*WILSON, J. O. A Finding List of British Parliamentary Papers Relating to New Zealand, 1817-1900. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1960. $1.

*WOOD, G. A. A Guide for Students of New Zealand History. Dn, McIndoe, 1973.

SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

ADOLESCENCE IN NEW ZEALAND; A Book of Readings. Edor Robert A. C. Stewart. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1976. 2 v. $7.50 each.

ASIA AND THE PACIFIC IN THE 1970s; The Roles of the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. Bruce Brown, ed. Wn, Reed, 1971. $5.

BETTS, G. M. Betts on Wellington; a City and its Politics. Wn, Reed for the Wellington City Council and Victoria University of Wellington, 1970. $6.95.

BUS, G. W. A. Decently and in Order; The Government of the City of Auckland 1840-1971. Ak, Collins for the Auckland City Council, 1971. $5.

CLEVELAND, L. The Anatomy of Influence; Pressure Groups and Politics in New Zealand. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1972. $3.85.

CLEVELAND, L. and A. D. ROBINSON, comps. Readings in New Zealand Government. Wn, Reed Education, 1972. $8.50.

COLEMAN, M. D. The New Zealand Labour Party, 1916-1966; A bibliography. Wn, Library School 1972.

CONTEMPORARY NEW ZEALAND; Essays on the Human Resource, Urban Growth, and Problems of Society, edited by K. W. Thomson and A. D. Trlin. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1973. $10.40.

DEFENCE PERSPECTIVES: papers read at the 1972 Otago Foreign Policy School. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1972. $2.

*DOLLIMORE, H. N. The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973. 90c.

ENERGY AND THE ENVIRONMENT, edited by D. M. Adcock. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1975. $4.50.

ESSAYS ON RACE RELATIONS AND THE LAW IN NEW ZEALAND; a series of lectures delivered at the Victoria University of Wellington. Ed. by W. A. McKean. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1971. $5.50.

GLYNN, J. F. The New Zealand Policeman; The Developing Role of New Zealand Police. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1975. $4.25.

GRIMSHAW, P. Women's Suffrage in New Zealand. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $5.25.

GUSTAFSON, B. S. Social Change and Party Organization; The New Zealand Labour Party Since 1945. London, Sage, 1976. £1.50.

JACKSON, W. K. New Zealand: Politics of Change. Wn, Reed, 1973. $3.95.

JOHNSTON, R. J. Urbanisation in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1973. $10.50.

KENNAWAY, R. N. New Zealand Foreign Policy 1951-1971. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1972. $4.50. pbk

LEARNING ABOUT SEXISM IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by P. Bunkle, S. Levine, C. Wainwright. Wn, Learnmonth Publications, 1976.

MACLEAN, F. S. Challenge for Health; A History of Public Health in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.50.

N.Z. DEPT OF LABOUR. Research and Planning Division. Immigration and Immigrants; A bibliography. Wn, Dept. of Labour, 1975.

NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN POLICY; occasional papers 1973-74. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1975. 75c.

NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN POLICY: statements and documents, 1943-1957. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $9.

NEW ZEALAND PARLIAMENTARY RECORD, 1840-1949, edited by G. H. Scholefield. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. $3.50. Supplement 1950-1969, edited by J. O. Wilson. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969.

NEW ZEALAND POLITICS: A Reader, edited by Stephen Levine. Melbourne, Cheshire, 1975. $9.95.

NEW ZEALAND. ROYAL COMMISSION ON SOCIAL SECURITY IN NEW ZEALAND. Social Security in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $3.95.

N.Z. TASK FORCE ON ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PLANNING. New Zealand at the Turning Point. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $4.50.

PACIFIC HORIZONS: A Regional Role for New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1972. $2.

POLICIES FOR REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND, ed. by G. A. Town. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1972. (Studies in Public Administration, No. 17.) $2.50.

ROTH, H. O. Trade Unions in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

SPIRIT OF AN AGE; New Zealand in the Seventies. Essays in honour of W. B. Sutch, edited by John L. Robson and Jack Shallcrass. Wn, Reed, 1975. $7.50.

SUTCH, W. B. The Responsible Society in New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971. $2.40.

THOMPSON, K. W. AND TRLIN, A. D. (eds). Contemporary New Zealand; Essays on the Human Resources, Urban Growth, and Problems of Society. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1973. $10.40.

THOMPSON, K. W., and A. D. TRLIN, ed. Immigrants in New Zealand. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1970. $5.

THOMPSON, R. H. T. Retreat From Apartheid: New Zealand's Sporting Contacts with South Africa. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1975. $3.10.

WEBB, S. D., AND J. COLLETTE, (eds.) New Zealand Society; Contemporary Perspectives. Sydney, J. Wiley, 1973. A$6.75.

WOODS, N. S. Industrial Relations; A Search for Understanding. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975. $4.65.

ECONOMICS AND BANKING

BERL PUBLICATIONS LTD. Equity Investment, 1975-76; A Ten Year Review of Public Companies Listed on New Zealand Stock Exchanges, Including Share Prices, Earning Rates, Dividend Yields and Asset Backings. Wn, 1976. $5.

BRIGHT, T. N. Banking Law and Practice in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1969. $15.50.

CAREY, R. H., and F. W. HOLMES. A Preliminary Bibliography of New Zealand Economics and Economic History. Wn, Victoria University of Wellington, 1967. o.p.

CHRISTIE, K. M. Retailing; Performance, Planning and Policy. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Economic Research, 1973. $1.50.

FIGGE, A. H. Introduction to Economic Policies in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $5.

FOREIGN INVESTMENT POLICY IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. H. Carey. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1975. $4.50.

GREENSMITH, E. I. The New Zealand Wool Commission. Wn, New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation, 1976.

HANLEY, G., ed. Personnel Management in New Zealand. 3rd rev. enl. ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1967, $7.70.

HAWKE, G. R. Between Governments and Banks; A History of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Wn, Govt. Print., 1973.

HOLMES, F. W. Money, Finance, and the Economy. Ak, Heinemann, 1972. $4.95.

JOHNSTON, T. R. The Law and Practice of Company Accounting in New Zealand. 4th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $17.50.

LLOYD PRICHARD, M. F. An Economic History of New Zealand to 1939. Ak, Collins, 1970. $8.

LLOYD PRICHARD, M. F. Economic Practice in New Zealand 1954/55-1967/68. Ak, Collins, 1970. $5.60.

MARRIS, E. C. New Zealand Investment Guide. Rev. ed. Wn, N.Z. Financial Times Publishers, 1976. $4.50.

N.Z. COMMITTEE OF ENQUIRY INTO INFLATION ACCOUNTING. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $1.75.

NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE. Investment in New Zealand; A Ready Reference for the Overseas Investor. Rev. ed. Wn, 1972. gratis.

OLIVER, H. M. Printing and Publishing in New Zealand. Wn, N.Z. Institute of Economic Research, 1976. $2.

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT. New Zealand. Paris, OECD, 1975. $1.25.

PARRY, A. G. Underwriting Adventure: A Centennial History of the National Insurance Company of New Zealand. Dn, 1973.

SUTCH, W. B. Takeover New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1972. $3.50.

LAW

ADAMS, F. B. Criminal Law and Practice in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1971. $36.50.

BUTTERWORTH'S CASES ANNOTATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND STATUTES REPRINT, 1908-64, by H.J. Wily. Wn, Butterworth, 1974. Hbk $20; Pbk $16.

CHESHIRE, G. C., and C. H. S. FIFOOT. Law of Contract. 4th New Zealand ed., by J. F. Northey. Wn, Butterworth, 1974. Hbk $20: Pbk $16.

CUNNINGHAM, H. A. Taxation Laws of New Zealand. 8th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1973. 2 v. $35.

DUNCAN, P. C. The Layman and the Law in New Zealand. Rev. ed. Wn, J. McGregor, 1976. $1.95.

ESSAYS ON CRIMINAL LAW IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. S. Clark. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1971. Hbk $8.50; Pbk $6.

ESTATE PLANNING. Rev. ed. Wn, New Zealand Society of Accountants, 1971. $6.

FEA, C. B. Legal Aid in New Zealand. Wn, Butterworths, 1975. $17.50.

GARROW, J. M. E. Garrow's Law of Trusts and Trustees. 4th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $17.50.

GARROW, J. M. E., and H. R. Gray. Garrow and Grays' Law of Personal Property in New Zealand. 5th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $9.50.

GARROW, J. M. E., and J. D. WILLIS. Garrow and Willis's Criminal Law. 5th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $19.

GRAHAM, P. W. Graham's Law of Transportation. Wn, Brooker & Friend, 1975. $18.75

INGLIS, B. D. Family Law. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1968-1970. 2 v. $12 ea.

A LEGAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS. v. 6: Australia, New Zealand, and Their Dependencies. 2nd ed. London, Sweet and Maxwell, 1958. £2.50.

MATHIESON, D. L. Industrial Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1970-. v. 1 1970. $13.

MULHOLLAND, B. D. Introduction to the New Zealand Legal System. 2nd rev. ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1976. Hbk $13; Pbk $11.

NEVILL, P. H. W. Nevill and Brown's Concise Law of Trusts, Wills, and Administration in New Zealand. 6th ed. by J. W. Brown. Wn, Butterworth, 1976.

N.Z. COMMISSION FOR THE ENVIRONMENT. A Guide to Environmental Law in New Zealand. Wn, Commission for the Environment, 1976. $2.50

NEW ZEALAND LAWS, STATUTES, ETC. Reprint of the Statutes of New Zealand, 1908-57. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958-1961. 16 v. $7.50 ea.

NORTHEY, J. F. Introduction to Company Law in New Zealand. 8th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1976. Hbk $15; Pbk $12.

NORTHEY, J. F., and W. C. S. LEYS. Commercial Law in New Zealand. 5th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1974. $17.50.

O'KEEFE, J. A. B. The Legal Concept and Principles of Land Value. Wn, Butterworths, 1974. $17.50.

O'KEEFE, J. A. B., and W. L. FARRANDS. Introduction to New Zealand Law. 3 ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1976. Hbk $20; Pbk $17.50.

PATERSON, D. E. An Introduction to Administrative Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1967. $12.20.

ROBINSON, K. The Law of Town and Country Planning. 2nd rev. and enl. ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $9.

SIM, Sir W. A. Sim's Divorce Law and Practice in New Zealand. 8th ed., by W. J. Sim. Wn, Butterworth, 1971. $20.

STOUT, R. and W. J. SIM. The Practice of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal of New Zealand. 11th ed., by W. J. Sim. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. 2v. $35.

SZAKATS, A. Introduction to the Law of Employment. Wn, Butterworth, 1975. Hbk $22.50; Pbk $17.70.

SZAKATS, A. Trade Unions and the Law. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1968. $8.25.

WARD, D. A. S., and H. R. C. WILD. Mercantile Law in New Zealand. 6th ed. (rev.) Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974. $7.50.

WILY, H. J. Wily's Magistrates' Courts Practice. 7th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1973. $32.50

WOMEN AND THE LAW IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by K. Turner and P. Vaver. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975. $3.60.

EDUCATION

ADVISORY COUNCIL ON EDUCATIONAL PLANNING. Directions for Educational Development. Wn, 1974. $2.25.

BARNEY, W. D. Who Gets to Pre-school? The Availability of Pre-school Education in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1975. $12.50.

BARRINGTON, J. M. and T. H. BEAGLEHOLE. Maori Schools in a Changing Society, An Historical Review. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1974. $8.

BATES, R. J., (ed.) Prospects in New Zealand Education. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1970. $2.40.

COMPULSORY EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND; A Study Initiated by the National Commission for UNESCO. Rev. ed., prepared by J. L. Ewing. Paris, UNESCO, 1969. $1.90.

EWING, J. L. Development of the New Zealand Primary School Curriculum 1877-1970. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1970. $5.25.

EWING, J. L., and J. SHALLCRASS, comps. An Introduction to Maori Education; Selected Readings. Wn, New Zealand University Press; Price Milburn, 1970.

HALL, D. O. W. New Zealand Adult Education. London, Joseph, 1970. $2.50.

HAVILL, S. J., and D. R. MITCHELL, (eds.) Issues in New Zealand Special Education. Ak, Hodder and Stroughton in Association with University of London Press, 1972. $4.80.

MCDONALD, G. Maori Mothers and Pre-school Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1973. $4.

N.Z. COMMITTEE ON SECONDARY EDUCATION. Towards Partnership. Wn, Dept. of Education, 1976. $2.80.

NEW ZEALAND POST-PRIMARY TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. CURRICULUM REVIEW GROUP. Education in Change; Report . . . Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $2.50.

ROTH, H. O. A Bibliography of New Zealand Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1964. $2.25.

WATSON, J. E. Intermediate Schooling in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1964. $3.75.

THE MAORI PEOPLE, PAST AND PRESENT

TE AO HURIHURI; The World Moves On: Aspects of Maoritanga, edited by Michael King. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1975. Hbk $9.45; Pbk $6.50.

BARROW, T. T. Decorative Art of the New Zealand Maori. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1975. $4.50.

BARROW, T. T. Maori Wood Sculpture of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.50.

BEST, E. The Maori as He Was. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $6.50.

BIGGS, B. G. Let's Learn Maori; a Guide to the Study of the Maori Language. Wn, Reed, 1975. $3.50.

BIGGS, B. G. Maori Marriage; an Essay in Reconstruction. Wn, Reed for the Polynesian Society, 1970. $2.95.

BIGGS, B. G., P. W. HOHEPA, and S. M. MEADS, eds. Selected Readings in Maori. Rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1967. $1.65.

BIGWOOD, K. V., and H. DANSEY. The Maori in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1976. $8.50.

BUCK, Sir P. The Coming of the Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974. $4.75.

BUCK, Sir P. Vikings of the Sunrise. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1954. $3.85.

CLARK, P. J. A. Hauhau; The Pai Marire Search for Maori Identity. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. $9.40.

CONFLICT AND COMPROMISE; Essays on the Maori Since Colonization. Wn, Reed, 1975. $5.50.

FIRTH, R. W. Economics of the New Zealand Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $7.

MACDONALD, CHRISTINA. Medicines of the Maori. Ak, Collins, 1973. $5.95.

MAIN, W. Maori in Focus. Wn, Millwood Press, 1976. $9.95.

MAORI IS MY NAME; Historical Maori Writings in Translation, edited by John Caselberg. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. Hbk $6.50; Pbk $3.95.

THE MAORI PEOPLE IN THE NINETEEN SIXTIES, A Symposium edited by E. G. Schwimmer. Ak, Longman Paul, 1972. $9.95.

MEAD, S. M. Traditional Maori Clothing; a Study of Technological and Functional Change. Wn, Reed, 1969. $7.95.

METGE, J. The Maoris of New Zealand: Rautahi. London, Routledge, 1976. Hbk £4.50; Pbk £2.95.

OPPENHEIM, R. S. Maori Death Customs. Wn, Reed, 1973. $4.95.

RYAN, P. M. A Dictionary of Modern Maori. Ak, Heinemann Educational, 1971. $1.95.

SALMOND, A. Hui; A Study of Maori Ceremonial Gatherings. Wn, Reed, 1975. Hbk $9.95; Pbk $5.95.

SCHWIMMER, E. G. The World of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1974. $3.50.

SHARP, C. A. Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia. Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $3.95.

SIMMONS, D. R. The Great New Zealand Myth; A Study of the Discovery and Origin Traditions of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1976. $18.50.

TROTTER, M. M., and B. MCCULLOCH. Prehistoric Rock Art of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $2.95.

WILLIAMS, J. A. Politics of the New Zealand Maori; Protest and Co-operation, 1891-1909. Ak, O.U.P. for the University of Auckland, 1969. $8.55.

WILLIAMS, H. W. A Bibliography of Printed Maori to 1900, and Supplement. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $4.50.

WILLIAMS, W. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. 7th ed., by H. W. Williams. Rev. and augmented by the Advisory Committee on the Teaching of the Maori Language, Department of Education. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $6.

SCIENCE, GENERAL

DIRECTORY OF NEW ZEALAND SCIENCE. 5th ed., Wn, New Zealand Association of Scientists, 1975. $8.

MILLER, M. C. Reef and Beach Life of New Zealand; An Introduction. Ak, Collins, 1973. $12.50.

MORTON, J. E., D. THOM, and R. LOCKER. Seacoast in the Seventies. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1973. $2.75.

NEW ZEALAND'S NATURE HERITAGE. Ak, Hamlyn, 1976.

GEOLOGY

ADKIN, G. L., and B. W. COLLINS. A Bibliography of New Zealand Geology to 1950. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1967. o. p.

BECK, R. J. New Zealand Jade; The Story of Greenstone. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.95.

COTTON, Sir C. A. Geomorphology. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1958. $3.25.

EIBY, G. A. Earthquakes. 2nd rev. ed. London, Muller, 1967. $3.

GRINDLEY, G. W., H. J. HARRINGTON, and B. L. WOOD. The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2,000,000. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. $3.25.

KINGMA, J. T. The Geological Structure of New Zealand. New York, Wiley, 1974. $69.

NEW ZEALAND WATER AND SOIL DIVISION. Land Use Capability Survey Handbook; a New Zealand Handbook for the Classification of Land. Rev. ed. Wn, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, 1971.

SALMON, J. H. M. A History of Goldmining in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.70.

SOIL BUREAU. Soils of New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1968. 3 v. (Its Bulletin 26.) $15.

STEVENS, G. R. Rugged Landscape; The Geology of Central New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.50.

WILLIAMS, G. J. Economic Geology of New Zealand. Parkville, Vic. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy, 1974. $23.

ZOOLOGY

BULLER, Sir W. L. Birds of New Zealand. New ed., by E. G. Turbott. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1967. $16.50.

DAFF, L. A. An Album of New Zealand Birds. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

DOAK, W. T. Fishes of the New Zealand Region. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1972. o.p.

FALLA, R. A., R. B. SIBSON, and E. G. TURBOTT. A Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand and Outlying Islands. 2nd ed. London; Ak, Collins, 1970. $9.25.

FORSTER, R. R., and L. M. FORSTER. Small Land Animals of New Zealand, Dn, McIndoe, 1970. Hbk $7.95; Pbk $4.95.

FORSTER, R. R. New Zealand Spiders. Ak, Collins, 1973. $10.60.

GASKIN, D. E. The Butterflies and Common Moths of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs 1966. o. p.

HOWARD, W. E. Control of Introduced Mammals in New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R, 1965. $1.25.

LAIDLAW, W. B. R. Butterflies of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1970. o.p.

LESLIE, M. A. Animals of the Rocky Shore of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1968. o.p.

MARSHALL, J., F. C. KINSKY, and C. J. R. ROBERTSON. The Fiat Book of Common Birds in New Zealand. 3 v. Wn. Reed, 1972-75. $7.50.

MILLER, D. Common Insects in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $7.50.

OLIVER, W. R. B. New Zealand Birds. Reprint ed. Wn, Reed, 1974. $18.50.

PENDERGRAST, J. G., and D. R. COWLEY. An Introduction to New Zealand Freshwater Insects. Ak, London, Collins, 1966. $1.80.

POWELL, A. W. B. Shells of New Zealand; An Illustrated Handbook. 4th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $2.25.

SHARELL, R. New Zealand Insects and Their Story. Ak, Collins, 1971. $9.20.

SHARELL, R. The Tuatara, Lizards, and Frogs of New Zealand. London, Collins, 1966. $8.40.

SOPER, M. F. New Zealand Birds. 2nd ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $19.50.

WILD ANIMALS IN NEW ZEALAND, compiled under the direction of A. L. Poole. Wn, Reed, 1970. $8.50.

BOTANY

ALLISON, K. W. and J. CHILD. The Liverworts of New Zealand. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1975. $12.50.

ALLISON, K. W. and J. CHILD. The Mosses of New Zealand. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1971. $6.60.

COCKAYNE, L. New Zealand Plants and Their Story. 4th ed., by E. J. Godley. Wn, Govt. Print., 1967. $3.

EAGLE, A. L. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand in Colour, two hundred and twenty-eight botanical paintings. Ak, Collins, 1975. $50.

FISHER, M. E. New Zealand Ferns in Your Garden. Ak, Collins, 1976. $9.95.

FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961-. 3 v. v.1 by H. H. Allan, 1961. $10.50; v. 2 by L. B. Moore and E. Edgar, 1970. $4.50.

HEATH, E. W. and R. J. CHINNOCK. Ferns and Fern Allies of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

LAING, R. M., and E. W. BLACKWELL. Plants of New Zealand. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $3.85.

MARK, A. F., and N. M. ADAMS. New Zealand Alpine Plants. Wn, Reed, 1973. Hbk. $19.50; Pbk. $13.50.

PARHAM, B. E. V., and A. J. HEALY. Common Weeds in New Zealand; An Illustrated Guide to Their Identification. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $6.75.

POOLE, A. L., and N. M. ADAMS. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.50.

STEWART, J. P. Plants in New Zealand Poisonous to Man. Rev. ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $2.25.

TAYLOR, G. M. Mushrooms and Toadstools in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.50.

TECHNOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE

ALLSOP, F. The First Fifty Years of New Zealand's Forest Service. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973.

ATKINSON, J. D. Diseases of Tree Fruits in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. $7.50.

ATKINSON, J. D. DSIR's First Fifty Years. Wn, Dept. of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1976. $5.

DURING, C. Fertilisers and Soils in New Zealand Farming. 2d. ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $6.

THE ENGINEERING HISTORY OF ELECTRIC SUPPLY IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by L. B. Hutton and F. N. Stace. Wn, Electric Supply Authority Engineers' Institute of New Zealand, 1958-75. 3 v.

EVANS, B. L. A History of Agriculture Production and Marketing in New Zealand. Palmerston North, Keeling and Mundy, 1969. o. p.

FISHER, M. E., E. SATCHELL, and J. M. WATKINS. Gardening with New Zealand Plants, Shrubs, and Trees. Rev. ed. Ak, Collins, 1975. $12.50.

HADFIELD, J. W. Arable Farm Crops of New Zealand, rev. by J. H. Claridge. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1972. $9.50.

HARRISON, R. E. Handbook of Bulbs and Perennials for the Southern Hemisphere. 2nd ed. rev. Palmerston North, R. E. Harrison, 1963. o.p.

HARRISON, R. E. Handbook of Trees and Shrubs for the Southern Hemisphere. 5th ed. rev. Wn, Reed, 1967. $12.50.

HEALY, A. J. F. Identification of Weeds and Clover. Wn, Editorial Services, 1976. $9.50.

LANGER, R. H. M. Pastures and Pasture Plants. Wn, Reed. 1973. Hbk $10.95; Pbk $8.50.

LEVY, E. B. Grasslands of New Zealand. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1970. $5.50.

LEITCH, D. B. Railways of New Zealand. Ak, L. Fullerton; Newton Abbot, Devon, David and Charles, 1972. $9.10.

MCCASKILL, L. W. Hold This Land; a History of Soil Conservation. Wn, Reed. 1973. $9.50.

MATTHEWS, B. W. Gardens of New Zealand. Ak, Hamlyn, 1975. $9.95.

METCALF, L. J. The Cultivation of New Zealand Trees and Shrubs. Wn, Reed, 1972. $12.80.

NEW ZEALAND FARMERS' VETERINARY GUIDE. 4th ed. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Exporter, 1972. $6.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR TURF CULTURE. Turf Culture. 2nd ed. Palmerston North, 1971. $9.

NOONAN, R. J. By Design; A Brief History of the Public Works Department, Ministry of Works. Wn, Govt. Print., 1975. $18.50.

REES, S. W. Pig Farming for Profit. Rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. $5.50.

SIMPSON, T. E. Kauri and Radiata: Origin and Expansion of the Timber Industry of New Zealand. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1973.

THORPY, F. Wine in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1971.

TROUP, G. S. Steel Roads of New Zealand; An Illustrated Survey. Wn, Reed, 1973. $12.50.

WARD, A. H. A Command of Co-operatives; The Development of Leadership, Marketing and Price Control in the Co-operative Dairy Industry of New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Board, 1975. $5.60.

WATKINSON, J. G. and SMITH, R. New Zealand Fisheries. Wn, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1972.

ARTS IN GENERAL

BRUSEY, P. Ring Down the Curtain. Wn, Monigatti, 1973. $5.70.

BROWN, G. H., and H. H. KEITH. An Introduction to New Zealand Painting, 1839-1967. Ak, Collins, 1969. $8.50.

CAPE, P. I. Prints and Printmakers in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1974. $19.50.

*COLQUHOUN, N., (comp.) New Zealand Folksongs; Songs of a Young Country. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. $2.95.

DOCKING, G. C. Two Hundred Years of New Zealand Painting. Wn, Reed, 1971. $29.50.

DOWNES, P. E. Shadows on the Stage; Theatre in New Zealand; The First Seventy Years. Dn, McIndoe, 1975. $9.50.

DOWNES, P. E. and P. HARCOURT. Voices in the Air; Radio Broadcasting in New Zealand. Wn, Methuen, 1976. $9.50.

KNIGHT, H. Photography in New Zealand; A Social and Technical History. Dn, McIndoe, 1971 $7.20.

NEW ZEALAND POTTERS; Their Work and Words, edited by Doreen Blumhardt. Wn, Reed, 1976 $15.95.

NORTHCOTE-BADE, S. Colonial Furniture in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. o.p.

STACKPOOLE, J. M. and P. BEAVEN. Architecture, 1820-1970. Wn, Reed, 1972. o.p.

SPORT, INCLUDING MOUNTAINEERING

AGNEW, I. J. Kiwis Can Fly. Ak, Marketforce, 1976. $7.95.

ALLAN, W. J. D. Power and Sail; A Complete Guide to Yachting and Boating in New Zealand. Ak, Heinemann, 1975.

BULL, M. A. Vintage Motor Cycling; A Record of Motor Cycling in New Zealand from 1899 to 1931. Masterton, Hedley's Bookshop, 1970. o.p.

CARMAN, A. H. New Zealand International Cricket, 1894-1974. Tawa, Sporting Publications, 1975. $12.95.

CUTHBERTSON, K. E. Pighunting in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

DOOGUE, R. B., and J. M. MORELAND. New Zealand Sea Anglers' Guide. 5th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $5.50.

FORRESTER, R. and ILLINGWORTH, N. Hunting in New Zealand. 2d. ed. Wn, Reed, 1973. $4.50.

HEINE, A. J. Mountaincraft Manual. Wn, National Mountain Safety Council of New Zealand, 1971. 80c.

HOWITT, R. J. New Zealand Rugby Greats. Ak, Moa Publications, 1975. $7.50.

KELLY, G. M. Golf in New Zealand; A Centennial History. Wn, New Zealand Golf Association. 1971. $4.50.

LOUSLEY, D. P. Guide to the Ski Fields of the South Island, New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1976. $2.95.

MACLEAN, P. J. The Veteran Years of New Zealand Motoring. Wn, Reed, 1971. $5.95.

SWAN, A. C. They Played for New Zealand; A Complete Record of New Zealand Rugby Representatives 1884-1972 and Their Matches. Wn, N.Z. Rugby Football Union, 1973. $1.50.

TODD, S. P. DB Sporting Records of New Zealand. Ak, Moa Publications, 1976. $9.95.

LITERATURE, GENERAL

CURNOW, W. T. L. Essays on New Zealand Literature. Ak, Heinemann, 1973. $5.50.

MCCORMICK, E. H. New Zealand Literature; a Survey. London, O.U.P., 1959. o.p.

ORBELL, M. R., comp. Contemporary Maori Writing. Wn, Reed, 1970. $3.95.

REID, J. C., ed. A Book of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1964. $3.95.

POETRY

AN ANTHOLOGY OF TWENTIETH CENTURY NEW ZEALAND POETRY, selected by Vincent O'Sullivan 2nd ed. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1976. Hbk $10.50; Pbk $7.

CURNOW, T. A. M. The Penguin Book of New Zealand Verse. Harmondsworth, Eng., Penguin Books, 1966. $1.25.

JONES, G. M. These Islands; A Collection of New Zealand Verse. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973. $2.95.

MCQUEEN, H. J. Ten Modern New Zealand Poets. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973. Hbk $4.95; Pbk $3.25.

MITCALFE, B. Maori Poetry; The Singing Word. Wn, Price Milburn, 1974. $6.30.

NGATA, A. T., (ed.) Nga Moteatea. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1959-72. 3v. Collection of Maori Songs. v. 1, 3 o.p.; v. 2, $7.50.

POETRY NEW ZEALAND. V. 2. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1974. Hbk $4; Pbk $2.50.

ALLEY, R. Winds of Change; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1972.

BAXTER, J. K. The Labyrinth; poems 1944-72. Wn, O.U.P., 1974. Hbk $4.35; Pbk $2.95.

JAMES K. BAXTER; A Memorial Volume. Wn, A. Taylor, 1972. $2.95.

DOYLE, C. D. James K. Baxter. Boston, Twayne, 1976.

O'SULLIVAN, V. G. James K. Baxter. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1976. $2.95.

BRASCH, C. O. Home Grown. Ch, Caxton Press, 1974. $4.50.

BERTRAM, J. M. Charles Brasch. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1976. $3.65.

CAMPBELL, A. Kapiti; Selected Poems, 1947-71. Ch. Pegasus Press. 1972. $3.50.

CURNOW, T. A. M. Collected Poems, 1933-73. Wn, Reed, 1974. $5.95.

FAIRBURN, A. R. D. Collected Poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1966. $2.50; paperback $1.75.

JOHNSON, O. A., A. R. D. Fairburn, 1904-57; A Bibliography of His Published Work. Ak, University of Auckland, 1958. $1.50.

GLOVER, D. Enter Without Knocking. Enl. ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972. $4.

MASON, R. A. K. Collected Poems. With an Introduction by Allen Curnow. New ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972. $3.50.

*O'SULLIVAN, V. G. Bearings. Wn, O.U.P., 1973. Hbk $4; Pbk $2.50.

*PATERSON, A. I. H. Birds flying. Ch, Pegasus, 1973. Hbk $3.75; Pbk $1.95.

SMITHYMAN, K. Earthquake Weather. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $2.25.

*STEAD, C. K. Crossing the Bar. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $2.25.

FICTION

HOLCROFT, M. H. Islands of Innocence; The Childhood Theme in New Zealand Fiction. Wn, Reed, 1964. o.p.

NEW ZEALAND SHORT STORIES. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1975. 3 series. $13.35.

RHODES, H. W. New Zealand Fiction Since 1945. Dn, McIndoe, 1968. $1.50.

STEVENS, J. The New Zealand Novel, 1860-1965. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1966. $1.50.

ACHESON, F. O. V. Plume of the Arawas. Wn, Reed, 1974. $2.95.

COURAGE, J. Such Separate Creatures. Ch, Caxton, 1973. $4.

CROSS, I. R. The God Boy. Ch, Whitcombe & Tombs, 1972. $2.70.

DAVIN, D. M. Roads from Home. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1976. $8.40.

DUGGAN, M. N. O'Leary's Orchard and Other Stories. Ch, Caxton Press, 1970. $3.50.

DUGGAN, M. N. Summer in the Gravel Pit; Stories. Ak, Longman Paul, 1965. $1.95.

FRAME, J. Daughter Buffalo. Wn, Reed, 1973. $2.50.

FRAME, J. Intensive Care: a Novel. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.95.

FRAME, J. A State of Siege. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1967. $2.50.

EVANS, P. D. An Inward Sun; The Novels of Janet Frame. Wn, New Zealand University Press Price Milburn, 1971. $1.50.

GEE, M. G. Games of Choice. London, Faber, 1976. £3.95.

GEE, M. G. A Glorious Morning Comrade, stories. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. Hbk $6.50; Pbk $3.50.

GEE, M. In my Father's Den. London, Faber, 1972. $3.50.

GRACE, P. F. Waiariki. Ak, Longman Paul, 1975. $4.50; $2.95.

HILLIARD, N. H. Maori Girl. London, Heinemann, 1971. $3; paperback, $1.80.

HILLIARD, N. H. Send Somebody Nice. London, Hale, 1976. £3.10.

HYDE, R. The Godwits Fly. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1970. $3.

IHIMAERA, W. Pounamu, Pounamu. Ak, Heinemann, 1972. $3.80.

IHIMAERA, W. Pounamu, Pounamu. Tangi. Ak, Heinemann, 1973. $4.95.

IHIMAERA, W. Pounamu, Pounamu. Whanau. Ak, Heinemann, 1974. $5.25.

JOSEPH, M. K. A Soldier's Tale. Ak, Collins, 1976. $7.50.

LEE, J. A. Soldier. Wn, Reed, 1976. $5.50.

MANDER, J. Allen Adair. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1971. $4.10.

MANSFIELD, K. Selected Stories, Chosen and Introduced by D. M. Davin. London, O.U.P., 1969. $1.40.

MANSFIELD, K. Complete Stories. Ak, Golden Press, 1974. $3.95.

MANSFIELD, K. Undiscovered Country; The New Zealand Stories London. Longman. 1974. $4.25.

MORRIESON, J. R. H. Pallet on the Floor. Palmerston North, Dunmore, 1976. $2.95.

MORRIESON, J. R. H. The Scarecrow. Ak, Heinemann, 1976. $7.95.

MULGAN, J. A. E. Man Alone. 2nd ed. Ak, Longman Paul, 1975. $2.50.

SARGESON, F. Stories. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973. Hbk $6.50; Pbk $2.95.

SARGESON, F. Man of England Now. Ch, Caxton Press, 1972. (New Zealand Short Stories, No. 2.) $4.50.

SARGESON, F. More Than Enough; A Memoir. Wn, Reed, 1975. $4.95.

SARGESON, F. Once is Enough; A Memoir. Wn, Reed, 1973. $4.50.

COPLAND, R. A. Frank Sargeson. Wn, Oxford University Press, 1976.

SATCHELL, W. The Greenstone Door. Ak, Golden Press, 1973. $3.95.

SATCHELL, W. The Land of the Lost. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1971. $5.50.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. Among the Cinders. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1975.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. The New Zealanders; A Sequence of Stories. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1974. $3.50; $2.70.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. Strangers and Journeys, London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1972. Hbk $7.15; Pbk $2.75.

STEAD, C. K. Smith's Dream. Ak, Longman Paul, 1971. $3.50.

WENDT, A. Flying-fox in a Freedom Tree. Ak, Longman Paul, 1974. $4.95; $2.50.

WENDT, A. Sons for the Return Home. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973.

PLAYS

BAXTER, J. K. The Sore-footed Man [and] The Temptations of Oedipus. Ak, Heinemann Educational Books, 1971. $2.

CURNOW, A. Four Plays. Wn, Reed, 1972. $5.50. Pbk $3.95.

MASON, B. E. G. Awatea; a Play in Three Acts. Wn, New Zealand University Press; Price Milburn, 1969. $1.50.

MCNAUGHTON, H. D. Contemporary New Zealand Plays. Wn, O.U.P., 1974. $2.95.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—GENERAL

BIGWOOD, K. V. New Zealand in Colour. Rev. ed. Wn. Reed, 1972. 2 v. $13.

BRAKE, V. J. and M. SHADBOLT. New Zealand Gift of the Sea. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1973. $9.95.

BRATHWAITE, E. F. The Companion Guide to the North Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1970. $7.90.

BRATHWAITE, E. F. The Companion Guide to the South Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1972. $6.80.

BRATHWAITE, E. F. New Zealand and its People. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $9.95.

FRANCIS SMITH, R. V. and W. JACOBS and G. BILLING. The New Zealanders, Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $13.95.

MCLAUGHLAN, G. The Passionless People. Ak, Cassell, 1976. $9.95.

NEW ZEALAND ATLAS, edited by Ian Wards. Wn, Govt. Print., 1976. $33.

NEW ZEALAND AUTOMOBILE ASSOCIATION. AA Road Atlas of New Zealand. Ak, Hamlyn, 1975. $5.95.

PASCOE, J. D., ed. National Parks of New Zealand 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1974. $9.

POPE, D. M. and POPE, J. D. Mobil New Zealand Travel Guide, North Island. Rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1975. Pbk $4.95.

POPE, D. M. and POPE, J. D. South Island. Rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1976. $5.95.

REED, A. W. Place Names of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1975. $10.50.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. The Shell Guide to New Zealand. Rev. ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1976. $9.95.

SIERS, J. and J. HENDERSON. The New Zealanders. Wn, Millwood Press, 1975. $14.95.

SILCOCK, R. and C. BOLLINGER. New Zealand; Land of Scenic Contrast. Ak, Hamlyn, 1974. $5.95.

WISE'S NEW ZEALAND GUIDE; A Gazetteer of New Zealand. 5th ed. Ak, Wises Publications, 1972.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—HISTORICAL

BUTLER, S. A First Year in Canterbury Settlement. Edited by A. C. Brassington and P. B. Maling. Hamilton, B. and J. Paul, 1964. $2.95.

DIEFFENBACH, E. Travels in New Zealand. Ch, Capper Press, 1974. $26. Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

EARLE, A. Augustus Earle in New Zealand, by A. Murray-Oliver. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1968. $7.50.

EARLE, A. Narrative of a Residence in New Zealand. Edited by E. H. McCormick. Oxford, Clarendon Press. 1966. $7.55.

GUTHRIE-SMITH, W. H. Tutira; The Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969 $8.50.

MCNAB, R. The Old Whaling Days; A History of Southern New Zealand from 1830 to 1840. Ak, Golden Press, 1975. $4.95. Also facsimile titles by the same publisher.

MANING, F. E. Old New Zealand; a Tale of the Good Old Times. Ak, Golden Press, 1973. $3.95.

SHARP, C. A., comp. Duperrey's Visit to New Zealand in 1824. Wn, Alexander Turnbull Library, 1971. $4.75.

TAYLOR, R. Te Ika a Maui. Wn, Reed, 1974. $12.95.

TROLLOPE, A. With Anthony Trollope in New Zealand. Edited by A. H. Reed. Wn, Reed for Dunedin Public Library, 1969. $2.50.

WAKEFIELD, E. J. Adventure in New Zealand from 1839 to 1844. Ak, Wilson and Horton, 1971. $2.50. Also similar titles in paperback by the same publisher.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—REGIONAL

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

ACLAND, L. G. D. The Early Canterbury Runs. 4th ed. Ch, Whitcoulls, 1975. $14.95.

LISTER, R. G., ed. Central Otago. Dn, New Zealand Geographical Society, 1965. .50.

NEW ZEALAND TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING DIVISION. Wanganui Region. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. (National Resources Survey, Pt. 7) $7.50.

Also similar titles on other regions.

QUARTERMAIN, L. B. New Zealand and the Antarctic. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. $5.85.

SIERS, J. and A. BRISTOW. Wellington. Wn, Millwood Press, 1974. $6.50.

HISTORICAL WORKS—GENERAL AND PERIOD INCLUDING MAORI WARS

BASSETT, M. Confrontation 1951; The 1951 Waterfront Dispute. Wn, Reed, 1972. $4.50.

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. The Discovery of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London. O.U.P., 1961. o.p.

BEGG, A. C., and N. C. BEGG. James Cook and New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969. $4.50.

CHAPMAN, R. M., and K. SINCLAIR, ed. Studies of a Small Democracy: Essays in Honour of Willis Airey. Ak, Longman Paul, 1965. $4.80.

COOK, J. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Edited by J. C. Beagle-hole. Cambridge, Hakluyt Society, 1955-.5 v. to date. (Hakluyt Society. Extra series No. 34.)

COWAN, J. The New Zealand Wars. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955-1956. 2 v. $9.

HALL, D. The Golden Echo; Some Aspects of New Zealand Social History. Ak, Collins, 1971 $5.50.

HEINZ, W. F. Bright Fine Gold; Stories of the New Zealand Goldfields. Wn, Reed, 1974. $9.95.

HOLCROFT, M. H. The Shaping of New Zealand. Ak, Hamlyn, 1974. $9.50.

INGRAM, C. W. N. New Zealand Shipwrecks, 1795-1970. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. $9.50.

JACKSON, W. K. The New Zealand Legislative Council; A Study of the Establishment, Failure and Abolition of an Upper House. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1972. $8.95.

LISSINGTON, M.P. New Zealand and Japan, 1900-1941. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $5.75.

LISSINGTON, M.P. New Zealand and the United States, 1840-1944. Wn, Govt. Print, 1972. $3.

MCLINTOCK, A. H. Crown Colony Government in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. $3.50.

MORRELL, W. P. The Anglican Church in New Zealand; A History. Dn, McIndoe, 1973.

MORRELL, W. P. The Provincial System in New Zealand, 1852-76. 2nd rev. ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $4.50.

NEW ZEALAND CENTENNIAL BRANCH. Making New Zealand; Pictorial Surveys of a Century. Wn, 1939-40. 2 v. o.p.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST. Leaflets on various historic sites; Booklets. See under individual authors, e.g., Standish, M. W., in following section. gratis.

NEW ZEALAND WAR HISTORY BRANCH. Documents Relating to New Zealand's Participation in the Second World War, 1939-45. Wn, 1949-63. 3 v. 1 o.p.: 2, $1.25; 3, $2.50.

OLIVER, W. H. The Story of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, Faber, 1963. $3.50; paperback $1.35.

PASCOE, J. D. Exploration New Zealand. Wn, Reed. 1971. $4.50.

REED, A. W. It Happened Today in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1973. $1.95.

ROSS, J. O. This Stern Coast; the Story of the Charting of the New Zealand Coast. Wn, Reed, 1969. o. p.

SHARP, C. A. The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman. London, O.U.P., 1968. $8.

SIMPSON, A. J. The Sugarbag Years. Wn, A. Taylor, 1974. Hbk $8.95; Pbk $5.95.

SINCLAIR, K. A History of New Zealand Rev. ed. Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1969. $1.35.

SINCLAIR, K. The Origins of the Maori Wars. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1974. $4.70.

SUTCH, W. B. Poverty and Progress in New Zealand; A Reassessment. 2nd rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $4.95.

SUTCH, W. B. The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840 to 1966. Wn, O.U.P., 1966. $6.50 paperback $3.

WARDS, I. M. The Shadow of the Land; A Study of British Policy and Racial Conflict, 1832-1852. Wn, Historical Publications Branch, 1968. $6.

WOOD, F. L. W. The New Zealand People at War; Political and External Affairs. Wn, Historical Publications Branch in conjunction with Reed, 1971. $5.95.

HISTORY—REGIONAL AND LOCAL

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

BAGNALL, A. G. Wairarapa. Masterton, Hedley's Bookshop, 1976. $19.50.

BEGG, A. C. and N. C. BEGG. Port Preservation. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1973. $12.50.

BUCHANAN, J. D. H. The Maori History and Place Names of Hawke's Bay. Wn, Reed, 1973.

CAMPBELL, M. D. N. Story of Napier, 1874-1974. Napier, Napier City Council, 1975. $7.

DOWNES, T. W. Old Whanganui. Ch, Capper Press, 1976. $19.50. Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

GILLESPIE, O. A. South Canterbury; a Record of Settlements. 2nd ed. Timaru, South Canterbury Centennial History Committee, 1971.

HALL-JONES, J. Fiordland Explored. Wn, Reed, 1976. $10.95.

A HISTORY OF CANTERBURY. Ch, Canterbury Centennial Historical and Literary Committee; Whitcombe and Tombs, 1957-71. 3v.

HOLCROFT, M. H. Old Invercargill. Dn, McIndoe, 1976. $8.95.

HOWARD, B. H. Rakiura; A History of Stewart Island. Dn, Reed, 1974. $18.50.

MCALLISTER. C. Old Taranaki and its Mountain. Wn, Millwood Press, 1976. $17.50.

OLIVER, W. H. Challenge and Response; A Study of the Development of the Gisborne East Coast Region. Gisborne, East Coast Development Research Association, 1971. $4.50.

PETERSON, G. C. Palmerston North: A Centennial History. Wn, Reed, 1973. $7.50.

PINNEY, R. Early South Canterbury Runs. Wn, Reed, 1971. $9.95.

REED, A. H. The Story of Northland. Wn, Reed, 1975. $6.50.

SMART, M. J. G. and A. P. BATES. The Wanganui Story. Wanganui Newspers, 1972. $5.90.

*STANDISH, M. W. The Waimate Mission Station. Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. 70c. Also others issued by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust.

BIOGRAPHY

NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENT OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS. The New Zealand Honours List. 8th ed. Wn, Govt. Print, 1972. $3.50.

WHO'S WHO IN NEW ZEALAND. 11th ed., edited by J. E. Traue. Wn, Reed, 1977.

BASSETT, J. Sir Harry Atkinson, 1831-1892. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1975. $9.15.

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. The Life of Captain James Cook. London, Black, 1974.

BELL, G. E. Ernest Dieffenbach. Palmerston North, Dunmore Press, 1976. $10.75.

CRESSWELL, W. D. The Letters of D'Arcy Cresswell. Ch, University of Canterbury, 1971. $6.

DUNMORE, J. Norman Kirk; a Portrait. Palmerston North, New Zealand Books, 1972. $2.80.

HARVIE, E. F. George Bolt, Pioneer Aviator. Wn, Reed, 1974. $4.95.

HENDERSON, J. M. Ratana; the Man, the Church, the Political Movement. 2nd ed. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1972. $3.95.

HILLARY, SIR E. P. Nothing Venture, Nothing Win. London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1975. $4.50.

LUSH, V. The Auckland Journals of Vicesimus Lush, 1850-63, ed. by A. Drummond. Ch, Pegasus, 1971. $7.

MACGREGOR, M. F. Petticoat Pioneers, North Island Women of the Colonial Era. Wn, Reed, 1973. $8.95. V. 2. 1975. $9.95.

*MCCORMICK, E. H. The Fascinating Folly; Dr Hocken and His Fellow Collectors. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1961. 65c.

OGILVIE, G. B. The Riddle of Richard Pearse. Wn, Reed, 1973. $4.95.

ROGERS, L. M. Te Wiremu; a biography of Henry Williams. Ch, Pegasus, 1973. $7.50.

ROLLESTON, R. William and Mary Rolleston. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.50.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. Love and Legend; Some 20th Century New Zealanders. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1976. $8.45.

SINCLAIR, K. Walter Nash. Ak, Auckland University Press, 1976. $13.95.

SINCLAIR, K. William Pember Reeves; New Zealand Fabian. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. $6.90.

STACPOOLE, J. William Mason; the First New Zealand Architect. Ak, Auckland U. P.; Wn, O. U. P., 1971. $7.40.

STERLING, A. M. Amiria; The Life Story of a Maori Woman, as told to Anne Salmond. Wn, Reed, 1976. Hbk $13.95; Pbk $9.95.

STUART, P. Edward Gibbon Wakefield in New Zealand; His Political Career, 1853-54. Wn, Price Milburn for Victoria University of Wellington, 1971. $2.50.

TE WIATA, B. M. Most Happy Fella, A Biography of Inia Te Wiata. Wn, Reed, 1976. $7.95.

Chapter 43. ROYAL VISIT 1977

When the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh arrived in Auckland on board HMY Britannia on 22 February 1977 it marked the beginning of the fifth Royal Visit to New Zealand in 23 years. This visit however, ranked in significance with Her Majesty's initial tour of New Zealand in the summer of 1953-54, only a few months after her Coronation. That was the first visit of a reigning sovereign to this distant part of the Commonwealth. The latest visit formed part of the wide-ranging celebrations throughout Britain and the Commonwealth to commemorate the Silver Jubilee of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, the culmination of 25 years of service to the countries and peoples of whom she is Sovereign.

While the Royal visit included a number of formal occasions such as a State Opening of Parliament, two State Banquets, and an Investiture, the main emphasis of the very crowded fortnight's visit was on informality. Whenever possible, the Queen and Prince Philip talked freely with the people who everywhere crowded to welcome them.

Auckland Welcomes the Queen

The Royal Visit started on Tuesday, 22 February 1977, when HMY Britannia dropped anchor off the naval base at Devonport and the Queen and the Duke came ashore by the Royal barge. On landing they were greeted by the Governor-General and Lady Blundell and the Prime Minister and Mrs Muldoon. A short drive brought the Queen and the Duke to the Review Ground for the official ceremony of welcome, which included a Royal salute, an address of welcome from the Prime Minister to which the Queen replied, and a military review to the music of massed bands. The Queen inspected a Guard of Honour drawn from the three Services and then returned to the Royal barge for the trip across the harbour to Devonport Wharf, where the Duke started a yacht race.

The weather in Auckland on this first day of the tour was humid and showery, in fact, the large crowd waiting in Queen Street for the first of many Royal "meet the people" walks had earlier needed umbrellas and raincoats. However, the sun shone when the Queen and Prince Philip walked down Queen Street to the Downtown Centre.

After a civic luncheon, the Queen and the Duke drove to Ellerslie Racecourse for a gathering of more than 3,000 young people. A group of physically-handicapped youngsters received a special greeting from the Queen. Later, the Queen and the Duke returned to HMY Britannia for a dinner party and a reception. In Auckland, as later in Wellington, the Duke presented gold awards of the Duke of Edinburgh's Award in New Zealand.

Flying Tour of North Island

The first week of the Royal visit was spent in the North Island, on a flying tour covering 11 centres from Whangarei to Wellington. At 11.30 p.m. on that first day HMY Britannia sailed from Auckland for Whangarei, where she dropped anchor soon after breakfast on Wednesday morning. At 10 a.m. the Royal barge took the Queen and the Duke ashore. A short drive took them to Whangarei Airport, where they walked among the crowd waiting to greet them before they left by Friendship aircraft for Hamilton.

By noon on Wednesday, 23 February, the Queen and the Duke were in Hamilton, walking along Victoria Street through another enthusiastic crowd before leaving by car for Te Rapa Racecourse, where they lunched and attended a Royal race meeting. The Queen saw the featured race, the Queen Elizabeth Cup, won by Good Lord before it was time to move on again, this time to a combined agricultural and building display at New Zealand National Fieldays Arena, Mystery Creek.

By 3.45 p.m. the Royal party was back at Hamilton Airport for a return flight to Auckland and a reception at Government House. The Queen dined privately at Government House but the Duke's day was not over. He spoke at a dinner given by the New Zealand Employers Federation.

The Royal itinerary for Thursday, 24 February, was headed, "Auckland-Tauranga-Rotorua-Napier-Hastings-Napier", which indicates the travelling involved. After a brief visit to Manukau city centre, the Queen and the Duke flew to Tauranga, where they chatted with a crowd waiting at the Airport, and then on again to Rotorua. At Rotorua there was a civic luncheon and then the Queen and the Duke drove to Lakefront Reserve to walk among the people and view community activities. A spirited haka by Maori youngsters was obviously enjoyed by both the Queen and the Duke, and there were displays of arts and crafts and community activities.

From Rotorua the Queen and the Duke flew to Napier, where HMY Britannia had already arrived. In the early evening they went to a "Come Alive" Carnival at Tomoana Showgrounds, Hastings. They were driven around the showgrounds in a Land Rover while they acknowledged the greetings of several thousand people and inspected exhibits featuring activities from wood chopping and horse riding to gliding.

On the following day, Friday, 25 February, the Queen and the Duke flew across the North Island to New Plymouth, where they "met the people" and then went different ways, the Queen to a civic luncheon in New Plymouth and the Duke, by helicopter, to visit the natural gas plant at Kapuni. Later the Queen and the Duke flew to Taupo, where once more they walked among a large and enthusiastic crowd at the airport, and then on to Gisborne, where HMY Britannia was awaiting them.

A Polynesian Occasion

Saturday morning was a special occasion for the Maori and other Polynesian people of New Zealand, and pakeha New Zealanders were largely relegated to the role of spectators. At Rugby Park in Gisborne the Maori people gave their special welcome to the Queen, and she opened the Royal New Zealand Polynesian Festival. It was an occasion of traditional Polynesian ritual, dancing, singing, and high spirits which the Queen and Duke seemed to enjoy thoroughly. But this was only half a day in this crowded tour. By midday, the Queen and the Duke were once more in the air, this time en route for Palmerston North, where another enthusiastic crowd and another civic luncheon awaited them. At 3 p.m. their Friendship aircraft took off again, this time for the capital city. At Wellington, after walking among the crowd outside the Town Hall, they left for Government House. Later in the evening the Duke attended a World Wildlife Fund dinner.

Formality in the Capital City

Sunday, 27 February, was a quieter day, a period of comparative repose after the rush and bustle of the preceding week. In the morning the Queen and the Duke attended an ecumenical service in St. Paul's Cathedral, Wellington, to mark the twenty-fifth anniversary of her reign, and, in the evening, they attended a dinner party at the Prime Minister's official residence in Lower Hutt.

Monday, 28 February, with the Queen in the seat of Government, was largely a day of formal occasions and of as much pageantry as New Zealand can normally provide. In the morning the Queen held an Investiture in a Town Hall transformed into a bower of flowers, while the Duke paid a visit to the Government Printing Office.

In the afternoon the Queen opened the second session of the Thirty-eighth Parliament. It was an occasion of traditional formality and pageantry, with guns booming a Royal salute, a flypast of RNZAF Skyhawks, a Guard of Honour, and military music. The Queen was a fairy-tale figure in a full-length white dress of heavy silk trimmed with gold, wearing the blue sash of the Garter and a tiara and necklace glittering with diamonds and the red glow of rubies. The Duke, beside her, was in gleaming white Naval uniform, with orders and decorations.

South Island Welcome

Formality in Wellington ended on Tuesday with a meeting of the Privy Council, after which the Queen and the Duke left the North Island by air for Blenheim. Rain was falling when their Friendship aircraft landed at Blenheim Airport, but this had not damped the enthusiasm of several thousand people waiting to welcome the Queen to the South Island. After a short stop at Blenheim, the Royal party flew on again to Dunedin, where they attended an air pageant staged by the Royal New Zealand Aero Club at Taieri Airport. The flying included aerobatic and top-dressing displays and demonstrations by helicopters and ski-equipped aircraft.

An hour watching the air display and chatting with pilots and officials, and the Queen and Duke left by car for Dunedin city centre, where they walked around the Octagon, pausing to speak with people in the crowd waiting for them. In the evening there was a carnival in Hancock Park, after which the Queen and the Duke returned to HMY Britannia, which had arrived at Port Chalmers from Gisborne on the previous day.

The Queen and the Duke flew to Invercargill on Wednesday, 2 March, where they spent 3 hours and attended a civic luncheon before flying on to Queenstown and Timaru. At Caroline Bay Reserve in Timaru the Queen and Duke attended a Royal Anniversary Carnival, at which they were greeted by the usual thousands of people and saw an exhibition of handicrafts and other activities. In the evening there was a civic reception.

Across the Mountains

The following day, Thursday, 3 March, it was the turn of the West Coast to welcome the Queen. From Timaru the Royal party few across the mountainous centre of the South Island to Hokitika, where the Queen and Duke received another enthusiastic airport welcome, and then went by car to Greymouth. After meeting the local West Coasters at Recreation Reserve in Greymouth and attending a civic luncheon, the Queen and the Duke returned to Hokitika and flew back over the Southern Alps to Christchurch, the premier city of the South Island and the last stop of their 2 week tour. On their arrival in the city centre, the Queen and the Duke walked among the crowd in the Cathedral Square, and the Queen planted a lime tree to commemorate her Silver Jubilee. In the evening the Queen and the Duke attended the Royal Trotting Meeting at Addington Raceway, where the Queen presented the cup to the winner of the principal race, the Queen Elizabeth II Cup.

Christchurch and Farewell

Friday, 4 March, the last full day of the tour, opened with a visit to Lincoln College, where the Queen and the Duke saw exhibitions of farming research projects and other displays marking 100 years of progress. After attending a combined civic and college luncheon, the Royal visitors parted, the Queen to visit The Princess Margaret Hospital, where she met and chatted with many of the patients, and the Duke to open the new 100th Anniversary Wing and Antarctic Centre at Canterbury Museum and to pay an informal visit to King Edward Barracks. In the evening the Queen and the Duke attended a Royal Concert in Christchurch Town Hall before dining privately on HMY Britannia, which had arrived in Lyttelton the previous evening from Timaru. Later that evening, HMY Britannia sailed for a secluded Banks Peninsula bay, where the Royal party was able to picnic and relax over the weekend, free from intrusions.

On Sunday evening the Queen and the Duke were back in Christchurch for the State Farewell Banquet. The next day, Monday, 7 March, was the day of departure. At 10.30 am. at Christchurch Airport, following the official farewell ceremony, the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh went on board the special QANTAS jet airliner and took off for Australia. Another Royal visit was over, a very busy tour all too brief for the thousands who had crowded to see the Queen or who had watched her progress on TV, but one that must have imposed considerable strain on a Royal lady who had always appeared bright and smiling and interested, and whose face and ready smile showed little sign of 25 years in one of the most demanding positions in the world.

Chapter 44. NEW ZEALAND AT THE TURNING POINT

Table of Contents

In April 1976 the Minister of National Development announced the establishment of a Task Force on Economic and Social Development, under the chairmanship of Sir Frank Holmes, Professor of Money and Finance at Victoria University, Wellington. The job of the Task Force was to study previous experience with planning in New Zealand, to recommend an institutional framework to meet present-day requirements for economic and social planning, and to examine the main issues affecting the country's economic and social development which would need to be taken into account by those concerned with planning.

The Task Force was given 6 months to complete its work and was then to issue a report and disband. The report, a 400-page book entitledNew Zealand at the Turning Point,was published in December 1976. The following article, taken from that report, is a synopsis of the whole.

In the course of its investigations and consultations over 6 months, the Task Force received over 300 submissions. It also had extensive and widespread discussions with the sector councils established as a result of the National Development Conferences in 1968-69, individuals throughout the country, firms and organisations, universities, special interest groups, local authorities, and Government departments.

The overall impression left with the Task Force from these soundings is one of general disquiet about recent trends in many aspects of our national economic and social life.

This concern is accompanied by a general feeling that it would be easier to reverse adverse trends if governments were willing to take a longer view in their programmes, and if there could be greater communication among different groups. But it remains for governments to take the lead.

The Task Force believes that, while the setting of detailed economic targets assumed too much importance in the planning process established by the National Development Council, the major fault in the exercise lay less in the appropriateness of the targets than in the fact that those responsible did not heed the glaring discrepancies which emerged between targets and actual performance, and failed to modify policy accordingly.

Governments, the Task Force concludes, should recognise that planning is unlikely to be effective unless there is regular appraisal of the extent to which planning objectives are being achieved. If they are not, governments then need to discern whether it is the objectives or the polices which need to be altered.

A further deficiency in New Zealand has been the lack of a satisfactory mechanism for co-ordinated planning.

A major reason for this has been ministerial and departmental pre-occupation with short-term matters and with the day-to-day administration of Government services and regulations. If any future system is to work satisfactorily, much more time and attention will have to be given by Government to the development of a longer-term strategy and to the integration of short-term policy options into this broader horizon.

The work of sector councils has also been impeded by this lack of co-ordination and the absence of a satisfactory focus for their activities. The establishment of better links between a central planning mechanism and the various groups capable of making an important contribution to the planning process should also extend well beyond the existing NDC sector councils.

The weaknesses of the co-ordinating mechanism for planning have been the establishment of only very weak links between the planning effort and the important decisions taken by Government; and a tendency to evade (rather than face up to) the need to determine priorities for development and formulate operational guidelines for the provision of assistance to the private sector and local bodies.

What Sort of Society?—Society is not a collection of separate economic, social, cultural, physical, and spiritual parts, but a living organism whose health depends on the harmonious interaction of these elements.

The Task Force has gained the clear impression that most New Zealanders regard growth as a desirable policy objective. It believes there is a broadly-based consensus in New Zealand in favour of a reasonable rate of economic growth, provided growth is intelligently directed to minimise the social and environmental costs. Similarly, the benefits need to be fairly distributed through sectors and through the community.

In the economic field, quantitative indicators do not tell the full story, which requires some assessment of the quality as well as the quantity of goods and services. Qualitative considerations become even more vital in assessing progress towards social, cultural, and environmental goals, and we have a long way to go in order to obtain satisfactory indicators, both quantitative and qualitative, of our achievements in these areas.

The key question in planning, however, is not what should be done, but what comes first.

The central economic fact is that our resources are limited. We are constrained in what we would like to do, firstly by the availability of management and labour with the skills we need, our stock of capital, and our access to material resources and technology; and, secondly, by the efficiency with which we can put these elements to work together. Moreover, the limits on all these resources compel New Zealand to develop the capacity to do better with what we have.

Economic development is not only a matter of what material resources a country possesses. It rests on people, and especially on their enterprise, education, organisation, and capacity to live and work together in a self-disciplined way. Without the evolution of these personal and social factors in society, resources remain untapped.

At the same time, economic development not only determines the volume of goods and services which are available, but also affects the way in which they are shared out, where people work and live, the changes which occur in their physical environment, the relationships which are formed among management and workers, whether work is pleasant or depressing, the respective roles of men and women, and so on.

A good society must seek a rate and pattern of development that achieves a harmonious balance among economic, social, and other goals.

It is through our ordering of priorities in making "choices" that we determine what kind of society New Zealand becomes.

All the evidence it has studied leads the Task Force to one simple conclusion: New Zealand does not at present have appropriate techniques and institutions to carry out the long-term appraisal of trends, issues, and options which is necessary to ensure that policy is geared to strike a wise balance in the development of our society.

A National Planning System—The Task Force favours a future planning mechanism which would be both broadly-based and incisive, bringing economic, social, and regional considerations together into the centre of the planning process.

The following considerations are of vital importance:

  • • The system should provide for widespread, two-way consultation among representatives of Central Government, the private sector and local bodies, with the following aims:

    1. to obtain as much consensus as possible on longer-run national goals;

    2. to help Government determine priorities in its own programme;

    3. to formulate national guidelines for development in the private and local body sectors; and

    4. to establish sound criteria for Central Government assistance to such development.

  • • The system should establish stronger links than in the past between consultative planning and all levels of the decision-making process, Government and private. The aim should be to ensure that decisions are not shortsighted but take account of relevant economic, social, cultural (including multicultural aspects), and environmental considerations.

  • • Greater provision should be made for independent assessment of important trends, of the issues which these trends raise in relation to the achievement of Government and other community objectives, and of alternative strategies which might be adopted to deal with these issues.

  • • The mechanism should aim to improve the workings of our parliamentary democracy by giving the public more adequate information and opportunity to comment on the main issues of national development, as well as providing a better basis for informed debate among political parties and interest groups.

  • • An important objective would be to produce a "plan", embodied in a document or set of documents. It would be based on the study and consultations outlined above and would be revised regularly.

The Machinery—In order to achieve these purposes, the Task Force recommends considerable strengthening of the machinery for planning. The main components are as follows:

  1. A New Zealand Planning Council of seven or eight members, headed by a full-time, independent chairman, and reflecting in its composition an overall image of New Zealand society. This council would be assisted on particular topics by three broadly-based consultative groups or committees, one concerned with economic development, another with regional development, and a third with social and cultural development.

  2. A Planning Secretariat of up to a dozen professional officers, servicing the council and its consultative groups; its members to be drawn from outside the public service as well as within it.

The Task Force envisages that in order to co-ordinate planning within Government there might be some changes in the structure of committees at Cabinet and official levels. This structure should assist the council to feed planning perspectives into the policy machine. To allow for wider debate on these perspectives and on the planning document the Task Force also envisages that a planning conference could be convened periodically.

The Task Force hopes that the Planning Council will be established in a Planning Act which also encompasses the Commission for the Future, and that there will be bipartisan support for legislation which protects the independence of the council and the status of those appointed to it. Increased opportunities are envisaged for MPs from both sides to participate in the planning process. The council would normally report to Parliament through the Minister of National Development.

The Future of Sector Councils—The Task Force considers that a number of the existing NDC sector councils have carried out a useful planning and consultative function, and these should be continued, with close links to the Planning Council but not as part of its formal structure.

Sector councils, like the many other advisory groups, would continue to report to the appropriate Minister or department, but would be free to communicate directly with the Planning Council, would provide input to the planning process, and would be influenced by the deliberations of the Planning Council. Those sector councils which have been less effective should be disbanded.

The Planning Council would also establish co-operative relationships in planning with a wide range of organisations other than former sector councils.

The Information Base—The lack of up-to-date relevant and accurate statistical information in a variety of fields has hampered attempts at rational medium-term planning in New Zealand.

The Task Force sees a need for improvement in the processing of statistical information and encouragement to decision-makers to make maximum use of the information already available.

Since future medium-term planning will need to give greater attention to non-economic factors, there will be increasing demands for relevant social and demographic data. At present this is a serious gap in the information base.

Communication, Publicity, and the Problem of Secrecy—An effective system of consultative planning relies heavily on a free flow of information among participants and widespread dissemination of the results. One of the main reasons why the Task Force has recommended an independent Planning Council is to reduce the obstacles which a council chaired by a cabinet minister, and with a dominant governmental component, would face in these respects.

The Task Force recognises that in some areas (for example, within the defence and security field, in trade negotiations, and in preserving industrial and individual privacy) there is still a clear requirement for secrecy. However, it believes there is a strong case for lessening the habit of secrecy in government. It also encountered a desire for more open government at both central and local levels.

If the Planning Council is to be effective, it must develop close links with the Cabinet and with departments. At the same time, the Task Force expects that the planning process itself will provide Ministers and departments with better opportunities for sharing information and exploring options in public and thus raise the level of debate on important issues.

Participation in Planning—An important aim of the Task Force recommendations is to provide for widespread involvement in the planning process. Up until now, participation by certain groups in the direction of the nation's affairs has been much less significant than is desirable, and, indeed, than is necessary to obtain a sufficiently wide range of opinion when planning about the future.

In this regard, appointments to planning bodies and related agencies should reflect the very great potential of women in the management of New Zealand life, as well as the contribution which will come from the tangata whenua and members of minority ethnic groups. The Task Force also believes the trade union movement should be persuaded to play a much more active part in planning at all levels than has been the case in the past.

The Task Force hopes that the planning mechanism it recommends will secure approval by the major political parties. Based as it is on bipartisan principles (namely, that governments are elected to govern), it must be possible for changes in priorities, guidelines, and programmes to be made when governments change.

But the Task Force considers that more effective planning, by instilling greater realism into party manifestos, should help to reduce the unnecessary instability which political factors have caused in the past.

The definition of the Council's task would need to set out the boundary between its planning work and the studies which the Commission for the Future is likely to undertake.

Focus on Trends and Issues—The Task Force concludes that as circumstances change, priorities must also alter. The fact that New Zealand has suffered such a serious deterioration in its terms of trade requires emphasis on restoring balance in our overseas transactions.

While borrowing has enabled us to avoid a drastic cut of imports, it is no long-term solution to the problem.

Getting and keeping inflation under control is a vital objective.

The adjustments needed to achieve better external balance will inevitably impose constraints on our ability to achieve other goals for a while. How severe the restraint needs to be will be determined mainly by whether we can improve on our past record in using all our resources effectively.

The high priority which the Task Force feels must be placed on the aim of greater efficiency is reflected in each chapter of its report.

Consultative planning can be an effective aid to national management in overcoming present difficulties. It can help by focusing attention on inconsistent goals, exploring alternative methods of achieving goals, and relating policies to costs and benefits so that the most effective measures can be chosen.

Such planning should not concentrate only on economic issues. Planning for social justice, for a greater sense of community, for a pleasant environment, and for the greater fostering of cultural and recreational activities, are not only important in their own right, but essential elements in measures to overcome our economic difficulties.

In putting forward its suggestions for improved planning techniques in all spheres of activity the Task Force is keenly aware of the fact that planning cannot in itself produce solutions.

But it can make them easier to find and easier to apply.

The material examined in the report suggests that New Zealand is at some sort of turning point. To the extent that the issues confronting governments (and individual citizens) are likely to become more rather than less complex, a serious planning effort is worth trying.

The Planning of Social Policies—The Task Force believes that social planning has been largely neglected in the past and that what has been done has been tackled in a compartmentalised manner. Unfortunately, there is a lack of information about society, the changes taking place, the directions in which it is moving, and the goals it seeks.

The planning mechanism favoured by the Task Force would be equipped to co-ordinate social planning and integrate such planning with other aspects of national development.

Priorities in the area of social planning are: greater understanding of the population base, and the implications of changing population structure (eg. fertility, migration, and the need for a consistent policy on all aspects relating to population) in the knowledge that some areas are beyond direct intervention by the State; greater awareness of the multicultural nature of New Zealand society and the need for this to be a guiding principle for all administrative and planning structures both in the content of their work and in the methods adopted; recognition of the special place of cultural activity in building New Zealand's identity and the consequent need to foster cultural and recreational activities in the pursuit of excellence; a need for flexibility, a preventive emphasis, and the use of community participation in the provision of social services, along with a recognition that some decentralisation and a much greater degree of local co-ordination would improve the quality of service to the citizen; a need to reassess the basis of income maintenance programmes and to develop coherent policies in this field.

The Regional Setting—The Task Force sees the key issue in this area as follows—how can New Zealand eliminate confusing and frustrating fragmentation of local activities so that the energy of those involved can contribute effectively to the social, cultural, economic, and environmental development of all New Zealanders?

In particular, it faced the following questions:

  1. How can we reduce the number of official channels of communication and the conflicts which arise from overlapping boundaries and jurisdictions?

  2. How can we bring regional and environmental agencies into a closer association with national economic planners, so that each is aware of their interdependence and the need to husband the nation's resources and environment?

  3. How can we develop a better formula for regional development, based on improved data, which ensures the best use of all resources including human resources?

  4. How can we ensure that national, regional, and local plans are sufficiently at one to avoid conflict with the nation's interest, and are also responsive to changing circumstances?

  5. How can there be adequate access at the local level to the finance required for the implementation of such plans?

In answering these questions, the Task Force came to the view that this whole area called for a new approach.

The concept of regional policy is in its infancy in New Zealand, and it needs to be defined in a way which draws together issues such as local government reform; the establishment of agreed regional boundaries; environmental impact procedures; land and other resource data; the necessary decentralisation of Central Government outside Wellington; and the introduction of new technology.

On the crucial question of finance, the Task Force considers that a restructuring on the above lines would open the way for new techniques, such as the provision of grants to the regions by Central Government and the easing of some limitations on the raising of finance by local bodies.

The Task Force would like to see the early establishment of technical and advisory committees, using Government, private sector, and local authority personnel, and centred on regional planning bodies. The latter need to be built up to provide an effective link between local and national planning.

Progress will not be possible without better identification of current trends in the distribution of population and economic growth, together with a more comprehensive view of the potential water and soil resources, public facilities, and other components of the infrastructure.

As a means of promoting early action in this sphere, the Task Force floats the idea of a nationwide conference on regional issues. Such a gathering could debate the general points listed by the Task Force, and the Planning Council should prepare a more detailed set of proposals for it to consider.

External Influences—New Zealand's small size and isolation, its dependence and vulnerability (particularly in economic terms) point up the fact that the country is "expendable" as far as the power centres of the outside world are concerned. This places a responsibility on New Zealand to make an independent judgment on the strategy it wishes to follow.

New Zealand foreign policy shows fluctuations around a trend towards greater "independence" and a greater awareness of separate national identity. This should lead to a greater concentration of interest on Australia and the whole Pacific Basin.

We have a small, open economy. But, because of the lag between overseas events and their impact on New Zealand, we at least have the opportunity to anticipate their impact if we closely monitor developments in our main markets, and in the world economy.

The Task Force believes that New Zealand is in a process of re-orientation and that there are signs of a new realism about our true interests in the world.

There is thus a need to adjust internal and external policies. Internally, this adaptation is mainly economic. Externally, we need to develop policy packages for each region, concentrating on the potential for future partnerships, not on past doctrines. Such potential can cover a whole field, including development aid and technical co-operation, investment, and cultural collaboration.

The Task Force therefore suggests that foreign policy formulation should be brought more closely into the planning framework.

Key points on the more strictly economic issues are:

  • • Trading patterns have changed with diversification of products and markets;

  • • The current rise in export prices has been accompanied by rising import prices, and New Zealand would be foolish to expect better terms of trade to solve its economic problems;

  • • The persistent balance of payments deficit shows a structural problem in the economy, and is accentuated by the rising debt repayment and servicing burden;

  • • The shortage of foreign exchange is a constraint on the growth of national income. To overcome this will require a major effort to increase exports, use overseas exchange economically, and generally improve productivity and efficiency in the economy.

Planning and Stability—While short-term stability is needed for medium-term planning, it is equally true that good planning will assist with stability.

In the area of planning and stability the Task Force emphasises the following points.

  1. Stabilisation policies (incomes, prices, monetary, fiscal, and exchange rate measures) must be viewed as a package rather than as an ad hoc collection of controls;

  2. Since it is difficult to forecast turning points in activity and introduce timely changes in policy more emphasis is needed on measures which will automatically help to preserve stability. These include the smoothing of payouts to farmers, and keeping the growth of money, credit, and public expenditure more closely aligned to the likely long-term growth of the country's output;

  3. A more flexible exchange rate system could give greater stability internally and in the balance of payments;

  4. Improvements recently made to monetary policy should be carried further, so that open market operations in Government securities can be used as the basis for a more effective and less distorting system of credit control than we have had in the past;

  5. The breathing space given by the present severe restrictions on prices and incomes should be used to develop a more desirable system of control, which would permit greater freedom but set boundaries to pay and price increases which would be contrary to the public interest;

  6. The nation's economic problems require a more determined effort by Government, unions, and employers to improve industrial relations and to increase productivity and share the fruits of it fairly.

The Public Sector—Government must take a lead in the drive for greater efficiency by reappraising the effectiveness of its own operations. Greater efficiency will be imperative if it wishes to reduce the proportion of Government expenditure to GNP while implementing its new policy proposals.

Planning in the public sector must be based on a clear statement of Government's objectives; detailed planning by departments including the co-ordination of all plans within the public sector; and co-ordination between public sector and private sector plans.

A Public Expenditure Co-ordinating Committee (subsuming COPE, the Committee of Officials on Public Expenditure) should co-ordinate all planning activity in Government. New machinery at Cabinet committee and officials committee levels is required to co-ordinate policy in the social sector and in the area embracing regional issues.

To ensure better planning in departments, the Task Force suggests it is necessary to change attitudes towards planning, to get departmental managers to apply planning, programming, and budgeting techniques, and to give planning proper priority in the allocation of time and staff resources.

The Task Force also recommends greater flexibility in allowing the substitution of new policies for old, to encourage a more efficient use of resources.

In terms of administration, the Task Force makes the following points.

  1. The State Services Commission's efforts to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of departments through management audit techniques should be developed as rapidly as possible;

  2. Departments should establish small policy units, to allow proper emphasis to be given to planning;

  3. The State Services Commission should help promote an active labour policy, including a greater interchange between departments and between the public and private sectors. Changes should be made to Government Superannuation Fund rules to make such movement easier;

  4. In view of the growing importance of statutory bodies and other quasi-government agencies, it is possible that too large a part of New Zealand life is being placed under the control of people who are neither elected nor selected by a process that formally assesses merit.

A More Efficient and Flexible Economy—New Zealand cannot rely on sustained improvements in the terms of trade, nor on overseas borrowing and investment above about 2 percent of GNP annually on average. Considerable structural readjustment in the economy is thus needed to solve present problems. Investment must be channelled into exchange-earning activities and every effort must be made to improve the efficiency with which we use resources, especially overseas exchange.

A greater emphasis on the positive promotion of efficiency implies the gradual introduction of less discriminatory measures of protection and assistance. Some industries need help or encouragement to reorganise for higher productivity. The programme of industry studies therefore should be speeded up, under the aegis of the Industries Development Commission, to determine which industries need particular attention, and where and how Government assistance should be directed. The greatest need for restructuring at present is seen to be within the internal services sector, including the public services.

An overall strategy for economic development is required. In addition to the measures above to secure more stable expansion and to improve industrial relations. the Task Force suggests that a development strategy should include:

  • • The continuation of strong incentives to earn and save overseas exchange, with the exchange rate gradually assuming more importance and other measures becoming less discriminatory;

  • • High priority to the promotion of: productivity, invention, innovation, and imaginative design; improvement of industrial training; application of science and technology to industry; dissemination of techniques of efficient management; and assistance to efficient enterprises to overcome financial problems impeding development;

  • • A reduction in administrative restrictions or licensing systems where they adversely affect efficiency;

  • • Review of the tariff with a view to producing a system which, along with policies on assistance to industry and the exchange rate, will give confidence to efficient and potentially efficient producers to expand output; import licensing could then be concentrated on protecting industry against major market disruption and dumping, as well as on dealing with extraordinary crises in the balance of payments;

  • • Creation of a substantial fund to assist restructuring, and adoption of an active employment policy as agreed by the Industrial Relations Council;

  • • Help to enterprises and local bodies to carry out better medium-term planning of their own activities by making Government intervention and assistance more consistent and effective than in the past, relying rather more on market forces, putting less emphasis on selective administrative intervention and reducing the need for stop-go measures.

Conclusion—There is no magic wand which will solve New Zealand's economic and social difficulties. But the planning mechanism as proposed could help the people and Governments of New Zealand to tap potential initiatives and resources.

Throughout the report the Task Force has made suggestions, many small in themselves, but which taken together could enable us to move confidently into a new phase of nation-building.

Footnote

The membership of the proposed New Zealand Planning Council was announced on 16 March 1977. It is to be headed by Sir Frank Holmes, who chaired the Task Force.

Chapter 45. EDUCATION IN THE NEW ZEALAND COMMUNITY

Table of Contents

The year 1977 has witnessed the centenary of the national system of education in New Zealand. In the early days of the colony, in New Zealand as in Britain, public education was largely the concern of the Churches and private secular organisations assisted by the limited grants from State funds. Education later became the responsibility of the six provinces into which New Zealand was divided by the Constitution Act of 1852. By 1871 the beginnings of a public school system had been established in the major provinces, but when the Abolition of the Provinces Act came into operation in 1876, the responsibility for education passed to the Central Government. The result was the Education Act of 1877, which established a national system of education with a three-tiered administrative structure based on a central Department of Education under a Minister, 12 education boards, and school committees elected by householders in each school district.

It had been intended to publish in this Yearbook a special article One Hundred Years of State Education but this did not eventuate. The following article on the development and role of education first appeared as part of a background paper for the opening phase of the Educational Priorities Conference in 1972. It was later included in a booklet Public Education in New Zealand.

New Zealanders set great store by education. The system of public education now provides a comprehensive range of educational services for all children, for many young people both before and after the years of compulsory schooling, and for an increasing number of adults in the pursuit of further education, training, or leisure interests. In the course of its evolution this system has developed its own distinctive character which, although not easily summed up, is nevertheless an expression of the aspirations of New Zealanders and the changing needs of New Zealand society. These aspirations and needs have never been—nor are they today—capable of translation into simple answers and uniform solutions. Public discussion of education has, moreover, often been spirited and controversial. What people care about they are prepared to argue about. But on one matter of fundamental importance there has been broad, if often implicit, agreement. It has long been accepted by New Zealanders of all ages and in all walks of life that, whatever else it should or should not do, the public system of education should provide opportunity for all children, regardless of background, ability, and promise, to develop their abilities so that their lives may become personally satisfying and socially useful. The continuing thrust of policy has been towards the creation of opportunity through education.

Equalising Educational Opportunity—Aspirations provide starting points for policies. The policies themselves may take time to introduce, but once they have become the expected norm—and sometimes even before they have—they in turn become a platform upon which yet more improvements or reforms are to be built. What Tennyson said about freedom slowly broadening down from precedent to precedent can also be said about the provision of education. It can certainly be said of the phrase "equality of educational opportunity", the implications of which have become steadily more wide in the past century.

If we look at the Education Act 1877 and the University of New Zealand Act 1870—the legislative bases upon which our national system has been built—we cannot fail to notice the emphasis placed on the provision of opportunity through education. Bowen, the architect of the Education Act, sought to establish a system of primary education that would provide a "key to knowledge for every child in the community". The national system of primary schools was justified by its ability to increase opportunity faster and more effectively than had been possible under the provincial system. This was especially true of children living in country districts remote from the main settlements. For them, however, the gross inequalities of opportunity long remained. "The time must come" wrote Stout, the Minister of Education, in 1884, "when to the bright and willing of every country district there must be opened the door of knowledge as wide as to the dweller in the city". From that time until the present there has been a steady flow of policies aimed at removing, or at least reducing, educational inequalities that country children may suffer as a result of distance and isolation.

A leading objective in establishing the University of New Zealand was to provide within the colony itself, and within the reach of as many as possible of those qualified to take advantage of it, opportunities for higher education. "I think that the sons of less wealthy parents", said H. J. Tancred, the first Chancellor of the University of New Zealand, "ought to receive the first consideration, and that the learning as well as the distinctions and emoluments of the university should be so regulated as to be within the reach of any students, poor no less than rich students, who may show an aptitude for study, or who may be ambitious of distinction in literary pursuits".

The Education Act 1877 was largely confined to the provision of primary education. Secondary schools there were, but they were established under their own Acts of Parliament which allowed their governing bodies to charge fees. By the end of the century, problems of entry to these secondary schools had become a stumbling block to boys and girls who, in increasing numbers, were successfully completing their primary schooling, were considered by inspectors to be fitted for secondary education but were prevented from studying further because their parents were unable to pay the fees which most secondary schools imposed. This obvious denial of opportunity was taken up by Seddon as a social ill to be remedied without delay. Secondary school free places were introduced in 1903 so that, as he put it, "the highest education could be brought within the reach of all, to enable the brightest intellects to be highly educated for the benefit of the rest of the country". By "the highest education" Seddon was, no doubt, thinking of university colleges, whose requirements for matriculation and the keeping of terms were, as a matter of deliberate policy, designed to encourage the poor, the part-time, and the extra-mural student to take advantage of their courses. His aim was to increase opportunity for boys and girls of academic promise. The Secondary free places enabled them to climb as far up the education ladder as their natural talents would allow.

In our community the proportion of boys and girls who will qualify for admission to a university is a relatively small, though important minority. As the twentieth century has progressed, the attention of teachers, policymakers and the public at large has, however, been directed increasingly towards the educational needs of the majority of children. The technical high schools, the first of which were established at the beginning of the century, broadened the concept of secondary education for boys and girls whose inclinations were practical rather than bookish. Since the introduction of Hogben's revised primary school syllabus of 1904, the development of courses of study suited to the educational needs of the full range of pupils has been a leading objective. During those years, too, teachers at all levels have been searching for ways by which the experience of schooling can be given meaning and significance for all children. These aspirations were crystallised in an official statement which has subsequently been regarded as one of the classic statements of the tasks of education in this country. "The Government's objective, broadly expressed", the Hon. P. Fraser wrote in the annual report of the Department of Education for 1938, "is that every person, whatever his level of academic ability, whether he be rich or poor, whether he live in town or country, has a right, as a citizen, to a free education of the kind for which he is best fitted and to the fullest extent of his powers. So far is this from being a mere pious platitude that the full acceptance of the principle will involve the reorientation of the education system".

For over 30 years this broad objective has been the touchstone of educational policy-making. The main policies and lines of development that have been introduced for the purpose of improving or extending the education available to children and young people can be summarised as follows:

  • • Secondary schools have been planned, staffed, and organised to provide courses of study for all children of secondary age whatever their ability and attainment. This was largely the achievement of the forties and fifties. It led to the phasing out of technical high schools, a broadening of the curriculum of the older-established academic secondary schools, and the establishment, as the typical secondary school, of multi-course, coeducational schools in every community of any size throughout the country. The typical secondary school has long been non-selective and comprehensive, drawing its pupils and support from its neighbourhood.

  • • There has been a steady improvement in educational opportunity for rural children, particularly at the secondary level, and more recently, in relation to schooling in Forms I and II.

  • • Special educational services have been developed for children who, because of physical, mental, emotional, social, or educational handicap, need extra assistance of various kinds. Some elements of these services—such as schools for the deaf and the blind, and classes for backward pupils—are of long standing. The development, as a matter of policy, of a comprehensive network of special educational services as an integral part of the national system of public education dates from the early 1950s.

  • • Special attention has been given to the educational needs of Maori children, and more recently, of children of Pacific Islanders who have migrated to New Zealand.

  • • Specialist services have been developed to assist pupils and young people in matters requiring personal, educational, and vocational guidance.

  • • There has been a large and very important development in pre-school education.

  • • The teaching profession has grown in skill and in its awareness of the educational needs of boys and girls of all kinds and capabilities and in its capacity to provide leadership from within its own ranks. This has resulted from improvements that have gone on continuously during the last 30 years in the education and training of teachers and in the processes of curriculum development.

  • • A national system of technical education has developed alongside the universities and teachers colleges. It began in the late forties with day-release classes for apprentices, moved into the training of technicians in the late fifties, and developed rapidly during the sixties in the range of courses, in the number of centres providing senior technical education, and in the character and status of the technical institutes.

  • • The universities have been able, during a decade of unprecedented increases in the number of qualified school leavers, to provide places for all New Zealanders with entrance qualifications who wished to study in them.

  • • Active steps have been taken at all levels of the system to establish close links between schools and the parents of the children enrolled in them.

The objective of providing for every person the education "for which he is best fitted and to the fullest extent of his powers" is, indeed, a broad one. It is best thought of as a line of advance, rather than as a route-map with a clearly defined destination. There will always be inequalities that should be removed and educational opportunities that can be widened still further: there will, thus, always be new tasks for education to take on under the policy of providing equality of educational opportunity.

It has sometimes been asked whether the objective of providing equality of educational opportunity is at bottom an educational or a social ideal. While the schools were the main arena for the creation of opportunity through education, the question had no great practical importance. For teachers in the classroom, creating opportunities through education is synonymous with catering to the individual needs of their pupils. In our time, however, it has become plain that the schools, though important, are only one of the institutions in society with a stake in the provision of equality of educational opportunity. The bearing on the work of the schools of what happens to children before they enter school, while they are enrolled at school, and after they have left school, is widely appreciated. In the education of girls and women, to take one important issue, the main tasks of education probably lie outside the schools, universities, and technical institutes: they lie, rather, in changing deeprooted attitudes—the fruits of centuries of habit and informal social learning—concerning the roles of men and women, and the place of women in the home, at work, and in society at large. This is not to undervalue the importance of education as an instrument of social policy. But it does suggest that the barriers to equality of opportunity, as we see them today, may require the taking of educational initiatives in fields which are at present marginal to the formal education system. This would include further developments in education for parenthood, the training, retraining, and continuing education of adults, and the further development of social welfare services in close association with the schools.

We shall continue, no doubt, to see the provision of equality of educational opportunity as one of the leading objectives of the public school system. Our concern is likely, however, to be less with inequalities of opportunity than with inequalities of educational performance; less, perhaps, with the creation of opportunity through education and more with the quality and appropriateness of the education provided for each person.

Education and Democracy—Not a great deal is said these days about the schools as training grounds for a democratic society, much less than was said in the years immediately following the Second World War. Then we had, as New Zealanders, been brought face to face with the results of tyranny and dictatorship; and in common with other societies dedicated to a democratic way of life we were determined that our schools should seek objectives compatible with the rights and obligations of democratic citizenship. In more recent years public attention has been directed to other issues—to such important matters as national and regional economic development, the conservation of natural resources, the personal and moral development of young people, the maintenance of social harmony and the role of the education system in improving the life-chances of children with disabilities and handicaps

Within New Zealand the view is sometimes expressed that democracy exists in name only: that the policies of Government are made by a few decision-makers who consult as much or as little as they themselves decide. It is claimed that the great mass of the population, though heard out patiently, is in practice ignored when matters of moment are being determined. It cannot, of course, be claimed that in New Zealand's form of democratic government all citizens may themselves directly influence the executive decisions that are to bind them. Democracy in this sense does not exist, nor in the conditions of the modern world is it likely to. It is a reflection of our relative smallness as a political community and of the high degree of national cohesion that we have achieved, that individual New Zealanders should experience feelings of frustration that they are not themselves directly influencing decisions of Government that will affect their daily lives.

These feelings are not confined to matters of educational policy. They may also apply in fields such as justice, social welfare, health, economic policy, defence, and foreign affairs. But in most, if not all, of these other fields the issues are largely unfamiliar to laymen, though they may engender strong feelings. They presuppose a degree of expertise that is likely to be found only among relevant professionals and persons whose experience gives them a claim to be heard. With education it is different. Every adult in the community has been to school. Nearly all are parents, grandparents, uncles, or aunts of school pupils, and a large number are directly concerned with administering the school system. Education bears directly on the life chances of every boy and girl; and everyone in the community knows that it does.

What price, then, democracy in education? So far as New Zealand is concerned there are two main answers to this question. In the first place the education system itself is organised in ways that enable a high degree of participation by parents and members of the community at all levels from the local school committee, board of governors, and parents' association, to the bodies and organisations that bring their influence to bear on policy-making at the national level. In the second place, all planning decisions for the schools themselves proceed on the assumption that New Zealand is a democracy and that an essential part of the schools' mission is to prepare young people for responsible citizenship in a democracy.

Democratic citizenship is a social ideal: preparation for citizenship in a democracy is an objective of the schools. Whatever may be said of the ideal, there is no doubt about the commitment of the Department of Education and of the schools to the objective. They take the objective very seriously indeed. The question, so far as the schools are concerned, is not one of ends but of means. Within the syllabuses of instruction, the social studies course has long been established as the place in the school programme where children are introduced to the bases of various political systems, to the premises of democracy, and to the conditions required for its survival and development. Within the schools themselves, more attention is being given to ways by which their pupils and students can learn the principles of democratic citizenship by being placed in situations that require them to make choices, carry out decisions, and live with the consequence of their choices and actions. When teachers set up classroom activities that encourage pupils and students to sift evidence, sort out the facts from the fantasies, form opinions on the pros and cons of an argument, and relate their conclusions to the consequences for themselves and other people of actions based upon them, they are preparing young people for citizenship in a democracy. And when the processes of investigation, discussion, and collective decision-making are carried out in a classroom pervaded by a spirit of integrity, mutual respect, sensitivity, and tolerance, the school is playing its full part in helping its students to develop as individuals and to live effectively with others.

Educational and Cultural Difference—One feature of our public education system is so much taken for granted that is worth mentioning by way of a reminder. Ours is an integrated system: all children in any given district may enrol at their local school, and nearly all, in fact, do so. We need only to think of some other countries to be reminded of our good fortune. It means, quite simply, that the fundamental requirement for equality of educational opportunity—integrated schooling for the children of all backgrounds—has been achieved. The efforts of the schools and the community generally can be directed towards ensuring that every child is given the kind of education best suited to his individual needs.

On that last point there is still much to be achieved for Maori and for other Polynesian children. Until quite recently, discussions of educational objectives focused on the attitudes, values, and aspirations more commonly held by pakeha New Zealanders. School curricula have for a generation included study of Maori tradition and culture. But it was not until, through internal migration, Maori boys and girls began to be enrolled in significant numbers in urban schools that teachers generally had to become attentive to their special needs and abilities. Teachers, in common with other members of the community, are attempting to come to terms with the significance of cultural difference in the New Zealand setting. It is now being widely realised that ways have to be found of introducing both Maori and pakeha children to their dual heritages as New Zealanders.

We are, as a nation, committed to a policy of integration: two races, one people. It is a policy that places a great responsibility on education as a major social influence. Any restatement of educational objectives must give full weight to it.

Education and National Development—For as long as there have been national systems of education the links between the schools and the economy have been close, continuous, and important. In New Zealand society, as in most others during the last century, preferment on the basis of wealth and social influence has given way to selection on the basis of merit and appropriate qualifications. Schools, colleges, and universities play a crucial part in this process of selection. It is a function of our educational system that has received a great deal of attention during the last decade. The tendency for pupils to stay longer at secondary school is clearly related to the growing importance of formal educational qualifications in an economy that is coming increasingly to value trained intelligence. The expansion of universities and the development of technical institutes are also related to the same trend.

In a world attuned to technological change, it is clear that the education system must continue to be sensitive to the unfolding needs of the New Zealand economy. Without higher levels of education and vocational training, higher levels of productivity will be difficult to achieve. Without higher levels of productivity, further improvements in education could well be delayed for want of the financial and other resources needed to support them. The reciprocal nature of this relationship is now much better appreciated than it was even a few years ago. There can be no doubt that the schools and colleges should accept a responsibility for national development. The questions are how much importance they should give to this objective among others, and how they can best make their contribution to it. For tertiary educational institutions—universities, technical institutes, and teachers colleges—the responsibility will be much more immediate and pressing than it will be for the schools.

The changing role of the secondary school is worth mentioning in this connection. During the last decade or so there has been a marked decline in pre-vocational training courses given in secondary schools. This has been associated with the development of vocational training at the tertiary level, particularly through the growth of the technical institutes and the diversification of their courses. It has been associated, too, with changes in attitudes among an increasing number of employers, who now expect to find among school leavers evidence of a sound general education, with competence in English and Mathematics, as their main vocational pre-requisites. For their part, the secondary schools are rethinking their approaches to the general education of their pupils, particularly those who in earlier years would have found themselves in specialised vocational courses.

Education and Personal Development—In the final analysis education is concerned with the development of persons: and in the fostering of this development the schools and other institutions of public education have an important part to play. Schools exist to provide forms of experience that cannot be provided at all, or cannot be provided as well, by families and other institutions, such as churches and community organisations. It is generally assumed that, outside the family, schools are the greatest single influence on children and young people. Certainly all discussions on public education take that as their starting point. As to the nature of that influence, however, there are always marked differences of opinion. For as long as there have been schools there have been debates about the nature of their contribution to society: whether they are effectively carrying out the tasks allotted to them; whether these are the right tasks, having regard to the needs of society and the capabilities of the children and young people entrusted to them; and how, if the schools are to be given new tasks to perform, they are to be enabled to do them. In New Zealand today, as in many other countries, there is searching discussion in many places about the objectives of public education and the tasks of the schools. So far as the schools—especially the secondary schools—are concerned, these discussions centre on the fundamental issues of schools as places where children and young people spend a great part of their lives and are taught those things that the community believes to be in their best interest.

It seems to be assumed in these discussions that the schools should accept greater responsibility in fields of personal and moral development that were until recently rather more the responsibility of families, churches, and other institutions outside the school. This shows clearly in various proposals for primary and intermediate schools to provide social education, including sex education, as a regular part of the curriculum, and for secondary schools to continue and extend the courses in social education that most now provide. But schools are public institutions; and the further that they are expected to venture into fields of private morality, the more do they face a dilemma: in a community in which views on private morality, especially sexual morality, diverge so much, what standpoint should teachers, acting in the public interest, be expected to take? Nor are teachers, any more than the community at large, of one mind. On questions of morality, conscience, and social concern there is a wide diversity of opinion among teachers, as there is in the community at large.

These issues, we have already noted, are of special concern to secondary teachers, for it is among their students that conflicts of opinion, value, and behaviour arise most forcibly. Teachers are expected to act in loco parentis but it is becoming more and more difficult for them to know how they should act in this role, so various are the attitudes and life styles of the parents to whom they must discharge that responsibility.

The signs are that a point has been reached when an attempt should be made to formulate the responsibilities that public education should be expected to shoulder for society. Such a statement should set out objectives for the institutions of public education at various levels. The department believes the issues raised in these pages so far to be highly relevant to such an inquiry.

The "inquiry" mentioned in the final paragraph took the form of the Educational Development Conference 1974, briefly described in the Education section of this Yearbook.

Appendix

The following table, based on provisional results from the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings, shows the total population of 15 years of age and above by the level of formal education attended. It should be noted that each person is included under every applicable level and so may be included more than once. For example, a person who proceeded through secondary school to a university, technical institute, or teachers college will be included under Secondary School and under the appropriate tertiary institution.

 Education Level Attended 
Age Group (Years)No Attendance at Secondary or Tertiary Levels of EducationSecondary School (Form III onwards)UniversityTechnical InstituteTeachers CollegeOther Tertiary      
   Males   
15-192,250150,4506,67020,7709405,830
20-244,060124,65021,30028,8304,1806,900
25-294,960119,81020,27024,8905,8106,800
30-344,82092,80013,51017,3103,9905,560
35-396,45080,66010,27013,2203,2604,620
40-4410,61066,8107,6309,4402,6303,880
45-4923,49060,4907,7709,2402,7003,190
50-5428,29050,0307,7607,2802,3902,760
55-5928,43038,0404,8904,8601,6101,990
60-6429,76029,9204,4203,7101,2601,080
65-6929,46020,1103,2402,420700560
70-7422,01011,8901,9601,200640350
75-7913,5406,2301,270710200220
80 and over11,1104,030630280200130
  Total219,240855,920111,590144,16030,51043,870
   Females   
15-192,100145,4306,14011,4104,2409,860
20-244,540124,72014,52011,76012,27012,730
25-295,460117,92010,7607,48011,67010,850
30-346,04092,0706,7103,5808,5907,890
35-397,50080,6805,000,3507,0006,800
40-4411,47063,7903,5002,2204,7805,300
45-4923,75056,4604,0202,3604,4805,270
50-5432,46046,6902,9602,0003,3703,900
55-5935,00036,5202,3601,6502,1102,940
60-6437,07029,6201,9601,1301,7402,010
65-6935,70022,7801,7509402,0001,120
70-7429,17015,1901,3708201,900490
75-7921,3909,240730540790270
80 and over23,5108,030590180650170
  Total275,160849,14062,37049,42065,59069,600

Chapter 46. MANUFACTURING CENSUS 1974-75: SUMMARY RESULTS

Table of Contents

The 1974-75 Census of Manufacturing was the first census to be carried out in a new series of integrated economic censuses. Considerable revisions were made to the concepts, definitions, and coverage of this census as compared with earlier censuses of manufacturing. This makes comparisons between 1974-75 data and those for earlier years difficult. The major areas of the revision were as follows:

  • • industries were reclassified to conform to the New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification;

  • • ancillary units, such as servicing units, laboratories, etc., were included in the census;

  • • the basis of valuation was changed from cost of materials used and factory door value of production to purchase and sale prices;

  • • the census year was changed from a year centred on 31 March to a year ended 31 March or the nearest prior balance date;

  • • a number of new or changed definitions were introduced. These are given below.

A change which benefited the small manufacturer was the provision of a short simplified questionnaire for small single-location firms employing an average of less than 10 persons during the year.

The turnover of all manufacturing industries during the year ended 31 March 1975 was $6,433 million. Other aggregates taken from the 1974-75 Manufacturing Census were as follows:

EstablishmentsNo.8,348
Ancillary unitsNo.535
Persons engaged—  
MalesNo.210,297
FemalesNo.82,151
Salaries and wages paid—  
Males$(million)1,138
Females$(million)251
Purchases and other expenses$(million)4,664
Value added$(million)2,144
Capital expenditure less disposals$(million)364

Definitions

Establishments—Productive units, usually factories, engaged predominantly in manufacturing operations.

Ancillary Units—Servicing units, usually head offices, laboratories, workshops, etc., engaged in predominantly servicing manufacturing establishments.

Persons Engaged—Numbers of people employed in the establishments and ancillary units at, or on the nearest pay day to, 15 April 1975.

Salaries and Wages—Gross earnings during the accounting year, before taxation and other deductions, of all employees in the establishments or ancillary units included in the census. Included are such items as sick and holiday pay, bonuses, benefit allowances, payments under piece rate schemes and capitalised salaries and wages. Excluded are contributions to superannuation funds by employer, reimbursement allowances, payments from superannuation funds, and drawings by working proprietors.

Depreciation—As charged in the books of account on fixed tangible assets owned by the establishments or ancillary units included in the census.

Purchases and Other Expenses—The sum of all operating expenses except interest, bad debts, and donations, and including value of capital work done by own employees but excluding salaries and wages and depreciation.

Turnover—The total of all sales and other income except interest, dividends, royalties, patent fees and insurance claims received, plus the value of capital work done by own employees.

Value Added—The industry and sector contribution to Gross Domestic Product comprising the sum of salaries and wages paid, employer contributions to super schemes, operating surplus, depreciation, and indirect taxes less subsidies.

Capital Expenditure Less Disposals—The sum of the amount spent by establishments and ancillary units in the census on the purchase, less the proceeds received from the sale, of the following types of fixed asset: land; buildings and other construction; road vehicles, ships and aircraft; plant, machinery and equipment; other, such as artefacts.

INDUSTRY GROUPS—Details of establishments, ancillary units, persons engaged, and salaries and wages paid are shown by industry group in the following table.

Industry GroupEstablishmentsAncillary UnitsPersons Engaged at Mid-AprilSalaries and Wages Paid
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
*Suppressed to avoid disclosure of confidential data.
 No.No.No. $(000) 
Food manufacturing1,02010150,55112,046260,20934,330
Beverages121183,4361,11119,7063,147
Tobacco manufactures5-5706123,1642,110
Manufacture of textiles357139,3889,29650,63328,409
Manufacture of wearing apparel738233,22718,32217,21650,362
Manufactures of leather, leather substitutes and fur, (except footwear and clothing)12141,6231,3907,5844,122
Manufacture of footwear, (except rubber, plastic, or wooden)10772,2152,99010,9549,133
Manufacture of wood and cork products, except furniture8501615,0101,23275,5093,694
Manufacture of furniture439135,2661,43225,3454,183
Manufacture of paper and paper products9887,7901,88053,4397,188
Printing, publishing and allied industries5213812,4145,65467,73218,454
Manufacture of industrial chemicals10894,33491826,4043,306
Manufacture of other chemical products159284,3182,86223,0989,377
Petroleum refineries12-305191,877*
Manufacture of miscellaneous products of petroleum and coal225325441,752142
Manufacture of rubber products83253,88898223,3593,048
Manufacture of plastic products18663,2361,77819,8186,246
Manufacture of pottery, china, and earthenware13-4294752,0691,253
Manufacture of glass and glass products46-1,86836113,6751,435
Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products424147,20446238,4361,406
Iron and steel basic industries4612,91021719,8441,005
Non-ferrous metal basic industries7722,64939917,2611,342
Manufacture of fabricated metal products (except machinery and equipment)1,0873719,3593,618100,51811,569
Manufacture of machinery (except electrical)7941612,7711,44067,1044,039
Manufacture of electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies2792811,6366,34960,93720,726
Manufacture of transport equipment344317,0952,41889,1018,652
Manufacture of professional and scientific equipment, photographic and optical goods, etc42..4374072,1721,119
Other manufacturing industries24962,2002,02310,9765,781
Total8,348421206,45480,7371,109,891245,660
Ancillary units servicing only manufacturing..512,40968918,7722,598
Ancillary units servicing predominantly manufacturing..631,4347259,6802,796
Total8,348535210,29782,1511,138,344251,053

The following table shows other financial statistics by industry group, as obtained at the 1974-75 Census of Manufacturing.

Industry GroupDepreciationPurchases and Other ExpensesTurnoverValue AddedCapital Expenditure Less Disposals
 $(thousand)
Food manufacturing41,1941,374,3841,746,327387,91093,160
Beverages4,02181,099115,47841,74713,650
Tobacco manufactures1,05729,38540,52413,7961,239
Manufacture of textiles7,479217,276348,090113,37314,162
Manufacture of wearing apparel2,591120,490199,75588,1145,321
Manufactures of leather, leather substitutes, and fur (except footwear and clothing)1,01334,39246,98615,4423,133
Manufacture of footwear (except rubber, plastic, or wooden)92736,41659,21826,7491,596
Manufacture of wood and cork products (except furniture)8,141232,227347,031129,94620,704
Manufacture of furniture1,50171,499110,97843,4163,772
Manufacture of paper and paper products18,296243,985358,921118,38367,111
Printing, publishing, and allied industries7,265124,866236,622124,08113,766
Manufacture of industrial chemicals6,914199,807240,26761,41811,233
Manufacture of other chemical products3,288142,327186,87560,9187,530
Petroleum refineries1,26524,15831,33310,63474
Manufacture of miscellaneous products of petroleum and coal2708,88912,0573,769426
Manufacture of rubber products2,43359,25187,73935,3693,464
Manufacture of plastic products3,85481,227110,74140,6566,096
Manufacture of pottery, china, and earthenware2224,0788,1454,441324
Manufacture of glass and glass products1,79024,54544,35823,4404,524
Manufacture of other non-metallic mineral products7,497134,839198,74369,90715,218
Iron and steel basic industries4,195121,430148,29946,4523,599
Non-ferrous metal basic industries5,05185,133116,94740,5324,672
Manufacture of fabricated metal products (except machinery and equipment)8,827323,877463,052176,44020,033
Manufacture of machinery (except electrical)4,596200,241288,093108,2947,591
Manufacture of electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies5,639255,053340,931126,75010,255
Manufacture of transport equipment7,599298,918403,806139,34619,238
Manufacture of professional and scientific equipment, photographic and optical goods, etc.2009,34813,5965,248703
Other manufacturing industries1,26138,20459,72425,5052,480
Total158,3864,607,3446,364,6372,082,078355,473
Ancillary units servicing only manufacturing1,60125,08427,13935,4484,140
Ancillary units servicing predominantly manufacturing1,26631,63740,96626,4794,056
Total161,2534,664,0676,432,7402,144,006363,668

Chapter 47. LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

Later statistical information has become available during the course of printing the Yearbook. Some of these statistics are entered in the Statistical Summary (pp. 890 to 920). Other information is given in the following pages with references to appropriate sections of the Yearbook. Readers are referred to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics and the frequent Information Service releases of the Department of Statistics for the most recent information on many statistical series.

POPULATION

Population (p. 55)—See Statistical Summary.

Employment—The total labour force in October 1976 was estimated to number 1,206,800, of whom 827,700 were males and 379,100 females. Registered unemployed during recent months are shown in the following table:

PeriodRegistered UnemployedEmployed on Special Work
With Government Depts.With Local Authorities
Monthly average—   
19765,3565,593581
End of month—   
1977—January5,2755,400601
February4,6685,122669
March4,1065,063573
April4,3855,101564
May4,9605,398634
June5,8446,100773
July6,5906,685943

Migration (p. 69)—Total arrivals and departures are classified in the following table.

CategoryYear Ended 31 March
197519761977
*Mainly on cruise ships.
Arrivals   
Permanent and long-term arrivals65,90048,46037,020
New Zealand residents returning251,561245,618249,982
Temporary visitors361,194384,586380,222
Totals678,655678,664667,224
Crews180,474176,379183,786
Through passengers*117,441136,927140,920
Grand totals, all arrivals976,570991,970991,930
Departures   
Permanent and long-term departures43,46143,16056,092
New Zealand residents departing temporarily249,884240,658244,998
Temporary visitors departing356,169389,654382,404
Totals649,514673,472683,494
Crews179,972175,004181,243
Through passengers*117,441136,927140,920
Grand totals, all departures946,927985,4031,005,657
Net inflow (+) or outflow (-)+29,643+6,567-13,727

Provisional* Population Projections (p. 57)—An indication of possible future growth of the total New Zealand population up to 2006 is given by the alternative projections which follow.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels and difficulties in forecasting the future behaviour of these components of population change.

It should be understood that, as with all demographic projections prepared by the Department of Statistics, these projections are not strict forecasts or targets, but conditional forecasts based on the stated assumptions. Presentation and use of the projections, therefore, cannot be divorced from consideration of the assumptions adopted. It is the responsibility of users to decide which assumptions are the most appropriate for forecasting purposes.

Age-specific projections, equivalent to those in the table below are available on application to the Demographic Analysis Section, Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Christchurch.

As at 31 MarchProjected Total PopulationAssuming Net Annual Immigration of:
-10,000-5,000Zero5,00010,00015,000

†The base population for these projections is the estimated population at 31 March 1976. They are based on the following assumptions.

(a) That future fertility experience will be in accordance with the alternative trends in age-of-mother specific birth rates described in (s) below;

(b) That 1970-72 Life Table Mortality Rates (Total Population) apply throughout the projection period.

‡The assumed net immigration is taken to commence from the projection base point of 31 March 1976.

§These projections incorporate three alternative fertility assumptions—designated "high", "medium" and "low"—derived by analysis of trends in birth rates within maternal age group. Extrapolations of "least square" regression lines derived from data for the periods 1962-75 and 1971-75. provide the basis for the fertility projections. Various constraints have been imposed on birth rates for some maternal age groups to ensure that total fertility levels remain within demographically acceptable limits. For all fertility variants, projected birth rates are assumed to remain constant from 1982 onwards at the levels projected for the year ended 31 March 1981.

  (Thousand)    
1976 (Base)3,1253,1253,1253,1253,1253,125
 High Fertility Assumption§
19813,2323,2603,2873,3153,3413,367
19863,3423,4053,4633,5213,5753,629
19913,4473,5493,6403,7323,8143,897
19963,5373,6783,8053,9324,0444,156
20013,6083,7923,9554,1194,2624,405
20063,6673,8974,0984,3014,4764,651
 Medium Fertility Assumption§
19813,2093,2373,2643,2913,3173,343
19863,2813,3433,4003,4583,5113,564
19913,3473,4463,5363,6263,7073,788
19963,3973,5343,6573,7813,8914,001
20013,4233,6003,7583,9174,0564,196
20063,4233,6443,8394,0344,2044,373
 Low Fertility Assumption§
19813,1863,2143,2413,2683,2943,319
19863,2203,2813,3373,3943,4473,499
19913,2473,3443,3413,5203,5993,679
19963,2573,3913,5103,6313,7383,846
20013,2403,4113,5643,7183,8543,989
20063,1873,3993,5863,7753,9394,103

*These projections are termed "provisional" because the 31 March 1976 age-and-sex specific population estimates used as base will be subject to revision when more-detailed "final" data from the 1976 Census of Population and Dwellings becomes available.

Provisional Labour Force Projections (p. 770)—Details of alternative fertility variants and other projection assumptions given in connection with the population projections on the previous page apply, in general, to the following projections of the total labour force 1981-2006.

As at 31 MarchProjected Total Labour Force* Assuming "Changing" Labour Force Participation Rates and Net Annual Immigration of:
-10,000-5,000Zero5,00010,00015,000

*The base labour force for these projections is the provisionally estimated labour force at 31 March 1976.

†The "changing" labour force participation projections assume a continuation of 1956-76 trends in age-and-sex specific labour force participation rates until 1986. after which time the rates are assumed to remain constant at the level assumed for 1986.

  (Thousand)    
1976 (Base)1,2771,2771,2771,2771,2771,277
  High Fertility Assumption    
19811,3701,3901,4071,4231,4361,449
19861,4501,4901,5241,5581,5851,612
19911,5081,5681,6201,6721,7141,757
19961,5481,6321,7031,7741,8331,891
20011,5921,7021,7941,8871,9612,035
20061,6291,7671,8811,9952,0852,176
  Medium Fertility Assumption    
19811,3701,3901,4071,4231,4361,449
19861,4501,4901,5241,5581,5851,612
19911,5081,5681,6201,6721,7141,757
19961,5391,6231,6941,7651,8231,882
20011,5551,6651,7571,8491,9231,997
20061,5661,7021,8151,9282,0172,107
  Low Fertility Assumption    
19811,3701,3901,4071,4231,4361,449
19861,4501,4901,5241,5581,5851,612
19911,5081,5681,6201,6721,7141,757
19961,5301,6141,6841,7561,8141,872
20011,5191,6291,7201,8121,8861,959
20061,5021,6371,7491,8611,9502,038

TRANSPORT

Railway Transport (pp. 297-304)—Summarised statistics of railway transport for the latest available year are compared with previous years.

ItemUnitYear Ended 31 March
197519761977
*Including road services, rail-road ferry, and other subsidiary services.
Passenger journeys—    
Railways(000)18,89420,03518,588
Railway road motor services(000)20,76821,32020,323
Freight carriedtonnes(000)12,88313,19713,603
Revenue—    
Railway operation$(000)124,921137,287202,419
Total*$(000)153,911170,207248,070
Expenditure—    
Railway operation$(000)166,657194,829214,796
Total*$(000)199,171233,160260,073

Road Transport (p. 311)—Statistics of motor vehicles licensed at 31 March 1977 are compared with those for 31 March 1976.

ClassAs at 31 March
19761977
*Mostly farm tractors, etc.
Cars1,185,0421,213,460
Trucks211,154232,202
Contract vehicles1,1921,250
Omnibuses and service cars3,2233,268
Totals1,400,6111,450,180
Motor cycles99,125104,359
Power cycles4,2072,879
Vehicles exempted from payment of licence fees*111,139111,979
Trailers and caravans328,099354,224
Grand totals1,943,1812,023,621

International Civil Aviation (p. 329)—The following table shows passengers, freight (including excess baggage), and mail carried by international scheduled air services on scheduled routes.

Calendar YearPassengers CarriedFreight CarriedMail Carried
 (000)tonnes 
19741,11727,6682,084
19751,17930,8772,270
19761,243....

BUILDING AND HOUSING (pp. 463-481)

Building Permits—The following table presents the latest statistics on building permits issued (including Government buildings).

Type of Building PermitYear Ended 31 March
19761977*
NumberValueNumberValue
*Provisional.
  $(m) $(m)
New houses and flats32,189x593.430,070632.2
Alterations and additions to houses and flats45,673x91.846,974115.3
Other buildings (including alterations)18,132x473.319,253434.7
Total, all buildings95,994x1,158.596,2971,182.2

Houses and Flats Completed—Provisional figures of houses and flats completed during the year ended 31 March 1977 give a total of 28,400 compared with 32,900 during the previous year. The 1976-77 total includes 1,913 State rental dwellings built by the Housing Corporation (compared with 1,880 during 1975-76). An additional 290 dwellings were created by the conversion of existing buildings.

MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

Wool (p. 362)—Weight, sale value, and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand in the last three seasons are shown below.

SeasonWeight of Greasy Wool SoldSale ValueValue per KgIndex Numbers* Base: 1974-75 (1000)
 kg(m)$(m)C 
1974-75210.3192.991.751000
1975-76212.5333.9157.121669
1976-77200.9441.2219.582363

Index numbers of price of new clip greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand adjusted to a clean f.o.b. New Zealand port basis. The base is the average over all sales of 1974-75 season (= 1000).

DOMESTIC TRADE (pp. 537-542)

Retail Trade—Since the table in the main Domestic Trade section was compiled, retail trade figures in constant dollars have been revised on a new base. The following table shows total turnover and turnover per head as recorded and in constant December quarter 1974 dollars.

Quarter EndedTotal TurnoverTurnover per Head of Population
In Current $sIn Constant Dec qtr. 1974 $sIn Current $sIn Constant Dec qtr. 1974 $s
As RecordedSeasonally AdjustedBefore Seasonal AdjustmentSeasonally AdjustedAs RecordedSeasonally AdjustedBefore Seasonal AdjustmentSeasonally Adjusted
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$$$$
1976—        
Mar1,009.31,070.6822.2872.2320.5339.9261.1276.9
Jun1,101.41,134.7857.6883.5354.1364.8275.7284.1
Sep1,127.11,153.3828.9848.2362.4370.8266.5272.7
Dec1,366.11,201.4977.4859.5437.7384.9313.1275.4
1977—        
Mar1,147.91,245.2795.1862.6365.1396.1252.9274.3
Jun1,246.01,278.1828.5849.8399.0409.3265.3272.1

Hire Purchase Trade (pp. 541-542)—The following statistics show trade for the latest quarter (compared with previous quarters) by surveyed businesses covering about 72 percent of total hire purchase business.

Quarter EndedValue of Goods Sold on Hire PurchaseTotal Amount Owing Under H.P. Agreements*
Motor VehiclesPlant and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal
*As at end of quarter.
  $(000)   $(m)
1976—      
December69,05122,1212,51022,684116,366297.5
1977—      
March63,80121,5741,91617,322104,613284.2
June71,81919,2832,06619,000112,168302.6

Summary of Stocks—The following table gives a summary of stocks held by manufacturers, wholesale traders, and retail traders.

StocksAs at 31 March
19731974197519761977
*Excluding primary produce processing industries.
Manufacturers*  $(million)  
Materials429.8560.9808.7785.0905.5
Finished goods206.4213.1313.4379.2437.3
Wholesale462.7510.0802.9873.3975.1
Retail408.6487.8595.4680.9817.9
Totals1,507.41,771.62,520.42,718.43,135.8

EXTERNAL TRADE (pp. 543-596)

Principal Exports and Imports—The following table shows the values of principal exports and imports during the 3 latest June years. Figures for 1976 are revised, and replace the provisional figures shown in Section 21.

Year Ended June
 19751976x1977*
*Provisional.
Exports, f.o.b.$(thousand)
New Zealand produce—   
Meat and meat preparations442,204593,825754,832
Dairy products—   
Butter122,097204,196253,118
Cheese48,44077,97083,385
Total, excluding casein and lactose276,510370,691442,902
Fruit and vegetables41,21450,50264,135
Hides, skins, and pelts62,65077,393127,854
Wool261,657456,406644,506
Sausage casings18,84623,48725,700
Tallow16,43925,75532,921
Casein14,65227,08658,832
Pulp, paper, and paper board80,196120,948148,249
Total, including other1,558,0252,255,6283,063,294
Re-exports63,522131,226120,454
Total exports1,621,5472,386,8543,183,748
Imports, c.d.v.   
Food and live animals125,497140,540147,822
Beverages and tobacco21,58725,14628,633
Crude materials, inedible, except fuels94,797100,305122,834
Mineral fuels, lubricants, and related materials317,678396,631468,968
Animal and vegetable oils and fats10,8559,47013,413
Chemicals288,275307,254424,355
Manufactured goods classified chiefly by material618,412558,355722,482
Machinery and transport equipment821,590993,7721,016,067
Miscellaneous manufactured articles171,874177,236204,059
Commodities and transactions not classified according to kind21,40321,37119,654
Total merchandise imports c.d.v.2,491,9672,730,0803,168,288
Total merchandise imports c.i.f.2,763,1032,961,5983,459,777

PRICES

Retail Prices (pp. 606-613)—Consumers Price Index figures for the latest available quarters are set out n the following table.

CONSUMERS PRICE INDEX

Base: Weighted average 25 centres, December Quarter 1974 (= 1000)

Group or SubgroupDecember Quarter 1974Quarter Ended 31 March 1977Quarter Ended 30 June 1977Quarter Ended 30 September 1977
Food-    
Fruits and vegetables1000137013351459
Meat, fish and poultry1000128013021348
Other foods1000147915691650
All Foods1000140314531531
Housing—    
Rentals1000137114161453
Home ownership1000127413111342
Housing1000128613241356
Household operation—    
Fuel and light1000154819712012
Household furnishing1000138414551519
Household supplies and services1000132313501395
Household operation1000138814941549
Apparel—    
Clothing1000134614341466
Footwear1000138714621499
Apparel1000135314401472
Transportation—    
Public transport1000145915211605
Private transport1000146615461592
Transportation1000146615441593
Miscellaneous—    
Tobacco and alcohol1000133213891444
Other supplies1000148215441603
Other services1000140815101586
Miscellaneous1000140314751537
All groups1000137314391490

Compared with September quarter 1976, the Consumers Price Index for September quarter 1977 showed a rise of 14.4 percent. Compared with June quarter 1977, September quarter figures showed a rise of 3.5 percent.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE (pp. 660-670)

Taxation Receipts—This table shows direct and indirect taxation.

Source: Financial Statement (Budget).

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19761977*1978†
Direct taxation— $(thousand) 
Income tax2,295,8442,828,5403,570,000
Estate and gift duty54,16854,68743,000
Land tax3,3716,6187,000
Property speculation tax247260-
Total—Direct taxation2,353,6302,890,1053,620,000
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19761977*1978

*Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

†Estimated.

Indirect taxation—$(thousand)
Customs duty217,024252,891293,000
Beer duty48,37446,45759,000
Sales tax311,369353,261408,000
Motor spirits tax76,28998,826102,000
Payroll tax4520-
Racing duty26,68429,94934,000
Stamp duties26,21333,68934,000
Energy resources levy..4,01328,000
Other24,41128,30752,000
Highways taxation101,250107,417126,000
Total—Indirect taxation831,659954,8301,136,000
Total—Taxation receipts3,185,2893,844,9354,756,000

The functional classification of gross Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF GROSS GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
Item1975-761976-77*1977-78

*Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

†Estimated.

Administration— $(m) 
General administration126.5199.1188.9
Law and order98.1107.0136.3
Government services92.093.1118.1
Miscellaneous services23.726.229.6
Stabilisation208.071.590.0
Totals548.3496.9562.9
Foreign relations—   
Defence193.5214.8252.7
Foreign Affairs86.281.682.4
Totals279.7296.4335.1
Development of industry—   
Land use391.3377.9421.9
Fuel and power314.3363.5437.9
Other industrial services84.597.8111.0
Totals790.1839.2970.8
Education631.8704.7801.0
Social services1,006.81,208.51,577.3
Health606.5690.4806.2
Transport and communications—   
Transport489.9516.9568.4
Communications345.8379.1428.4
Totals835.7896.0996.8
Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions698.2686.9705.8
Totals5,397.15,819.06,755.9

Consolidated Revenue Account Expenditure—The following table shows expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19761977*1978

*Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

†Estimated.

‡Reclassified under Development of Industry.

§Reclassified under Social Services.

 $(thousand)
Permanent appropriations—   
Under Special Acts of Legislature—   
Civil List1,7301,8432,036
Debt services—   
Interest270,013367,037410,000
Transfer to Loans Redemption Account50,00060,00065,000
Administration and management2,7484,2604,500
Total—Debt services322,761431,297479,500
Special Acts—   
Superannuation Act 195625,33232,36947,559
New Zealand Superannuation Act 19741,950219..
New Zealand Superannuation refunds (recoverable)..31,442100
Miscellaneous5,31921,9229,532
Total—Special Acts32,60185,95257,191
Total—Permanent appropriations357,092519,092538,727
Annual appropriations—   
Administration—   
General administration—   
Vote—   
Accident Compensation252428
Audit2,0402,1762,775
Broadcasting7384100
Commission for the Environment-383445
Customs7,7859,00910,480
Inland Revenue22,50724,89927,405
Internal Affairs27,59432,27032,640
Legislative2,8363,7594,405
Prime Minister's Department639640790
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation13
Housing Corporation18§§
State Services Commission23,78830,00332,950
Statistics5,91010,1348,000
Treasury4,6015,0236,335
Valuation5,2585,3486,390
Total—General administration103,087123,752132,743
Law and order—   
Vote—   
Crown Law574581660
Justice37,69840,72551,010
Police49,43454,71370,840
Security Intelligence Service8029051,110
Total—Law and order88,50896,924123,620
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19761977*1978

*Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

†Estimated.

Government services—$(thousand)
Vote—   
Government Printing Office18,59416,91521,420
Works and Development40,15640,29449,720
Total—Government services58,75057,20971,140
Stabilisation—   
Vote—   
Stabilisation182,55358,32189,950
Total—Administration432,898336,206417,453
Foreign relations—   
Defence—   
Defence193,465214,831252,650
Foreign affairs—   
Foreign affairs81,39380,41581,350
Total—Foreign relations274,858295,246334,000
Development of industry—   
Land use—   
Agriculture and Fisheries205,106171,686181,405
Forest Service8,4598,83910,675
Lands and Survey16,00519,41423,446
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation..6,0367,900
Total—Land use229,570205,975223,426
Fuel and power—   
Energy Resources5748112,630
Mines3,3672,724911
Total3,9413,5353,541
Other industrial services—   
Labour23,48436,24636,695
Scientific and Industrial Research27,22029,90635,040
Tourist and Publicity9,48610,58812,615
Trade and Industry17,76417,73024,550
Total—Other industrial services77,95594,470108,900
Total—Development of industry311,467303,980335,867
Education—   
Education631,751586,145686,900
Social services—   
Housing Corporation..47,13353,010
Internal Affairs5,3777,0138,510
Maori Affairs6,7157,13510,077
Social Welfare884,31,077,861,448,640
Total—Social services896,7551,139,1671,520,237
ItemYear Ended 31 March
19761977*1978

*Actual figures replacing estimates published in previous Yearbook.

†Estimated.

Health—$(thousand)
Health602,546685,785801,470
Transport—   
Transport and communications74,84283,18683,253
Total—Annual appropriations3,225,1173,429,7154,179,180
Unauthorised expenditure21,24111,962..
Defence credits and other special entries80,64254,3473,000
Additional contributions to Loans Redemption Account-100,000-
Transfer to National Development Loans Account-10,000-
Transfer to Reserve Fund-100,000-
Provision for Supplementary Estimates....40,000
Total payments3,84,0924,225,1174,760,907

National Roads Fund Income and Expenditure—

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197519761977
Income$(thousand)
Motor spirits duty85,33380,82985,936
Mileage tax, heavy traffic and other fees19,44720,42221,481
Contributions from Consolidated Revenue Account1,25016,35021,000
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account-2,000-
Miscellaneous2,9063,0033,156
Interest1014152
Total income109,037122,645131,625
Expenditure   
State highways maintenance19,67625,90929,265
State highways construction40,75941,68135,881
Subsidies to local authorities44,30447,44548,278
Administration and general9,61510,52713,940
Temporary transfer from Loans Redemption Account repaid--2,000
Unauthorised482
Total expenditure114,358125,570129,366

National Superannuation (p. 152)—National superannuation, for persons aged 60 or over, replaced age and superannuation benefits from 9 February 1977. Weekly rates of national superannuation are as follows:

 From 9 February 1977From (and including instalment due on) 18 August 1977
GrossTaxNetGrossTaxNet
$$$$$$
Married Person—      
Where both parties of a married couple are eligible, they are each paid at half the married rate (gross).      
Tax at primary "S"38.424.6133.8141.365.2436.12
Single Person—      
Including a married person whose spouse is ineligible.      
Tax at primary "S"46.106.2939.8149.647.0642.58
Married Couple—      
Where a dependent spouse is included subject to an income test. The rates shown are the maximum amounts where there is no reduction on account of income.      
Tax at primary "M"76.8411.1265.7282.7212.9769.75

Note—Unmarried means: never married, widowed, divorced, separated, etc.

Social Security Benefits (p. 151)—With effect from the period beginning 27 July 1977 the basic rate of benefit for a single beneficiary was increased from $38.40 to $41.30, and that for a married couple from $64.00 to $68.84.

GENERAL FINANCE

Summary of Budget Proposals—The 1977 Financial Statement (Budget) was presented by the Minister of Finance the Rt. Hon. R. D. Muldoon, on 21 July 1977. The principal measures may be summarised as follows:

  • • Measures were introduced to encourage the further development of energy resources and the conservation of energy. The Government will itself establish a continuing programme of on-shore seismic work and exploratory drilling for oil, and also extend the present programme of coal exploration.

  • • New and improved measures were introduced to encourage investment in primary industries (farming, fishing, and forestry), including assistance to the meat freezing industry.

  • • The structure of the export incentives scheme for industry was revised. The revised scheme is to include the granting of priority status to productive activities making outstanding contributions to economic growth and overseas earnings, and the basing of incentives on net foreign exchange earnings and on total exports (consultations on the scheme are still being held).

  • • Restrictions on road transport were relaxed. A new distance charge is to be imposed on heavy trucks.

  • • Changes in the regional development programme included new grant schemes for priority areas and the relaxing of restrictions.

  • • Substantial changes in the field of urban transport included the formation of a new Urban Transport Council, and a replacement service for aged buses and railway rolling stock funded by the Government.

  • • Post Office charges were to be raised again from 1 October 1977.

  • • Measures were introduced to make more money available for housing, together with changes in interest rates and loan availability.

  • • Basic Social Welfare benefits were increased and additional aid was announced for voluntary organisations and individuals working in the social welfare field.

  • • Expansion of health and education services was announced.

  • • Higher interest rates for Government and Local Authority stock were announced, and moves made towards a more open and competitive interest rates system among savings banks. An inflation-adjusted savings bond will be introduced.

  • • The young family tax rebate introduced in 1976 is to be expanded and a new rebate introduced to assist single-income families with young children.

  • • Changes in Sales Tax affected mainly motor vehicle parts and accessories, heavy commercial trailers, and vehicles other than motorcars and motor cycles.

  • • Duty on beer, spirits, and tobacco was increased.

Land Transfers (pp. 280-281)—

Item Year Ended 31 March
19761977
Properties of under 2 hectares—   
Number..89,89692,702
Consideration$(m)1,776.72,113.5
Average price per hectare$171,665199,274
Properties of 2 and over hectares—   
Number..8,1079,266
Areahectares (000)634.9723.2
Consideration$(m)426.1578.1
Average price per hectare$671799
All properties: Total consideration$(m)2,202.82,691.6

Mortgages (pp. 739-743)—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the last three financial years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchRegisteredDischarged
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
1975131,6701,477.294,176601.5
1976147,6501,612.494,563654.1
1977160,4211,870.1112,135863.4

Overseas Exchange Transactions (pp. 731-734)—The following statement gives statistics of overseas exchange transactions for the latest three March years and the latest June year.

(Source: Reserve Bank)

ItemYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 30 June 1977
197519761977
*Provisional
RECEIPTS—$(million)
1. Exports—    
Meat495.3601.3799.7874.1
Wool295.2410.5688.4687.8
Butter105.5179.1197.8211.8
Cheese34.985.179.895.2
Milk powders118.2113.7142.0149.7
Other dairy products54.572.1112.7126.3
Other animal products128.9156.4229.7252.3
Forest products143.3172.8256.6267.1
Other primary products72.591.7131.8154.4
Manufactured exports195.3313.1464.0491.0
Miscellaneous13.113.618.320.8
Total exports1,656.62,209.53,120.93,330.4
2. Other current receipts482.9592.0662.2698.5
Total current receipts2,139.52,801.63,783.14,028.9
3. Capital receipts-    
Government borrowing318.6522.8373.2457.3
Other official receipts106.1190.674.175.3
Private319.9397.1373.5383.6
Total capital receipts744.61,110.5820.8916.2
4. I.M.F.—    
Drawings100.5192.1117.859.7
Allocations of SDRs----
Total Receipts2,984.54,104.24,721.75,004.8
PAYMENTS—    
1. Imports—    
Government112.1192.7162.8158.2
Private2,218.62,411.22,915.32,988.4
Total imports2,330.82,603.83,078.13,146.7
2. Other Current Payments—    
Government136.3188.1249.9277.7
Private665.1824.11,045.61,135.0
Total other current payments801.41,012.21,295.51,412.7
Total current payments3,132.13,616.14,373.64,559.4
3. Capital Payments—    
Government debt repayments30.9151.8232.8264.5
Other official repayments4.9124.458.2-
Private103.0191.8162.4171.1
Total capital payments138.7468.0453.4435.7
Total Payments3,270.84,084.04,827.04,9950
Balance on trade transactions-674.1-394.3+42.8+183.7
Balance on invisible transactions-318.5-420.2-633.3-714.2
Current account balance-992.6-814.5-590.5-530.5
Capital account balance+605.8+642.5+367.4+480.5
I.M.F. transactions (inch SDRs)+100.5+192.1+117.8+59.7
Change in official overseas reserves-236.4+142.8x+28.7+166.0
Official overseas reserves at end of period542.1684.8x713.6*737.9

Chapter 48. DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS
SELECTED PUBLICATIONS

General—

  • Monthly Abstract of Statistics

  • Official Yearbook

  • Pocket Digest of Statistics

  • Catalogue of Statistics

Finance and Government—

  • National Income and Expenditure

  • Balance of Payments

  • Incomes and Income Tax

  • Local Authority Statistics

Commerce and Industry—

  • Agricultural Statistics

  • Building Statistics

  • Industrial Production

  • External Trade

  • Prices, Wages, and Labour

  • Inter-Industry Study of the Economy

  • Transport

  • Census of Distribution

  • Census of Building and Construction

  • Insurance

Social and Demographic—

  • Population and Migration

  • Justice

  • Household Sample Survey

  • Vital Statistics

  • Population Projections

  • Life Tables

  • Social Trends

Population Census 1971—

  • Vol. 1 Increase and Location of Population

  • 2 Ages and Marital Status

  • 3 Religious Professions

  • 4 Industries and Occupations

  • 5 Incomes

  • 6 Education

  • 7 Birthplaces and Ethnic Origin

  • 8 Maori Population and Dwellings

  • 9 Dwellings

  • 10 Households, Families, and Fertility

  • 11 Internal Migration

  • 12 General Report

Population Census 1976—

Vol. 1A Location and Increase of Population Statistical bulletin series of provisional national statistics and census data by individual statistical areas.

For leaflet showing further details apply to Government Bookshop:

Auckland: Housing Corporation of New Zealand Building, Rutland Street (P.O. Box 5344).

Hamilton: Barton Street (P.O. Box 857).

Wellington: Mulgrave Street (Private Bag); Cubacade; Rutherford House.

Christchurch: 130 Oxford Terrace (Private Bag)

Dunedin: T. & G. Building, Princes Street (P.O. Box 1104).

For details of Bulletin Series and Information Service, apply Department of Statistics, Private Bag, Wellington.

INDEX

NOTE—Where more than one reference to a subject is given, the chief reference, wherever it has been possible to determine it, is indicated by bold type. Two or more references to a subject so indicated signify major, and approximately equal, importance.

A

Abortion, 137
Accident compensation, 814-817
Accident Compensation Act, 243, 318, 814
Accident Compensation Commission, 243, 664, 674, 814, 969
Accident insurance, 318, 760-761. (See Accident Compensation Act)
Accidents—
aircraft, 138, 331-332
cases treated in hospitals, 138
causes of, 138, 820, 821-822
deaths from, 98, 99, 105-108, 315-317, 331-332, 817, 818, 822
drowning, 105, 106, 822
farming, 170, 821-822
industrial, 107, 817-820
in home, 107, 138
mining, 107, 818, 819
motor-vehicle, 98, 105, 106, 138, 315-317
poisoning, 105, 106, 138
railway, 138, 304, 924, 925
shipping, 297
time lost through, 817, 819
transport, 105, 106, 138, 315-317
water, 105, 107-108, 138
Acclimatisation of fish, 408
Accommodation, tourist, 836-838
Accommodation licences, 848-850
Accommodation services, 131-132, 836-838
Accounts, public, 660-690
Acts (see legislation)
Additional benefit, 155, 165
Administrative tribunals, 867
Adolescent dental service, 121
Adoptions, 91-92, 157, 158
Adult education, 204-205
National Council of, 204
Advances—
bank, 715, 716-717
bank, control policy, 717-720
bank, reserve ratio, 712
building societies, 748-751
rural, 742-744
Advertising, radio, television, and press, 343, 344
Aerated water and cordial industry, 435, 452
Aerial—
land survey, 277
photography and mapping, 261, 277
topdressing, 327-328, 366
work operations, 327-328, 331
Aero clubs, 331, 332
Aerodromes, 330
Age benefits, 149, 150, 151, 152, 972
Age distribution of population, 77, 79-81, 82
Agricultural (see also Farms, Farming, Crops, etc.)—
aviation, 327-328
clubs, 190
machinery, 368-369, 438, 460
imports of 589, 593, 594-595
production, 207, 354-357, 901, 903
products exported, 503, 512-514, 562, 564, 565, 577-578
Production Council, 364, 657, 658
research, 207-208, 213, 365
Workers Act, 802, 811
Agriculture, 207-208, 753, 901, 903, 935-936
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of, 213, 364-365, 374, 375, 376, 402, 408, 665, 668, 868, 870, 970
Aid—
legal, 243
overseas, 37-40
South Pacific, 37, 38
Air—
accidents, 138, 331-332
Force, Royal New Zealand, 254-255
freight, 329
licensing and control, 324
mails, 326, 329, 334
navigation services, 324-325
pollution, 117, 268-269
Aircraft, 323-332
imports of, 590
manufacture, 427
safety of, 823
types of domestic services, 326
types of international services, 324
Air New Zealand, 324, 328, 666, 686, 926
Airport statistics, 330
Alcoholic liquors—
consumption of, 628
duty on, 600, 601, 671, 673
exports of, 562, 564
household expenditure on, 621-624
imports of, 587, 591
manufacture of, 452
sale of, 848-850
Alexander Turnbull Library, 220, 221-222
Aliens, 75-76
Aluminium, 427
Amenities of dwellings, 479
Americas, relations with the, 33-34
Ambulance services, 131
Angling, 407
Animals, noxious, 391
Anniversary Days, 852
Annuities, 169-171
Antarctic, N.Z. activities in the, 256, 830-833, 925
Ante-natal services, 120
Antiquities, protection of, 220
ANZUK, 36, 255
ANZUS Treaty, 27, 37
Apiaries and apiculture, 385
Apparel, household expenditure on, 621-624
Apples, 370, 375, 376, 377-378, 512-513
consumption of, 626
exported, 562, 564, 577, 628, 910
marketing of, 376, 512-513
Apprentices, 773-774
Arable farming, 350, 351, 352, 369-379, 801
Arahunga, G.MV., 289, 299
Aramoana, G.M.V., 289, 298
Aranui, G.M.V., 289, 298
Aratika, G.M.V., 289, 299
Arbitration Court, 799, 926
Archeological sites, 220, 221
Area of New Zealand, 2, 59, 61-65, 260
of farmland, 351, 352
of forested land, 386
Armed Forces, 250-257, 769, 876
in war, 256-257, 923, 925
pay and allowances, 634, 635
serving overseas, 256-257
strengths of, 256-257
superannuation, 168-170
Army, 253-254
Arson and incendiarism, 249
Art galleries, 217, 218
Articles on special subjects in previous issues, 928
Artificial aids (under Social Security), 128
Artificial lakes, 5
Arts in New Zealand, 216-221
Asbestos, 419
Asia, relations with, 30
Asian Development Bank, 35, 39, 641, 647, 648, 666, 737
Assessment of—
income tax, 674-678
land tax, 678
Association of South-east Asian Nations (ASEAN), 30, 31
Assurance, life, 690, 719, 757-760
Auckland Harbour Bridge (see also Harbour Bridge Authority), 305-306
Auckland Regional Authority, 50, 51
Audio-visual teaching aids, 192
Audit Department, 664, 868, 870. 969
Australia—
Free Trade Agreement with, 33, 544, 547-548, 598
investment in New Zealand, 650, 651
relations with, 33
shipping to and from, 288
social security reciprocity with, 155-156
trade with, 543, 544, 545, 547-549, 551, 555, 567, 586, 598, 644-647, 649
visitors and migrants from, 72, 835, 836
Aviation, 323-332, 964
agricultural, 327-328
Awards, cultural, 216-219

B

Bacon and ham curing, 435, 450
Balance of payments, 640-653
overseas direct investments in New Zealand, 650-652
survey of companies with overseas affiliations, 649-653
Balance of trade, 550
Bananas—
consumption of, 626
imports of, 513, 586, 591, 596
Bank notes, 711, 712, 714, 734-735
Bank of New Zealand, 686, 713-714, 921
Bankruptcy, 844-846, 920
industry groups of bankrupts, 845
Banks and banking, 710-738, 918, 931
assets and liabilities, 690, 712-714
merchant banks, 727
overseas assets of, 730-731, 913
savings, 674, 690, 719, 720, 721-725, 918, 973
Barley, 369, 370, 371, 382, 562, 564, 901
Beds, hospital, 131-132
Beef—
cattle, 380, 381, 902
consumption of, 625
exports of, 503, 504-505, 569-570, 628, 908
production of, 352, 353, 360
retail prices of, 611
Beer—
consumption of, 627-628
duty on, 600, 601, 663, 671, 968, 973
export of, 562, 564
production of, 452, 462
Bees, 385
Benefits, social welfare, 126-129, 146, 147, 148-156, 636, 674, 972, 973
Bentonite, 410, 418
Berryfruit, 377
Beverage industries, 435, 452, 583, 755-756
Beverages, consumption of, 628
Bibliography, New Zealand publications, 851, 929-941
Big-game fishing, 407, 839
Bird sanctuaries, 275
Birth rate, 85-93, 892
Birthplaces of population, 83
Births, 85-93, 892
ex-nuptial, 90-91, 92
first, 89-90
multiple, 88
of Maoris, 86
registration of, 85, 91, 92, 93
still, 88, 92-93, 101-102
Biscuit industry, 435, 451, 462
Blind, benefits for and education of, 154, 180
Board of Health, 116
Boarding of school children, 189
Boat building and ship repairing, 438
Boilers, lifts, and cranes, inspection of, 823
Bonds, National Development, 674, 723
Bonus Bonds, 723
Book publishing, 851
Books—
imports of, 591
library, 223-224
New Zealand, 929-941
Boroughs and cities, 48-49, 61-62, 691-698, 776
area of, 61-62
capital and unimproved values, 284, 285
councils, 49
debt, 696-698, 917
franchise, 48
number of, 48
population, 61-62
stores in, 524-525
Borstal institutions and training, 228, 230, 237
Botany, publications, 935
Breweries, 435, 452
Brick productions, 472
Brides and grooms, 109-110
Bridges and bridging, 298, 305-306, 308
Britain (see United Kingdom)
British—
Airways, 328
postal orders, 335
sovereignty, 23
trade preference, 597, 598
Broadcasting Corporation of New Zealand, 217, 340, 664
Broadcasting, radio and television, 340-343
for schools, 192, 341
local, 341
stations, 341
Broadcasting Tribunal, 340
Budget, 972-973
Building (see also Housing), 463-481, 964
board exports, 561, 563
business of private contractors, 465, 704
Census of, 464-465
costs, 464, 473, 477
employment, 471, 704, 769
Industry Advisory Council, 464, 657
materials, 457, 472, 480
imports of, 592, 593, 594, 595
overseas investments in, 652
permits, 467-470, 964
persons engaged in, 465, 704, 769
statistics, 467-469
wages and working hours of employees, 793, 795-797
work put in place, 471
Building societies, 474, 719, 743, 748-751
Burials, 97
Bursaries—
ex-servicemen's children, 166
teachers, 194
university, 194, 196
war, 166
Buses, 304, 311, 313, 314, 318, 320
Bush, 386-387
Business—
failures, 844-846, 920
loans, 746-747
Butter (see Dairy produce)
Butterfat (see Milkfat)
By-elections, 855

C

Cabinet, 46, 859
Cables, overseas, 337-338
Cadet Corps, 256
Calves, slaughter and marketing of, 361
Campbell Island, 2, 11, 54
Camps, health, 120
Canada—
relations with, 33-34
trade with, 546, 551, 555, 567, 598-599
visitors and migrants from, 72, 835, 836
Cancer—
ages of decedents, 100
deaths from, 100-101, 135-136
site of disease, 101
Society of New Zealand, 100, 123, 130
Canned and preserved meats, etc., exported, 562, 563
Canned fruits—
consumption of, 626
production of, 435, 462
Canned vegetables—
consumption of, 626
exports of, 562, 564, 628
production of, 435, 462
Capital—
expenditure of Government, 664-665, 666-670
expenditure on farms, 353
expenditure, railways, 301, 666, 667, 668, 669, 686
invested in electric-power undertakings, 492-493, 495, 666, 667, 668, 669, 686
invested in manufacturing industries, 432, 446, 666, 686
of companies, 752-754, 920
overseas, invested in N.Z. industries, 650-652
transfers, 732
value of land, 283-285
Capitalisation of family benefit, 149, 153, 466, 472, 746
Cargo carried by air transport, 326, 327
Cargo handled at ports, 290-295
Caribbean, relations with, 34
Carpets and carpet yarns, 427, 461
Casein exported, 508, 560, 562, 563, 574, 910, 966
Casein produced, 358, 462, 508
Catchment authorities, 49, 267, 693-694, 697, 776
Cattle, 353, 355, 356, 379, 380, 381, 383, 902
hides exported (see Hides, skins, and pelts)
slaughtered, 361
Cement—
exports of, 561, 563
industry, 437, 458
production of, 437, 458, 472
Census—
age distribution of population, 77
country of birth, 83
educational qualifications, 202, 709, 786, 957
employment statistics, 778-783
ethnic groups, 82
income earners in each household, 709
incomes of individuals, 708-709
internal migration, 83
major industrial groups, 779, 780-781
marital status, 77-78
occupations of population, 779, 781-783
of building and construction, 464-465
of distribution, 520-537
of dwellings, 478-481
of libraries, 222-224
of mining and quarrying, 421-423
of poultry, 384
pleasure craft, 297
publications, 975
religious professions, 81-82
transport to work, 315
Central Government finance, 148, 150, 638-639, 660-690, 725, 742-747, 759, 763, 876, 914-916, 967-973
Cereals, 370-373, 583, 901
consumption of, 626
Cerebral palsy, 122
Certificates of title, 278
Chatham Islands, 2
schools, 180, 192
Cheese (see Dairy produce)
Chemicals and chemical products industry, 437, 456, 457, 756
Chemists, 125-126
Childbirth accidents, etc., 98, 101-104, 137
Child health and welfare, 120-121, 157-161, 240-242
Children and Young Persons Act 1974, 91, 158
Children—
adopted, 91-92, 157-158
affected by divorce proceedings, 113
allowances, 146, 147, 148-153
born, number and sexes, 87, 892
deaths of (see Infant mortality), 94, 95, 104-105, 892
causes, 105
dental treatment of, 121
dependent, 151, 157-158, 164
delinquent, 158-160, 240-242
handicapped, 120, 130, 157, 184
heights and weights of, 142-145
intellectually handicapped, 120, 130, 157, 184
offences by, 240-242
restrictions on employment of, 810. 811
school, 175-177, 180-181, 893
under supervision, 160-161
Children's courts, 158, 159-160, 225, 240, 248
Children's homes, 157, 158, 161
Chiropodists, 125
Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel, 306
Chronology of principal events, 921-927
Churches, 81
marriages in, 112
Cigarettes and tobacco—
duty on, 600, 601
imports of, 583, 586, 591
production of, 435, 453, 462
Cinemas, 345-347
Cities and boroughs, 48-49, 61-62, 524-525, 691-698, 776
Citizenship, 74-75
Citrus fruits, 369, 370, 375, 376. 827
imports of, 513, 587, 591, 596
consumption of, 626
marketing of, 376, 513, 514
Civil—
aviation, 323-332, 964
defence, 257, 696, 881
jurisdiction, 242-243
List, 44, 45, 664, 969
Clays, 410, 457, 472
Clean Air Council, 117, 269
Clergy, marriages by, 111-112
Climate, 13-21
observations for year, 19-21
Clinics—
ante-natal, 120
child health, 120
dental, 121
Clothing and footwear, retail prices of, 611-612
Clothing, imports of, 585, 591
Clothing industry, 436, 453, 461, 756
Clover (see also grass seed), 374-375
Clutha River, development of, 491
Coal, 409, 410, 412-415, 421-423, 972
and petroleum products industry, 437, 461
consumption of, 414, 442, 482-484, 905
deposits, 8
exports of, 561, 563
mining, 412-414, 421-423
research, 412
resources, 412-414, 485
State mines, 415
used in gas industry, 501
Coastal shipping, 289, 290, 291, 293
Coastline, 2, 389
Co-education, 177, 187
Cocoa imported, 587, 591, 602
Cocoa manufacture, 435, 451
Coffee, consumption of, 627
Coffee imported, 587, 591, 601
Coin and coinage, 728
held by banks, 714
Colleges—
teachers', 176, 180, 181, 185, 190-191, 893
Colombo Plan, 197
Colonisation, 23
Commerce Commission, 603, 604
Commercial failures, 844-846, 920
Commercial radio and television, 341, 342
Commission for the Environment, 264, 969
Commission for the Future, 206, 947
Commission on Nuclear Power Generation, 486
Commodity sales—
retail, 520-530, 537-539, 965
wholesale, 520, 530-534, 540-541
Common Law, 225
Common Market (see European Economic Community)
Commonwealth, 36
defence, 36, 255
youth programme, 854
Communications, 333-347
radio, 337
satellite, 337
Communities, 63
Community care, services available, 157
Community centres, 205
Community colleges, 176
Community councils, 50, 51
Community nurses, 124
Companies, 524, 751-756, 920
finance, 719, 726-727, 728, 756
financial statements, analysis of, 754-756
income of, 634, 635, 704, 706
joint stock, 751-754
overseas, 649-653, 751-754
paid-up capital, 752-754
private, 524, 751-754
profits of, 755-756
public, 524, 751-755
registered, 524, 752-754, 920
share prices, indices, 620, 896, 897
taxation of, 677-678, 706
with overseas affiliations, 649-653, 707-708, 752-754
Comparisons with other countries (see International comparisons)
Compensation—
criminal injuries, 243
workers, 817, 819
Computers, 852
Conciliation service (Industrial), 800-801
Concrete products industry, 437, 458, 472
Condensate, natural gas, 415
Confectionery industry, 435, 451
Confinements, 88, 89-90, 127
Conjugal status of persons marrying, 109
Conservation (see Physical environment)
Consolidated Revenue Account, 148, 168, 308, 309, 310, 311, 513, 660, 663-665, 666, 667, 668, 670, 671, 687, 914, 969-971
Constitution of New Zealand, 40-47
Construction Act, 823
Construction, building, and housing, 463-481
Consumer Council, 605
Consumer prices, 611-612
index, 605-613, 797, 896, 897, 967
Consumer information, 605
Consumers Price Index Revision Advisory
Committee, 606
Consumption of food, 406, 625-630
Containerisation, 288, 296
Convictions (court), 231-242, 894
for traffic offences, 233, 318
of juveniles, 241-242
of women, 234
Convictions in Magistrates' Courts, 230-234, 318, 894
Convictions in Supreme Court, 229-230, 894
Cook Islands, 11, 23, 25, 27, 28, 31, 32, 38, 54, 72, 73, 83, 169, 192, 824-827, 922
constitutional changes, 31-32
immigrants from, 72, 826
population, 826
trade, 546, 581, 596, 732, 827
Cook Strait—
air freight services, 298
submarine power cable, 491-492
vehicular ferry service, 298-299, 301, 303
Co-operative credit associations, 744
Copper ore, 418
Copra, 596, 827, 828, 830
Copyright, 842-843
Cordial and aerated-water industry, 435, 452
Correspondence schools and classes, 176, 180, 181, 189-190, 205
CORSO, 40, 197
Cotton piece-goods, imports of, 588, 592
Council for—
Adult Education, 204
Educational Research, 202-203
Counties, 49, 691-698, 776
area of, 63-65
capital and unimproved values, 284, 285
councils, 49, 698, 776
debt, 696-698
franchise, 49
population, 63-65
roads and roading, 305, 309, 310
Country Library Service, 222
County boroughs, 49
County towns, 49
Court of Appeal, 47, 225, 226, 229, 242, 867
Court of Arbitration, 799, 924
Courts (see also Supreme, Magistrates, etc.), 158, 159-160, 225-226, 894
Judges of, 225-226, 867
structures and types of, 47, 225-226
Cows in milk, 383
Cranes, inspection of, 823
Crayfish (see Rock lobsters)
Cream, consumption of, 625
Credit, rural intermediate, 744
Cremation, 97
Crime, law and, 225-249, 894
Criminal—
appeals, 225, 226, 229
injuries compensation, 243
jurisdiction, 229-235
reformation and punishment, 227-240
Crippled children (see Handicapped children)
Crops, 351, 352, 355, 356, 369-379, 901
Crown land, 270-275, 278, 279, 351
Crown Law Office, 664, 868, 870, 969
Cultivation, area in, 351-352
Cultural activities, 216-221
Cultural awards, 216-219
Cultural Relations Exchange Programme, 28, 217
Currency and banking (see also Exchange), 710-738, 918, 931
Customs Department, 557, 597-602, 664, 868, 870, 969
Customs tariff and revenue, 597-602, 662, 663, 671, 672, 673, 968, 973

D

Dairy—
Board, 359, 506, 511, 515-516
cows, 358, 383, 902
factories, 358, 435, 450, 716
farming, 352, 353, 355, 356, 371, 380, 381, 699, 700, 704, 716, 902, 903
machinery, 368-369, 564
produce, 355, 356, 357-359, 364-365, 450, 903
consumption of, 625
exported, 295, 503, 506-509, 510, 543-547, 555, 560, 562, 563, 572-574, 628, 732, 909, 966, 974
export price index, 617
inspection of, 364-365
marketing of, 503, 506-509, 510
prices for, 515-516, 903
subsidies on, 629
Databank Systems Ltd., 713
Deaf, education of, 190
Death benefits, 155
Death duty, 638
estates passed for, 681-683
Death rates, 85, 93-96, 892
Maori non-Maori comparisons, 93, 95
Deaths, 85, 93-108, 892
accidental (see Accidents)
by ages, 94
by causes, 98-101
distribution over year, 94
due to earthquakes, 10
from accidents on farms, 821-822
from air accidents, 331-332
from external causes, 105-108
in hospitals, 135-137, 139
in psychiatric hospitals, 142
international classification, 98
neo-natal, 101-103, 104
of infants, 101-104, 892
of Maoris, 85, 93, 94, 95, 96, 102, 103
of pre-school children, 104
perinatal, 98, 101-103
registration of, 97
Debt—
hospital boards, 133
local government, 696-698, 917
public, 643, 648, 684-690, 698, 916, 968
Decimal currency, 728
Deer farming, 384
Defence, 35-37, 250-257
civil, 257
expenditure on, 251, 638, 661, 665, 669, 968, 970
policy, 35-37
science, 251
services, strength of, 252-255
Degrees, university, 198, 202
Delinquency, juvenile, 158-160, 240-242
Demography, 53-84, 891-892
Demolition of buildings, 466
Dental—
benefits (social security), 128
Council, 124
health, 121
nurses, 121
research, 122
services, 116, 121, 128, 129, 704
Dentists, 124
Departments, Goverment, 46-47, 116, 859, 868-876
Agriculture and Fisheries, 213, 364-365, 374, 375, 376, 402, 408, 665, 668, 868, 870, 970
Audit, 664, 868, 870, 969
Crown Law, 664, 868, 870, 969
Customs, 557, 597-602, 664, 868, 870, 969
Defence, 250, 868, 870, 970
Education, 175, 176, 182, 184, 189, 205, 217, 248, 665, 773, 854, 868, 870, 878, 970
Electricity, 485, 493, 823, 868, 870, 880
Energy Resources, 485, 665, 868, 871, 880, 970
Foreign Affairs, 28, 205, 217, 665, 667, 668, 854, 868, 871, 970
Forest Service, 208, 263, 265-266, 665, 667, 668, 695, 868, 871, 880, 970
Government Printing Office, 664, 868, 871, 970
Health, 115-145, 147, 823, 868, 871, 878, 971
Inland Revenue, 664, 869, 871-872, 969
Internal Affairs, 217, 664, 665, 823, 869, 872, 881, 969
Justice, 184, 227, 664, 969
Labour, 115, 119, 147, 481, 665, 771-772, 793-794, 822, 869, 872, 881, 970
Lands and Survey, 261, 262, 264, 272, 277, 664, 667, 668, 869, 872-873, 880, 970
Maori Affairs, 162, 276, 466, 475, 665, 667, 854, 869, 873, 880, 970
Mines, 412, 485, 665, 823, 869, 873, 880, 970
Scientific and Industrial Research, 206, 207-212, 213, 266, 269, 374, 409, 420, 486, 487, 665, 668, 869, 874, 879, 970
Social Welfare, 146-147, 156, 184, 244, 869, 874, 878, 970
Trade and Industry, 207, 296, 429, 557, 558, 603-604, 658, 659, 665, 869, 875, 880, 970
Transport, 288, 296, 317, 318, 324, 665, 823, 869, 875, 879, 880-881, 971
Works and Development, 157, 262, 268, 298, 305, 307, 366, 367, 421, 486, 664, 668, 823, 869, 875-876, 880, 970
Departures (see Migration)
Dependants of servicemen, pensions for, 164-167
Dependent children, 151, 157-158, 164
Deposits—
time, 714, 715
with building societies, 749, 751
with Reserve Bank, 712, 714
with savings banks, 721, 722, 723, 724, 918
with stock and station agencies, 725-726, 728
with trading banks, 714, 715
Desertion in marriage, 113
Designs, registration of, 842
Detention centre, 228, 237
Development Finance Corporation, 207, 429, 659, 666, 686, 738
Diagnostic laboratory services, 127, 129
Diatomite, 410, 418
Diesel and diesel-electric rail transport, 299, 300
Dietitians, 125, 132, 133
Diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus immunisation, 120-121
Diplomatic representation, 30, 885-889
Disabled, Rehabilitation League, 122
Disabilities from industrial accidents, 817, 818
Disability allowance, 155
Disability war pension, 165-167
Disabled civilians, rehabilitation of, 122, 815
Disabled servicemen, 163-168
Discount rates, 720
Diseases—
deaths from, 98-105, 135-137
mental, 136, 141-142
occupational, 119
treated in hospitals, 135-137
Displaced persons, 73
Disputes, industrial, 799-801, 898
Dissolution of marriage, 112-114
Distance tax, 308, 671, 674
Distribution—
census of, 520-537
of labour force, 769
by industry and occupation, 769, 778-783
of population, 58-67
by ages, 77, 79-81, 82
District Community Councils and Community Councils, 51, 63
District Councils, 51, 307
District planning, 262
District high schools, 181, 187
Diversification of trade, 546-549
Dividends, totalisator, 683-684
Divorce, 109, 110, 112-114
Divorced persons, 77, 78
remarrying, 109, 110
Doctors (see Medical practitioners)
Dogs, 384
Dolomite, 410
Domains, public, 275, 695
Domestic assistance, 128
Domestic proceedings, 244
Domestic purposes benefit, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153
Domestic trade, 519-542, 965-966
Dominion, 26
Drainage boards, 49, 693-695, 697, 776
Drama, 938
Drivers' licences, 311, 318
Drowning accidents, 105, 106
Drugs, 117-118, 127
offences, 247
therapeutic, 117
Drunkenness, 231, 234, 236, 319
Duties—
customs and excise, 597-602, 662, 671, 672, 968, 973
estate and gift, 671, 680, 967
instruments, 671
lottery, 848
Dwellings (see also Houses and flats), 463-481, 745-747, 964
amenities, 479
census of, 478-481
materials used, 480
number of rooms and occupants, 481
tenure, 479, 481

E

Earthquakes, 9-12, 921, 923
Earthquake and War Damage Insurance, 765-766
Earthquake magnitudes, 9
Earth resources, satellite programme, 261, 269
Earths, soil types, 348-350
Ecological survey, 211
Economic—
aggregates, 631-659
pensions, 165
planning, 657-659, 945-951
Economics, publications, 931
Education (see also Schools), 175-224, 876, 952-957
Act, 176, 812, 922
adult, 204-205
boards, 175-176
buildings, 179-180, 467, 468, 669
continuing, 204
community colleges, 176
Department of, 175, 176, 182, 184, 189, 205, 217, 248, 665, 773, 854, 868, 870, 878, 970
dental health, 121
expenditure on, 177-179, 638, 661, 662, 665, 669, 915, 968, 970
handicapped children, 184, 953
health, 121
higher, 193-194, 893
Maori, 186, 187, 203-204, 953, 955
Pacific Islanders, 203-204, 826, 830, 953, 955
pre-school, 177, 185, 953
primary, 176, 177, 185-187, 709, 893, 952
psychological service, 184
publications, 192, 932-933
rural, 189, 953
secondary, 176, 177, 181-188, 709, 893, 953, 956
special classes, 177, 184
system, 175-177, 893
technical, 176, 177, 180, 181, 199-202, 773-774, 893, 954
training of teachers, 190-191, 893
University, 193-199, 893 954
Educational—
attainments, 188, 709, 957
Development Conference, 176-177, 957
planning, 175, 952-957
qualifications of labour force, 202, 709, 786, 957
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 35
Eels, 408
Effective gross domestic product, 657
Effective weekly wage rates, 797, 897
Eggs—
consumption of, 625
export of, 562, 563, 628
marketing of, 384, 513
production, 384
retail price of, 611
subsidy on, 513, 630
Elderly, housing of, 116, 130, 474-475, 695, 747
Elections, general, 25, 44, 47-48, 850
Electoral—
Act 1956, 42, 47
Representation Commission, 42, 47
roll, 48, 850
Electorates, 47, 48, 860
Electric—
appliances in homes, 479-480
power, 415, 488-497, 686
boards, 49, 173, 493, 693-695, 776
estimates, 492
finance of, 492-493, 666, 667, 668, 686
generation, 495-496
in manufacturing industries, 441-442
railways, 299
stations, 415, 488-492, 494
Electrical machinery and appliances imported, 585, 590
Electricity, consumption of, 482-484
Electricity Department, 485, 493, 823, 868, 870, 880
Electronics, manufacture, 427
Embassies, 885-886
Emergency benefits, 148, 149, 150, 151, 155
Emergency Protection Authority, 558
Emigration, 69-72, 961
Employers—
liability insurance, 760
unions, 803, 805
Employment, 767-787, 961
building, 471, 769
by local authorities, 776
centres, 771-772
forestry, 399-400
in coal mining, 414
in industry, 431-438, 440-441
in retail stores, 520-523, 528, 530
in service establishments, 535
in wholesale stores, 531, 534
index of, 656
on farms, 352
placement service, 771-772, 778
promotion, 771-772
public service, 777, 876-878
regulations affecting, 810-813
survey of, 775-776
vacancies, 778
women in labour force, 440, 441, 780-783, 784-785
Endowment, land, 272-273
Energy, 206, 209, 482-502
conservation, 486, 972
pricing policy, 486
research and development, 486-488
Energy Resources—
development of, 485-488
levy, 968
Ministry of, 485, 665, 868, 871, 880, 970
Engineering industries, 438
Environment—
Commission for, 264
physical, 208-209, 211, 258-269
research in, 489
Environmental health, 117
Equal pay, 792
Erosion, 7, 8, 268, 327
protection, forest, 390
Estate duty, 663, 671, 678-679, 967
Estates—
administered by Public Trust Office, 843-844
passed for death duty, 681-683
Ethnic groups, 82
Europe, relations with, 25, 29-30, 504
European Economic Community (EEC), 25, 28, 29, 503, 509-510, 543-546, 926, 927
investment in New Zealand, 650, 651
trade with, 504, 505, 508, 509-510, 551, 644-648, 649
Ewes, breeding, 382
Examinations, 182-183
Excess retention tax, 678
Exchange (currency)—
control of, 711, 729-730, 734
rates of, 728-730
Exchange transactions, overseas, 711, 731-736, 973-974
Exchanges, telephone, 336
Excise duties, 600, 601, 671, 673, 968, 973
Executive council, 45
Ex-nuptial infants, 90-91, 92, 93, 157, 158
ages of mothers, 91
births of, 90-91, 92, 93, 157
protection of, 157-158
registration of, 90-91
Exotic forest, 386, 387, 389-390, 400
Expectation of life, 96-97
Expenditure—
civil aviation, 325
defence, 251, 638, 661, 665, 669, 968, 970
education, 177-178, 661, 662, 665, 669, 915, 968, 970
Forest Service, 391, 665, 970
government (see Government Finance)
health, 116, 638, 661, 662, 665, 668, 669, 915, 968, 970
household, 621-624
local government, 309-310, 639, 691-698
national, 631-639, 968-971
National Roads Fund, 308, 971
Post Office, 338-339, 899
Railways, 300-302, 900
research, 215-216
roads, 307-308, 309-311, 665, 669, 670, 971
social services, 149, 166, 168, 638, 661, 662, 665, 668, 669, 915, 968, 970
Export Guarantee Office, 430, 559
Export-Import Corporation, 559, 666, 686
Exports and Shipping Council, 514
Exports (see also under individual products), 330, 360-361, 376, 380, 514, 559-581, 657, 906-912, 966, 974
by ports, 293, 294-295, 580, 732
classification of, 565-567
commodities exported—
value, 560, 563-564, 732, 733
volume, 561-562
control of, 556-558
dairy produce, 503, 506-509, 510, 511
meat, 503-505, 511-512
destination of, 545-549, 551-555, 567-581
incentive scheme, 557, 972
licences, 556-557
pulp and paper, 397, 398, 966
prices, 515-519
index numbers, 616-618, 895, 896
timber, 397, 398
value of, 551-555, 560, 563-564, 906-912 966, 974
volume, 561-562, 906-912
index numbers, 555-556
Ex-servicemen—
dependants of, 164-167
disabled, 163-165
pension and rehabilitation, 163-165
External—
migration (see also emigration, immigration), 53, 54, 55, 69-72, 891
trade, 543-602, 906-912, 966

F

Factories, 424-462, 467, 468, 904
accidents in, 817-820
Act, 810
classified by size, 440
coal consumed in, 442-443
dairy, 358, 435, 450
employees, 431-438, 440-441, 904
expenses of operation, 446, 904
summary of operations, 449, 904
Factory production, 424-462, 904, 958-960
Family—
and the law, 252-253
benefits, 146, 147, 148-153, 638
capitalisation of, 149, 153, 466, 472, 746
health, 120
planning, 120
Farm—
accidents, 107, 821-822
advisory service, 365
area in cultivation, 351, 352
capital expenditure, 353
cost price indexes, 615-616
employees, 352, 798
finance, 269, 716, 744
holdings, 351, 352
incomes, 699, 700, 704, 706, 708
industry reserves, 519
machinery, 368-369, 438, 460
imports of, 589, 593, 594-595
production of, 438, 460
produce—
consumption of, 625-626
export of, 295, 543-547, 907-911
marketing of, 503-519, 965
production, 354-357, 901-903
indexes of, 356-357
settlement and assistance, 270-272
subsidies, 367
tractors, 368, 369
Farming, 348-385, 706, 901-903
arable, 350, 351, 352, 369-379, 901
cattle, 353, 355, 356, 379, 380, 381
dairy, 352, 353, 355, 356, 371, 380, 381, 902, 903
investment in, 652
occupations, 352
sheep, 350, 352, 353, 355, 356, 371, 379, 380, 381
stud, 353
Fathers, ages of, 88
Federation of Labour, 514, 803
Female suffrage, 922
Female wage rates, 441
Ferry services, 298-299, 303
Fertiliser—
imports of 294, 584, 588, 592
industry, 437, 456, 457, 462
land topdressed with, 366
research, 207, 213
subsidy, 368
Fibreboard, 396
Film-hire tax, 671
Filmmaking, 218
Finance—
companies, 719, 726-727, 728, 756
farm, 269, 716, 744
Government, 148, 150, 638-639, 660-690, 725, 742-747, 759, 763, 876, 914-916, 967-973
hospital board, 133-134
housing, 472, 477, 973
local government, 639, 691-698
Fines, 227
Fire—
boards, 173, 693-694, 697, 776
brigades, 248
insurance, 249, 761-763
losses, 762
prevention in forests, 390-391
regions, areas, and districts, 248
Service Commission, 49, 248
Fires—
causes of, 249
on vessels, 297
First births, 89-90
Fish, 5, 403-405, 838-839
acclimatisation of, 408
and fisheries, 401-408
catch, 404
consumption of, 406, 625
exported, 406, 407, 561, 563, 579, 628
imported, 583, 591
mercury level in, 406
value of production, 404-405
Fishing, 401-408, 745, 838-839
big-game, 407, 839
Industry Board, 403
Industry Finance Committee, 403
grounds, 401-402
vessels, 402
Flag, New Zealand, 855
Flats (see Houses and flats)—
pensioners', 130, 466
Flax, linen, 379, 435
Flax, phormium, 435
Flood prevention, 5
Flour, production of, 462
Fluoridation, 122
Food—
And Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 35, 629
and Drug Act, 117, 118
consumption, 625–630
household expenditure on, 621–624
imports of, 583, 586, 587, 591, 596
inspection and sale of, 118
production, 435, 462, 756
retail prices of, 611, 613, 967
subsidies, 630
Footwear and clothing, retail prices of, 611–612
Footwear industry, 436, 454, 462
imports of, 585
Foreign Affairs, Ministry of, 28, 205, 217, 665, 667, 668, 854, 868, 871, 970
Foreign citizenship, 74
Foreigners, naturalisation of, 74
Foreign policy, 26–41
Forest—
beech, 387–389
conservation, 263, 265–266, 390–391
exotic, 386, 387, 389–390, 400
fire prevention, 390–391
indigenous, 386, 387, 388–389, 400
private, 392
produce exported, 397, 398, 561, 563, 903
Research Institute, 266, 390, 391
resources, 386–387
Service, 208, 263, 265–266, 665, 667, 668, 695, 868, 871, 880, 970
State, 263, 386, 387, 388–391, 686
utilisation, 392–397
Forestry, 1, 386–400, 756, 903
development and future prospects of, 400
Development Council, 400, 657
overseas investment in, 652
persons engaged in, 399–400
research, 390, 391, 398–399
training, 399
Forty-hour week, 810
Fowls, 384
Franchise, central government, 48, 922
Freehold land, 270, 271, 280, 351
Freight—
carried by air transport, 326, 327, 329–330
carried by rail, 301, 302, 900
carried by shipping, 290–295
Freshwater fisheries, 408, 838
Friendly societies, 156
Frost, 17, 19, 21
Frozen foods, 462, 562, 564, 626, 628
consumption of, 626
export of, 562, 564, 569–572, 578, 628
Fruit—
berry, 377, 626, 628
citrus, 369, 370, 375, 376, 626
consumption of, 626
export of, 295, 560, 562, 564, 910
imports of, 294, 586, 591, 596
industry, 376–378, 462
marketing of, 376, 512–513
stone, 376, 626
sub-tropical, 375, 376
Fruit and vegetable preserving industry, 373, 435, 451
Fuels and lubricants, imports of, 582, 584
Furniture and fixtures industry, 436, 455

G

Gas—
appliances in homes, 479–480
Council, 497
generation and supply, 409, 411, 497–502
prices, 499
subsidy, 502, 630
General—
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 33, 506, 597–598
Assembly Library, 221
Elections, 25, 44, 47–48, 850
Wage Orders, 789
Geological Survey, 209, 420–421
Geology, 7–9
maps and publications, 420, 934
Geothermal power, 209, 482, 488, 490, 491, 925, 927
Geysers (see Thermal activity)
Gift duty, 663, 671, 680, 967
Glaciers, 4, 9
Glass and glass products industry, 437
Glasshouses, 374
Gold—
discovery of, 5, 921
mining and production, 410, 418
reserve, 711, 730, 736, 737
Government—
departments (see Departments, Government) employees, 876, 878
finance, 148, 150, 638–639, 660–690, 725, 742–747, 759, 763, 876, 914–916, 967—973
housing, 466, 476–477, 747
Life Insurance Office, 690, 868, 871
Printing Office, 664, 868, 871, 969
Superannuation Fund, 168–171, 690, 950
system of, 40–52
Governors-General, 856–857
power, duties, etc., 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 225, 250
Graduates, university, 191, 198
Grain—
crops, 371, 901
milling, 435, 451
Grants (see also Subsidies)—
from lottery profits, 130, 848, 853
various, 185, 203, 212, 213, 217, 273, 772, 827, 830, 853
welfare services, 116, 130, 474–475
Grapes and vineyards, 369, 370, 374, 377
Grass and clover seed, 369, 374–375
exports of, 562, 564, 578, 910
Grasses and grasslands, 365, 374–375
Grasslands and grasses research, 213
Greenstone, 410, 419
Groceries, retail prices of, 611
Gross—
capital formation, 632, 634, 636
of Central Government, 643, 684–690, 916
of local government, 696–698, 917
domestic expenditure, 632, 634, 656–657
of Central Government, 643, 684–690, 916
of local government, 696–698, 917
domestic product, 502, 654–657
of Central Government, 643, 684–690, 916
of local government, 696–698, 917
indebtedness—
of Central Government, 643, 684–690, 916
of local government, 696–698, 917
national product, 631, 632, 633–634, 656, 692, 876, 915, 950
Guardianship, 160–161

H

Hail, 17
Halloysite, 419
Handicapped children, 120, 130, 157, 184, 953
Harbours (see also Ports), 2
Harbour boards, 49, 173, 692–694, 697, 776
Harbour Bridge Authority, 49, 305–306, 309, 776
Health, 115–145
Act 1956, and others, 97
benefits, 116, 127–129, 148–149
Board of, 116
camps, 120
child, 120–121
dental, 121
Department of, 115–145, 147, 823, 868, 871, 878
education, 121
expenditure, 116, 638, 661, 662, 665, 668, 669, 915, 968, 970
family, 120
hazards, 119
insurance, 156
mental, 139–142
occupational, 118–120
statistics, 122–123
Heart disease, 98, 99–100, 136
Heavy traffic fees, 308
Heights and weights of children, 142–145
Herbicides, 269
Hides, skins, and pelts exported, 295, 560, 562, 563, 576–577, 911, 966
High Commissions, 886–887
Higher Salaries Commission, 791
Higher School Certificate, 183
Highways, 307, 308
taxation, 662, 663, 670, 671, 673–674, 968
Hire purchase trade, 523, 541–542, 965
Historic Places Trust, 220–221, 274
Historic reserves, 274
Historical works, 939–941
History of New Zealand, 22–28, 921–927, 939–941
Holdings (see Land holdings)
Holidays, 810, 852
Home-nursing services, 128
Homes—
accidents in, 107, 138
children's, 157, 158, 161
joint family, 478
old people's, 130
Homicide, 105, 106, 138, 230
Honey, 385, 514, 562, 563, 596, 626, 628, 828
Honours conferred, 881–885
Hops, 370, 375, 378, 562, 564
Horse-racing, 683–684
Horticulture, 365, 375
Hosiery and other knitting mills, 435, 453
Hospital—
benefits, 126–129, 149
Boards, 131, 133–134, 173, 697
employees, 132, 876
expenditure, 133–134
finances of, 133–134
indebtedness of, 133–134
districts, 131
Hospitals (see also Patients), 130–142, 467, 468, 876
beds in, 131–132
deaths in, 135–137, 139
general, 132
maternity, 120, 127
mental, 139–142
old people's, 130
private, 127, 131, 134
psychiatric units, 127, 133, 139–142
public, 135–137
staff of, 132, 812
waiting lists, 132
Hostels, 475, 476, 771
pre-release, 239
Hot springs, 840
Hotels, licensed, 836–838, 848–849
Hours of work, 794–795, 810
Households, 78–80
expenditure, 621–624
incomes of, 80, 624, 709
size of, 79–80, 623
age group of head, 80, 622
occupational status of head, 80, 623
Survey, 621–624
House of Representatives, 26, 40, 41, 42–43, 48, 850, 860, 921
members of, 40, 41, 42, 850, 860
Houses and flats (see also Dwellings), 463–481, 746–747, 964
census enumerations, 478–481
completed, 466, 470, 964
conversion to flats, 466
finance of, 466, 472, 474, 477, 745–747, 748–751
mortgages, 474
sale of State, 747
State, 464, 477, 745–747
Housing, 463–481, 609, 610, 745–747, 964, 973
household expenditure on, 621–624
Maori, 475
of elderly, 116, 130, 474–475, 695, 747
rural, 475
Housing Commission, 464
Housing Corporation, 466, 472, 474, 476–477, 486, 663, 664, 666, 686, 718, 722, 743, 745–746, 868, 871, 880, 969, 970
Humidity, 18
Hunting, 839
Hydro-electric power, 4, 5, 482, 488, 489–491
water sources, 4–5
Hygiene, 115–117

I

Ice cream, 435, 450, 462, 625
Ilmenite, 409, 416
Immigration, 69–74, 961
Act, 73
ages of migrants, 71
assisted, 72–73
hostels, 771
original, 23
policy, 72–74
Immunisation, 115, 120–121
Import price indexes, 616–617, 619, 895, 896
Imports, 330, 555–557, 582–596, 657, 732, 733, 906, 966, 974
by end use, 594–595
by ports, 293–294, 595–596
classification of, 582–585, 594–595
licensing and control of, 556–558
origin of, 545–549, 551–555, 586–591
pulp and paper, 397, 398
timber, 397, 398
value of, 551–555, 582–591, 732, 733, 974
volume of, 591–594
volume index numbers, 555–556
Income—
assessable, 705, 706
company, 631, 704, 706
earners in each household, 709
industrial classification of, 699, 704, 706, 708
investment, 699, 703
national, 631–639
of households in household survey, 621, 624
of individuals, 699–704, 705, 708–709
of salary and wage earners, 634, 635, 699, 702
of self employed, 699, 701, 704
of women, 708–709
private, 632, 634, 635, 692
returnable, 706
sources of, 699
Income tax, 638, 662, 663, 671, 672, 674–678, 699–709, 967
Indebtedness (see Debt)
Index numbers—
building and construction, 655
commodity prices, 605–610
consumers' prices, 605–613, 797, 896, 897, 967
employment, 656
export prices, 616–618, 895, 896
external trade, volume of, 555–556, 616–617
farm production, value and volume, 356–357
farming costs prices, 615–616
gross domestic product, 655
import prices, 616–617, 619, 895, 896
manufacturing industries production, value and volume, 448
production, 448
reproduction, 87
retail prices, 607–610, 797, 895, 897, 967
retail turnover, 538
share prices, 620, 896, 897
terms of trade, 620, 896
urban house property and section price, 473–474
volume of production, 448, 450–460
wage rates, 795–797, 897
wholesale prices, 613–615, 895, 896
wool prices, 515, 965
Indigenous forest, 386, 387, 388–389, 400
Industrial—
associations, 806
classification of salary and wage payments, 793
Commission, 47, 799, 801
conciliation and arbitration, 799–801, 806–810
Conciliation Service, 800–801
Court, 799, 801
Design Council, 843
disputes, 799–801, 923, 925
distribution of population, 779, 780–781
injuries, 817–820
Mediation Service, 799–800
production, 424–462, 904, 958–960
relations, 799–813, 951
research, 209–210, 429, 430
safety, 814–823
stoppages, 799–801, 806–810, 898
unions, 802
Industrial accidents, 107, 817–820
deaths from, 107, 817, 818, 822
time lost through, 817, 819
Industries—
bank advances to, 716
aids to development, 429
export earnings, 428, 732, 733, 974
Development Commission, 557–558, 950
aids to development, 429
export earnings, 428, 732, 733, 974
manufacturing, 424–462, 904, 958–960
aids to development, 429
export earnings, 428, 732, 733, 974
Industry—
environmental protection, 266
groups of bankrupts, 845
persons engaged in, 431–438, 440–441, 445, 450–461, 768–769, 776, 904
State aid to, 661, 662, 665, 668, 669, 744–745, 746–747, 968, 970
wages and overtime, 431–438, 441, 445, 449–461, 795, 904
Infant mortality, 101–104, 892
Injuries, industrial, 817–820
Inland Revenue Department, 664, 869, 871–872, 969
Insecticides, 327–328
Insects and fungi, control in forests, 391
Insolvency, 920
Instalment credit trading, 541–542, 965
Institute of Nuclear Sciences, 209
Instruments, duty on, 671
Insurance, 757–766
accident, 318, 760–761
earthquake, and war damage, 765–766
employers' liability, 760
fire, 761–763
life, 690, 719, 757–760
sickness, 156, 674
State, 764–766
Intellectually handicapped children, 120, 130, 157, 184
Intelligence service, 664, 869, 969
Inter-departmental Committee on Resettlement, 73
Inter-industry studies and sector accounts, 653–654
Inter-island shipping service, 289
Interest—
credit by savings banks, 721, 722, 723, 724, 918
fixed deposits, 715, 720
mortgages, 919
public debt, 696
on local government debt, 696
fixed deposits, 715, 720
mortgages, 919
public debt, 696
on public debt, 636, 638, 687–688, 689
fixed deposits, 715, 720
mortgages, 919
public debt, 696
payments to Consolidated Revenue Account, 663
fixed deposits, 715, 720
mortgages, 919
public debt, 696
rates on—
fixed deposits, 715, 720
mortgages, 919
public debt, 696
savings banks, 721, 722, 723, 724
stock and station deposits, 726
Internal Affairs Department, 217, 664, 665, 823, 869, 872, 881, 969, 970
Internal migration, 83
International—
activities, 25
air services, 323–325, 328–330
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), 35
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 35, 641, 643, 666, 685, 686, 736–737, 926
Coffee Agreement, 601
Development Association, 737
education, 205
Energy Agency, 30, 485, 486, 487–488
Finance Corporation, 35, 736–737, 926
investment income, 732
Labour Organisation (ILO), 35
Monetary Fund, 35, 640, 641, 643, 646, 648, 666, 688, 730, 732, 733, 734, 736–737, 913, 926, 974
relations, New Zealand's, 26–40
Sugar Agreement, 601
Wool Secretariat, 363, 505
International comparisons—
birth and natural increase rates, 85
consumption of foodstuffs, 629
dairy produce, 507–508
deaths of pre-schooler children, 104–105
doctors and dentists to population ratio, 124
energy consumption, 488
expectation of life, 97
external trade per head, 549
fish consumption, 406
heights and weights, 145
infant mortality rates, 102–103
libraries, 224
life assurance, 757
marriage rates, 109
motor accident, death and injury rates, 317
newspapers, 344
population, 55, 84, 85
prices, 612–613
public expenditure on education, 179
research expenditure, 216
sheep numbers, 506
standards of living, 846
telephones, 336
wholesale prices, 615
women in the labour force, 784
wool production, 506
Invalids' benefits, 149, 150, 151, 152, 154
Inventions Development Authority, 842
Investment—
and finance, 739–756
incomes, 699, 703, 824
in New Zealand and overseas, 647, 648, 649–653, 662, 713
pool—National Provident Fund, 172
Reserve Bank, 713
societies, 748–751
State, 686, 689–690
Invisible imports and exports, 732, 733, 974
Iron and steel—
imports of, 294, 585, 588, 589, 592, 593
industry, 416, 427
Iron ores and ironsands, 295, 409, 410, 416
Irrigation, 366–367
Island territories, 1, 2, 31–32, 54, 197, 824–833
Islands, 1, 2, 824–830

J

Japan, trade with, 503, 504–505, 506, 508, 543, 544, 545, 546, 549, 552, 555, 567, 586
Joinery industry, 436, 454
Joint family homes, 478
Judiciary, 47, 168–170, 225–226, 867
Juries, 226–227
Justice, 225–245, 278, 664, 668, 869, 872, 878, 894, 969
Juvenile—
delinquency, 158–160
offenders, 158–160, 240–242
working conditions, 810, 811

K

Kauri gum, 419, 561, 563
Kermadec Islands, 2, 11, 54, 922
Kindergarten schools, 180, 181, 185
Knitting mills and hosiery industry, 435, 453

L

Laboratory diagnostic services, 127, 129
Labour—
Department of, 115, 119, 147, 481, 665, 771–772, 793–794, 822, 869, 872, 881, 970
distribution of, 780–783
educational qualifications of, 202, 709, 786
projections, 770, 772, 963
force, 431–438, 440–441, 767–787, 898, 961
distribution of, 780–783
educational qualifications of, 202, 709, 786
projections, 770, 772, 963
hours, 810
laws and working conditions, 810–813
Lactose, 358
Lakes, 5–6, 263, 488, 489, 490
Lamb—
consumption, 625
exported, 503, 504–505, 517–519, 570–571, 628, 908
produced, 360, 381, 382
retail price of, 611
Lambs, 380, 381
slaughtered, 360–361
Land, 258–285
classification for soil conservation, 268
classification by farm types, 351, 352, 371
conservation, 259
classification by farm types, 351, 352, 371
Crown, 270–275, 278, 279
classification by farm types, 351, 352, 371
development, 258–285
classification by farm types, 351, 352, 371
drainage boards, 49, 776
classification by farm types, 351, 352, 371
holdings, 351, 371
classification by farm types, 351, 352, 371
Maori, 276, 278–279
registration, 278
settlement promotion, 270–271, 279, 666, 667, 668, 686
surveys, 277
tax, 663, 671, 678, 967
tenure, 270–271, 278, 351
transfers, 280–281, 919, 973
use, 258–285, 351, 665, 667, 669
Use Advisory Council, 260–261
Valuation Court (see Supreme Court)
valuation of, 282–285, 691
Lands and Survey Department, 261, 262, 264, 272, 277, 664, 667, 668, 869, 872–873, 880, 970
Latin America, relations with, 34
Law (see Legislation)
and the family, 225–249, 661, 664, 668, 669, 894, 968
and order, 225–249, 661, 664, 668, 669, 894, 968
Reform Council, 225
revision of, 225
Lawn mowers, 461
Lead, 418
Leasehold landholdings, 271, 280, 351
Leather and leather products, 437, 456, 585
Legal aid, 243
Legal profession, 227, 704
Legal tender, 728
Legislation, 43
in force in January 1977, 861–867
labour and allied, 789–792, 799, 810–813, 814
passed in 1976, 861
publications, 931–932
Legislative authority, 41–43
Legislative Council, 26, 41
Letters, etc., posted, 333–334, 899
Libraries, census of, 222–224
Library school, 222
Library services, 191, 221–224, 695, 851
Licences—
aerodrome, 331
caterers', 848
drivers', 311, 318
export, 556–557
flight crew, 331
general ancillary, 848
import, 556–557
motor-vehicle, 311–313, 964
petroleum prospecting, 415
publicans', 848–849
radio and television, 343
restaurant, 848–849
tavern, 848–850
tourist house, 848–850
transport, 314–315
Licensing—
authorities (road services), 314
Control Commission (liquor), 848–850
poll, 850
trusts, 849–850
Licensing of—
commercial air services, 324
goods and passenger services, 314–315
lotteries and raffles, 848
motor vehicles, 311–313, 964
private hospitals, 130, 134
sale of alcoholic liquor, 848–850
shipping vessels, 401
Life annuity tables, 97
Life insurance, 690, 719, 757–760
Life, expectation of, 96–97
Lighthouses, 296
Lime—
for agriculture, 366, 367, 368
industry, 437
Limestone, 410
Linen flax, 379, 435, 666, 686
Linseed, 374
Liquor licensing, 848–850
Literary awards, 218–219
Livestock, 301, 302, 361, 379–385, 902
Loans—
allocation of, 685–689
by building societies, 748–751
dates of maturity, 689
domicile of, 916
farm, 742–744
forestry, 391
hospital boards, 133–134
housing, 466, 745–746
National Development, 663, 665, 666, 667, 670, 687, 971
of local government, 696–698, 917
on assurance policies, 759
overseas, 685, 688–689
redemption of, 664, 665, 668, 670, 685, 687, 969, 971
Local authorities (see under Local Government and individual names, e.g., Hospital Boards, Counties, etc.)
Local Authorities Loans Board, 475, 696
Local Government, 48–52
Act, 48, 49–50, 51
advances to, 746–747
Amendment Act, 50–51
authority, 51–52
Commission, 50
debt of, 696–698, 917
districts, 48–51, 62
employees of, 776, 961
expenditure of, 308, 309–310, 639, 693–694, 917
finance of, 639, 691–698, 743, 917
franchise, 52
health and welfare responsibilities of, 117, 466
housing by, 466
investment pool, 172
number of local authorities, 49
rates, 639, 691–693
revenue of, 307, 308, 310, 639, 692–695
roading of, 309–310, 670
subsidies and grants to, 307, 308, 310, 466, 639, 670, 692–696, 971
superannuation, 172
taxation, 639, 691–694
urban transport operated by, 320–323
voting, 52
Lockouts, 807
Locomotives, 300
Logging, 208, 392–393
London prices for meat, 517
Lotteries, 848
duty on, 848
grants, 130, 848, 853
Lubricants, and fuels, imports of, 582, 587, 592
Lucerne, 374–375

M

Machinery—
accidents, 820, 821, 822
Act, 823
exports, 566
farm, 368–369, 438, 460
imports of, 294, 589, 593, 594–595
industry, 438, 460, 753
safety of, 823
used in manufacturing industries, 441–442
Magistrates' Courts, 47, 114, 225, 226, 230–234, 242–243, 318, 894
Magistrates, Stipendiary, 226
Mail, 333–334, 899
air, 326, 329, 334
Maize, 369, 370, 371, 372
Malls, shopping, 528–529
Management Services Research Unit, 131
Manganese ore, 418
Manila Treaty, 27
Manpower Planning Unit, 772
Manufacturing industries, 424–462, 652, 699, 704, 706, 708, 716, 753, 756, 779, 904, 958–960
assets of, 446
by employment districts, 433–434
coal consumed in, 442–443
development, 424–427, 657
expenses of operation, 446, 904
export earnings, 428, 732, 733, 974
motive power, 441–442
net output (net value added) in, 431–438, 444–445, 448, 904
persons engaged in, 431–438, 440–441, 445, 450–461, 769, 904
stocks, 447, 966
summary of operations, 431–438, 449, 904
value of production, 431–438, 444–445, 448, 904
volume of production, 448, 461–462
wages in, 431–438, 441, 445, 449–461, 793, 795–797, 904
Maori (see also Maoris)—
Affairs, Department of, 162, 276, 466, 475, 665, 667, 854, 869, 873, 880, 970
Appellate Court, 226, 279
apprentices registered, 774–775
birth rate, 85, 86
Council, 162
death rates, 93, 94, 102, 103
education, 186, 187, 203–204, 953
Education Foundation, 203
electorates, 42, 44, 47, 860
housing, 475
Land Court, 169, 226, 276, 279
lands, 263, 276, 278–279
life expectancy, 97
Members of Parliament, 44, 48, 860, 922
population, 56, 65, 68–69, 96, 97
pupils, 186, 187, 203–204
Purposes Act 1951, 108
Trustee, 276, 690
welfare organisations, 162–163
Women's Welfare League, 162
youths, trade training for, 774–775
Maoris (see also Maori)—
children attending schools, 186, 187
deaths of, 85, 93, 94, 95, 96, 102, 103
franchise, 47, 48
history of, 22–28
infant mortality of, 102, 103
natural increase of, 85
pre-employment courses, 774–775
publications and articles on, 933–934
scholarships for, 203
settled on farms, 276
urbanisation of, 68
Maps—
factory production, 433–434
mineral resources, 411, 417
rainfall, 16
topographical, 277
Marginal land, 269
Marine officers certificates, 296, 811
Marine pollution, 268
Maritime parks, 264, 275
Marital status, 77–78, 109
Market gardens, 352, 353, 371, 380
Marketing of primary produce, 503–519
Marriage guidance, 114
Marriages, 108–112, 892
age of persons, 109
dissolution and nullity, 112–114
rates, 108
Married women in the labour force, 785
Materials used in manufacturing industries, 431–438, 443–444, 904
Maternal deaths, 104
Maternal welfare, 120, 127, 129
Maternity—
benefits, 127, 129, 149
hospitals, 120, 127
nurses, 124
Meat—
consumption of, 625
export of, 295, 503–506, 511, 555, 560, 562, 563, 732, 733, 908, 966, 974
export price index, 617
freezing and preserving industry, 435, 450, 716, 755–756
Industry Reserve Account, 519, 690
inspection of, 364
levy on, 511
marketing of, 517–519
prices of, 517–519, 611
production, 360, 450, 903
retail prices 611
Meat Producers Board, 361, 505, 511, 518
Mediation, industrial, 799–800
Medical—
advertising, 117–118
benefits, 126–129, 148, 149
care societies, 156
Council, 123
practitioners, 123, 124, 126, 704
Research Council, 116, 123
services, 115–145
Medicine, physical, 122
Members of Parliament, 42–43, 850, 860
salaries of, 44–45
superannuation of, 45, 168–170
Mental—
diseases, 136, 141–142
health and psychology publications, 140
health services, 139–142
hospitals, 139–142
Mercantile marine, 296
pensions, 165
Merchant banks, 727
Mercury, 418
Mercury level in fish, 406, 408
Metal products industry, 438, 460, 716
Meteorological—
observations for year, 19–21
publications, 12
Service, 211
Meteorology (see also Climate), 12–21
Metric equivalents, viii, 841
Metrication, 841
Middle East—
relations with, 30
trade with, 505, 509, 544–545, 547, 553
Midwives, 124
Migration, external, 53, 54, 55, 69–72, 834–836, 891, 961
ages of migrants, 71
internal, 83
occupations of migrants, 71
Mileage of—
bus, etc., routes, 323
commercial air services, 326, 327
railways, 298, 900
roads, 305
State highways, 305
Mileage tax, 308, 671, 674
Military forces, 253–254
Milk—
Board, 513, 517
consumption, 625
dried and condensed, exports of, 562, 563, 574, 909
dried and condensed, production of, 358
levy on, 513
marketing of, 359, 513
production, 359
subsidy, 513, 517, 630
Milkfat, 357, 903
Milk products (see Dairy products)
Milking machines, 368, 369
Minerals and mineral production, 409–423, 437, 584, 587
Miners' benefits, 147, 149, 150, 151, 154
Mines Department, 412, 485, 665, 823, 869, 873, 880, 970
Minimum wage, 798
Mining and quarrying, census of, 421–423
Mining, 265, 409–423, 706, 708, 716–717, 753, 769, 779
accidents, 107, 818, 819
legislation, 412, 811–812
overseas investment in, 652
persons engaged in, 414
State aid to, 420–421, 668, 669
taxation, 708
value of production, 410, 412
Ministers of each Church, and marriages by, 111–112
Ministers of the Crown, 40, 44, 45, 46, 859
Ministers, successive, 857–858
Minors, marriages of, 111
Monarch, the, 40
Monetary and Economic Council, 738
Monetary policy, 717–718
Money orders, 335, 899
Mortality (see Deaths)
Mortgage guarantee scheme, 472, 746
Mortgages, 474, 725, 739–742, 743, 744, 745–747, 759, 763, 765, 919, 973
discharged, 742
Housing Corporation, 474, 745–746
rates of interest on, 740–741, 919
R.B.F.C., 742–743
sources of finance, 743–744
Mothers—
ages of, 88–89, 90, 91
in ex-nuptial cases, 91
issue of, 88–89
Motive power in factories, 441–442
Motor body building industry, 438, 459
Motor cycles, 311, 313
Motor spirits—
consumption of, 312
imports of, 294, 587, 592
retail price of, 612
taxation on, 307, 308, 662, 663, 670, 671, 673–674, 691–692, 696, 968, 971
Motor vehicles—
accidents, 98, 105, 106, 138, 315–317
assembly of, 427 435, 459, 462
drivers' licences, 311
imports of, 294, 590, 593
inspection of, 318
registration and licensing of, 311–313, 964
taxation, 308, 671, 971
value of hire purchase sales, 542, 965
Motorways, 305, 309
Mountaineering, 839, 936–937
Mountains, 1, 2, 3, 8
Mount Cook Airlines, 324
Multiple births, 88
Murder, 105, 138, 230
Museums, 192, 217, 218, 697, 776
Mutton—
consumption of, 625
exported, 360, 503, 504–505, 571, 628, 908
produced, 360, 361
retail prices of, 611

N

Narcotics, 118, 231
Nassella tussock boards, 49, 367, 776
National—
accounts, 631–659
Airways Corporation, 47, 323, 324, 326, 666, 686
Archives, 220
Art Gallery and Museum, 217, 220
Council of Adult Education, 204
Cancer Registry, 100
Development Bonds, 674, 723
Development Council, 409, 658, 945
Development Loans Account, 663, 665, 666, 667, 670, 685, 971
Film Library, 192
flag, 855
Health Institute, 123
Health Statistics Centre, 122–123
income and expenditure, 631–639, 673, 692
Library of New Zealand, 177, 221–222, 851
licensing poll, 850
Marriage Guidance Council, 114
parks, 263–264, 272–274, 490
planning, 262–263, 945–951
Provident Fund, 168, 171–174, 690
Radiation Laboratory, 119–120
Research Advisory Council, 206, 214, 657
Roads Board, 47, 49, 306–310, 670, 695
Roads Fund, 306–310, 671, 673–674, 971
song, 854–855
superannuation, 151, 152, 172, 972
Water and Soil Conservation Authority, 267, 367
Youth Council, 854
Nationality and naturalisation, 74–75
Natural gas, 410, 415–416, 482–484, 491, 495, 497–502, 666, 669, 687, 926
Natural increase of population, 53, 85, 891
Natural resources, 258, 386–391, 411, 412–414, 415, 416–421
Naturalisation, 74–75
Nature Conservation Council, 265
Naval (see also Royal New Zealand Navy)
bases, 252
defence, 252–253
Training Group, 252
vessels, 252
Navigational aids, air, 324–325
Netherlands, immigration from, 72, 73
Net value added in manufacturing, 431–438, 444–445, 448, 904
New Zealand—
Apple and Pear Marketing Board, 377–378, 512–513
area of, 2, 59, 61–65, 260
Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 33, 544, 547–548, 598, 927
Authors' Fund, 217
Ballet Company, 218
books, 929–941
boundaries of, 1–2
Broadcasting Corporation of, 217, 340, 664, 969
Broadcasting Council, 340, 666, 686
Cadet Forces, 256
Citrus Marketing Authority, 514
constitution, 40–47
Council for Educational Research, 202–203
Council for Recreation and Sport, 853–854
Dairy Board, 359, 506, 511, 515–516
Egg Marketing Authority, 513
Electricity Department, 485, 493, 823
Energy Research and Development Committee, 206, 485, 486–487
Export-Import Corporation, 430, 666, 686
Fire Service Commission, 49, 248
Forest Products Ltd., 394, 426
Gazette, 45, 48
Historic Places Trust, 217, 220, 274
in the Commonwealth, 29
Listener, 340, 343
Literary Fund, 217, 218
literature, 929–941
Meat Producers Board, 361, 505, 511, 518
Milk Board, 513, 517
Planning Council, 658, 946, 951
Mountain Safety Council, 854
population, 54
Ports Authority, 288
Red Cross Society, 130
register of shipping, 290
representation overseas, 885–887
Seal, 855
Shipping Corporation, 289–290, 666, 686
Steel Ltd., 427, 686
Symphony Orchestra, 217, 340, 342–343
Technical Correspondence Institute, 176, 180, 181, 199–200, 201–202
Water Safety Council, 107, 854
Wheat Board, 372
Wool Board, 361, 362–363, 367
Wool Marketing Corporation, 361, 363–364, 505, 512, 514, 519
Newspapers, 344, 591
Newsprint—
exports of, 295, 398, 561, 563, 579, 912
imports of, 398
production, 394–395
Niue Island, 2, 11, 23, 25, 27, 28, 31, 32, 38, 54, 72, 73, 169, 192, 581, 596, 824, 827–828
immigrants from, 72
Note issue, 711, 712
Notes in circulation, 712
Noxious animals, 391
Nuclear power, 206, 486, 489
Nursing and nurses, 116, 119, 121, 124, 132, 133
Nutrition, 118

O

Oats, 369, 370, 371, 373, 901
Occupational classification of—
bankrupts, 846
population, 779, 781–783
Occupational—
health, 118–120, 823
safety, 812, 822–823
status, 780
therapy, 122, 124–125, 132, 133
Oceanographic Institute, 211, 269
OECD, 30, 205, 487, 551
Offices Act, Shops and, 811
Oil drilling and prospecting, 409, 415, 421, 485, 972
Oil facility (IMF), 688
Oil, imports of, 294
Oil refinery, 484, 926
Oil usage, 484
Old people's homes, 130
Ombudsmen (Parliamentary Commissioners), 7, 868
Onions, 369, 373, 374, 626
exports of, 562, 564, 628
Opticians, registration of, 125
Optometrists, registration of, 125
Oranges, imports of, 586, 591, 596
Orchards, 352, 353, 370, 371, 375, 376–378, 379
Orchestras, N.Z. Symphony, National Youth, 217, 340, 342–343
Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), 485
Orphans benefits, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153
Orthopaedic implants, 128
Ottawa Agreement, 597
Outpatients, 132
Outward Bound school, 853
Overseas—
companies, 707–708
exchange transactions, 711, 731–736, 973–974
investment, 647, 648, 649–653, 662, 707–708, 713, 735
representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand representatives overseas, 558, 885–889
reserves (banks), 730–731, 913
students, 182, 195, 197
territories (see Island territories), 824–833
trade, 543–602, 880, 906–912
travel allowances, 734
Overtime, 450–461, 500, 794–795
Oysters, 401, 406, 407

P

Pacific Islands (see Island territories, or individual islands)
Pacific orientation, 25
Paint and varnish industry, 437, 457, 472
Paper and paper products industry, 394–395, 436, 455, 462
Paper and pulp, external trade in, 295, 397, 398, 585, 587, 912
Parcel post, 334
Parents—
ages of, 88
births to, by duration of marriages, 89
previous issue of, 88–89
solo, 151, 153, 164
Parks, National, 263–264, 272–274
Parliament, 26, 41–42, 225, 857–861, 921
Members of, 42–43, 850, 860
term of, 851
Parliamentary—
Commissioner (Ombudsman), 47, 868
elections, 42, 850, 855
functions and controls, 42–43
procedure, 42
salaries, 44–45
Parole boards, 240
Particle board, 396, 426
Passenger services—
railway, 301, 302, 900
road, 314–315, 320–323
Passengers—
buses, etc., 304, 320–323
commercial aircraft, 326, 327
overseas, 69–72, 834–836, 961
railway, 301, 302
Passports, 74
Pasture grasses, 365, 369, 374–375
Patents, designs, trade marks, 842
Patients in hospitals, 135–137
Patients in mental hospitals, 139–140
Paua, 407
PAYE taxation, 674–678, 925
Payments, balance of (see Balance of payments
Pears, 370, 375, 376, 377–378, 512–513
consumption of, 626
export of, 562, 564, 628, 910
marketing of, 376, 512–513.
Peas, 369, 370, 371, 373, 901
export of, 562, 564, 578
Peat wax, 409, 419
Penal institutions, 235, 236–240
Penal system, 227–228, 235–240
Pensions—
social welfare, 147–156, 163–168, 636, 972
war, 163–168, 674
Perinatal mortality, 101–104
Periodic detention, 227–228
Perlite, 410, 419
Permanent heads of departments, 868–869
Permits, building, 467–470, 964
Personal safety, 814–823
Pest destruction boards, 49, 693–694, 697, 776
Pesticides, 269
Petroleum (see also Motor Spirit), 410, 415–416
imports of, 584, 587, 592
industry, 437, 461, 484
prospecting, 415
usage of, 484
wholesale distribution of, 532–534
Pharmaceutical benefits, 127, 129, 148, 149
Pharmaceutical chemists, 125
Pharmaceutical Society, Council of, 125
Pharmaceuticals, manufacturing of, 437, 457
Phosphate rock, 419, 587
Physical environment, 208–209, 211, 258–269
Physical welfare and recreation, 839
Physical medicine, 122
Physiotherapists, 122, 124, 132, 133
Physiotherapy benefits, 127–128, 129
Pigmeats—
consumption of, 625
exports of, 571, 628
prices of, 611
production of, 352, 353, 360
Pigs, 352, 353, 355, 356, 380, 381, 383–384, 902
Pilots, air, 331
Placement service (employment), 771–772, 778
Planing mills, 436, 454
Planning—
district, 262
economic, 657–659, 945–951
national, 262–263, 945–951
regional, 261
town and country, 261, 262
Plantations, 386
Plastics industry, 438, 460
Play centres, 180, 185
Pleasure craft, 297
Plumbers, registration of, 125
Plunket Society, 120, 130
Plywood and veneer, 396, 426, 436, 458, 472, 561, 563
Poetry, 937
Poisons and poisoning, 105, 106, 118, 119, 138
Police, 158, 246–248, 664, 668, 869, 873, 876, 879, 969
youth aid section, 158, 248
superannuation, 168–170
Political parties, 44, 850
Polynesian Education Foundation, 203
Polling at general elections, 850
Pollution—
air, 117, 268–269
mercury, 406, 408
water, 267, 268–269
Population (see also Census), 53–84, 891, 962
age distribution, 77, 79–81, 82
density of, 67
distribution of, 58–67
ethnic groups, 82
growth, 53–58, 68, 85
heights and weights, 142–145
increases, 55–58, 68, 85, 891
industrial distribution of, 779, 780–781
intercensal estimates, 56
international comparisons, 55, 84, 85
Maori, 56, 65, 68–69
policy, 55
projections, 57–58, 962
sex proportions of, 66–67
shipboard, 63
urbanisation of, 65–66, 68
vital statistics, 85–114
world, 84
Pork (see Pigmeats)
Pork Industry Council, 512
Portfolios of Ministers, 859
Port Agriculture Service, 365
Ports—
Authority, 288
exports by, 293, 294–295, 580
fishing, 405
imports by, 293–294
of arrival and departure, 294–295
shipping and trade of, 290–291
Postal notes, 335, 899
Post Office, 333–339, 663, 666, 669, 686, 690, 869, 873, 899, 973
employees, 339, 876
superannuation of, 168–170
Savings Bank, 153, 472, 722–723, 728, 918
Staff Tribunal, 788, 812
Potato Board, 513
Potatoes, 369, 373–374, 513, 901
consumption of, 626
export of, 562, 564, 628
Pottery, china and earthenware industry, 437, 458
Poultry, 352, 353, 355, 356, 380, 384–385, 625
Power Planning Committee, 486
Power stations (electricity), 415, 488–492, 494
Pregnancy, diseases, etc., 136, 137
deaths from, 98, 136, 137
Pre-school education, 121, 177, 180, 185
Pre-school children, heights and weights, 143
Preventive detention, 228, 230, 237
Price control, 603–604
Prices, 603–620, 895–897, 967
basic, for dairy produce, 515–516
index numbers, 607–610, 896, 897, 967
comparisons with other countries, 612–613
index numbers, 607–610, 896, 897, 967
export, 514–519
index numbers, 607–610, 896, 897, 967
export, indexes of, 616–618, 895, 896
index numbers, 607–610, 896, 897, 967
farming costs index, 615–616
index numbers, 607–610, 896, 897, 967
import, indexes of, 616–617, 619, 895, 896
index numbers, 607–610, 896, 897, 967
retail, 611–612
index numbers, 607–610, 896, 897, 967
stabilisation of, 603–604
wholesale, 613–615, 895, 896
Primary products—
consumption of, 625–627
by ports, 294–295
export of, 294–295, 543–547, 555, 559–579, 628, 907–911
by ports, 294–295
marketing of, 503–519
Primary school children, heights and weights, 144
Primary schools, 176, 177, 185–187, 893
Prime Minister's Department, 664, 869, 873, 969
Prime Ministers, successive, 857–858
Principal events, 921–927
Printing and publishing industry, 436, 455, 456, 756
Prison service superannuation, 168–170
Prisons and prisoners, 236–240, 894
Private—
hospitals, 131, 134
income, 632, 634, 635, 692
savings banks, 474, 690, 718, 723, 728
schools, 176, 177, 180, 181, 187, 893
superannuation schemes, 174, 719
Privy council, 226
Probation of offenders, 160, 227, 230, 232, 235–236
Production, 654–657
building materials, 457, 472, 903
clothing, 436, 453, 461
dairy, 355, 356, 357–359, 450, 903
farm, 207, 354–357, 371–375, 379–385, 655, 901–903
fisheries, 404–405
index numbers of, 488, 655–656
manufacturing industries, 424–426, 444–445, 655, 904, 958–960
meat, 360, 450, 903
mineral, 409–423, 437, 655
pulp and paper, etc., 394–395, 436, 462
timber, 392–393, 903
wheat, 370–372, 901
wool, 355, 356, 361–364, 435, 453, 903
Productivity Advisory Council, 429, 659
Productivity Centre, 658–659
Projections—
labour force, 770, 772, 963
population, 57–58, 962
school population, 182
Property price index, 473–474
Property speculation tax, 663, 674, 678, 967
Prospecting, 423
Psychiatric health and hospitals, 139–142
Psychiatric units of public hospitals, 127, 133, 135, 139–142
Public—
accounts, 660–690, 967–973
interest on, 636, 687–688, 689
administration, publications, 930–931
interest on, 636, 687–688, 689
authority sector of national income and expenditure, 632, 637–639
interest on, 636, 687–688, 689
debt, 643, 648, 684–690, 698, 916, 968
interest on, 636, 687–688, 689
finance, 914–915, 967–973
health, 115
holidays, 852
safety, 225–249
Public Service, 777, 876, 877–878
employees, 777, 812, 876, 878
superannuation, 168–171
Public Trust Office, 690, 843–844, 869, 873
Public works—
maintenance appropriations, 666, 667, 668
occupational safety, 823
railway construction, 298, 668
road construction, 305, 665, 668
services, maintenance of, 638
Publicans' licences, 848–849
Publishing and printing industry, 436, 455, 456, 851
Pulp and paper industry, 394–395, 426, 436, 455, 462, 716
export of, 397, 398, 560, 561, 563, 912, 966
import of, 397, 398, 587
Pumice, 410, 561, 563

Q

Quarries, 421–423
accidents at, 818, 819
persons engaged in, 422
safety in, 823
Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, 217–218
Race relations, 852
Racing taxation, 663, 671, 683–684, 968
Radiation protection, 119–120
Radio and television, 340–343
advertising, 343
assembly and manufacture of sets, 438, 459, 461
licences, 343
Radio—
communications, 337
New Zealand, 206, 340, 341
private commercial, 340, 341
time signals, 851
Radioactivity, protection against, 119
Radiographers, 132, 133
Radiology, 119, 129
Radiotelephone services, 337, 338
Raffles, 848
Rail traffic—
goods, 301, 302, 900, 963
passengers, 301, 302, 900, 963
Railway construction and engineering, 298–299
Railway equipment, imports of, 590
Railways, 297–304, 788, 869, 873–874, 879, 900, 963
accidents, 138, 304, 924, 925
air freight service, 298
employees, 304, 876
licensing protection, 314
private, 304
revenue and expenditure, 300–302, 666, 667, 668, 669, 686, 737, 900
road-rail ferry service, 298–299, 301, 303, 926
road services, 301, 304
superannuation, 168–170
Tribunal, 788, 812
Rainfall, 14–17
Rangemaking industry, 438, 459, 461
Raoul Island, 2, 11
Rates, local government, 639, 691–693, 917
valuation for, 283, 284
Rates of exchange, 728–730
Re-afforestation, 265–266
Real gross domestic product, 654–657
Reciprocal tariff and trade, 598–600
Recreation, 390, 838–840, 853–854
Recreation and Sports, Ministry of, 854
Recreational land, 263, 272–275
Re-exports, 580–581, 966
Refrigerators, 461, 479
Refugees, 73
Regional—
Authority, 50, 51, 693–694, 697, 776
Councils, 50, 51
development, 428–429, 659, 972
planning, 261, 948–949
Registrars, marriages before, 108, 111–112
Registration of—
adopted children, 91–92
aircraft, 331
aliens, 75–76
apprentices, 773–774
births, 85, 91, 92, 93
building societies, 748–751
chemists, 125
child care centres, 158
chiropodists, 125
community nurses, 124
companies, 920
deaths, 97
dental technicians, 124
dentists, 124
designs, 842
dietitians, 125
electors, 48
employers' unions, 803
ex-nuptial births, 90–91
friendly societies, 156
land titles, 278–281
land valuers, 285
land values, 282–285
marriages, 108–112
maternity nurses, 124
medical practitioners, 123
midwives, 124
mortgages, 739–742, 919
motor vehicles, 311–313
nurses, 124
occupational therapists, 124
opticians, 125
optometrists, 125
patents, 842
pharmaceutical chemists, 125
physiotherapists, 124
plumbers, 125
still births, 93
trade marks, 842
trade unions, 802–803
trading vessels, 290
unemployed, 769, 777–778, 961
Rehabilitation, 163–168, 638, 815
disabled civilians, 122, 815
Religious professions, 81–82
Rental cars, 311
Rental units, Housing Corporation, 476
Rental value, owner-occupier houses, 631, 634, 635
Rents, 481
Representation Commission, 42, 47
Representatives, House of, 26, 40, 41, 42–43, 48, 850, 860, 921
Reproduction index, 87
Research, 206–212
agricultural, 207–208, 213, 365
animal health, 213
Antarctic, 830–833
dental, 122
energy, 486–488
environmental, 207, 211
expenditure, 215–216
fishery, 402, 408
forestry, 391, 398–399
grants, 212
grassland and grasses, 213
in building and construction, 210
industrial, 209–210, 429, 430
in transport, 210
manufacturing, 209–210, 430
medical, 123
mining, 412
scientific and industrial, 207–212, 213–216
soil, 213
wool, 208, 210, 363
Reserve Bank, 47, 643, 645, 646, 647, 648, 660, 688, 690, 710–713, 728, 754, 973–974
assets and liabilities, 690, 712–713
Reserves—
air force, 255
farm industry, 519
military, 254
naval, 253
overseas (banks), 730–731, 913
public or scenic, 263–264, 272–273, 274–275
Restaurant licences, 848–849
Retail prices, 611–612
index numbers, 606–610, 896, 897, 967
Retail trade, 520–530, 537–539, 965
Retailers, bank advances to, 716
Revenue—
broadcasting and television, 343
cinemas, 346
customs, 601, 638
electric power, 495
Forest Service, 391
Government (see Government finance)
local government, 307–308, 639, 691–698, 917, 971
National Roads Fund, 307–308, 971
Post Office, 338, 899
railway, 300–302, 900, 963
urban transport, 321
River boards, 49, 697, 776
Rivers, 4–5, 488, 489, 490
access to, 263
control of, 267–268
hydro-electric development on, 5, 486, 487, 488–491
Road—
accidents, 98, 105, 106, 138, 315–317
safety, 317–318
services, 301, 320–323, 963
transport, 305–323, 963, 972
Tunnel, Christchurch-Lyttelton, 306, 776
Roads, 305–323
expenditure on, 307–308, 310–311, 665, 669, 670, 695, 971
taxation, 670, 671, 673–674, 971
Rock lobsters, 401, 402, 404
exports of, 406, 407, 561, 563
Rolling stock, railway, 299, 301
Roman Catholic schools, 187
Ross Dependency, 2, 11, 54, 824, 830–833, 923
Royal Commission on—
Contraception, Abortion, and Sterilisation, 206
nuclear power, 206
Royal New Zealand Air Force, 254–255
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve, 253
Royal New Zealand Navy, 252–253
Royal Society of New Zealand, 206, 212
Royal visit, 1977, 942–944
Rubber and rubber products, 437, 456, 585, 586, 587, 592
Rural—
Banking and Finance Corporation, 367, 663, 664, 666, 686, 690, 718, 722, 742–743, 745, 869, 874, 969, 970
education, 189–190, 953
housing, 475
land transfers, 280–281
mail deliveries, 333
mortgages, 742–743
population, 65–66
Reticulation Council, 493
Ryegrass, 374–375

S

St. John Ambulance, 130, 131
Safe-air Limited, 324, 326
Safety of machinery, 823
Safety of workers, 811, 812, 822–823
Salaries and wages, 634, 635, 699, 702, 788–798, 904
and social welfare benefits, 150
average, 793–795
effective, 797, 897
hourly, 794–795
minimum, 798
nominal, 795–797, 897
weekly, 793–794, 897
by industry groups, 793, 795
average, 793–795
effective, 797, 897
hourly, 794–795
minimum, 798
nominal, 795–797, 897
weekly, 793–794, 897
by institutional sectors, 792, 795
average, 793–795
effective, 797, 897
hourly, 794–795
minimum, 798
nominal, 795–797, 897
weekly, 793–794, 897
by occupations, 795
average, 793–795
effective, 797, 897
hourly, 794–795
minimum, 798
nominal, 795–797, 897
weekly, 793–794, 897
equal pay, 792
average, 793–795
effective, 797, 897
hourly, 794–795
minimum, 798
nominal, 795–797, 897
weekly, 793–794, 897
hourly average, 794–795
average, 793–795
effective, 797, 897
hourly, 794–795
minimum, 798
nominal, 795–797, 897
weekly, 793–794, 897
industrial classification of, 793
average, 793–795
effective, 797, 897
hourly, 794–795
minimum, 798
nominal, 795–797, 897
weekly, 793–794, 897
in manufacturing industries, 431–438, 441, 904
average, 793–795
effective, 797, 897
hourly, 794–795
minimum, 798
nominal, 795–797, 897
weekly, 793–794, 897
legislation, 789–792
average, 793–795
effective, 797, 897
hourly, 794–795
minimum, 798
nominal, 795–797, 897
weekly, 793–794, 897
lost through industrial stoppages, 807–810
average, 793–795
effective, 797, 897
hourly, 794–795
minimum, 798
nominal, 795–797, 897
weekly, 793–794, 897
rates, 789–792, 897
average, 793–795
effective, 797, 897
hourly, 794–795
minimum, 798
nominal, 795–797, 897
weekly, 793–794, 897
Salaries of members of—
Executive Council, 44–45
House of Representatives, 44–45
Sales tax, 663, 671, 672, 968, 973
Salt, 410, 419
Sanctuaries, bird and other wildlife, 262, 272–274, 275
Sand and gravel, 410
Sand dunes, stabilisation of, 389
Satellite communications, 337
Satellite earth resources, programme, 261, 269
Sausage casings, export of, 560, 562, 563, 577, 911, 966
Sausage casings, production, 435
Savings—
accounts and bonds (National), 674, 721–724
banks, 674, 690, 719, 720, 721–725, 918, 973
private, 632, 635, 636, 690, 723
Sawmills, etc., 392, 436, 454
Scenic reserves, 272–275
Scheelite, 418
Scholarships—
for Maoris, 177, 203
for Pacific Islanders, 204
university, 183, 194
School—
Certificate, 182–183, 709
ages of, 186
duration of attendance, 188
intended occupations of, 188
medical examinations of, 120
roll numbers of, 180–181, 182, 184, 185–187, 893
transport and boarding allowances, 189
children, 175–177, 180–181, 893
ages of, 186
duration of attendance, 188
intended occupations of, 188
medical examinations of, 120
roll numbers of, 180–181, 182, 184, 185–187, 893
transport and boarding allowances, 189
camps, 853
committees, 176
dental service, 116, 121
inspectors, 187
Journal, 192
Library Service, 191, 222
of Pharmacy, 126
teachers (see teachers)
Schools—
broadcasts to, 192, 341
community colleges, 176
consolidation of, 189
correspondence, 180, 181, 189–190
curricula, 185, 187, 188–189
district high, 181, 187, 189
denominational, 177
free textbooks for, 191
intermediate, 180, 186
primary, 176, 177, 180, 185–186, 893
private, 176, 177, 180, 187, 893
publications, 192
roll numbers, 180–181, 182, 184, 185–187, 893
secondary, 176, 180, 187–188, 204–205, 893, 953, 956
sizes of classes, 186
special, 180, 184
State, 175–182, 184–190, 893
technical, 180, 181, 199–202, 893
Science in New Zealand, 206–216
budget, 214, 215
publications, 211–212, 216, 934
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of, 206, 207–212, 213, 266, 269, 374, 409, 420, 486, 487, 665, 668, 869, 874, 879, 970
Scientific services 206–216
Sea fisheries, 401–407
Seal of New Zealand, 855
Secondary education (sec School, Education)
Secondary school boards and councils, 176
Securities, Government, 666, 722, 723, 725, 757, 759, 763, 765
Security Intelligence Service, 664, 969
Seed certification, 374
Seed sowing, aerial, 327–328
Seeds, grass and clover, 369, 374–375
exported, 562, 564, 578, 910
Seismic regions, 10
Seismology, 9–12
Self employed, incomes of, 699, 701, 704
Separation, marital, 113, 244–245
Serpentine, 410, 419
Service-coach licences, 311
Service establishments (trade), 534–537
Settlement of land, 270–271, 279
Sex proportions of population, 66–67
Sexes of—
children born, 87
factory employees, 433–434, 440–441
Sexual offences, 230, 231, 236, 241–242
Share prices, index numbers, 620, 896, 897
Shearers' wage rates and amenities, 811
Sheep, 382, 506, 902
and lambs slaughtered, 361
farming, 350, 352, 353, 355, 356, 371, 379, 380, 381, 699, 700, 704, 716
skins and pelts exported (see also Hides), 562, 563, 576–577
Sheetmetal-working industry, 438, 460
Shellfish, export of, 406
Shipping, 288–297, 514
Shipping and Seamen Act, 811
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand, 289–290, 666, 686
Shooting, 839
Shops, 519–542
and Offices Act, 811
Short-wave radio broadcasting, 340–341
Sickness, 135–137
benefits, 149, 150, 151, 152, 154–155, 972
insurance, 156, 674
Silica, 410, 418
Silver, 410, 418
Sixth Form Certificate, 183
Ski-ing, 839
Skins (see Hides, pelts, and skins)
Snow, 17
Soap industry, 457
Soaps, export of, 562, 564
Social goals, 847
Social planning, 948–949
Social sciences, 930–931
Social services, expenditure on, 149, 166, 168, 638, 661, 662, 665, 668, 669, 915, 968, 970
Social welfare, 146–174, 869, 874, 878, 915, 972
benefits, 126–129, 146, 147, 148–156, 636, 674, 972, 973
reciprocity with other countries, 155–156
taxation, 148
Soil conservation, 267, 268
Soil erosion, 268, 327
Soils, 348–350
Solar heating, 209
Soldiers, 253–254
Solo parents, 151, 153, 164
South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO), 27, 36–37, 926
Southern Alps, 3, 8, 17, 18
South Pacific—
aid, 37, 38
Bureau for Economic Co-operation, 26, 27, 32, 39
Commission, 32, 39, 824
Forum, 25, 27, 32, 546
Medical Research Committee, 123
relations with, 31–33
students from, 182, 197
trade training for youths from, 774–775
trade with, 546, 581
Sovereignty, 26, 40–41
Soviet Union, relations with, 30
Special education, 177, 184
Special work, employees, 961
Speed limits, 318
Spirits—
consumption of, 627–628
duty on, 600, 601, 973
imports of, 587
production of, 452
Sports, 838–839
publications on, 936–937
Stabilisation of Prices Regulations, 603–604
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act, 789–790
Standard time, 851
Standards Council, 843
Standards of living, international, 846
State—
Advances Corporation, 666, 742
accident and fire, 765
earthquake and war damage, 765–766
life, 764–766
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
aid to private schools, 177
accident and fire, 765
earthquake and war damage, 765–766
life, 764–766
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
coal mines, 415, 420–421, 666, 667, 686
accident and fire, 765
earthquake and war damage, 765–766
life, 764–766
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
departments, 46–47, 868–876
accident and fire, 765
earthquake and war damage, 765–766
life, 764–766
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
finance, 148, 150, 638–639, 660–690, 725, 742–747, 759, 763, 876, 914–916, 967–973
accident and fire, 765
earthquake and war damage, 765–766
life, 764–766
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
forests, 263, 386, 387, 388–391
accident and fire, 765
earthquake and war damage, 765–766
life, 764–766
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
highways, 309, 670
accident and fire, 765
earthquake and war damage, 765–766
life, 764–766
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
housing, 464, 476–477, 745–747
accident and fire, 765
earthquake and war damage, 765–766
life, 764–766
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
indebtedness, 643, 684–690, 916
accident and fire, 765
earthquake and war damage, 765–766
life, 764–766
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
insurance 690, 764–766, 816–817, 869, 874
accident and fire, 765
earthquake and war damage, 765–766
life, 764–766
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
placement services, 778
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
schools, 181, 185–188, 893
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
Services, 788, 869–876, 877–878
Commission, 664, 687, 876–877, 881, 950, 969
wards, 160
Statistical areas, 59
area and population of, 59
cinemas in, 346
industrial production by, 431, 439, 440
livestock in, 381
Statistical—
divisions—
building permit values, 470
dwelling completions, 470
populations of, 59–60
information, latest, 961–974
publications, 975
Summary, 890–920
Statistics, Department of, 664, 869, 874, 969, et al
Statute of Westminster, 26, 41, 225, 924
Statutes (see Legislation)
Statutory Boards and Committees, 878–881
Steel and iron, imports of, 294, 585, 588, 589, 592, 593
Steel industry, 416, 427
Stewart Island, 2, 14, 26, 65
Still births, 88, 92–93, 101–102
Stock and station agents, 716, 725–726, 728
Stocks—
manufacturers', 447, 966
retail, 529, 530, 537, 966
wholesale, 531, 966
Stoppages, industrial, 806–810, 898
Stores, self-service, 529–530
Students, 180–181
overseas, 182, 195, 197
projected, 182
teachers' college, 181, 190–191, 893
university, 181, 193–198, 893
Studentships, 190
Submarine power cable, Cook Strait, 491–492
Subscriber toll dialling (STD), 336
Subsidies, 273, 629–630, 634, 636, 927
agricultural, 367–368
highways, 308, 670, 971
on eggs, 513, 630
on milk, 513, 517, 630
on food, 630
to gasworks, 630
to local government, 308, 310, 466, 639, 670, 695–696
to mining, 420
Suffrage, 48
Sugar—
consumption of, 626
imports of, 294, 583, 587, 591, 601
international agreements on, 601
production, 462
Suicides, 98, 105, 106, 138
Sulphur, 410, 419
imports of, 587, 592
Summary convictions, 231–232, 894
Sunshine, 18, 19, 21
Superannuation, 168–174
government, 168–171
national scheme, 151, 152, 172, 972
of Members of Parliament, 45, 168–170
private schemes, 174, 719
self-employed scheme, 172
social welfare, 147, 149, 150, 151, 972
Supplementary assistance benefits, 150
Supreme Court, 41, 47, 112, 169, 225, 226, 227, 229–230, 233, 242, 282, 894
Surveys—
employment, 775–776
geological, 209, 420–421
land, 277
Sweepstakes, 848
Swimming accidents, 107–108

T

Tallow, 295, 560, 562, 564, 575, 911, 966
Tanning industry, 437, 456
Tariff and Development Board, 557
Tariff, Customs, 597–602
Tariffs and Trade Agreement (GATT), 597–598
Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., 394, 426, 666, 686
Taxation (see also individual taxes), 634, 636, 638, 662, 663, 671–684, 699–709, 967, 973
direct, 635, 636, 638, 663, 671, 672, 967
exemptions from, 674, 675–676, 677
incentives, 678
indirect, 634, 636, 638, 663, 671, 672, 968
rates of, 676, 677–678, 679–680, 683
Review Authority, 680
system, 674–680
Taxis, 311, 314
Tea—
consumption of, 627
imports of, 587, 591
Teacher studentships, 191
Teachers, 181–182, 184, 190–191
colleges, 176, 180, 181, 185, 190–191, 893
kindergarten, 181
primary and secondary school, 181
superannuation, 168–170
training of, 176, 180, 181, 185, 190–191
Teaching aids, 192
Technical Correspondence Institute, 176, 180, 181, 199–200, 201–202, 773
Technical education, 176, 177, 180, 181, 199–202, 773–774, 893, 954
Technology, Central Institute of, 199–200
Telecommunications, 337–338, 899
Telegraph services, 336–337, 899
Telephone rental concession, 155
Telephone services, 335–336, 337, 338, 479, 899
Television, 340–343, 479
value of sets sold on hire purchase, 542, 965
Television and radio assembly, 438, 459, 461
Telex (teleprinter) services, 336
Temperature, 17–21
Tenancy Act, 481
Tenure—
of Crown lands, 270–271
of dwellings, 479, 481
of occupied land, 270–271, 278, 351
Terms of trade, 620, 895
Territorial Air Force, 255
Territorial Forces (Army), 254
Tetanus immunisation, 120
Textbooks in schools, free, 185, 191
Textiles, production of, 435, 453, 461
Theft, 230, 231, 234, 236, 241–242
Therapists, occupational, 122, 124–125, 132, 133
Thermal activity, 3, 839–840
Thermal generation, 490
Thunderstorms, 17
Timber, 386–400, 436, 454, 472, 903
exports of, 295, 397, 398, 561, 563, 579, 912
imports of, 397, 398, 592
inspection of, 391
output, 454, 903
plantations, 351, 353, 386
preservation of, 436, 454
resources, 386–387, 392, 400
Timber Preservation Authority, 396
Time service (radio), 851
Tin, 418
Tobacco—
consumption of, 627
duty on, 600, 601, 973
growers, 352, 370, 378–379, 380
household expenditure on, 621–624
imports of, 583, 586, 591
industry, 352, 370, 378–379, 435, 453
Tokelau, 2, 23, 25, 28, 31, 32, 38, 54, 73, 162, 169, 192, 581, 596, 824, 828–830
Toll service, 336, 899
Tonnage of shipping and cargo, 290–295
Topdressing, 327–328, 366
Topographical mapping, 277
Totalisator—
Agency Board, 683–684
taxation, 683–684
turnover on, 684
Tourism, 69, 669, 834–840, 961
Tourist—
accommodation, 836–838
and Publicity Department, 665, 837, 840, 869, 875, 970
attractions, 838–840
Hotel Corporation, 47, 666, 686, 836
industry, 834–840
Town and country planning, 52, 261, 262
Town districts, 49, 62, 284, 285, 697
Town milk supply, 359, 517
Tractors, imports of, 589, 593
Tractors on farms, 368, 369
accidents, 106
Trade and Industry, Department of, 207, 296, 429, 557, 558, 603–604, 658, 659, 665, 869, 875, 880, 970
Trade (domestic), 519–542, 965–966
overseas investment in, 652
practices, 604
retail, 520–530, 537–539, 965
training of Maori youths, 774–775
service, 534–537
unions, 802–806
wholesale, 520, 530–534, 540–541
Trade (external), 543–602, 880, 906–912, 966
agreements, 509–510, 547–548, 601–602
balance of, 550
commissioner service, 558, 889
direction of exports, 567–581
origin of imports, 586–591
per head value of, 549
Promotion Council, 558, 657
representation overseas, 558, 889
statistics, compilation of, 550–551
terms of, 620, 895
volume of, 555–556, 561–562
Trades Certification Board, 199, 202, 773
Trade examinations, 199–201, 772–775
Trade-marks, 842
Trading banks, 690, 713–717, 718–719, 720, 728, 743
advances, classification, 716–717
Traffic—
accidents, 98, 105, 106, 138, 315–317
deaths from, 315–317
air, 323–332
motor, 311–313
offences, 232–233, 318–320
railways, 301, 302, 303, 900
Transport, 286–332, 514, 661, 662, 665, 667, 668, 669, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 838, 963–964, 968, 970
accidents (see Traffic accidents)
boards, 49, 693, 694, 697
employment, imports of, 585, 590
equipment industry, 438, 459, 462, 716, 753
household expenditure on, 621–624
licensing, 314–315
Ministry of, 288, 296, 317, 318, 324, 665, 823, 869, 875, 879, 880–881
overseas investments in, 652
of school children, 189
research, 210
to work, 315
urban, 309, 320–323, 693–698, 973
Travel and tourism, 834–840
Trawling, 401, 402
Treasury, 664, 869, 875, 969
Treasury bills, 719
Treaty of Waitangi, 26, 278, 921
Trees, forest, 386–388
Tribunals, administrative, 867
Trolley-buses, 322, 323
Trout, 5, 408, 838
Trust (liquor) control, 849–850
Trustee, Public, 690, 843–844, 869, 873
Trustee savings, 690, 718, 720, 721, 723–725, 728
Tuberculosis, 98, 135
Tungsten ore, 410, 418
Tunnels, roads and railway, 298
Tussock boards, 49
Twins and triplets born, 88

U

Undergraduates, 193–197
Unemployment, 769, 777–778, 898, 961
benefits, 149, 150, 151, 152, 154, 777
UNESCO, 35, 197
Unexercised overdraft authorities, 717
Unimproved value of land, 283–285
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, trade with, 544, 547, 554, 567, 568
Unions, trade, 802–806
United and regional councils, 50–51
United Kingdom—
communications with, 334, 337
consumption of butter and margarine, 510
dairy produce and meat imported into, 510–511
debt, domiciled in, 916
investment in New Zealand, 650, 651
New Zealand representation in, 886
relations with, 25–30, 509–510, 543–544
representation in New Zealand, 887
shipping to and from, 288
social security reciprocity, 156
trade agreements with, 509–510, 545
trade with, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 543, 544, 545, 549, 551, 555, 567, 586, 598–600, 644–647, 649
visitors and migrants from, 72, 73, 835, 836
United Nations, 34–35, 39, 255
Committee on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), 599
Development Programme (UNDP), 33
United States of America—
debt domiciled in, 916
investment in New Zealand, 650, 651
New Zealand representation in, 886
relations with, 33
representation in New Zealand, 889
shipping to and from, 288
trade with, 503, 504, 506, 508, 543, 544, 545, 546, 549, 552, 555, 567, 586, 644–647, 649
visitors and migrants from, 72, 73, 835, 836
Universities, 181, 193–199, 893, 952, 953
buildings, 180
bursaries, 194, 196
colleges of agriculture, 194, 195
entrance examinations, 183, 193
extension, 204
graduates, 191, 198, 709
Grants Committee, 193, 213, 476
scholarships, 183, 194
staff, 199
students, 181, 193–198, 893
Uranium, 418
Urban—
Areas, 65–66
building permit values, 470
dwelling completions, 470
population, 59–60
stores in, 524–525, 529, 530
house price index, 473–474
land transfers, 280–281
movement, 65–66
population, growth of, 65–66
renewal, 466, 475, 476, 696
transport, 309, 320–323, 693–698, 973
transport boards, 776
Urbanisation—
effects of, 258, 262
of population, 65–66, 68

V

Vacancies, employment, 778
Valuation Department, 282, 664, 869, 875, 880–881, 969
Valuation of land, 282–285, 691
Valuation roll, 282
Value added in manufacturing (net), 431–438, 444–445, 904
Valuers' Registration Board, 285
Veal—
consumption of, 625
export of, 503, 504–505, 569–570, 628, 908
production of, 360
Vegetable growing, commercial, 369–370, 373
Vegetables—
consumption of, 626
exported, canned and frozen, 562, 564, 628
retail prices of, 611
Venereal diseases, 98, 135
Vessels—
entered and cleared, 290
fishing, 402
safety of, 811, 823
wrecked, 296–297
Veterans' allowances, 165
Veterinarians, training of, 195, 198
Vice-regal representatives, 856–857
Vineyards and grapes, 375, 377, 435, 452
Visitors to New Zealand, 69–72, 834–836, 961
Visual aids, in teaching, 192
Vital statistics, 85–114, 892
Vocational guidance, 192, 772–773, 774–775
Vocational training, 163, 202, 238 772–773, 774–775
Volcanoes, 1, 2–3, 9, 10, 833, 922
Volunteer Service Abroad (VSA), 40
Voluntary welfare organisations, 130
Voting—
at by-elections, 855
at general elections, 48, 850
at licensing polls, 850
qualifications, 48

W

Wages (see also Salaries and wages), 788–798
Wages Tribunal, 788
Waitangi, Treaty of, 26, 278, 921
War—
bursaries for ex-servicemen's children, 166
damage and earthquake insurance, 765–766
History Documentation Centre, 220
pensions, 148, 163–168, 674, 878, 915
veterans' allowances, 165
Warships, 252
Washing machines, 461, 479
Water—
accidents, 105, 107–108, 138
boards, regional, 267
conservation, 267, 367
pollution, 267, 268–269
resources, 266–268, 366
subsidies, 695
supply boards, 49, 695, 776
Waterfront control, 812–813
Weather, 12–21, 838
Weedkiller, aerial spraying of, 327–328
Welfare (See also Social Welfare)—
Maori, 162–163
maternal, 120, 127, 129
of children, 157–161
of workers, 811, 812
organisations (voluntary), 130, 476
Pacific Islanders, 162–163, 824, 826, 830
services, 130
Western Samoa, 11, 27, 29, 30, 31, 38, 54, 72, 73, 83, 192, 546, 552, 923, 926
Westminster, Statute of, 26, 41, 225
Whales and whaling, 832
Wheat, 208, 369, 370, 371, 372, 901
Board, 372
imports of, 591
Whisky, imports of, 586, 591
Whitebait, 407–408
Wholesale—
liquor licences, 848–849
prices, 613–615, 895, 896
trade, 520, 530–534, 540–541
Widowers, remarriages of, 109
Widows—
benefits, 149, 150, 151, 152, 155
number of, 77, 79
remarriages of, 109
war pensions, 164, 167
Wildlife sanctuaries, 262, 272–274, 275
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 843–844
Winds, 13–14
Wine, consumption of, 627–628
Wine licences, 848–849
Winemaking industry, 375, 377, 435, 452
Women—
accident compensation, 816
criminal charges and convictions against, 234
deaths of, in childbirth, 98, 104
employment in industry, 433–434, 440–441, 767, 769, 770, 776
in Armed Forces, 253–255
incomes of, 708–709
in labour force, 440, 441, 780–783, 784–785, 961
married, in the labour force, 785
nationality laws, re, 74
offences by, 234
police, 246
wage rates of, 441, 798
Wood-chip industry, 393–394
Wood preservation, 396–397
Wood and cork products industry, 436
Wood pulp—
exports of, 397, 398, 561, 563, 579, 912
imports of, 397, 398, 587, 592
production of, 394–395, 426, 436, 455, 462
Wool—
Board, 361, 362–363, 367
export, 295, 503, 505–506, 512, 555, 560, 562, 564, 568–569, 732, 733, 907, 966, 974
export price index, 515
imports, 587
Income Retention Scheme, 364
levy, 362
Marketing Corporation, 361, 363–364, 505, 512, 514, 519, 926
marketing of, 505–506, 965
prices for, 514–515, 755–756, 903, 965
production, 355, 356, 361–364, 435, 903
research, 208, 210, 269, 363
scouring, 363, 435
Woollen mills, 435, 453, 756
Workers—
Educational Association, 205
safety and welfare, 811, 812, 822–823
unions of, 802–803, 803–805
Working—
conditions, 799–813
hours, 794–795, 810
life expectancies, 786
Works and trading account, 660, 666, 667–668, 669, 670
Works and Development, Ministry of, 157, 262, 268, 298, 305, 307, 366, 367, 421, 486, 664, 668, 823, 869, 875–876, 880, 970
World Bank (see International Bank of Reconstruction and Development)
World Health Organisation, 35, 98, 123, 197
World population statistics, 84
Wrecks, 296–297, 922, 923, 925, 926

X

X-ray services, 127

Y

Young Persons Courts, 158, 159–160, 225, 240, 248
Youth Aid Section, New Zealand Police, 158, 248
Youth hostels, 476, 771
Youth Hostels Association, 853
Youths, working conditions of, 811

Z

Zinc, 417, 418
Zoology, 934–935