THE NEW ZEALAND OFFICIAL YEAR-BOOK, 1974


Table of Contents

PREFACE.

The New Zealand Official yearbook has through the years become more and more recognised as a standard reference work. Many of the measurable phases of New Zealand's development are presented within the covers of this one volume. With a brief background of text, there are presented statistics of the population, their health and education, their employment and their production, their trade and their transport, their wages and their spending, their housing standards and food consumption, their national finances and international aid. Supplementary material gives other social, administrative, and legislative information.

As a series, Official Yearbooks are a rich source of material for research workers and students. The yearly record becomes a survey of both growth and change. Every endeavour is made to give comprehensive accurate information as clearly as possible within the limits of space. Each section is progressively revised and the emphasis varies with economic and social developments.

In this latest issue some sections have been extensively revised; these include International Relations; Education; Radio and Television Broadcasting; Physical Environment and Economic Growth; Farming; Fisheries; and Minerals. A section has been introduced on Energy Demand and Supply.

The metric system of weights and measures will be in common use by 1976, and statistics are progressively being converted in successive issues of the Yearbook.

A special article surveys New Zealand ports and shipping developments.

The photographic section features the Tenth British Commonwealth Games.

Additional and more recent detail on many subjects may be obtained from publications of the Department of Statistics. These are listed towards the end of this Yearbook and are available from Government bookshops.

The volume has been produced under the direction of Mr J. B. McKinney, M.A., Director of Information and Publicity, by departmental staff, with assistance from officers of other Government departments in the preparation of material and co-operation from the Government Printing Office in publication.

E. A. HARRIS,
GOVERNMENT STATISTICIAN.

Department of Statistics,
WELLINGTON.
20 June 1974.

Chapter 1. MAPS AND DIAGRAMS

MapsPage
Map of New ZealandInside back cover
Mean Annual Rainfall15
Minerals (non-metallic)456
Factory Production—North Island475
                              —South Island476
Diagrams
Population57
External Passenger Migration69
Vital Statistics87
Principal Causes of Death104
Infant Death Rate110
School Population205
Railways308
Motor Vehicles Licensed and Motor Spirits Consumption318
Civil Aviation335
Gross Farming Income392
Milkfat Production395
Meat Production399
Wool Production401
Area and Yield of Wheat for Threshing414
Production of Rough-sawn Timber437
Pulp and Paper Industry440
Fisheries449
Factory Production494
Building Permits527
Growth of Demand for Electricity552
Electricity Generation555
Retail Trade594
Direction of External Trade604
Value of External Trade with Individual Countries610
Value of Exports—New Zealand Produce616
Volume of Exports—New Zealand Produce617
Consumers’ Price Index672
Annual Percentage Changes in Gross National Product696
Expenditure on Gross National Product697
Balance of Payments by Areas715
Changes in Overseas Direct Investment in New Zealand716
Revenue from Taxation741
Trading Banks—Deposits and Advances812
Trading Banks—Classification of Advances812
Savings Banks816
Overseas Reserves829
New Mortgages838
Life Assurance—New Business856
Life Assurance—Total Assets861
Industrial Stoppages919

Chapter 2. SYMBOLS

The interpretation of the symbols used in the tables throughout this publication is as follows:

– nil or zero

.. figures not available

not yet available — space left blank

… not applicable

– amount too small to be expressed

x revised

VALUES

All values are shown in New Zealand currency, unless another currency is specifically stated.

MEASURES

Unless otherwise stated, a ton is a long ton (2,240 lb).

METRIC EQUIVALENTS

1 yard= 0.914 metre
1 inch= 25.4 millimetres
1 mile= 1.609 kilometres
1 square foot= 929.03 square centimetres
1 square yard= 0.836 square metre
1 acre= 0.405 hectare
1 square mile= 2.59 square kilometres
1 pound= 0.454 kilograms
1 hundredweight (cwt)= 112 lb = 50.8 kilograms
°Celsius (centigrade)= 5/9 (°Fahrenheit — 32)
1 cubic foot= 0.028 cubic metre
1 cubic yard= 0.765 cubic metre
1 gallon= 4.546 litres
1 bushel= 36.37 litres
1 long ton= 1.036 metric tons
1 short ton= 0.907 metric ton

ROUNDING

On occasions figures are rounded off to the nearest thousand or some other convenient unit. This may result in a total disagreeing slightly with the total of the individual items as shown in tables.

FISCAL YEARS

Figures for fiscal years ended 31 March (the fiscal year) are indicated in the text and headings of tables; otherwise figures are mainly for calendar years.

ABBREVIATIONS

bd ftboard feet
chchains
ctd.continued
cu ftcubic feet
cwtHundredweight
Eeast
ftfeet
ggram
galgallon
hhour
hahectare
hphorsepower
in.inch
kgkilogram
kmkilometre
kWkilowatt
kWhkilowatt-hour
lbpound
mmetre
minminute
mmmillimetre
Nnorth
n.e.i.not elsewhere included
n.e.c.not elsewhere classified
ozounce
$(000)thousand dollars
$(m)million dollars
ccent
Ssouth
sq ftsquare feet
sup ftsuper feet
Wwest
ydyard

Chapter 3. Section 1; GEOGRAPHY

New Zealand is in the south-west section of the Pacific, that great ocean stretching across one-third of the earth's surface. To the west, beyond the Tasman Sea, is Australia, 1,600 kilometres away. From its position on the rim of the Pacific basin. New Zealand is a little over 10,000 kilometres from San Francisco and Panama and a similar distance from Tokyo and Singapore. In area 26.9 million hectares, it is similar in size to the British Isles and Japan.

One of the chief charms of the New Zealand landscape is its infinite variety. Such level lowlands as exist are small in area; contrasts between coastal plain and bordering hard-rock mountains are abrupt. High mountains make up most of the South Island area—often stark and bare or mantled in permanent snow. By contrast, most of the North Island is weak-rock hill country. From Cook Strait to the Bay of Plenty a hard-rock mountain core dominates the North Island scene, forming an effective barrier between east and west; the only low level gap across it is at the gorge cut by the Manawatu River near Palmerston North.

A peculiar and special feature of the North Island is the volcanic country of the interior. Here are the largest North Island lakes and in a line from Ruapehu to White Island, most of the still active volcanoes, hot springs, and geysers.

The most spectacular mountains are in the South Island; high mountains, deep and narrow valleys, swift rivers, and glacial lakes, large and small, give infinite variety to the scene. It is in this high country that ice has left its special mark in glacial troughs and fiords and, above all, the noble southern lakes. There is little weak-rock hill country in the South Island; the lowlands are mainly bordering plains, basin plains, and valley plains. Of these the most extensive are the plains of Canterbury and Southland.

New Zealand has large areas of luxuriant forests which are the delight of trampers, campers, and hunters. Forests cover nearly a quarter of the total land area, of which national parks and scenic reserves set aside as permanent forest form 2 million hectares.

The indigenous forests may be grouped broadly into two main formations: mixed temperate evergreen forest and southern beech forest. The former is a mixed community of many species of broad-leaved trees and conifers, and the latter a pure community of one or more of the species of southern beech. Generally, the mixed temperate evergreen forests are the forests of the north and of the warm, wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes. The beeches form the forests of the south, of the high mountains, and of the drier lowlands. But there are extensive areas where the types mingle in forests of extremely varied composition.

Mountains, forests, lakes, rivers, and beaches have influenced the characteristics of the people. New Zealand society has been shaped and subtly tempered by a number of factors—geographical, historical, social, and psychological during more than a century of growth as a nation. New Zealand today represents both an extension and a modification of the European tradition. In addition to its Maori population, New Zealand has experienced in recent years a considerable inflow of Polynesians from its associated territories and elsewhere in the Pacific. Auckland has become the major city of Polynesia, and as such a focal point of the South Pacific. The Polynesian (including Maori) population is of greater significance than its relatively small numbers would suggest. Outside the Pacific area New Zealand may present a basically European face to the world, but the preservation of distinctive life-style by the Maori, together with a close compatibility (extending to frequent intermarriage) between the two races, has doubtless been a determining factor in the evolution of New Zealand society.

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION—The islands of New Zealand have been shaped from the projecting crests of earth folds which rise as broad ridges from the floor of the South Pacific Ocean, 1,600 kilometres east of the continent of Australia. There are three main islands—North, South, and Stewart separated only by relatively narrow straits—with adjacent islets and a small group called Chatham Islands, 850 kilometres to the east of Lyttelton. Dating from 1842 the administrative boundaries of New Zealand, including the minor islands, extend from 33 degrees to 53 degrees south latitude and from 162 degrees east longitude to 173 degrees west longitude. Inhabited outlying minor islands are Raoul Island in the Kermadec Group, 930 kilometres north-east of the Bay of Islands, and Campbell Island, 590 kilometres south of Stewart Island.

New Zealand is also responsible for the administration of two island groups in the South-west Pacific—Niue and the Tokelau Islands. These are incorporated within the boundaries of New Zealand. Niue is 2,460 kilometres north-east of Auckland, while the Tokelau Islands are 1,130 kilometres further north. The territorial area reaches to within 8 degrees of the Equator.

The Ross Dependency, some 2,300 kilometres to the south, has been under New Zealand's jurisdiction since 1923 and comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160 degrees east and 150 degrees west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60 degrees south.

The administrative area of New Zealand can be classified as follows. In this Yearbook, in general, New Zealand refers to the group of islands shown in (a) only. Areas are calculated to mean high-water mark. Adjustments have been made to statistics published prior to 1974.

(a) New ZealandArea in Square Kilometres
            North Island114,453
            South Island150,718
            Stewart Island1,746
            Chatham Islands963
            Minor Islands— 
              Inhabited— 
                    Kermadec Islands34
                    Campbell Island114
              Uninhabited (Auckland and other offshore islands)676
Total268,704
(b) Overseas territories 
            Tokelau Islands, comprised of— 
                Fakaofo Island, Nukunonu Island, Atafu Island10
                Niue259
(c) Ross Dependency(Estimated) 414,400

The 16 Cook Islands achieved a status of self-government in free association with New Zealand on 4 August 1965; more detail is given in Section 38 of this Yearbook.

GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: Coastline—Since the combined length of the North and South Islands extends just over a thousand miles, and since the width of neither Island exceeds 450 kilometres at its broadest point, New Zealand possesses a very lengthy coastline in proportion to its area. With the exception of the low-lying North Auckland Peninsula, the New Zealand land mass lies along a south-westerly and north-easterly axis, parallel to the direction of its mountain chains.

In the North Island, Whangarei, Auckland, Tauranga, and Wellington are natural harbours which have been developed into ports for extensive use by overseas ships. At Napier and Gisborne artificial harbours have been made. On the east coast of the North Auckland Peninsula several other deep and sheltered harbours exist, but production from the hinterland is limited. In the South Island the Marlborough Sounds and the West Coast Sounds form perfect land-locked harbours, but owing to their situations and the rugged nature of the terrain they have—with the exception of Queen Charlotte Sound—little or no commercial utility. By dredging and by breakwater construction, ports capable of accommodating overseas vessels have been formed in Lyttelton, Otago, and Bluff Harbours and on the coast at Timaru. On the west coast of both Islands the strong ocean drifts and high seas cause shoaling at river mouths and harbour entrances, although an overseas port has been developed at New Plymouth, while on the east coast of the South Island similar circumstances prevail, due to the large quantities of shingle brought down by the rivers being spread along the coast by ocean currents.

Mountains—The mountainous nature of New Zealand is one of its most striking physical characteristics, less than one-quarter of the land surface lying below the 200 m contour. In the North Island the higher mountains occupy approximately one-tenth of the surface; but, with the exception of the four volcanic peaks of Egmont (2,518 m), Ruapehu (2,797 m), Ngauruhoe (2,290 m), and Tongariro (1,968 m), they do not exceed an altitude of 1,800 m. Of these four volcanoes only the first named can be classed as dormant. Ruapehu and Ngauruhoe have been particularly active from time to time. Other volcanoes include Mount Tarawera and White Island, each of which has, upon one occasion within historical times, erupted with disastrous consequences. Closely connected with the volcanic system are the multitudinous hot springs and geysers.

The mountain system of the North Island runs generally in a south-west direction, parallel to the coast, from East Cape to Turakirae Head, and includes the following ranges from the north: Raukumara, Huiarau, Ruahine, Tararua, and Rimutaka. This chain is flanked on the west between the Huiarau and Ruahine by the Ahimanawa, Kaweka, and Kaimanawa Ranges, while west of the Kaimanawa is the National Park volcanic group comprising Mounts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro. The Hauhangaroa and Rangitoto Ranges run in a northerly direction from the National Park group. In the east the Moehau Range parallels the length of the Coromandel Peninsula. Mount Egmont forms the only area above 1,200 m on the west coast of this Island.

The South Island is much more mountainous than the North. Along almost the entire length of the Island runs the massive chain known as the Southern Alps, which attains its greatest height in Mount Cook (3,764 m), while no fewer than 16 peaks exceed 3,000 m. West and north-west of the main portion of the Southern Alps are the Victoria, Brunner, and Lyell Ranges and the Tasman Mountains, the Victoria Range being flanked by the Paparoa Range. To the north run the St. Arnaud and Richmond Ranges, while to the north-east are the Spenser Mountains and the Kaikoura and Seaward Kaikoura Ranges, the two latter ranges running parallel to the east coast. The south portion of the Southern Alps breaks up into a miscellany of ranges dominating the mountainous Fiord and north-western Southland regions.

There are at least 223 named peaks of 2,300 m or more in altitude. Below is a list of the peaks restricted to the four largest volcanic cones in the North Island and to mountains of a minimum height of 2,740 m in the South Island.

Mountain or PeakHeight (metres)
NORTH ISLAND
Ruapehu2,797
Egmont2,517
Ngauruhoe2,290
Tongariro1,968
SOUTH ISLAND
Kaikoura Ranges 
    Tapuaenuku2,884
    Alarm2,865
Southern Alps 
    Cook3,763
    Tasman3,497
    Dampier3,440
    Silberhorn3,279
    Lendenfeldt3,201
    Mt. Hicks (St. David's Dome)3,183
    Malte Brun3,176
    Torres3,163
    Teichelmann3,160
    Sefton3,157
    Haast3,138
    Elie de Beaumont3,109
    Douglas Peak3,081
    La Perouse3,079
    Haidinger3,066
    Minarets3,066
    Aspiring3,036
    Hamilton3,022
    Glacier Peak3,007
    De la Beche2,992
    Aiguilles Rouges2,966
    Nazomi2,961
    Darwin2,961
    Chudleigh2,952
    Annan2,947
    Low2,942
    Haeckel2,941
    Goldsmith2,905
    Conway Peak2,901
    Bristol Top2,898
    Walter2,898
    Grey2,893
    Green2,836
    Hutton2,834
    D’Archiac2,828
    Ronald Adair2,827
    Earnslaw2,823
    Hochstetter Dome2,822
    Nathan2,804
    Barnicoat2,799
    Sibbald2,798
    Arrowsmith2,795
    Spenser2,794
    The Footstool2,765
    Rudolf2,755
    The Dwarf2,751
Darran Range 
    Tutoko2,756

Glaciers—In keeping with the dimensions of the mountain system, New Zealand possesses, in the South Island, a glacial system of some magnitude. Of the glaciers the largest is the Tasman, which, with others of comparable size, rises in the more elevated area surrounding Mount Cook. Flowing down the eastern slope of the range, the Tasman Glacier has a length of 29 km and a width of 9 km. In common with other glaciers on the eastern slope, of which the more important are the Murchison (17 km), the Mueller (13 km), the Godley (13 km), and the Hooker (11 km), its rate of flow is slow, while its terminal face is an altitude of somewhat over 600 m. On the western slope of the range, owing to the greater snow precipitation, the glaciers are more numerous and descend to lower levels, while the steeper slope gives them a more rapid rate of flow. The two largest of these are the Fox and the Franz Josef, with lengths of 15 km and 13 km respectively, and terminal faces at altitudes of 200 m and 210 m.

Rivers—New Zealand rivers, owing to the high relief of the country, are mostly swift-flowing and difficult to navigate. As sources of hydro-electric power the rivers are of considerable importance, since their rapid rate of flow and dependable volume of water make them eminently suitable for this purpose. The Waikato and the Rangitaiki in the North Island and the Waitaki, Cobb, Clutha, and Waipori in the South are used for major hydro-electric schemes.

Following is a list of the more important rivers. For purposes of uniformity, the length of a river is taken to be the distance from the mouth to the farthest point in the system, whether this should happen to bear the same name or that of an affluent, and is inclusive of the estimated course of a river flowing into and emerging from any lake in the system.

* Cook Strait is defined as follows: northern limit is a line between northern point of Stephens Island and Kapiti Island: southern limit is a line between Cape Palliser and Cape Campbell.
RiverLength (kilometres)
NORTH ISLAND
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean 
    Piako90
    Waihou (or Thames)175
    Rangitaiki193
    Whakatane105
    Waipaoa (from source, Mata River)121
    Waipaoa (from source, Waipapa Stream)113
    Wairoa (from source, Hangaroa River)137
    Mohaka (from source, Taharua River)172
    Ngaruroro154
    Tukituki113
Flowing into Cook Strait*
    Ruamahanga124
    Hutt56
Flowing into the Tasman Sea
    Otaki48
    Manawatu182
    Rangitikei241
    Turakina137
    Whangaehu161
    Wanganui290
    Waitotara108
    Patea143
    Waitara98
    Mokau158
    Waikato (from source, Upper Waikato River)425
    Wairoa (from source, Waiotu Stream)132
    Hokianga (from source, Waihou River)72
SOUTH ISLAND
Flowing into Cook Strait
    Pelorus64
    Wairau169
    Awatere126
Flowing into the Pacific Ocean
    Clarence209
    Conway48
    Waiau-uha (or Waiau)169
    Hurunui138
    Waipara64
    Ashley97
    Waimakariri161
    Selwyn95
    Rakaia145
    Ashburton90
    Rangitata (from source, Clyde River)121
    Opihi80
    Pareora56
    Waihao64
    Waitaki (from source, Hopkins River)209
    Kakanui64
    Shag72
    Taieri288
    Clutha (from source, Makarora River)322
Flowing into Foveaux Strait
    Mataura240
    Oreti203
    Aparima (Jacobs River)113
    Waiau (from source, Clinton River)217
Flowing into the Tasman Sea
    Hollyford76
    Cascade64
    Arawhata68
    Haast64
    Karangarua37
    Cook32
    Waiho (from source, Callery River)32
    Whataroa51
    Wanganui56
    Waitaha40
    Hokitika64
    Arahura56
    Taramakau80
    Grey121
    Buller (from source, Travers River)177
    Mokihinui56
    Karamea80
    Heaphy35
    Aorere (from source, Spee River)72
    Takaka (from source, Cobb River)72
    Motueka108
    Waimea (from source, Wai-iti River)48

The discovery in 1861 that the beds of rivers in the South Island contained extensive deposits of alluvial gold was of considerable importance in the early economic development of the country.

With the very successful acclimatisation of freshwater fish, notably trout, many rivers now provide exceptionally fine fishing.

Lakes—In considering New Zealand's numerous lakes a distinction can be made, especially from the scenic viewpoint, between the lakes of the two Islands. Surrounded by extremely rugged country the larger lakes of the South Island are distinguished by the grandeur of their alpine settings, while some of the larger ones of the North Island, situated on a volcanic plateau, have their own particular beauty. As reservoirs the lakes of both Islands are of vital importance for the maintenance of the rivers and streams draining them and as a means of flood prevention. More especially is this the case where hydro-electric schemes are involved, Lakes Waikaremoana and Taupo in the North Island, and Lakes Coleridge, Pukaki, Tekapo, Wanaka, Hawea, and Wakatipu in the South Island, being of particular significance in this respect. A series of narrow man-made lakes have been produced in connection with hydro-electric development along some of the rivers. In 1965 Lake Benmore, New Zealand's largest artificial lake, was created. It lies on the Waitaki River in North Otago and covers 79 sq km in area and consists of two arms, the main arm being 30 km in length and the Ahuriri Arm 18 km in length.

Some particulars of the more important lakes are given in the following table.

LakeLength, in Kilometres*Greatest Breadth, in Kilometres*Area, in Square KilometresDrainage Area, in Square KilometresApproximate Volume of Discharge, in Cubic Metres per SecondMaximum Height Above Sea Level in Metres (Range in Brackets)Greatest Depth, in Metres

*1 kilometre equals 0.621 square miles.

†1 square kilometre equals 0.386 square miles.

‡The range in lake levels is not available for all lakes.

      NORTH ISLAND Natural
Taupo40.227.46063,2891,271357 (1.5)159
Rotorua12.09.780526..280 (0.6)26
Rotoiti16.14.83464224279 (0.6)70
Tarawera11.28.9361868299 (0.6)87
Rotoaira4.82.8131297564 (0.9)..
Waikaremoana19.39.75442718614 (13.7)256
Wairarapa19.36.4803,201..820
Rotoehu4.83.2844..295 (1.2)..
Rotoma5.23.61231..316 (1.8)..
Okataina6.44.81065..310 (2.7)..
Okareka2.42.0321..354 (1.2)..
Rotomahana6.42.8970..340 (6.7)..
Rerewhakaitu4.02.88....439 (1.2)..
Tikitapu1.61.21....416..
Rotokakahi4.01.65281396..
      Artificial
Ohakuri33.80.4144,791157287..
Atiamuri6.40.415,128165252..
Whakamaru21.70.885,581174226..
Maraetai7.20.846,190191188..
Waipapa9.70.416,475198127..
Arapuni16.10.8136,876207111 (0.6)..
Karapiro24.10.487,45922154..
Whakamarino0.80.4......274..
      SOUTH ISLAND Natural
Rotoiti8.92.81018412616 (1.8)76
Rotoroa14.53.22337627446 (1.5)152
Brunner8.98.939414..85109
Kaniere9.72.01628..131197
Coleridge17.73.236559..510207
Sumner9.72.414337......
Tekapo17.75.6961,42487715 (7.6)189
Pukaki15.38.0831,355128500 (9.1)..
Ohau17.74.8601,19165527 (1.7)..
Hawea30.68.01191,46963345 (16.2)392
Wanaka45.14.81922,543202279 (4.3)..
Wakatipu77.24.82932,978174310 (2.1)378
Te Anau61.29.73443,302276209 (4.6)276
Manapouri28.98.01424,623386185 (6.4)443
Monowai19.31.62827214196 (4.0)..
Hauroko35.42.47158331156 (1.8)..
Poteriteri28.92.4474143029..
Waihola6.42.085,698..(Tidal)16
Ellesmere22.512.91811,930..(Tidal)2
      Artificial
Cobb4.80.42736808 (15.2)..
Waitaki4.80.863,712344230..
Roxburgh32.20.4615,571489131..
Mahinerangi14.51.6213117391..
Benmore—
    Ahuriri Arm18.54.4797,77034036096
    Main Arm29.8

GEOLOGY—The islands of New Zealand are part of the unstable circum-Pacific Mobile Belt. This is a region where volcanoes are active and where the earth's crust has long been buckling and breaking at a geologically rapid rate. The interplay, in the past, of earth movements and erosion has made the sedimentary rocks that cover almost three-quarters of New Zealand. Land areas that the earth movements have raised have been attacked by erosion, and the sand, mud, shingle, and other debris thus formed has been carried away to the sea, where it has accumulated in great thicknesses to form rocks such as sandstone, mudstone, greywacke, and conglomerate; the shells and other skeletons of sea creatures have accumulated to form thick layers of limestone. Many of the sedimentary rocks are in distinct layers called strata. Earth movements have later raised them above the sea to form land, and the strata are in many places tilted and folded by pressure. Seas have advanced and retreated over New Zealand many times and these sedimentary rocks represent almost every geological period since the Cambrian (see Time Scale). Their age is revealed by the shells, foraminifera, and other fossils that they contain.

As well as sedimentary rocks, and volcanic rocks of various ages, New Zealand incorporates in its complex structure schist, gneiss, marble and other metamorphic rocks, and granite, diorite, gabbro, serpentine, and other intrusive igneous rocks. Most of these metamorphic and intrusive rocks are hundreds of millions of years old. They were formed at depth in the earth's crust early in New Zealand's history, in the "roots" of ancient mountain ranges, long ago destroyed, and are visible at the land surface today only because erosion has removed thousands of feet thickness of other rocks that once covered them. The metamorphic rocks developed when huge, elongated sea basins (geosynclines) were formed, in which tens of thousands of feet thickness of sediments accumulated. When these geosynclines were slowly compressed during major mountain-building episodes the deeper sediments were subjected to great pressure and shearing stress, which caused new minerals and structures to develop, changing the sediments into metamorphic rocks. The granites and other intrusive rocks are coarsely crystalline, and are usually considered to have intruded into the outer crust in a molten state during mountain building; some, however, may be the products of an intense metamorphism of sediments.

GEOLOGICAL TIME-SCALE
ErasPeriodsApproximate Time Since Period Began (Years)
CenozoicHolocene (Recent)Quaternary  10 thousand
Pleistocene    2 million
Pliocene  11 million
MioceneTertiary  25 million
Oligocene  20 million
Eocene  60 million
Paleocene  70 million
MesozoicCretaceous 135 million
Jurassic 180 million
Triassic 225 million
PaleozoicPermian 270 million
Carboniferous 350 million
Devonian 400 million
Silurian 440 million
Ordovician 500 million
Cambrian 600 million

Geological History—Evidence of the earliest-known events in New Zealand's history is given by ancient rocks in Nelson, Westland, and Fiordland that were formed in the early Paleozoic era, perhaps as long as 600 million years ago (some in Westland may be older). They include thick, geosynclinal sedimentary rocks. This suggests that a large land mass existed at that time to yield the great volume of sediments, but little has been deduced about its shape or position.

The history of the later part of the Paleozoic era, and the Mesozoic era, is rather better understood. For a vast span of time from the Carboniferous period—probably until the early Cretaceous period— an extensive geosyncline occupied the New Zealand region. At first, during much of late Paleozoic time, huge quantities of submarine lava and volcanic tuff were included in the materials that accumulated in the geosyncline, but in the later Permian and Mesozoic times the sediments were mainly sand and mud, derived probably from some land west of present New Zealand; they were compacted into hard greywacke (a type of sandstone) and argillite (hard, dark mudstone).

In the early Cretaceous period one of the main mountain-building episodes in New Zealand's history took place. Although geosynclinal sedimentation continued through the Cretaceous period in eastern New Zealand, the geosyncline elsewhere was compressed, and the sediments were intensely crumpled and broken and raised above the sea, probably forming a large, mountainous land mass. Some of the geosynclinal deposits, now exposed over much of Otago, alpine Westland, and parts of Marlborough Sounds, were metamorphosed into schist and gneiss by the tremendous deforming pressures to which the geosyncline was subjected.

The time that has elapsed since the intense folding of the strata in the New Zealand geosyncline in the mid-Cretaceous period may be considered as the later geological history of this country, embracing roughly 100 million years.

During the early part of this late history, erosion slowly wore down the mountains that had risen, producing a land of low relief. Over these worn-down stumps of the Mesozoic mountains the sea gradually advanced, beginning its transgression earlier in some areas than in others. In the early Cretaceous period it began to submerge land in the region of present North Auckland and the eastern margins of the North and South Islands, and thick deposits of mudstone and sandstone accumulated in some parts of these areas. At the close of the Mesozoic era, and in the very early Tertiary, land became so reduced in size and relief that little sediment was formed, and only comparatively thin deposits of fine bentonitic and sulphurous muds, and fine, white, foraminiferal limestone accumulated. In some areas New Zealand's main coal deposits accumulated in swamps on the surface of the old land. These became buried by marine deposits as the sea continued its transgression in the Eocene period.

By the Oligocene period, most of the land was submerged, and in shallow waters free of land sediments, thick deposits of shell and foraminiferal limestone accumulated. (Scattered, remnant patches of this Oligocene limestone furnish most of New Zealand's cement and agricultural lime.)

After the Oligocene submergence earth movements became more vigorous; many ridges rose from the sea as islands, and sank or were worn down again; sea basins formed and rapidly filled with sediments. New Zealand's late Tertiary environment has been described as follows: "The pattern of folds, welts, and troughs that developed was on a finer scale than in the Mesozoic … the land moved up and down as a series of narrow, short, interfingering or branching folds … we can think of Tertiary New Zealand as an archipelago … a kind of writhing of part of the mobile Pacific margins seems to have gone on …". The thick deposits of soft, grey mudstone and sandstone that now make up large areas of the North Island, and some parts of South Island, are the deposits that accumulated rapidly in the many sea basins, large and small, that developed in the later Tertiary.

Very late in the Cenozoic era—in the Pliocene and Pleistocene periods—one of the greatest episodes of mountain building in New Zealand's history took place. Earth movements became intense, and slowly pushed up the Southern Alps and other main mountain chains, and determined the general shape and size of the present islands of New Zealand. Much of the movement during this mountain building period (the Kaikoura Orogeny) took the form of displacement of blocks of the earth's crust along fractures called faults. The total movements of the earth blocks adjacent to major faults amounted to thousands of feet. It must have been achieved very slowly, probably by innumerable small movements, each of a few inches or feet. The blocks adjacent to "transcurrent" faults moved not only vertically but also laterally along the faults. The New Zealand landscape today in some regions shows well preserved tilted fault blocks bounded by fault-scarps—steep faces hundreds or even thousands of feet high. Fault movements continue to the present day, and have accompanied several major earthquakes of the past century. Many minor but revealing landscape features such as scarplets, fault ponds, and shutter ridges show where movement has been occurring in recent centuries.

Erosion during this time has eaten into the major landscape forms that the earth movements have built, carving detailed landscape pattern of peaks, ridges, valleys, and gorges, and has built up alluvial plains, shingle fans, and other construction forms. At the coast, waves have driven back the headlands and built beaches, splits, and bars. The Pleistocene period was the time of the Ice Age, and in the high mountains of the South Island glaciers carved deep valleys and carried huge loads of rock, dumping them as moraines. The late Pleistocene glaciers carved the fiords of Fiordland and the basins occupied by most South Island lakes; there were small glaciers also on Ruapehu, where remnants survive, and on Mount Egmont and the Tararua Range.

Volcanic activity of the past few million years has played an important part in making the rocks and shaping the landscape of parts of the central and northern North Island. Banks Peninsula, a twin volcanic dome in Canterbury, achieved much of its growth then. The largest volcanic outpourings of late geological times in New Zealand have been in the region between Tongariro National Park and the Bay of Plenty Coast: andesite lava, scoria, and ash were erupted in the Pleistocene period and later to build the huge volcanoes, Ruapehu, Tongariro, and Ngauruhoe. More than 8,000 cu km of molten rhyolitic magma was erupted in the form of ignimbrite, pumice, and rhyolite lava, building up the Volcanic Plateau. This is one of the largest and youngest accumulations of acid volcanic rocks in the world.

Mount Egmont is a huge, conical, andesite volcano, with the remnants of two other volcanic cones nearby; all are of Pleistocene age. In the Waikato there are eroded Pleistocene cones of approximately basic andesite composition. The largest is Pirongia, some 900 m high. Auckland city and the area immediately to the south has been the scene of many eruptions of basalt lava and scoria in late Pleistocene and Holocene times; and many small scoria cones can be seen in the locality. Late Tertiary and Quaternary basaltic eruptions in North Auckland have built lava plateaus and many young cones.

Geological maps and an accompanying description were included in issues of the Official Yearbook up to 1971, and are also included in An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand.

A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand contains geological maps of New Zealand and summaries of New Zealand's geology and landscape development. New Zealand Geological Survey Bulletin 66, the Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2,000,000, is a lengthier summary with a more detailed geological map and cross sections.

EARTHQUAKES: Geophysical Background—Earthquakes are geographically associated with active volcanoes and with major earth movements such as mountain building; these types of disturbance are confined, for the most part, to certain limited regions of the world. Such disturbed regions, of which New Zealand is one, are evidently the site of some kind of development affecting the outer shell of the earth. Little is yet known about the internal processes that give rise to these geophysical disturbances, nor are the relations connecting them fully understood.

Formerly earthquakes were believed to be caused by volcanic activity, but it is now recognised that volcanic earthquakes are restricted to small shocks in the immediate vicinity of the volcanism. In New Zealand, tremors of this kind are experienced in the zone of active volcanism that extends from Mount Ruapehu to White Island.

In some places geological faulting at the surface gives visible evidence that a major earth movement has occurred. Occasionally movement on a fault has been observed to occur simultaneously with an earthquake in the same vicinity. New Zealand provided one of the earliest examples of this to become generally known, when movement took place on the Wairarapa Fault at the time of the great Wellington earthquake of 1855. Such events as this have led to the idea that earthquakes in general are caused by fault movements. It is noteworthy, however, that there seems to be little earthquake activity along much of the Alpine Fault, which has been traced for 500 km from Milford Sound to Lake Rotoiti and is classed by geologists as one of the largest and most active faults in the world. The nature of the connection between earthquakes and faulting is still somewhat obscure.

The great majority of the world's earthquakes occur at depths of less than 60 km, and in many earthquake zones there are no shocks at any greater depth. A moderate number of New Zealand earthquakes are classed as intermediate in depth, i.e., originating at between 60 and 300 km deep. The two deepest New Zealand earthquakes recorded so far occurred four and a half minutes apart on 23 March 1960, with a common focus 600 km deep under North Taranaki, about 120 km shallower than the deepest earthquake known.

It is difficult to compare the degree of earthquake activity in New Zealand with that in other regions because of the many differences that arise in earthquake type and mode of occurrence. New Zealand and California are often regarded as roughly similar, with an activity very much less than, for example, Japan or Chile.

Regional Distribution—There are two separate regions of earthquake activity in New Zealand. The larger northern region may be roughly defined as lying between latitude 36½°S and 43½°S. It thus includes the northern half of the South Island, and all the North Island apart from the North Auckland peninsula; but the area from Kaipara Harbour to the lower Waikato River should be excluded. The southern active region lies to the west of longitude 169½°E, and incorporates Southland, western Otago, and southern Westland. Earthquakes have only occasionally been located in the parts of New Zealand lying outside these two regions.

Within the active regions the occurrence of shallow earthquakes is widely scattered. There has been a tendency, however, for the larger shallow earthquakes to lie towards the Pacific side of the northern active region and towards the Tasman side of the southern active region. Earthquakes with deeper foci are mostly confined to a narrow belt in the northern region, extending from the Bay of Plenty south-westwards to Tasman Bay.

The historical record is too brief to support a quantitative assessment of the frequency with which one might expect earthquakes to be felt at a given intensity in various parts of New Zealand. Considering the distances at which major earthquakes can be effective, in relation to the size of New Zealand, it would be imprudent to regard any part of the country as permanently exempt from the possibility of earthquake damage.

Outside the active regions there are many areas, however, where no damaging intensity has actually been experienced in historical times. Moreover, since the major shallow earthquakes on record have been rather widely distributed within the active regions, there appears to be no particular area of markedly intense seismicity.

The Hawke's Bay earthquake of 3 February 1931 resulted directly or indirectly in 255 deaths. The total of deaths that have been recorded as due to other earthquakes since 1848 is 32, of which three resulted from the Inangahua earthquake of 1968.

Seismological Observatory—Earthquake recorders are operated continuously at the following stations by the Seismological Observatory, Wellington: Apia and Afiamalu (Western Samoa); Nandi (Fiji); Rarotonga (Cook Islands); Niue; Raoul Island (Kermadecs); Cape Reinga, Onerahi, Auckland, East Cape, Karapiro, Whakatane, Wairakei, Gisborne, Tuai, Tarata, Chateau, Taradale, Castlepoint, Mangahao, and Wellington (North Island); Cobb, Kaikoura, Kaimata, Christchurch, Gebbies Pass, Mount John, Milford Sound, Oamaru, Roxburgh, Monowai, and Waipapa Point (South Island); Chatham Islands; Campbell Island; and Scott Base (Antarctica). The Naval Research Laboratory, Auckland, operates a station on Great Barrier Island, the records from which are analysed at the Seismological Observatory. The installations at the following stations include instruments for recording distant earthquakes: Afiamalu, Rarotonga, Karapiro, Wellington, Roxburgh, and Scott Base. At the Pacific and Antarctic stations preliminary readings are made locally and notified by radiogram. The analysis of records from all stations is carried out at the Observatory in Wellington. A set of portable recorders is available for detailed studies of earthquakes in particular regions, and for investigations of after-shock sequences and earthquake swarms.

The analysis involves using observations from stations in other countries as well as those from the local network, and the Observatory likewise contributes data to the international seismological agencies about distant earthquakes as well as large local ones. Details of tremors felt in New Zealand are supplied to the public and the press. In the study of felt earthquakes the instrumental results are augmented by "felt reports"; these are supplied by a large number of voluntary observers throughout New Zealand in response to a standard questionnaire issued by the Observatory.

Earthquake data are used by the Observatory for studying the fundamental characteristics of the earth's crust in New Zealand, Antarctica, and the neighbouring oceanic regions, and also for contributing to geophysical knowledge of the earth's interior.

Earthquakes during 1973—A wide variety of earthquakes occurred in New Zealand during 1973. Many of the larger shocks originated at considerable depth within the Earth, however, and their effects at the surface were not unduly severe. The year's largest earthquake was a deep shock of magnitude 6.7 (Richter Scale), that took place in the early hours of 6 January 1973. The earthquake was about 170 km deep, and its epicentre was about 20 km to the west of National Park in the centre of the North Island. As is usual for deep earthquakes, it was felt widely, but without undue severity. The felt area covered the North Island south of a line from Whakatane to Kawhia, and extended as far south as Hokitika and Timaru. The highest intensities were experienced in Taihape and Hawke's Bay, where some chimney damage was reported. The extensive area over which the earthquake was felt resulted in the Earthquake and War Damage Commission receiving more than 2,500 claims, mainly for cracked chimneys, minor cracks in foundations and plaster, and for articles falling from shelves. The amount paid for these claims totalled about $180,000.

On the morning of 26 March, two other deep shocks were felt widely on both sides of Cook Strait. In the Wellington area the shocks caused some concern, but only minor damage was reported. The first earthquake had a magnitude of 5.3 and occurred at a depth of 66 km beneath D’Urville Island, and the second, 47 minutes later, had a magnitude of 5.4 and a focus 74 km deep, almost directly beneath Wellington. A further deep earthquake beneath Cook Strait occurred on 13 June at a depth of 100 km. It had a magnitude of 5.1 and was felt from Taranaki to Banks Peninsula. Other significant deep shocks beneath the North Island that were reported felt occurred on 15 January beneath the Rotorua region (magnitude 5.5), on 7 March beneath the central North Island (magnitude 5.3), on 15 April beneath Taranaki (magnitude 5.1), on 30 August off East Cape (magnitude 5.5), and on 27 December in the Bay of Plenty (magnitude 5.8).

The largest shallow earthquake of the year occurred early in the morning of 22 February. Its magnitude was 5.7, and its epicentre in Hawke's Bay, about 10 km south-west of Hastings. It was preceded by a foreshock of magnitude 4.8, and was followed after 47 minutes by an aftershock of magnitude 5.1. Within the next day four other aftershocks had magnitudes of 4 or greater. The main shock was felt throughout Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, and Wairarapa, and about 800 claims for minor damage were received from the Hastings and Napier areas.

Another sequence of shallow earthquakes took place about 35 km south-west of Molesworth Station, in Marlborough, late in April. The largest two occurred on 23 April (magnitude 5.2) and 29 April (magnitude 5.1). Road cracking near the epicentre has been interpreted as minor fault movement on the Clarence Fault. The felt area of the largest shocks extended into northern Canterbury.

In the Fiordland region, the largest shallow earthquake (magnitude 5.0) occurred near Milford Sound on 23 May. A deeper shock, on 29 January, originated 140 km beneath the north end of Lake Te Anau and had a magnitude of 5.3. It was felt widely in the south of the South Island.

A series of small shallow earthquakes occurred near Rotorua on the afternoon of 6 May. The earthquakes were small, the largest being only of magnitude 3.2. The fact that the earthquakes were felt locally may be ascribed to their closeness and shallowness, rather than their size. For similar reasons, a small shallow earthquake (magnitude 2.9) that occurred within 10 km of the centre of Christchurch on 19 June was reported felt there at moderate intensities.

No significant earthquakes were associated with activity of the central North Island volcanoes, but Mt. Ngauruhoe has been more active than in recent years. Activity that started in November 1972 continued as strong ash eruptions on 1 and 2 January 1973. Other ash eruptions were most active on 8 September, 26 October, and 7 December. During the December eruption a small ash flow reached halfway down the slope of the mountain.

WEATHER INFORMATION—The collection of weather information and the provision of weather forecasts and climatic data for diverse interests in aviation, shipping, agriculture, Government departments, and the general public are functions of the New Zealand Meteorological Service. By arrangement with the administrations concerned the Service performs similar functions for British territories in the Pacific.

Weather reports for use in forecasting are made at about 140 places within New Zealand and 50 in the Pacific islands and are sent by telegraph and radio, along with measurements of winds at upper levels made at 9 radio wind stations, and of temperatures made at 8 radiosonde stations. Daily observations are made for climatological purposes at about 250 places in New Zealand and 80 in the islands. Rainfall measurements are made at a total of about 2,400 places within New Zealand and 270 outside the country.

Detailed climatological statistics are published annually by the New Zealand Meteorological Service in the Meteorological Observations, in Rainfall Observations, and in Fiji Annual Meteorological Summary. Current statistics appear monthly in the New Zealand Gazette and in the Fiji Gazette.

CLIMATE—Situated between 34°S and 47°S the main islands lie within the broad belt of strong westerly winds which encircles the hemisphere south of about latitude 35°S. Just to the north is the high-pressure ridge of the subtropics from which barometric pressure decreases southwards over New Zealand to the deep low-pressure trough located near latitude 70°S.

The weather pattern from day to day is dominated by a succession of anticyclones, separated by troughs of low pressure, which pass more or less regularly from west to east across the Australia-Tasman Sea - New Zealand area and beyond. In this region there is no semi-permanent anticyclone such as those found in similar latitudes over the Indian Ocean and eastern Pacific Ocean respectively. The troughs normally have a north-west to south-east orientation and are associated with deep depressions centred far to the south. A typical weather sequence commences with a low-pressure trough approaching from the west. Freshening north-westerly winds prevail with increasing cloud, followed by rain for a period during which winds may reach gale force. The passage of the trough, with its associated cold front, is accompanied by a change to cold south-westerly or southerly winds and showery weather, occasionally with some hail and thunder. Barometers then rise with the approach of the next anticyclone from the west. Winds moderate and fair weather prevails for a few days as the anticyclone moves across the country.

While the sequence just described is very common the situation is frequently much more complex. The troughs are very unstable systems where depressions readily form, some of which develop into vigorous storms that may pass over New Zealand at any time of the year. Occasionally in summer a cyclonic storm of tropical origin passes over or near New Zealand accompanied by gales and heavy rain affecting mainly northern and eastern districts of the North Island. The anticyclones vary in size, intensity, and rate of movement. Their centres, on the average, follow a track across the North Island but individual centres may pass either north or south of the country, the more northerly tracks being favoured in spring and the southerly tracks in autumn. At times when little development occurs within the troughs the anticyclones follow each other at intervals of about 6–7 days.

The other main factors which influence the climate of New Zealand are first, its position in the midst of a vast ocean, and second, the shape and topography of the country itself.

Hot air masses from the interior of Australia in summer or freezing air masses from the Antarctic, which occasionally reach New Zealand, retain little of their original character after their long ocean passage. Thus, there is an absence of extreme variations of temperature. On the other hand, since abundant supplies of moisture are supplied by evaporation from the ocean, and depressions are frequent and vigorous, the average precipitation is high.

The chain of high mountains, which extends from south-west to north-east through the length of the country, rises as a formidable barrier in the path of the prevailing westerly winds. The effect is to produce much sharper climatic contrasts from west to east than in the north-south direction. In some inland areas of the South Island just east of the mountains the climate is distinctly continental in character, despite the fact that no part of New Zealand is more than 80 miles from the sea.

Winds—Winds from a westerly quarter prevail in all seasons, with a general tendency to increase in strength from north to south. However, considerable local modifications to the general air flow occur during its passage across the mountainous terrain. Approaching the main ranges the flow from the west turns towards the north-east and on descending on the eastern side swings towards the south-east. This results in an increased number of south-westerlies in Westland and a predominance of north-westerlies in inland districts of Otago and Canterbury, where strong gales from this quarter occur at times in the late spring and summer. Daytime sea breezes usually extend from the coast inland for 30 km or more during periods of settled weather in summer. On the Canterbury coast the wind comes most frequently from the north-east, partly because there is a persistent sea breeze from this quarter, but south of Dunedin south-westerlies predominate. Cook Strait, the only substantial gap in the main mountain chain, acts as a natural funnel for the air flow and is a particularly windy locality afflicted by gales from the south-east as well as the north-west. This "funnel" effect is also in evidence about Foveaux Strait. North of Taranaki the general air flow is more from the south-west, and there is a noticeable reduction of windiness in the summer.

An indication of the variation in the frequency of strong winds from summer to winter, and in different parts of the country, is given in the next table. These were all obtained by the use of anemographs.

StationAverage Number of Days with Gusts ReachingYears of Data
40 mph or More60 mph or More
Nov-AprMay-OctYearNov-AprMay-OctYear
Kaitaia1429430.61.62.216
Whangarei620260.20.40.612
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)2029490.91.62.524
Tauranga1319320.31.11.424
Rotorua67130.20.10.316
Hamilton913220.00.60.610
Gisborne1925440.30.91.223
Napier1720370.40.40.817
New Plymouth3448822.34.87.127
Wanganui3540752.44.56.910
Palmerston North2523480.70.81.512
Wellington (Kelburn)727414616.013.929.913
Nelson2314370.50.40.926
Blenheim (Woodbourne)2216380.70.71.425
Westport1319320.81.01.818
Hokitika1518331.21.62.821
Christchurch3224561.81.53.324
Timaru138210.60.41.010
Taieri3025551.31.42.726
Gore2920490.90.00.95
Invercargill4842905.44.710.124
NOTE—These are all aerodromes, with the exception of Auckland (Mechanics Bay) and Wellington (Kelburn).

Rainfall—The distribution of rainfall is mainly controlled by mountain features, and the highest rainfalls occur where the mountains are exposed to the direct sweep of the westerly and north-westerly winds. The mean annual rainfall (see map) ranges from as little as 300 mm in a small area of Central Otago to over 7000 mm in the Southern Alps. The average for the whole country is high, but for the greater part it lies between 600 and 1500 mm, a range regarded as favourable for plant growth in the temperate zone. The only areas with under 600 mm are found in the South Island to the east of the main ranges. These include most of central and north Otago, and South Canterbury. In the North Island, the driest areas are central and southern Hawke's Bay, Wairarapa, and Manawatu where the average rainfall is 700–1000 mm a year. Of the remainder, much valuable farm land, chiefly in northern Taranaki and Northland, has upwards of 1500 mm. Over a considerable area of both Islands rainfall exceeds 2500 mm a year but, with the exception of Westland, this is mountainous and unoccupied, much of it being forest covered.

For a large part of the country the rainfall is spread evenly through the year. The greatest contrast is found in the north, where winter has almost twice as much rain as summer. This predominance of winter rainfall diminishes southwards. It is still discernible over the northern part of the South Island but, over the southern half, winter is the season with least rainfall, and a definite summer maximum is found inland due to the effect of convectional showers. The rainfall is also influenced by seasonal variations in the strength of the westerly winds. Spring rainfall is increased in and west of the ranges as the westerlies rise to their maximum about October, while a complementary decrease occurs at the same time in the lee of the ranges.

Areas which are exposed to the west and south-west experience much showery weather, and rain falls on roughly half the days of the year. Over most of the North Island there are at least 150 rain days (days with at least 0.2 mm of rain) a year except to the east of the ranges where there are, in places, fewer than 125 rain days. Those areas of the South Island with annual rainfall under 600 mm generally have about 100 rain days a year. In the far south the frequency of rain increases sharply; in Stewart Island and Fiordland rain days exceed 200 a year. Over most of the country between 55 and 65 percent of the rain days also qualify as wet days (2.5 mm or more). The percentage increases to over 70 in Westland, but in the low rainfall area of inland Otago there are only about 40 wet days a year compared with 100 rain days.

On the whole the seasonal rainfall does not vary greatly from year to year, the reliability in spring being particularly advantageous for agricultural purposes. It is least reliable in late summer and autumn, when very dry conditions may develop east of the ranges, particularly in Hawke's Bay.

The highest daily rainfall on record is 582 mm which occurred at Rapid Creek, Hokitika Catchment, where the mean annual rainfall exceeds 6000 mm. Other areas with considerably lower rainfall are also subject to very heavy daily falls; such areas are to be found in northern Hawke's Bay and in north-eastern districts of the Auckland Province. By contrast, in the Manawatu district and in Otago and Southland daily falls reaching 80 mm are very rare.

NORMAL MONTHLY AND ANNUAL RAINFALL (MILLIMETRES)* (1941–70)
StationJanFebMarAprMayJunJulAugSepOctNovDecYear
*25 millimetres equal 1 inch.
Kaitaia Aerodrome799484119152157150165122112102941,430
Kerikeri76124112142178178183196142114991041,648
Dargaville6684791041321501321379710984791,253
Auckland (Albert Park)6494861141271351371429410784841,268
Tauranga Aerodrome8484114114137132137137107114841041,348
Rotorua991141171171501501421371271221041321,511
Taupo8194769110912211710984102841121,199
Hamilton (Ruakura)718184991121321171179710791891,197
Taumarunui8999841091321521351241171371241301,432
New Plymouth Aerodrome1071021021171631681631471121351171321,565
Masterton (Waingawa)645876711021071029174746976964
Gisborne Aerodrome74619191109112112117747158641,034
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)1501401681802111881982261501501471522,060
Napier515866618489798151534364780
Palmerston North84697474869991846989791041,002
Wellington (Kelburn)8184949713213514012410211284861,271
Wanganui696461748691817658816989899
Westport Aerodrome1551681571912011881831701701832011852,152
Hokitika Aerodrome2312512392342722292412362392572772342,940
Milford Sound5315696305264834193784245385466385546,236
Nelson Aerodrome7474818911279919476817474999
Blenheim514351537658666153534851664
Hanmer Forest8681919911799104114899789991,165
Lake Coleridge616158767971817974767671863
Christchurch514658588456585346464656658
Lake Tekapo514348535348534856515151606
Timaru585858484836413841485869601
Dunedin (Musselburgh)746176747166564648587171772
Queenstown746676717966646176767664849
Alexandra463838282820151520283330339
Gore766976797679564853698179841
Invercargill Aerodrome897994104911076966748694891,042

Thunderstorms—Thunderstorms are not numerous. Their frequency is greatest in the north and west where thunder is heard on 15 to 20 days a year; east of the ranges (except in Gisborne) the figure is five or less.

Hail—Hail is most frequent in the south-west where it is reported on about 20 days a year, but for the greater part of the country it occurs on about 5 days a year or less. Most of the hailstones are small, but occasionally large stones cause local damage to glasshouses, and to orchards and market gardens, chiefly in Canterbury and Hawke's Bay.

Temperature—Mean temperatures at sea level decrease steadily southwards from 15°C in the far north to 12°C about Cook Strait, then to 9°C in the south. With increasing altitude, temperatures drop about 2°C per 300 m. January and February, with approximately the same mean temperature, are the warmest months of the year; July is the coldest. Some temperature statistics for selected places are included in the table on climatological averages. Highest temperatures are recorded east of the main ranges, where they exceed 30°C on a few afternoons in most summers, usually in association with a north-westerly Föhn wind. The extremes for New Zealand (measured in a standard thermometer screen) are 42°C, which has been recorded in three places: Jordan (Marlborough), Christchurch, and Rangiora (Canterbury); and –19°C at Ophir (Central Otago).

As is to be expected, there is a small annual range of temperature (difference between mean temperature of the warmest and coldest months). In Northland and in western districts of both Islands the annual range is about 8°C. For the remainder of the North Island, and east coast districts of the South Island, it is 9°-10°C. Further inland it exceeds 11°C in places, reaching a maximum of 14°C in Central Otago where there is an approach to a continental type of climate.

Temperatures in the preceding paragraphs are recorded on the Celsius scale (formerly called centigrade), and not the Fahrenheit scale. The degree Celsius (°C) equals 5/9 (°F-32).

Frost—It is well known that local variations in frostiness are considerable, even within quite small areas. On a calm, clear night the cold air in contact with a sloping surface gravitates slowly downhill to collect in valleys and depressions, and it is these "Katabatic" drifts which are mainly responsible for local temperature variations at night. Gently sloping ground with a northerly aspect tends to be least affected by frost. Favourable sites in coastal areas of Northland are free of frost, although further inland light frosts occur frequently in the winter months. At Albert Park, Auckland, the screen minimum thermometer (1 m above the ground) has registered below 0°C only once in nearly 50 years, yet up the harbour at Whenuapai Aerodrome there are eight screen frosts per annum on the average. Excluding the uninhabited mountainous areas, the most severe winter conditions are experienced in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Plains of inland Canterbury, and on the central plateau of the North Island. Even in these areas night temperatures as low as –12°C are rarely recorded. Elsewhere over the North Island the winters are very mild and pastures maintain continuous growth. In both Islands sheep and cattle remain in the open all the year round.

Snow—The majority of New Zealanders rarely see snow except on the mountains. The North Island has a small permanent snow field above 2,500 m on the central plateau, but the snow line rarely descends below 600 m even for brief periods in winter. In the South Island snow falls on a few days a year in eastern coastal districts, and in some years may lie for a day or two even at sea level. In Westland it does not lie at sea level. The snow line on the Southern Alps is around 2,000 m in summer, being slightly lower on the western side where the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers descend through heavy bush to within 300 m of sea level. In inland Canterbury and Otago, where there are considerable areas of grazing lands above 300 m, snowfalls are heavier and more persistent and have caused serious losses of sheep during severe winters in the past. However, only rarely does the winter snow line there remain permanently below 1,000 m.

Relative Humidity—Humidity is commonly between 70 and 80 percent in coastal areas and about 10 percent lower inland. It varies inversely to the temperature, falling to a minimum in the early afternoon when temperature is highest and frequently lying between 90 and 100 percent during clear nights. As the following table shows, the diurnal variation is greater than the difference between summer and winter.

StationMean Relative Humidity
JanuaryJuly
3 a.m3 p.m3 a.m.3 p.m.
 Percent
Auckland (Mechanics Bay)85639074
Gisborne85578769
Ohakea Aerodrome87628972
Wellington89718777
Christchurch83578870
Hokitika94768770
Invercargill87689077

Very low humidity—from 30 percent down to about 5 percent—occurs at times in the lee of the Southern Alps where the Fohn effect is often very marked. In summer the hot, dry "Canterbury Nor’-wester" is generally a most unpleasant wind. Cool south-westerlies are also at times very dry when they reach eastern districts. In Northland the humid mid-summer conditions are inclined to be rather oppressive though temperatures rarely reach 30°C. Dull, humid spells are generally not prolonged anywhere, but their frequency shows a marked increase in the south.

Sunshine—The sunniest places are near Blenheim, the Nelson-Motueka area, and Whakatane, where the average duration of bright sunshine exceeds 2,400 hours a year. The rest of the Bay of Plenty and Napier are only slightly less sunny. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours. Even Westland, despite its high rainfall, has 1,800 hours. Southland, where sunshine drops sharply to 1,700 hours a year, lies on the northern fringe of a broad zone of increasing cloudiness. Four hundred miles further to the south at Campbell Island the sunshine has the extremely low value of 650 hours a year. A pleasant feature of the New Zealand climate is the high proportion of sunshine during the winter months. To eliminate the effect of varying day-length the summer and winter sunshine at a few selected stations has been expressed as a percentage of the possible sunshine.

StationSummerWinter
 percent
Auckland5144
Hamilton5244
New Plymouth5347
Napier5752
Wellington5242
Nelson5857
Hokitika4344
Christchurch4645
Dunedin4143
Invercargill4235

As these figures indicate, there is a marked increase in cloudiness in the North Island in winter, but little seasonal change in the South Island, except in Southland.

Climatological Averages—The following table provides a brief summary of the main climatological elements for selected locations.

StationAnnual AveragesAir Temperatures (Degrees Celsius)
Altitude (metres)Rain Days (0.2 mm or More)Wet Days (2.5 mm or More)*Bright Sunshine HrsDays of Screen Frost (min. air temp. less than 0°C)Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumMean Annual
JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
*2.5 mm equals 0.10 in.
Kaitaia Aerodrome801831032,108015.324151581912
Kerikeri731731012,011114.72515136290
Dargaville201811081,948314.3231514629-2
Auckland (Albert Park)491841022,102015.32314168273
Tauranga Aerodrome4154902,297814.0241413529-2
Rotorua307151971,9722512.1231212329-3
Taupo376127872,0373911.7231111229-4
Hamilton (Ruakura)40165992,0031713.0241312329-5
Taumarunui1711671111,7123912.7241312231-5
New Plymouth Aerodrome491711162,110013.42113136260
Masterton (Waingawa)114155882,0402912.2241211231-4
Gisborne Aerodrome4151812,215613.8241413432-2
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)643192131610.920911328-1
Napier2126642,271613.9241314432-2
Palmerston North34168911,8111512.8221213428-3
Wellington (Kelburn)126158952,020012.42011135261
Wanganui22150872,108413.4221214529-1
Westport Aerodrome21931401,941111.91912124250
Hokitika Aerodrome391961441,8602511.9191111226-2
Milford Sound31981652710.118910225-3
Nelson Aerodrome2125722,4074111.8221212128-3
Blenheim4107582,4493412.5241212132-4
Hanmer Forest387143881,921859.82299-132-9
Lake Coleridge364118747010.021910-131-7
Christchurch7126581,9743711.4211012132-4
Lake Tekapo68387532,223929.12168-330-10
Timaru17113551,8873911.1211011132-4
Dunedin (Musselburgh)2160791,689810.9191011330-2
Queenstown329113721,9335310.122810-130-5
Alexandra14199392,0738110.523711-232-8
Gore72174931,6954010.22199031-5
Invercargill Aerodrome02051111,631489.51899128-5

NOTES: (1) Averages of rain days and wet days 1950–70; sunshine 1935–70; mean temperature 1931–60; other temperature data and days of screen frost, various periods—all exceeding 10 years.

(2) For normal monthly and annual rainfall for these stations, see table under subsection on Rainfall.

Brief Review of 1973: Year—Rainfall was below normal, mainly by 20 percent. The deficiency amounted to 40–50 percent in an area just west of Nelson City and also on the Kaikoura Coast. In this century, 1973 was equal with 1914 and 1930 as the driest year over the country as a whole.

Besides being exceptionally dry, 1973 was a very warm year. The departure from the 1931–60 normal amounted to 1°C in the North Island and 0.7°C in the South Island, with an average over New Zealand of 0.8°C. The only months with an appreciable negative departure over a considerable area were July and August, in inland Canterbury.

Sunshine was close to normal over the greater part of the country. Some inland areas of Canterbury and North Otago were favoured with 200–300 hours above normal. Parts of eastern Bay of Plenty and southern Hawke's Bay received 150–180 hours below normal.

Seasonal Notes—In January rainfall was below normal over nearly the whole country.

Pressures were unusually high over New Zealand in February and this was one of the driest months on record, with rainfall only a quarter of the normal value. However, in the North Island this month was not as dry as January 1908. On the 7th, most stations in Canterbury and some others exceeded the previous record high temperature for New Zealand of 38°C. A new record of 42°C was established at Christchurch, Rangiora, and Jordan in the Awatere Valley of Marlborough. Sunshine was mainly 30–70 hours above normal. The greater part of the country made little pasture growth and drought conditions became fairly general.

March was also predominantly dry. Rainfall was mainly three-quarters of the normal value, the relatively driest areas being in inland districts of North Canterbury and Marlborough. There was a shortage of feed, and in some areas the condition of stock suffered. Dairy production was also adversely affected.

The dry weather continued until Easter on 20–23 April, which was the wettest part of this month. Rainfall was below normal. The rain received was not adequate in many areas, and the drought persisted for the third month in Marlborough and North Canterbury. In these areas hay and silage were being fed to stock, while some animals were being sold.

May was a windy month with an unusually high frequency of winds between west and south-west. This caused cloudy, wet weather in Southland and along the West Coast, but sunny, dry weather in areas such as Gisborne and Northland. Most farmers found conditions favourable.

In June there was an unusually high frequency of north-easterly winds in the North Island and northerly winds in the South Island, causing wet conditions in Southland, Gisborne, and Hawke's Bay, but dry, relatively sunny conditions in Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. The mildness of the season was appreciated by many farmers.

Barometric pressures were still very high over the South Island in July, and easterly winds were unusually frequent. It was a sunny month and also dry in the South Island. July was very dry with rainfall only one-third of the normal value. As in June, little or no snow was reported on most of the mountain ranges. The lack of rain affected the supply of hydro-electric power, resulting in a shortage of generating output. Stock benefited from freedom from storms, but in some areas conditions were still too dry.

August resembled July in having an unusually high frequency of easterly winds but it was wetter and also much more cloudy. For a considerable part of the country this was the first wet month after 9 dry months. August will be remembered especially for the heavy snow on the 5th and 6th in the upper Canterbury Plains and parts of the McKenzie Country and inland North Otago. Thousands of head of stock were lost in spite of a large rescue operation.

In September rainfall was mainly above normal in the North Island but below normal in the South Island. Farmers welcomed the mild weather and in many areas growth was reported to be good.

October was a dry month for most of the country. In Marlborough some farmers were selling off cows for lack of feed.

November was a cloudy month. Rainfall was above normal over the greater part of the country. Most of the areas where the October weather had been too dry received adequate rain. Growth was reported to be good.

Pressures were unusually high to the south-east of the South Island in December, and easterly winds were somewhat more frequent than usual. It was a dry month and also sunny except in the east. The weather was particularly favourable for haymaking but many farmers, especially in Northland, found conditions too dry.

Summary of Meteorological Observations for 1973—The observations from which the following summary was compiled for the year 1973 were at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time, i.e., 2100 hours Greenwich mean time.

StationRainfallRain Days (1.0 mm or More)Bright SunshineScreen Frost DaysAir Temperature (Degrees Celsius)
Mean Temp.Mean Daily MaximumMean Daily MinimumExtremes
 JanJulJanJulMaximumMinimum
 mm hours        
Kerikeri1,2661181,9980015.824.615.414.27.030.20.5
Dargaville9791422,0220415.424.014.613.96.028.0-2.6
Auckland1,0851332,1320016.223.614.516.27.829.23.2
Tauranga Aerodrome9891012,2460415.024.114.014.44.931.3-1.4
Rotorua1,2541201,9061413.423.812.212.93.030.1-2.6
Taupo9201152,0833013.125.211.611.21.433.0-4.0
Hamilton (Ruakura)9801252,0782014.124.113.711.93.130.9-4.6
Taumarunui1,3261381,7564013.625.413.411.80.133.1-4.2
New Plymouth Aerodrome1,3771322,2810013.721.113.012.34.425.00.0
Masterton (Waingawa)742111....13.125.711.311.12.335.1-3.4
Gisborne Aerodrome9991042,1241014.725.613.214.14.836.7-3.0
Waikaremoana (Onepoto)1,815151..2..23.4..12.12.633.0-1.0
Napier787872,1390714.925.012.814.94.234.6-3.4
Palmerston North8031101,8040613.822.911.813.03.728.3-2.5
Wellington (Kelburn)1,0391172,0070013.020.010.512.85.726.60.9
Wanganui656962,1330114.122.112.413.53.328.9-0.1
Westport Aerodrome1,9661461,9470112.319.012.911.13.623.6-0.4
Hokitika Aerodrome2,5261571,9431311.418.212.910.32.322.8-1.8
Milford Sound6,665172..4710.418.79.59.90.627.4-3.1
Nelson Aerodrome659802,4633312.722.412.112.80.536.3-4.5
Blenheim425672,6083713.324.412.112.31.335.6-3.3
Hanmer Forest903931,994..10.724.48.68.5-2.637.1-8.0
Lake Coleridge62273..7810.822.68.99.6-2.633.3-6.2
Christchurch494672,0532912.422.19.912.02.241.6-3.5
Lake Tekapo422612,2061019.322.85.37.9-4.232.8-10.4
Timaru467601,9114311.421.39.211.30.137.0-4.8
Dunedin (Musselburgh)6551171,7550911.319.29.111.02.534.5-2.0
Queenstown735961,9845110.823.27.110.3-0.732.3-4.0
Alexandra310592,1547810.924.76.010.7-3.335.3-7.7
Gore8611441,788489.820.37.29.3-0.429.8-4.7
Invercargill Aerodrome9881501,640509.718.49.49.1-0.329.1-5.4

For 1972 the mean sea level pressure values in millibars at 0900 hours New Zealand standard time were: Auckland, 1015.9; Kelburn, Wellington, 1013.1; Nelson Aerodrome, 1013.6; Hokitika Aerodrome, 1013.7; Christchurch, 1012.0; and Dunedin Airport, 1010.9.

Chapter 4. Section 2; HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

EARLY HISTORY: General—When New Zealand was discovered by Europeans in 1642 it was found to be inhabited by a race of Polynesians called Maoris, who had migrated to these islands at least 300 years previously. It is generally accepted that the Maoris came originally from South-east Asia, whence, as proto-Polynesians, they moved eastwards from island to island until they reached the eastern Pacific, where they settled the islands now known collectively as Polynesia. From Polynesia the ancestors of the Maori sailed south-west in ocean-going canoes to reach New Zealand and these voyages were probably spread over several generations, perhaps several centuries. Oral Maori history and genealogy support the view that there was a final wave of migration of considerable magnitude about A.D. 1350. Adapting themselves to a new physical environment, in isolation from the outside world, the Maoris produced forms of social and economic organisation and material culture which were significantly different from their Polynesian prototypes.

Coming from tropical latitudes, the Maoris mainly confined themselves to the warmer North Island, and when discovered by Europeans were in a high state of neolithic civilisation, with marked superiority in the arts of wood carving and military engineering. Their principal social unit was the family group, and from combinations of the numerous groups were formed the subtribes and tribes. They had highly developed social and ritualistic customs, and their system of land tenure and methods of cultivation were communal within the subtribes. Inter-tribal and intra-tribal warfare was common, and as individuals Maoris displayed exceptional courage and intelligence.

From the early days of European settlement in the first half of the nineteenth century many Maoris believed that their interests were best served by co-operation with the settlers. For the most part the Europeans adopted a humanitarian attitude to the Maori people, who accepted their assurances and found a satisfactory safeguard for their interests in the exercise of their rights and privileges as British subjects. As the Europeans established a self-contained and aggressively growing society, there grew up a rivalry for land and a clash of power. In the 1860s Maori tribes in Taranaki, Waikato, and Bay of Plenty fought the settlers and Government troops in a series of sporadic campaigns based on loss of land rights and rising Maori nationalism. After 1870 there followed the development of a European colony of settlement with Maori people making further economic adjustments to European ways.

The introduction of European diseases and firearms, and the impact of European civilisation on the traditional way of life and customs of the Maoris, had such an adverse effect that their numbers must have been reduced by over half during the nineteenth century. However, the virility of the race gradually asserted itself, and from the beginning of the twentieth century the Maori population has been rapidly increasing though still forming a minority component.

The overseas territories of Niue Island and the Tokelau Islands had also long been inhabited by Polynesians from various successive migrations extending over considerable periods prior to their discovery by Europeans.

Discovery by Europeans—On 13 December 1642, Abel Janszoon Tasman, a navigator of the Dutch East India Company, discovered the country to which he gave the name of Staten Land, and which later became known as "Nieuw Zeeland". Tasman had left Batavia on 14 August 1642, and, after having discovered Tasmania, he steered eastward and sighted the west coast of the South Island, described by him as a high mountainous country. Sailing north, he had the misfortune to come into conflict with the Maoris at Golden Bay, on the north coast of the South Island, so that, though he continued his northward journey until he reached the northern tip of the country, he did not again attempt to land.

There is no record of any European visit to New Zealand after Tasman's departure until Captain James Cook sighted land on 7 October 1769 near Gisborne. Cook and a party of men from the Endeavour landed at Gisborne on 9 October 1769. On his first voyage Cook spent 6 months exploring the New Zealand coastline, and he completely circumnavigated the North and South Islands. His activities can best be described by saying "he found New Zealand a line on a map, and left it an archipelago". Not only was Cook's ability shown by his cartographical accuracy, but also in his peaceful dealings with the Maoris. He returned to New Zealand again in 1773, 1774, and in 1777. His careful observations made New Zealand known to the western world; the accounts of his voyages were translated into a dozen languages. The bi-centenary of Cook's first visit to New Zealand was celebrated in 1969; an account of his voyages of discovery in the Pacific is given on pages 1116 to 1128 of the 1969 issue of the Official Yearbook.

The European discovery of Niue Island was made by Captain Cook in 1774. The first recorded discovery of the Tokelau Islands was made by Quiros in 1606.

European Settlement and Colonisation—Whaling stations sprang up along the coast from 1792 onwards and a trade with New South Wales began not only in whale oil and seal skins, but also in flax and timber. In 1814 Samuel Marsden, chaplain to the Governor of New South Wales, was responsible for the establishment of the first mission station in the Bay of Islands. To promote the translation of the Bible into Maori, Thomas Kendall (one of Marsden's assistants) took two Maori chiefs with him to England in 1820. The printing of the Bible in Maori was made possible through the establishment of a printing press by William Colenso at Paihia in the Bay of Islands in 1835.

The growing white population in the Bay of Islands, and the lawlessness of crews of visiting ships led to the appointment by the British Government of James Busby as British Resident at Waitangi in 1833. The Governor of New South Wales in 1837 sent Captain William Hobson, in command of HMS Rattlesnake, from Sydney to the Bay of Islands to report on New Zealand. Among other things, Hobson suggested a treaty with the Maori chiefs and the placing of British subjects under British law. On 29 January 1840 Hobson arrived at the Bay of Islands as Governor to proclaim British sovereignty.

By 1840 numerous mission stations had spread through the northern half of the North Island. Conversion of Maori tribes to Christianity was accompanied by the introduction of new crops and methods of cultivation and pacification of the warring tribes.

The first body of immigrants to reach New Zealand under a definite scheme of colonisation arrived at Port Nicholson, Wellington, on 22 January 1840 to found the initial settlement of the New Zealand Company. The colonists were in the main sturdy resourceful people seeking a better future than was offering in nineteenth century industrial England.

The guiding genius of the company, Edward Gibbon Wakefield, aware of the intention of the British Government to annex New Zealand, had earlier (in 1839), dispatched his agents in order to purchase large areas of land from the Maoris before the Crown could assume a monopoly of land purchase.

Wakefield's scheme of colonisation was based on the sale of land to investors or men of wealth for development by labouring class immigrants. With the profit from land sales the company could bring out more immigrants. Wakefield aimed at a balance between landowners and labourers; in effect he aimed to transplant a cross-section of English society. But, ignorant of the system of tribal ownership of Maori land, the company had bought land from individual Maoris; then Hobson provided that all European land titles should derive from the Crown which would be the only purchaser of land from the Maoris. Title to land remained a difficulty for some years and was a cause of distress to the colonists and, combined with a considerable degree of absentee ownership and land speculation, made most precarious the existence of the early company settlements of Wellington, Wanganui, New Plymouth, and Nelson. The company had brought nearly 10,000 persons to New Zealand by 1848. The later settlements of Otago, in 1848, and Canterbury, in 1850, organised under the aegis of the New Zealand Company in co-operation with the Free Church of Scotland and the Church of England respectively, achieved a much greater measure of success owing to the absence of any large Maori population and to satisfactory land purchase arrangements.

The non-Maori population in the main settlements in 1842 totalled 3,801 in Wellington, 2,895 in Auckland, 2,500 in Nelson, 895 in New Plymouth, 380 in Russell, 236 in Hokianga, and 198 in Akaroa. By 1862 the non-Maori population had reached 125,000 (as against 55,000 Maoris) and by 1866 it had jumped to 200,000 with men from Australia joining in the gold rush to Otago. Migration then dropped away until 1874 when there was a high inflow for several years from Britain with the Vogel policy of public works development.

After the death of Hobson in 1842, subsequent governors, through lack of funds and weak administration, found themselves unable to protect the small and helpless settlements from threatening Maori aggression engendered by strong feelings on land ownership. The response of the Colonial Office was to appoint Captain George Grey as Governor and to provide him with adequate funds and troops so that he soon restored order and won not only the confidence of the Maoris but also for a time that of the settlers. Grey, through his chief land purchase officer, Donald McLean, endeavoured to buy up land in advance of the settlers’ needs in order to prevent conflict between settlers and Maoris. By 1858 the census revealed that the settlers outnumbered the Maoris who, fearful that they were being swamped by the settlers, became increasingly reluctant to sell their land. At the same time the intensified settler pressure for more land led McLean to negotiate only with those Maoris still favourably disposed to land sales. This practice alarmed the other Maoris and finally the war broke out in 1860 over a land dispute at Waitara in Taranaki where settler demand for land was strongest. The return of Grey as Governor did not solve the problem for, as an autocrat, he could not work with elected ministers nor could he regain the confidence of the Maoris and finally he quarrelled with the commander of the Imperial troops. Widespread confiscation of Maori land by the settlers’ government in order to pay the cost of the war included land belonging to friendly as well as hostile Maoris and aroused further resentment. Although the war had died down by 1870 it was only during the term of Donald McLean as Native Minister that some measure of reconciliation began with the establishment of four Maori electorates in 1876.

Public Works and Farm Development—The absence of hostilities and the discovery of gold there had allowed the South Island to obtain a lead in commercial and political development which it long maintained. Moreover, with the subsequent agrarian expansion especially in the development of the large pastoral holdings, the country ceased to be merely self-sufficient agriculturally but began to develop a substantial export trade, mainly in wool.

By 1870 the gold boom had ended in the South Island. To remedy the situation of economic stagnation, Sir Julius Vogel began a policy of extensive borrowing for railway and road construction and for immigrant labour. The results of this policy were to double the population to 500,000 by 1880, to immensely improve transport and communications, and to encourage industry in the towns where most of the immigrants had congregated. After Vogel's plans for these loans to be secured against the land were frustrated by the provinces, he decided that the provincial system, begun in 1853, had outlived its usefulness and that parochialism was a hindrance to the development of the colony. The system was abolished in 1875, local administration being provided for by the Counties Act and the Municipal Corporations Act 1876.

When systematic colonisation began, New Zealand's only important trade association was with the east coast of Australia. It was, however, the inflow of British capital which set the New Zealand economy on a path of growth: that determined by the requirements of markets in the United Kingdom. Britain with a vigorously expanding demand from its working population required from the young colony an assured and increasing supply of food and raw materials, and a guaranteed market for its industrial goods. In accordance with this archetypal pattern of colonial development agricultural trade with the United Kingdom assumed over-riding importance as the land was brought into production. By 1868, in spite of the problem of distance, the United Kingdom had already become New Zealand's principal trading partner.

With the introduction of refrigeration in 1882 and steam navigation in the late 19th century, the development of exports of frozen meat and dairy products assured the dominance of the United Kingdom in New Zealand's external trade. These developments, with a continued substantial investment of British capital, particularly in farming and food processing industries, established that degree of specialisation to meet the needs of the British market, which shaped the entire New Zealand economy during its first hundred years.

The depression of the 1880s, a consequence of a fall in world price levels, resulted in unemployment and large emigration but export prices recovered in the nineties. From 1880 onwards the natural increase of births over deaths exceeded the net inflow from migration.

In 1891 John Ballance, as leader of the Liberal Party, became Premier to be followed on his death in 1893 by Richard John Seddon, who remained Premier until his death in June 1906. The Government pursued a vigorous legislative programme in which the main emphasis was that of social justice, the principal manifestations of which were the breaking up of the large estates, the establishment of the Court of Arbitration, and the introduction of old age pensions. The policy of subdivision of large estates to produce closer settlement included the compulsory purchase of large holdings by the State, but more important were the effects of refrigeration, which encouraged the smaller dairy and fat-lamb farms, the accelerated Government purchase of Maori lands and the widespread introduction of systems of Crown leasehold with subsequent loans to small farmers to establish themselves. In inaugurating the Court of Arbitration, the object was to eliminate strikes by giving labour a recognised bargaining status; and the enactment was in accord with the enlightened code of labour legislation passed at that time under the influence of William Pember Reeves.

The 6 years from 1906 with Joseph Ward as Prime Minister were marked by several notable events in imperial affairs, but, on the whole, the Government's domestic policies were singularly uninspiring.

The expansion of the exports in dairy produce and frozen meat during the 1890s produced more intensive settlement and the rise of a new farming class in which the "cow-cockie" was the dominant figure. These farmers, having benefited by the spread of prosperity, were in 1911 mainly responsible together with the city businessmen for the overthrow of the Liberal regime. The new Reform Government under William Massey, in order to strengthen the primary producer, introduced measures of which the extension of rural credit was typical. Industrial conflict on the waterfront and with the Waihi miners ended in a victory for Massey who relied on the use of troops and special constables to repress the strikes.

Three years after the advent of the Reform Party, the First World War, 1914–1918, broke out, leading to a coalition Government and an Imperial commandeer of exports which created the precedent for the establishment after the war of central boards to regulate the exports of pastoral products. War activities were marked by heavy casualties in proportion to the population while the landing at Gallipoli signified the growing awareness of a sense of nationhood.

Though the effects of the post-war depression during the period 1921–24 showed themselves in an increase in unemployment and slight wage reduction, no drastic legislation was necessary to stabilise economic conditions. During the following years the price level rose; and on the administrative side, the period was characterised by extensive public works expenditure, with particular attention to hydro-electric schemes and highways. Prime Ministers in the 10 years from 1925 were J. Gordon Coates, Sir Joseph Ward, and George Forbes.

Land values rose steeply, accelerated by Government efforts to settle returned servicemen on the land, and between 1915 and 1925 forty percent of the occupied land had changed hands. New Zealand was extremely vulnerable to the overseas price fluctuations of the pastoral products. With the advent of the depression by 1930, farmers, despite greatly increased production, were faced with a serious decline in income (over forty percent) together with heavy mortgage commitments on land bought at high prices so that many were faced with foreclosure. In the towns, tradesmen and shopkeepers faced bankruptcy, and wage earners unemployment or reduction in wages. A coalition Government, formed in 1931 to meet the crisis had, as its leading figure, Coates, who was Minister of Finance from 1933. In order to produce balanced budgets and cope with the effects of the depression, enactments provided for unemployment relief, for the suspension, in effect, of compulsory arbitration, for the establishment of a Reserve Bank, for a mortgage moratorium, for raising the exchange rate, and for reduction in interest rates and wages. Partly as a consequence of these measures and of a rise in overseas price levels a general economic revival was taking place by 1935.

Development as a Nation—The election of a Labour Government in 1935 (with notable politicians including Michael Savage, Peter Fraser, and Walter Nash, who successively became Prime Ministers) reflected the general climate of opinion and led to change in administrative policy, the preoccupation being mainly with social problems. These attitudes were reflected in certain distinctive trends in legislation.

The first major influence was a humanitarian attitude reinforced by a progressive economic policy. Evidence of this is implicit in the provision for a basic wage, and later for a minimum wage, employment-promotion legislation, amendments to workers’ compensation, industrial conciliation and arbitration, mining, etc., legislation, the system of basic prices for certain primary produce, the creation of farm industry reserves, and the rationalisation of production and marketing by the establishment of boards for certain items of primary produce.

Another dominant trend was the acceptance of the principle that society should take active steps towards the improvement of the working, living, and social circumstances of its members. Foremost in this category was the Social Security Act and its later extensions providing for monetary benefits such as age, superannuation, family allowances, sickness, and unemployment, and by the provision of a system of medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits. (The evolution of social security in New Zealand was summarised in a special article in the 1972 issue of the Official Yearbook; this was an extract from the Report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry on Social Security in New Zealand published in March 1972.)

Other legislative enactments under this heading include the provision for paid annual holidays, reduction of working hours, extension of workers’ compensation insurance, improvement in safety and health and welfare conditions in industry, and extension of educational facilities and opportunities.

The financial needs of the Second World War from 1939 onwards were met with virtually no overseas borrowing. Financing the war by taxation and internal borrowing also assisted in the achievement of a successful stabilisation policy. Full employment in war was followed by full employment in peace. Expansion and diversification of manufacturing and servicing industries provided avenues of employment for the growing labour force.

Shaken by conflict with its industrial left-wing, and faced with increasing public impatience at the continued existence of some wartime controls and concern at inflation, the Labour Government was defeated at the 1949 election after holding office since 1936. The National Party took office under the leadership of Sidney Holland and its first term was marked by a conflict with the Waterside Workers’ Union. This dispute in 1951 ended in a complete victory for the Government after it introduced most stringent emergency regulations to deal with the situation. For the first time this century, Holland held an emergency election before parliament had run its full 3-year term. The result was to return the National Government with an increased majority.

In 1952, continued inflation and a balance of payments crisis produced restrictions on exchange allocation to importers in an effort to build up overseas reserves. The 1954 election reduced National's majority and was marked by the appearance of a third party, the Social Credit Party which gained 11 percent of the votes.

During his time as Prime Minister, Holland initiated a constitutional change with the abolition of the Legislative Council on the grounds that it no longer possessed any effective function. Illness caused Holland's retirement in 1957 when he was replaced as leader by Keith Holyoake.

In 1957, the Labour Party gained a narrow victory at the polls under the leadership of Walter Nash. Budgetary policy to meet a recurrence of the balance of payments crisis proved unpopular and at the 1960 election, the National Party under the leadership of Keith Holyoake was returned to power, as it was in subsequent elections in 1963, 1966, and 1969. Early in 1972 John Marshall became leader of the National Party. At the 1972 election the Labour Party swept back into power under Norman Kirk.

International affairs have assumed growing importance in recent decades. It was evident when peace returned to the Pacific area in 1945 that New Zealand found itself in a different world, where its relations with the countries geographically closest to it would grow rapidly in importance. This did not, however, alter the extent to which New Zealand identified itself as a European nation. New Zealand took part in the Paris Peace Conference and it was not until 1955 that it altered the planning commitments of its defence forces from security arrangements in the Middle East to similar arrangements in the South-east Asia and Pacific areas.

The most far-reaching reorientation required of New Zealand in this new situation was the need to obtain a guarantee of its security from the United States rather than the United Kingdom to which it had traditionally turned. With Australia it signed the ANZUS pact with the United States in 1951 and this provides the cornerstone of New Zealand's security arrangements. It also gives New Zealand a common interest with the nations of Western Europe in encouraging the United States to maintain outward-looking policies and a global defence capability.

New Zealand's growing regional awareness has been expressed partly in its defence relationships through SEATO, and through the collective defence arrangements with Malaysia and Singapore; but more widely in its participation in the Colombo Plan and other arrangements for extending development aid to South-east Asia, the South-west Pacific and the Indian subcontinent. The stability and well-being of these areas are vital to New Zealand's interests and relationships with the countries of the region are becoming closer every year.

A feature of the 1960s was a series of national conferences on industrial development (1960), export development (1963), agricultural development (1963–64), and national development (1969).

Relations with Europe—Agricultural development has continued to be based on the principle of the family farm, and the New Zealand farmer remains typically both labourer and manager, as well as landowner. The present level of efficiency has been won by hard effort, skilled management, the application of the results of scientific research, and a heavy personal investment in farm improvement. Dairy producers are now faced with problems of maintaining overseas markets as a result of Britain's move to join the European Economic Community.

Farm production has constantly expanded so that New Zealand has become one of the world's greatest exporters of pastoral produce. The bulk of this produce still goes to the British market.

The advantages of a closely bilateral trading relationship with the United Kingdom were not one-sided. The association was grounded in economic logic, and enabled New Zealand to develop its only major natural asset into a pastoral system of unmatched economic efficiency, which, to the present day would, under free trading conditions, enable its farm products to meet any competition.

The pattern of economic dependence developed in accordance with a series of mutually agreed decisions extending over a long period, and these were formalised by the Ottawa Agreement of 1932 between the British and New Zealand Governments which provided preferential access to each other's markets. The advantages of this economic rationalisation were demonstrated most strikingly in the Second World War, 1939–45 when, apart from the New Zealand military contribution, its continued substantial supply of food to a beleaguered Britain was vital to the continuation of the Allied war effort.

Settlers came originally to New Zealand because of some dissatisfaction with the conditions of life they knew in their country of birth. They sought to build a new society which, while retaining what was good in Britain and Europe, would exclude the pressures which they had found damaging to the quality of their own lives. It is perhaps ironic that, to the extent which a new society has been created, this has been achieved by means of, and is contingent upon, continued strong economic ties with Europe. The decision of Britain to become part of the European Economic Community in 1973 and thus subject to a new pattern of trading arrangements would have been disastrous for New Zealand's exports of dairy produce and lamb, but for the negotiations of special arrangements for continuing trade; in these negotiations Holyoake and Marshall were key personalities.

Pacific Orientation—Increasing interest has been taken in the last decade in welfare and social development generally of both the rapidly growing Maori population and the inhabitants of the islands of the Pacific with New Zealand ties.

New Zealand has experienced in recent years a considerable inflow of Polynesians from its associated territories and elsewhere in the Pacific. One-tenth of the New Zealand population is Maori or Polynesian, and there are more Niue Islanders in New Zealand than in Niue. Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islanders are New Zealand citizens who freely move back and forth. These people have undoubtedly had a big influence on the character, attitudes, and behaviour of the rest of the New Zealand population—most have some understanding of the "Polynesian way". New Zealand has a number of other basic links with the South Pacific, due in part to the common colonial history shared with such nations as Fiji. This British heritage has given a common language and the democratic tradition. Today all the independent states of the South Pacific are associated in the British Commonwealth.

The most recent political development is the establishment of the South Pacific Forum. This group, comprising the leaders of the five independent and self-governing nations of the South Pacific (Cook Islands, Western Samoa, Tonga, Fiji and Nauru), together with Australia and New Zealand, has already had highly successful meetings, in Wellington, in Canberra, and in Suva. The South Pacific Forum is a new concept in international relations—an exciting development. There is no constitution, there is no agenda, and there is no formality. The leaders come together in private sessions for frank and concentrated discussion on practical matters of direct relevance to the people of the Pacific. The island leaders themselves suggested the formula and proposed Australian and New Zealand participation. Clearly they saw the need to exchange views, discuss projects and priorities, and generally to secure on a regional basis effective collaboration and co-ordination at the highest level. A South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation has been established with a broad programme of trade, production, and economic development. It is based in Suva.

Financial and other assistance has been provided from New Zealand to overseas territories for the expansion of educational facilities and opportunities, public works such as roading and airports, communication facilities, etc. Fuller information is given in Section 38 of this Yearbook.

The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement which has applied since 1966, has been an important factor in accelerated growth in trans-Tasman trade.

Sovereignty—On 29 January 1840 Captain William Hobson, R.N., arrived in the Bay of Islands. His instructions from the British Government required him to take possession of the country with the consent of the Maori chiefs, this policy being designed by the Colonial Office strongly influenced by missionary opinion, to safeguard the well-being of the native people. Hobson read his commission at Kororareka on 30 January and on 6 February 46 chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi, a compact whereby all rights and powers of sovereignty were ceded to the Queen, all territorial rights were secured to the chiefs and their tribes (with the Crown having the sole right of purchase) and in return the Queen extended her protection and all the rights and privileges of British subjects. Other chiefs throughout both Islands later adhered to this Treaty.

On 21 May 1840 Governor Hobson proclaimed British sovereignty in the case of the North Island by virtue of the Treaty of Waitangi, and in the case of the South Island and Stewart Island by right of discovery. New Zealand remained a dependency of New South Wales until 3 May 1841, when it was created a separate colony by Royal Charter dated 16 November 1840. The capital was at first transferred from Russell to Auckland, but in 1865 it was again transferred, on this occasion to Wellington, where the seat of Government has since remained.

During Governor Grey's term, steps were taken to draft a constitution for the colony. An Act granting representative institutions was passed by the Imperial Parliament on 30 June 1852, and was published in New Zealand by Proclamation on 17 January 1853. Under it, provision was made for the constitution of a General Assembly consisting of a Legislative Council and a House of Representatives. Provision was also made for the division of the country into provinces, each province having an elected Council and Superintendent. (The provincial system was abolished in 1875 and the Legislative Council in 1950.) In the first General Assembly of 27 August 1854 certain members of this body were associated with the permanent members of the executive but they did not hold any portfolios. It was not until 7 May 1856 that responsible government was actually established.

One aspect, that of native affairs, was withheld from the responsible Ministers, and the Governor, as representative of the Crown, continued to act independently of his elected advisors in this sphere. In 1861 Grey attempted unsuccessfully to hand over this responsibility but the Ministers were unwilling to assume responsibility for the cost of the war. Finally in 1864 Sir Frederick Weld instituted the "self-reliant policy" whereby the colony accepted responsibility for the settlement of difficulties with the Maoris and consented to the withdrawal of troops by the Imperial Government.

In recognition of a nascent sense of nationality and of an increasing desire for self-reliance in political matters New Zealand was given the title of Dominion in lieu of Colony, the new title taking effect on 26 September 1907.

Of the constitutional events in recent years the passing by the United Kingdom Parliament of the Statute of Westminster in December 1931 was of major importance. The draft of this statute was submitted for the confirmation of the various Commonwealth legislatures before its passage through the United Kingdom Parliament. The statute granted complete autonomy to the various self-governing member countries, but it did not automatically apply to Australia or New Zealand. In other words, its operation in the latter self-governing members of the Commonwealth was declared to require specific adoption by the legislatures of those countries. It was not until 1947 that the New Zealand Government formally adopted the Statute of Westminster.

NEW ZEALAND's INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS—Until the early 1930s New Zealand's external interests were almost exclusively centred on its relationship with Britain. The British Navy protected New Zealand and Britain took the bulk of New Zealand's exports. Where Britain led, New Zealand followed, not blindly but with pride and conviction. Britain, as a great power, played a major role in world affairs. New Zealand's "foreign policy" consisted chiefly of seeking to modify British policy in those few cases where New Zealand had a strong interest or a viewpoint rather different from that of Britain.

The emergence of a distinctively New Zealand foreign policy is usually regarded as dating from 1935. The Labour Government strongly upheld the principle of collective security and looked on the League of Nations as the custodian of that principle. It pressed for vigorous collective action by the League against aggression in Abyssinia, Spain, and China at a time when the United Kingdom was pursuing the policy which came to be known as "appeasement". In addition to making its views known in confidential communications to the United Kingdom Government, New Zealand also gave them forthright expression in the Council and Assembly of the League of Nations.

There was nevertheless, no suggestion that New Zealand was departing from its historically close association with Britain. The course it would follow in the event of war was never in doubt. When war broke out the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage, expressed New Zealand's position in these terms:

“Behind the sure shield of Britain we have enjoyed and cherished freedom and self-government. Both with gratitude for the past, and with confidence in the future, we range ourselves without fear behind Britain. Where she goes, we go. Where she stands, we stand.”

But the Second World War changed the pattern of power in the world and made it necessary for New Zealand gradually to revise its foreign policy. During the war years the Government had participated in discussions among the allies and it believed that New Zealand, whose armed forces had fought in many theatres of war, should have an effective voice in the development of a post-war world order. To this end the Government established (in effect from 1943) a career foreign affairs service, and made a beginning in stationing its own diplomatic representatives in countries where New Zealand's interests made their presence necessary. In particular, New Zealand sought to foster good relationships with its neighbours in the Pacific and Asia and to increase the measure of security and welfare in these areas.

Woven into post-war policy was the traditional New Zealand belief in the principle of collective security and international justice, which the United Nations was pledged to support. There was also the belief that the international community should give high priority to the welfare and political advancement of dependent peoples and to the elimination of poverty, disease, and other economic and social causes of international tension.

The threat to New Zealand's security posed by Japanese aggression in the Pacific brought this country into close association with two of her Pacific neighbours—Australia and the United States. In 1944, in the Canberra Pact, Australia and New Zealand provided machinery for continuing consultation between the two Governments. The wartime alliance of the two Pacific Commonwealth countries with the United States found expression in peacetime in the ANZUS Treaty, in which, for the first time, New Zealand and Australia entered into a security treaty with a foreign country. The ANZUS Treaty, which came into force in April 1952, gives an assurance of United States support in the event of an armed attack from any quarter in the Pacific and so constitutes New Zealand's major safeguard against aggression in the area. The signing of the Manila Treaty and the establishment of SEATO in 1954, like the formation of the ANZUS alliance, took place against a background of continuing instability and violence in South-east Asia. (Details of New Zealand's defence policies and arrangements are set out later in this chapter.)

The scope of New Zealand's interests in Asia widened considerably in the years following signature of the Manila Treaty. Diplomatic relations were established with a growing number of countries in the area, leading to increased co-operation in fields besides that of defence. By the mid-1960s New Zealand had more widespread representation in Asia than in Western Europe. Subsequent accession to membership of regional organisations such as ECAFE and the Asian Development Bank furnished further evidence of this country's recognition of its constructive links with Asian countries. Diplomatic relations were established with the People's Republic of China in December 1972 and ambassadors have been exchanged. The Government is actively exploring the possibilities for new forms of regional co-operation in Asia.

The political evolution of the South Pacific with the emergence of Western Samoa, Nauru, Fiji, and Tonga as independent states and the Cook Islands as self-governing in free association with New Zealand has led to the development of a new pattern of relationships, bilateral and multilateral, between New Zealand and its South Pacific neighbours. In addition to its special relationship with Western Samoa, a former United Nations Trust Territory administered by New Zealand, and the Cook Islands, New Zealand has close bilateral ties with Fiji, Nauru, and Tonga. It is co-operating with all these countries at the regional level in the South Pacific Forum where the independent and self-governing countries in the South Pacific, together with Australia and New Zealand, discuss their common problems. Also, through its membership of the South Pacific Commission, New Zealand is endeavouring to promote the economic and social welfare of the South Pacific peoples and to foster a strong sense of regional identity.

New Zealand has continued to place special importance upon its membership of the United Nations. It is an active participant in the work of the General Assembly, and has been a member of all Councils of the Organisation. In 1950 it provided troops to the United Nations Command in Korea and has contributed military observers and civilian police in various peace-keeping operations. It has sought to assist all efforts to attain the political and social objectives outlined in the Charter.

The historical links with Britain and with Western Europe and North America remain close, as does the economic relationship with Britain, New Zealand's largest single customer. Although New Zealand has been making satisfactory progress in diversifying her markets, especially within the Pacific Basin, her trading and other interests in the European Economic Community remain a major policy concern.

The Labour Government, which was elected in 1972, has emphasised its wish to strengthen New Zealand's bilateral links with the nations of Asia and the Pacific as well as expand regional co-operation, its commitment to a more vigorous programme of aid to less-developed countries, and its belief that the United Nations can and should do more to protect and advance the interests of its smaller members. It has made clear in action, its total rejection of all doctrines of racial superiority. It intends to ensure that New Zealand plays a more independent role in world affairs.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs—The primary responsibility of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is to advise and assist the Government in formulating and executing decisions in the field of New Zealand's external relations. It is the agency through which other governments and their representatives in New Zealand communicate with the New Zealand Government. It operates New Zealand's aid programmes and maintains New Zealand's diplomatic and consular representation abroad. Its overseas functions are discharged through a network of 35 diplomatic and consular posts consisting of embassies, high commissions, consulates-general, and other permanent missions. At home, the preparation and co-ordination of foreign policy recommendations is carried out in close association with a number of other Government departments. The ministry is administered jointly with the Prime Minister's Department. Prime Ministers have often held the Foreign Affairs portfolio. The Secretary of Foreign Affairs is also Permanent Head of the Prime Minister's Department.

The ministry has a substantive role in the formulation and execution of New Zealand's economic policies. In Wellington the ministry works closely on these questions with other departments such as the Treasury, Department of Trade and Industry, Customs Department, and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Economic activity is as much part of an overseas mission's everyday work as its political, consular, and trade functions. Officers of the ministry have a major responsibility to inform foreign governments of New Zealand's policies, negotiate agreements, and keep the New Zealand Government informed of economic developments in the country to which they are accredited.

The ministry's involvement in the economic sphere was amply demonstrated in the events leading up to Britain's entry into the EEC. The negotiations in Luxembourg, that decided the terms of British entry and the special arrangement for New Zealand exports of butter and cheese to Britain, were preceded by an intensive campaign of publicity for New Zealand's case, continuous ministerial and official contacts in Britain and Europe, and a series of visits to New Zealand by British and European Ministers, officials and journalists directly concerned with Common Market affairs. In all this activity the ministry played a full part in Wellington, with other departments, and abroad where its officers were heavily involved. (More detailed information on New Zealand's external trade and economic policies is contained in section 22.)

The ministry has a special role also as a clearing house for material provided by New Zealand posts overseas for other departments, and through its posts it performs numerous services on behalf of departments without representatives abroad.

In the Official Section at the end of the Yearbook the diplomatic and other New Zealand representation overseas is listed.

New Zealand in the Commonwealth—As a member of the Commonwealth New Zealand is able to consult and co-operate with 32 other countries in a wide variety of activity, both governmental and non-governmental. The value to New Zealand of its Commonwealth links is derived not only from the practical benefits of what the Commonwealth does but also from the heterogenous composition of the association. Its 33 members take in the 6 continents and the 5 oceans of the world. The Pacific region is now fully represented in the Commonwealth. Fiji, Tonga, and Western Samoa are full members along with Australia and New Zealand, and Nauru has special status.

As the Commonwealth has grown and changed, its relationships have taken on a new scope and emphasis. As Commonwealth heads of government affirmed in the Commonwealth Declaration adopted at their meeting in 1971, the association "provides many channels for continuing exchanges of knowledge and views on professional, cultural, economic, legal and political issues among member states. These relationships we foster and extend for we believe that our multinational association can expand human understanding and understanding among nations, assist in the elimination of discrimination based on differences of race, colour, and creed, maintain and strengthen personal liberty, contribute to the enrichment of life for all, and provide a powerful influence for peace among nations." New Zealand, itself a country where different races live in harmony, sees in the Commonwealth a special opportunity for multi-racial co-operation and understanding.

The value of the association in providing a forum for the exchange of views between a large number of diverse nations was illustrated again at the 1973 Heads of Government meeting at Ottawa. Discussions were frank, informal, and private, ranging over topics which included changing power relationships, security, nuclear testing, trade, monetary issues, development assistance, private foreign investment, international transport, food shortages, and Southern African questions.

The belief of member countries in the potential of the Commonwealth led to the establishment of a permanent Commonwealth Secretariat in London in 1965. Under the leadership of its Secretary-General, Mr Arnold Smith, it has become the main agency for multilateral communication among Commonwealth governments. The Commonwealth Secretariat promotes consultation and disseminates information on matters of common concern, organises meetings and conferences, and co-ordinates many Commonwealth activities. Prominent among these is the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation. The fund is financed by voluntary contributions from most Commonwealth countries. Its primary purpose is to promote economic development through self-help and mutual assistance.

New Zealand contributes to the budgets of the Commonwealth Secretariat, the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation, and the Commonwealth Foundation. The foundation was established at the same time as the Secretariat to promote close links in the professions throughout the Commonwealth. It has sponsored official and non-official Commonwealth professional organisations and strengthened the links between administrators, engineers, lawyers, accountants, scientists, and private individuals in the different Commonwealth organisations. Like the Secretariat it has provided a focus for Commonwealth activities and a basis for extending international co-operation.

New Zealand and the Asian/Pacific Area—Since the Second World War, and particularly since 1955, there has been a noteworthy growth in New Zealand's relations with the countries of the Pacific area. New Zealand has a direct interest in the maintenance of peace and the growth of prosperity in the area. Its political and economic relations with Australia, the United States, Canada, Japan, and the countries of South-east Asia are of particular importance.

Almost half New Zealand's overseas trade is with the countries of the Pacific Basin and is growing steadily.

Private initiative, with Government assistance, has been able to develop new markets, new products, new selling processes, and new economic and commercial relationships. A pattern of regular economic consultations with our main trading partners has been developed; bilateral economic agreements have been concluded.

Aid activities have been expanded. In the early 1950s aid programmes, except for assistance to New Zealand's own Pacific territories, were largely directed towards the Indian subcontinent in the form of capital grants, which called for little direct New Zealand participation. Since the mid 1950s, technical assistance programmes have been enlarged to bring students to New Zealand and send New Zealand experts into the area. Aid activities now include New Zealand's industrial and engineering skills as well as those in the more traditional agricultural and health fields. New Zealand has become a full member of the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE), a member of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), and a participant in other international bodies co-ordinating aid to countries in the region.

New Zealand's overseas representation has been expanded in response to the growth in New Zealand's interests and involvements overseas. In 1955, when a New Zealand mission in Singapore was established, New Zealand had full diplomatic representation in only four countries in the Pacific area (the United States, Canada, Japan, and Australia). With the opening of posts in Santiago and Lima in 1972, the number of full diplomatic posts in the Asian/Pacific area was increased to 15. This diplomatic network enables New Zealand to assess external events in the light of this country's own interests and needs and to work directly with other countries in areas of common concern. New Zealand has also developed its political contacts with countries of the Asian and Pacific area in other important ways. Three are worthy of particular note: exchanges of visits by Heads of State and Government Ministers and Parliamentarians; participation in many regional arrangements; and the development of regular bilateral consultations.

Cultural contacts with the countries of the Pacific areas have expanded. For many years New Zealanders looked largely to Britain for cultural inspiration and experience. Today, their horizons have been broadened. New Zealand as a cultural entity is much more aware of its own Pacific area than it was 20 years ago. Professional bodies, sporting associations, private business groups and universities have direct contacts with similar organisations in other countries of the Pacific area where 20 years ago they had links only with Britain and perhaps Australia. Tourism, the development of civil air links, and the general expansion of cultural interests have also helped bring a wider range of contacts.

New Zealand and the South Pacific—New Zealand has a long history of interest and involvement in the South Pacific. In the latter part of the 19th century Prime Minister Richard Seddon harboured ambitions of a South Pacific empire controlled by New Zealand, and as a result of pressure from Seddon the administration of the Cook Islands and Niue, which were British colonial possessions, was handed over to New Zealand in 1901. The number of New Zealand Pacific dependencies increased when, following the establishment of the League of Nations, Western Samoa, which had been occupied by New Zealand troops at the outbreak of the First World War, became a mandated territory under the administration of New Zealand. In 1925 the Tokelau Islands, part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, were ceded by the United Kingdom to New Zealand.

Despite its geographical situation, the acquisition of overseas dependencies in the South Pacific and the ethnic kinship of the Maori and the Polynesian peoples, New Zealand's present identity as a South Pacific country was slow in developing for a number of reasons. Culturally, New Zealand has been closer to Western Europe than to the Pacific. For many years almost all of New Zealand's exports went to the United Kingdom. Politically, New Zealand's outlook was oriented towards Europe and, more recently, South-east Asia. Also the Pacific Islands were, and in some cases still are, administered by other countries.

But during the 1960s there was a dramatic emergence of new nations in the South Pacific. New Zealand encouraged this development in its own territories.

In Western Samoa, which had become a United Nations Trust Territory administered by New Zealand, political and constitutional development was carried forward in accordance with the wishes of the Samoan people. This culminated in the establishment of the independent State of Western Samoa on 1 January 1962. A programme of economic and social development for the Cook Islands was formulated in 1955 and legislative assemblies for the Cook Islands and for Niue were set up in 1957. In 1962 the New Zealand Government gave these bodies full responsibility for allocating the large subsidies granted by New Zealand. In the same year, after the alternatives concerning constitutional development had been submitted to the Island assemblies, the Cooks and Niue chose full internal self-government with a continued association with New Zealand. Events thereafter moved rapidly in the Cook Islands and on 4 August 1965 the Cook Islands became a self-governing nation in free association with New Zealand.

These developments were part of a wider pattern of political evolution in the region. In 1968 Nauru became an independent republic and in 1970 both Fiji and Tonga became independent nations.

It is natural that New Zealand and its South Pacific neighbours should have become very closely associated. One important reason has been the movement of Pacific peoples into New Zealand. Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islanders are New Zealand citizens and move freely back and forth. New Zealand's historical association with Western Samoa, which is reflected in the Treaty of Friendship signed in August 1962, has also resulted in a steady flow of immigrants from that country.

New Zealand has also played an active role in building up regional co-operation in the South Pacific. A major step in this direction was the creation of the South Pacific Forum comprising the independent and self-governing countries of the South Pacific, Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Cook Islands together with Australia and New Zealand which, at the invitation of New Zealand, met for the first time in Wellington in August 1971. Since then meetings have been held in Canberra, Suva and Apia. The South Pacific Forum provides the opportunity for the leaders of the South Pacific states to discuss common problems, exchange information, consider priorities and plan programmes. The topics considered include such matters as regional trade, shipping, telecommunications, education, law of the sea, disaster relief, and nuclear testing.

At the Canberra session of the South Pacific Forum members agreed to establish the South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation (SPEC) to deal with trade and related matters. The main purpose of the SPEC is to advise Forum members on ways of promoting regional trade and free trade among Island members and to encourage collaboration in areas such as regional transport which will assist the economic development of the Island members.

The South Pacific Commission, created in 1947 by the Canberra Agreement of which New Zealand is a signatory, is the other major regional body. It is composed of representatives of the administering powers in the Pacific—the United Kingdom, the United States, France, Australia, and New Zealand—together with Fiji, Nauru, and Western Samoa. Since its establishment the commission has done much useful work in promoting the economic and social welfare of the South Pacific peoples. It is primarily a technical assistance organisation. Its budget for 1974 is A$1,991,258. This includes voluntary contributions of A$250,000 each from Australia and New Zealand and A$50,000 from France, all of which were made in 1973. Within the South Pacific Commission the South Pacific Conference is of particular importance. The conference, which meets annually and is attended by representatives of all the countries of the region, has helped build up a sense of regional identity. The conference decides the work programme of the commission and the priorities within the work programme.

The Thirteenth South Pacific Conference, which met in Guam in September 1973, recommended that the meetings of the commission and the conference be merged. This will remove the colonial implication in the division drawn between metropolitan powers and dependent territories, and will thus bring the organisation more into conformity with political realities in the region.

The United Nations and its Specialised Agencies are also an important source of technical assistance in the South Pacific. The independent countries of the region are members of various UN bodies and the UNDP has a regional office in Western Samoa. They are also members of the Asian Development Bank and receive loans from it to promote their economic development.

The political changes in the South Pacific which began with Western Samoa's independence are continuing. Papua New Guinea became self-governing in December 1973. Under the 1971 Niue Amendment Act the Executive Committee of the Niue Assembly became, with some qualifications, responsible for general control over internal affairs and in November 1972 the Legislative Assembly resolved that the Government of Niue should inform the Government of New Zealand of the wish of the Government and people of Niue to achieve in 1974 the status of full self-government in free association with New Zealand. In subsequent discussions between the Governments of New Zealand and Niue agreement was reached on a timetable which provides for self-government to be achieved by the end of 1974. It was also agreed that Niueans would remain New Zealand citizens and that New Zealand would maintain financial and other assistance. In an exchange of letters between the New Zealand Prime Minister and the Premier of the Cook Islands in April 1973 clarifying the special relationship between the Cook Islands and New Zealand, it was agreed that there are no legal fetters of any kind upon the freedom of the Cook Islands to make their own laws and control their own Constitution. Although New Zealand has a statutory responsibility for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands, it is intended that the Cook Islands be free to pursue their own policies and interests in these as well as other areas.

New Zealand continues to have responsibility for the Tokelau Islands which have expressed through their councils and fonos a wish to retain their association with New Zealand. There is a measure of self-government in the Tokelau Islands and the people are normally consulted fully before any major decisions affecting them are taken. At the request of the fonos the New Zealand Government has embarked on a pilot scheme to resettle Tokelauans in New Zealand.

New Zealand in the United Nations—If New Zealand is better known in international affairs than some other small states, this is, in some measure at least, because of New Zealand's record of active participation in the United Nations.

New Zealand's share of the United Nations’ regular budget is 0.32 percent. In 1973 this meant a New Zealand contribution to the organisation of US$599,034.

United Nations Security and Peace-keeping Activities—New Zealand Governments have acted upon the conviction that it is only through the United Nations that an effective and comprehensive collective security system can eventually be developed and disarmament achieved. At San Francisco in 1945 the New Zealand Prime Minister, the Right Hon. Peter Fraser, argued forcibly but unsuccessfully to eliminate the veto and to strengthen the collective security provisions of the United Nations Charter. Within the United Nations New Zealand has sought to remove the causes which might produce the need for recourse to collective security action. Its representatives have urged that the Assembly be used for harmonising relations between nations; they have voiced the need for restraint in the pursuit of national objectives; they have consistently sought and supported responsible action in aid of an effective international organisation; and they have reiterated the need for the daily adoption of a broad programme of supervised disarmament.

New Zealand was elected to the Security Council for the years 1954 and 1955, and for a second term in 1966 when membership of the Council was increased from 10 to 15.

New Zealand has also advocated adequate and timely preparations in case aggression should occur and has supported development of the United Nations’ capacity for peace-keeping. New Zealand has been prepared to play its part; forces were supplied to the United Nations Force in Korea and military observers to the United Nations observer groups in Palestine, Kashmir, and Lebanon; and a civilian police unit has served in Cyprus.

While recognising that the objective of developing the United Nations’ potential in security and peace-keeping is a long term one, the New Zealand Government has indicated its interest in making a practical contribution by training some New Zealand military units to take part in future United Nations peace-keeping operations.

Economic and Social Activities—In addition to this concern with international peace and security, other aspects of the work of the United Nations have attracted increased attention in recent years. Article 55 of the United Nations Charter recognises that peaceful and friendly relations among nations depend largely on conditions of economic and social progress. Advancement in these latter fields absorbs annually more and more of the United Nations’ resources, and represents at least one area in which international goodwill and co-operation are being given practical expression. First the 1960s and now the 1970s have been designated as "development decades" and an international development strategy—an overall plan setting targets for development during the second decade— was adopted by the Twenty-fifth Anniversary Commemorative Session in 1970.

More recent concern has focussed additionally on the problems of the environment and an international conference held in Stockholm in 1972 set up for the first time United Nations machinery to co-ordinate future world-wide activity in this important sphere.

The United Nations body with primary responsibility in the wide-ranging economic and social field is the Economic and Social Council (or ECOSOC), an elective body of 27 members, which co-ordinates the activities of the bodies active in these fields, ranging from the functional commissions and committees of the United Nations itself to the autonomous specialised agencies.

The biggest single task now facing ECOSOC is to promote and direct programmes for economic development in the less-developed countries. New Zealand had always recognised the need for this. Its interest in social and economic questions is illustrated by its membership of ECOSOC from 1947–49, and 1959–61; and it was again elected by the General. Assembly to serve over the period 1971–73. New Zealand in 1963 became a full regional member of the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE), a body of which it had previously been a non-regional member. New Zealand has also served terms of office from time to time on the Status of Women Commission, the Technical Assistance Committee, and on the Statistical, Social, and Fiscal Commissions. Most recently, it served on the Commission on Human Rights for two consecutive terms covering the period 1966–71, and on the Population Commission for the period 1969–72. New Zealand has been elected to serve a 3-year term (1974–76) on the Governing Council of the United Nations Development Programme.

Specialised Agencies—New Zealand is a member of all the specialised agencies, except the International Development Association, and is also a member of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which, though not strictly a specialised agency, exists under the aegis of the United Nations. New Zealand's contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, which are based for the most part on a scale of assessment similar to that used in the United Nations itself, totalled some $1,011,413 in 1973. New Zealand has also subscribed capital to the financial agencies.

Convinced of the value of the form of international co-operation that the agencies represent, New Zealand participates actively in their work. In ’he case of the technical agencies, there are direct benefits to New Zealand in membership. Membership of the Universal Postal Union, for example, is essential to facilitate the efficient international movement of mails to and from this country; and the International Telecommunication Union works to promote the most rational and efficient operation of world-wide telecommunications services. The World Meteorological Organisation is the medium for establishing a world-wide network for the rapid exchange of meteorological information, which is of particular value to remote island countries like New Zealand. In other cases, New Zealand benefits by the free interchange of knowledge and experience, and from the endeavours of the agencies to establish world-wide standards of safety, to facilitate international traffic, and to examine restrictive or discriminatory practices in these fields. The ILO is concerned with protecting the basic dignities and freedoms of the wage earner and brings together representatives of governments, employers, and workers to frame international conventions on working and living conditions.

In addition to its contributions to the regular budgets of the agencies, New Zealand gives voluntary assistance in the form of further monetary grants, the services of experts to developing countries (for example in agriculture, physiotherapy, police work, forestry, and education) and donations of equipment or commodities.

In March 1973 the Government announced substantial increases (to some $27 million in 1973–74) in New Zealand multilateral aid programmes under United Nations and other auspices as part of the Labour Government's policy of progressively increasing the proportion of gross national product (GNP) allocated to aid to reach, by 1975–76, the internationally accepted target of 0.7 percent of GNP in official development assistance. In announcing this decision the Prime Minister indicated that the Government planned to play its part in leading New Zealand to the goal of 1 percent of GNP in total resource transfers, stressing that the co-operation of the general public and the business community would be required if New Zealand was to attain this target. Increases in New Zealand's multilateral contributions have included NZ$550,000 to the World Food Programme in 1973–74 as against expenditure of $235,000 in 1972–73; a 100 percent increase in New Zealand's contribution to UNICEF to $300,000; a five-fold increase in New Zealand's pledge to the United Nations Fund for Population Activities and the International Planned Parenthood Federation (to $200,000); a greater contribution to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (from $25,000 to $45,000); and a pledge of $1.5 million for 1973–74 to the United Nations Development Programme, compared with $600,000 in 1972–73. (Details and statistics of New Zealand development assistance programmes are set out in the final section of this chapter, headed "New Zealand's Aid and Other Resource Flows to Developing Countries".)

New Zealand's membership of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Monetary Fund, and the International Finance Corporation allows this country to participate in international efforts to increase the stability of international trade and promote the economic development of the underdeveloped areas of the world. It also serves to strengthen New Zealand's own economic position by providing access to more varied sources of capital for capital projects or for balance of payments purposes.

New Zealand is also a foundation member of the Asian Development Bank, established in 1967 under the auspices of ECAFE to foster economic growth and co-operation in the Asia/Pacific region.

New Zealand has supported United Nations agency activity which will help the social and economic development of the Pacific Islands. Examples of such projects are: the work of WHO in eradicating yaws and tuberculosis; FAO's efforts to control the rhinoceros beetle which ravages much of the island's coconut crops, and it support for a regional fisheries development agency; the establishment by UNESCO of a curriculum development unit at the University of the South Pacific; the placement in Suva of a development assistance team, backed by ECAFE and the specialised agencies.

New Zealand has in the past served on the governing bodies of WHO, FAO, UNESCO, and UPU, and was a member of the FAO Council for 1970–72. Although, because of its size and limited scale of contributions, New Zealand is not likely to be elected frequently to the boards of at least the larger agencies, it can expect, over the years, to bear its share of administrative responsibility within them.

Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)—As a result of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development held in Geneva in 1964, the General Assembly agreed to hold a triennial conference on trade and development with the objective of promoting international trade, particularly between countries at different stages of development, with a view to accelerating the economic growth of developing countries. UNCTAD held its second session in New Delhi early in 1968. UNCTAD is the United Nations body generally responsible for all matters relating to trade development. It is open to all United Nations members and other states who are members of the specialised agencies and the International Atomic Energy Agency. The conference has become a permanent organisation, with a trade and development board which conducts the affairs of the organisation between plenary conferences. New Zealand commenced its second consecutive term on the board in 1968. There are also within the organisation functional committees on commodities, manufactures, finance invisibles, and shipping. New Zealand held a seat on the Committee on Commodities from 1967 to 1969, and the Committee on Shipping from 1969 to 1971. The third UNCTAD conference was convened in Santiago, Chile, in April 1972.

GATT—New Zealand has been a contracting party to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade since its inception in 1947. Although not strictly a specialised agency, the GATT has assumed some of the characteristics of one, and its activities have extended into all aspects of international trade, including more recently, measures to liberalise non-tariff barriers to agricultural trade and to provide special export opportunities for the goods of the developing countries.

OECD—In May 1973 New Zealand was accepted into full membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The OECD, founded in 1961 as a successor to the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, has a membership of 24 countries—19 from Europe plus the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand. Yugoslavia has a special status in the organisation. The main role of OECD is to promote co-operation among governments in all fields of economic and social policy. Its activities cover not only economic and monetary questions, but also agriculture, the environment, science, education, manpower, industry, and energy. An important part of OECD's activities is to assist its members to discharge, in the most effective way possible, their responsibilities towards the developing countries of the rest of the world. (See (Special article at pages 1064–67 of the 1973 issue of the Yearbook.)

(Further details of New Zealand's trading relations are set out in chapter 22, "External Trade".)

New Zealand's Defence Policies—Since the Second World War the international scene has been clouded in large measure by the cold war. New Zealand was affected by the tensions of the period and took steps to provide for its defence in concert with its allies. As a small country with limited resources, New Zealand alone was not able to defend its extensive but isolated territory against aggression by any militarily significant power. It therefore supported efforts to give effect to the provisions of the United Nations Charter which looked to the creation of a universal system of collective security. At the same time, it accepted that it should act in concert with like-minded countries in order to strengthen its security in its own region.

Recent developments in international affairs—especially the improvement of the United States’ relations with China, the cease-fire in Vietnam, the growth in the number of major power centres (multipolarity)—have led to a relaxation of tensions that has lessened the likelihood that New Zealand might be involved in war. Changes in United States policy, which now emphasises that the primary responsibility for long-term stability in Asia rests with the countries of the area, and the large reduction of the British defence presence outside Europe have given new impetus to regional initiative. The relaxation of cold war tensions has given New Zealand and other small nations greater freedom of action but it has also reinforced the requirement for closer collaboration on a regional basis. It has also meant that New Zealand's relations with the countries of South-east Asia are no longer to be regulated primarily by defence considerations.

The Labour Government elected in 1972 is anxious both to build up closer bilateral links with the countries of South-east Asia and the South Pacific, and to encourage the growth of regional co-operation. By means of staff exchanges, exercises, training programmes, and the provision of facilities, New Zealand and several of the countries in the area contribute to one another's defence capacity and preparedness. In addition, New Zealand retains its membership of multilateral regional defence groupings, the major one of which is the Five Power Defence Arrangement relating to Malaysia and Singapore.

The Five Power Defence Arrangement—New Zealand's defence association with Malaysia and Singapore began before the two countries became independent. In 1955 New Zealand agreed to contribute with Britain and Australia to a Commonwealth Strategic Reserve to be established in Malaya and Singapore. Under the terms of the Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement (subsequently extended to Malaysia on its formation in 1963 and accepted as applying also to Singapore after the latter's change to separate existence in 1965), the United Kingdom undertook to assist in the defence of Malaya and maintained extensive forces for this purpose. In 1959 New Zealand and Australia were associated with AMDA.

With the diminished likelihood of armed conflict in the area in recent years and the reduction of British military forces in South-east Asia, the Anglo-Malaysian Defence Arrangements was terminated. In its place the Five Power Defence Arrangement came into effect in November 1971.

The basis of the Five Power Defence Arrangement is not a formal treaty or agreement but a statement incorporated in the communique of the meeting of Ministers of the five powers held in London in April 1971. At that meeting the Ministers declared, in relation to the external defence of Malaysia and Singapore, "that in the event of any form of armed attack externally organised or supported or the threat of such attack against Malaysia or Singapore, their governments would immediately consult together for the purpose of deciding what measures should be taken jointly or separately in relation to such attack or threat". The Ministers agreed to establish an Air Defence Council to provide direction to the commander of an integrated air defence system for Malaysia and Singapore, which was established on 1 September 1971; they also decided to set up a Joint Consultative Council to provide a forum for regular consultation at senior official level on matters relating to the defence arrangement.

New Zealand's military contribution to the Five Power Defence Arrangement includes one battalion, a frigate regularly stationed at Singapore, medium-range transport aircraft and helicopters, and strike aircraft periodically deployed to the area from New Zealand. Underlying New Zealand's participation in the Five Power Defence Arrangement is the belief that defence co-operation of this kind strengthens confidence and stability in the region and lends strength to individual efforts in the field of national security.

The new Australian Government decided in 1973 to end its deployment of ground forces by reducing their number progressively over an 18-month period up to April 1975. The Australian Mirage squadrons, based at Butterworth in Malaysia, and the naval contribution would remain. Australia would continue its support for the Five Power Arrangement. Commenting on this decision the New Zealand Prime Minister in July 1973 said that there was no question of New Zealand forces being withdrawn in the near future. They would stay as long as they were wanted by the governments concerned. The Prime Minister also said that in line with the Governments’ expressed wish for closer bilateral relations with South-east Asian countries, new arrangements occasioned by the Australian withdrawal would emphasise the national character of New Zealand's contribution.

Parallel with their assistance to Malaysia and Singapore in the defence field, New Zealand, Australia, and Britain have for some 20 years maintained defence arrangements among themselves known first as ANZAM and after 1971, following the changes in Britain's role east of Suez, as ANZUK. These have not been organisations established by formal treaty. They have gradually evolved from the practice of close defence co-ordination among the three countries. They have provided an important forum for consultation on defence matters of common concern. The three Governments have, however, retained full control over their individual defence policies.

SEATO—Eight governments—Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States—signed the South-east Asia Collective Defence Treaty, also known as the Manila Treaty, on 8 September 1954. Neither Pakistan nor France has played an active part in the organisation for a number of years. Under the terms of the Manila Treaty, each party recognised that aggression by means of armed attack in South-east Asia or the South-west Pacific against any of the parties or against "a protocol state" (Cambodia, Laos, and South Vietnam) would endanger its own peace and safety, and agreed that it would act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional process. In the event of any other threat, the parties would consult on the measures to be taken for the common defence.

The South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) established under the treaty is headed by a council, made up of the foreign ministers of the signatory governments, which meets annually in members’ capitals. Between meetings a body known as the Council Representatives provides continuity with representation generally provided by the heads of member countries’ diplomatic missions in Bangkok; New Zealand is thus represented by its Ambassador to Thailand. The organisation set up under the treaty has also undertaken activities intended to foster the security and stability of the regional member countries and to carry out, on a modest scale, projects designed to promote their economic and social development. It has, for example, sponsored research in the fields of tropical medicine, agriculture, and engineering.

Despite the advantages SEATO provided during the earlier years of its existence, it had a number of inherent weaknesses from the start (e.g., more members outside the region than within it, regional members not contiguous, varying points of view among a widely scattered membership), which gradually made it less relevant to the needs of the region as time passed. The end of the United States confrontation with China and of the military tensions that it created has accentuated the need to adapt SEATO to present-day realities.

Nevertheless, a number of SEATO countries wish to see the Manila Treaty remaining in effect at a time of major change in the region. Thailand continues to attach importance to SEATO. A major review, which New Zealand fully supported, was held at the SEATO Council Meeting in September 1973 with the aim of making it more relevant to the current needs of the region. As a result of this review the organisation will become more compact. military planning will cease, and there will be less emphasis on military preoccupations. Greater weight will be placed on civil security and on economic and social programmes. Opportunities for co-operative training exercises will remain.

ANZUS—There is no real threat to the security of the New Zealand homeland at present. In the unlikely event of such a threat materialising New Zealand would be able to turn for assistance to its partners in the ANZUS Pact. This tripartite security treaty between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States was signed at San Francisco on 1 September 1951 and came into force on 29 April 1952. It assured New Zealand and Australia of American support in the event of aggression in the Pacific.

The main provision of the ANZUS Pact is that each party recognises "that an armed attack in the Pacific area on any of the parties would be dangerous to its own peace and safety and declares that will act to meet the common danger in accordance with its constitutional processes". In the context of the agreement, an armed attack on any of the parties is deemed to include "an armed attack on the metropolitan territory of any of the parties or on the island territories under its jurisdiction in the Pacific or on its armed forces, public vessels, or aircraft in the Pacific.”

In the absence of any foreseeable need to invoke the security provisions of the treaty, ANZUS can be seen as a durable expression of a strongly-based community of interest and attitude among the three democracies that are parties to it. The close relationship among the three countries is reflected in the informality and ease of their consultation under the ANZUS Treaty. Meetings of the Council of Ministers are generally held once a year to discuss matters of common interest.

Civil Action—New Zealand's armed services have in recent years undertaken an increasing number of tasks in the fields of civic action, aid, and relief. These include the construction of a feeder road in Thailand, transport of relief supplies in Bangladesh in the aftermath of the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, relief work in Fiji and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands after hurricane Bebe in 1972, and the operation of a hospital in Vietnam.

NEW ZEALAND's AID AND OTHER RESOURCE FLOWS TO DEVELOPING COUNTRIES—New Zealand aid is designed to help foster economic and social development and raise living standards in the less affluent countries, particularly New Zealand's near neighbours in the South Pacific and South-east Asia. The determining factor in the type of aid is the needs of the recipient countries themselves.

But aid as commonly understood does not represent the entire resource flow to developing countries. New Zealand's total resource flow (the transfer of goods, services, and capital) to developing countries takes four forms: official development assistance (ODA), other (or non-concessional) official flows, private flows and grants by voluntary agencies (GVA). The internationally recognised resource flow targets, which New Zealand hopes to reach by 1975–76, are 0.7 percent of GNP (at market terms) for ODA and 1.0 percent of GNP for the total resource flow.

Only the ODA target can be regarded purely as an aid target. While ODA and GVA are both flows at concessional terms, and are both directed at promoting economic and social development no separate target exists for GVA. But such flows clearly have a development intention. The remaining non-ODA flows in the overall 1 percent target are of a commercial nature, related to investment or long-term export credits and other lending. They are included because they have potential development impact, whatever the intention or motivation of those involved.

This basic distinction is drawn because ODA is able to be directly influenced by Government policy measures to increase its volume or soften its terms, whereas the bulk of non-ODA flows for most countries are governed mainly by the opportunities arising for gainful commercial transactions.

Total Resource Flow and its Components 1972–73—For the year ended 31 March 1973 (1972–73), the estimated total flow of resources from New Zealand to developing countries was $32,821,000, comprising:

*Bilateral ODA $15,866,000 and multilateral ODA $5,145,000.
 $(000)
Official development assistance21,011*
Other official flows5,001
Private flows2,718
Grants by voluntary agencies4,091
Total resource flows32,821

For 1971–72 the total for ODA was $14.25 million and that for the total resource flow was estimated at $20.14 million. ODA was 0.29 percent and total resource flows 0.46 percent of estimated GNP (at market prices) for 1972–73, representing an improvement over 1971–72: 0.23 and 0.36 percent for ODA and total resource flows respectively.

While actual performance improved, some of the improvement over 1971–72 may be attributed to an upgrading of the coverage and presentation of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ resource flow statistics.

A. Official Development AssistanceBilateral ODA Expenditure—The following statistics relate to bilateral ODA expenditure for 1972–73. In most cases the data for previous years are inadequate to permit meaningful comparisons.

Bilateral ODA by Regions and Countries—$(000)
    Asia7,011
    South Pacific8,277
    Africa94
    Latin America59
    Caribbean, Europe, and unspecified425
    Total Bilateral ODA15,866

In Asia, our major countries of concentration were Indonesia ($1,854,600), Malaysia ($1,363,900), Bangladesh ($986,600), the Republic of Vietnam ($619,300), Thailand ($513,100), the Khmer Republic ($328,400), the Philippines ($237,200), India ($224,300), and the Republic of Korea ($217,600).

In the South Pacific, the Cook Islands ($3,950,800), Niue ($1,289,600), Fiji ($1,032,300), Western Samoa ($861,100), the Tokelau Islands ($310,100), and Tonga ($219,500) received the bulk of the ODA expenditure, with a substantial amount ($518,800) being devoted to regional projects, mainly concerned with the University of the South Pacific in Fiji.

Expenditure in Africa, Latin America, and the Caribbean continued to be relatively small in 1972–73, being devoted to the forms of aid technical co-operation, food aid, or relief aid. The unspecified element comprised expenditure which could not be allocated to a given region, viz., contributions towards student accommodation in New Zealand, Volunteer Service Abroad and CORSO.

The following table sets out bilateral ODA by purpose and sector.

Purpose and Sector Amount
Technical Co-operation (by area of expertise)—$$
    Agriculture and forestry—
        Agriculture318,600 
        Forestry143,900 
 -462,500
    Transport and communications—
        Transport884,000 
        Communications2,000 
 -886,000
    Energy resources—
        Power generation (including: geothermal)..220,500
    Industry: Mining 45,100
    Social sector—
        Education2,234,700 
        Health/medical206,500 
        Water supply130,600 
 -2,571,800
    Other..78,400
    Total technical co-operation..4,264,100
Capital Assistance (by sector)—
    Agriculture and forestry—
        Agriculture1,085,200 
        Forestry229,900 
 -1,315,100
    Energy resources: Power generation..173,500
    Transport and communications—
        Transport1,149,100 
        Communications131,700 
 -1,280,800
    Social infrastructure—
        Education1,161,900 
        Health227,900 
        Housing130,800 
        Water supply159,600 
        Administrative buildings339,000 
 -2,019,200
    Other..247,000
Total capital assistance..5,035,500
Contributions for Current Administrative Expenditures (and Operating Costs)—..283,800
Non-project Assistance—
    Contributions to finance current imports—
        Food aid648,200 
        Relief aid871,900 
        Loans731,700 
 -2,251,800
    Contributions not directly linked with imports—
        Balance of payments support ’200,000 
        Budgetary support3,830,600 
 -4,030,600
Total non-project assistance..6,282,400
Total bilateral ODA..$15,866,100

Technical co-operation or assistance relates to the provision of know-how or technical expertise, in the form of training facilities (education of students and trainees) or advisory personnel (experts and consultants). The classification above in terms of areas of expertise was drawn from the following form of aid breakdown of technical co-operation for 1972–73: Students, $1,264,500; trainees, $546,400; experts, $922,900; consultants, $1,530,600; Total $4,264,400.

Capital assistance provides resources to increases the stock of physical capital such as buildings, aeroplanes, equipment, materials, livestock, and so on.

The contribution to current operating costs represented assistance with civil aviation in the South Pacific region and contributions by the Government to the programmes of the New Zealand Council for Organisation for Relief Services Overseas (CORSO) and Volunteer Service Abroad (VSA).

Non-project assistance comprises assistance which cannot be identified directly with an investment scheme or project. The substantial budgetary support represented aid to the Cook Islands, Niue, and the Tokelau Islands with general administration, including superannuation schemes and refinancing the public debt.

In the following table bilateral ODA is shown by programme.

 $
Bilateral Aid—Asia and the Pacific (BAAP)8,185,600
Commonwealth Education Scheme (CES)122,400
Commonwealth Medical Aid Programme (CMAP)85,300
Disaster Relief341,700
Maori and Island Affairs Department for South Pacific5,376,800
Ministry of Transport for South Pacific235,700
Salaries (of public servants engaged on aid assignments)105,200
South-east Asia Treaty Organisation Aid Fund (SAF)25,600
South Pacific Assistance Programme (SPAP)80,900
Special Commonwealth Assistance to Africa Plan (SCAAP)79,200
Trade credit (to Indonesia)671,700
Western Samoa Aid Programme (WSAP)355,400
Other programmes77,500
Regular contributions to the programme of CORSO and VSA (Volunteer Service Abroad)123,100
Total bilateral ODA$15,866,100

The programme BAAP has continued to be the main vehicle for economic aid to the Colombo Plan countries in Asia. This programme was established when the former Colombo Plan item was expanded in 1970 to include countries and territories in the South Pacific, Fiji, Tonga, and Western Samoa were the major beneficiaries in 1972–73. New Zealand bilateral expenditure under the Colombo Plan since its inception in 1951 amounted to $50,604,000 to 31 March 1973.

Expenditure by the Maori and Island Affairs Department was concentrated on the Cook Islands, Niue, and the Tokelau Islands. It included technical and capital assistance as well as loans. The Ministry of Transport contributed towards regional civil aviation costs in the South Pacific.

CES, CMAP, and SCAAP were used almost entirely for technical co-operation activities, mainly in the South Pacific, Asia, and Africa. These are New Zealand's only bilateral ODA programmes devoted specifically to the Commonwealth.

Disbursements under Disaster Relief were used for emergency and distress relief in Bangladesh, Chile, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, Nicaragua, Papua-New Guinea, and the Philippines. This is a flexible programme, liable to fluctuate from year to year, and on occasions supplemented by expenditure from other programmes. Such funds are typically called on after earthquakes, famines, floods, and other disturbances to provide food and materials to assist refugees and aid reconstruction.

The Indonesian trade credit has been renewed twice since 1970 and is sufficiently soft to qualify as ODA.

Further technical and capital assistance is provided under SAF (with expenditure in the Philippines, Thailand, and the Republic of Vietnam), SPAP (spent in Papua New Guinea, Tonga, and on regional items, particularly the University of the South Pacific in Fiji) and WSAP.

Substantial Capital Assistance Projects—In terms of actual expenditure, the largest capital assistance projects supported by New Zealand during 1972–73 were concerned with ferry terminals in Western Samoa, the Timbang-Mengaris vocational school in Malaysia, forestry development in Fiji, provision of student accommodation at the University of the South Pacific and in New Zealand, relining watermains in Indonesia, and the provision of water ambulances for the Republic of Vietnam.

Bilateral ODA Directed to the Commonwealth—Of the total expenditure on bilateral ODA from all programmes, $11,201,300 or 70.6 percent was directed to Commonwealth countries and territories in 1972–73. The South Pacific received 74 percent of the Commonwealth share and Asia 25 percent.

B. Official Development Assistance: Multilateral ODA 1972–73—Of the expenditure on multilateral ODA, the largest portion represented contributions to the ordinary capital ($2,029,400), Multi-Purpose Special Fund ($411,200), and Technical Assistance Special Fund ($75,000) of the Asian Development Bank. This bank now has as members some independent South Pacific (as well as Asian) countries which New Zealand assists.

New Zealand's long association with multilateral programmes organised by the United Nations and its specialised agencies continued in 1972–73. Contributions were made to the United Nations Children's Fund ($150,000), United Nations Development Programme ($600,000), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ($38,500), United Nations Relief and Works Agency ($57,600), and the World Food Programme ($234,100).

Other organisations to which New Zealand contributed included the International Development Association ($1 million), South Pacific Bureau for Economic Co-operation ($30,300), South Pacific Commission ($176,900), Asian and Pacific Council bodies ($50,000), and the Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-operation ($37,900).

(b) Statistics of Persons in Technical Co-operation—During 1972–73, the education of 864 students and 340 trainees was financed under bilateral ODA programmes. All but 60 were located in New Zealand. Students are essentially persons enrolled for systematic instruction in institutes of secondary or higher education, while trainees are regarded as persons receiving mainly non-academic, practical, and vocational instruction. The man-months spent in study and training in that year are estimated at 7,559 and 2,240 respectively.

In addition, 3,317 private students and trainees from developing countries (excluding 87 persons undertaking religious studies) were present in New Zealand as at 30 September 1972. The imputed costs of education of this group have been estimated at $3.3 million for 1972, net of fees received This sum is not at present included in ODA.

The larger proportion of the publicly financed and the private students and trainees came from Asia, with most of the remainder from the South Pacific region.

About 242 New Zealand experts visited developing countries for an estimated 853 man-months under our bilateral ODA programmes. They were engaged in fields such as health, education, and agriculture. At a conservative estimate (based on a survey by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) a further 374 experts were supported by private voluntary agencies in work other than religious or purely missionary activities, mostly in the South Pacific and Asia.

C. Non-ODA Flows—The other official flows item comprised expenditure on the construction of Rarotonga airport in the Cook Islands and on World Bank bonds.

The private flows consisted almost entirely of long-term export credits to developing countries, net of amortisation. This figure was based on a survey, conducted by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, of guaranteed credits, and may well be understated. No estimate of private net direct investment by New Zealand companies is available for 1972–73 but the Department of Statistics notes that the total is usually less than $1 million with most of it directed towards the South Pacific. Portfolio investment in developing countries is understood to be zero for the same year.

Another survey by the Ministry provided the estimate of grants by voluntary agencies. This item also is likely to be understated, given the difficulty of covering all agencies which meet the primary criterion of development orientation and the probable exclusion of many ad hoc activities.

Policy on Resource Flows to Developing Countries—By their actions since shortly after the end of the Second World War in extending aid through bilateral and multilateral programmes, New Zealand Governments have shown a willingness to make a contribution towards helping raise the living standards of the people in the poorer countries of the world, particularly those in Asia and the South Pacific. In formulating ODA policy and in actually giving aid, careful attention is paid to the economic and social aspirations of the developing nations themselves to ensure that our assistance contributes to the objectives and priorities of the peoples it is intended to benefit. Emphasis is placed on projects which will make a direct impact on development, will create employment opportunities and will help lift the income of a broad section of the people.

With these considerations in mind, the Government announced in March 1973 that it would make a determined effort over the next three years to reach the internationally recognised target of 0.7 percent of GNP for ODA. This will involve allocating approximately 50 percent additional resources to assistance programmes in each succeeding year to reach a required expenditure level estimated at $62 million for 1975–76. It is realised, however, that the rate at which projects are developed, inflationary trends and the availability of resources may affect the attainment of the third-year target. A particular feature of the ODA policy is a continued marked emphasis on co-operation with New Zealand's neighbours in the South Pacific. Attention is being given also to ways of stimulating the other components of the total flow of resources to developing countries.

The other major elements of the ODA policy adopted by the Government are set out below:

  1. Allocations of bilateral and multilateral ODA have been set for 1973–74 in the ratio 70/30 compared with 75/25 for 1972–73. Contributions to development programmes of the United Nations and other multilateral organisations are being expanded substantially in the current year.

  2. Allocations for the programme Bilateral Aid—Asia and the Pacific of $11.5 million, $16 million, and $21.5 million have been approved for the 3 years commencing 1973–74. Within this programme, which represents our largest bilateral expenditure, aid was offered in 1973–74 for the first time to the British Solomon Islands, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, the New Hebrides, and Papua-New Guinea.

  3. A new programme of co-operation with Latin America has been established at an initial level of $250,000 for 1973–74.

  4. An Officials Committee on External Aid Policy has been set up to examine the most appropriate ways of achieving the ODA target (which will require the disbursement of substantial funds at present uncommitted and the employment of relatively new forms of aid) and to explore means of stimulating non-ODA flows.

In short, New Zealand's aid programme is estimated to involve expenditure of the order of $130 million over the three-year period.

CONSTITUTION OF NEW ZEALAND: General—New Zealand is a monarchial State; it is also a constituent member of the Commonwealth, sharing with other members in "their recognition of the Crown as the Symbol of their free association and of the Sovereign as the Head of the Commonwealth …" (Preamble to Royal Titles Act 1953.)

THE MONARCH—The New Zealand Parliament in the Royal Titles Act 1953 gave its assent to the use of the Royal style and titles as follows: Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God Queen of New Zealand, and Her Other Realms and Territories, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith.

While the seat of the Monarch is normally in the United Kingdom, the Queen is represented in New Zealand by the Governor-General appointed by the Crown on the advice of her New Zealand Ministers.

Many powers held by the Monarch (or her representative) comprise but the means of giving effect to the public will. In New Zealand the Governor-General acts on the advice of the Ministers, which cannot constitutionally be ignored. Despite the long-term trend for powers to be assigned directly to Ministers without any necessity for vice-regal consultation, there are still many phases of Government which require Royal participation.

The Queen (in her stead the Governor-General) gives consent or approval prior to a Minister taking office or the formation of a Ministry; summons, prorogues, and dissolves Parliament; delivers the Speech from the Throne at the opening of a session; gives the Royal Assent to measures which have passed all stages in the House of Representatives, without which they have not the force of laws; makes appointments to most important State offices; confers knighthoods and other honours, etc.; and also provides that background of stability, continuity, and experience in many facets of government which is so desirable whenever there are sweeping changes in the dominance of political parties.

Besides those duties associated with the constitutional role, the Royal personage or representative makes an important contribution to the ceremonial life of the nation. This was particularly well illustrated during the sojourn of the Royal visitors in New Zealand in 1953–54, in 1963 and in 1970. Both as the symbol of the nation and in virtue of her identification with the life and interests of her people, the Queen becomes the focus for all State occasions, as does the Governor-General in her absence.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY—The supreme law-making body with power to legislate for the whole country is the General Assembly, which now consists of the Governor-General and the House of Representatives, the former Legislative Council having been abolished since the close of 1950.

The powers of Parliament to make laws are legally untrammelled. This was not always so, for prior to the adoption by New Zealand of the Statute of Westminster in 1947 laws could not be made on certain matters which conflicted with United Kingdom statutes extending to New Zealand. There was also some doubt as to New Zealand's power to make laws possessing extra-territorial effect.

The Electoral Act 1956 provides that certain of its sections may not be repealed except by a 75 percent majority of the House of Representatives or following a referendum. These sections are those relating to:

  1. The constitution and order of reference of the Representation Commission.

  2. The number of European electoral districts and the basing of their boundaries on the total population.

  3. The fixing of the tolerance within which the commission must work at 5 percent.

  4. The age of voting.

  5. The secret ballot.

  6. The duration of Parliament.

These reservations have become a formal convention associated with the fundamental character of the system of government.

While the law-making function is the prerogative of Parliament, it must be remembered that, as in most democracies, laws are passed because of their acceptability to the majority party in Parliament—i.e., the Government party. Furthermore the initial acceptance will have probably been made in the deliberations of Cabinet and caucus.

With the increasing range and complexity of the statutory field, there has been a growth in delegated legislation with detailed procedural steps and other amplifying matter becoming the subject of regulations made by Order in Council under the authority of a particular statute, rather than being incorporated in the statute itself. The power to make such regulations lies with the Executive Council which comprises all the members of Parliament who have been appointed Ministers, together with the Governor-General, who presides over the Council. Regulations, though originating in Cabinet and becoming effective in the formal proceedings of the Executive Council, rest fundamentally on the will of Parliament as a whole and are now subject to its supervisory jurisdiction. A general provision contained in the Regulations Amendment Act 1962 requires all such regulations to be laid before Parliament. The Standing Orders of the House of Representatives, enable the House or any member thereof to refer any regulation to the Statutes Revision Committee, a Select Committee of the House, which is empowered to consider the regulation and to determine whether the special attention of the House should be drawn to it on any of the following grounds: (a) that it trespasses unduly on personal rights and liberties; (b) that it appears to make some unusual or unexpected use of the powers conferred by the statute under which it is made; (c) that for any special reason its form or purport calls for elucidation.

Meeting of Parliament—Parliament is summoned, prorogued, or dissolved by Proclamation issued by the Governor-General. A session is that period between the summoning of Parliament and its prorogation. Its length varies, but it has traditionally covered the months from June to November. When Parliament is prorogued all the business on hand lapses, and if this is to be proceeded with in the next session it must be re-introduced.

The course of a session may be interrupted by adjournments.

In session parliamentary privileges include freedom of speech and freedom from arrest in civil cases, and also the right to engage in secret debate, if required, etc.

The Party System—The two main political parties represented in Parliament are Labour and National. A third party—Social Credit—obtained a seat for the first time at the 1966 General Election but lost it at the 1969 election. At any general election these parties, together with any other political parties and also those candidates standing as independents, state their respective policies before the electors. Each main party normally puts forward one candidate for each of the electorates into which the country is divided. The party which wins the majority of seats, although not necessarily the majority of votes, at the general election forms the Government. The leader of the elected members of the majority party becomes the Prime Minister, who makes ministerial appointments from elected members of his party. The leader of the minority party in Parliament becomes the Leader of the Opposition. The effectiveness of the party system relies largely on the general agreement that the majority party has a mandate to govern and the minority party has a responsibility to challenge Government measures in debate and to demonstrate to the electors that it can provide a viable alternative government.

Parliamentary Procedure—The House of Representatives has its Standing Orders, which govern its procedure and which are administered by Mr Speaker in the exercise of his control of the House. The election of the Speaker is the first business of a new House after the members have been sworn. A Chairman of Committees is elected as soon afterwards as is convenient. Twenty members, inclusive of the Speaker, constitute a quorum.

Parliamentary Functions and Control—The Parliament controls the Government in power in the last resort by the possibility of the Opposition mustering sufficient support to pass a resolution of no-confidence in the Government on a vital issue, thus forcing it to resign. With only two main disciplined political parties contending for office, changes of government are now rare except at the time of general elections. In the representation and formation of public opinion the major general debates are of principal importance. Special inquiries by select committees also provide a useful forum in which interests and opinions can make themselves heard. The major general debates are the address in reply to the speech from the Throne at the opening of Parliament, the debate on the Budget or financial statement, and the various debates on Imprest Supply Bills.

The first two of these give ordinary members an opportunity to air their views freely on any subject they choose from the national interest to the special aspirations of their constituents. Imprest supply debates are more specialised. On such Bills, the British principle of raising grievances before granting supply has been applied by allowing the Opposition to choose the subject for debate.

Financial control is exercised by the fact that expenditure of public money must be authorised by the House of Representatives in the form of an Appropriation Act, which authorises or grants money to the Government for the purposes approved. The authority for the raising of revenue by taxation or borrowing must also be given by Parliament.

Legislation can be initiated by any member of Parliament, but in practice almost all Bills are introduced by the Government in power as a result of policy decisions taken in Cabinet. The process of passing a public Bill is as follows: it receives a formal first reading on introduction, is then printed, and after some time it is given a second reading which is a debate on its general principles, followed by a clause-by-clause consideration of the Bill which may be by the whole House sitting in Committee. The Bill is then reported to the House, and later read a third time. The final stage is to send the Bill to the Governor-General for the Royal Assent and, unless provision is made for commencement on another date, it then becomes law as an Act of Parliament. To facilitate detailed informal discussion, and so that evidence from experts and interested parties may be heard by the House on legislation which is before it, a number of select committees are appointed regularly each year. Their terms of reference indicate areas of legislative interest corresponding to the various ministries. There are normally 7 members on each committee and party strength roughly reflects party strength in the House. In suitable cases Bills may be referred to a select committee for examination either after the first reading or the second reading. Committees have power only to report their opinions to the House. They cannot amend, though they can recommend amendments. The House as a whole thus retains its responsibility for approving legislation or rejecting it.

Apart from legislation, select committees deal with petitions, and, from time to time, ad hoc select committees are set up with some specific matter referred to them.

There are special procedures for dealing with local Bills and private Bills. Local Bills are those affecting a particular locality only, normally introduced at the request of a local authority. All such Bilk stand referred to a select committee, the Local Bills Committee, after their first reading. The committee holds hearings at which interested parties appear, and it reports to the House on the merits of the Bill. The committee's report is often the decisive factor in local government legislation and always carries considerable weight with the Government and the House. Private Bills are those which apply specifically to a person or group of persons. They are initiated, after public notice, by a petition presented to the House by a member on behalf of the promoters.

Duration of Parliaments—Quinquennial Parliaments, instituted under the Constitution Act, were abolished by the Triennial Parliaments Act 1879, which fixed the term at 3 years. General elections have been held at 3-yearly intervals since 1881, with a few exceptions. The term of the nineteenth Parliament was during the First World War extended to 5 years by special legislation, and that of the twenty-fourth (1931–35) to 4 years under the Electoral Amendment Act 1934. By the Electoral Amendment Act 1937 the 3-year term was restored, but on account of war conditions the term of the twenty-sixth Parliament was extended to nearly 5 years before dissolution on 30 August 1943. Since then the duration of Parliament has been of 3 years, with the exception that the twenty-ninth Parliament was dissolved in 1951 after the expiration of approximately 20 months. The 3-year limit was re-enacted in the Electoral Act 1956, this being one of the reserved provisions referred to earlier. A referendum on 23 September 1967 favoured the continuation of terms of 3 years.

Number of Representatives—In 1972 87 electorates (83 European and four Maori) returned members to the House of Representatives. The number was originally fixed by the Constitution Act as not more than 42 and not less than 24, and the first Parliament called together in 1854 consisted of 37 members. Legislation passed in 1858 fixed the number of European members at 41; in 1860, at 53; in 1862, at 57; in 1865, at 70; in 1867, at 72; in 1870, at 74; in 1875, at 84; in 1881, at 91; in 1887, at 70; in 1900, at 76; in 1969, at 80; and in 1972 at 83. Since 1867 there have been four Maori representatives, and provision for this number was retained in the Electoral Act 1956. In 1954 the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, which had remained unaltered since 1867, were changed by Proclamation so as to give a greater degree of equality of population among the four districts (in effect the Southern Maori Electoral District now includes a considerable area of the North Island). The Electoral Amendment Act 1965 fixed the number of European electorates in the South Island at 25 (an increase of one) and provided that the number of European electorates in the North Island shall be ascertained by the Representation Commission after each quinquennial census of population on the basis of the quota fixed for the South Island. In 1971 the Commission considered the results of the 1971 census and fixed the number of European electorates in the North Island at 58 (an increase of three). Thus there were 87 electorates for the general election in 1972.

Qualifications of Members—Under the Electoral Act 1956 every registered elector of either sex is qualified to be a parliamentary candidate. If a public servant is elected to Parliament he must vacate his office forthwith and he cannot resume employment in the Public Service within 12 months of ceasing to be a member of Parliament unless he had previously been a public servant for at least 5 years.

Salaries, etc.—Section 27 of the Civil List Act 1950 provides that on the recommendation of a Royal Commission the Governor-General may from time to time, by Order in Council, fix the salaries and allowances to be paid to the Prime Minister and other Ministers of the Crown or members of the Executive Council, to Parliamentary Under-Secretaries, and to the Speaker and Chairman of Committees and other members of the House of Representatives, and that a Royal Commission shall be appointed for this purpose within 3 months after the date of every general election of members of Parliament. At April in the intervening years adjustments are made on a basis matching that for the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969; the Government Statistician provides the Prime Minister with a certificate specifying the percentage movements in average weekly ordinary time earnings outside the State Services (as ascertained from the April half-yearly survey of industries in the private sector conducted by the Department of Labour) and adjustments may be made by Order in Council to the salaries of Ministers and members. (The Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 have suspended some of the foregoing provisions while the Higher Salaries Commission is in operation.)

The following table sets out the salaries and allowances payable from 1 April 1973. The amounts are in accordance with the recommendations of the Royal Commission upon Parliamentary Salaries and Allowances 1973.

OfficeSalaryExpense Allowance

*Where the ministerial office of Minister of Foreign Affairs is held by a Minister other than the Prime Minister an additional allowance would be paid.

†Additional to normal allowances as member.

 $$
Prime Minister27,5007,000
Deputy Prime Minister21,0002,150
Minister with Portfolio18,0002,000*
Minister without Portfolio15,5001,275
Parliamentary Under-Secretaries13,5001,600
Speaker16,5001,500
Chairman of Committees14,000900
Leader of the Opposition18,0002,000
Deputy Leader of the Opposition13,500800
Chief Whips12,5002,395
Junior Whips12,0002,395
Members11,0002,395

There is an additional allowance depending on classification of electorates: (a) electorates which are wholly urban, $90; (b) electorates which are substantially urban, $230; (c) electorates which are partially urban and partially rural, $520, (d) electorates which are ordinary rural, $920; (e) electorates which are predominantly rural, $1,150. The special additional allowance for Southern Maori electorate is $350 and for each of the other Maori electorates is $175. The daily sessional allowance is $4 and the night allowance for members entitled thereto is $10. In addition to the salary and allowances, members are entitled to certain travel concessions and a stamp allowance.

Former Prime Ministers receive an annual payment of $1000 for each full year in office, with a maximum of $5,000 a year, after retirement, defeat at the polls, or when a member only. This is subject to a two-year minimum period having been served as Prime Minister.

An amendment in 1973 to the Civil List Act provides that a defeated member of parliament will continue to receive salary at the rate of an ordinary member for 3 months after the date of the election.

Under the Superannuation Act 1956 there is a compulsory contributory superannuation scheme for members of the House of Representatives. The scheme provides that a retiring allowance shall be payable to a member after 9 years’ service and the attainment of 50 years of age, and shall be calculated at the rate of one thirty-second of the basic salary for a member as at the date of his ceasing to be a member, for each year of service with a maximum of two-thirds of that basic salary, or alternatively the member may elect to take a variable retiring allowance so as to secure a level income or he may elect to receive a refund of his contributions. The annual contribution is 11 percent of an ordinary member's salary, and the Government subsidises the fund. The rate of contribution was increased by 1 percent from 1 April 1970 to provide for cost-of-living adjustments to be made to retiring allowances. In the case of a male member dying and leaving a widow surviving she becomes entitled during her widowhood to receive an annuity of half of the retiring allowance to which her husband would have been entitled had he retired aged 60 years at the time of his death, or $260 a year, whichever is the greater.

ADMINISTRATION AND EXECUTIVE RESPONSIBILITY—After the election of a new Parliament, it is the responsibility of the leader of the party, which is most likely to secure and retain the support of the majority of members in the House, to form a Government. Although procedures for the selection of new Ministers have varied between the two principal parties, the Prime Minister has the final responsibility for allocating portfolios. A portfolio comprises a specific field of Government activity—for instance all matters relating to education will be allocated to one Minister who is henceforth known as the Minister of Education.

A Minister may have more than one portfolio and in addition responsibility for the supervision of one or more Government departments in which the activities carried out, though important, do not rank as portfolios. Occasionally, a Minister is appointed without portfolio, as, for example, an Associate Minister of Finance. There are also Parliamentary Under-Secretaries without Ministerial rank who assist certain Ministers in the work of their portfolios; the Under-Secretaries are not members of the Executive Council or of Cabinet.

Executive Council—In the legal sense those members of Parliament who have been appointed Ministers comprise the Executive Council. The Governor-General normally presides over meetings of the Council. The powers, duties, and responsibilities of the Governor-General and the Executive Council under the present system of responsible government are set out in Royal Letters Patent and Instructions thereunder of 11 May 1917, published in the New Zealand Gazette of 24 April 1919. The Royal Powers Act 1953 provides that the statutory powers conferred on the Governor-General may be exercised either by Her Majesty the Queen in person or by the Governor-General. In the execution of the powers and authorities vested in him the Governor-General must be guided by the advice of the Executive Council; but, if in any case he sees sufficient cause to dissent from the opinion of the Council, he may act in the exercise of his powers and authorities in opposition to the opinion of the Council, reporting the matter to Her Majesty without delay, with the reasons for his so acting.

In any such case any member of the Executive Council may require that there be recorded in the minutes of the Council the grounds of any advice or opinion that he may give upon the question.

The Civil List Act 1950, in section 6, provided that no person shall be appointed a Minister or a member of the Executive Council unless he is a member of Parliament and that a person who ceases to be a member of Parliament cannot continue to be a Minister or a member of the Executive Council for more than 21 days. This gave statutory recognition for the first time to what had long been the convention.

At January 1973 the Executive Council consisted of 20 members. Two members, exclusive of His Excellency or the presiding member, constitute a quorum.

His Excellency the Governor-General receives a salary and an allowance which are determined from time to time by the Civil List Act 1950 for the salaries and expenses of his personal establishment, plus all expenditure incurred in respect of the transport to and from New Zealand and the travel within or outside New Zealand of the Governor-General and his family and staff.

Cabinet—The membership of the Executive Council and Cabinet is identical but Cabinet, unlike the Executive Council, is not a body created by any legal document. The existence of Cabinet was not recognised by statute until a passing reference was made in the Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962.

The fact that the Juridical Acts to give legal force to certain of the decisions of Cabinet are taken by others—the Crown, the Executive Council, a Minister of the Crown or a Statutory Commission— does not diminish the power and authority of Cabinet. Cabinet is the top committee of the administrative system, with responsibility for co-ordinating the work of the various Ministers and taking those decisions which largely determine the nature of the legislation put before Parliament and the regulations which the Executive Council is asked to approve.

Cabinet discussions are informal and confidential, anonymity being maintained as to the individual advocacy or opposition to particular proposals. The Cabinet system enables general agreement to be reached on any line of action proposed by either an individual Minister or by the Government as a whole. In Parliament a Minister can be confident that his legislative or other proposals will have the unqualified support of the Government no matter what divergences of opinion may have been apparent before general agreement was reached in Cabinet. A consistent and agreed course of action on any particular issue can be determined. The work of Cabinet thus exemplifies the concept of the collective responsibility of the Government.

Cabinet is assisted in its work by 10 Cabinet committees, the membership of which includes those Ministers principally concerned with the subject matters handled by the committee. There are committees covering Policy and Priorities, Economic Affairs, Government works. Legislation and Parliamentary Questions, Social Affairs, Honours and Appointments, and the State Services. Some of the committees are supported by inter-departmental committees of officials. All Cabinet committees have delegated authority from Cabinet to make decisions within their terms of reference.

The Cabinet Office is responsible for the servicing and co-ordination of Cabinet and its committees to ensure their smooth functioning as well as providing liaison and advice within the inter-Departmental framework. The Secretary of the Cabinet is also Clerk of the Executive Council.

Government Departments—The Minister as the political head of a department of State may in fact have several departments under his control. There are, however, some 40 different departments with separate functions in New Zealand. Each of these has a permanent head who is responsible for the work and administration of the department. He is of course responsible to the Minister in charge of the department, while he also acts as adviser to the Minister on all matters within his appointed competence. Besides ensuring that the ministerial policy and directions communicated to him are effectively put into practice, his functions as the adviser include assessing the consequences of any executive action resulting from his departmental activity, evaluating the merits and demerits, whether political, social, or financial, of various modes of action, and making suggestions for improvements and for new policy measures as derived from departmental experience in the day-to-day execution of policy.

Departments can be broadly classified according to the administrative or regulatory, developmental, or social nature of their activities. Within the first group are the servicing subgroup, such as the Legislative, Prime Minister's, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Printing Office, Law Drafting, Valuation, Statistics, and Audit; the finance subgroup—Treasury, Customs, Inland Revenue; the regulatory subgroup—State Services Commission, Internal Affairs, Labour; the defence and law and order subgroup—Ministry of Defence, Justice, Crown Law, and Police; the research subgroup— Scientific and Industrial Research.

In the second group are the transport and communications subgroup, such as Ministry of Transport, Post Office, Railways, and Tourist and Publicity; the developmental—Ministry of Works and Development, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Lands and Survey, Forest Service, Mines, Electricity, Energy Resources, Maori and Island Affairs, Trade and Industry; the commercial— Public Trust, Government Life Insurance, State Advances Corporation, State Insurance.

The third group comprises the Education, Health, and Social Welfare Departments.

This broad division serves merely to indicate the field of the dominant activity or purpose of the particular department. Most departments have servicing, informative, and regulatory functions, and many are equally regulatory and developmental in nature.

In addition to the system of direct administration in the form of Government departments, there are other activities over which the State exercises some ultimate measure of control or ownership, though divorced in varying degrees from immediate supervision. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand (the central bank), and one trading bank, are entirely State-owned, although the actual administration is quite independent, subject in the case of the Reserve Bank to the proviso that it must give effect to the monetary policy of the Government, as communicated to the bank by the Minister of Finance, and to any resolution of Parliament in respect of Government monetary policy.

Further instances of this principle are shown by the National Airways Corporation, which, although owned by the State, is administratively self-contained, and by the Tourist Hotel Corporation. In certain other avenues the type of administration is in between the normal departmental form and that evident in the corporation type; of such is the National Roads Board, which, though determining policy to a large degree, yet makes use of departmental administrative structures for implementation of policy.

Some administrative organisations have also quasi-judicial functions. Examples of this class are the Price Tribunal, Transport Charges Authority, Licensing Control Commission, and Local Government Commission.

OMBUDSMAN—The Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962 has become an important addition to the parliamentary checks on departmental administration. The Act created the office of Ombudsman, who is able to investigate, on complaint or on his own initiative, any administrative decision, recommendation, act, or omission of a Government department or related organisation as it affects any individual. Local authorities are outside his jurisdiction. The Ombudsman does not have power to reverse departmental decisions, but he may make his recommendations to the department and to the Minister, and if, in his opinion, no appropriate action is taken he may report to the Prime Minister and then to Parliament. He has very wide powers to call for documents and files. The Government cannot refuse information, except in matters relating to the security of the State or to Cabinet proceedings.

JUDICIARY—The hierarchy of courts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrate's Court. Apart from these courts of general jurisdiction there are other courts dealing with specific fields. In the latter category are the Court of Arbitration concerned with awards and orders governing wage determination and conditions of employment in industry; the Compensation Court dealing with workers' compensation. For further details refer to Section 8 (Justice) of this issue.

PARLIAMENTARY ELECTIONS—The law on elections is contained in the Electoral Act 1956. Following each population census, which is normally taken every 5 years, the boundaries of European electorates are revised. In addition, there are four Maori electoral districts, three in the North Island and one covering a portion of the North Island together with the whole of the South Island, where the Maori population is comparatively small. The Governor-General may at any time by Proclamation alter the boundaries of the Maori electoral districts, and, as in the case of European electoral districts, any alterations are to come into force at the expiry of the Parliament existing when the Proclamation is issued.

The Government Statistician is required to supply population figures to the Surveyor-General as soon as possible after the census. The population used as the basis in obtaining the quota for each European electoral district is defined in section 2 (1) of the Electoral Act 1956.

The term "European population" means total population with the following exceptions:

  1. Maoris;

  2. Persons residing on board ship, whether as passengers or members of the crew or otherwise;

  3. Persons residing temporarily as guests in any licensed hotel;

  4. Persons residing temporarily in any naval, military, or air force camp, station, or establishment;

  5. Persons residing as patients and inmates in any hospital;

  6. Persons in respect of whom reception orders under the Mental Health Act 1969 are in force;

  7. Persons detained pursuant to convictions in any penal institution.

After the population figures are supplied by the Government Statistician it is then the responsibility of the Representation Commission to define new electoral districts for Europeans. The commission is constituted by virtue of section 15 of the Electoral Act 1956 and comprises seven members. Four of these, the Surveyor-General, the Government Statistician, the Chief Electoral Officer, and the Director-General of the Post Office, are official members. Two are unofficial members, being persons nominated by the House of Representatives, one nominated to represent the Government, and one to represent the Opposition. The seventh member is appointed, on the nomination of the official and unofficial members of the commission or a majority of them, to be the chairman of the commission. The chairman and unofficial members cease to be members on the date on which the first periodical census is taken after the date of their appointment.

The European population of the South Island is divided by 25 and the quotient so obtained is the quota for the South Island. Then the European population of the North Island is divided by the quota for the South Island, and the quotient so obtained is the number of European electoral districts in the North Island. In applying the quota the commission may make an allowance by way of addition or subtraction of 5 percent of the quota to enable districts to be adjusted to meet considerations of topography, community of interest, communications, and existing electoral boundaries.

When the boundaries have been provisionally determined, maps are prepared illustrating the proposed electoral districts, and descriptions of each electoral district are published in the New Zealand Gazette. A time limit of 1 month is given during which objections to the proposed boundaries may be lodged. These objections are then considered by the Representation Commission and a final decision reached on boundaries which then define the new electoral districts.

All general elections and by-elections are held on a Saturday. Polling hours in all electorates are from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m.

Any serviceman aged 20 years or over serving overseas is qualified to vote as an elector of the electoral district in which he last resided before he left New Zealand.

Franchise—Since 1969, persons 20 years of age and over have had the right to vote in the election of members of the House of Representatives. (From 1893 onwards all persons aged 21 years had voting rights.)

Registration of Electors—Registration as an elector is compulsory, although it is not compulsory to vote. To be qualified for registration as a parliamentary elector in New Zealand a person must have attained the age of 20 years and must (a) be a British subject or Irish citizen, (b) be ordinarily resident in New Zealand, (c) at some period have resided continuously in New Zealand for at least a year, and (d) except in special cases have resided continuously for 3 months or more in the electoral district in respect of which application for registration is made, and not have subsequently resided for 3 months or more in any other electoral district. Broadly speaking the qualifications restrict the right to vote to permanent residents. Persons of more than half Maori ancestry register in one of the four Maori electoral districts and persons of half Maori ancestry have the option of registering on either a European or Maori roll.

Voting at parliamentary elections is by secret ballot. In general, only those persons whose names are lawfully on the main and supplementary rolls of electors compiled prior to an election may vote at that election.

A vote is normally cast by the elector at a polling booth within his district. An elector may, however, vote as a "special voter", either at a polling booth outside his district or by post for reasons of distant travel on polling day, sickness, etc.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT: General Powers—Local authorities in New Zealand derive their powers from the Acts under which they are constituted, and also from special empowering Acts. The Municipal Corporations Act 1954 and the Counties Act 1956 are the main governing Acts for territorial local authorities. There are several statutory measures which are more or less applicable to all local authorities, such as the Local Elections and Polls Act 1966 and the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. For most harbour boards there is, in addition to the general Harbours Act, a special Act for each board which is subordinate to the general Act. Certain types of local authority—urban drainage boards, transport boards, the Auckland Regional Authority, the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority, the Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority, and the Waikato Valley Authority— derive their principal powers from special constituting Acts.

A local authority has no legislative powers beyond the authority to make bylaws within limits defined in its constituting Act, but it can promote legislation on matters which affect the government of the area under its jurisdiction and which it is not already empowered to deal with. If the subject is transient and not contentious and is approved by Government, it is usually dealt with by the inclusion of an appropriate section in the annual Local Legislation Act passed by Parliament for this purpose. If, on the other hand, the local authority seeks powers of a permanent or major nature additional to those conferred on it by general Acts it must submit to Parliament a special local Bill. The extent to which the foregoing privileges are used may be gauged from the fact that the annual Local Legislation Act usually contains 40 to 45 sections, while about 15 local Acts are passed each year.

Number of Local Authorities—The number of local authorities actively functioning at 1 April 1973 was 620 made up as follows: county councils, 108; borough (including city) councils, 135; town councils (independent), 8; town councils (dependent), 6; regional authority, 1; river boards (2 boards also have the powers of land-drainage boards), 7; catchment boards, 13; catchment commissions, 4; land-drainage boards, 34; electric power boards, 38; water-supply board, 1; regional water board, 1; urban drainage boards, 4; transport board, 1; local railway board, 1; power and gas board, 1; nassella tussock boards, 2; harbour bridge authority, 1; road tunnel authority, 1; valley authority, 1; plantation board, 1; underground water authorities, 4; pest destruction boards (separately elected), 139; independent fire boards, 60: independent harbour boards, 17; and hospital boards, 30. Borough and county councils also function as fire authorities in 214 cases, as harbour boards in 8 cases, as underground water authorities in 2 cases, and as county pest destruction boards in 39 cases, In addition, there were 22 district councils of the National Roads Board constituted under the National Roads Act 1953. Although these district roads councils are not local authorities in the strict sense of the term they are intimately connected with certain aspects of local government, providing an advisory service to the National Roads Board concerning the roading needs and the allocation of national roading funds within their respective districts.

Administratively, boroughs and independent town districts, which are contained within the geographical boundaries of a county, are regarded as separate entities.

Franchise—Under the Local Elections and Polls Act 1966, elections are held on the second Saturday in October every third year. The next triennial general elections are due in 1974. Enrolment of residential electors is compulsory. On any proposal relating to loans or rates, a rate paying or a freehold qualification is necessary.

Apart from a few special-purpose authorities, some of whose members are appointed by other local authorities, by Government, or, in the case of fire authorities, by insurance interests, members of local authorities are elected triennially, any qualified elector being eligible to seek election. In general the franchise extends to all persons aged 18 years or over who either possess a rating qualification or who, being British subjects, possess a residential qualification in the district of the local authority concerned. The right to vote for members of land drainage and river boards is, however, restricted to those who possess rating qualifications.

Voting Procedures— Generally speaking, franchise can only be exercised by personal attendance at the polling booth, but the Local Elections and Polls Act 1966 was amended in 1970 to permit county councils to use postal voting. Other local authorities are able to use this method only on approval being granted by Order in Council. At the 1971 elections 59 counties and 6 boroughs used postal voting. In every such case election participation was appreciably higher than the national average. To a lesser extent use was also made of spread voting where voting is possible at polling booths over a period of up to 6 days instead of being confined to the single day.

Boroughs—For the constitution of a borough there must be a population of at least 1,500 with an average density of population of at least one person per acre. A borough containing a population of 20,000 or more may be proclaimed a city, although the corporation remains unaltered.

Counties—Counties are now governed under the Counties Act 1956. With increasing settlement the original 63 counties were gradually subdivided until they reached 129 in 1920, although the number of councils formed and actively functioning never exceeded 126. The number of counties has since been reduced by amalgamations and mergers by the Local Government Commission. At April 1973 there were 109 counties constituted, of which 108 were actively functioning, Fiord being a sparsely populated county in which the Counties Act is not wholly in force.

County Towns and County Boroughs—County councils may, under the provisions of the Counties Act 1956, declare areas within counties to be county towns. To qualify, the areas concerned must have a population of at least 200, with an average density of not less than one person to the acre or not less than 60 houses with an average density of not less than one house to 3 acres. After the constitution of a county town the county council is required to appoint a county town committee of not less than three nor more than seven members, to advise it on the administration of the county town. The county council may conduct a poll in the county town to ascertain the wishes of the electors of the county town in respect of the persons to be appointed to this committee. There was a total of 99 county towns at April 1973. The Counties Amendment Act 1968 contains provisions for the constitution of county boroughs. This unit of local government can only be formed from an existing county town or borough or town district. It remains an integral part of the parent county, but the county borough council, which is a fully elected body, has a statutory right to exercise some, but not all, of the powers of the county council within the district of the county borough. The minimum population required for a county borough is 1,500. At April 1973 there were 9 county boroughs.

Town Districts—The town district represents a form of local government intermediate between the county and the borough. It implies a certain concentration of population. Where it remains subject to county control (mainly for roads) it is a dependent town district. Town districts on reaching a population of more than 500 may become independent. The constitution and powers of town districts have been brought into closer relationship to boroughs over the years, and independent town districts are now constituted under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954. The Act requires that the area be not more than 2 square miles, within which no two points are more than 4 miles distant, having a minimum population of 500 and with a density of population of not less than one person to the acre. The number of town districts in April 1973 was 15 (9 independent and 6 dependent). With the more recent legislation providing for the creation of county towns and county boroughs no further town districts are likely to be set up. None has been created since 1954.

Remuneration of Members—The remuneration of members of local authorities is governed by the statutes constituting the various types of local authorities. Most authorities may pay their chairman an annual allowance with a maximum fixed for each type of authority. The maximum payable to mayors and council chairmen varies according to the population of the local authority. Ordinary members of territorial authorities may be paid for each meeting attended. All local authorities may reimburse members for expenses incurred whilst travelling on official business.

Special-purpose Authorities—Special-purpose authorities differ from territorial authorities in that each is charged with only one major function. The need for the most efficient and economic discharge of the major function being the prime consideration, their boundaries may either extend beyond or fall within those of territorial authorities in the same geographical area. Only rarely do the boundaries coincide. Sometimes, as is the case with a number of urban fire authorities, territorial authorities themselves are also constituted as and perform the functions of special-purpose authorities. The more important special-purpose authorities are those administering harbours, hospitals, and the retail distribution of electricity. Others are engaged in fire fighting, water supply, urban drainage and transport, soil conservation and rivers control, pest destruction, nassella tussock control, land drainage, and underground water usage.

Local Government Commission—The Local Government Commission Act 1967, which replaced the Local Government Commission Act 1961, set up a revised Local Government Commission which is a permanent institution deemed to be a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908.

The Act provides that the commission shall consist of a chairman with knowledge of local government, one member with a special knowledge of finance and economics, and another member with a special knowledge of administration.

The functions of the commission are to carry out investigations, prepare reorganisation schemes, and make recommendations and reports for the purpose of ensuring that the system of local government in any locality will best provide for the needs and continued development of the locality, that local authorities have such district boundaries and such functions and powers as will enable them to provide most effectively and economically essential or desirable local government services and facilities, that local authorities shall have such resources as will enable them to engage adequate services and to obtain and operate adequate technical facilities, plant, and equipment, and that districts shall be of such size and nature as will promote efficient local government and avoid the necessity of uneconomic expenditure.

TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING—The Town and Country Planning Act 1953 provides for the making and enforcement of regional and district planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1960. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works and Development who may delegate his authority to the Commissioner of Works.

District Planning—Every district scheme is required to have for its general purpose the development of the area to which it relates (including where necessary the replanning and reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as will most effectively tend to promote and safeguard the health, safety and convenience, the economic and general welfare of its inhabitants, and the amenities of every part of the area. The council of every city, borough, county, and independent town district must provide and maintain a district scheme whether or not a regional planning scheme including its district has been prepared or become operative.

This subject is further discussed in Section 13, Land Use and Resources Development.

Chapter 5. Section 3; POPULATION

POPULATION GROWTH—New Zealand's first million of population was recorded in 1908, 68 years after the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. In 1952, 44 years later, the second million was reached, and the third million late in 1973.

Population has two sources of gain—natural increase (excess of births over deaths) and net migration (excess of arrivals over departures). In the early years in New Zealand, as in every young country, the bulk of the increase was through migration. From the late 1870s natural increase permanently displaced immigration as the chief contributor to population growth. At the census of 1881 the percentages of the total population born in New Zealand and born overseas were approximately equal (50.2 percent New Zealand born to 49.8 percent overseas born), and each succeeding census until 1961 recorded an increased proportion of the population as having been born in New Zealand. In 1966 it dropped from 86 to 85.2 percent, partly as a result of international travel and tourism; more New Zealanders were overseas and more tourists were in New Zealand.

During the present century, natural increase has accounted for over three-quarters of the growth of population.

The natural increase rate has, in the main, closely reflected the changes in the birth rate, with a low point of 8.63 per 1,000 in 1935 and high points of 18 per 1,000 in 1947 and 1961; in the 1960s the average rate was less than 14 per 1,000. Like the low birth rate of the thirties, the fall in the birth rate in the sixties is a feature that New Zealand shared with a number of other developed countries, and notably with Australia, Canada, and the United States. In recent years the birth rates in Australia and New Zealand have stabilised.

Details are given in the following table.

PeriodMarch YearsCalendar Years
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural Increase

*Non-Maori population.

†Excluding Section 14 birth registrations.

 (thousand)
1901–1905*......109.440.768.7
1906–1910*......127.846.081.7
1911–1915*......138.049.089.0
1916–1920......142.566.176.4
1921–1925......148.359.039.4
1926–1930146.564.681.9146.364.382.0
1931–1935139.866.273.6138.466.372.1
1936–1940150.976.774.2159.478.680.8
1941–1945188.685.3103.3191.687.0104.6
1946–1950239.988.0151.9244.988.1156.8
1951–1955258.593.1165.4263.694.2169.4
1956–1960295.0101.5193.5300.4102.9197.5
1961–1965320.0110.5209.5317.9112.1205.8
1966–1970306.0118.6187.4307.5120.2187.3
1971–1973189.574.4115.1188.474.4114.0
Totals 1916–19732,549.21,013.21,536.1

Migration, however, has continued to add to the population quite substantially except during depression and war periods and the recession conditions of 1968–69. Gains from external migration are shown in the following table. Movements of the armed forces are not included.

PeriodMarch Years* Migration GainCalendar Years Migration Cain

*March years ended in years listed.

†Excess of departures.

 (000)(000)
1901–1905..45.4
1906–1910..41.0
1911–1915..35.6
1916–1920..14,9
1921–1925..50.1
1926–193027.424.6
1931–1935-2.1-9.9
1936–194011.912.4
1941–19451.32.1
1946–195027.432.6
1951–195566.669.1
1956–196049.244.3
1961–196563.970.7
1966–19706.06.5
1971–197344.662.7
Total 1901–1973502.1

Most of the inward migration has been from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the Netherlands. In more recent years increasing numbers have come from the Pacific Islands, notably Western Samoa. A changed economic climate in the country brought a net migration loss to population for 1967, 1968, and 1969 calendar years, but a normal net inflow is again taking place.

CENSUS STATISTICS—Population statistics are based primarily on the five-yearly population census. Intercensal population estimates are based on the most recent census data available, adjusted in accordance with later figures of births, deaths, and migration. Estimates of the populations of particular localities, e.g., cities and boroughs, also take into account local economic developments, housing schemes, the numbers on school rolls, changes in boundaries, and any other factors leading to, or indicating, changes in population.

The basis adopted for the population census, and virtually throughout population statistics in New Zealand, is that of population physically present in the place of enumeration at the time of enumeration.

All references to New Zealand relate solely to geographic New Zealand, i.e., island territories are omitted except where their inclusion is specifically stated. Though Niue Island and Tokelau Islands are constitutionally part of New Zealand, for geographical reasons they are administered separately. The Cook Islands are self-governing but the islanders are New Zealand citizens.

PRESENT POPULATION—The following table gives a summary of population A 50-year time series is given in the statistical summary towards the back of this Yearbook.

TerritoryDateMalesFemalesTotal
*Includes population of Kermadec Islands 9 (males) and Campbell Island 9 (males)
New Zealand*31 December 19731,513,7261,513,2043,026,930
Island Territories—
    Tokelau Islands26 September 19737458421,587
    Niue Island30 September 19732,1812,0914,272
Cook Islands1 December 197110,84010,38721,227
Ross Dependency23 March 1971190190

INCREASE OF POPULATION—The growth of population has been substantial in each intercensal period. The lowest rates are those of 1926–36, which included some years of economic depression, and of 1936–45, which included 6 years of international war, and of 1966–71, mainly attributable to a marked change in migration patterns.

Date of CensusTotal PopulationIntercensal Numerical IncreaseIntercensal Percentage IncreaseAverage Annual Percentage Increase

*Numbers overseas not available.

†Includes members of the New Zealand armed forces overseas at census date.

March 1901*815,85372,6469.81.9
April 1906936,304120,45114.82.8
April 19111,058,308122,00413.02.5
October 19161,149,22590,9178.61.5
April 19211,271,664122,43910.72.3
April 19261,408,139136,47510.72.1
March 19361,573,810165,67111.81.1
September 19451,702,298128,4888.20.8
September 19451,747,679173,86911.01.1
April 19511,939,472237,17413.92.4
April 19511,941,366193,68711.11.9
April 19562,174,062234,59012.12.3
April 19562,176,224234,85812.12.3
April 19612,414,984240,92211.12.1
April 19612,417,543241,31911.12.1
March 19662,676,919261,93510.82.1
March 19662,678,855261,31210.82.1
March 19712,862,631185,7126.91.4
March 19712,864,113185,2586.91.3

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The annual average percentage increases of population for the period 1963–71, are given in the following table for certain selected countries, (Source: United Nations Demographic Yearbook.)

CountryAverage Annual Percentage Increase
Australia1.9
Canada1.8
China1.8
Denmark0.7
Egypt2.5
France0.9
Germany0.8
India2.2
Ireland0.5
Japan1.1
Netherlands1.2
New Zealand1.5
Norway0.8
Singapore2.2
South Africa3.1
Sweden0.8
Switzerland1.2
Thailand2.7
United Kingdom0.4
United States1.1
U.S.S.R.1.1
Western Samoa2.2

INTERCENSAL RECORDS—Intercensal estimates of total population are prepared from the records of vital statistics and of external migration. The figures in the tables following have been revised in line with 1971 Census results.

The figures exclude members of New Zealand armed forces who were overseas, and also members of the armed forces of other countries who were in New Zealand.

YearPopulation at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
Years Ended 31 March
1,9681,377,0181,375,6442,752,66226,7481.02,735,207
1,9691,386,7701,390,4402,777,21024,5480.72,760,077
1,9701,407,0071,408,9802,815,98738,7771.42,788,839
1,9711,430,1081,430,7652,860,87344,8861.62,831,222
1,9721,454,5101,455,4062,909,91649,0431.72,876,388
1,9731,487,6961,486,9632,974,65964,7432.22,932,406
Years Ended 31 December
1,9671,373,5731,371,3902,744,96333,6451.22,727,658
1,9681,385,3801,387,5532,772,93327,9701.02,753,512
1,9691,399,8391,404,2202,804,05931,1261.12,780,101
1,9701,425,4351,426,7022,852,13748,0781.72,819,602
1,9711,448,4491,450,6182,899,06746,9301.62,864,392
1,9721,480,1471,480,8492,960,99661,9292.12,916,572

The figures given in the preceding table are for total population inclusive of New Zealand Maoris.

The following table shows the New Zealand Maori population.

YearNew Zealand Maori Population at End of YearIncrease During YearMean Population for Year
MalesFemalesTotalNumericalPercent
Years Ended 31 March
1,968107,440104,415211,8555,3782.6209,169
1,969109,886107,083216,9695,1142.4214,377
1,970112,322109,781222,1035,1342.4219,424
1,971115,037112,537227,5745,4712.5224,718
1,972118,390115,912234,3026,7283.0230,747
1,973121,569119,107240,6766,3742.7237,547
Years Ended 31 December
1,968109,239106,360215,5995,2042.5213,087
1,969111,715109,039220,7545,1552.4218,138
1,970114,340111,768226,1085,3542.4223,365
1,971117,516115,010232,5266,4182.8229,104
1,972120,814118,322239,1366,6102.8235,924

POPULATION PROJECTIONS—An indication of possible future growth of the total New Zealand population (including Maoris) up to 2001 is given by the detailed alternative projections which follow.

Projections of future population involve an element of uncertainty owing to incomplete knowledge of the factors underlying changes in fertility, mortality, and migration levels and difficulties in forecasting the future behaviour of these components of population change.

It should be understood that, as with all demographic projections prepared by the Department of Statistics, these projections are not strict forecasts or targets, but conditional forecasts based on the stated assumptions. Presentation and use of the projections, therefore, cannot be divorced from consideration of the assumptions adopted.

These projections are based on fertility assumptions relating to age-of-mother-specific birth rates as marital status data from 1971 Census of Population were not available at time of their preparation. In the department's judgment this will not significantly impair the validity and utility of the projections. A full description of the projection assumptions is contained in the footnotes to the table.

As at 31 MarchProjected Total New Zealand Population* Assuming Net Annual Immigration of
5,00010,00015,000
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*The base population for these projections is the estimated population as at 31 March 1971. These projections are based on the following assumptions:

(a) That future fertility experience will be in accordance with the alternative trends in age-of-mother-specific birth rates as described in and § below;

(b) That 1965–67 Life Table Mortality Rates (Total Population) apply throughout the projection period.

†The assumed net immigration is taken to commence from the projection base point of 31 March 1971.

‡The projection based on "Constant Fertility" assumes a continuance of the most recent (1971) experience with regard to age-of-mother-specific birth rates.

§The projection based on "medium" fertility assumes the continuation of recent general trends in age-of-mother-specific birth rates, whether increasing or decreasing, for 5 years, with a subsequent continuation of those general trends, somewhat flattened, until 1986. The "high" and "low" assumptions are relative to the "medium" assumption and are based on trends, above and below the "medium" trend respectively, which are considered to be maxima and minima in the light of the assessed reasonably expected range of values which may eventuate. Because of the uncertainty in projecting recent fertility experience for longer than 15–20 years ahead, birth rates which make up the "high", "medium" and "low" fertility assumptions have been kept constant from 1987 until 2001 at the levels projected for 1986.

 (thousand)
1971 (base)1,4301,4312,8611,4301,4312,8611,4301,4312,861
 Constant Fertility Assumption
1,9761,5511,5513,1021,5651,5633,1291,5801,5753,155
1,9811,6921,6923,3841,7221,7173,4391,7521,7423,494
1,9861,8501,8483,6971,8961,8873,7831,9431,9263,869
1,9912,0162,0124,0282,0802,0664,1462,1442,1214,265
1,9962,1902,1844,3732,2732,2544,5272,3562,3254,681
2,0012,3802,3704,7502,4832,4584,9412,5862,5475,133
 High Fertility Assumption§
1,9761,5511,5513,1021,5651,5633,1281,5801,5753,155
1,9811,6951,6953,3901,7251,7203,4451,7551,7453,500
1,9861,8581,8563,7141,9051,8953,8001,9511,9343,886
1,9912,0302,0264,0572,0952,0814,1762,1602,1354,295
1,9962,2122,2054,4172,2952,2764,5712,3792,3474,725
2,0012,4112,4004,8112,5152,4895,0042,6182,5785,196
 Medium Fertility Assumption§
1,9761,5441,5443,0881,5581,5563,1141,5721,5683,140
1,9811,6671,6683,3361,6971,6933,3901,7271,7173,444
1,9861,7981,7993,5961,8441,8373,6811,8901,8753,765
1,9911,9301,9303,8611,9931,9833,9762,0562,0364,092
1,9962,0662,0654,1312,1462,1334,2792,2272,2014,427
2,0012,2082,2054,4142,3072,2894,5962,4062,3744,779
 Low Fertility Assumption§
1,9761,5361,5373,0731,5501,5493,0991,5651,5603,125
1,9811,6381,6403,2781,6671,6643,3321,6971,6893,385
1,9861,7361,7393,4751,7811,7763,5571,8261,8143,640
1,9911,8281,8333,6611,8891,8833,7731,9501,9343,884
1,9961,9191,9243,8431,9961,9893,9852,0732,0544,127
2,0012,0072,0124,0202,1012,0924,1932,1952,1714,366

The following diagram presented on a ratio scale shows the growth of actual population from 1880 to 1972 and projections through to 2000.

Assuming 1967 age of mother and marital status specific birth rates adjusted to allow for changes in birth rates during 1968–71

DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION—Detailed population statistics are compiled for each census and are published in Volume 1, Increase and Location of Population, of the Census of Population and Dwellings.

North and South Islands—In 1858 the North Island had a larger population than the South, but this position was reversed at the succeeding enumeration, and the South Island had the larger population (exclusive of NZ Maoris) at each census from 1861 to 1896. In 1901 the North Island was found to have slightly the larger total and since then has steadily increased its lead.

The following table gives the population of the North and South Islands as disclosed by each census since 1901.

Census YearTotal PopulationTotalPercentages
North IslandSouth IslandNorth IslandSouth Island
1,901431,462384,391815,85352.947.1
1,906521,894414,410936,30455.744.3
1,911610,595447,7131,058,30857.742.3
1,916698,982450,2431,149,22560.839.2
1,921791,918479,7461,271,66462.337.7
1,926892,679515,4601,408,13963.436.6
1,9361,018,036555,7741,573,81064.735.3
1,9451,146,292556,0061,702,29867.332.7
1,9511,313,869625,6031,939,47267.732.3
1,9561,497,364676,6982,174,06268.931.1
1,9611,684,785730,1992,414,98469.830.2
1,9661,893,326783,5932,676,91970.729.3
1,9712,051,363811,2682,862,63171.728.3

The population of the North Island increased at a greater proportionate rate than that of the South Island between the 1966 and 1971 Censuses. At the 1971 Census the North Island population was 2,051,363, including 213,577 N.Z. Maoris, and the South Island population 811,268, inclusive of 13,837 N.Z. Maoris. The increase since the 1966 Census was 158,037 for the North Island and 27,675 for the South Island.

Between the 1966 and 1971 Censuses, births in the South Island numbered just over 82,000, and deaths almost 38,000, giving a net natural increase of just over 44,000. The fact that the total population increase is under 28,000 indicates a net migration outflow from the South Island during the intercensal period. This is in contrast to the 1961–66 intercensal period when a small net migration inflow of approximately 5,000 was recorded.

Statistical Areas—In the following table are shown the areas and the populations of the statistical areas at the 1971 Census and an estimate at 1 April 1973.

Statistical AreaArea (Square Kilometres)Population Census 23 March 1971Estimated Population 1 April 1973
Northland12,63996,19197,400
Central Auckland5,569698,400747,339
South Auckland—
    Bay of Plenty36,744422,299442,400
East Coast10,87847,34247,800
Hawke's Bay11,033133,250138,300
Taranaki9,713100,895101,900
Wellington28,153552,986570,000
Totals, North Island114,7292,051,3632,145,139
Marlborough10,93031,64232,700
Nelson17,89768,83870,000
Westland15,56622,86122,500
Canterbury43,431398,830412,420
Otago36,441182,749183,000
Southland29,681106,348108,900
Totals, South Island153,946811,268829,520
Totals, New Zealand268,6752,862,6312,974,659

Statistical Divisions and Urban Areas—Statistical divisions and urban areas are statistical conceptions and not administrative units. Their purpose is to provide definite, stable, and comparable boundaries for the larger centres of population. Statistical divisions are a new concept. The basic criterion for a statistical division is a population of 75,000 or more within the area of economic and social interests of a heavily populated centre. Seven statistical divisions have been established, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, Napier-Hastings, Palmerston North, Wellington (including Hutt), Christchurch, and Dunedin. The division, like the urban area, does not have any administrative functions, but embraces areas of unified community, economic, and social interests. In addition to the central city or borough, urban areas include neighbouring boroughs and town districts and parts of counties which are regarded as suburban to the centre of population. Maps of statistical boundaries are available at Government bookshops.

Previously there have been 18 statistically defined urban areas; there are now 24 urban areas. The additional areas result from splitting the Auckland, Wellington, and Hutt urban areas and adding Masterton. Adjustments of urban area boundaries have been made because of the peripheral growth of population in some of the urban centres.

In the following table the populations of statistical divisions and urban areas are given.

Statistical Division (S.Div.) and Urban Area (U.A.)1966 Census1971 CensusPercentage IncreaseEstimated Population 1 April 1973
1961–19661966–1971
Auckland S. Div.—
    Northern Auckland U.A.86,297107,96534.325.1123,870
    Western Auckland U.A.75,79289,94637.318.799,130
    Central Auckland U.A.281,192286,7874.42.0289,650
    Southern Auckland U.A.124,886165,04854.732.2185,370
    Remainder S. Div.45,50448,6541.26.949,319
Totals613,671698,40019.313.8747,339
Hamilton S. Div.—
    Hamilton U.A.68,48580,81223.918.087,810
    Remainder S. Div.55,78655,1942.0-1.155,130
Totals124,271136,00613.09.4142,940
Napier-Hastings S. Div.—
    Napier U.A.38,38243,60117.013.646,370
    Hastings U.A.40,65545,51214.111.948,210
    Remainder S. Div.7,8747,8204.0-0.77,840
Totals86,91196,93314.411.5102,420
Palmerston North S. Div.—
    Palmerston North U.A.52,39357,06513.98.959,780
    Remainder S. Div.23,55123,6673.70.323,810
Totals75,94480,73210.56.383,590
Wellington S. Div.—
    Upper Hutt Valley U.A.27,39830,98620.913.133,020
    Lower Hutt Valley U.A.88,33792,00314.54.294,850
    Porirua Basin U.A.37,62447,85835.727.252,040
    Wellington U.A.132,005136,7826.13.6139,400
    Remainder S. Div.13,56116,40318.021.018,370
Totals298,925324,03213.58.4337,680
Christchurch S. Div.—
    Christchurch U.A.257,505275,96812.17.2285,920
    Remainder S. Div.24,95426,6426.96.827,290
Totals282,459302,61011.67.1313,210
Dunedin S. Div.—
    Dunedin U.A.108,779111,0593.62.1112,430
    Remainder S. Div.7,0866,681-2.9-5.76,540
Totals115,865117,7403.11.6118,970
Urban Areas Not in Any Statistical Division
Urban Area1966 Census1971 CensusPercentage IncreaseEstimated Population 1 April 1973
1961–19661966–1971
Whangarei31,00134,02932.29.835,400
Tauranga33,82240,34927.219.344,400
Rotorua33,61339,75231.518.343,360
Gisborne28,11630,16111.27.331,200
New Plymouth35,68038,7808.78.740,720
Wanganui38,17437,9826.90.538,020
Masterton19,11620,14712.85.420,590
Nelson34,45937,99412.310.339,840
Timaru27,94628,9595.83.629,530
Invercargill46,93950,68112.08.052,270
Totals, 24 urban areas1,748,5961,930,22615.710.42,033,180
Totals, 7 statistical divisions1,598,0461,756,45314.39.91,846,149

Cities and Boroughs—The population of cities and boroughs is now given.

City or BoroughEstimated Population 1 April 1973Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island—
    Kaitaia3,700526
    Kaikohe3,410544
    Whangarei (city)32,1004,354
    Dargaville4,1601,133
    Helensville1,300532
    East Coast Bays18,8001,558
    Takapuna (city)24,6001,336
    Devonport11,000445
    Northcote9,830540
    Birkenhead18,1001,266
    Henderson6,140517
    Glen Eden7,170503
    New Lynn10,200564
    Auckland (city)152,3007,489
    Newmarket1,22074
    Mt. Albert26,700983
    Mt. Eden20,600598
    Mt. Roskill34,2001,862
    Onehunga15,600760
    One Tree Hill13,000983
    Ellerslie5,330301
    Mt. Wellington20,7001,650
    Howick13,700621
    Otahuhu9,990558
    Papatoetoe (city)22,600907
    Manukau (city)119,60062,262
    Papakura19,5001,380
    Pukekohe8,0401,405
    Waiuku3,060593
    Tuakau1,870442
    Huntly5,290785
    Cambridge6,6801,071
    Ngaruawahia4,080450
    Hamilton (city)81,6005,555
    Te Awamutu7,060713
    Te Kuiti4,850675
    Taumarunui6,7101,815
    Thames5,8701,103
    Paeroa3,560574
    Waihi3,060539
    Te Aroha3,1701,126
    Morrinsville4,440476
    Matamata4,190378
    Putaruru4,620395
    Mt. Maunganui9,7701,411
    Tauranga (city)31,0003,806
    Te Puke3,610532
    Rotorua (city)34,4002,667
    Taupo11,9001,446
    Whakatane10,2501,123
    Kawerau7,670923
    Murupara2,820287
    Opotiki2,610299
    Gisborne (city)29,2002,628
    Wairoa5,540649
    Napier (city)42,9002,435
    Hastings (city)31,5001,711
    Havelock North8,130514
    Waipawa1,680692
    Waipukurau3,570420
    Dannevirke5,600526
    Woodville1,520427
    Waitara5,320652
    New Plymouth (city)36,0002,316
    Inglewood2,140284
    Stratford5,380816
    Eltham2,320647
    Hawera8,210514
    Patea1,940575
    Ohakune1,400841
    Raetihi1,360388
    Wanganui (city)35,7502,997
    Taihape2,760778
    Marton4,670573
    Feilding9,980855
    Foxton2,810306
    Palmerston N. (city)54,3004,302
    Levin13,850877
    Otaki3,860663
    Upper Hutt (city)27,90048,428
    Lower Hutt (city)62,8008,967
    Petone9,4001,044
    Eastbourne4,8001,273
    Porirua (city)39,7008,508
    Tawa11,900550
    Wellington (city)140,00026,343
    Pahiatua2,620291
    Eketahuna700384
    Masterton18,9001,433
    Carterton3,830512
    Greytown1,730442
    Featherston2,210307
    Martinborough1,360433
Totals, North Island cities and boroughs1,547,270252,136
South Island—
    Picton3,000426
    Blenheim15,6001,012
    Nelson (city)30,4004,762
    Richmond6,3401,052
    Motueka3,9301,021
    Westport4,880308
    Runanga1,350487
    Greymouth7,7501,068
    Hokitika3,380273
    Rangiora5,150357
    Kaiapoi4,330318
    Riccarton7,120339
    Christchurch (city)168,80010,635
    Lyttelton3,2001,036
    Ashburton13,7001,054
    Geraldine1,950301
    Temuka3,400395
    Timaru (city)28,9002,262
    Waimate3,210312
    Oamaru13,0501,148
    Port Chalmers2,970410
    Dunedin (city)83,10016,560
    St. Kilda6,400249
    Green Island6,300736
    Mosgiel8,680652
    Milton2,180204
    Kaitangata1,050518
    Balclutha4,710509
    Tapanui860121
    Lawrence620249
    Roxburgh760208
    Naseby11076
    Alexandra3,880452
    Cromwell970321
    Arrowtown280134
    Queenstown2,460416
    Gore8,880946
    Mataura2,540515
    Winton2,200231
    Invercargill (city)48,9005,568
    Bluff3,250866
    Riverton1,340403
Totals, South Island cities and boroughs521,88058,910
Grand totals, all cities and boroughs2,069,150311,046

Town Districts—The population of independent town districts—i.e., those contained in section (a) of the following table—is not included with that of the county in which the town district is located, but the population of dependent town districts—section (b)—is included in that of the respective parent county.

Town DistrictEstimated Population 1 April 1973Approximate Area in Hectares
*Parent county shown in parentheses.
(a) Town Districts not forming parts of Counties
North Island—
    Hikurangi1,030389
    Warkworth1,540577
    Ohura500330
    Manaia920206
    Waverley1,100202
    Hunterville620320
Totals, North Island5,7102,024
South Island—
    Wyndham720275
    Otautau970198
Totals, South Island1,690473
Grand totals7,4002,497
(b) Town Districts forming parts of Counties*
North Island—
    Russell (Bay of Islands)670431
    Ohaupo (Waipa)340518
    Kihikihi (Waipa)1,220212
    Patutahi (Cook)330516
    Kaponga (Eltham)490226
Totals, North Island3,0501,903
South Island—
    Edendale (Southland)620282
Totals, South Island620282
Grand totals3,6702,185

County Towns—The following table lists those county towns with populations of 1,000 or more at 1 April 1973. The parent county is shown in parentheses. The populations of county towns are included in the administrative county populations given in a later table.

County TownEstimated Population 1 April 1973Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
    Moerewa (Bay of Islands)1,34075
    Kawakawa (Bay of Islands)1,520229
    Paihia (Bay of Islands)1,240232
    Glenfield (Waitemata)29,6001,860
    Kelston West (Waitemata)10,800656
    Green Bay (Waitemata)3,240191
    Titirangi (Waitemata)9,6801,119
    Orewa (Waitemata)2,980633
    Raglan (Raglan)1,080372
    Whitianga (Coromandel)1,040293
    Tokoroa (Matamata)17,100970
    Katikati (Tauranga)1,280828
    Mangakino (Taupo)1,880261
    Edgecumbe (Whakatane)1,200121
    Ohope (Whakatane)1,120520
    Ashhurst (Oroua)1,340125
    Paraparaumu (Hutt)10,6002,764
    Paekakariki (Hutt)2,0402,268
    Heretaunga-Pinehaven (Hutt)5,9805,256
South Island
    Kaikoura (Kaikoura)1,680283
    Halswell (Paparua)4,270204
    Fairfield (Taieri)1,340134
    Ranfurly (Maniototo)1,010391
    Wanaka (Lake)1,010252
    Te Anau (Wallace)1,880395

County Boroughs—The following table lists the population of county boroughs as at 1 April 1972. The parent county is shown in parentheses. The populations of county boroughs are included in the administrative county populations given in the following table.

County BoroughEstimated Population 1 April 1973Approximate Area in Hectares
North Island
    Wellsford (Rodney)1,630554
    Otorohanga (Otorohanga)1,940227
    Ngongotaha (Rotorua)2,070513
    Bulls (Rangitikei)2,000405
    Waikanae (Horowhenua)2,8601,060
    Shannon (Horowhenua)1,630342
    Wainuiomata (Hutt)18,05026,640
Totals30,23029,741
South Island
    Hornby (Paparua)8,830491
    Sockburn (Paparua)6,2001,066
Totals15,0301,557
Totals, county boroughs45,26031,336

Extra-county Islands and Shipboard Population—In addition to the populations quoted for administrative counties, cities and boroughs, and independent town districts, the New Zealand totals include shipboard population and persons located on islands not within the boundaries of any county. The two latter categories comprised an estimated total of 4,669 persons at 1 April 1973.

Counties—The following table gives the estimated population of individual counties at 1 April 1973 together with the approximate area of each. It should be noted that "Administrative counties" do not include boroughs or town districts independent of county control, but include town districts, county boroughs, and county towns which form parts of counties.

Administrative CountyEstimated Population 1 April 1973Approximate Area, in Square Kilometres
North Island—
    Mangonui7,1602,481
    Whangaroa1,910622
    Hokianga4,0601,588
    Bay of Islands14,9702,131
    Whangarei13,2002,675
    Hobson5,2401,929
    Otamatea6,1001,093
    Rodney7,4801,256
    Waitemata122,2001,554
    Waiheke2,420155
    Great Barrier Is.270285
    Franklin16,8001,419
    Raglan9,0502,411
    Waikato15,6201,655
    Waipa14,9601,129
    Otorohanga9,8701,976
    Waitomo5,8603,375
    Taumarunui5,8304,851
    Coromandel3,5701,137
    Thames4,0401,039
    Hauraki Plains5,190603
    Ohinemuri4,110624
    Piako11,3001,168
    Matamata31,6102,556
    Tauranga16,4501,829
    Rotorua17,8202,681
    Taupo14,7807,244
    Whakatane14,4604,196
    Opotiki3,7003,124
    Waiapu4,6602,818
    Waikohu3,2402,650
    Cook8,3502,841
    Wairoa5,6704,128
    Hawke's Bay21,3004,846
    Waipawa3,5001,347
    Patangata2,8901,696
    Waipukurau1,170331
    Dannevirke3,7501,414
    Woodville1,470404
    Clifton2,0301,176
    Taranaki8,960588
    Inglewood2,890521
    Stratford5,1702,157
    Egmont5,590622
    Eltham2,960534
    Waimate West2,390215
    Hawera4,390495
    Patea2,8201,531
    Waimarino1,4502,147
    Waitotara2,8101,209
    Wanganui2,8601,189
    Rangitikei14,5404,486
    Kiwitea1,770930
    Pohangina890671
    Oroua4,860492
    Manawatu6,450692
    Kairanga5,930461
    Horowhenua12,8001,404
    Hutt37,460603
    Pahiatua2,130741
    Akitio910831
    Eketahuna1,370824
    Masterton4,0602,390
    Wairarapa South2,5401,140
    Featherston2,9102,471
Totals, North Island counties588,970111,781
South Island—
    Marlborough9,4206,639
    Awatere1,6203,878
    Kaikoura3,1202,344
    Golden Bay3,3002,618
    Waimea15,7507,511
    Buller3,1005,035
    Inangahua2,0402,440
    Grey4,2003,957
    Westland5,75011,440
    Amuri2,6304,273
    Cheviot1,520875
    Waipara2,6202,476
    Ashley2,9401,241
    Rangiora4,100263
    Eyre2,640459
    Oxford1,580814
    Malvern6,4205,046
    Paparua29,450445
    Waimairi65,300115
    Heathcote8,03034
    Mt. Herbert700171
    Akaroa1,510437
    Chatham Islands730963
    Wairewa670438
    Ellesmere7,7001,200
    Ashburton11,1006,176
    Geraldine4,4401,995
    Levels4,800680
    Mackenzie7,5907,456
    Waimate5,1303,558
    Waitaki8,1006,249
    Waihemo1,680878
    Waikouaiti3,810828
    Taieri8,2902,331
    Bruce3,5001,344
    Clutha5,5902,717
    Tuapeka4,0003,584
    Maniototo2,5503,471
    Vincent3,9007,568
    Lake3,27010,025
    Southland26,3609,577
    Wallace12,9709,656
    Fiord1407,861
    Stewart Island4101,746
Totals, South Island counties304,470152,812
Grand totals, all counties893,440264,593

Urban Concentration of Population—The bulk of New Zealand's population is located in urban areas, where the most rapid growth rates are occurring. This is due largely to the development of both manufacturing and tertiary industries in urban areas, which provide employment for a growing labour force. Other factors, including better social, cultural, educational, and economic opportunities serve to attract persons to these areas, while the majority of immigrants tend to settle in the larger urban centres. These factors, combined with amalgamation of farms, centralisation of dairy factories, and increasing agricultural mechanisation (resulting in less labour required), combine to produce a noticeable rural-urban drift. Urban concentration features are common to "developed" countries at advanced stages of economic development.

In the circumstances the 1971 Census figures understandably showed a continuing decline in the population of rural areas and in many cases also of small and intermediate-sized towns. Seventy-two counties recorded smaller populations than in 1966. Of 58 small towns (1,000 to 4,999 population) 22 declined in population compared with 7 which showed declines between 1961 and 1966. Six intermediate towns (5,000 to 9,999 population situated outside urban areas) showed decreases on this occasion as against only two in 1966.

The following table indicates the urban movement of the total population and Maori population— the urban content has been taken as the population in the 24 urban areas, plus that of all boroughs, town districts, county towns, and townships with population of 1,000 or over.

CensusUrbanRural*
NumberPercentNumberPercent
*Excludes shipping.
Total Population
1,926937,30466.9464,37033.1
1,9361,050,82967.0518,28233.0
1,9451,211,41971.3487,69428.7
1,9511,406,51672.7527,07827.3
1,9561,600,80873.8568,80626.2
1,9611,840,20276.4569,21723.6
1,9662,119,08579.3553,02320.7
1,9712,328,87681.5528,60918.5
New Zealand Maori Population
1,9269,81515.453,80484.6
1,93615,60619.066,69381.0
1,94524,80125.173,92374.9
1,95133,52929.082,05471.0
1,95647,63034.789,45265.3
1,96176,79246.090,24054.0
1,966122,94261.178,15338.9
1,971159,49770.267,80129.8

In the process of urbanisation some cities and areas have grown more quickly than others. There is a tendency towards concentration of population in the largest centres and also a drift of population from the south to the north. Where the two tendencies reinforce each other, as they do in the case of Auckland, the rate of growth has been very rapid. Likewise the urban areas of Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, and Rotorua, which had a combined population in 1926 of 40,164, in 1971 comprised 194,942 inhabitants.

The initial reason for the drift to the north lay in the change in emphasis of farming activities in which the development of dairying played an important part. The expansion of dairying in itself called for the development of factory processing facilities and service industries. These farming trends have been reinforced by the growth of forest processing industries in the North Island and compounded further by the general tendency for the large-scale manufacturing units to be located close to the biggest local markets.

In the larger cities a notable feature of the past 35 years has been a movement of population from the central or "inner" areas to the perimeter or "outer" areas as families in decayed areas have moved to State rental houses and as residential units in the city centres have been replaced by shops, offices, places of entertainment, and other commercial or industrial buildings. In recent years there has been an offsetting movement with the building of multi-storey flats in the inner areas.

The distribution of population by size of centres is shown in the following table.

Sizes of Centre (City, Borough, Town District, or County Town)Number of CentresPercentage of Population in These Centres
19261961196619711926196119661971
1,000–2,499634544437.53.02.42.4
2,500–4,999234641406.26.85.55.0
5,000–9,999113534355.99.98.88.8
10,000–24,9991221232313.314.913.512.8
25,000 and over412192224.132.440.944.6
Total11315916116357.067.071.173.6

In the South Island a higher proportion of the population is rural, that is, outside urban communities, than in the North Island, the proportion being 22.7 in the South Island against 16.9 percent in the North Island.

Sex Proportions—The census of 23 March 1971 showed that females outnumbered males by 919 in the total population. Females per 1,000 males at the last six censuses have been:

CensusExcluding N.Z. Armed Forces OverseasIncluding N.Z. Armed Forces Overseas
1,9451,044991
1,951991989
1,956989987
1,961990988
1,966992991
1,9711,0011,000

There are marked differences in the sex proportions of the population of different parts of New Zealand, depending largely on educational and employment opportunities. The following figures give the number of females per 1,000 males at the Census of 1971.

Statistical areas
    Hawke's Bay1,029
    Central Auckland1,021
    Otago1,019
    Canterbury1,014
    Nelson1,004
    East Coast1,000
    Wellington998
Urban areas
    Timaru1,102
    Hastings1,077
    Wanganui1,074
    Gisborne1,070
    Dunedin1,067
    Central Auckland1,062
    Napier1,062
    New Plymouth1,055
    Nelson1,055
    Palmerston North1,048
    Hamilton1,047
    Christchurch1,045
    Taranaki988
    South Auckland-Bay of Plenty974
    Northland967
    Marlborough959
    Westland945
    Southland942
    Tauranga1,044
    Northern Auckland1,044
    Whangarei1,040
    Porirua Basin1,023
    Masterton1,021
    Wellington1,016
    Invercargill1,014
    Rotorua1,013
    Lower Hutt Valley1,009
    Southern Auckland1,002
    Western Auckland984
    Upper Hutt Valley915

DENSITY OF POPULATION—Generally speaking, a dense population must depend upon intensive land utilisation or industrialisation. In New Zealand there is a great area of high mountainous country, particularly in the South Island, and large areas of hilly country which cannot be closely settled, while the growth of mechanisation in farming tends to reduce the size of the labour force engaged in farming operations.

Nevertheless, economic development is providing employment for a growing labour force. More extensive mechanisation, further advances in science and technology, and increases in productivity, wealth, and consumption have paved the way for further specialisation of production and more concentrated urbanisation.

Within New Zealand there are wide variations in density of population. The following table provides comparative density figures on a statistical area basis from 1926 to 1971 censuses.

Statistical AreaArea in Square KilometresPersons Per Square Kilometre
192619451951196119661971
Northland12,6394.35.36.06.87.47.6
Central Auckland5,56942.459.668.692.4110.2125.4
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty36,7443.95.66.79.510.611.5
East Coast10,8783.13.53.84.34.34.4
Hawke's Bay11,0336.47.28.310.411.312.1
Taranaki9,7137.47.98.910.310.410.4
Wellington28,15310.012.413.916.818.619.6
Totals, North Island114,7297.810.011.514.716.517.9
Marlborough10,9301.71.92.12.52.72.9
Nelson17,8972.32.63.23.53.83.8
Westland15,5661.41.51.61.61.61.5
Canterbury43,4315.05.86.57.98.79.2
Otago36,4414.14.04.44.85.05.0
Southland29,6812.22.42.63.23.53.6
Totals, South Island153,9463.33.64.14.75.15.3
Totals, New Zealand268,6755.26.37.29.010.010.7

NEW ZEALAND MAORI POPULATION—All persons of half or more Maori ancestry are defined as Maoris.

The growth rate of Maoris in the population approaches twice that of the population taken as a whole; an average annual increase in 1966–71 of 2.5 percent as compared with 1.4 percent for the total population. (Nevertheless the growth rate showed a slight fall when compared with the previous intercensal periods.)

The population growth rate among the Maoris is predominantly a result of natural increase, whereas in the total population natural increase is normally supplemented by sizeable increments from migration.

When studying growth rates of the Maori population, however, it should be noted that, as a result of intermarriage, there are increasing numbers of Maori children (half or more Maori) who have one parent not counted in the Maori population, i.e., if a full Maori male marries a full European female or vice versa, the resulting progeny are all counted in the Maori population; this undoubtedly contributes to the high Maori percentage increase.

The decline in the number of Maoris during the early years of European settlement and throughout most of the nineteenth century is a matter of history. The present century has witnessed a resurgence of vitality among the Maori people which has been reflected in a strikingly high birth rate.

The increasing urbanisation of the Maori population as younger Maoris seek better job opportunities in the cities and boroughs is a population trend of considerable sociological significance.

A statement of N.Z. Maori population is now given for each census from 1901.

YearNew Zealand Maori PopulationIntercensal IncreaseIntercensal IncreaseAverage Annual Increase
*Includes members of New Zealand armed forces overseas at census date.
 numberpercent
1,90145,5493,4358.21.6
1,90650,3094,76010.52.0
1,91152,7232,4144.81.0
1,91654,9972,2740.50.1
1,92156,9873,9907.51.6
1,92663,6706,68311.72.2
1,93682,32618,65629.32.6
1,94598,74416,41819.91.9
1945*100,04417,71821.52.1
1,951115,67616,93217.12.9
1951*115,74015,69615.72.7
1,956137,15121,47518.63.5
1956*137,34121,60118.73.5
1,961167,08629,93521.84.0
1961*167,39030,04921.94.0
1,966201,15934,07320.43.8
1966*201,47934,08920.43.8
1,971227,41426,25513.12.5
1971*227,74126,26213.02.5

Of the 227,414 Maoris at the 1971 Census, 213,472 were in the North Island. Most Maoris used to live in rural communities. A marked change has, however, taken place during and since the war as a result of employment conditions. As late as the 1936 Census only 8,249 Maoris (10 percent) dwelt in cities, boroughs, or independent town districts. By the 1971 Census the comparative figure was 132,970 (58.5 percent); the largest concentration is in Southern Auckland urban area, where 20,675 Maoris were enumerated in 1971.

The Maori population, which until recently was not greatly affected by external migration, is a much younger population than the non-Maori.

The following table for 1971 shows the high proportion (49.1 percent) of Maori children under 15 years compared with the total population (31.8 percent), and the low proportion of people in the older age groups.

Age Group (Years)Percentage in Age Groups (1971 Census)
New Zealand MaoriTotal Population
Under 1549.131.8
15–1910.59.1
20–4429.631.5
45–597.515.1
60 and over3.312.5
Totals100.0100.0

EXTERNAL MIGRATION—In recent years there has been a large increase in New Zealanders going overseas on business, on pleasure trips, and on working holidays, resulting in much higher levels of migration. The arrivals include many New Zealanders returning from travel overseas, as well as growing numbers of tourists from overseas countries.

The numbers of arrivals and departures during the last 11 years are given in the table following. Crews of vessels, through passengers, tourists on cruising liners, and members of the armed forces, etc., have not been taken into account in this table.

Year Ended 31 MarchArrivalsDeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
1,96378,61365,259143,87271,86358,370130,23313,639
1,96489,87074,776164,64681,95667,206149,16215,484
1,965104,42185,870190,29198,14780,153178,30011,991
1,966121,10698,833219,939114,00093,918207,91812,021
1,967136,275114,131250,406128,228107,743235,97114,435
1,968136,760122,621259,381143,259124,212267,471-8,090
1,969136,457119,279255,736142,653123,931266,584-10,848
1,970156,645136,760293,405157,829137,636295,465-2,060
1,971190,437161,859352,296185,598158,853344,4517,845
1,972217,606190,675408,281211,048186,382397,43010,851
1,973247,135222,247469,382233,721210,186443,90725,475

From 1968 to 1970 there was an alteration in the net migration flow. This is illustrated in the following diagram which covers all passenger migration, excluding through passengers and crews.

Long-term Migration—The following table gives an analysis of long-term arrivals and departures for March years. (Short-term migration is analysed in Section 39: Travel and Tourism.)

YearLong-term (Including Permanent) ArrivalsLong-term (Including Permanent) Departures
New Permanent ArrivalsLong termPermanent and Long-term Arrivals (Immigrants)Permanent Departures of New Zealand ResidentsLong-termPermanent and Long-term Departures (Emigrants)
AssistedSubsidisedTotal (includes others)N.Z Residents Returning *Long-term Visitors*N.Z. Residents Departing*Long-term Visitors Departing*
*Arrivals: after absence of, or intending to stay, 12 months or more respectively. Departures: persons intending to stay away for, or after stay in New Zealand of, 12 months or more respectively.
1967–682,764256......30,660......28,472
1968–69490198......23,225......29,802
1969–70382535......26,825......29,822
1970–715383,18217,73512,2369,40639,37711,23422,2354,69638,165
1971–724834,18320,26114,57810,26045,0999,33922,9795,22837,546
1972–735063,03626,66616,69411,29154,6517,81821,8585,80735,483

The countries of origin and destination of these long-term migrants are shown in the following table.

YearAustraliaCanadaIndiaUnited KingdomCook Islands and NiueFijiWestern SamoaNetherlandsSouth AfricaUnited StatesAll Other CountriesTotal
Immigrants by Country of Last Residence
1967–688,26969522614,9465685412086601989573,39230,660
1968–696,7588011749,3293934713174781421,3153,04723,225
1969–708,8541,0642109,3877554852815401871,7163,34626,825
1970–7113,8041,71819413,2761,0627956695333312,1614,83439,377
1971–7216,0832,13527315,2091,1817844456495162,4135,41145,099
1972–7317,7302,05621921,6761,9499703828196412,3095,90054,651
Emigrants by Country of Next Residence
1967–6814,0241,227917,3162675862713883201,5042,47828,472
1968–6916,8811,090845,9891685742033633971,2722,78129,802
1969–7015,268941846,8372526602563994081,4923,22529,822
1970–7118,8501,1021119,3095298483127534351,4434,47338,165
1971–7217,6308061709,4424377584425797691,7374,77637,546
1972–7315,2308321839,7573518716474846421,7174,76935,483

Ages—The following table gives the age-distribution of long-term arrivals and departures for the year ended 31 March 1973.

Age, in YearsPermanent ArrivalsPermanent DeparturesExcess of Arrivals Over Departures
MalesFemalesTotalsMalesFemalesTotals
Under 156,8266,36013,1863,1703,0436,2136,973
15–191,9422,3874,3291,5722,1603,732597
20–245,3445,73611,0805,7115,80111,512-432
25–4410,9608,67119,6316,0934,54910,6428,989
45–642,4432,5254,9681,2701,3252,5952,373
65 and over6208371,457321468789668
Totals28,13526,51654,65118,13717,34635,48319,168

The occupations of working persons in permanent and long-term arrivals and departures for the year ended March 1973 are given in the following table.

Occupation GroupPermanent ArrivalsPermanent Departures
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Professional (including nurses and teachers)3,8633,3697,2322,7733,3306,103
Administrative and managerial8695392265353706
Clerical workers1,4874,5816,0681,1074,1085,215
Sales workers1,4185972,0159254081,333
Farmers and fishermen973401,01382850878
Miners and quarrymen1111115454
Transport and communications workers1,1462081,354640159799
Tradesmen, factory workers, labourers7,6204958,1155,2044555,659
Personal, servicing8571,0011,8585727621,334
Not specified3962141742043463
Totals, actively engaged18,74010,36529,10513,1769,36822,544

Origin—The following table shows for the latest 3 years the birthplaces of long-term migrants.

Country of BirthImmigrantsEmigrants
1970–711971–721972–731970–711971–721972–73
    Commonwealth Countries
United Kingdom—
    England and Wales11,54113,26916,7495,1824,7724,109
    Scotland1,7191,6801,993913822725
    Northern Ireland30645562612011299
    Other or undefined60651,6853833479
Australia6,1617,1048,2192,3822,4562,507
Canada8841,2221,297253271355
India252304296152163194
New Zealand10,86512,84214,52524,95924,67222,526
Pacific Islands—
    Cook Islands and Niue9279731,621169158127
    Western Samoa540333281202272322
    Fiji385354330207245274
    Other Pacific291284345136166227
Other1,1341,3571,539530571705
Totals, Commonwealth countries35,06540,24249,50635,24334,71332,649
    Other Countries
Austria494752374521
China10410272587479
Denmark628473563247
Germany261283338190165150
Greece9880588397111
Hungary432750472830
Ireland, Republic of72754037545149
Italy15611487147114175
Indonesia8513289586959
Netherlands640713915658541451
Switzerland114155176775873
United States1,3121,6081,437548725752
Yugoslavia115101981077867
Others1,2011,3361,296780762670
Totals, other countries4,3124,8575,1442,9212,8332,834
Grand totals39,37745,09954,65038,16437,54635,483

IMMIGRATION POLICY—The guidelines of a revised immigration policy were announced by the Government in May 1974. The policy is to liberalise rules governing permanent entry and at the same time to cut the net migration inflow to about 15,000 a year. (In 1973 the net inflow reached 35,000 and imposed a strain on the economy.) Harmonious settlement is emphasised and the number of immigrants is to be matched to New Zealand's capacity to provide jobs, housing and community services. Immigrants are to be selected according to defined criteria, including skills and qualifications, health, character, age 18 to 45 years, and families of not more than four dependent children. There is more liberal provision for admitting relations of New Zealand residents.

The South Pacific is a special situation. The Islands, being our nearest neighbours apart from Australia, must be regarded in some measure as our responsibility. Those born in the Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands are New Zealand citizens and may migrate at any time. Western Samoa, as a former trust territory, holds a special place in the policy. The Samoans take full advantage of the opportunities offered, the inflow at present being about 1,500 a year. Provision has been made for permanent entry of a small number of Fijian citizens and Tongans.

A Review of Immigration Policy was published as parliamentary paper E 21, 1974.

Assisted Immigration—Two immigration schemes financially assisted by the Government are in operation—the subsidy scheme, which involves a contribution by employers to immigrants' fares and the assisted passage scheme. The contribution made by migrants under each scheme is the equivalent of £10 sterling for single persons and £20 for married persons.

The subsidy scheme operates from Britain, the United States, France, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and West Germany. The scheme has not been formally approved by the Italian Government but nationals of that country who apply spontaneously to come to New Zealand are permitted to use the scheme. There is no quota on the subsidy scheme. Single people and married men between the ages of 18 and 45 years may be sponsored.

Employers wishing to take advantage of the subsidy scheme are obliged to provide employment, arrange suitable housing in New Zealand, and meet one-quarter of the cost of migrants' fares either by sea or air; the Government meets the remaining three-quarters. The cost is approximately the same for both methods of travel.

A system of matching skills of immigrants with specific vacancies in New Zealand has been developed by the Chief Migration Officer, New Zealand House, London, for British and most Western European migrants, and similar registers have been established by the New Zealand Immigration Attaché in the Hague for Dutch workers, and by the New Zealand Consul-General in Los Angeles for American migrants. Employers interested in recruiting migrants with certain skills may file details of their vacancies through the Department of Labour in Wellington. The department will also arrange for vacancies to be advertised, if required by employers. In addition, the department holds interview reports for a large number of skilled tradesmen in a variety of occupations and these can be made available to interested employers.

The assisted passage scheme, which operates only from Britain, is limited to 500 migrants a year and they must possess minimum skills (usually at tradesman level) in specific occupations approved by the Secretary of Labour. Single persons and married couples (without dependent children) between the ages of 18 and 45 years are eligible. Married couples and single persons in some occupations must have employment and housing guaranteed before acceptable application.

The number of assisted immigrants (excluding displaced persons, and Hungarian and Czech refugees) arriving in the last 11 years are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchBritishDutchAustrianGermanDanishSwissGreekOtherTotal

*Includes 68 from United States.

†Includes subsidy scheme migrants not shown prior to 1971–72; their total was 4,183 in 1971–72 and 3,632 in 1972–73; see a preceding table on long-term migration.

1,9634,283423327137104,532
1,9644,17161651413054,347
1,9654,30091251129344,400
1,9663,963197827184,042
1,9674,0209910361124,097
1,9682,7322451742,764
1,969485221490
1,970377212382
1,97153243539
1,9724,55643446371115,148
19733,4595501443774*4,138

Refugees—New Zealand has continued to accept refugees including families sponsored by the churches. From November 1968, 100 Czech refugees had arrived by 1969 and these were followed in 1970 by a further 25. In 1970–71, 42 Indonesian refugees arrived. In 1972 the first Asian refugees arrived from Uganda.

Formalities—The legislation respecting immigration into New Zealand is contained in the Immigration Act 1964, and the Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919. This legislation is administered by the Department of Labour.

Under the Immigration Act all persons other than New Zealand and Australian citizens must be in possession of an entry permit before they may land in New Zealand.

To obtain permission to settle in New Zealand, intending immigrants should first write to or call on the nearest overseas representative of the New Zealand Government or write direct to the Secretary of Labour, P.O. Box 6310, Wellington, New Zealand. The application must be made in the prescribed form and must be supported by documents duly attested in the country of origin. Each application is considered individually on its own merits.

PASSPORTS—Authority for the issue of passports in New Zealand and by New Zealand representatives overseas is contained in the Passports Act 1946 and the Passport Regulations 1946.

New Zealand passports are issued and renewed within New Zealand by the Department of Internal Affairs at Wellington, Auckland, and Christchurch, at Rarotonga by the High Commissioner, at Niue by the Resident Commissioner, and overseas by the representatives of New Zealand at Apia, Athens, Bangkok, Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Djakarta, Fiji, Geneva, The Hague, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los, Angeles, Melbourne, New Delhi, New York, Noumea, Ottawa, Paris, Rome, Saigon, San Francisco, Santiago (Chile), Seoul, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tokyo, and Washington. United Kingdom, Canadian, Australian, Malaysian, Singaporean, and Indian passports are issued and renewed in New Zealand by the respective High Commissioners for those countries.

Entry into New Zealand—Apart from British subjects and the wives of British subjects arriving from Australia, no person 16 years of age or over may land in New Zealand unless he is in possession of a valid passport or other recognised travel document. Exemption from the passport requirement (which is additional to the requirements of the Immigration Act and Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act) may be granted in exceptional circumstances by the Minister of Internal Affairs. A British subject who is a master or a member of the crew of the vessel in which he arrives does not need to produce a passport.

With the exception of nationals of those countries with which New Zealand has concluded agreements for the mutual abolition of visas, every alien landing in New Zealand requires a visa.

Departure from New Zealand—Every person leaving New Zealand, with the exception of a British subject travelling to Australia or making the round trip to New Zealand's island territories, should be in possession of a valid passport or other travel document.

NATIONALITY AND NATURALISATION—The basic nationality law is the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948. Citizens of all Commonwealth countries are recognised as British subjects.

New Zealand citizenship may be acquired in the following ways: (a) by birth in New Zealand; (b) by descent; (c) by registration; and (d) by naturalisation. Citizens of other Commonwealth countries and the Republic of Ireland acquire New Zealand citizenship by registration, as do alien wives and children of New Zealand citizens. Other aliens acquire it by naturalisation. To be eligible for New Zealand citizenship, an alien or a citizen of another Commonwealth country (other than a woman married to a New Zealand citizen, or a minor) must—(a) have resided in New Zealand for the prescribed period; (b) be of full age and capacity; (c) be of good character; (d) have sufficient knowledge of the English language, and of the responsibilities and privileges of New Zealand citizenship; (e) intend to reside in New Zealand, or to enter or continue Crown service under the New Zealand Government. The residential qualification for naturalisation is 5 years, for registration it is generally 3 years but can be reduced to 1 year.

A person who acquires New Zealand citizenship by naturalisation must take the oath of allegiance, a person who acquires it by registration may be required to take the oath. Ceremonies are held at which applicants, in an atmosphere of dignity and solemnity, take the oath of allegiance and are presented with their certificates of naturalisation or registration as New Zealand citizens. During the 1972–73 year there were 118 such ceremonies, at which 1,327 candidates took the oath of allegiance.

New Zealand citizens may be deprived of New Zealand citizenship if they voluntarily acquire a foreign nationality by any formal act other than marriage, or if they voluntarily exercise the privileges or perform any of the duties of a foreign nationality possessed by them. Citizenship obtained by fraud, false representation, or the concealment of any material fact may be withdrawn.

The following table shows the number of persons, by country of birth, who were granted citizenship in the latest 2 years ended 31 March.

Country of Birth1971–721972–73
NaturalisationRegistrationTotalNaturalisationRegistrationTotal
Australia15155252
Austria1031310616
China43408388109197
Denmark45915823
Fiji110110130130
Germany252146242145
Greece172340405090
Hong Kong4212554449
Hungary211031221537
India11021031144145
Indonesia81119121224
Ireland11111212
Italy8199918
Kenya12121111
Malaysia202012021
Netherlands194123317211180391
Poland272047272451
Romania12416171128
South Africa93140145064
Switzerland101020282149
Tonga3242734043
U.S.S.R44810414
United Kingdom246246702702
United States101929151126
Western Samoa2175963162165
Yugoslavia5537926546111
Other countries4210714949174223
Totals5281,1051,6336692,0682,737

REGISTRATION OF ALIENS—The registration of aliens in New Zealand is provided for by the Aliens Act 1948, which is administered by the Department of Internal Affairs.

The number of aliens on the New Zealand register at any particular date does not constitute the total number in New Zealand, as certain classes are not required to register, including the following: (a) children under 16 years of age; (b) persons holding diplomatic status, consuls, or employees of embassies, legations, and consulates who are resident in New Zealand solely for the purpose of performing official duties; (c) certain temporary visitors to New Zealand. Under the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948 a citizen of the Republic of Ireland, though not possessing the status of British subject (or, in alternative phraseology, Commonwealth citizen), is nevertheless not classed as an alien and is not required to register.

The following table shows, by country of nationality, the number of males and females on the register.

Country of Nationality1 April 19721 April 1973
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Afghanistan1511613114
Albania11111111
Austria344133477347129476
Belgium524092554196
Bulgaria6477156561
Burma3934230232
Chile121123151227
China9897911,7809317411,672
Czechoslovakia98581569360153
Denmark494289783491286777
Estonia161430151328
Finland84671517973152
France97121218111140251
Germany526443969541450991
Greece6897181,4076246601,284
Hungary294148442265129394
Indonesia1237519814887235
Israel1141512214
Italy613227840653235888
Japan103145248125165290
Korea441155471158
Latvia5651107504797
Lebanon232144242448
Lithuania161834141630
Nepal1472114721
Netherlands7,3865,52612,9127,4035,58312,986
Norway1065516110256158
Philippines442266532578
Poland381281662362270632
Romania201333171229
South Africa102128230112148260
Spain411253431255
Sweden80771578486170
Switzerland544324868559335894
Thailand9213022286145231
Turkey171633151328
United States2,0521,2223,2742,3241,4293,753
U.S.S.R70771476464128
Vietnam1075215910362165
Yugoslavia1,0065581,5649495361,485
Other countries59531127654130
Stateless22103224933
Totals16,95611,95928,91517,14012,17529,315

Gains in numbers on the register for any nationality occur for several reasons—mainly, (a) immigrants of 16 years of age and over who arrive during the year, (b) registration (on reaching the age of 16) of children whose parents may have arrived in previous years but are still registered aliens.

Reductions in the numbers of registered aliens in the main come from naturalisations, deaths, or departure overseas.

Five years residence in New Zealand is necessary before an alien can qualify for naturalisation.

STATISTICS OF THE POPULATION CENSUS—Publications resulting from the Census of Population and Dwellings are listed towards the back of this Yearbook. Additional figures from the Census of Population of 23 March 1971 may be published in Latest Statistical Information at the end of this Yearbook.

MARITAL STATUS—The marital status of persons aged 16 years and over as returned at the Census of 1971 is summarised in the following tables.

Age Groups (Years)Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedWidowedDivorcedTotal*
*Including persons not specifying status.
Males
16–19101,8092,3282266104,726
20–2474,54543,07775338137119,447
25–3430,723142,4452,8152211,338178,803
35–4414,560139,2422,5788202,151160,248
45–5412,088128,9672,5082,5063,145150,020
55–649,004101,6681,7005,1232,796120,861
65–745,28455,3388797,8331,45371,162
75 and over2,35919,04334310,25141632,687
Totals, 1971250,372632,10811,59826,79811,442937,954
Totals, 1966244,834581,5606,81927,3729,435871,854
Females
16–1989,09111,015145166100,387
20–2440,97672,0721,775182342115,512
25–3415,053152,9514,0059832,059175,199
35–447,747135,8363,0473,1032,776152,637
45–548,770125,1022,6059,8523,639150,146
55–6410,02187,8281,54922,2073,334125,179
65–748,62241,11270432,6241,83585,135
75 and over6,33912,00625335,62272055,183
Totals, 1971186,619637,92214,139104,53314,711959,378
Totals, 1966183,093583,1728,54896,57710,853882,716
Total
16–19190,90013,3431672212205,113
20–24115,521115,1492,528220479234,959
25–3445,776295,3966,8201,2043,397354,002
35–4422,307275,0785,6813,8674,927312,885
45–5420,858254,0695,11312,3586,784300,166
55–6419,025189,4963,24927,3306,130246,040
65–7413,90696,4501,58340,4573,288156,297
75 and over8,69831,04959645,8731,13687,870
Totals, 1971436,9911,270,03025,737131,33126,1531,897,332
Totals, 1966427,9271,164,73215,367123,94920,2881,754,570

The percentage distribution of the population aged 16 years or over according to marital status is given in the following summary.

Marital Status196119661971
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
Never married27.220.128.120.726.919.5
Married67.566.766.866.167.866.6
Legally separated0.70.90.81.01.21.5
Widowed3.511.13.211.02.910.9
Divorced1.11.21.11.21.21.5
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

HOUSEHOLDS—There were 801,686 households in permanent private dwellings at the Census in 1971. The following table analyses the type of household by the number of occupants. A one-family-only household consists of a husband and wife with or without unmarried children of any age.

Type of HouseholdTotal HouseholdsNumber of Households with Occupancy of
1234567 or more
*While not strictly an "extended family", other groupings are included, mainly consisting of such relationships as a mother and widowed daughter.
One family only—
    Complete485,789153,59286,379107,01174,24438,07226,491
    Incomplete with children absent25,4005,7396,5505,5913,5211,9152,084
    Incomplete with one parent absent42,50420,30710,8526,1312,8981,3041,012
    Incomplete with one parent and child(ren) absent3,5401,460930552283137178
Totals557,233181,098104,711119,28580,94641,42829,765
Multi-person—
    One family plus other persons (non-family)76,449826*19,74516,94715,70010,71512,516
    Multi-family with or without other persons12,0402,2592,6032,3344,844
Totals88,48982619,74519,20618,30313,04917,360
Non-family42,67529,6307,8123,4651,205375188
One person113,289113,289
Totals801,686113,289211,554132,268141,956100,45454,85247,313

Of the 801,686 households at the 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings, there were 485,789 complete one-family-only households, that is, a husband and wife with or without unmarried children of any age.

In the following table these complete one-family-only households are analysed by distribution of the occupants and the occupational status of the head of the household.

Occupational Status of HeadTotal HouseholdsHusband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
*Including relative assisting heads and not specified but who are in the labour force
Actively engaged—
    Employer38,0127,4906,4249,5707,7484,2262,554
    Own account41,3548,9416,87710,1348,0794,5232,800
    Salary or wages345,95988,20265,86185,01957,47228,83520,570
    Unemployed1,643508311301203131189
    Relative assisting20141311
    Not specified345975276522543
Totals427,333105,25279,526105,10073,55737,74126,157
Not actively engaged—
    Retired55,57846,8046,3311,573493196181
    Student9856751777533196
    Housewife138922311435
    Other1,755769322252157113142
Totals58,45648,3406,8531,911687331334
Grand total485,789153,59286,379107,01174,24438,07226,491

The following table shows the composition of one-complete-family-only households in 1971 by the age group of the head of the household.

Age group of Head (in Years)Husband and Wife OnlyHusband and wife withTotal
1 Child2 Children3 Children4 Children5 or More Children
*Unmarried children of any age living at home.
Numbers
Under 205767428414561,427
20–2415,93010,8605,7311,0832025633,862
25–4424,13830,53768,55454,61228,37418,858225,073
45–6463,92037,65531,13918,1199,3217,450167,604
65 and over49,0286,5851,50341617012157,823
Totals153,59286,379107,01174,24438,07226,491485,789
Percentages
Under 2040.452.05.91.00.40.4100.0
20–2447.032.116.93.20.60.2100.0
25–4410.713.630.524.312.68.4100.0
45–6438.122.518.610.85.64.4100.0
65 and over84.811.42.60.70.30.2100.0
All ages31.617.822.015.37.85.5100.0

The following tables show, for one-complete-family-only households, the number of unmarried children of any age living with their parents on Census night 1971. The income given in the first table is the income of the head of the household, while in the second table the total household income is shown. In a considerable proportion of households, the total household income was substantially above the income of the head of the household, usually indicating at least one other income recipient in the family.

Income of HeadHusband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
One ChildTwo ChildrenThree ChildrenFour ChildrenFive or More Children
        $
Nil18,2582,596900368233291
            1–59910,9641,680675345187190
     600–1,3999,8552,5721,612943579529
  1,400–2,19915,4137,2686,1974,1202,2022,120
  2,200–2,99933,34321,72222,33814,7438,0366,703
  3,000–4,99948,12537,31353,93836,60518,05911,730
  5,000–7,99911,5549,25615,42912,0075,9253,235
  8,000–9,9992,0381,5002,4152,0541,118580
10,000 and over2,2511,6972,6932,4681,374735
Not specified1,791775814591359378
Totals153,59286,379107,01174,24438,07226,491
Total Income of HouseholdHusband and Wife OnlyHusband and Wife with
One ChildTwo ChildrenThree ChildrenFour ChildrenFive or More Children
        $
Nil16,09063726113299147
            1–5999,913623344212132136
     600–1,3998,1691,359899521322322
  1,400–2,19911,3534,4103,6902,4501,3601,311
  2,200–2,99919,38313,44014,0549,2704,9983,892
  3,000–4,99943,02733,18245,95730,97914,9669,653
  5,000–7,99934,09822,47127,53619,4589,9616,357
  8,000–9,9994,9374,7196,5374,9462,6111,685
10,000 and over3,8673,8605,8094,8712,7391,924
Not specified2,7551,6781,9241,4058841,064
Totals153,59286,379107,01174,24438,07226,491

The following table shows persons living alone in 1971 by age and marital status.

Age Group (in Years)Marital Status
Never MarriedMarriedLegally SeparatedDivorcedWidowedTotal
*Total includes 313 male heads and 153 female heads whose age and marital status were not available.
Males
Under 20658292689
20–242,420457951672,995
25–446,2341,9011,06272115210,070
45–646,5042,5561,2751,9562,76315,054
65 and over2,6011,7153767527,26312,707
Totals18,4176,6582,8103,44510,18541,828*
Females
Under 204092481442
20–241,0783648017101,549
25–443,0205814134832494,746
45–646,1882,1569892,36611,95623,655
65 and over5,7582,2014471,27931,23140,916
Totals16,4535,3261,9374,14643,44671,461

RELIGIOUS PROFESSIONS—The following summary presents the main religious professions returned at the 1961, 1966 and 1971 Censuses.

Religious ProfessionNumber of AdherentsPercentage
196119661971196119661971
Anglican (Church of England)835,434901,701895,83934.633.731.3
Presbyterian539,459582,976583,70122.321.820.4
Roman Catholic (including Catholic undefined)364,098425,280449,97415.115.915.7
Methodist173,838186,260182,7277.27.06.4
Baptist40,88646,74847,3501.71.71.7
Protestant (undefined)45,10046,09037,4751.91.71.3
Christian (undefined)12,13021,54833,1870.50.81.2
Ratana23,12627,57030,1561.01.01.1
Latter Day Saints17,97825,56429,7850.80.91.0
Brethren25,76423,13925,7681.10.90.9
Salvation Army15,45417,73719,3710.60.70.7
Seventh Day Adventist8,2209,55110,4770.30.30.4
Jehovah's Witness5,9447,45510,3180.20.30.4
Agnostic2,2884,9609,4810.10.20.3
Atheist3,3595,4749,2910.10.20.3
Church of Christ10,48510,3018,9300.40.40.3
Congregational9,37712,1017,7040.40.40.3
Lutheran4,8175,7305,9300.20.20.2
Ringatu5,3775,6055,6350.20.20.2
Eastern Orthodox3,3283,6054,3190.10.10.1
Hindu2,0743,5993,8450.10.10.1
Hebrew4,0064,1043,8030.20.20.1
Undenominational1,5143,0693,7090.10.10.1
Assemblies of God1,0602,0283,5990.10.1
Apostolic Church1,3991,8412,3610.10.10.1
Undenominational Christian2,1701,9681,9030.10.10.1
Christadelphian1,4981,6281,6670.10.1
Christian Scientist3,7191,1618160.2
Rationalist9561,696779..0.10.9
All other religious professions14,38623,49924,6940.60.90.1
No religion (so returned)17,48632,78057,4850.71.22.0
Object to state204,056210,851247,0198.47.98.6
Not specified14,19819,300103,5330.60.73.6
Totals2,414,9842,676,9192,862,631100.0100.0100.0

The category recorded as "Object to state" represents those persons availing themselves of the special statutory right of objecting to answer a question on this subject. It is probable that the "Not specified" group includes a number of persons objecting to the question.

AGE DISTRIBUTION—Census age-group figures are shown in the following table. Estimates of age distribution for later years are published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Age (Years)1965 Census1971 CensusPercentage of Total Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal19661971
*Under 21 years in 1966; under 20 years in 1973.
0–4156,954149,689306,643151,916145,946297,86211.510.4
5–9152,816146,441299,257158,310154,494309,80411.210.8
10–14136,498130,001266,499154,286147,671301,95710.010.5
1525,62124,32949,95028,39027,28655,6761.91.9
16–1999,70595,712195,417104,726100,387205,1137.37.2
2021,29220,66141,953   1.6 
21–2476,10272,597148,699119,447115,512234,9595.68.2
25–2984,92782,319167,24694,62292,690187,3126.26.5
30–3476,52972,867149,39684,18182,509166,6905.65.8
35–3984,91178,978163,88976,99774,192151,1896.15.3
40–4481,38578,795160,18083,25178,445161,6966.05.6
45–4972,27273,516145,78880,87978,488159,3675.45.6
50–5468,77869,226138,00469,14171,658140,7995.14.9
55–5961,43860,316121,75465,26466,919132,1834.54.6
60–6449,15849,99399,15155,59758,260113,8573.74.0
65–6936,46842,96179,42942,70047,91490,6143.03.2
70–7424,49734,05058,54728,46237,22165,6832.22.3
75–7918,04525,50343,54816,75426,61243,3661.61.5
80–8410,61615,73026,3469,92317,30127,2241.01.0
85–894,5617,26011,8214,5428,20412,7460.40.4
90 and over1,1702,2323,4021,4683,0664,5340.10.2
Totals1,343,7431,333,1762,676,9191,430,8561,431,7752,862,631100.0100.0
Under 15 years446,268426,131872,399464,512445,111909,62332.731.8
15–64 years802,118779,3091,581,427862,495846,3461,708,84159.059.7
65 years and over95,357127,736223,093103,849140,318244,1678.38.5
Minors*592,886566,8331,159,719597,628572,7841,170,41243.540.9
Adults750,857766,3431,517,200833,228858,9911,692,21956.559.1

ETHNIC GROUPS—The following table gives broad ethnic origins.

Ethnic GroupCensus
196119661971
European2,216,8862,426,3522,561,280
Maori167,086201,159227,414
Other Origins—
    Pacific Islanders—   
        Cook Island Maori4,4998,66313,772
        Samoan6,48111,84222,198
        Niuean & Tokelauan1,7282,8465,459
        Tongan1,0431,3892,072
        Other5891,5311,912
Sub-totals, Pacific Islanders14,34026,27145,413
    Chinese8,3339,98212,818
    Indian4,0276,6557,807
    Fijian7461,3232,021
    Syrian, Lebanese, and Arab1,0571,0491,126
    Other races2,5094,1284,752
Sub-totals, others16,67223,13728,524
Totals2,414,9842,676,9192,862,631

COUNTRY OF BIRTH—From 1945 to 1961 the New Zealand-born population remained at about 86 percent of the total population; by 1966 the proportion dropped to 85 percent, partly as a result of the growth of travel and tourism internationally.

The following table classifies persons by country of birth.

Country of BirthCensus
196119661971
New Zealand (excluding Cook Islands and Niue)2,074,5092,279,9942,444,169
United Kingdom218,649244,601247,952
Australia35,41243,37444,084
Netherlands17,84420,46120,471
Ireland (excluding Northern Ireland)8,8108,4485,922
Pacific Islands—
    Cook Islands and Niue4,7887,85210,301
    Fiji3,0385,3845,274
    Tonga7771,0051,273
    Tokelau Islands....950
    Western Samoa4,4507,44712,354
India4,7535,3685,662
China (incl. Taiwan)4,1944,2184,252
Canada2,8634,1174,933
United States2,7974,3065,871
Yugoslavia3,5343,8743,779
Other countries and born at sea28,56636,47045,384
Totals2,414,9842,676,9192,862,631

The next table shows the duration of residence in New Zealand of persons born overseas.

Years of Residence1961 Census1966 Census1971 Census
NumberPercentages Specified CasesNumberPercentages Specified CasesNumberPercentages Specified Cases
0–472,68521.7103,06426.590,36022.3
5–964,46819.356,87714.667,30416.6
10–1442,31312.761,35115.752,98113.1
15–198,1472.438,95710.055,38713.7
20–2410,3623.18,2122.136,3329.0
25–294,3611.39,3802.47,1631.8
30–3951,20815.319,9235.112,5123.1
40–4939,80411.947,11112.139,0979.6
50 and over41,15512.344,67111.544,40711.0
Not specified5,9727,37912,919
Totals340,475100.0396,925100.0418,462100.0

STATISTICS OF WORLD POPULATION—The area and estimated population of the continents and selected countries at 1 July 1971 are shown in the following table. (Source: United Nations Demographic Yearbook.)

Continents and CountriesAreaPopulation
 sq km 
Continents(000)million
    Europe4,936466.0
    Asia27,5322,104.0
    U.S.S.R22,402245.0
    Africa30,320354.0
    North America21,515230.0
    South America20,567291.0
    Oceania8,51019.8
Totals, World135,7833,709.0
Selected Countries
Europe—
    Belgium319.7
    Czechoslovakia12814.5
    Denmark435.0
    France54751.3
    Germany, West24859.2
    Germany, East10816.0
    Ireland, Republic of703.0
    Italy30154.1
    Luxembourg30.3
    Netherlands4113.2
    Norway3243.9
    Spain50534.1
    Sweden4508.1
    Switzerland416.3
    United Kingdom24455.6
    Yugoslavia25620.6
Oceania—
    Australia7,68712.7
    Fiji180.5
    New Caledonia190.1
    New Zealand2692.9
Asia—  
    Sri Lanka6612.7
    China9,597787.2
    India3,280550.4
    Indonesia1,492124.9
    Japan370104.7
    Khmer Republic1816.7
    Korea, North12114.3
    Korea, South9831.9
    Malaysia33010.7
    Singapore0.62.1
    Thailand51435.3
    Vietnam, North15921.6
    Vietnam, South17418.3
Middle East—
    United Arab Republic1,00134.1
    Iraq4359.8
    Israel213.0
    Lebanon102.9
    Jordan982.4
    Syria1856.5
Africa—  
    Congo3421.0
    Ghana2398.9
    Kenya58311.7
    Libya1,7602.0
    Malawi1184.5
    Nigeria92456.5
    Rhodesia3915.5
    South Africa1,22122.1
    Tanzania94513.6
    Zambia7534.3
North America—  
    United States9,363207.0
    Canada9,97621.8
South America—  
    Argentina2,77723.6
    Brazil8,51295.4
    Chile7579.0
    Peru1,28514.0

Chapter 6. Section 4; VITAL STATISTICS

4 A—NATURAL INCREASE

The rate of natural increase (excess of births over deaths) is important to national planning; along with net migration it is the major component of population growth. In recent years the rate of natural increase in New Zealand has been higher than for most other countries of predominantly European stock. The following table shows the numbers and rates of natural increase for the last 11 years, and emphasises the high rate for the Maori component of the population.

YearTotal PopulationMaorisNatural Increase Rates per 1,000 Mean Population
BirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseBirthsDeathsNatural IncreaseTotalMaori
196364,52722,41642,1118,0321,1986,83416.6037.49
196462,30222,86139,4417,8811,1686,71315.2335.46
196560,04722,97637,0717,7761,2176,55914.0733.43
196660,00323,77836,2257,7431,2916,45213.5131.87
196761,02223,00738,0157,9961,2226,77413.9432.59
196862,11224,46437,6488,0891,3246,76513.6831.75
196962,36024,16138,1998,1611,3306,83113.7431.31
197062,05024,84037,2108,1931,3996,79413.2030.42
197164,46024,30940,1518,3641,4216,94314.0130.31
197263,21524,80138,4147,8401,3476,52313.1727.65
197360,72725,31435,4137,3841,3806,00411.89 

In the 10 years to 31 December 1973 New Zealand has gained by natural increase of population a total of 376,965.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—An international comparison of birth and natural increase rates for certain countries is made in the following table. The rates, which are for 1972 are taken from the United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.

CountryRate per 1,000 of Population
BirthsDeathsNatural Increase
*Rates for 1971.
Mexico42.68.733.9
Israel28.56.921.6*
Singapore23.05.417.6
Hong Kong19.45.214.2
New Zealand21.78.513.2
Australia20.58.512.0
Japan19.26.612.6*
Ireland, Republic22.810.612.2*
Spain19.48.211.2
Netherlands16.18.57.6
Canada16.87.39.5*
United States17.39.38.0*
Italy16.89.67.2*
Norway16.89.96.9*
France16.910.66.3
Switzerland14.48.75.7
United Kingdom16.211.64.6*
Sweden13.810.43.4
Belgium14.512.42.1
Germany, West12.811.71.1*

4 B—BIRTHS

REGISTRATION—The law as to registration of births is contained in the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951. A birth is normally registered at the office of the Registrar nearest the place of birth.

Births statistics are compiled by the Department of Statistics from the records of the Registrar-General. The births covered by a year's statistics are those registered during the year. The figures do not include still births, except where multiple births are discussed. A special classification of still births is given later in this subsection.

Under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951, provision is made for births not registered in the ordinary way to be recorded at a later date in a special register kept by the Registrar-General. Such cases include elderly people requiring evidence of age for social security purposes.

Until 1971 these late registrations were included in published live birth statistics but are now excluded: late registrations totalled 244 in 1971, 257 in 1972.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The following table shows the numbers of births and the rates for the last 11 years.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean Population
TotalMaoriTotalMaori
196364,5278,03225.4444.06
196462,3027,88124.0641.63
196560,0477,77622.7939.63
196660,0037,74322.3738.25
196761,0227,99622.3738.47
196862,1128,08922.5637.96
196962,3608,16122.4337.41
197062,0508,19322.0136.68
197164,4608,36422.5036.51
197263,2157,87021.6733.36
197360,7277,38420.39 

REFINED BIRTH RATE—"Crude" rates of the number of births per 1,000 of the mean population, irrespective of sex or age, do not take account of variations in the proportion of women of the child-bearing ages. Refined rates are provided by computations of the legitimate birth rate per 1,000 married women of 16–44 years of age, or the total births per 1,000 of all women aged 15–44 years. The following table gives both rates for census years (on the basis of the births registered in that year and the population as at the census) together with the "crude" rate for the year.

Census YearBirth Rate per 1,000 Women"Crude" Birth Rate per 1,000 Mean Population
Married Women 16–44 YearsTotal Women 15–44 Years
1926176.992.121.23
1936155.179.018.07
1945186.5106.524.58
1951190.8123.025.62
1956191.7128.125.93
1961199.3140.626.99
1966155.2114.422.44

The percentage of married women in the child-bearing ages was 68.2 in 1966 compared with 51.6 in 1926. A study of the figures for successive censuses reveals considerable changes in the age constitution of married women within the child-bearing ages; as the birth rate varies with age, the change in age constitution over the period is a factor which should be taken into account.

The following diagram shows birth and death rates and indicates the relatively high rate of natural increase in New Zealand.

The period since the Second World War was marked by a high birth rate until 1961, when the level dropped; this experience was also shared by Australia, Canada, and the United States. In recent years the rates have been more stable at a lower level.

CountryBirth Rate per 1,000 Mean Population
19651966196719681969197019711972
New Zealand22.822.422.422.622.422.022.521.7
Australia19.719.319.420.020.420.521.720.5
Canada21.419.318.117.717.617.617.216.8
United States19.418.417.817.417.718.217.317.3
(Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics and Statistical Yearbook.)

The decline of the birth rates over the period from 1961 was the subject of discussion by demographers, notably at the World Population Conference in 1965. This change in fertility pattern has coincided in time with increasing use of oral contraceptives; their greater effectiveness in birth control appears to have a significant influence on fertility, on at least a short-term basis. Demographers have emphasised the need for further research, stating that it is important to study demographic variables involved in the recent decline in the birth rate, including changes in age distribution, timing of marriage and birth, past success in achieving the desired family size, and changes in the desired number of children. In New Zealand, changes in the proportion of women in the child-bearing groups were not of a nature to have any significant effect on the downward trend in the birth rate.

REPRODUCTION INDEX—The reproduction index is based on the fact that the future size of a population is related to the number of women in the reproductive age groups at any given time. The gross rate is based on the number of female children born, and the average number of girls that will be born to a woman during her reproductive period, while the net rate takes into account fertility rates at different ages and the percentages of female survivors at those ages, obtained from life tables. A net rate of 1.0 indicates zero population growth, and a higher rate a rising population.

Reproduction rates for the non-Maori population during the latest 11 years were as follows.

YearGross RateNet Rate
19612.0281.964
19621.9701.908
19631.8551.796
19641.7531.698
19651.6241.571
19661.5791.534
19671.5661.521
19681.5411.498
19691.5201.481
19701.4611.423
19711.4701.432

SEXES OF CHILDREN BORN—Statistics for the latest 6 years are given in the following table.

YearNumber of Births ofMale Births per 1,000 Female Births
MalesFemales
196731,09730,0721,034
196831,95530,3291,054
196932,02830,5361,049
197031,92430,2831,054
197132,99631,4641,049
197232,28830,9271,044
197331,09729,6301,050

MULTIPLE BIRTHS—The number of cases of multiple births and the proportion per 1,000 of the total (live births only) during the latest 6 years are shown in the following table.

YearTotal BirthsTotal CasesCases of TwinsCases of TripletsMultiple Cases per 1,000 of Total Cases
*Includes one case of quadruplets.
196761,16960,5655907*9.86
196862,28461,603666810.94
196962,56461,921627810.26
197062,20761,548647610.61
197164,46063,793649910.31
197263,21562,595594139.70

There were 62,595 confinements in 1972 resulting in live births; of these, 607 produced multiple living births and in a further 12 cases 1 of the twins was still-born- The ratio of multiple confinements with live births to total live confinements was 1:101. In eleven additional cases both twins were still-born.

YearCases of TwinsCases of Triplets, Quads, and QuinsTotal Multiple CasesRate per 1,000 Confinements
Both Born AliveOne Born Alive One Still-bornBoth Still-bornTotalAll Born AliveOne Born Alive Two Still-bornTwo Born Alive One Still-bornAll Still-bornQuads, all AliveQuins, all AliveTotal
*The thirteen cases of triplets in 1972 comprised five cases where there were two females and one male; three cases where there were two males and one female; two cases all males; and three cases all females.
196866618669071869811.3
19696271186468865410.6
19706472156736667911.0
19716492466799968810.8
1972594121161713*1363010.1
Average of 5 years6371776619967010.8

The likelihood of still births occurring is much greater in cases of multiple births than in single cases. This is exemplified in the following table. The figures in respect of multiple cases include all cases where one or more of the children were still-born.

YearStill-birth Cases per 100 of Total Cases (Including Still Births)
Single CasesMultiple Cases
19681.173.58
19690.972.91
19701.043.83
19710.984.36
19720.973.65
Average of 5 years1.033.67

AGES OF PARENTS—Information as to the relative ages of parents of nuptial living children whose births were registered in 1972 is shown in the following table for the total population.

Registrations of births under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 are excluded.

Age of Mother, in YearsAge of Father, in Years
Under 2121–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445–4950–5455–6465 and OverTotal Cases
*Including 13 cases of triplets and 11 cases where 1 of twins was still-born.
Single Births
Under 212,5274,1751,012155311082117,922
21–243406,4538,3841,387232682211316,900
25–29318498,8956,0871,18030873248417,159
30–342516693,5622,186654152572227,357
35–397512701,057827269762722,586
40–443229734220261142743
45 and over2534124158
Totals2,90011,53518,71411,4834,7852,214760243791252,725
Multiple Birth
Under 21133210257
21–24555771332155
25–291088641724185
30–3419452983196
35–39721113244
40–44162110
45 and over
Totals189818413270291231547
Grand totals2,91811,63318,89811,6154,8552,243772246801253,272*

PREVIOUS ISSUE OF PARENTS—The following table gives for 1972 the number of previous issue, i.e., children born alive, in conjunction with the age of mother.

Age of Mother in YearsNumber of Previous IssueTotal Nuptial Cases
0123456–910–1415 and Over
*This number represents 52,725 single cases and 547 multiple cases.
Under 215,9321,850185127,979
21–248,0596,2352,09152111531317,055
25–294,5765,9784,1681,73155420812917,344
30–341,0321,5181,9651,462709389358207,453
35–393092894205034052404006312,630
40–4473619911211682155478753
45 and over1055777123258
Totals19,99115,9368,9334,3481,9069571,0571331153,272*

In the following table the total issue and average issue are shown for mothers by age groups where a birth occurred in 1972.

Age of Mother in YearsTotal MothersTotal IssueAverage Issue
Under 217,97910,2931.29
21–2417,05529,8271.75
25–2917,34441,1292.37
30–347,45324,8273.33
35–392,63011,6234.42
40–447534,0075.32
45 and over583125.38
Totals53,272122,0182.29

It should be stressed that the averages are no more than they purport to be—viz., the average number of children (including those registered in 1972) born up to the present time to those mothers of nuptial children whose births were registered during the year. They do not purport to represent, nor do they represent, the average issue of all women of the ages shown. Furthermore, they include issue born to the existing marriages only. The averages for recent years have been as follows: 1967, 2.57; 1968, 2.53; 1969, 2.50; 1970, 2.44; 1971, 2.36; and 1972, 2.29.

FIRST BIRTHS—Statistics of nuptial first confinements show that in recent years there have been reduced proportions occurring within 1 year after marriage and within 2 years after marriage.

YearTotal Nuptial CasesTotal Nuptial First CasesProportion of First Cases to Total CasesFirst Cases Within 1 Year After MarriageFirst Cases Within 2 Years After Marriage
NumberProportion to Total First CasesNumberProportion to Total First Cases
   percent percent percent
196752,84517,56433.248,28747.1812,62171.86
196853,58017,96033.528,16045.4312,57370.01
196953,87418,33134.037,97543.5112,35767.41
197053,32618,82835.317,79141.3812,45566.15
197154,87620,10136.638,37541.6613,25965.96
197253,27219,99137.537,67938.4112,52762.67

The following table gives the duration-of-marriage factor in first confinements over a longer time-series. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern births of non-Maoris only.

Duration of Marriage in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197019711972
Under 146.2538.4742.6449.8541.3841.6638.41
126.7926.3030.5626.4224.7724.3024.25
210.2411.2811.5611.4215.4815.7416.39
36.167.885.955.078.848.699.98
43.967.183.302.824.394.555.30
5–95.497.365.053.564.614.555.21
10 and over1.111.530.940.860.530.510.46
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

In the following table first confinements occurring to mothers in different age groups are expressed as a percentage of the total first confinements. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern confinements of non-Maoris only.

Age of Mother, in YearsPercentage of Total First Confinements
1934194419541964197019711972
Under 208.907.339.0819.6420.4520.6520.53
20–2440.3941.7947.7152.6751.2751.1749.45
25–2932.7929.5427.7918.2821.1521.2422.89
30–3413.1014.6110.396.004.845.215.16
35–393.795.363.922.571.711.351.55
40–440.991.341.020.810.560.350.37
45 and over0.040.030.090.030.020.030.05
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The average ages of mothers at the birth of their first child were as follows: 1924, 26.39; 1934, 25.90; 1944, 25.18; 1954, 25.32; 1964, 23.65; 1969, 23.42; 1970, 23.46; 1971, 23.40; and 1972, 22.99 years.

EX-NUPTIAL BIRTHS—The numbers of ex-nuptial births registered during each of the latest 10 years, with the percentages they bear to total births registered, are given in the following table. The percentages in recent years are higher than those for Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, and United States but lower than those for Sweden. Meaningful international comparisons can only be made with caution; some of the difficulties are discussed in a supplement to the January 1967 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Unmarried mothers are not infrequently de facto wives with comparatively stable relationships.

YearNumberPercentage of Total Live Births
*Excludes registrations under section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951.
19635,6988.81
19646,1899.91
19656,55410.89
19666,96011.56
19677,78312.72
19688,09413.00
19698,12712.99
19708,30013.34
1971*8,98113.93
1972*9,39414.86
19739,20615.16

The long-term trend in the rate of ex-nuptial births is indicated by the movement in the proportion of ex-nuptial births per 1,000 unmarried women—i.e., spinsters, widows, and divorced women—at the reproductive ages. The figures for census years are as follows. Up to 1961 the statistics relate to non-Maoris only; from 1966 Maoris are included.

Census YearUnmarried Women 15–44 Years of AgeEx-nuptial BirthsEx-nuptial Birth Rate per 1,000 Unmarried Women
1911120,7781,0788.93
1916125,4611,1599.24
1921136,5391,2589.21
1926148,5511,4739.92
1936167,7811,1266.71
1945156,3261,82411.67
1951130,3431,93514.85
1956129,8772,31017.79
1961138,0183,33224.14
1966171,3226,96040.63

In 1972 the total number of ex-nuptial confinements was 9,323 Of these 9,251 cases were single births, 71 were twins, while there was 1 case of twins in which 1 child was still-born. The total number of ex-nuptial live births was 9,394. From the following table, it will be seen that of the 9,323 mothers, 4,912 or 52.69 percent, were under 21 years of age.

AgeNumber of Mothers
11
121
134
1437
15260
16602
17990
181,094
191,056
20868
21719
22610
23520
24–291,644
30–34548
35–39277
40–4487
45 and over6
Total9,323

Re-registration*—An ex-nuptial child whose parents have later married may be re-registered from birth by reason of such marriage. Applications for registration must be made within 3 months after the date of the marriage.

The numbers of re-registrations in each of the latest 5 years were as follows: 1968, 1,310; 1969 1,386; 1970, 1,513; 1971, 1,749; 1972, 1,619.

The Child Welfare Act 1925 requires that all ex-nuptial births be notified to a social worker so that inquiries may be made concerning the circumstances of each mother and child for the purpose of offering advice and assistance.

*Was formerly known as Legitimation, but name was changed when the Status of Children Act 1969 was introduced.

The following table shows the outcome of the inquiries made in recent years. Inquiries relate to some births from the preceding year and do not cover all births in the year stated.

Location of Infants197019711972
No.%No.%No.%
Re-registered after marriage of parents254433643134
Remaining with mother (parents cohabiting)1,778251,855231,88124
Remaining with mother (parents not cohabiting)1,950272,178272,29330
Placed with relatives234331942503
Placed with strangers with view to adoption2,302322,409302,12828
Placed with strangers, no expressed wish to adoption12721161971
In children's home or other institution on a long-term basis491461591
Committed to care of Social Welfare283436
Not traced297473895237
Died97111911462
Totals7,1161008,1501007,726100

ADOPTIONS—The following table shows the number of adoptions which have been registered during the latest 5 years.

YearMalesFemalesTotal
19671,8031,7103,513
19681,8541,9263,780
19691,9241,9643,888
19701,9721,8653,837
19712,0091,9673,976
19721,7791,8633,642

Of the 3,642 adoptions registered in 1972, 1,666 were children under the age of 1 year, 1,206 were aged 1 to 4 years, 451 were aged 5 to 9 years, and 319 were aged 10 years or over.

In 1972, for the first time for many years, there was a substantial drop in the number of adoption orders made by the Court, a total of 3,642 adoptions being finalised, compared with 3,976 in 1971. Social workers of the Social Welfare Department were concerned with 3,280 or 81 percent of these; Maori welfare officers handled most of the others.

The following table, which relates only to cases handled by the department, shows the number and status of children adopted over the last 4 years.

Status of Children Adopted1969197019711972
*These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Ex-nuptial2,9772,8312,6742,713
Nuptial473495506498
Not known*50365169
Totals3,5003,3623,2313,280

In 1972, 83 percent of the children adopted were born out of wedlock. Of these children born out of wedlock, 88 percent were aged less than one year at the time of placement for adoption. Sixty-five percent were placed with strangers.

The next table shows the age at placement according to the status of the children adopted in 1972.

AgeNuptialEx-nuptialNot KnownTotal
*These are cases where, because one of the applicants is the child's natural parent, a social worker's report has not been called for.
Under 1 year3282,554102,892
1–5 years47852134
6 years and over32941
Not known*916557213
Totals4982,713693,280

The following table shows the original relationship between adopted children and their new parents.

Relationship197019711972
Strangers2,2862,1762,136
One parent and spouse739738801
Relative or close friend337317343
Totals3,3623,2313,280

STILL BIRTHS—Although it is compulsory to effect a birth-registration entry for a still-born child, no entry is made in the register of deaths. Particulars of causes of still births will be found in Section 4c relating to deaths. A still-born child is defined as one "which has issued from its mother after the expiration of the twenty-eighth week of pregnancy and which was not alive at the time of such issue". Still births are not included either as births or as deaths in the various numbers and rates shown in this subsection and in that relating to deaths. The rate was 1.01 per 100 births in 1972.

The registration of still births during each of the latest 5 years were as follows.

YearMale Still BirthsFemale Still BirthsTotalMale Still Births per 1,000 Female Still BirthsPercentage of Still Births to
Living BirthsAll Births
19683793737521,0161.211.19
19693272986251,0971.000.99
19703543176711,1171.081.07
19713383226601,0501.021.01
19723273166431,0351.021.01

The rate of masculinity for still births in 1972 was 1,035 males per 1,000 females as compared with 1,044 for living births.

The percentage of ex-nuptial births among still-born infants was, in 1972, 16.49 and among infants born alive, 14.86.

Of the total of 643 still births in 1972, 552 were non-Maori and 91 Maori; of the Maori total 48 were males and 43 females.

4 C—DEATHS

NUMBERS AND RATES—The following table sets out the numbers of deaths and the crude death rates per 1,000 of mean population. (Maoris are defined as persons with half or more Maori ancestry and the term non-Maori covers all other persons.)

YearNumbersCrude Rate per 1,000 of Mean Population
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
195016,7151,36918,0849.3112.099.47
195517,9531,27219,2258.959.568.99
196019,5241,36820,8928.818.568.79
196521,7591,21722,9768.926.208.72
196823,1401,32424,4649.116.138.88
196922,8311,33024,1618.995.998.68
197023,4411,39924,8409.036.268.81
197122,8881,42124,3098.696.208.49
197223,4541,34724,8018.755.718.50
197323,9341,38025,314....8.50

Crude death rates do not reflect the true levels of mortality which exist in populations which have different age structures. The Maori population has a very much higher proportion of those at younger ages who do not contribute many deaths to the total and conversely relatively few persons at older ages when the rate of dying is high. The effect of this is to produce a very deflated crude rate.

In the following table for 1966 adjustments made to effect a truer comparison show that mortality for Maoris is relatively higher; in addition, a comparison is supplied in age-specific rates for the two races in each sex.

RaceAll Ages Rates per 10,000 Mean PopulationAge-specific Rates per 10,000 of Population at Ages
Crude RateMaori Rate Adjusted to Non-Maori PopulationUnder 5 Years5–14 Years15–24 Years25–44 Years45–64 Years65 Years and Over
Males
Maori71.3144.182.410.122.536.3217.41,041.4
Non-Maori100.445.24.714.420.0131.4822.8
Females
Maori55.8140.466.48.18.034.2200.2814.4
Non-Maori80.933.03.14.912.469.9583.0
Both Sexes
Maori63.7144.474.59.115.335.2209.2935.2
Non-Maori90.739.23.99.816.3100.4685.0

For both Maoris and non-Maoris the death rate in males exceeds the death rate in females by a considerable margin. The following table sets out the respective crude rates for each sex separately for the latest 11 years in the total population.

YearDeaths per 1,000 of Mean PopulationMale Deaths to Every 100 Female Deaths
MalesFemalesTotal
19629.807.978.89124
19639.757.918.84124
19649.737.938.83124
19659.587.868.72123
19669.827.908.86125
19679.297.578.43123
19689.807.958.88123
19699.587.788.68123
19709.647.958.81121
19719.377.608.49123
19729.127.898.50115

DISTRIBUTION OF DEATHS OVER THE YEAR—An examination of the total number of deaths registered in each quarter of the last 12 years gives the following averages: March quarter, 5,012; June quarter, 5,841; September quarter, 6,786; and December quarter, 5,702.

A classification according to month of death shows that in 1972 the months during which the greatest number of deaths occurred were August, July, and June, with totals of 2,479, 2,318 and 2,271 respectively. Excluding December (a proportion of deaths occurring in that month not being registered till January) November had the least number of deaths, 1,758, followed by February with 1,809.

AGES AT DEATH—Deaths registered during the year 1972 are shown according to age in the following table.

Age, in YearsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1565423988
  1–4122112234
  5–95656112
10–145252104
15–1922191312
20–2420564269
25–2911762179
30–3413676212
35–39157101258
40–44240184424
45–49430282712
59–546743861,060
55–599915571,548
60–641,4508102,260
65–691,6901,0832,773
70–741,7831,3523,135
75–791,6121,6573,269
80–841,3911,8023,193
85–899361,4392,375
90–943667221,088
95–9982172254
100 and over162642
Totals13,29211,50924,801

The Maori population is a very young one compared with the non-Maori and as a result there is a considerable variation in the proportions of deaths of Maoris and non-Maoris which take place at various ages. The following table illustrates the position for the year 1972.

Age, in YearsNumber of DeathsPercentage of Total DeathsPercentage of Maori Deaths in Total Deaths per Age Group
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
Under 51,0222004.3514.8516.37
5–14176400.752.9718.52
15–24487942.086.9816.18
25–449001733.8412.8416.12
45–645,11047021.7934.898.42
65 and over15,75937067.1927.472.29
    All ages23,4541,347100.00100.005.43

In the following table is given a time series for rates of death per 1,000 of mean population by age groups. Health measures have achieved an immense saving of young life and a prolongation of life especially among elderly women.

YearUnder 1*1–45–1415–2425–3435–4445–5455–6465–7475 and Over

*Per 1,000 live births in this case.

†Non-Maori figures only as Maori deaths at ages not available for these years.

(Rates per 1,000 of mean population in each age group)
Males
190178.606.811.893.523.976.1611.9423.1250.59141.67
191163.485.361.912.423.876.2711.0220.8353.22130.58
192153.104.781.852.443.565.559.6119.9646.17128.60
193138.212.831.352.282.774.648.6918.2544.18130.57
194143.654.391.362.532.933.959.2021.1347.44140.27
195131.691.870.751.821.953.157.5720.4647.52121.66
196125.861.340.491.281.472.687.3919.6547.33126.31
196919.701.230.491.421.492.717.3720.1749.12141.57
197018.481.130.571.551.673.117.3920.6149.76141.81
197117.911.070.461.441.332.897.3420.6948.39137.67
Females
190163.875.501.643.584.726.7010.6219.4443.32127.98
191148.745.371.482.764.344.928.3817.8940.44119.60
192142.314.491.312.343.334.468.0014.8836.81120.23
193125.672.470.971.853.203.816.8415.3636.83122.87
194137.753.841.201.942.443.506.9015.0438.60118.92
195123.091.590.540.891.302.275.6713.8532.80109.79
196119.501.160.350.530.871.954.5911.2229.89104.74
196913.950.790.310.490.811.994.8310.7327.40102.58
197014.860.840.350.600.722.064.8910.6627.96104.48
197115.100.820.280.560.911.874.7110.3725.47100.05
Both Sexes
190171.406.171.773.554.336.4011.3721.6347.87135.71
191156.315.361.702.584.095.649.8219.5547.74126.13
192147.824.641.582.393.475.108.8517.5941.90124.84
193132.152.651.172.072.984.227.8016.8840.56126.87
194139.814.121.282.222.673.728.0218.1643.04129.15
195127.541.730.651.361.632.716.6717.0339.93115.26
196122.761.250.420.911.182.316.0015.4137.67114.01
196916.891.010.400.961.152.366.0915.3937.21117.43
197016.720.990.471.081.202.606.1315.5537.87118.41
197116.540.950.371.011.122.396.0215.4335.94113.96

The average (arithmetic mean) age at death of non-Maori persons of each sex is shown in the following table.

YearMalesFemales
 age (years) 
190141.6437.68  
191146.1742.37  
192148.4546.97  
193154.1455.48  
194158.6559.60  
195161.5865.25  
196163.8067.32  
196664.5769.89  
196763.7569.40  
196864.6269.63  
196964.6570.10  
197064.4070.19  
197164.7570.04  
197264.6570.48  

The average age of death of Maoris in 1972 was 47.14 and 46.08 years for males and females respectively. The age composition of the Maori population is quite different as explained previously.

EXPECTATION OF LIFE—Life tables, depicting the pattern of mortality over the age span of life for particular calendar periods for the non-Maori component of New Zealand's population, have been constructed at regular intervals since 1880. The most recent tables prepared by the Department of Statistics are based on the 1966 population census, together with mortality statistics for 1965–67.

Life tables contain a measure of the degree of longevity of the population called the "expectation of life". The expectation of life at any age is the average remaining lifetime for persons of this age, assuming that mortality rates at each age continue at the level shown by the life table. The life expectancy at selected ages at the present time, for the non-Maori population in New Zealand, is shown in the table below. The overall longer span of life enjoyed by females, compared with males, is evident, as is the improvement in life expectancy once the first year of life is survived. Further details concerning life table methodology and construction and trends in New Zealand life expectancies can be obtained from New Zealand Life Tables 1965–67 and Life Annuity Tables.

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
068.6774.84
169.0274.91
268.1474.00
367.2073.06
466.2572.11
565.2871.15
1060.4266.24
1555.5761.33
2050.8956.46
2546.2651.60
3041.5646.75
4032.2337.16
5023.4128.09
6015.8219.68
709.8112.39
805.636.70
903.053.32
1001.601.71

The long-term trend since 1880 for non-Maoris has been a steady improvement in life expectancy for both sexes. The improvement has been striking for the younger ages but relatively small for the advanced ages. Progress in medical science, coupled with improved social conditions, has resulted in substantial reductions in mortality for all ages up to middle age. However, over the 1960–62 to 1965–67 period higher rates of mortality have occurred for males for most ages beyond childhood, esulting from a higher prevalent of organic diseases (heart disease, cancer) and accidents. This has resulted in a marginal decrease of life expectancy at most ages, while for females, life expectancy has increased, though at a reduced rate. The next table displays the life expectancy for non-Maoris revealed by each life table compiled since 1880 for the three exact ages of 0, 20, and 60 years.

Life TableLife Expectancy (Years)
Males Aged ExactlyFemales Aged Exactly
0206002060
1880–9254.4444.5514.9557.2646.3916.39
1891–9555.2945.4715.0658.0947.1916.55
1896–190057.3746.3415.3359.9547.9116.54
1901–0558.0946.7415.4060.5548.2316.64
1906–1059.1747.2015.5161.7648.7716.77
1911–1560.9647.6115.5463.4849.1416.72
1921–2262.7648.6616.0365.4350.3617.29
1925–2763.9948.9315.7966.5750.9617.23
193165.0449.6116.2267.8851.2817.30
1934–3865.4649.8916.0668.4552.0217.49
1950–5268.2951.1516.1972.4354.6418.53
1955–5768.8851.4416.1973.8855.8719.16
1960–6269.1751.5316.0974.5156.3319.39
1965–6768.6750.8915.8274.8456.4619.68

The expectation of life at various ages for the Maori population is shown in the following table. These expectations are taken from New Zealand Life Tables 1965–67 and Life Annuity Tables.

Exact Age (Years)Life Expectancy (Years)
MalesFemales
061.4464.78
162.5665.41
261.8364.64
360.9663.77
460.0762.88
559.1661.95
1054.4357.10
2045.1347.48
3036.1538.12
4027.4929.10
5019.4321.03
6012.8915.09
708.3510.20
804.536.44

Life expectancy at birth for a Maori male increased by 2.39 years in the interval 1960–62 to 1965–67, with that for females increasing by 3.41 years. These increases are larger than those over the period 1955–57 to 1960–62, when they were 1.82 years for males and 2.69 for females. This shows the continuing improvement in Maori life expectancy.

The expectation of life of Maoris is shorter at all except the highest ages than that of the non-Maori population, but the differences are being gradually reduced. A comparison at age 0 shows that life expectancy is 7.23 years greater for non-Maori males and 10.06 years greater for non-Maori females. For the period 1960–62, the differences were 10.12 years and 13.14 years respectively.

The table below compares the life expectancy at birth for the total population of New Zealand with that for selected overseas countries. (Source: United Nations Demographic Yearbook.)

CountryPeriodLife Expectancy at Birth (Years)
MalesFemales

*Excluding full-blooded Aborigines.

†Both sexes.

Australia*1965–6767.6474.16
Canada1965–6768.7575.18
Denmark1967–6870.675.4
England and Wales1967–6968.774.9
France1,96868.075.5
Netherlands1,96871.076.4
New Zealand1965–6768.1974.30
Norway1961–6571.0375.97
Scotland1967–6967.0673.21
Sweden1,96771.8576.54
United States1,96866.674.0
U.S.S.R.1967–6870.070.0

REGISTRATION OF DEATH, BURIAL AND CREMATION—Deaths are required to be registered by the funeral director within 3 days after the day of burial. The law governing burial and cremation in New Zealand is found in the Burial and Cremation Act 1964. The registration by local authorities of funeral directors and mortuaries operated by them is provided for in the Health (Burial) Regulations 1946. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision exists for the disposal of the dead. Cremation may be carried out if the deceased is not known to have left any written direction to the contrary.

In 1950 seven crematoria were in existence in New Zealand; by 1960 eight had been established and were situated at Auckland, Hastings, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Wellington, Nelson, Christchurch, and Dunedin. A further seven have been established since and in 1970 there was a second crematorium in Auckland and Christchurch and also crematoria in Hamilton, Tauranga, Rotorua, New Plymouth, and Timaru.

The rate of cremation for every 100 deaths registered has more than doubled since 1950. The following table relates cremations to the number of deaths since 1950. Prior to 1962 the statistics concern deaths of non-Maoris only.

YearDeaths RegisteredCremationsRate per 100 Deaths Registered
MalesFemalesTotal
195016,7151,7991,4543,25319.46
195517,9532,4212,0324,45324.80
196019,5242,9582,5825,54028.38
196522,9764,2053,4937,69833.50
196723,0074,6523,7618,41336.57
196824,4645,0454,0779,12237.29
196924,1615,1034,2169,31938.57
197024,8405,4184,4749,89239.82
197124,3095,4454,5519,99641.12
197224,8015,6554,78510,44042.10

Numbers and rates of cremations for statistical areas in 1972 are shown in the following table.

Statistical AreaDeaths RegisteredCremationsRate per 100 Deaths Registered
MalesFemalesTotal
Northland763545510914.29
Central Auckland6,1111,7761,5413,31754.28
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty2,97955337893131.25
East Coast44337266314.22
Hawke's Bay1,20622521143636.15
Taranaki91816314731033.77
Wellington4,6991,1631,0602,22347.31
Marlborough28530336322.11
Nelson646987817627.24
Westland255135187.06
Canterbury3,7931,0618411,90250.15
Otago1,85144538282744.68
Southland8523728657.63
Totals24,8015,6554,78510,44042.10

DEATHS BY CAUSES—The accuracy of death data even in medically certified deaths will be affected by two factors—the proportion of deaths in hospitals where diagnostic equipment is available and the proportion of deaths in which a post-mortem report is available for reference.

In recent years in approximately one-third of all deaths, a post-mortem was conducted. In the cases of deaths certified by doctors, 20 percent of non-Maori and 12 percent of Maori deaths were followed by an autopsy. In the cases certified by coroners almost all deaths are subject to autopsy.

The Eighth (1965) Revision of the International Classification of Diseases, Injuries, and Causes of Death replaced the Seventh (1955) Revision with effect from 1 January 1968.

Total deaths and the rates per million of total population for the latest 3 years, classified according to the Abbreviated List of 50 Causes for Tabulation of Mortality, are contained in the following table. Certain diseases (cholera, plague, smallpox, typhus, and malaria) are not listed in the table as there were no deaths from these causes in the years shown.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
196919701971196919701971
Bacillary dysentery and amoebiasis11
Enteritis and other diarrhoeal diseases476950172418
Tuberculosis of respiratory system735527262010
Other tuberculosis, including late effects274844101716
Whooping cough1
Streptococcal sore throat and scarlet fever1
Meningococcal infection7113341
Measles7125342
Syphilis and its sequelae898333
All other infective and parasitic diseases1017183372529
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue4,1884,4604,4861,5161,5821,591
Benign neoplasms and neoplasms of unspecified nature423837151313
Diabetes mellitus417366372151130132
Avitaminosis and other nutritional deficiency12154451
Anaemias744145271516
Meningitis343443121215
Active rheumatic fever825312
Chronic rheumatic heart disease29229424910610488
Hypertensive disease402387354145137126
Ischaemic heart disease6,6996,7886,9322,4242,4072,459
Other forms of heart disease1,109905881401321312
Cerebrovascular disease3,0703,2133,3101,1111,1401,174
Influenza512142318768
Pneumonia1,3791,3961,195499495424
Bronchitis, emphysema and asthma9431,023987341363350
Peptic ulcer121117107444138
Appendicitis141517556
Intestinal obstruction and hernia889090323232
Cirrhosis of liver79107104293837
Nephritis and neophrosis11296128413445
Hyperplasia of prostate646667232324
Abortion11
Other complications of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium, delivery without mention of complication131914575
Congenital anomalies349320303126113107
Birth injury, difficult labour and other anoxic and hypoxic conditions177148176645262
Other causes of perinatal mortality316327332114116118
Symptoms and ill-defined conditions123146104455237
All other diseases2,0192,0201,864731716661
Motor vehicle accidents582649674211230239
All other accidents778937895282332317
Suicide and self-inflicted injuries2782712371019684
All other external causes575951212118
Totals24,16124,84024,3098,7448,8108,621

In a variety of conditions and in external causes of death the mortality rate for Maoris is very much higher than the non-Maori experience. Much of this disparity is concealed, however, by crude rates which are calculated by dividing the total population into the number of deaths from any particular disease or circumstance. With two populations so very dissimilar in age structure (at ages under 5 years non-Maoris are seven times more numerous than Maoris, but at ages 75 years and upward they are 85 times as numerous), it is necessary to resort to an adjustment of Maori rates so that the figures for any condition become directly comparable in any particular year. This has been done in the following table by firstly calculating age-specific rates for the Maori and then applying these to the non-Maori population, age group to age group. This computation provides an "expected" number of Maori deaths in each age group and these added together and then divided by the non-Maori population give an adjusted rate. In addition to the rates expressed per million of population the absolute numbers of deaths in the two races are furnished for the same 50 causes.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRates per Million of Population (Non-Maori: Crude Rate—Maori: Adjusted Rate)
1970197119701971
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
Bacillary dysentery and amoebiasis11
Enteritis and other diarrhoeal diseases5415321821391249
Tuberculosis of respiratory system42131611161716128
Other tuberculosis, including late effects371133111415313114
Whooping cough1
Streptococcal sore throat and scarlet fever1
Meningococcal infection923351
Measles573222915
Syphilis and its sequelae7262323225
All other infective and parasitic diseases6386518247625114
Malignant neoplasms, including neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue4,2681924,2842021,6442,5011,6502,550
Benign neoplasms and neoplasms of unspecified nature35335213301339
Diabetes mellitus3293733438127624129543
Avitaminosis and other nutritional deficiency1414532
Anaemias4014321531737
Meningitis231129149451137
Active rheumatic fever1132316
Chronic rheumatic heart disease24252216339352283342
Hypertensive disease3533432331136483124440
Ischaemic heart disease6,5832056,6912412,5363,2762,5773,951
Other forms of heart disease84263841403241,236324708
Cerebrovascular disease3,130833,231791,2061,5751,2441,352
Influenza1932121274353844
Pneumonia1,2901061,098974979944231,093
Bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma96261909783711,0013501,341
Peptic ulcer10891016421343990
Appendicitis114116421444
Intestinal obstruction and hernia83783732333271
Cirrhosis of liver101699529383852
Nephritis and nephrosis8313112163211743126
Hyperplasia of prostate66643252565
Abortion14
Other complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium, delivery without mention of complication12713154055
Congenital anomalies28733273301119310598
Birth injury, difficult labour and other anoxic and hypoxic conditions117311403645805494
Other causes of perinatal mortality2735427953105139107139
Symptoms and ill-defined conditions1415968544837106
All other diseases1,9071131,7441207351,2106721,422
Motor vehicle accidents56782569105218452219585
All other accidents8469180392326502309713
Suicide and self-inflicted injuries261102325101638934
All other external causes4019429151041665
Totals23,4261,41422,8841,4259,02316,2428,81416,627

Age-specific rates and Maori age-adjusted rates have been published for a comprehensive list of diseases in Maori-European Standards of Health, one of a series of special reports issued by the Department of Health.

The comparatively poor state of health of the Maori is shown by the excess in the Maori adjusted rates for most diseases. As can be seen in the table, the absolute numbers of Maoris dying from any cause of death is small. This is because the Maori population has a high proportion of young people, and most diseases which cause death develop at the older ages.

The susceptibility of the Maori to epidemic and communicable disease is well known. Again there is a Maori excess mortality in cancer and diabetes. The disparity is also very noticeable in acute rheumatic fever and chronic rheumatic heart disease; in certain other forms of degenerative heart disease and hypertension; in both acute and chronic chest conditions, and in gastro-intestinal and kidney infections. Recent health surveys have indicated that an inclination towards overnutrition, combined with a racial predisposition to excess weight, may underlie the early development of degenerative conditions and the high incidence of metabolic disorders.

In addition to the greater susceptibility to disease processes, the Maori shows a much higher accident rate. Especially accident prone is the Maori child and young adult, while proportionately many more Maoris are involved in road fatalities.

Cancer—Cancer is annually responsible for more deaths in New Zealand than any other cause except diseases of the heart. While it is most prevalent in middle and old age, cancer is a leading cause of death at all ages, even among children and adolescents.

A detailed report on cancer mortality and morbidity in New Zealand was issued in 1971 by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. This report covers mortality from cancer from 1958 to 1969, and also surveys all cases reported to the National Cancer Registry by hospitals and by the various cancer clinics established in New Zealand under the auspices of the Cancer Society of New Zealand.

Attention is drawn to the transference, under the 1948 Revision of the International Classification, of Hodgkin's disease, leukaemia, etc., into the category of malignant disease. This classification was introduced in New Zealand in 1950, and all cancer figures quoted for that and subsequent years include these conditions*.

In 1971 there were 4,486 deaths from cancer, of which 202 were Maori. While the 1971 non-Maori crude cancer death rate of 172.8 was twice as high as the Maori crude rate of 90.4 (both per 100,000 of population), these figures are misleading as a measure of the incidence of malignant disease in the two groups. When allowance is made for the comparatively few persons in the Maori population at older ages where cancer is most frequently diagnosed, it is seen that Maori cancer mortality is markedly higher than non-Maori cancer mortality. This fact is no indication at all that in general the Maori is more prone to cancer (in cancers of the intestines in both sexes and in two sites in the Maori female, the cervix and the lung, the incidence appears to be higher), but that there is more delay in reporting the symptoms of cancer by Maoris and that more cancer in Maoris goes untreated.

*The 1965 Revision of the International Classification transferred Polycythaemia Vera and Myelofibrosis into the malignant categories but these are not included in cancer figures

A summary of numbers, crude rates, and standardised mortality ratios is provided in the following table.

YearNumber of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Mortality RatiosNumber of Deaths from CancerCrude Death Rate per 100,000Standardised Mortality Ratios*
*Base years 1950–52-100.
  Males  Females 
19501,431148.2991,286134.697
19551,660151.31041,511142.2100
19601,724144.31011,566132.592
19652,034153.01121,783135.395
19672,037148.91091,815133.493
19682,225161.31171,844133.993
19692,282164.11191,875134.693
19702,436173.61282,024143.599
19712,479175.91262,007142.395

The standardised mortality ratio shows the number of deaths registered in the year of experience expressed as a percentage of those which would have been expected in that year had there operated the sex-age mortality of a standard period (the 3 years 1950–52 were chosen). The standardised mortality ratio has been adopted to eliminate the distorting effect of the changes which take place over a period in the age structure of the population. The standardised mortality ratio for males has risen from 96.2 in the 5 years 1944–48, to 103.4 in 1954–58 and 124.0 in 1969–71. This would indicate that there has been a real increase in the death toll in the male sex and this, as discussed later, is mainly attributable to the rise in lung cancer. The mean standardised mortality ratio for females in 1944–48 was 98.0 compared with 95.2 in 1954–58 and 96.0 in 1969–71 (indicating that there has been a slight fall in death rates since 1944).

A classification of cancer deaths according to age subdivisions, ethnic origin, and sex is now given. Ninety-one percent of deaths from cancer during 1971 were at ages 45 and upwards, and 57 percent were at ages 65 years and upwards.

Age Group, in YearsRaceDeaths of MalesDeaths of Females
NumbersRate per 100,000 of Population at AgesPercentage of Total Deaths at AgesNumbersRate per 100,000 of Population at AgesPercentage of Total Deaths at Ages
*All ages crude rate.
Under 5Non-Maori118.32.0107.92.2
 Maori525.73.1210.71.6
5–14Non-Maori217.718.3145.420.0
 Maori38.410.312.98.3
15–24Non-Maori198.46.1156.913.5
 Maori418.57.1314.211.1
25–44Non-Maori11637.519.713344.536.7
 Maori1458.511.726108.431.0
45–64Non-Maori787307.223.5665253.536.8
 Maori45446.418.544458.822.1
65 and overNon-Maori1,4221,433.518.51,071792.914.3
 Maori1321,495.314.9231,150.015.0
All agesNon-Maori2,376183.3*18.91,908146.7*18.5
 Maori10391.2*12.59989.7*16.5

Cancer contributes substantially to the total of non-Maori deaths at all ages. In the non-Maori female from 25 to 64 years one death in three is a cancer death and for males the proportion is one death in five.

For Maoris the proportions of cancer deaths to total deaths are very much lower than the proportions for non-Maoris, by reason that the competing risks from other diseases are so very much higher. Whereas in the non-Maori easily the highest numbers of cancer deaths occur at ages upwards of 65 years, the highest numbers in the Maori are at ages from 45 to 64 years. This is partly because of the lower life expectancy which results in fewer Maoris coming through to old age.

A summary of all cancer deaths occurring in New Zealand during 1971 by location of the disease is shown in the following table. Figures by site for Maoris have not been separated as the numbers are so small for most sites. Rates for Maoris tend to be higher in cancers involving the digestive tract, the respiratory organs, and the female genital organs.

Site of DiseaseNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Buccal cavity and pharynx592685421830
Oesophagus553085392130
Stomach19912832714191116
Intestine, except rectum262259521186184185
Rectum1151032188273100
Larynx221231618
Lung, bronchus, and trachea68013581548296289
Bone and connective tissue25133818913
Skin534295383034
Breast14244251301151
Cervix, uteri94946733
Other and unspecified parts of uterus49493517
Prostate22922916281
All other and unspecified sites5315421,073377384380
Leukaemia and aleukaemia11572187825166
Lymphosarcoma and other neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue147932401046585
Totals2,4932,0114,5041,7691,4261,597

There is considerable variation in the numbers and rates for different sites in both males and females. The site principally involved in the male is the lung and bronchus and one male cancer death in every four relates to this site. Cancer of the stomach is very much more common in the male than the female but the position is reversed in cancer involving the intestines. The leading site in the female is the breast, which contributes one-fifth to total female cancer deaths.

The world-wide phenomenal increase over the last 30 years in cancer of the lung and bronchus (excluding trachea and pleura) is accepted as being associated with cigarette smoking and atmospheric pollution. The following table shows the increase in deaths from cancer of this site in each group and in each sex over the latest 11 years.

YearNumber of Deaths from Cancer of Lung and BronchusCrude Rate per 100,000 of Mean Population
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
MaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemaleMaleFemale
19613867018534.06.221.16.1
19624225817536.35.019.15.8
196344868181237.85.819.513.4
19644597119937.95.919.99.7
196546957201338.14.720.313.6
19665226924642.05.623.36.0
196749278171639.06.216.015.5
196859791311247.07.228.311.3
1969619104261348.48.123.111.9
1970650132301750.210.226.615.4
1971643121351449.69.331.012.7

The crude rates for the Maori conceal the true relative incidence of lung cancer. Adjusted to the non-Maori population structure, the Maori rates exceed the non-Maori rates, the greatest margin being in the female.

While cancer is undoubtedly increasing in numerical incidence it is not doing so out of proportion to the population exposed to the cancer risk. The following table shows the movement in the standardised mortality ratio, the standard population employed being that of New Zealand 1950–52.

SiteMaleFemale
1963–651966–681969–711963–651966–681969–71
Buccal cavity and pharynx645988858764
Oesophagus779688839083
Stomach676460635651
Large intestine, except rectum101111126848889
Rectum12095113868489
Biliary passages and liver138125157957896
Pancreas1009210310910696
Larynx838770264632
Lung, bronchus and trachea189211241158177162
Skin (including melanoma)103117141126142128
Breast1121252598100103
Uterus, all parts767169
Ovary, fallopian tube10797111
Prostate108104112
Kidney1051131117277100
Bladder, urinary organs11411310710193104
Brain, nervous system126110142917281
Lymphosarcoma and reticulo-sarcoma12192113118115104
Hodgkin's disease117148110130122116
Leukaemia and aleukaemia124112120134131129

The upward trend in the total male cancer death toll can be ascribed chiefly to the steep rise in lung and bronchus cancer, already commented upon. The total female rate has risen slightly in more recent years possibly attributable to the rise in female lung cancer.

Heart Disease—Diseases of the heart are the leading killer in New Zealand, accounting for 36 percent of all male deaths and 31 percent of all female deaths in 1971. In accordance with the increasing numbers of the population in the older age groups, the total numbers of deaths from heart disease have steadily increased. However, when allowance is made for the general ageing of the population by employing the standardised mortality ratio it is seen that, although a rise to 6 percent above the 1950–52 level occurred in males in 1968, there was a fall to below the 1950–52 level again by 1971. The female rate in 1971 was 30 percent below the 1950–52 level used as the standard for the mortality ratio.

A disease phenomenon of recent years has been the rapid increase in deaths assigned to coronary heart disease, and in 1971 no less than 28 percent of all deaths were due to this single disease entity. During the 10 years from 1960 to 1970 there has been a rise of 26 percent for both males and females in this form of heart disease. It is a matter of conjecture as to whether the real incidence of coronary heart disease in the community has risen to this extent or whether it is due, in part at least, to increased recognition of the condition.

The numbers of deaths and standard mortality ratios for heart disease, excluding acute rheumatic forms and congenital malformations, for the last 11 years are shown in the following table, males and females separately.

YearAll Forms of Heart DiseaseCoronary Heart Disease
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*NumberStandardised Mortality Ratio*
*Base years 1950–52 = 100.
19614,289953,223823,1751421,785146
19624,396963,205793,1871411,828146
19634,6281003,302803,4951531,980156
19644,7371023,322793,6371572,082161
19654,7101003,394793,6191542,159163
19664,9411043,496793,8931642,275169
19674,8511003,446763,8451592,254164
19685,2171063,506764,3721782,581183
19694,9191003,500744,1501672,549178
19704,886993,405724,2281692,560177
19714,938983,413704,3131722,619176

Coronary heart disease is predominantly a disease of old age in both sexes, although in the male sex there are appreciable numbers of deaths which occur in middle age. There are marked differences in the mortality from the disease both between the sexes and between the two ethnic groups at various age periods.

The following table averages both the numbers and the age-specific rates for coronary heart disease in both non-Maoris and Maoris over the latest 5 years 1967–1971.

RaceAges 35 to 44 YearsAges 45 to 54 YearsAges 55 to 64 YearsAges 65 Years and Over
Average Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at AgesAverage Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at AgesAverage Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at AgesAverage Number of Deaths Each YearAverage Rate per 10,000 of Population at Ages
Males
Non-Maori1036.841930.01,00588.72,517258.3
Maori1110.72033.63797.453244.5
Females
Non-Maori241.7966.831627.21,997150.6
Maori44.21525.42266.133170.8

For non-Maoris at ages 35 to 44 years male coronary heart disease rates exceed female rates by almost 4 to 1, the ratio decreasing as age advances to a ratio of under 2 to 1 at ages 65 years and upwards.

The absolute numbers of Maori deaths from the disease are small but when related to the population at risk produce fairly similar rates to the non-Maori population in the male sex.

Maori women have a very much greater chance of dying from a coronary condition than non-Maori women, the risk being over twice as great at ages 35 to 44 years, almost four times greater at ages 45 to 54 years and twice as great at ages 55 to 64 years. Hypertensive forms of heart disease are also very much more common in Maori women in middle age while both sexes in the Maori have a higher mortality from rheumatic valvular heart disease.

INFANT MORTALITY—Infant mortality concerns deaths of children under 1 year of age. Statistics for non-Maoris and Maoris are given in the following table.

YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Live Births
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
19451,0364131,44927.9988.9334.79
19501,0083561,36422.7569.7427.60
19551,0023631,36520.0962.5124.52
19601,0903301,42019.6644.5022.59
19659402341,17417.9729.7919.51
19689392251,16417.3627.4518.69
19698552021,05715.7624.3216.89
19708152251,04015.1127.1716.72
19718442221,06615.0526.5416.54
197283015898815.0020.0815.63

Male rates of infant loss are about 41 percent above female rates and this tends to counterbalance the male excess in births.

When international infant death rates are compared it is seen that Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries have the lowest rates in the world. The following table sets out the rates for a number of countries in 1970. It is pointed out, however, that definitions and practices are not precisely alike in all countries.

CountryDeaths Under 1 Year per 1,000 Live Births in 1970
Sweden11.0
Finland12.5
Netherlands12.7
Norway12.7
Denmark14.1
Switzerland15.1
New Zealand16.7
Australia17.9
England and Wales18.2
France18.2
Germany (East)18.2
Ireland19.2
Scotland19.6
United States19.8
Belgium20.5
Czechoslovakia22.9
Germany (West)23.6
Austria25.9
Bulgaria27.3
Italy29.2
(Source: World Health Statistics Report, Vol. 125, No. 6.)

One out of every four infant deaths is a Maori infant death and the Maori rate of loss is nearly twice that of the non-Maori. The excess in the Maori rate is largely due to infants who die between the end of the fourth week of life and the first birthday. This is illustrated in the following table showing numbers and rates of infant deaths by race and age for the year 1971.

RaceUnder 1 Day1 Day and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 DaysTotal Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 MonthsTotal Under 1 Year
Non-Maori28721371571276847
Maori603619115108223
All races347249906863841,070
Rates per 1,000 Live Births
Non-Maori5.113.791.2610.164.9115.08
Maori7.044.222.2313.4912.6726.17
All races5.363.841.3910.605.9316.53

The explanation of the higher rate for Maoris between the twenty-eighth day and the end of the first year is the susceptibility of the Maori baby in its home environment to forms of infection such as gastro-enteritis and pneumonia.

The rates per 1,000 live births for the two sexes combined at different ages during the first year of life are now given for each of the last 11 years.

YearNon-MaoriMaori
Under 1 Day1 Day and Under 2 Days2 Days and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 MonthsUnder 1 Day1 Day and Under 2 Days2 Days and Under 1 Week1 Week and Under 28 Days28 Days and Under 12 Months
19616.92.03.31.65.39.83.14.23.129.5
19626.22.03.01.25.66.63.42.52.523.8
19635.82.43.01.35.36.33.43.02.517.5
19646.62.32.11.35.27.71.61.61.817.3
19655.82.02.81.46.05.72.52.22.317.1
19665.91.82.01.45.16.52.02.41.515.5
19675.91.52.31.45.24.62.82.82.217.2
19686.21.72.51.55.45.22.11.82.116.2
19695.31.52.41.35.25.71.64.41.011.7
19704.81.62.21.15.37.01.93.72.413.4
19715.11.72.11.34.97.01.62.62.212.7

The following diagram illustrates infant mortality rates.

Causes of Infant Mortality—In the following table are shown the absolute numbers and the rate per 1,000 live births of the principal causes of infant mortality during 1970 and 1971, for non-Maoris, Maoris, and both groups combined.

Cause of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per 1,000 Live Births
1970197119701971
Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
Influenza, pneumonia, and bronchitis1801622.27.72.91.96.22.5
Congenital anomalies2212073.63.13.63.32.33.2
Birth injury, including asphyxia, anoxia or hypoxia58760.81.90.91.11.51.2
Complications of pregnancy and childbirth, including conditions of placenta and umbilical cord2432173.94.23.93.34.03.4
Anoxic and hypoxic conditions not elsewhere classified901001.41.81.41.42.71.5
Immaturity, unqualified29190.41.20.50.30.50.3
Other and undefined causes2192893.07.13.53.88.93.4
Total causes1,0401,07015.127.216.715.126.216.5

PERINATAL MORTALITY—Perinatal deaths comprise still births and deaths in the first week of life. Numbers and rates are shown in the following table. The still births and the perinatal mortality rate are calculated per 1,000 total births (still births plus live births), while the death rate for the first week of life is calculated per 1,000 live births.

CauseNumberRate
19701971
19701971Non-MaoriMaoriTotalNon-MaoriMaoriTotal
Still births67164810.611.310.79.910.29.9
Deaths under 1 week5595968.511.28.98.911.39.2
Perinatal deaths1,2301,24419.122.619.618.721.419.0

MATERNAL DEATHS—Improvements in the standard of antenatal care and obstetrical skill, as well as advances in medical science, have reduced the numbers of deaths from septic abortion, puerperal sepsis, and toxaemia, and deaths from complications of childbirth are few. Maternal deaths during the latest 3 years are given in the following table.

Cause196919701971
Pre-eclampsia, eclampsia and toxaemia unspecified24
Abortion11
Complications of—
    Pregnancy224
    Delivery263
    Puerperium777
Totals142014

DEATHS FROM EXTERNAL CAUSES—Deaths from external causes, apart from suicide, claim approximately 6 percent of the total deaths and again the Maori rate is higher than the non-Maori. The following table shows deaths from external causes for the 3 latest years classified according to the Intermediate List of the 1965 Revision of the International Classification which has made no changes in the categories listed. In this table falls on board ship and from horseback are included as transport fatalities.

Causes of DeathNumber of DeathsRate per Million of Mean Population
196919701971196919701971
*Includes drowning from water transport.
Motor-vehicle accidents582649674209230235
Other transport accidents354342131515
Accidental poisoning375441131914
Accidental falls337440454121156158
Accidents caused by machinery483844171315
Accidents caused by fire and explosion of combustible material343328121210
Accidents caused by hot substance, corrosive liquid, steam, and radiation647212
Accidents caused by firearms91917376
Accidental drowning and submersion*123147135445247
All other accidental causes133118118484241
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons (not in war)31342511129
Totals1,3751,5791,585494562553

Drownings are a leading cause of accidental death in New Zealand. Included in the preceding table for 1971 are 62 deaths from drowning due to accidents in water transport.

Transport Accidents—The number and rate of deaths resulting from railway, motor vehicle, and aircraft accidents during each of the last 11 years are as follows. Road accidents are further analysed in the section on Roads and Road Transport.

YearDeaths Due to AccidentRate per 10,000 of Mean Population
RailwayMotor VehicleAircraftRailwayMotor VehicleAircraft
196126393130.111.620.05
196227408110.111.640.04
196316416200.061.640.08
196426428300.101.650.12
196514551260.052.080.10
196613567160.052.110.06
196715620120.052.270.04
196810548160.041.990.06
19695582170.022.090.06
197011649200.042.310.07
197112674120.042.350.04

Non-transport Accidents—The 1965 Revision of the International List makes provision for non-transport accidents (excluding therapeutic misadventure in treatment, complications following vaccination or inoculation, and late effects of injury and poisoning) to be grouped according to the place where the accident or poisoning occurred. The following table shows the deaths, both numbers and rates, for the latest 3 years, according to this classification.

Place of OccurrenceNumberRate per Million of Mean Population
196919701971196919701971
Home (including home premises and vicinity and any non-institutional place of residence)26232835094116122
Farm (including buildings and land under cultivation, but excluding farm and home premises)515358181920
Mine and quarry7124241
Industrial place and premises272832101011
Place for recreation and sport2656149208
Street and highway251922977
Public building (building used by the general public or a particular group of the public)121113445
Resident institution (homes, hospitals, etc.)116142139425049
Other specified places11410093413532
Place not specified725757262020
Totals712806782256286273

Approximately 40 percent of fatal non-transport accidents occur in or about the home.

Water Accidents—The following table shows drownings during 1971.

LocationAge in Years
Under 55–1516–3031–50Over 50Totals*

*Includes victims of unspecified age.

†Public and private.

Boating accidents2812628
Rivers and streams8654427
Seas and beaches1853724
Harbours13239
Pools, ponds, etc.123
Lakes and lagoons123
Household bath112
Swimming pools and baths2114
Other33
Total1720252120103

Falls are the chief cause of home fatalities, exacting a heavy toll of the aged and infirm. This is clearly illustrated in a special report on domestic accidents issued by the Department of Health in 1970. Another important cause of death in the home is asphyxia from regurgitation of food and inhalation of other objects, or mechanically from pillows and bedclothes; this is the principal hazard of the first 6 months of life, though a proportion of these deaths is probably due to some undisclosed respiratory infections. Almost all the home drowning fatalities are amongst toddlers between 1 and 2 years of age who fall into rivers, creeks, and ponds in the vicinity of the home.

Accidents with tractors are the main feature of fatalities on farms. Later sections deal with statistics of industrial and farm accidents.

Suicide—There were 232 suicidal deaths of non-Maoris in 1971–147 males and 85 females—the death rate per 100,000 of population being 17.6 for males and 6.4 for females. For Maoris there were 5 suicidal deaths—2 males and 3 females—the death rates per 100,000 of population being 1.7 for males and 2.6 for females.

Rates per 100,000 of population showing the age distributions, averaged over the years 1969 to 1971, are shown next for the total population, by age groups.

Sex5/910/1415/1920/2425/2930/3435/3940/4445/4950/5455/5960/6465/6970/7475/7980+
Males0.21.37.013.911.110.715.124.923.726.023.220.127.932.636.029.9
Females3.96.05.65.47.66.412.516.916.619.312.212.65.06.1

These figures show the typical increase in the suicide rates with increasing age and the fall in the rates after the age of 75.

The next table presents the average, over 3-yearly periods, of standardised mortality ratios of suicides, standardised on years 1950–52=100.

Annual Average DuringMalesFemales
1953–5593102
1956–5897120
1959–619999
1962–6483136
1965–6795142
1968–7098147
197178137

4 D—MARRIAGES

GENERAL—Marriage may be solemnised in New Zealand either by a person whose name is on the list of officiating ministers under the Marriage Act 1955, or before a duly appointed Registrar or Deputy Registrar of Marriages. A licence must be obtained from a Registrar of Marriages before a marriage by an officiating minister can be solemnised. Marriage by an officiating minister may be solemnised at any time between 6 o'clock in the morning and 8 o'clock in the evening. Marriage before a Registrar can be solemnised at any time during the hours the office of the Registrar is open for the transaction of public business; notice of intended marriage must be given to a Registrar of Marriages by one of the parties to the proposed marriage.

In the case of a person under 20 years of age, not being a widow or widower, the consent of parents or guardian is necessary. Consent of a Magistrate may also be given in cases of refusal by any person whose consent is required.

Since 1933 the minimum age for marriage has been 16 years of age. No marriage shall be deemed to be void, however, by reason only of an infringement of the minimum age.

Since 1 April 1952 it has been required under the Maori Purposes Act 1951 that every marriage to which a Maori is a party shall be solemnised in the same manner, and its validity shall be determined by the same law, as if each of the parties was a non-Maori.

Particulars regarding divorce will be found later in this subsection.

NUMBERS AND RATES—The numbers of marriages and rates during the last 21 years are now given.

YearNumberRate per 1,000 of Population
195317,2248.41
195417,5578.38
195517,7958.32
195617,5318.03
195717,6147.89
195818,3058.01
195918,3157.84
196018,9097.96
196119,4268.01
196219,5727.88
196319,8567.83
196420,7208.00
196521,7028.23
196622,9498.55
196723,5158.62
196824,0578.74
196924,9718.98
197025,9539.20
197127,1999.50
197226,8689.21
197326,2748.82

Comparison with Other Countries—Marriage rates for certain countries for 1971 are given below. (Source: United Nations Monthly Bulletin of Statistics.)

CountryRate per 1,000 Mean Population
Australia9.2
Austria6.4
Belgium7.8
Canada8.8
Finland8.2
France7.9
Germany, East7.7
Germany, West7.0
Hungary9.1
Ireland, Republic7.3
Israel9.1
Italy7.5
Jamaica4.4
Japan10.5
Netherlands9.3
New Zealand9.2
Norway7.6
Spain7.4
Sweden4.9
Switzerland7.0
United Kingdom8.4
United States10.6
Yugoslavia8.9

MARITAL STATUS PRIOR TO MARRIAGE—The following table gives marital status prior to marriage for the latest 5 years.

YearSingleWidowedDivorcedTotal Persons Married
BridegroomBrideBridegroomBrideBridegroomBride
196821,67521,8119058471,4771,39948,114
196922,16822,3399811,0231,8221,60949,942
197023,00323,1101,0021,0351,9481,80851,906
197124,01424,1951,0001,0492,1851,95554,398
197223,60723,6611,0171,0812,2442,12653,736

The nature of the marriage according to marital status of persons prior to marriage is given next.

YearMarriages Between Bachelors andMarriages Between Widowers andMarriages Between Divorced Men and
SpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced WomenSpinstersWidowsDivorced Women
196820,764248663251413241796186495
196921,142270756231498252966255601
197021,8262619162615142271,023260665
197122,8142559452485022501,133292760
197222,3102631,0342185292701,133289822

During the years 1938–40 there were 95 male divorcees who remarried for every 100 female divorcees who remarried. In the period 1968–72 more male divorcees than female divorcees remarried.

The number of widows per 100 widowers who remarried was 67 in 1938–40, but with a changed social outlook the position in 1968–72 was that 100 widows remarried for every 100 widowers.

AGES OF PERSONS MARRIED—The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period of years. On 1 January 1971 the age of majority was lowered from 21 to 20 years of age. In 1972 one bride in every three was under 20 years of age, the proportion of grooms being one in eleven.

Of the persons married in 1972, 11,058 or 20.58 percent, were under 20 years of age; 26,828 or 49.93 percent, were returned as 20–24 years; 7,649 or 14.23 percent, as 25–29 years, 3,903 or 7.26 percent, as 30–39 years; and 4,298 or 8.00 percent, as 40 years of age or over.

The following table relates to the 1972 year.

Age of Bridegroom, in YearsAge of Bride, in YearsTotal Bridegrooms
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and Over
Under 202,0013492112,372
20–245,8138,0175726793214,483
25–297483,0901,014195431855,113
30–34906395372797624121,657
35–39191572231801084331761
40–44958931151209788580
45 and over635761441482311,2621,902
Total brides8,68612,3452,5369815044161,40026,868

The following table shows since 1950 the proportions of men and women married at each age group to every 100 marriages.

PeriodUnder 21*21–24*25–2930–3435–3940–4445 and OverTotals
*Under 20 and 20–24 respectively from 1971.
Males
1950–545.0535.4231.2110.955.863.567.95100.0
1955–597.1836.6829.4411.214.812.977.71100.0
1960–6410.9541.9923.499.044.502.627.41100.0
1965–6915.2344.7921.246.313.462.346.63100.0
197016.3446.9118.776.172.912.156.75100.0
19719.05*54.92*18.545.742.762.136.86100.0
19728.83*53.90*19.036.172.832.167.08100.0
Females
1950–5425.7838.6516.856.964.122.595.05100.0
1955–5932.9935.7113.766.113.652.495.29100.0
1960–6439.6335.1910.134.423.052.215.37100.0
1965–6945.3333.629.083.052.101.815.01100.0
197045.7233.609.253.141.711.594.99100.0
197132.05*47.73*8.853.011.671.545.15100.0
197232.33*45.95*9.443.651.881.555.20100.0

The average ages (arithmetic mean) at marriage for both males and females are shown in the following table.

YearAverage Age at Marriage
BridegroomsBrides
196128.2924.90
196227.9324.61
196327.9324.63
196427.7424.45
196527.4324.24
196626.7623.65
196726.5323.45
196826.3323.29
196926.4523.56
197026.3623.45
197126.2523.40
197226.3823.54

The average ages of bachelors and spinsters at marriage are considerably lower than those shown in the preceding table, which covers all parties and is naturally affected by the inclusion of remarriages of widowed and divorced persons. The average ages of grooms and brides for each of the latest 5 years according to marital status were as shown in the next table.

YearBridegroomsBrides
BachelorsDivorcedWidowersSpinstersDivorcedWidows
Age in years
196824.1540.5355.3621.4036.8149.64
196923.9041.0257.0621.3637.0350.45
197023.8540.3756.8521.2636.1350.07
197123.6640.3357.6421.1936.0250.91
197223.7340.0657.6421.2035.8050.67

The foregoing figures give the average age at marriage, but these do not correspond with the modal or popular age, if the age at which the most marriages are celebrated may be so termed. The modal age for brides in 1972 was 20 years. In the case of bridegrooms the most popular age has varied and for recent years it has been 21 to 24; the modal age for bridegrooms in 1972 was 21 years.

Marriage of Minors—Of every 1,000 men married in 1972, 88 were under 20 years of age, while 323 in every 1,000 brides were under 20. Since 1 January 1971 the age of majority has been 20 years.

In 2,001 marriages in 1972 both parties were given as under 20 years of age, in 6,685 marriages the bride was returned as a minor and the bridegroom as an adult, and in 371 marriages the bridegroom was a minor and the bride an adult.

The proportion of minors among persons marrying has been increasing over a fairly long period, and in the table below figures are given for the last 5 years.

YearAge in YearsTotal Minors
161718192016–20 Years16–19 YearsRate per 100 Marriages 16–20 YearsRate per 100 Marriage 16–19 Years
Bridegrooms
1968141645311,0841,9313,7241,79315.487.45
1969291976571,1751,9974,0552,05816.248.24
1970271936791,2262,1154,2402,12516.348.19
1971342517181,4582,5525,0132,46118.439.05
1972402297111,3922,6044,9762,37218.528.83
Brides
19685501,2392,2583,2953,69711,0397,34245.8930.52
19696241,3382,2873,3643,68611,2997,61345.2530.49
19706261,4392,4573,5203,82511,8678,04245.7230.99
19716971,6072,7563,6574,16912,8868,71747.3832.05
19727481,4942,7323,7124,11412,8008,68647.6432.33

MARRIAGES BY MINISTERS OF VARIOUS CHURCHES—Of the 26,868 marriages performed in 1972, Anglican clergymen officiated at 6,735, Presbyterians at 6,086, Roman Catholics at 4,066, Methodists at 1,841, and clergymen of other churches at 2,042, while 6,098 marriages were solemnised by Registrars.

The following table shows the proportions of marriages by ministers of the largest churches and before Registrars in each of the 7 latest years.

ChurchPercentage of Marriages
1966196719681969197019711972
Anglican25.8926.1426.6425.9526.3925.6425.07
Presbyterian23.5423.8123.4623.8523.5222.5522.65
Roman Catholic15.3315.4515.8315.3315.2415.4415.13
Methodist8.178.197.968.007.697.396.85
Others7.737.958.127.857.207.447.60
Before Registrars19.3418.4617.9919.0219.9621.5422.70
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The foregoing figures must not be taken as an exact indication of the religious professions of the parties married, as it does not necessarily follow that both (or even one) of the parties are adherents of the church whose officiating minister performed the ceremony, and persons married before Registrars may belong, in greater or lesser proportion, to any or none of the churches. Of the total population at the general census of 1971, 31.3 percent were recorded as adherents of the Anglican Church, 20.4 percent Presbyterian, 15.7 percent Roman Catholic, 6.4 percent Methodist, and 26.2 percent were of other religion or of no religion, or objected to stating their religious profession.

NUMBER OF OFFICIATING MINISTERS—The number of names on the list of officiating ministers tinder the Marriage Act was 3,926 in February 1972 and the churches to which they belong are shown hereunder.

ChurchNumber
Roman Catholic Church861
Anglican (Church of England)693
Presbyterian Church of New Zealand653
Methodist Church of New Zealand339
Baptist210
Salvation Army201
Ratana Church of New Zealand131
Brethren119
Latter Day Saints115
Ringatu Church61
Assemblies of God43
Associated Churches of Christ39
Jehovah's Witness45
Seventh Day Adventist41
Apostolic Church30
Liberal Catholic Church22
Christian Revival Crusade14
Evangelical Lutheran Concordia Conference15
Absolute Reformed Maori Church of Aotearoa11
Congregational Union13
Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi14
Commonwealth Covenant Church10
Reformed Churches of New Zealand9
Evangelistic Church of Christ10
Elim Church6
Others221
Total3,926

The Ratana Church of New Zealand, the Ringatu Church, the United Maori Mission, and the Church of Te Kooti Rikirangi are Maori organisations.

DIVORCE AND OTHER MATRIMONIAL PROCEEDINGS—From 1 January 1969, some important changes have applied in the principal legislation on grounds for divorce; the period of 3 years was reduced to 2 years for separation by agreement and decree of separation or separation order, and in cases living apart and unlikely to be reconciled the period of 7 years was reduced to 4 years. This amendment to the Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963 has had an accelerating effect on divorce statistics in 1969.

Divorce—A petition for divorce may be presented to the Supreme Court on one or more of several grounds, which include adultery, desertion, separation by agreement for not less than 2 years, separation by decree of separation or separation order for not less than 2 years, and the parties living apart for 4 years and not likely to be reconciled. Where the parties are separated or living apart one of the parties must have been resident in New Zealand for at least 2 years immediately preceding the filing of the petition. The Court is required to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation of the parties to the marriage.

Petitions filed and decrees granted by the Supreme Court in recent years are shown in the following table.

YearDissolution of Marriage*Judicial Separation
Petitions FiledDecrees NisiDecrees AbsolutePetitions FiledDecrees for Separation
*Includes nullity cases which are usually very few; they totalled only two in 1971 and one in 1972.
19622,1861,7901,755206
19632,1381,8421,905157
19642,2341,9161,894145
19652,4402,0501,81461
19662,3512,0992,064131
19672,5542,2632,047131
19682,6882,3812,172152
19694,1083,4962,99610
19703,7873,2983,13621
19714,0723,5223,3472
19724,2693,3873,4711

The next table gives the grounds of petitions and decrees during the two latest years.

GroundsPetitions FiledDecrees Absolute Granted
Husbands' PetitionsWives' PetitionsHusbands' PetitionsWives' Petitions
19711972197119721971197219711972
Adultery506642377412371428284276
Desertion169136133108155143102104
Separation by agreement9851,0671,0971,086810859890933
Separation by Court order or decree38571131374042114130
Living apart307303307290285271269266
Non-consummation2314134465
Other124121163117
Totals2,0192,2122,0532,0571,6711,7501,6761,721

The figures shown for decrees absolute cover all such granted during the year, whether the antecedent decree nisi was granted in the same or in a previous year. A decree nisi normally applies for at least 3 months before a decree absolute is granted.

In 796 of the 3,471 cases where decrees absolute were granted during 1972 there was no living issue of the marriage. The number of living issue was 1 in 652 cases, 2 in 851 cases, 3 in 588 cases, and 4 or more in 584 cases.

The table which follows shows the duration of marriage in all cases for which decrees absolute were granted in the latest 5 years.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsHusbands' Decrees Absolute GrantedWives' Decrees Absolute Granted
1968196919701971197219681969197019711972
Under 598128164184216102138182188168
  5–9295410427478465296462489538592
10–14217291191310343205303305341358
15–19167222219221266175216206197228
20–29223317332350335239278296325312
30 and over981331391281255798918763
Totals1,0981,5011,4721,6711,7501,0741,4951,5691,6761,721

The number of living issue affected by the decrees absolute of their parents during each of the last 5 years were as follows: 1968, 4,099; 1969, 5,604; 1970, 5,927; 1971, 6,635; and 1972, 6,872.

The following table shows the duration of marriage by ages of husbands and wives at the time of marriage, for cases in which decrees absolute were granted in 1972.

Duration of Marriage (in Years)Age (in Years) at Marriage
Under 2020–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445 and over (Including not Stated)Total
Husbands
Under 547220511710534384
  5–9144557163604025681,057
10–14753661515826916701
15–19222471334922813494
20 and over3140725388291017835
Totals3191,797751272127571483,471
Wives
Under 517713624104825384
5–946041059283220481,057
10–14293300522613710701
15–1916122260261348494
20 and over211422130471114835
Totals1,3021,49032513773391053,471

Dissolution of a Voidable Marriage—A decree of dissolution of a voidable marriage puts an end to the marriage from the date of the decree. On average there are only about 40 such decrees in New Zealand each year and the principal ground is non-consummation.

CONCILIATION PROCESSES—Under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, the principle was introduced of having specialist magistrates to exercise jurisdiction in domestic matters. The Act aims to encourage by all practicable means the reconciliation of married couples who institute court proceedings. Domestic proceedings became a separate division from civil and criminal proceedings in Magistrates' Courts. (See Section 8: Justice.)

There is a Court Conciliation Centre in Auckland providing a full-time conciliation service for cases referred by the Magistrates' Courts. In 17 other centres local marriage guidance councils make available to the courts in their areas their more experienced counsellors to provide trained help to those involved in domestic proceedings. Through these agencies it is possible to offer specialist help in over 80 percent of cases in this category.

MARRIAGE GUIDANCE—A National Marriage Guidance Council was established in 1950 as a voluntary agency to assist with social problems arising from unhappy or maladjusted marriages. From 1959 to 1968 an adviser in marriage guidance was attached to the staff of the Justice Department. An advisory committee was also set up to keep Government informed and to organise, with the assistance of appropriate professional groups, a programme for the selection, training, and accrediting of voluntary marriage counsellors. Although the training system is kept under constant review, the procedures followed have become well established and administration has now been taken over largely by the National Council with the support and advice of the department.

There are now 24 councils affiliated with the National Marriage Guidance Council and these provide counselling centres staffed by over 100 accredited counsellors and some 60 counsellors in training. Accredited counsellors, in many centres, assist the courts by serving as conciliators under the Domestic Proceedings Act. (See also Section 8, Justice.)

The National Marriage Guidance Council employs a full-time director to organise and co-ordinate the work of affiliated councils. There are also seven directors employed by the larger of the local councils. These appointments, made over the last 4 years, were necessary because of the rapid development of the Marriage Guidance Service.

Educational work includes the conducting of courses for young couples in preparation for marriage. Secondary schools have been assisted by local marriage guidance councils with the arranging of courses in personal relationships. In many cases tutors are recruited and trained by local councils.

The marriage guidance service is readily available to those whose marriages are in difficulty. There is a growing acceptance by the public of the importance of this service and a greater readiness of people in trouble to make use of it.

Chapter 7. Section 5; HEALTH AND HOSPITALS

5 A—HEALTH AND MEDICAL SERVICES

GENERAL—Responsibility for the nation's health is undertaken by a partnership of central and local government, private medical practitioners, para-medical workers, charitable and religious organisations and private citizens, with Central Government providing encouragement, financial assistance and incentives, and assuming final responsibility. This has been a deliberate policy of successive Governments, although emphases have varied from time to time according to political and economic conditions and demands for specific services. Growing urbanisation and industrialisation, with consequent intensification of the problems of pollution of water, air, and land, are imposing a current emphasis nationally and locally on environmental health.

Public health services have to do with environmental health, communicable diseases and quarantine, occupational health and toxicology, food and nutrition, health education, family health, dental services and certain aspects of nursing. In the case of environmental health the concern of the Department of Health and local authorities is with matters such as the provision and protection of public water supplies, sewage treatment and disposal, food hygiene and housing standards. Its objectives are the maintenance of a healthy environment by the application of the principles of preventive medicine.

The functions of local authorities are defined by statute and regulation. Elected local authorities must, under the Health Inspectors Qualifications Regulations 1958, appoint a sufficient number of qualified health inspectors. Where a local authority is too small to need a separate, full-time inspector, the Act permits two or more to combine to share the cost. In some smaller sparsely-populated districts where a local authority does not employ its own inspector, the departmental inspectors of health do the work and the authority pays for it. Only 25 percent of inspectors are employed by the department.

In each of the 18 health districts, the medical officer of health, who is a medical practitioner with special qualifications in public health, is the adviser to all local authorities in his district; in some cases his approval is required before action can be taken by a local authority, and in others he is the first line of appeal against its decisions. He is required to keep the Director-General of Health and the Board of Health informed of local authority deficiencies in their responsibilities under the Health Act.

Scheduled communicable diseases must be notified by doctors and hospitals to the medical officer of health who is responsible for control measures; within this area the local authority health inspector is subject to his direct supervision and control. New programmes of immunisation are undertaken by the department and, when established, vaccines are provided free and the general practitioner encouraged in this work. Quarantine arrangements for both aircraft and ships comply with obligations under the International Health Regulations. Medical officers of health administer this service. The broad objective is the control of communicable and chronic diseases in man and the keeping of New Zealand free of quarantinable diseases.

The health of industrial and agricultural workers is the care of the Department of Health in conjunction with the Department of Labour, including co-operation in accident prevention. The aim is to prevent occupational disease, control toxic hazards, and raise standards of first-aid services. Agricultural health includes attention to the safe use of agricultural chemicals.

Food and nutrition administration aims to protect the consumer. There is an extensive programme backed by legislation, to govern packing, labelling, storage, and sale of poisons. Special environmental problems, including radiation protection, occupational health, and atmosphere pollution, are also the responsibility of the Department of Health.

The objectives of health education programmes are to increase understanding of the value of health, to inform people of health services available, and to equip them with knowledge and skills they can use to solve health problems.

Maternal and child health responsibilities include licensing and supervision of maternity hospitals; medical and nursing supervision of infant, pre-school, and school children; inspection of schools and child care centres; immunisation of infants against poliomyelitis, etc.; and the administration of regulations bearing on home safety.

A dental service, directed by dental officers and staffed by dental nurses, provides regular dental treatment for all pre-school, primary, and intermediate school children. Arrangements with private dental practitioners ensure similar treatment for adolescents up to the age of 16 years. Dental health education is also undertaken.

The Department of Health is responsible for the organisation and control of nursing services to the public in general, in hospitals (public or private); in homes for the aged, incapacitated, or infirm; or in any other places where the Department of Health has statutory responsibility. Considerable delegation has taken place mainly to hospital boards whose chief nursing officer is responsible to the chief medical officer for the day-to-day administration of the services provided. The department reviews nursing services in public and departmental hospitals, district nursing services, and public health nursing services.

Nursing education is provided in 55 schools of nursing in New Zealand. As at 31 March 1971 there were 6,993 students undertaking basic nursing programmes. The Department of Health organises and controls the School of Advanced Nursing Studies.

Within its public health nursing service, the department employs over 300 well-qualified nurses. Infant welfare occupies a high proportion of their time, but other work includes child health programmes in schools.

Scientific support for State health activities comes from the National Health Institute, the Medical Research Council, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the research institutes of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. Standards of professional education are established by the appropriate professional councils or boards on which the department is represented, while training is conducted by universities (doctors, dentists, engineers, etc.); hospital boards or the department (nurses, midwives, physiotherapists, health educators, laboratory technicians, radiographers, dietitians); and polytechnics (health inspectors, pharmacists).

The Department of Health works closely with and seeks the advice and help of boards, committees, and councils such as the Board of Health Medical, Medical Research, Dental, Hospitals Advisory, Pharmacy, Nursing, and Radiological Advisory Councils, the Hospital Works, Medical Services Advisory Committees, and the Dietitians, Physiotherapy, Occupational Therapy, Opticians, and Plumbers and Gasfitters Boards. In all, officers of the department serve on over 100 boards, committees, and other organisations concerned with health.

In addition, there are very close working relationships with professional and other associations, voluntary health and welfare agencies, the universities, and other Government departments.

In addition to the Health Act 1956, the following Acts are administered by the department:

  • Burial and Cremation Act 1964

  • Children's Health Camps Act 1972

  • Clean Air Act 1972

  • Dental Act 1963

  • Dietitians Act 1950

  • Food and Drug Act 1969

  • Hospitals Act 1957

  • Human Tissue Act 1964

  • Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968

  • Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966

  • Medical Practitioners Act 1968

  • Medical Research Council Act 1950

  • Mental Health Act 1969

  • Narcotics Act 1965

  • Nurses Act 1971

  • Occupational Therapy Act 1949

  • Opticians Act 1928

  • Physiotherapy Act 1949

  • Plumbers and Gasfitters Registration Act 1964

  • Poisons Act 1960

  • Radiation Protection Act 1965

  • Social Security Act 1964 (Part II)

  • Tuberculosis Act 1948

A detailed report of the activities of the Department of Health is given in the annual report of the Director-General of Health (parliamentary paper E. 10).

A general history of public health services may be found in Challenge for Health, by F. S. Maclean (Government Printer, 1964), while philosophy and policy are discussed in Health Administration in New Zealand (Institute of Public Administration, 1969).

The net expenditure of the Department of Health in the 3 latest years is given in the following table.

Activity Programme1970–711971–721972–73

*Mostly grants to hospital boards.

†Mostly grants of Medical Benefits under Social Security Act.

 $(000)
Administrative services2,3542,4942,766
Dental services8,5929,57610,609
Hospital services*168,436207,233242,365
Family health services4,9225,4045,511
Medical research1,1861,1671,353
Medical services and drug control49,70553,12664,043
Public health and environmental protection3,9766,0897,331
Welfare services2,7793,7115,597
                                      Totals241,950288,800339,575
Less departmental receipts1,1031,099757
                                      Net expenditure240,847287,701338,818
Expenditure as percentage of gross national product4.24.44.6

The Government provides a subsidy of $1 for $2 on the total cost of approved works for main water supply facilities, sewerage reticulation, and sewerage disposal. It is expected that about $7.2 million will be required in a full year to meet subsidies on a number of major schemes now being put into effect by local authorities.

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH: Local Authority Control—The provision and proper maintenance of public water supplies and sewerage systems, the disposal of refuse, the condition of dwellinghouses, the control of offensive trades, and the hygiene of premises in which food is manufactured and sold, including eating houses, are primarily the responsibility of local authorities, but the Department of Health exercises general supervision. In the case of some of the smaller local authorities the necessary inspections are made by departmental inspectors on behalf of and by arrangement with the local authorities. The department undertakes the basic training of health inspectors employed by local authorities and conducts specialist and refresher courses for health inspectors.

Department of Health Control—The objectives of the Department of Health in environmental health control are: (a) to create and maintain a healthy environment for the general public by the application of principles of preventive medicine and the administration of legislation directly and indirectly related to this end; (b) to control air pollution; (c) to provide physical services and undertake research on all aspects of the use of ionising radiation with special emphasis on the medical applications and public health aspects. To monitor radiation exposure of the population from all sources and to take action to reduce this where necessary. To promote general understanding of the nature of the hazards involved in radiation exposure in their current perspective; and (d) to conserve hearing and detect its early deterioration.

Air Pollution Control—Air pollution has been a growing health problem with advancing urbanisation and the rising consumption of energy for industrial activity and transport. The Clean Air Act 1972 provides for the control of all sources of air pollution, both existing and potential. Placing considerable emphasis on co-operation among Central Government, local authorities, industry, and the public, the Act in effect imposes on every person an obligation to minimise his interference with the air environment.

It provides for a technical advisory body, the Clean Air Council, which as its first task will advise the Government on the desirability of immediate regulations to control pollution from motor vehicles. The Act also seeks to integrate the work of local authorities in pollution control by making available to them the specialist technical knowledge that only Central Government can provide. General provisions in the Act provide for the control of industrial sources of pollution to a standard as high as that attained in any other country. Special provisions concern the setting up of clean air zones. They are a recognition that in some parts of the country, where ventilation by natural process is poor, the smoke from domestic fires is an important air pollution problem. The clean air zone provisions make it possible for a local authority to tackle this problem where it has the support of local residents.

A general duty is imposed by the Act on occupiers of industrial or trade premises to take certain steps designed to reduce air pollution. Certain provisions apply in respect of locomotive engines, aircraft, hovercraft, and motor vehicles, and power is taken to make regulations designed to minimise the emission of air pollutants from these sources. Special provision is also made for ships. Standards may be prescribed in respect of the emission of air pollutants by any trade, industry process, fuel burning equipment, or industrial plant. Failure to observe these standards will be an offence unless the occupier of the relevant premises is exempted by the Director-General of Health.

There are 26 classes of process requiring registration and they include the control of odours and the supervision of rendering processes. Most registrable processes are governed by the requirement to adopt the best practicable means to control noxious discharges and emissions, but there are limiting standards for lead and acid gases. All new installations or extensions of these registrable processes require approval by the Department of Health.

Some 250 works are registered and regularly inspected by chemical inspectors. Industries not registered are the responsibility of local authorities. New industrial plant being established in New Zealand is required to meet standards as rigorous as any in the world for industrial sources of air pollution.

The Smoke Restriction Regulations 1964 were enacted with a view to giving local authorities stricter control of industrial smoke emissions. These regulations apply until March 1975. To date over 80 local authorities have been gazetted as smoke control areas.

CONTROL OF DRUGS—The definitions of "drug" in the Food and Drug Act 1969 establish groups to which differing provisions apply. Therapeutic drugs, that is those substances or mixtures whether used internally or externally for the diagnosis, prevention, or treatment of any illness or injury of the human body or for modifying any physiological process or desires or emotions, and chemical contraceptives are required, before being introduced commercially, to be "acceptable", according to a procedure under the Food and Drug Act. No new therapeutic drug may be distributed in New Zealand without the consent of the Minister of Health, under sections 12 and 13 of the Act.

This Act also requires that any drug which has been changed in any way, in use, strength, or labelling must not be distributed until 90 days after notice of the change has been given to the Director-General of Health. He may consent to earlier distribution of a changed drug if he is satisfied of the drug's safety. If the Director-General considers the change to be of such character or degree that the drug ought not to be distributed without the consent of the Minister, the drug is referred to the Minister and may not be distributed until the Minister's specific consent has been obtained. A new therapeutic drug is also restricted to sale from pharmacies only, unless special authority is given for general distribution in a schedule to the Therapeutic Drugs (permitted sales) Regulations 1970.

A cosmetic, dentifrice, detergent, disinfectant, or antiseptic does not have to be "cleared" for marketing unless claims in labelling or advertising bring it within the definition of a "therapeutic drug".

As in the case of food, the Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis of any drug, which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any drug intended for sale. Measures provide for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where drugs are manufactured or packed. Control over medical advertisements and publicity is also incorporated in this legislation.

Under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964, certain drugs may not be sold to the public except on the prescription of a doctor, a dentist, or a veterinary surgeon. This legislation also requires specific warning statements to be included in the labelling of certain drugs such as the antihistamines, aspirin, phenacetin, paracetamol, and hexaclorophane.

Narcotics—Under the Narcotics Act 1965, and the Narcotics Regulations 1966, the Director-General of Health is the competent authority for the purpose of the international conventions and for the oversight of the legitimate distribution and use of narcotics within the country. Written approval of the Minister of Health is required for the import or export of cannabis, desomorphine, heroin, ketobemidone, etorphine, and acetorphine, including their salts, and preparations containing them. The import, export, cultivation, production, possession, distribution, supply, and administration of narcotics is strictly controlled. Balanced quantitative records of transactions and stock are generally required to be kept. There is an extensive system of notification to medical officers of health of narcotics supplied and a system of control of habituated persons.

Legislation consolidating and amending the Narcotics Act 1965 in the form of the Drugs (Prevention of Misuse) Bill has been introduced in Parliament in 1974.

To curb illicit drug abuse, a National Drug Intelligence Bureau has been set up jointly by the Departments of Health, Customs, and Police.

FOOD AND NUTRITION—The Food and Drug Act 1969 provides for the analysis, by analysts appointed under the Act, of any articles of food or drink which may be sold, offered for sale, or exposed for sale, and for the inspection of any place where there is any food intended for sale. Stringent measures are provided for the prevention of adulteration and for the inspection of places where food is manufactured or packed. Regulations lay down minimum standards for many classes of food, control additives of all kinds, and deal with labelling of food packages. Control is also established over all utensils and appliances coming into contact with food. Regular sampling of foods is undertaken by departmental inspectors and the samples are analysed in the Chemistry Division (DSIR) or its branch laboratories.

An important provision of the Act controls all kinds of publicity concerning any food whereby a purchaser would possibly be deceived in regard to the properties of such food, whether or not it is standardised by regulations.

A Food Standards Committee, with a membership of highly qualified persons, meets regularly to discuss the latest technical advances in food production and to make appropriate recommendations for amendments to the legislation.

The nutrition section of the Department of Health provides advisory services on nutrition and dietetics to dietary departments of hospitals, and food service departments of welfare and other institutions. It is responsible for nutrition education programmes and provides a nutrition information service for Government departments, organisations concerned with production and marketing of food, and the public. The section also carries out dietary research projects, generally in liaison with medical research teams concerned with nutrition research.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY—Since 1957 medical officers of health have had responsibilities for occupational health. The objective of the occupational health programme is to work with labour, management, the medical profession, and other groups to assist in improving the health of the worker.

The Department of Labour, which is responsible for accident prevention, hours of work, employment of women and children, etc., calls to the attention of the Department of Health any health problems which the factory inspectors may encounter. The Factories Act 1946 gives to medical officers of health or other authorised officers of the Department of Health the same powers and authorities as inspectors of factories with regard to the health and welfare sections of the Act. The suspension of workers on health grounds, approval of respirators and similar protective equipment, and the arrangements for medical examinations are undertaken by the Department of Health. A series of regulations deal with health hazards, many of them being administered by the two departments, each in its own sphere.

A similar understanding has been established with the Waterfront Industry Commission and New Zealand Railways, and illustrates the general pattern of arrangements between the Department of Health and other Government departments or agencies concerned with particular aspects of workers' health. An occupational health laboratory was established at Wellington in 1964.

Occupational Disease—The notifiable occupational diseases are scheduled in the Health Act 1956 and details of diseases notified are published annually in the report of the Director-General of Health.

Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons—The advertising, distribution, use, labelling, and packing of all poisons and toxic substances is controlled under the Poisons Act 1960 and the Poisons Regulations 1964. A manufacturer or importer must notify the Registrar of Poisons before importing or putting on the market any new substance which might be toxic, be it a chemical, household preparation, cosmetic, or drug. Special safeguards are provided for certain hazardous chemicals used in agriculture or horticulture. It is an offence to pack poisons in bottles that are ordinarily used for food, drink, or medicine. Labels for "Restricted Poisons" must bear statements of the precautions to be taken in use, the symptoms of poisoning and the remedial treatment, and must be approved by the Registrar of Poisons. This legislation is at present under extensive review.

Control of Health Hazards—An increasing number of specific health hazards are coming under formal control, namely, lead processes, electroplating, spray painting, sand blasting (siliceous blasting agents in factories are prohibited), fumigation, aerial application of poisons, where in conjunction with the Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport a special rating is required by pilots, and agricultural chemicals. The organisation of radiation protection is dealt with by the National Radiation Laboratory, while a number of other specific hazards are currently receiving consideration.

Medical, Nursing, and First-aid Services—Minimal first-aid requirements have been laid down by the Department of Health, which generally endeavours to encourage both the development of medical and nursing services and the raising of first-aid standards throughout industry generally. While there are no statutory obligations on industry to provide medical and nursing services, an increasing number of factories do provide such services. To meet the needs of small plants the department has developed industrial health centres with financial support from the Waterfront Industry Commission in the case of harbour areas, and the Accident Compensation Commission in the case of general industry.

Pre-employment Examinations—Pre-employment medical examinations are required for young workers before entering factory employment.

National Audiology Centre—The National Audiology Centre assists with the early detection of deafness and conservation of hearing. The centre conducts and promotes research into noisy industries, occupational deafness, and other forms of deafness. An advisory service is provided for those working with deaf people and training is given to those responsible for testing groups for hearing loss.

Radiation Protection—The National Radiation Laboratory provides the administrative and technical services required to maintain the primary X-ray standard for New Zealand and also reference standards for the accurate measurement of radioactive substances used in clinical work. Control of radiation sources is effectively obtained by licensing operators at each place where ionising sources are used, and the Electrical (X-ray) Wiring Regulations 1944 provide for the compulsory registration of all X-ray plants in the country. The importation and use of radioactive materials is strictly controlled, and requests for such materials on overseas suppliers must be authorised by the laboratory, which acts as the procurement agency for most of the radioisotopes required.

The laboratory operates a field service whereby trained physicists regularly visit all places where ionising sources are used. During these visits measurements are taken, protection problems discussed, and everything possible is done to ensure that persons associated with the ionising sources adopt safe working habits. Apart from the obvious groups, e.g., medical and dental users, the laboratory is also concerned with specialised equipment, such as mass X-ray units, X-ray apparatus used in schools, radar and television equipment, X-ray diffraction units, electron microscopes, research accelerators, etc.

Air, rainwater, and soil are monitored for radioactive contamination from fall-out.

MATERNAL AND CHILD HEALTH—Medical practitioners give ante-natal, neo-natal, and post-natal attention under the Social Security Act Free ante-natal clinics are established in connection with the St. Helens Hospitals, all public maternity hospitals and maternity wards. Ante-natal classes to prepare mothers for the baby's arrival are also being developed, and doctors can refer patients to these to supplement their own ante-natal instructions. In the case of women living far away from the main centres of population, ante-natal work is supplemented by the public health nurses employed by the Department of Health, or by district nurses employed by hospital boards.

Approximately 99 percent of confinements take place in maternity hospitals or in maternity units of public hospitals. The medical care of the mother and child is based on co-operation between the Department of Health, hospital boards, the medical and nursing professions, and the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children (Plunket Society). All private maternity hospitals are licensed under the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Department of Health has responsibility for ensuring that regulations regarding buildings, equipment, and staff are observed. Medical officers of health, through their senior nursing staff, exercise general supervision over the work of private hospitals in the local areas.

Family Planning—General practitioners provide the major portion of family planning services. Contraceptives are provided free for those who need them for medical reasons, where cost would be a barrier. Since 1971 priority has been given to family planning as a health measure. In addition to the private doctor service 20 Family Planning Association clinics are now in operation in various centres of the country. Government provides financial assistance towards operating costs, education material, and to help establish new clinics.

A number of hospital boards have established family clinics within their obstetrics and gynaecology departments to provide additional facilities for the public and training for doctors, medical students, and nurses, and other boards are being encouraged to provide these facilities.

Child Health—The Department of Health provides a preventive child health service. Infants are examined by doctors at three stages between birth and 3 months of age and another medical examination is undertaken before the end of the first year for those requiring further investigation. Public health nurses undertake supervision of infants and pre-school children although the major proportion of this service is provided by the nurses of the Plunket Society. Where necessary the children are referred to family doctors or medical officers of the Department of Health.

A consultative service is provided for schools, with special emphasis on the health supervision of handicapped children, both in the normal schools and in special education classes. Nursing staff make regular visits to all schools and from pre-school record cards and by consultation with teachers and parents refer children for examination by medical officers. Correspondence School children are kept under health supervision as necessary and any school child requiring treatment is referred to the appropriate family doctor. Vision and hearing testing is carried out by trained staff for pre-school children at school entry and in Form 1.

The Government supports the Children's Health Camps Board which maintains six permanent camps for the short-stay placement of children convalescent after illness, for those whose physical health is unsatisfactory, and for those suffering from minor emotional disorders. Medical officers select children for admission and undertake general health supervision of the camps. Children derive benefit from the ordered routine of camp life which provides a diet designed to improve nutrition and a balance of free activity, rest, and sleep. The Department of Education maintains school classes with emphasis on remedial teaching.

Immunisation Programme—Protection by two doses of the oral vaccine for poliomyelitis is available to all infants. Protection against diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus is a routine procedure and a triple vaccine is used. It is preferable that immunisation be done by the family doctor, and the course of injections should be commenced as soon as possible after babies are 3 months old. Arrangements can be made for mothers who are unable to have the immunisation done privately to attend with her child at a departmental clinic. If necessary in country areas the public health nurse will visit the home to immunise the child. Booster doses (against diphtheria and tetanus) are given at 18 months and after the child's fourth birthday or as soon as possible after the child commences school. Further booster doses (against tetanus only) are recommended at 10-yearly intervals and on injury. Measles vaccination is available from family doctors for infants from 10 months of age onwards. Rubella vaccination is available from family doctors for pre-school children.

HEALTH EDUCATION—Medical and dental officers, public health nurses, dental nurses, and inspectors of health all devote some of their time to health education. The health education officer acts as a co-ordinator and stimulates and extends health teaching and health programmes in the district. Most health education officers are women and the majority hold the diploma in health education issued by the Royal Society for the Promotion of Health. Daily newspapers and national periodicals carry advertisement', of health subjects. Leaflets, pamphlets, and posters are available on many health topics from district health offices.

The Department of Health's official bulletin Health has a circulation of over 78,000 and is issued free to the public 4 times a year. It gives health information and publishes various aspects of the department's work.

Officers are available for lectures and discussions on health with schools and community groups.

DENTAL HEALTH—There are 14 dental districts and 3 schools for the training of school dental nurses at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch.

The School Dental Service, directed by dental officers and staffed by 1,352 trained school dental nurses, provided systematic treatment for 602,705 pre-school and primary school children in the year ended 31 March 1973. A further 155,799 children under 16 years of age received regular treatment from private dentists under the social security (dental benefits) scheme, and from a limited number of salaried dental officers.

School Dental Service—Briefly, the functions of the service are to improve the standard of dental health of school children (and of pre-school children) by regular and systematic treatment at 6-monthly intervals, commencing from the primer classes (or earlier when possible), and continuing through to the highest class of the primary (or intermediate) school. Thereafter they are eligible for enrolment in the adolescent service.

Two years are devoted to the theoretical and practical training of school dental nurses. Approximately 500 student dental nurses can be trained at the one time. The course is carefully graduated and is in the hands of a staff of dental surgeons and dental tutor sisters. During the period of training student dental nurses reside in hostels controlled by the Department of Health.

On completing her training, a school dental nurse is posted to a school dental clinic, where she becomes responsible to the principal dental officer of her district for the dental treatment of a group of approximately 500 patients. She is visited at regular intervals by the principal dental officer and by a dental nurse inspector who assist the dental nurse to maintain a high standard of performance in all aspects of work.

Dental treatment comprises fillings in both temporary teeth and permanent teeth, cleaning and scaling of the teeth, extractions when necessary, and sodium fluoride treatment. The aim of the service is to promote dental health by conserving the natural teeth and preventing dental decay. Only a small number of teeth have to be extracted as unsavable, less than 3 for every 100 saved by conservative treatment.

Adolescent Dental Service—Dental care for adolescents up to 16 years of age is provided by private dentists as a dental benefit under the Social Security Act, the dentist being reimbursed on a fee-for-service basis. Children who remain at school after their sixteenth birthday and qualify for the extended family benefit, or who are otherwise dependent upon parents for support, will continue to receive the dental benefit to their eighteenth birthday.

Eligibility for dental treatment as an adolescent is contingent upon a person's having undergone regular dental care up to within 3 months of the time of application, either at a school dental clinic or from a private dental practitioner.

Treatment is essentially of a nature designed to conserve the natural teeth. Dental supervision of adolescents is on a basis of examination and treatment at 6-monthly intervals. There is free choice of dentists, and dentists have the right to decline patients.

The treatment (other than treatment requiring special approval) which may be provided as dental benefits, and the fees payable, are indicated in the Schedule to the Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960.

Dental Health Education—The dental health education activities of the department include the production of posters, pamphlets, sound films, filmstrips, radio talks, newspaper advertisements, and all other types of advertising media.

Officers of the service are kept in touch with health education and other matters by means of the School Dental Service Gazette, which is published bi-monthly.

Dental Research—Dental research is directed by the dental research committee of the Medical Research Council. The staff consisting of a director, three professional assistants, and three associated workers are primarily engaged in a long-term programme of research in dental problems.

Dental Bursaries—The Government grants bursaries each year to selected students to assist them to qualify as dentists. The bursaries are the equivalent of the bursary that would be payable under the University Bursary Regulations plus $350 a year. Students who are granted bursaries must enter into an agreement to pursue their studies diligently and, on graduating, to enter the service of the Crown or of a hospital board appointed by the Crown for a specified period not exceeding 3 years.

Fluoridation—Approximately half of all persons living in water-reticulated areas are drinking fluoridated water, which reduces the need for dental treatment.

REHABILITATION OF DISABLED CIVILIANS—The rehabilitation of disabled and handicapped civilians has received increasing emphasis over recent years in New Zealand. Public hospitals are the hub for development of an adequate medical rehabilitation service, with co-operation from Government and voluntary agencies in furthering the medical, social, and vocational welfare of the disabled.

Civilian rehabilitation centres are established at Otara, under the Auckland Hospital Board's administration, and Palmerston North under the Palmerston North Hospital Board's administration; for the treatment and overall restoration of those injured in employment or road accidents. For the rehabilitation of persons suffering from spinal injuries and paraplegia, specialist spinal injury centres are in course of development at Auckland and Christchurch. Rehabilitation activities are also being carried out at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Rotorua, and in many of the psychiatric and psychopaedic hospitals.

The Disabled Re-establishment League is the principal agent of Government in vocational rehabilitation. The main function of the league is to provide facilities for work assessment and work experience for the disabled. Policy is decided by a central board of management and district committees administer the centres which are established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Napier, and Invercargill.

A National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, comprising representatives from the Departments of Labour, Social Welfare, Health, and Education, advise Government on steps to co-ordinate and promote rehabilitation in New Zealand.

PHYSICAL MEDICINE—Physical medicine is concerned with potentially disabling conditions such as rheumatic diseases, cerebral palsy, and other disorders of the locomotor system.

The national centre for the treatment of rheumatism is established at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Rotorua, which has approximately 100 beds set aside for diagnosis, research, and treatment of these diseases. Full physiotherapy and occupational therapy facilities are provided and active steps towards rehabilitation of patients are carried out. A large number of outpatients referred from all parts of New Zealand and a few from overseas are seen every year.

Physiotherapists and occupational therapists work together in preventing and controlling deformity, and teaching people how to overcome their disabilities. Social workers assist in bridging the gap between rehabilitation and vocational and social resettlement.

A cerebral palsy unit is situated at Queen Elizabeth Hospital providing residential accommodation for 20 children. At this unit the activities of a team of physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists are co-ordinated by the supervisor of the unit working under a physician. Patients can be referred by their doctors to the physician in charge of the unit for assessment only, or for admission and treatment. Cerebral palsy visiting therapist services are operating under hospital boards. Post-graduate courses are given to physiotherapists, occupational therapists, teachers, and speech therapists.

Cerebral palsy day schools have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Parents of cerebral palsy cases who seek their children's admission first apply to the appropriate medical officer of health or education board. The schools are administered by the education boards, but close liaison exists between the schools, the Rotorua unit, and the visiting cerebral palsy therapists.

Cerebral palsy schools administered by education boards have been established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin and, Invercargill. Close liaison exists between the schools, the Rotorua unit, and the visiting cerebral palsy therapist. Parents seeking the admission of their children to one of the schools make application to the appropriate education board. A medical report on a child's condition is required by the schools.

MEDICAL STATISTICS—The National Health Statistics Centre is responsible for the compilation of the statistics included in the Annual Report on the Medical Statistics of New Zealand. The centre also prepares special statistics for the various divisions of the department and for research workers in different fields both in New Zealand and overseas. A constant liaison is maintained with the World Health Organisation, which is supplied with statistical material giving a picture of health trends in New Zealand. In addition, from time to time special statistical investigations are made into important aspects of public health and diseases that warrant specific study. The centre publishes Trends in Health and Health Services, an annual statistical survey.

A question in the 1971 Census of Population revealed that 17,430 persons were under treatment for diabetes, of whom 5,516 were being treated with insulin.

NATIONAL HEALTH INSTITUTE—The Institute is the Department of Health's centre for the scientific study of public health problems. It contains an epidemiology section and public health laboratories (microbiology, virology and environmental health).

The epidemiology section conducts field research into matters of public health interest.

The public health laboratories provide diagnostic and reference services in bacteriology and virology for medical officers of health, hospital and private laboratories, and general practitioners, as well as for the other sections of the institute. The Institute is the national centre for those reference services which are organised on an international basis, such as salmonellosis, leptospirosis, toxoplasmosis, influenza, and staphylococcal phage typing.

MEDICAL RESEARCH COUNCIL—The Medical Research Council of New Zealand has the following functions:

  1. To initiate, foster, and support medical research;

  2. To furnish information, advice, and assistance to persons and organisations concerned with medical research;

  3. To collect and disseminate scientific information, including the publication of reports.

At the end of 1973 research was in progress in many fields, including the following: dentistry; experimental endocrinology and metabolism; human genetics; hydatids; Island Territories research; toxicology; electron microscopy; renal physiology; cardiology; hypertension; environmental physiology; coronary disease; immunology and genetics of tissue transplantation; mechanisms of action of psychotropic drugs; diabetes; molecular biology of bacterial viruses; biology; pathology; rheumatic diseases; human nutrition; maternal and infant health; tumour virology; social factors in the use of marijuana.

The council maintains liaison with the research work being carried out by the Cancer Society of New Zealand and medical research foundations established in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Palmerston North, Hawke's Bay, Otago, and Southland.

The council administers the Medical Research Endowment Fund, from which an annual expenditure of $2.1 million is incurred in supporting research projects at the University of Otago, the University of Auckland, the Massey University, and the institutions of the Auckland, Wellington, North Canterbury, Palmerston North, Southland, and Otago Hospital Boards.

The council employs a staff of about 60 full-time workers. A further 180 workers are employed by other institutions under project grants from the council.

The council awards scholarships and fellowships to selected graduates and undergraduates who wish to engage in medical research.

The council is empowered to receive bequests and donations to the fund for furthering the objects of the council as set out in the Medical Research Council Act 1950.

MEDICAL COUNCIL—The Medical Council of New Zealand, constituted under the Medical Practitioners Act 1968, consists of the Director-General of Health, the deans of the faculties of medicine in the Universities of Otago and Auckland, and eight registered medical practitioners appointed on a representative basis.

The council deals with all applications for registration under the Act. Until an applicant is able to satisfy the council that he has obtained house officer experience, in a resident medical capacity, of not less than 12 months or has otherwise obtained comparable experience, registration is on a conditional basis. Persons registered conditionally may practise only in an approved hospital. A medical education committee responsible to the council exercises general supervision over the training of persons conditionally registered. The number of medical practitioners on the register at 30 June 1973 was 5,235, but not all are in active practice in New Zealand.

The Medical Council is vested with certain disciplinary powers. Right of appeal to the Supreme Court is provided.

DOCTORS IN PRACTICE—ADMINISTRATION—A report made in 1970 by the Joint Committee on Medical Graduate Needs assessed that in 1968 the doctors in active practice in New Zealand totalled 3,182 and that they were engaged as follows:

Type of PracticeDoctors

*Specialties.

†Non-specialist psychiatrist medical officers.

‡Includes preventive and social medicine and medically qualified teachers in non-clinical subjects.

§Hospital boards, armed services, student health, trainees and industry, Government (other than Department of Health), family planning associations, research, etc.

General practice1,335
Surgery*303
Medicine*290
Registrars296
House surgeons247
Psychiatry90
Anaesthetics88
Pathology85
Radiology83
Obstetrics and gynaecology82
Ophthalmology50
Health administration—
    Department of Health36
    Hospital boards22
    Medical Officers in Department of Health—
    Psychiatric hospitals48
    Other35
Medical education not included elsewhere26
Other§66
Total3,182

On this basis the doctor to population ratio in 1968 was 1:866. For Australia in 1966 the ratio was reported by the World Health Organisation as 1:840 and for selected other countries in 1965 as: Sweden 1:910; England and Wales 1:870; United States 1:700. The New Zealand target is 1:720. Medical graduates from the University of Otago have totalled 114 annually, from 1973 this output has been supplemented by graduates from the University of Auckland to a total of 165. Medical graduates are expected to reach 207 a year by 1977.

REGISTRATION COUNCILS AND BOARDS: Dentists—Under the Dental Act 1963 there is constituted a Dental Council, the functions of which are to examine and approve of the qualifications of applicants desiring registration as dentists and to exercise disciplinary control over registered dentists.

The number of private dentists holding annual practising certificates at 1 September 1970 was 901 and in addition there were 150 dentists in Government, hospital, research, and university employment.

Under provisions of the Dental Technicians Regulations 1968, a Registration Board for Dental Technicians has been constituted and 310 dental technicians are on the register.

Nurses—Under the Nurses Act 1971 is constituted the nursing council. The council controls nursing education programmes, conducts examinations and effects registrations.

Provision is made in Nurses Registration Regulations 1966 for 3-year programmes for registration as nurse and maternity nurse, male nurse, psychiatric nurse, and psychopaedic nurse. Provision is also made for 18-month programmes for registration as maternity nurse and community nurse, and 6-month programmes for registration as midwife and, where registration has already been obtained as nurse, as maternity nurse.

Physiotherapists—Under the Physiotherapy Act 1949 is constituted the New Zealand Physiotherapy Board. The board's functions are the training, examination, and registration of candidates for physiotherapy practice, the issuing of special licences, the approval of physiotherapy training schools, and the conduct of those registered under the Act.

The training period for physiotherapists is 3 years. Full-time training is conducted at the New Zealand School of Physiotherapy, Dunedin, administered by the Otago Hospital Board, and the final year is spent at one of the subsidiary training schools in various parts of New Zealand. All students are required to pass the State Examination in Physiotherapy to qualify for registration.

Occupational Therapists—Under the Occupational Therapy Act 1949 is constituted the Occupational Therapy Board. The board is concerned with the registration and conduct of persons engaged in the practice of occupational therapy.

The Central Institute of Technology, Wellington, conducts the 3-year course of training and clinical experience is gained at hospitals. Students who successfully complete the course are awarded a diploma in occupational therapy and then registered. There are some 200 occupational therapists in active practice.

Dietitians—Under the Dietitians Act 1950 is constituted the Dietitians Board, which is concerned with the training, examination, and registration of persons engaged in the practice of dietetics.

The training period for a dietitian is, in the case of the holder of a degree of bachelor of home science conferred by the University of Otago or of the holder of a diploma in home science of the University of Otago, 12 months in a hospital training school.

Opticians—The Opticians Act 1928 provides for the constitution of an Opticians Board, consisting of the Director-General of Health (the Registrar), three persons engaged in practice as opticians in New Zealand, and a registered medical practitioner with special knowledge of diseases of the eyes. The board deals with all applications for registration under the Act.

There are approximately 270 opticians registered, but not all are engaged in active practice.

Plumbers—The Plumbers and Gasfitters Board consists of 10 members—the Director-General of Health as chairman, a registrar (deputy chairman), and representatives of the Department of Education, the Municipal and Counties Association, the Gas Association, the Master Plumbers Society (2), the Plumbers, Gasfitters, and Related Trades Industrial Union of Workers (2), and a nominee of a borough council or drainage board.

The Board is concerned with the registration of plumbers and gasfitters. It issues annual licences and limited certificates for plumbers and gasfitters. It has also authority and responsibility for disciplinary action against registered plumbers and gasfitters if it is established they have done unsatisfactory work.

In New Zealand, except in specially exempted areas, all sanitary plumbing as defined in the Plumbers and Gasfitters Registration Act 1964 can only be performed by registered plumbers and holders of limited certificates working in the employment or under the supervision of registered plumbers.

Specifications and standards of workmanship and materials in plumbing work are prescribed in the provisions of the Drainage and Plumbing Regulations enacted under the Health Act.

Pharmacists—There are now 2,480 names on the Pharmaceutical Register in New Zealand. All registered pharmacists, except those who notify the registrar that they have conscientious objection to membership, automatically become members of the Pharmaceutical Society of New Zealand, the society's affairs being managed by a council constituted by the Pharmacy Act 1970.

The council consists of 12 members, 11 being pharmacists, and 1 a barrister appointed by the Minister of Health. Seven members are elected on a district basis by registered pharmacists who are proprietors of pharmacies and four by members of the Pharmaceutical Society who are not in the previous category. The main function of the council of the Pharmaceutical Society is to administer the Pharmacy Act and generally to protect and promote the interests of the profession of pharmacy and the public interests.

It is a specific requirement of the Pharmacy Act that pharmacies in New Zealand be at all times maintained under the immediate supervision and control of a registered pharmacist.

The present system for pharmacy education requires a minimum of 3 years' attendance at the School of Pharmacy, Central Institute of Technology, Upper Hutt, at which the diploma in pharmacy is obtained. There is also a 4-year degree course in pharmacy at the University of Otago. Graduates from both courses are required to serve 12 months' practical training before becoming eligible for registration as pharmacists.

Any pharmacist or company in which not less than 75 percent of the share capital is owned by a pharmacist or pharmacists may establish one pharmacy. Unqualified persons or companies in which less than 75 percent of the share capital is pharmacist-owned must, however, secure the consent of the Pharmacy Authority, set up under the Act, before commencing business, and in all cases the establishment of more than one pharmacy under the same ownership is subject to the consent of the authority. All pharmacies must be registered with the society. There are about 1,160 pharmacies in New Zealand. A survey in 1973 showed that on average there were 1.56 pharmacists per pharmacy; about 100 pharmacists work outside the retail trade in hospitals, Government departments and the pharmaceutical industry.

MEDICAL, HOSPITAL, AND OTHER RELATED BENEFITS—Part II of the Social Security Act 1964, administered by the Department of Health and dealing with medical and like benefits, is of general application to all persons ordinarily resident in New Zealand, and makes provision for medical, pharmaceutical, hospital, maternity, and other related benefits.

Medical Benefits—Medical benefits apply to such medical treatment as is ordinarily given by medical practitioners in the course of a general practice. Certain services are excluded, these being principally:

  1. Medical services in maternity cases. (These services are covered by maternity benefits and are described under a later heading.)

  2. Medical services involved in any medical examination of which the sole or primary purpose is the obtaining of a medical certificate.

  3. Medical services other than anaesthetic services, involved in or incidental to the extraction of teeth by a medical practitioner.

  4. Medical services in respect of which fees are payable under the Social Security (X-ray Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1941, Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951, and Social Security (Laboratory Diagnostic Services) Regulations 1946—see later headings.

  5. Medical services afforded by means of advice given by telephone, telegram, or letter except under circumstances specifically approved by the Director-General of Health and medical services not rendered by a medical practitioner in person.

Every medical practitioner who renders any of the prescribed services is entitled, on behalf of the patient, to receive from the Department of Health a fee of $1.25 for a service provided in normal hours and up to $2.00 for a service rendered at night or on Saturdays, Sundays, or holidays; for age beneficiaries and children up to their tenth birthday the fees may be $2.00 and $2.75 respectively. The department pays a fee of $5 for an initial consultation with a recognised specialist physician, psychiatrist, neurologist, neurosurgeon, or paediatrician, and of $3.50 in the case of other recognised specialists. These rates apply only to the first occasion on which a patient is referred by a general practitioner to a specialist and, in the case of inter-specialist referral, with the prior concurrence of the original doctor. For subsequent visits, the fee paid by the department reduces to $1.25 for each visit, except in the case of social security beneficiaries and pensioners and their dependants for whom the fee is $2. In designated rural areas, an incentive bonus is also payable. In 1972 immunisation benefits were introduced; they apply to children and adolescents up to their sixteenth birthday; the benefit is $1.50 if the vaccine is administered by a doctor, or $1.25 if administered by a registered nurse in his employ.

Most doctors (91 percent) make a claim directly from the Department of Health and ask patients for the balance of their fees. A minority require their patients to pay the whole fee and make personal claims on the Department of Health.

The number of doctors providing general and specialist medical services in March 1972 was 1,946 and the cost per head of population in the year ended 31 March 1972 was $4.69; the average population per active practitioner was 1,495.

Pharmaceutical Benefits—Persons receiving medical attention under the Act are entitled, generally without cost to themselves, to those medicines, drugs, approved appliances, and materials, prescribed for their use by medical practitioners and which are included in the Drug Tariff.

Prescriptions passed for payment in the year ended 31 March 1973 totalled 20,663,267 or 7 per head of population. The average cost per prescription was $1.90, the cost per head of population being $13.25.

Hospital Benefits—Treatment is provided free by public hospitals where a patient is entitled to hospital benefits under the Act. In the case of private hospitals and other approved institutions benefits paid are in partial satisfaction of claims against the patients. The rates from 1 October 1971 are as follows:

  1. For surgical treatment $9.00 a day, with a minimum of $18.00.

  2. For medical (including psychiatric) treatment $5.50 a day.

Free treatment is accorded outpatients at public hospitals; this also covers the supply of artificial aids, including contact lenses, hearing aids, artificial limbs, surgical footwear, wheelchairs, orthopaedic implants in private hospitals, ileostomy and colostomy appliances, and urinals. It does not include dental treatment or services in respect of which fees are payable under specific Social Security Regulations (X-ray diagnostic services, laboratory diagnostic services) referred to under later headings. In respect of surgical footwear, part payment by the patient is required.

Psychiatric Hospitals—Treatment of patients in public psychiatric hospitals is also free. A licensed (private) psychiatric hospital may be recognised and approved by the Minister as a hospital for the purposes of the Act, and hospital benefits in respect of treatment are payable accordingly.

Maternity Benefits—Maternity benefits cover ante-natal and post-natal advice and treatment by medical practitioners, and the services of doctors and nurses at confinements in maternity hospitals or elsewhere. Recognised specialists may make a charge on the patient over and above the benefit. Licensed maternity hospitals are entitled to receive fees of $9.00 in respect of the day of birth of the child and for each of the succeeding 14 days. Approved midwives and maternity nurses who are in attendance in cases where confinement takes place other than in a maternity hospital are entitled to receive fees at the rate of $8 for the day or days of labour and $5.40 per day for each of the 14 days succeeding the birth of the child, or $1.60 per day if a visiting obstetric nurse only.

X-ray Diagnostic Services—These X-ray diagnostic services attract a health benefit:

  1. The making of X-ray examinations with the aid of a fluorescent screen.

  2. The taking of X-ray photographs.

  3. The supply and administration of any drugs or other substances for the purposes of any such examination or photograph.

X-ray photographs or X-ray examinations made or taken for dental purposes or for the purposes of life assurance, visas, emigration permits, and examinations for the sole or primary purpose of obtaining medical certificates for production to some other person, are not included in the free services. Eligible X-ray examinations at public hospitals are free, but those undertaken by private radiologists are limited to a specified benefit. Additional charges are the patient's responsibility.

Laboratory Diagnostic Services—The benefits concerning laboratory diagnostic services comprise the supply of all materials or substances required for the purpose of providing laboratory diagnostic services, and associated medical services.

The following services are not included:

  1. Examination of specimens for public health.

  2. Post-mortem examinations.

  3. Laboratory services for dental purposes or for the purposes of life insurance.

  4. The preparation of sera and vaccines.

Physiotherapy Benefits—Physiotherapy treatment by private physiotherapists is covered by the Social Security (Physiotherapy Benefits) Regulations 1951. The general arrangement for these benefits consists of contracts with registered physiotherapists under which they are paid from the Department of Health a fee of 50c.

No physiotherapy treatment is recognised for the purpose of the benefits unless it is given on the recommendation of a medical practitioner, and not more than 6 weeks' treatment may be given on a single recommendation except in the case of certain specified diseases, illness, etc., approved by the Director-General of Health, when the period of treatment on any one recommendation may be extended up to 6 months.

Home-nursing Services—Home-nursing services are provided free of cost under the Social Security (District Nursing Services) Regulations 1944.

Domestic Assistance—Monetary assistance is given to approved incorporated associations formed for the purpose of providing domestic assistance in homes. Assistance in this connection is restricted to the following classes:

  1. Cases where there are one or more children under 12 years of age permanently residing in a home and the mother or other woman in charge of the home is wholly or partially incapacitated from undertaking her ordinary domestic duties by reason of pregnancy or maternity, or by reasons of accident, sickness, etc.

  2. Cases where there are three or more children under 12 years of age permanently residing in the home, and any member of the household requires special care and attention by reason of sickness or infirmity.

  3. Cases where all members of the household of an age or condition to help in the home are wholly or partially incapacitated from work by sickness or otherwise.

  4. Cases where lack of domestic assistance in the home is a cause of undue hardship.

Dental Services—The Social Security (Dental Benefits) Regulations 1960 provide for free dental treatment. These benefits are confined to persons who are under 16 years of age. Treatment may be provided in a State dental clinic or by a contracting dentist for whom there is a prescribed scale of fees.

Artificial Aids—The Social Security (Hospital Benefits for Outpatients) Regulations 1947 made provision for the supply of artificial aids, such as artificial limbs, hearing aids, and contact lenses.

Contact Lenses—These may be supplied in respect of the following optical disabilities: (a) conical cornea, (b) high myopia, where the degree of myopia present in the greatest axis of the better eye is not less than —10 diopters, (c) monocular aphakia, if the restoration of binocular vision is highly desirable by reason of the patient's occupation or other circumstances and binocular vision cannot be restored without the use of contact lenses. In each case the supply of such lenses must be recommended by an approved ophthalmologist.

Lenses may also be supplied in respect of any other ocular condition which cannot be corrected by ordinary spectacles; in these cases recommendation by two ophthalmologists is necessary.

Hearing Aids—Individual electrical hearing aids may be supplied subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient possesses a hearing loss of at least 35 decibels in the better ear over the significant frequencies of speech or such other loss of a lesser degree as, in the opinion of an otologist employed or engaged by a hospital board, renders the use of an aid necessary.

  2. The patient's hearing loss is such that in the opinion of the otologist it is capable of correction or marked improvement by the use of the type of hearing aid supplied or approved for the purpose of the benefit.

It is provided that in respect of patients who satisfy these conditions but who do not wish to avail themselves of the hearing aid issued free of charge by hospital boards there may be paid a sum not exceeding $26 towards the purchase of any aid approved for the purposes of these benefits. If a patient has received a benefit for a hearing aid within the preceding 5 years, the hospital board may pay half (or up to a maximum of $13) of the cost of replacement, provided that the replacement aid will assist hearing more than the existing aid and that the patient is otherwise eligible.

Artificial Limbs—The free supply of artificial limbs is subject to the following conditions:

  1. The patient has not obtained or is not entitled to obtain a limb as an ex-serviceman under the provisions of the War Pensions Regulations 1956 or under the provisions of the Accident Compensation Act 1972.

  2. The supply of the limb is recommended by an approved orthopaedic surgeon.

  3. The limb is of an approved type and can, in the opinion of the supplier's orthopaedic adviser, be satisfactorily fitted.

For the purposes of the regulations "artificial limb" includes artificial arms, artificial hands, artificial legs, and artificial feet, and includes limb socks for such limbs and for female amputees, replacement understockings.

The following table gives details of expenditure on the various classes of medical benefits during the last five financial years.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
*Mainly on account of hospital benefits.
 $(thousand)
Maternity benefits—
    Private hospital fees331341377394397
    Medical practitioners' fees1,6972,5422,6703,3173,364
    Mileage fees337282105101
    Obstetric nurses' fees42342
Totals2,0692,9563,1333,8213,864
Medical benefits—
    Mileage fees209191181159151
    General medical services8,2109,0999,7859,69211,820
    Specialist medical services1,2561,2861,721
    Special arrangements, purchase of sites and erection of residences for medical officers366406534660869
Totals8,7859,69511,75611,79714,561
Hospital benefits—
    Private hospitals4,1404,5905,2915,9157,016
    Approved institutions386421495526626
    Private hospital loans300446801390379
    Grants towards operating costs of Karitane hospitals2328403961
Totals4,8495,4876,6276,8708,082
Pharmaceutical benefits—
    Chemists23,96826,69730,15432,47939,323
    Medical practitioners205278168206181
    Institutions285332462550515
Totals24,45827,30830,78333,23640,020
Supplementary benefits—
    Radiological services677708787757788
    Laboratory services3,6304,1425,3356,5847,355
    Physiotherapy services237227234242246
    Dental services2,5132,3392,8002,7992,849
    Domestic assistance5549535561
    Intellectually handicapped468389105122
    Other83807795103
Totals7,2417,6289,37510,63711,524
Grand totals47,40253,07461,67566,36178,050
Recoveries*1616132227
Net totals47,38553,05861,66166,33978,023

WELFARE SERVICES—Government assistance is offered to religious and voluntary organisations and local authorities in providing housing, accommodation, and services for elderly people and others whom it is considered are in special need. Under this partnership with Government, the social service agencies of all the major religious bodies, as well as other welfare organisations, have established additional accommodation for the aged, frail, and sick who need residential care in either an old people's home or a geriatric hospital. Where it is not possible to meet the need of elderly people through these agencies, the provision of residential care for the aged becomes a hospital board responsibility. At 31 March 1973 religious and welfare organisations provided 6,642 home and hospital beds for the elderly. Hospital boards maintain 1,109 old people's home beds, while approximately 4,700 of their hospital beds (42 percent) are required for care of the elderly sick, either on a short-stay or long-term basis.

For the elderly who are ambulant and able to care for themselves but have a housing need and whose resources are limited, local authorities are encouraged and assisted by Government to build specially designed flats. These flats enable many elderly people to retain their independence for longer than would otherwise be the case (see Section 19, Building Construction and Housing). Some 770 flats have also been provided by religious and voluntary organisations for this category of elderly persons, generally in conjunction with their residential accommodation.

Other measures which are of importance in assisting elderly people to remain in their homes as long as possible are receiving increased attention. Chief amongst these are the provision of district nursing services, home aid, meals-on-wheels, laundry services, and occupational therapy. In general the services are provided by hospital boards with voluntary organisations and old people's welfare councils assisting in various ways. The importance of old people's clubs and social centres, with an adequate range of services, is also receiving increasing recognition. Government lottery funds are being used to assist in providing suitable premises and assisting welfare councils with administrative costs. At 31 December 1972 the number of meals delivered daily by the meals-on-wheels service was 3,832; the service is operated by 29 hospital boards.

Old People's Homes and Hospitals—Subject to maximum subsidies of $9,000 per bed for old people's homes and $12,000 for a geriatric hospital, capital cost limits per bed of $10,000 and $13,000 respectively, and certain other conditions, religious or welfare organisations providing accommodation for old people may be granted 100 percent of the approved building cost. In addition, a subsidy of up to $500 per bed is available towards initial land and land development costs. Since April 1966, the policy has been widened to provide a 50 percent subsidy towards the cost of approved improvements and the upgrading of existing accommodation, and 75 percent for fire protection work as required by the local authority. The administration of policy is a Department of Health responsibility.

During the year 1972–73, subsidies amounting to $3,466,863 were approved to assist in the provision of accommodation for 367 old people. From April 1950 to 31 March 1973, subsidies totalling $25,614,832 have been approved, and buildings erected as a result will accommodate 5,796 old people.

Housing of Elderly—Local authorities provide flats for elderly persons under a scheme administered by the Department of Health (see Section 19).

Services for the Intellectually Handicapped—Since 1954 there has been a subsidy of up to 50 percent on the capital cost of approved buildings and furnishings acquired for the purpose of providing short-stay homes for intellectually handicapped children. In 1963 Government also extended the capital subsidy to include hostels built by the Intellectually Handicapped Children's Society for children who are attending occupation groups run by the Department of Education. In 1966 the cost of land and professional fees (architect and quantity surveyor) were included in assessing subsidy on hostels and sheltered workshops with a maximum subsidy on hostels of $2,400 per bed. In addition, a maintenance subsidy of $1.60 per day is paid in respect of these children under 16 years of age. Since 1968 there has been a capital subsidy of $400 per place for day care centres. In 1969 Government approved subsidies of 50 percent of salaries of staff for day care centres, sheltered workshops, and of approved branch administrators. In 1970 the capital subsidy for hostels was increased to $2,880 per bed. In 1972 the capital subsidy for hostels was increased to $5,000 per bed.

The administration of this policy is the responsibility of the Departments of Health and Social Welfare. The administration of capital subsidies for sheltered workshops and day care centres for the intellectually handicapped was transferred to the Social Welfare Department in 1970. That department also pays the salary subsidy for approved staff employed at day care centres and sheltered workshops.

The total amount expended on capital subsidies for short-stay homes, and hostels, during the year ended 31 March 1973 was $396,796. In addition, $147,357 was paid by way of operating costs during the same period.

VOLUNTARY WELFARE ORGANISATIONS—Over the years voluntary welfare organisations have made valuable contributions to certain aspects of the field of public health. In many cases they are encouraged and assisted in their work by grants from the public funds. Among more important of these organisations are the Plunket Society, the Children's Health Camps Board, St. John Ambulance (N.Z.), the New Zealand Red Cross Society, the Crippled Children Society, and the New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations, the New Zealand Foundation for the Blind, and the New Zealand Epilepsy Association.

The Plunket Society—the Royal New Zealand Society for the Health of Women and Children—is concerned with the welfare of babies. The society trains its own infant-welfare nurses, conducts infant-welfare clinics, and maintains Karitane hospitals throughout the country for premature babies or difficult feeders. In rural areas where there is no Plunket clinic, public health nurses do infant-welfare work.

The Children's Health Camps Board maintains six health camps for children with physical health problems and minor emotional disorders. The federation works in close co-operation with the Department of Health. A portion of the finance for the federation's activities is derived from the proceeds of the annual health-stamp appeal.

The St. John Ambulance (N.Z.) has divisions throughout the country carrying out free ambulance and first-aid work and instruction in first aid and home nursing. It is a branch of the Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem.

The New Zealand Red Cross Society, a part of the International Red Cross Committee, has centres and subcentres throughout the country. It gives training in first aid, home nursing, hygiene and sanitation, and emergency transportation of the injured. Graduates of these classes form voluntary-aid detachments that in peacetime are recruited as aids in hospitals, and in wartime may be recruited for service overseas as well.

The Crippled Children Society keeps a register of all crippled children, helps them to acquire all possible medical treatment, and undertakes vocational training and home education where these are required.

The New Zealand Federation of Tuberculosis Associations looks after the interests of patients suffering from tuberculosis. It assists the Department of Health with health education of the public regarding tuberculosis and concerns itself with after-care and vocational training and guidance of patients.

The Foundation for the Blind conducts a national appeal each year to assist in providing facilities for blind people. Some institutions have been built for them. There are 4,300 registered blind people and the number is being added to by 12 every week.

The New Zealand Epilepsy Association, with a Dominion Council and 11 branches, helps epileptics and their families in every possible way. It issues pamphlets, gives lectures, shows films, and fosters medical research. Social workers are employed by branches who can afford to do so. A residential hostel, Park Lodge, for young men and women who have regular employment or who require short-term accommodation for special reasons, is maintained in Auckland. The association is affiliated to the International Bureau for Epilepsy.

5B—HOSPITALS

GENERAL—The Hospitals Act 1957 requires the Minister of Health to ensure the provision and maintenance by hospital boards of hospitals and hospital services and to encourage the provision and maintenance of private hospitals. The Department of Health advises the Minister on or determines in respect of boards the extent and standard of hospital and allied services, the building requirements to provide these services, the numbers and levels of the main groups of professional staffs to be employed, the appropriate annual financial grants, the salaries and conditions of employment of about 60 percent of staff and the measure of financial assistance to be given to private hospitals, including loan finance. The department also licenses and supervises private hospitals, inspects the work of all hospitals and compiles financial and statistical data about them. There are 30 hospital boards and over 150 private hospitals.

Since 1 April 1958, the cost of hospital treatment in public hospitals has been borne entirely by the State. Private hospitals which provide about one-sixth of the available beds, receive payment from the Government for hospital treatment of patients; additional fees may be claimed from the patients.

Hospital and home nursing services involve the Department of Health in establishing and assisting to maintain minimum standards of nursing service in general hospitals, in homes for the aged, etc., in advising, inspecting and reporting on such services in hospitals; and generally advising the Minister on nursing.

Experience has been that, generally speaking, boards, committees and councils play a most valuable part in helping to formulate health policies and programmes, and, in certain cases, in administering policies or programmes laid down by Government. The setting-up of such agencies enables the Minister and the Department of Health to draw upon expert advice and wide experience and ensures that non-departmental people with up-to-date knowledge, day-to-day working experience and responsibility in particular areas of health play a worthwhile part in health administration. A partnership of this kind is particularly important in the case of public hospitals, which are run by democratically elected boards. Recognition of this is seen in the requirements of the Hospitals Act that the Minister of Health may not act in certain public hospital matters without a recommendation from the Hospitals Advisory Council.

The department's objectives in the case of physical medicine and rehabilitation are to stimulate interest and co-ordinate treatment of diseases such as chronic arthritis, poliomyelitis, and cerebral palsy; to promote and maintain a unified rehabilitation service and to maintain and develop physiotherapy and occupational therapy services. It supervises physiotherapy and occupational therapy training, licensing and services, and supervises the provision of rehabilitation services in public hospitals. (See Section 5A.)

The welfare services involving the department include the medical and social care and general welfare of the aged. The department advises the Minister on subsidies to be paid to local authorities and religious and welfare organisations which provide special housing, home and hospital beds for the elderly, and administers legislation governing the standards and oversight of old people's homes.

Private Hospitals—Hospital benefits are paid to patients in registered private hospitals according to the nature of the treatment given: For surgical and maternity treatment, $9 per day; for medical (including psychiatric) treatment, $5.50 per day.

The Government assists in the development of private hospitals by the provision of loan moneys at a low interest rate. New loans amounting to $475,000 were approved in 1972–73.

HOSPITAL BOARDS—General and psychiatric hospitals are controlled by locally elected hospital boards. A hospital board of 8 to 14 members is elected every 3 years for each hospital district. It is the duty of every hospital board to provide, maintain and staff such institutions, hospital accommodation, and medical, nursing, and other services as the Minister of Health considers necessary.

In recent years there has been a pressure of activity, replanning, and development in all medical services for which hospital boards are responsible. This replanning of medical services has been undertaken against a background of sharp population increases in most urban areas. More rapid and comfortable transport is encouraging the build-up of specialist diagnostic and therapeutic resources in regional centres. The Health Services Research Unit, headed by a medical practitioner in the Department of Health, has the task of applying techniques such as operational research and work study to problems of management in the health services, particularly in hospitals, and ascertaining in what ways efficiency can be improved.

The Director-General of Health is authorised to visit and inspect hospitals and to appoint assistant inspectors, and is required to report to Parliament through the Minister on the administration of the Hospitals Act.

HOSPITAL ACCOMMODATION: Public Institutions—The number of beds in public institutions available at 31 March 1973 and the average number occupied during the year are set out in the following table. These statistics relate to patients and inmates in all institutions (general, maternity, special hospitals, and old people's homes) including institutions under the control of the Department of Health.

Type of BedBeds AvailableAverage Number of Occupied Beds per Day
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
General14,2704.811,417.03.8
Maternity2,9721.01,811.20.6
Total hospital beds17,2425.813,228.24.4
Non-hospital beds1,1880.41,013.10.3
Totals18,4306.214,241.34.8

In addition to the 17,242 hospital beds in public institutions there were 3,992 (3,760 general and 232 maternity) in the 154 licensed private hospitals. If the beds in licensed private hospitals are included, the ratio of beds per 1,000 of population becomes 6.0 for general beds and 1.0 for maternity beds.

The average number of occupied hospital beds per 1,000 of population in hospital districts varies from 3.2 to 11.0. This variation can be accounted for in the main by the fact that many hospitals to a varying extent draw patients from other districts. Other factors which influence the figures are the availability of medical practitioners and their habits in sending patients to hospital or retaining them for home treatment, the availability of private-hospital beds, housing facilities, domestic assistance, private or district nursing assistance, and the efficiency of the outpatient departments.

The number of institutions coming under the heading of public institutions for the year ended 31 March 1973 was 197, comprising 78 general hospitals (3 of which were also old people's homes), 2 homes for cripples, 16 non-acute hospitals, 4 convalescent hospitals, 74 maternity hospitals and 23 old people's homes.

The following statistics for the latest three March years relate to all public institutions including institutions under the control of the Department of Health.

Item1970–711971–721972–73
Beds of all descriptions for patients or inmates17,96418,20018,430
Beds per 1,000 of population6.36.36.2
Average beds occupied per 1,000 of population4.94.84.8
Inpatients or inmates341,417348,139362,544
Inpatients per 1,000 of population119.6119.8121.8
Attendances by outpatients (including dental treatment)3,491,9103,739,6244,194,402
Attendances per 1,000 of population1,223.11,287.31,410.0

The supplement to the annual report of the Director-General of Health on hospital statistics contains further detail on public institutions.

General Hospitals—In the following table the figures relate only to general hospitals under the control of hospital boards.

YearInpatients TreatedAverage Number of Occupied Beds per DayAverage Turnover of Patients Treated per Occupied BedAvailable BedsOutpatient Attendances (Including Dental)
NumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of PopulationNumberProportion per 1,000 of Population
1967–68269,09898.210,243.93.725.413,0214.72,833,3771,033.5
1968–69276,248100.110,334.03.724.913,0454.72,923,5051,059.7
1969–70279,400100.010,438.53.725.813,4304.83,022,7821,082.2
1970–71287,112100.610,448.73.726.613,5064.73,266,8861,144.3
1971–72292,956100.810,400.23.627.513,6094.73,479,4631,197.7
1972–73307,562103.410,700.63.627.913,8464.63,904,8381,312.7

Private Hospitals—The total number of private hospitals licensed in New Zealand at 31 March 1973 was 154, providing 232 maternity, 33 psychiatric, and 3,727 beds for general cases. There were 4,701 confinements in private maternity hospitals in the year to 31 December 1972.

Census of Public and Private Hospitals—A census of public and private hospitals was held on 23–24 March 1971 at the same time as the national census. The numbers, percentages, and rates per 1,000 population of patients in hospital at that time together with the data obtained from similar censuses, held in 1961 and 1966 are shown in the following table.

The percentage of private patients increased from 17.6 percent in 1961 to 18.9 percent in 1966 and to 21.4 percent in 1971.

The rates for patients in public hospitals at the times of the censuses decreased slightly for ages below 45 years, showed little movement for years between 45 and 79 years, and considerable increase for patients aged 80 years and over.

A somewhat similar picture is shown for private hospitals. The rates for age groups below 65 years showed very little change during the 10 years, those for patients aged between 65 and 79 years increased a little, and those for patients aged 80 years and over increased very sharply indeed, being twice as high in 1971 as they were in 1961.

In terms of numbers, the proportion in 1971 of patients aged 80 years and over was 19 percent or nearly 1 in 5 for public hospitals, and 46.5 percent or nearly 1 in 2 for private hospitals.

Full information of the hospitals census is being compiled for publication in special reports.

 196119661971
Age GroupPatientsPercentRate*PatientsPercentRate*PatientsPercentRate*

*Rate per 1,000 population in age group.

†Based on 1970 mean population.

Public Hospitals
0–141,62817.22.01,76416.32.01,65814.71.8
15–247808.22.39178.52.18697.71.8
25–441,40214.82.31,49713.92.31,45912.92.2
45–642,02721.44.42,33921.64.62,53122.54.7
65–792,26124.013.12,52923.413.92,61323.213.4
801,35914.437.31,76016.342.32,14119.050.1
All ages9,457100.03.910,806100.04.011,271100.04.0
Private Hospitals
0–1423511.70.32369.40.32167.00.2
15–24723.60.2612.40.1993.20.2
25–4421210.50.42218.80.32116.90.3
45–6433816.80.737915.00.833811.00.6
65–7955727.73.260624.03.378225.44.0
8059929.716.41,02140.424.61,42846.533.4
All ages2,013100.00.82,524100.00.93,074100.01.1

STAFF—The numbers of staff employed in public hospitals and other institutions and activities controlled by hospital boards in the latest 5 years were as follows.

Category of StaffAt 31 March
19691970197119721973

*Includes duplication where persons provide medical services at more than one institution.

†This is the first year that all staff have been published as full time, equivalent previous years part-time staff were counted as full time, hence the reduction in staff numbers.

Institutional medical1,923*1,947*1,309*1,383*1,472
Other professional and technical3,0843,3322,8963,1503,367
Nursing15,18515,74014,35015,23716,360
Other treatment staff631656873954979
Domestic and other institutional staff10,04610,1269,63310,07410,251
Administrative staff702712690700743
Domiciliary services1,0921,182561593608
Farm and garden1867181413
Other non-institutional193180117137125
Totals32,87433,94230,44732,24233,918

FINANCE: Institutional Operating Expenditure—The average operating expenditure per occupied bed, relating to hospitals of all types (excluding psychiatric hospitals) and to general hospitals, is shown in the following table.

YearTreatmentInstitutional AdministrationHeat, Light, Power, and WaterHousehold ExpensesBuildings and GroundsMiscellaneousTotal
All Institutions
 $$$$$$$
1967–682,935.7399.7341.51,233.7186.03.15,099.7
1968–693,141.5423.8359.61,356.8195.04.75,400.4
1969–703,475.2486.7384.51,357.4221.65.35,930.7
1970–714,088.6609.8419.91,626.1266.67.07,018.0
1972–736,159.0849.6508.22,075.4345.07.49,944.6
General Hospitals
1967–683,226.9464.9362.71,293.0185.42.85,535.7
1968–693,481.5487.1381.81,338.3204.74.65,898.0
1969–703,857.6558.0411.11,409.1230.45.16,471.3
1970–714,561.0703.4454.61,703.3276.66.97,705.8
1972–736,899.4983.4558.72,184.5373.37.811,007.2

Each of these averages includes the direct expenditure on each activity for labour, materials, and incidental expenses, but excludes overheads such as depreciation and interest on capital.

For 1972–73 the average daily expenditure for individual inpatients treated in hospitals classed as general hospitals was $30.16 and the average total expenditure for each inpatient was $382.96.

Loans—Boards have been authorised by the Minister of Health to raise loans to cover a very extensive building programme. The position of loan liability is set out in the following table.

YearAmount UpliftedRepayment*Balance Owing
*Includes payments from sinking funds.
  $(000) 
1967–6813,5666,72490,433
1968–6923,5667,931106,070
1969–7019,1709,436115,797
1970–7119,20010,043124,878
1971–7220,11810,574134,425
1972–7330,61914,439151,923

Payments—Hospital board expenditure is subject to control by the Minister of Health. The sum provided by Government for public hospital maintenance expenditure is allocated to the individual hospital boards on the basis of allocations made in the previous year, adjusted to take account of known increases in commitments plus an allowance for normal growth. A portion of the total is, however, held in reserve, to enable special allocations to be made to boards having to meet the cost of commissioning major capital works reaching completion during the year. Additional grants are also made for general wage increases which may be approved after the basic allocation has been made. Grants for minor capital works and equipment are made to boards on the basis of population and average occupied beds. Major works over $20,000 are financed by loans raised by hospital boards, interest and principal repayments being met by Government grants.

Item of Expenditure1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
*Includes payments to sinking funds.
 $(thousand)
Institutional operating expenses83,09191,882109,610135,579157,050
Extramural relief118153205266337
Grants to private hospitals, etc.129124126181186
Other grants1216131829
Transport of patients9429201,1901,2961,703
Domiciliary services1,7622,0232,2892,8853,362
Administration2,1722,3422,7763,3973,953
Superannuation6477189101,8592,393
Other expenses1,0492,2113,7227,47810,057
Interest on loans4,9615,7946,1826,7487,559
Repayment of loans*7,0888,1079,25110,24111,859
Capital works other than “loan”3,4003,7824,3954,9154,784
Totals, excluding loans105,371118,072140,669174,863203,274
Loan works15,17915,46515,63922,35324,481
Totals120,550133,537156,308197,216227,756

PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—The total expenditure on psychiatric hospitals (not including the cost of new buildings and additions) and particulars of receipts during the last 11 financial years are shown in the next table. This expenditure was incurred by the Department of Health until 31 March 1972, since which date psychiatric hospitals have become the responsibility of hospital boards.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal ExpenditureReceiptsNet ExpenditureAverage Cost per Occupied Bed
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$
196310,99920810,7911,059
196412,10921211,8971,143
196513,78368613,0971,258
196614,77869214,0861,353
196717,33069916,6311,610
196818,55955618,0031,743
196919,90136219,5391,919
197021,87348821,3852,106
197126,00658925,4172,521
197230,06758529,4813,034
197334,39712734,2693,660

As already stated, the expenditure included in the foregoing table does not include amounts spent on new buildings, additions, etc. Expenditure for the last five financial years has amounted to $2,429,000 in 1968–69, $2,640,000 in 1969–70, $3,261,000 in 1970–71, $3,962,000 in 1971–72, and $4,217,000 in 1972–73.

PUBLIC HOSPITAL PATIENTS—Detailed statistical information is supplied to the Department of Health about every patient, except normal maternity cases, discharged from or dying in public hospitals in New Zealand. After tabulation in accordance with the International Classification of Diseases, this information is published annually in the Department of Health publication Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data. According to the census of non-psychiatric hospitals conducted by the Department of Health, patients in public hospitals comprised 81.1 percent of all hospital patients in 1966 and 80.4 percent in 1971.

Patients Treated—The following table shows the number of patients treated in public hospitals for the latest 6 years for which figures are available.

YearRemaining on 1 January from Previous YearAdmissionsDischargesDeathsTotal Number of Indoor PatientsRemaining on 31 December
*Excludes 51 patients shown as remaining in Buchanan Ward, Greytown, on 31 December 1965.
19658,667221,772210,39411,267230,4398,778
19668,727*228,087216,32211,626236,8148,866
19678,866234,521222,91011,299243,3879,178
19689,178242,713230,27612,254251,8919,361
19699,361244,347231,50412,026253,7089,372
19709,372252,819240,69812,291262,1919,202

Principal Diseases and Disabilities—The following summary shows the principal diseases and injuries treated, together with the number of deaths and the fatality rate percent of total cases treated, in public hospitals in 1970. The disease headings are the subtitles of the International Classification of Diseases. More detailed information is published annually in Part III—Hospital and Selected Morbidity Data, Medical Statistics Report.

Although there is little overall difference in the totals of males and females, there is a well-defined pattern when figures for each sex are compared, age group by age group. In all ages under 15 years there is a preponderance of males. This difference is common to most disease groups but is more marked in diseases of the digestive, genito-urinary, musculoskeletal, and respiratory systems, in congenital malformations, and in accidental injuries. For the ages between 15 and 54 years there are more females than males. This age group covers the child-bearing ages in women, and the higher proportion of female patients is a reflection of this fact. Apart from conditions associated with pregnancy, abortion, delivery, and the puerperium, female patients considerably outnumbered male patients in both malignant and non-malignant tumours, in diseases of the thyroid gland and the genito-urinary system and in symptomatic conditions. In the age groups from 55 years upwards the males once more predominate, except for 75 years and over, particularly in diseases of the circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems.

It should be noted that the disease or condition for which a patient is admitted to hospital is not necessarily that which would rank as the cause of death in mortality statistics. Congestive heart failure, for instance, is comparatively highly ranked in hospital cases as the condition immediately affecting the patient, but is frequently only the consequence of some underlying disease, which would take precedence over congestive heart failure in the statistics of causes of death. Hospital returns show each disease for which the patient was treated while in hospital, but the classification for statistical purposes has been made on the basis of the principal disease for which the patient was admitted, regardless of what other unrelated diseases may have been present or developed during the stay in hospital. In mortality statistics, on the other hand, the underlying cause of death is of paramount importance. In the summary below a patient admitted on account of an injury is classified according to the nature of the injury. Should the patient die, however, the death would be classified in the mortality statistics according to the cause of the injury, e.g., motor-vehicle accident, accidental fall, etc.

DISEASES AND DISABILITIES TREATED IN PUBLIC HOSPITALS DURING 1970
Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsDeaths in Public HospitalsFatality Rate Percent
Intestinal infectious diseases2,446391.6
Tuberculosis1,098484.4
Zoonotic bacterial diseases23
Other bacterial diseases3764612.2
Poliomyelitis and other enterovirus diseases of central nervous system20610.5
Viral diseases accompanied by exanthem610142.3
Arthropod-borne viral diseases5159.8
Other viral diseases1,523130.9
Rickettsioses and other arthropod-borne diseases22
Syphilis and other venereal diseases14610.7
Other spirochaetal diseases94
Mycoses8533.5
Helminthiases14121.4
Other infective and parasitic diseases23562.6
Malignant neoplasm of buccal cavity and pharynx3093912.6
Malignant neoplasm of digestive organs and peritoneum2,70375127.8
Malignant neoplasm of respiratory system1,85455630.0
Malignant neoplasm of bone, connective tissue, skin, and breast2,3481847.8
Malignant neoplasm of genito-urinary organs2,87040714.2
Malignant neoplasm of other and unspecified sites2,03961330.1
Neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue1,49928018.7
Benign neoplasms4,019250.6
Neoplasm of unspecified nature29162.1
Diseases of thyroid gland776111.4
Diseases of other endocrine glands2,7091555.7
Avitaminoses and other nutritional deficiency45351,1
Other metabolic diseases658355.3
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs1,665342.0
Psychoses2,513823.3
Neuroses, personality disorders, and other non-psychotic mental disorders3,910130.3
Mental retardation15132.0
Inflammatory diseases of central nervous system3564312.1
Hereditary and familial diseases of nervous system1181311.0
Other diseases of central nervous system2,9782217.4
Diseases of nerves and peripheral ganglia91760.7
Inflammatory diseases of the eye85710.1
Other diseases and conditions of the eye4,025120.3
Diseases of the ear and mastoid process3,43220.1
Active rheumatic fever60991.5
Chronic rheumatic heart disease8168310.2
Hypertensive disease1,3271118.4
Ischaemic heart disease8,5131,55418.3
Other forms of heart disease3,60477621.5
Cerebrovascular disease5,4592,03437.3
Diseases of arteries, arterioles and capillaries2,40944118.3
Diseases of veins and lymphatics, and other diseases of circulatory system6,260922.2
Acute respiratory infections (except influenza)4,187240.6
Influenza982505.1
Pneumonia6,07668311.2
Bronchitis, emphysema and asthma6,3393715.9
Other diseases of upper respiratory tract11,429
Other diseases of respiratory system1,6721197.1
Diseases of oral cavity, salivary glands, and jaws2,1211
Diseases of oesophagus, stomach, and duodenum2,253994.4
Appendicitis5,719140.2
Hernia of abdominal cavity5,284410.8
Other diseases of intestine and peritoneum3,9161213.1
Diseases of liver, gall bladder, and pancreas4,4051733.9
Nephritis and nephrosis839688.1
Other diseases of urinary system3,7541223.2
Diseases male genital organs3,220752.3
Diseases of breast, ovary, fallopian tube, and parametrium2,18730.1
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs9,0593
Complications of pregnancy2,4691
Urinary infections and toxaemias of pregnancy and the puerperium1,18920.2
Abortion4,866
Delivery1,66950.3
Complications of the puerperium59650.8
Infections of skin and subcutaneous tissue3,26630.1
Other inflammatory conditions of skin and subcutaneous tissue88791.0
Other diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissue1,57360.4
Arthritis and rheumatism, except rheumatic fever4,176972.3
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint4,601180.4
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system2,601150.6
Congenital anomalies5,9262063.5
Certain causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality2,7741866.7
Symptoms referable to systems or organs12,255300.2
Senility and ill-defined diseases2,3361747.4
Fracture of skull, spine, and trunk4,0841583.9
Fracture of upper limb4,219130.3
Fracture of lower limb6,0643435.7
Dislocation without fracture1,07710.1
Sprains and strains of joints and adjacent muscles1,07950.5
Intracranial injury (excluding those with skull fracture)9,2861101.2
Internal injury of chest, abdomen, and pelvis594589.8
Laceration and open wound of head, neck, and trunk1,86860.3
Laceration and open wound of lower limb1,44540.3
Laceration and open wound of multiple location216
Superficial injury37910.3
Contusion and crushing with intact skin surface2,37240.2
Effects of foreign body entering through orifice93430.3
Burn1,906271.4
Injury to nerves and spinal cord33710.3
Adverse effect of medicinal agenta3,261200.6
Toxic effect of substances chiefly non-medicinal as to source1,47680.5
Other adverse effects1,995291.5
Special admissions without sickness3,586
All conditions250,30712,2904.9

Duration of Stay in Public Hospitals—The average duration of stay of patients in public hospitals in 1969 is shown in the following table.

Disease or DisabilityTotal Discharges and Deaths in Public HospitalsAverage Stay (Days)
Infective and parasitic diseases (except tuberculosis)6,43912.6
Tuberculosis1,31767.0
Malignant neoplasm and neoplasms of lymphatic and haematopoietic tissue13,20920.8
Benign neoplasms and neoplasms of unspecified nature4,0609.0
Diseases of thyroid gland84912.9
Diabetes mellitus2,22826.1
Other endocrine, nutritional and metabolic diseases1,48019.2
Diseases of blood and blood-forming organs1,84113.7
Psychoses2,40729.5
Other mental disorders3,80414.3
Diseases of the eye5,0588.5
Diseases of ear and mastoid process3,0267.8
Other diseases of the nervous system4,16940.5
Active rheumatic fever and chronic rheumatic heart disease1,46732.8
Ischaemic heart disease8,24821.7
Hypertensive disease and other forms of heart disease5,02325.8
Cerebrovascular disease5,38867.0
Diseases of arteries, arterioles and capillaries2,45438.2
Diseases of veins and lymphatics and other diseases of circulatory system5,98012.4
Acute respiratory infections and influenza4,6877.7
Pneumonia5,42617.3
Bronchitis, emphysema and asthma5,21915.4
Hypertrophy of tonsils and adenoids9,8313.5
Other diseases of respiratory system3,84212.6
Diseases of oral cavity, salivary glands and jaws2,0263.2
Diseases of oesophagus, stomach and duodenum2,45915.2
Appendicitis5,7298.7
Hernia of abdominal cavity5,3149.5
Other diseases of intestines and peritoneum3,77614.1
Diseases of liver, gall bladder and pancreas4,15314.9
Diseases of urinary system4,50514.6
Diseases of male genital organs3,18912.0
Diseases of breast, ovary, fallopian tube and parametrium1,9747.7
Diseases of uterus and other female genital organs8,8556.9
Delivery and complications of pregnancy and the puerperium (except abortion)5,61710.1
Abortion4,5143.9
Diseases of skin and subcutaneous tissues5,62111.3
Arthritis and rheumatism except rheumatic fever3,95239.1
Osteomyelitis and other diseases of bone and joint4,47320.9
Other diseases of musculoskeletal system2,42810.9
Congenital anomalies5,80116.7
Certain causes of perinatal morbidity and mortality2,59718.4
Symptoms and ill-defined conditions13,53719.3
Fractures13,65221.2
Intracranial injury (except skull fracture)8,5104.6
Lacerations and open wound5,9427.3
Burns1,89719.4
Toxic or adverse effects of medicinal and other substances4,7494.7
Other injuries and adverse effects8,4288.9
Special admissions without current complaints or reported diagnosis3,1867.4
Total244,33616.1

Accident Cases—A summary is given below of accident cases treated as inpatients in public hospitals during 1970.

Type of AccidentTotal CasesPercentage of All Accident CasesAverage Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay (Days)Aggregate Stay as Percentage of Total
Transport—
    Railway990.214.51,4340.2
    Motor-vehicle traffic10,55222.211.8124,90821.5
    Motor-vehicle non-traffic2420.58.72,1100.4
    Other road vehicles1,7523.76.511,3552.0
    Water2010.412.82,5790.4
    Aircraft330.115.34600.1
Total transport12,87627.111.1142,84624.6
Non-transport—
    Accidental poisoning2,4235.12.15,1790.9
    Accidental falls11,63224.519.3224,11338.6
    Other accidents12,67326.78.7110,23319.0
Total non-transport26,72856.312.7339,52558.5
Surgical and medical complications and misadventures2,7725.816.545,7417.9
Late effects of accidental injury1,2642.720.726,1254.5
Suicide and self-inflicted injury2,2684.87.116,1332.8
Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons1,3492.85.97,9711.4
Legal intervention
Injury undetermined whether accidentally or purposely inflicted1940.45.19990.2
Injury resulting from operations of war290.124.87180.1
Grand totals47,480100.012.2580,058100.0

Most cases come under the heading "Non-transport—Other accidents", which includes accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments, machinery, falling objects, fire and hot objects, and so on. Of these most occurred in the home.

The second largest group is "Accidental falls", which has an aggregate stay greater than any other group. This is due to the long periods spent in hospital by elderly people who have sustained fractures of the femur in falls. Almost one in every four patients had been injured in a fall of some kind.

Motor-vehicle traffic accidents comprise the third largest group, and have the second largest aggregate stay. It is interesting to note that there were almost three times as many admissions to hospital and almost three times as many beds occupied by people injured in non-transport accidents as there were in motor-vehicle traffic accidents. Traffic accidents on roads are analysed in tables in Section 11c Roads and Road Transport.

Patients discharged from, or dying in public hospitals in 1970 after treatment for accidents sustained in the home are given in the following table.

Cause of AccidentTotal PatientsDays Stay
Accidental poisoning by—
    Drugs and medicaments1,0782,550
    Petroleum products and other solvents431777
    Pesticides, fertilisers, and plant foods167266
    Noxious foodstuffs and poisonous plants127209
    Other solid and liquid substances401684
    Gases and vapours1652
Accidental falls5,122310,680
Blow from falling object1041,242
Accidents caused by cutting and piercing instruments1,4498,877
Accidental burns1,18423,868
Accidents caused by foreign bodies6181,545
Accidents caused by machinery30323
All other and unspecified accidents1,38910,962
Totals12,116162,035

Deaths in Public Hospitals—The percentage of deaths in public hospitals to all deaths are shown in the following table.

YearDeaths in Public HospitalsTotal DeathsPercentage of Deaths in Public Hospitals to Total Deaths
195910,02021,12847.4
19609,76820,89246.8
196110,28021,78247.2
196210,43622,08147.3
196310,78422,41648.1
196410,88322,86147.6
196511,26522,97649.0
196611,62623,77848.9
196711,29923,00749.1
196812,25424,46450.1
196912,02624,16149.8
197012,29124,84049.5

Age and Sex of Patients—The age and sex of patients discharged from or dying in public hospitals during 1970 are shown below.

Age GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
Under 1 year7,2045,19812,402
1–4 years11,1938,17419,367
5–9 years10,8587,98618,844
10–14 years7,9455,76313,708
15–19 years9,61010,58620,196
20–24 years8,84812,03020,878
25–29 years5,4179,32814,745
30–34 years4,5347,61712,151
35–39 years4,6256,43111,056
40–44 years5,3456,81012,155
45–49 years5,8487,08312,931
50–54 years6,1336,56212,695
55–59 years7,5386,08413,622
60–64 years7,8345,80813,642
65–69 years7,3735,67113,044
70–74 years5,6395,37511,014
75–79 years4,1764,7828,958
80–84 years2,9493,5926,541
85 years and over2,1152,9255,040
Totals125,184127,805252,989

PATIENTS IN PSYCHIATRIC HOSPITALS—Under the Mental Health Act 1969 the control of psychiatric hospitals (with the exception of Lake Alice Hospital, Marton, which will continue to make national provision for security patients) was transferred from the Department of Health to local hospital boards from 1 April 1972.

A detailed report Mental Health Data is published annually by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health. The report contains administrative and clinical data about first admissions and readmissions (including replacements from leave), transfers, discharges, and deaths for all inpatients under psychiatric care. The report also presents information about psychiatric disorders in terms of age and sex, etiological factors, domicile, race, and length of stay.

In 1967 the statistical system was enlarged to include, in addition to people treated as inpatients in psychiatric hospitals, people treated in psychiatric inpatient units in public hospitals. The system was further enlarged in 1969 with the inclusion of alcoholics treated at Rotoroa Sanatorium. These developments provide more comprehensive data about treatment of people with psychiatric disorders in the community, but the greater coverage prevents strict comparability with statistical data published for past years.

At the end of 1971 there were 10,476 people on the registers of psychiatric hospitals of the Department of Health, 124 in psychiatric units of public hospitals, and 91 in Rotoroa Sanatorium, a total of 10,691. There were 11,046 registrations during the year (excluding transfers and changes of status), of which 9,050 or 82 percent were voluntary patients. The average number of occupied psychiatric hospital beds was 9,807, which was 362 fewer than in 1970. The average number of resident patients per 100,000 mean population has declined steadily over the last 27 years.

The following table gives the annual averages and the rates per 100,000 mean population for those in psychiatric hospitals and public hospitals.

YearResident in Psychiatric HospitalOn Leave from Psychiatric HospitalTotal for Psychiatric HospitalsPatients in Public Hospitals
Average NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRateAverage NumberRate
All Patients
19427,926483.445928.08,385511.4....
19478,439469.359132.99,030502.2....
19529,070454.380740.59,877494.8....
19579,850441.294542.310,795483.5....
196210,267413.21,23549.711,502462.9....
196710,415381.61,68161.612,096443.2....
196810,270372.61,93870.312,208442.91344.9
196910,245368.02,04973.612,294441.61585.7
197010,169360.61,66359.011,832419.61545.5
19719,807342.41,44450.411,251392.81314.6

First Admissions—In 1971 there were 3,248 first admissions (1,794 male and 1,454 female) to psychiatric hospitals, 1,414 (499 male, 915 female) to psychiatric inpatient units, and 10 males to Rotoroa Sanatorium, a total of 4,672. The number of informal patients (3,869) exceeded the number of non-voluntary patients (803) by more than four to one.

The numbers and rates of first admissions together with the percentage of first admissions in total admissions and the percentage of informal patients in first admissions, are shown in the next tables.

YearInformal PatientsNon-Voluntary PatientsAll Patients
TotalRateTotalRateTotalRate
*Average over 5 years.
1935–39*21213.394359.21,15572.5
1940–44*23614.499660.81,23275.2
1945–49*50227.91,15164.51,65392.4
1950–54*73336.61,37168.52,104105.1
1955–59*1,06647.51,40062.72,466110.2
1960–64*2,600103.81,12445.53,724149.3
1965–69*3,626133.397635.94,602169.2
19704,127146.486930.84,996177.2
19713,869135.180328.04,672163.1

NOTES—For 1962 and subsequent years, informal patient totals include voluntary patients. Since 1967 the figures include psychiatric inpatients in public hospitals. The figures from 1969 include patients in Rotoroa Sanatorium.

Admissions to psychiatric hospitals for alcoholism and drug addiction are shown in the following table.

HospitalVoluntaryCompulsoryTotal
197119721971197219711972
Oakley3338396472102
Kingseat483926447483
Tokanui710771437
Porirua251522294744
Sunnyside16157172432
Cherry Farm271817204438
 156135118381274316
Rotoroa745111138564
Bridge12315
Totals230198129197359395

Readmissions are not included in the above table.

On the preliminary figures for 1972 the average number of occupied beds, expressed as a rate, is about 3.25 per thousand of population. This is the lowest figure recorded since 1907. No absolute conclusions can be drawn from a low bed-occupancy rate; but a consistently falling rate, despite substantial admission rates, can fairly be assumed to indicate an active philosophy of treatment and successful therapeutic programmes.

Diagnosis—The three leading diagnoses in 1971 were: depressive neurosis, 831 cases; other personality disorders, 608 cases; and schizophrenia and paranoid states, 538 cases. These three diagnoses accounted for 42.3 percent of first admissions.

The numbers of first admissions to each division of psychiatric care by short list diagnoses are shown for 1971.

DiagnosisAll HospitalsMental HospitalsPublic Hospital Psychiatric UnitsRotoroa Sanatorium
Senile and pre-senile dementia20819612
Alcoholic psychosis766313
Other organic psychoses21518431
Schizophrenia and paranoid states538354184
Depressive psychosis466306160
Other functional psychoses22413688
Depressive neurosis831415416
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders26016199
Alcoholism4824442810
Other personality disorders608368240
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children18710384
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition867610
Mental retardation3073007
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)18414242
Totals4,6723,2481,41410

Numbers and rates of first admissions by diagnosis are shown in the following table.

DiagnosisNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
196919701971196919701971
Senile and pre-senile dementia3102642081119373
Alcoholic psychosis647576232727
Other organic psychoses183279215669975
Schizophrenia and paranoid states600565538216200188
Depressive psychosis654496466235176163
Other functional psychoses153195224556978
Depressive neurosis857986831308349290
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders33931626012211291
Alcoholism438457482157162168
Other personality disorders516567608185201212
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children111146187405265
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition1169186423230
Mental retardation401325307144115107
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)3342341841208364
All cases5,0764,9964,6721,8231,7691,631

The first admission rates for senile and pre-senile dementia, for depressive psychosis, and for other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders decreased during the latest 3 years. In the period 1969–1971, the rates for alcoholism increased largely, but not solely, because of the admission of patients from the beginning of 1969 under the Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act.

Readmissions—A readmission is a person admitted as an inpatient for psychiatric care who has previously received psychiatric care in a New Zealand hospital.

Diagnosis—In the following table the numbers and rates of readmissions are shown by short list diagnoses.

DiagnosisNumbersRates per Million of Mean Population
196919701971196919701971
Senile and pre-senile dementia12511576454127
Alcoholic psychosis136125125494444
Other organic psychoses271275274979796
Schizophrenia and paranoid states1,7562,0541,799631727628
Depressive psychosis919897815330318285
Other functional psychoses492557540177197189
Depressive neurosis701853666252302233
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders256266204929471
Alcoholism1,0011,1621,222360411427
Other personality disorders680760741244269259
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children4482102162936
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition168152148605452
Mental retardation799899886287318309
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)170141130615045
All cases7,5188,3387,7282,7002,9522,698

Readmission rate is not necessarily an indication of therapeutic failure and may in many respects be a more accurate index of therapeutic vigour. It is still possible to encounter grossly over simplified ideas with regard to the operations of psychiatric hospitals. For example it is sometimes assumed that discharge from hospital is, or should be, an indication of final and complete cure.

In certain respects the long-established practice of publishing readmission rates for psychiatric hospitals (no similar figures appear for general hospitals) seem to perpetuate this misconception. Readmission figures are sometimes quoted as evidence that psychiatric hospitals "do not actually cure people." As with many other types of illness psychiatric disorders may require more than one hospital admission before the condition is stabilised.

Discharges—There are three principal ways of being discharged from mental hospital: (a) outright discharge, which means being formally discharged at the time of leaving hospital; (b) discharge on leave; and (c) discharged "not committed", which means being discharged from a mental hospital on the grounds that the patient's mental condition does not warrant his being detained. All people discharged from a psychiatric unit of a public hospital are discharged outright.

There were 12,053 discharges in 1971. Of these 9,443 were outright discharges, 2,259 were discharges on leave, and 351 were discharged "not committed".

The principal diagnoses were: schizophrenia and paranoid states 2,410 cases; all forms of alcoholism 1,850 cases, depressive neurosis 1,459 cases, and other personality disorders 1,352 cases.

The following table shows the number of discharges for 1971 by short list diagnoses.

DiagnosisOutright DischargeLeaveNot CommittedTotal
Senile and pre-senile dementia109351145
Alcoholic psychosis112614177
Other organic psychoses321976424
Schizophrenia and paranoid states1,605784212,410
Depressive psychosis1,1758731,265
Other functional psychoses6081362746
Depressive neurosis1,4262851,459
Other neuroses and psychosomatic disorders443154462
Alcoholism1,086577101,673
Other personality disorders1,152123771,352
Transient situational disturbances and behaviour disorders of children264156285
Non-psychotic mental disorders associated with physical condition165383206
Mental retardation868262111,141
No psychiatric diagnosis (includes observation)1091198308
Totals9,4432,25935112,053

Duration of stay—Over half (50.9 percent) of those discharged left hospital within a month of admission, 27.6 percent left in the next 2 months, and a further 9.9 percent were discharged in the subsequent 3 months. The average stay of all discharges was 36 weeks.

Deaths—In 1971 there were 545 deaths in psychiatric hospitals, and 3 in psychiatric units of public hospitals. In addition 55 people died while on leave.

The principal diagnosis was senile and pre-senile dementia, 192 cases. Next came schizophrenia and paranoid states, 85 cases, and other organic psychoses, 74 cases.

In 1971 94 people died during the first month in hospital, and a further 56 deaths occurred in people who had been in hospital for over 1 month but under 3 months.

Staff—The pattern of staffing at 29 February 1972 is compared in the following table for psychiatric and general hospitals. (Source: Differential Pay Scale for Psychiatric and Psychopaedic Nurses: first report of the Royal Commission of Inquiry into Hospital and Related Services, December 1972.) Staff establishments were higher, as there were numbers of unfilled vacancies.

GroupPsychiatric HospitalsGeneral Hospitals*
NumberPercentage of Total Nursing StaffNumberPercentage of Total Nursing Staff
*Statistics for one hospital board not included; covers 87.2 percent of nursing staff.
Matron and assistant843.02611.8
Supervisor431.52541.8
Charge nurse/ward sister37913.49767.1
Tutor321.12501.8
Staff nurse/staff sister56720.02,68419.6
RCK/RM/RMN Karitane511.81,3419.7
Sub-total (percent)40.841.8
Assistant nurse43615.5
Hospital aide58620.82,25116.3
Trainee or student nurse62722.24,25030.7
Student community nurse160.61,40210.2
Others1361.0
Totals2,821100.013,805*100.0

5 C—HEIGHTS AND WEIGHTS OF POPULATION

GENERAL—Increasing interest is being shown in the heights and weights of New Zealanders— adults as well as children. Medical and health experts have formed the impression that the heights of persons in New Zealand have increased significantly over the past 50 years. It is likely that weights have also increased.

Most recent New Zealand figures certainly show that the above impression is justified, at least as far as school children are concerned. They also show that maturity judged by the development of secondary sex characteristics in both male and female children occurs on the average at an earlier age.

The various surveys show that New Zealand school children have exhibited a pattern of growth similar to that of children in other developed countries. The growth spurt appears between 11 and 12 years in girls and between 12 and 14 years in boys, and in both sexes is associated with early maturation. It is probable that in line with other countries the development of secondary sex characteristics are occurring earlier than in past years. Causes of earlier physical development are likely to have been multifactorial and to include better housing and education, improved nutritional standards, fewer debilitating diseases, and the effects of measures taken to prevent deficiency diseases.

New Zealand figures suggest that significant changes in height, which have been a feature of the past half-century, will not continue. There is reason to believe that the continued weight increases are indicative of an emerging problem of overweight for height at all ages. This suggests that in New Zealand obesity may become the main nutritional problem. In view of its relationship to cardiovascular and other diseases in the adult, obesity requires greater attention when the health and physical development of New Zealand children are considered.

CHILDREN—Surveys of heights and weights of primary school children in New Zealand have been made from time to time—namely in 1913, 1925, 1934, 1954 and now more recently in 1969. Each successive survey has shown general increases over the preceding survey in heights and weights at all ages, in some decades more marked than others. The 1969 survey shows that the very marked gain in both heights and weights which occurred between 1934 and 1954 now tends to be slowing down, especially at the lower age levels, although a significant gain in weights at the higher age levels still seems to be continuing.

In 1954 the survey covered 22,078 boys and 21,845 girls selected on a nation-wide sample basis. Compared with the 1934 survey it was found that for both boys and girls the average heights and weights had increased fairly uniformly on a geographic basis, that is, for main urban areas, minor urban areas and rural areas; they also applied to both non-Maoris and Maoris. (Other evidence indicated that the increases were primarily due to earlier maturity rather than to changes in racial characteristics.)

In the 1969 survey the total number of school children included in the sample was 24,852, taken from 19 health districts in proportion to the populations of the districts. Approximately equal numbers, about 2,000, were sampled from each age group from 5 to 15 years. Roughly one-sixth of the children were Maoris and five-sixths were, in the main, Europeans but included small numbers of Indians, Chinese, Samoans and other Pacific Islanders of the same Polynesian stock as the Maoris themselves. The number of Maoris was chosen again in relation to the total Maori population in each district.

As previous surveys had shown little significance in the difference of heights and weights between urban areas and rural districts no attempt was made during the 1969 survey to obtain separate figures for geographical groupings although, in selecting schools, allowance was made in the choice so as not to overload the figures in the direction of either urban, rural, or socio-economic groups.

Information from the three latest surveys is related in the following table. It should be noted that in 1934 the age was related to the nearest birthday and is therefore overstated in relation to later surveys where the age is that of last birthday, that is, in 1934 some of the children at given ages were relatively younger than those at the given ages in 1954 and 1969, i.e., children whose average age was 6 years in 1934 are compared with children whose average age in later surveys was 6½ years.

Age (Year)Survey YearAverage HeightAverage Weight
BoysGirlsBoysGirls
  in.in.lblb
51,93443434241
 1,95444.444.045.744.2
 1,96944.243.944.843.9
61,93445454645
 1,95446.746.450.549.6
 1,96946.646.349.949.2
71,93447475049
 1,95449.148.756.155.2
 1,96949.148.855.955.8
81,93449495554
 1,95451.350.862.061.3
 1,96951.250.762.261.1
91,93451516160
 1,95453.352.969.068.3
 1,96953.352.968.167.8
101,93453536665
 1,95455.355.276.077.1
 1,96955.255.174.976.3
111,93454557273
 1,95457.157.682.6586.8
 1,96957.258.183.589.3
121,93457577882
 1,95459.260.092.098.4
 1,96959.560.293.499.3
131,93459598894
 1,95461.761.8103.7109.9
 1,96962.062.2105.7111.7
141,934616197101
 1,95464.1562.8117.5119.8
 1,96964.863.2120.2120.3
151,9346262103108
 1,95466.163.45129.35124.9
 1,96966.663.9132.6128.2

In a comparison of Maoris and non-Maoris in 1954, the Maori boys and girls were found to be on average shorter than non-Maori boys and girls, the difference amounting to a little under an inch at most ages. In weight, however, Maoris were shown to be heavier than non-Maoris. At the younger ages the difference was negligible being less than half a pound, but from 9 years onwards the difference was marked—at 11 years it was 2 lb, at 12 years 3 lb for boys and 7 lb for girls, and at 15 years 6 lb for boys and nearly 11 lb for girls.

In the 1969 survey the weight increases for each year of age for both non-Maoris and Maoris of either sex show a growth spurt beginning at about 10 years of age in both races but reaching its peak slightly earlier in Maoris of both sexes.

Curves for the average increases in height showed a peak at ages 10–11 years for Maori and non-Maori females, a peak at ages 11–12 years for Maori males and a broader range of increase from 10–14 years for non-Maori males. In all cases a sharp decline was shown after the peak. Thus height, as with weight, showed a maximum increase at the onset of maturity, with the Maoris slightly in advance of non-Maoris and girls slightly ahead of boys.

There is no evidence at the moment that this forward movement in growth or maturation has ceased.

Maoris and non-Maoris—In a comparison between Maoris and non-Maoris it was shown by the 1969 survey that for males up to 11 years of age non-Maoris were consistently taller than Maoris— the maximum height difference of 0.63 in. occurring at age 8 years. From the age of 12 to 15 years Maoris were seen to be taller, the greatest difference of 0.50 in. being at 13 years of age so that by age 15 years Maoris were taller by only 0.01 in. This difference in Maori and non-Maori heights would seem to be mostly in the trunk measurements.

With girls in the 1969 survey non-Maoris were taller than Maori counterparts up to the age of 9 years—the maximum difference of 0.61 in. occurring at age 6 years. For ages 11 and 12 years Maoris were taller than non-Maoris, the greatest difference being 0.79 in. at age 12 years. At age 13 to 15 years non-Maori girls were again taller, the greatest difference being 0.71 in. occurring at age 15 years.

This difference in height patterns shows a slight change from the 1954 survey in which both Maori boys and girls tended to be shorter than non-Maoris at all ages. In all, however, these height differences between the races were small enough to suggest that Maoris and non-Maoris were approaching similar heights at each age.

In the case of weight, however, the picture is rather different. Both males and females, Maoris in each age group were heavier than non-Maoris, except at age 16 years where female non-Maoris were heavier by 0.07 lb and non-Maori males were minimally heavier than their Maori counterparts. For males at other ages, the difference showed a gradual increase from the age of 5 years to a maximum difference of 6.75 lb at the age of 15 years. With females, the same pattern was evident but the maximum difference of 11.86 lb occurred a year earlier at the age of 12 years decreasing to 5.95 lb at the age of 15 years.

Thus Maori children were seen to be consistently heavier than non-Maori children of the same age, more predominantly so for females in whom the maximum difference occurred a year earlier than in the males. From studying the ratio of average height to weight it can be postulated that at all ages Maoris were consistently heavier per inch of height than non-Maoris.

A detailed report on the 1969 survey has been published in the special report series of the Department of Health entitled Physical Development of New Zealand School Children 1969 which is available in Government bookshops.

International Comparison—In the following table New Zealand figures are set alongside those of other national surveys. The New Zealand figures are compiled by combining Maori and non-Maori figures using appropriate weighting factors. (11.5 percent of New Zealand children aged 5 to 15 in 1969 were Maori.)

In height New Zealand school children of 1969 compare very closely with Canadian children of the same year; the only marked difference is that New Zealand girls weighed consistently more than their Canadian counterparts. American children in 1963 do not appear to have differed greatly in height from New Zealand children in 1969, but were heavier, the difference being greater in boys. Comparison with the United Kingdom 1965 figures shows only slight differences in weight but New Zealand girls tended to be heavier.

The results of surveys will be affected to some extent by the time of the year at which they were made; growth in height is greater in the spring whereas weight tends to show a spurt in the autumn months.

Average AgeBoysGirls
U.S. 1963Canada 1969N.Z. 1969U.K. 1965U.S. 1963Canada 1969N.Z. 1969U.K. 1965
Median Height (Inches)
646.045.045.445.045.545.045.144.6
748.547.547.847.548.047.047.546.9
850.749.550.149.550.149.049.749.1
952.851.552.251.852.351.551.751.3
1054.654.054.253.754.553.553.853.6
1156.556.056.255.856.557.556.556.0
1258.558.058.358.059.058.559.258.5
1360.860.560.760.361.661.061.361.0
1463.663.563.562.963.062.562.762.8
1565.966.065.965.963.763.063.563.6
Median Weight (Pounds)
6494546.746464446.045
7545151.951524951.750
8615657.755585457.255
9676363.761656162.761
10746969.867736870.068
11817677.474827980.178
12908686.583928891.589
131019597.494104100103.8101
14115113111.2107115111114.2113
15128124124.5121122116121.4120

NOTE: New Zealand figures are interpolated median heights and weights.

Source: Department of Health

The various surveys show that New Zealand school children have exhibited a pattern of growth similar to that of children in other developed countries. The growth spurt appears at 11 and 12 years in girls and between 12 and 14 years in boys and in both sexes is associated with early maturation. There are no previous national statistics for New Zealand but it is probably that in line with other countries the development of secondary sex characteristics and the menarche are occurring earlier than in past years. Causes of earlier physical development are likely to have been multifactorial and to include better housing and education, improved nutritional standards, fewer debilitating diseases and the effects of measures taken to prevent deficiency diseases.

New Zealand figures suggest that significant changes is height, which have been a feature of the past half-century, will not continue. There is reason to believe that the continued weight increases are indicative of an emerging problem of overweight for height at all ages. This suggests that in New Zealand obesity may become the main nutritional problem. In view of its relationship to cardiovascular and other diseases in the adult, obesity assumes importance when the health and physical development of New Zealand children are considered.

In a study made in 1966 for the School of Physical Education at the University of Otago, Miss Kathryn McQuarrie showed that for Norwegian and Swedish children similar increases in heights and weights to those of New Zealand children had been recorded, and that for Japanese children the increases were relatively greater. It is of interest to note that for Norwegian and Swedish boys and girls over a period 50 years, there have been close correlations with the changes for New Zealand boys and girls, though in more recent years the New Zealand children have become relatively heavier.

ADULTS: RNZAF Survey 1960—In 1960 a survey was made of the height, weight (stripped), and age of the officers and men of the Royal New Zealand Air Force in New Zealand, Fiji, and Singapore. There were about 4,200 personnel involved; they had all been judged by the medical officers as fit, without any concern for apparent overweight. To an extent the RNZAF personnel would have constituted a select sample.

The average height was found to be 5 ft 8 in.; for those over 40 years of age the average was between 5 ft 7 in. and 5 ft 8 in.; for those under 30 years of age the average was between 5 ft 8 in. and 5 ft 9 in.

The average weight in pounds related to height and age of the officers and men is shown in the following table.

Height (in.)Age Group (Years)
17–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940–4445+
 Weight (lb)
63131132137139140141142
64135136141143144145147
65139140145147148149152
66142144149151152153156
67146149153155156157161
68150153157159160161165
69153157160163164165169
70157161164167168169174
71161165168171172173178
72164169172175176177183
73168173176178179180187

A detailed analysis of the 528 persons in the age group 20–24 years gave the following statistics.

Height (in.)Number of PersonsWeight (lb)Number of Persons
6321207
64712513
654413020
664813528
676714044
6810214551
697915083
708215548
714716037
723516548
73917036
74517526
75118023
  18519
  19012
  19533
  and over 
Totals528Totals528

As a guide to medical examiners on height-weight relationships the following table is used by the New Zealand Army; it reflects the rather heavier build of Maoris.

Height (in.)20–24 Years25–29 Years30–34 Years35–39 Years40–45 Years
Non-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaoriNon-MaoriMaori
 Weight (lb)
60128140132143137147141150145152
61132143137148141151145154148156
62136147141152145155148157151160
63140151145156148158151160154163
64143155148159151161155164157166
65146159151162155165158167160169
66150163155166158168160169163171
67154167158169161171163172166173
68158170161172164174166175168176
69162173165176168177169178170179
70165176168179171180172181173182
71168178172182174182175184176185
72172181176185178184179187180188
73176183179188181186182189183190
74179185182191183188184190185191
75182186184193185190186191186192
NOTE—All weights equal stripped weights, in pounds.

Likewise the following table used by the New Zealand Army sets out approximate height-weight relationships of New Zealand women; it does not provide any information on average height and average weight.

Height (in.)18–19 Years20–24 Years25–29 Years20–39 Years40–49 Years
Weight (lb)
60104120121129135
61107122123131137
62110124125133139
63114126127135143
64118128130137145
65121130133140146
66125132136143147
67130135140146148
68135139145149151
69140143148152153
70144146153157158
71149151157163164
72154157162170171
NOTE—Clothing would add 6 lb to the above net weights.

Other Surveys of Military Personnel—A study of the medical examination records of 10,742 compulsory military trainees in 1950–52 was made by H. C. A. Somerset and included in a thesis "Some Investigations into Dimensions of Physique and their Relationship to Rorschach Responses" submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington. These trainees, all youths and mostly aged 18 years, showed an average height of 68.38 inches and an average weight of 142.5 pounds.

In 1965 a study "The Physiques of Royal New Zealand Air Force Men" was made by J. E. Lindsay Carter and Maurice L. Rendle. The personnel measured were 458 regular servicemen of the RNZAF aged 16 to 52 years and constituting a haphazard sample from all trades and ranks up to and including wing commander. The typical RNZAF male was described as 68.6 inches tall and weighing 153.5 pounds. This sample would include some older men who tend to be heavier.

A study of Maori somatology was made by Sir Peter Buck using as his subjects the remnants of the Maori Battalion after the First World War. According to Buck, the weight and height of the men was fairly representative of the race as a whole, the average being, if anything, rather on the low side. The average height of 424 men was found to be 67.3 inches and the average weight of 384 men was 163.9 pounds. (Sir Peter Buck's study covered a wide range of other physical characteristics and was published in the Journals of the Polynesian Society in 1922 and 1923.)

Comparative Studies of Adults—Examinations of conscripts in Sweden have shown an increase in mean height of no less than 2.3 cm or nearly 1 inch (from 174.4 to 176.7 cm) from 1940 to 1960 (Official Statistics of Sweden).

In an article in the British Medical Journal of 24 October 1953 by E. M. B. Clements it is stated that there is no clear evidence to show that the mean height of men in Britain had increased since 1880.

Other studies by McCane, 1962, and Tanner, 1962, have led to the conclusion that during the past century the growth in height of the population of western Europe has increased by approximately 1 centimetre each decade, with no signs of ceasing. (2.54 centimetres equal 1 inch.)

A report in Newsweek of 29 July 1968 of studies at Vassar and Smith Colleges shows that between 1920 and 1968 the average height of 18-year-old boys increased from 69.0 in. to 70.2 in. and their average weight from 126.6 lb; to 144.8 lb. For 18-year-old girls the average height increased from 62.4 in. to 64.4 in. and the average weight from 116.2 lb to 126.2 lb.

For purposes of comparison, some United States averages are given in the following table; they are based on a nationwide sample of 6,672 persons aged 17 to 79 years selected for the health examination survey conducted from October 1959 to December 1962 by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare. (Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States, 1966.)

ItemAge Group (Years)
17–1920–2425–3435–4445–5455–6465–7475–79
Men
    Height in.68.268.769.168.568.267.466.965.9
    Weight lb168160171172172166160150
Women
    Height in.63.063.863.763.562.962.461.561.1
    Weight lb142129136144147152146138

Chapter 8. Section 6; SOCIAL WELFARE

6 A—SOCIAL SECURITY AND CHILD WELFARE

GENERAL—Social services are continually evolving as a collective response to the changing needs of society. The operative basis for social security administration has been the acceptance by the community of responsibility for income maintenance and medical treatment of those who are handicapped or otherwise in need.

Social welfare policies and programmes have received increased emphasis at the personal level in New Zealand in recent years, and measures of co-ordination between Government and voluntary agencies have been strengthened.

The Department of Social Welfare Act 1971 established a new department by amalgamating the former Social Security Department and the Child Welfare Division from 1 April 1972.

Also involved in social welfare are the Departments of Health, Education, Justice, Labour, and Maori and Island Affairs.

DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE—The principal functions of the Department of Social Welfare are:

  1. To administer the Department of Social Welfare Act 1971; the Child Welfare Act 1925; Part I of the Social Security Act 1964; the Family Benefits Home Ownership Act 1964; and to provide for the effective administration and servicing of the War Pensions Act 1954; and the Rehabilitation Act 1941.

  2. Advise the Minister on the development of social welfare policies for New Zealand.

  3. Provide such social welfare services as the Minister may from time to time direct.

  4. Provide for the training of persons to undertake social welfare activities in Government or voluntary organisations.

  5. Maintain close liaison with and encourage co-operation and co-ordination among any organisations and individuals (including departments of State and other agencies of the Crown) engaged in social welfare activities.

  6. Undertake and promote research into aspects of social welfare.

  7. Provide administrative services to boards, councils, committees, and agencies.

The objects of the department's administrative services are to provide such administrative support, advisory, training, and research services as necessary for the efficient and effective administration of the department's functions. The department is a principal adviser to Government on matters of social welfare policy and finance, and steps are being taken to strengthen the policy formation and advisory units and to provide a stronger research section to support the policy-forming units of the department. It also has particular responsibilities to private and voluntary organisations. Units with special responsibilities for liaison with such organisations and for publicity and information are to be established so that the public are kept abreast of developments.

The objectives of the policy for benefits and pensions are:

  1. To safeguard individuals in the community against loss of income or reduction in income brought about by age, incapacity, widowhood, orphanhood, unemployment or other circumstances by providing income security at a level which will enable them to belong and participate in the community; and benefits for children as a contribution towards their maintenance.

  2. (b) To provide assistance towards housing finance for families of moderate means by way of an advance of family benefit.

  3. To provide supplementary assistance for those whose income and financial resources are insufficient to meet their living costs and other commitments.

  4. To provide pensions on the death or disablement of members of the forces as recompense for physical loss, at a level reviewed and set each year at 1 April in accordance with movements in the Consumers' Price Index; and to provide other allowances and concessions according to the nature and extent of disablement.

  5. To provide and maintain a service to ensure the rehabilitation and resettlement in civil life of former members of the forces.

The objectives of the policy for social work services are:

  1. To make better provision for the maintenance, care, and control of children who are under the protection of the State and to provide generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected, maltreated, and delinquent children.

  2. To establish and maintain institutions, or arrange foster homes, for the care and control of children committed to the guardianship of the State.

  3. To promote and maintain a preventive work, social work, and general counselling service for persons and families facing social and economic difficulties.

  4. To promote and maintain an effective rehabilitation service to ensure that disabled persons are given encouragement, counselling, and assistance to restore them to a fuller and more meaningful life.

The social work services involve individual and family casework and general welfare work. Emphasis is given to the care and control of children including those with emotional or behavioural problems. With the establishment of the new department it is hoped to evolve more comprehensive policies of family care, preventive work, and community participation.

The residential programme includes the inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and the licensing and supervision of child care centres in order to ensure satisfactory standards are maintained. This division also has a responsibility for children in licensed foster homes.

Added emphasis is to be given in the programme to the rehabilitation of disabled persons. Co-ordination with other agencies which also have responsibilities in this work, such as the Department of Health and Department of Labour, is achieved through representation of the department on the National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee, which also acts as an advisory body to Government on rehabilitation.

SOCIAL SECURITY DEVELOPMENT—Social security is a comprehensive plan of State assistance by a system of cash benefits and free or subsidised medical and hospital provisions for the safeguarding of health. The principal objects of the legislation which came into operation on 1 April 1939 were: (a) to substitute a system of extended cash benefits on a contributory basis for the system of non-contributory civil pensions, e.g., old age, widows', and other pensions; (b) the inauguration of a system of medical and hospital benefits and of other related benefits. Universal family benefits were introduced on 1 April 1946, since which date each mother has received a benefit in respect of each of her dependent children irrespective of the family income or property. The governing legislation is now the Social Security Act 1964.

A Royal Commission to inquire into social security began hearing submissions in December 1969. Its report was published in March 1972 as parliamentary paper H.53. A section of the report was reprinted as a special article in the 1972 issue of the Yearbook entitled Evolution of Social Security in New Zealand.

MAIN FEATURES OF SOCIAL SECURITY SYSTEM—The present system cannot be characterised according to any single principle, theory, or formula. It has evolved from changing needs and experience in dealing with them. For example, it looks like a form of community insurance, but is not financed, funded, or administered on an insurance basis. It is contributory, because it is financed from taxation; it acts with the progressive income tax structure in redistributing income. But any person's benefit bears no relation to his tax contribution. While basically income-tested and selective as to need within classes of benefit, it is also universally applied without regard to other income or means in three main cases (superannuation, family, and medical benefits) and in the lesser miners' benefit. It transfers income from the more to the less affluent mainly on the basis of greatest help for those in greatest need. It reflects the traditional humanitarian, egalitarian, and pragmatic approach of New Zealanders and, most importantly, reflects an acceptance of community responsibility for social welfare.

The main features of the system are:

  1. Eligibility for benefits (other than emergency) is based on residence for varying qualifying periods and not on the amount of tax paid.

  2. All the classes of benefit (other than family, miners', superannuation, and medical benefits) are subject to an income test with the amount of benefit being reduced if other income is over a prescribed level. Emergency benefits and supplementary assistance are subject to tests of both income and property.

  3. In paying superannuation and family benefit without any tests of income or need it is assumed that for everybody over 65 years and for all families with dependent children, a community-financed income supplement is necessary and desirable, irrespective of actual financial need or resources. Miners' benefit is not income tested, on the accepted assumption that if a person is disabled by disease arising from mining he needs to be compensated for losing income and enjoyment of life and that the income loss does not require to be established or tested.

  4. The concept of the family as the fundamental economic and social unit is recognised by the payments made in respect of the otherwise ineligible but dependent wife and children of a beneficiary; and the taking into account of the income of the husband or wife (legal or de facto) of a beneficiary when assessing the amount of those benefits subject to an income test. Mothers' allowances introduced in 1945 for those receiving widows' benefit, and the domestic purposes benefit and family maintenance allowance (1968) similarly recognised the importance of the family unit.

  5. Contribution under a graduated income tax system and payment of benefits at a flat rate irrespective of contributions (that is, taxes paid) distinguishes the New Zealand system from many of those of other countries.

  6. The cluster of available cash and medical benefits gives a comprehensive coverage of need.

  7. Beneficiaries are given incentives to self-help and to work. From the start, amounts payable from standard benefits have been set below the: average wages of low-earner groups; and small incomes, and most property, have been disregarded in assessing an individual's benefit. Conversely the income-tested age benefit for men over 60 years and some women over 55 years, superannuation for people over 65 years, and the benefits for widows with dependent children or over a prescribed age recognise these people's right to stop working if they want to.

  8. Contribution through taxation is compulsory. The right to "contract out" on the grounds that the individual may not need, or qualify for, public aid is denied in the community interest, as it is with other State services such as education, defence, police.

  9. The Social Security Commission has wide discretionary power to grant, withhold, or reduce benefits, and a general power of direction is given to the Ministers of Health and Social Welfare (who are often the same person).

  10. With certain exceptions no person is entitled to more than one analogous benefit from either New Zealand or overseas.

  11. Standard rates with supplements, rather than differential rates according to the class of benefit, relate benefits to need rather than to the cause of need.

ADMINISTRATION—The Social Security Commission in the Department of Social Welfare administers, under the direction of the Minister of Social Welfare, Part I of the Social Security Act 1964 dealing with cash benefits, while matters concerning medical, hospital, and other related benefits are administered by the Department of Health under the direction of the Minister of Health (see Section 5A).

The War Pensions Act 1954 is also administered by the Department of Social Welfare, which likewise handles ex-servicemen's rehabilitation.

Child welfare activities are governed by the Child Welfare Act and other legislation detailed later in this section.

FINANCIAL PROVISIONS—Finance to enable the provisions of the Act to be carried out was originally provided for by the establishment within the Public Account of the Social Security Fund. The principal revenue of the fund was derived from a charge (collected by the Inland Revenue Department) on salaries, wages, and other income, including the income of companies, but the Act also made provision for the payment to the fund of such other moneys as might be appropriated by Parliament from time to time. Social security tax and income tax were combined in the tax deduction tables prepared for the operation of the PAYE system from 1 April 1958.

On 1 April 1964 the Social Security Fund was absorbed into the Consolidated Revenue Account in connection with a rearrangement of Government accounts.

From 1 April 1964 the payment of medical benefits has been made by the Department of Health from money appropriated by Parliament for this purpose. From 1 April 1958, the cost of public hospital administration has been borne directly by general taxation; treatment in public hospitals is free. Details of medical benefits are set out in Section 5A—Health and Medical Services.

Payments—The New Zealand system has developed six types of social security assistance.

Cash benefits as of right for those eligible by category, residence, and income, paid at flat standard rates (plus allowance for dependants) without regard to taxes paid.

Emergency benefits for those who need help but who are not, for any reason, eligible for standard benefits.

Supplementary assistance for those beneficiaries whose incomes and resources, including any social security benefit, cannot meet their particular needs or reasonable commitments.

Medical and pharmaceutical benefits for all members of the community; free public and subsidised private hospital care.

Universally applied benefits (with no means test) for dependent children, and for those over 65 years of age.

Social work and counselling help with personal problems of beneficiaries or potential beneficiaries.

Particulars of payments under the Social Security Act during the last 5 financial years are contained in the following table.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
*A considerable number of superannuation beneficiaries transferred to age benefits during the year following changes in tax law for those over 65 years of age.
Cash benefits—$(thousand)
    Superannuation80,60588,819101,009114,575133,236*
    Age60,83367,00376,17388,441115,840*
    Widows'12,62213,74215,93618,02621,158
    Orphans'137150179213235
    Family68,26672,31870,40273,886128,733
    Invalids'5,5146,0936,9858,0179,830
    Miners'10699959493
    Unemployment3,3021,4651,0042,6835,034
    Sickness5,5896,0737,1368,33311,365
    Emergency3,0774,0255,9488,61314,125
    Supplementary assistance2,7642,7033,1644,1714,151
    Advances for repairs to homes6954616171
    Employment subsidy for disabled civilians88868
    Capitalisation of family benefit7,7907,48610,6496,6196,332
Total, cash benefits250,632270,038298,749333,737450,208
Medical benefits—
    Medical8,7859,69511,75611,79714,561
    Hospital4,8495,4876,6276,8708,082
    Maternity2,0692,9563,1333,8213,864
    Pharmaceutical24,45827,30830,78333,23640,020
    Supplementary7,2417,6289,37510,63711,524
Total, medical benefits47,40253,07461,67466,36178,050

About three-fifths of the total expenditure on cash benefits (including supplementary assistance advances for repairs to homes, and employment subsidy for disabled civilians) is paid without an income test.

The following table summarises social security expenditure according to type of benefit and per head of mean population, and also relates expenditure to national income.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet National Income at Factor CostExpenditure*
Medical BenefitsFamily BenefitsOther BenefitsTotalPer Head of Mean Population

*Excluding capitalised family benefits.

†Prior to 1965 benefits were paid to public hospitals when beneficiaries were receiving treatment.

   $(million) Amount  $
19632,50447.564.6118.6230.792.34
19642,74248.468.5126.2243.195.32
19653,00236.565.9132.8235.390.46
19663,26139.670.2137.3247.093.31
19673,37042.266.8150.7259.796.35
19683,46944.471.4163.5279.3102.04
19693,65247.468.3174.5290.2105.03
19704,05753.172.3190.2315.6112.10
19714,66261.770.4217.6349.7123.52
19725,37066.373.9253.2393.4136.77
19736,07578.1128.7315.1521.9177.98
Percentage of Expenditure to National Income
19631.92.64.79.2
19641.82.54.68.9
19651.22.24.47.9
19661.22.24.37.6
19671.32.04.57.7
19681.32.14.78.1
19691.31.84.78.0
19701.31.84.77.8
19711.31.54.77.5
19721.21.44.77.3
19731.32.15.28.6

Government expenditure on social services (including health and education) is shown in relation to total Government expenditure in a table in the Statistical Summary at the back of this Yearbook.

Benefits and Pensions in Force—The total number of persons in respect of whom social security cash benefits (including dependent wives and children) were payable at 31 March 1973 was 1,351,035, or 4,552 per 10,000 of population. A year earlier the corresponding figures were 1,315,074 and 4,519 respectively. Particulars of the various social security benefits in force at 31 March for the 4 latest years and the annual value at 31 March were as follows.

Class of Benefit1970197119721973
Superannuation142,867146,299149,190126,581*
Age98,905102,797106,681140,719*
Widows'15,66315,89916,54016,962
Orphans'315319306316
Family408,397414,195420,961429,804
Invalids'8,3428,5578,6868,842
Miners'98917766
Unemployment9837152,9351,782
Sickness5,8766,3066,8638,162
Emergency5,2666,4228,17711,367
Supplementary assistance12,38713,96817,12017,764
Totals699,599715,568737,536762,365
*About 25,000 age beneficiaries transferred to age benefit during the year following changes in tax law for those over 65 years of age.

In addition there were 1,131 pensions at 31 March 1973 classed as "sundry pensions and annuities". This class covers ex-officers of the Legislative Department, ex-members of the defence forces, certain ex-members of the Legislature, and others, by way of compassionate allowance, etc.

Relationship to Wages—In the following table standard weekly benefit rates are related to nominal award wages and average weekly earnings. (Source: Royal Commission of Inquiry.)

YearStandard Benefit Rate*Percentage of Nominal Award WagePercentage of Average Weekly Earnings
UnmarriedMarriedUnmarried BenefitMarried BenefitUnmarried BenefitMarried Benefit

*Standard rate includes age, widows', miners', invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits (except that a lesser rate is payable to unmarried invalids, sickness, and unemployment beneficiaries under 20 years of age). Superannuation benefit became payable at half the shown married rate from 30 March 1960, while the higher rate for unmarried beneficiaries was extended to superannuation beneficiaries from 12 October 1960. A married superannuation beneficiary receives half the married rate.

†Relates to adult males only and is the average of a comprehensive survey of the wages of occupational groups used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index compiled by the Department of Statistics. The average is determined after occupations are "weighted" according to their relative importance in the survey.

‡In the half-yearly survey, weekly wage payout and hourly earnings relate to all employees, males and females, adult and juvenile combined. Salaried executives are included but no working proprietors. Earnings include overtime, bonuses, and all allowances and special payments.

 $$%%%%
19464.008.00....31.663.1
19474.008.00....30.460.8
19484.509.00....30.961.8
19494.509.00....29.559.0
19505.0010.00....30.961.7
19515.7511.50....30.060.0
19525.7511.50....28.156.3
19535.7511.50....26.452.8
19546.7513.50....28.456.7
19557.0014.00....28.056.0
19567.5014.00....28.853.7
19577.9014.80....28.653.6
19588.2515.50....29.455.2
19599.0016.00....31.355.7
19609.5017.00....31.155.6
19619.5017.00....29.652.9
19629.5017.00....28.951.7
19639.7517.50....28.551.2
196410.0018.00....28.351.0
196510.6019.20....27.750.1
196610.6019.2029.152.826.748.4
196711.7521.5030.655.928.051.2
196811.7521.5030.054.827.249.7
196912.2522.5029.253.626.448.5
197013.2524.0029.553.526.347.6
197114.7527.0026.648.724.745.2
197221.0035.0033.255.431.151.8
197323.7039.5031.752.731.652.7

Persons Wholly Dependent on Social Security—At the 1966 Census of Population and Dwellings there were 18,507 heads of households not in the labour force with no income apart from social security benefits and whose spouse also was without income.

Of the persons living alone at the 1966 Census there were 27,242 without income except for social security benefits. (Other such persons with limited incomes were as follows: $2-$199, 4,932; $200-$599, 8,696; $600-$999, 6,708; $1,000-$1,399, 7,389.)

CASH BENEFITS—The rates of benefits have been increased from time to time, mainly as a result of the increased cost of living. More recent increases for age, invalids', widows', and miners' benefits are shown in the following table. See Latest Statistical Information for July 1974 rise.

Date of IncreaseAmount of Increase per Week
Married CouplesUnmarried Beneficiaries
 $$
14 May 19691.501.00
15 April 19701.000.50
2 Sep 19702.001.00
9 June 19712.001.25
16 Feb 19722.001.10
5 July 19724.003.90
6 June 19732.501.50
1 August 19732.001.20
13 Feb 19741.200.80

The list below gives a summary of the weekly rates for cash benefits.

BenefitWeekly Rate
6 June 19731 Aug 197313 Feb 1974
*Any of above benefits with dependent children.
Superannuation*$$$
    Unmarried person22.5023.7024.50
    Married person18.7519.7520.35
Age*
    Unmarried person22.5023.7024.50
    Married couple if both eligible (each)18.7519.7520.35
    Married woman whose husband is not eligible18.7519.7520.35
    Married man whose wife is not eligible37.5039.5040.70
Widows*
    Widow22.5023.7024.50
Domestic Purposes (from 14 November 1973)—
    Solo parent*23.7024.50
    Woman alone23.7024.50
    Caring for sick or infirm—
        Unmarried person under 18 years18.0018.80
        Unmarried person 18 or over23.7024.50
        Married person19.7520.35
Orphans (each child)11.0011.5012.30
Family (each child)3.003.003.00
Invalids*
    Unmarried person 18 years or over22.5023.7024.50
    Unmarried person under 18 years17.0018.0018.80
    Married man with wife included37.5039.5040.70
    Married woman18.7519.7520.35
Miners—
    Unmarried person22.5023.7024.50
    Married man with wife included37.5039.5040.70
    Miners widow20.9022.1022.90
Sickness*
    Unmarried person under 18 without dependants17.0018.0018.80
    Unmarried person 18 years or over22.5023.7024.50
    Married man with wife included37.5039.5040.70
    Married woman18.7519.7520.35
Unemployment*
    Unmarried person under 20 without dependants17.0018.0018.80
    Unmarried person 20 years or over22.5023.7024.50
    Married man with wife included37.5039.5040.70
    Married woman18.7519.7520.35
Solo parent and 1 child34.5036.5037.70
Solo parent and 2 children37.5039.5040.70
    Each subsequent child1.251.251.25
Married couple with 1 child40.5042.5043.70
    Each subsequent child1.251.251.25
Supplementary assistanceAccording to circumstances
EmergencyAccording to circumstances

All statutory benefits except superannuation, family, and miners' are subject to an income test as follows (see under respective headings effect of income test on sickness and unemployment benefits).

A widow with a dependent child has an income exemption of $884 a year, while a widow without a child, or an age or invalids beneficiary has an exemption of $676 a year. Income over the exempted amount and up to $1,300 a year reduces the benefit by $1 for $2 and income above $1,300 by $3 for $4.

An orphan's benefit is reduced by $3 for $4 for income in excess of $260 a year.

Superannuation Benefits—Every person over the age of 65 years who satisfies the prescribed residential qualification is entitled to a superannuation benefit without regard to financial circumstances. The superannuation benefit is for income-tax purposes subject to withholding tax of $1.30 a week for a married beneficiary and $2.10 for an unmarried beneficiary. The residential qualification is, in general, a period of residence in New Zealand of 20 years. Allowances are made for occasional absences and for special circumstances such as service overseas with the armed forces, on missionary work, and with Volunteer Service Abroad.

A superannuation benefit is not payable in addition to any other cash benefit except a family benefit. For example, a superannuation benefit and an invalid's benefit cannot be paid to the one person. Similarly, a superannuation benefit and an age benefit are not payable to the one person concurrently.

Since 1960 the amount of the superannuation benefit has been equal to the age benefit.

Age Benefits—Every person who has attained the age of 60 years is entitled to receive an age benefit, subject to residential qualifications and an income test.

Age benefits are payable, in the discretion of the Social Security Commission, to unmarried women between 55 and 60 years of age who are unable to engage in regular employment.

The basic rate for a male recipient is doubled when his wife is ineligible for any benefit.

Age beneficiaries may surrender their benefits while their earnings are excessive and apply for reinstatement immediately the employment ceases. The earnings received during the period that both husband and wife were not in receipt of age benefits are not taken into account.

At 31 March 1973, 9,820 husbands received benefits on account of dependent wives who were not eligible for benefits in their own right.

Age of Beneficiaries—The following table shows the estimated age distribution of persons on superannuation and age benefits at 31 March 1973 and of persons granted age benefits in 1972.

Age Group (Years)Benefits in Force At 31 March 1973Age Benefits Granted During 1972
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
*Inflated for this year by the superannuation beneficiaries (about 25,000) who transferred to age benefit following changes in the tax law for those over 65 years of age.
Under 60516314
60–6411,65521,6204,4647,047
65–6926,47525,16016,27622,2233,4442,498
70–7416,74917,75312,28617,0802,2713,629
75–798,28912,0994,38313,1239633,005
80–844,6607,6072,9259,3393641,500
85 and over2,8084,9832,3336,960289752
Totals58,98177,60049,858*90,861*11,89518,745

Widows' Benefits—Subject to an income qualification every widow who is the mother of one or more dependent children under 16 years of age is entitled to a benefit in respect of widowhood. In addition, any widow not being the mother of a dependent child under 16 years of age who satisfies certain conditions is also entitled to the benefit. No widow under 50 years of age who has not had one or more children can qualify for the benefit. The term "children" may include (in the discretion of the Commission) any child who is being maintained by the applicant and was at any time maintained by the husband of the applicant.

Widows' benefits cease on remarriage.

The following table affords an analysis of widows' benefits in force at 31 March 1973. according to the ages of beneficiaries and the numbers of dependent children (Deserted wives (1,106) are also included.)

Age Group (Years)Number of Dependent Children
Nil12345 and overTotal
Under 2554468108
25–2977131592715309
30–344671831498969561
35–3925103210228118128812
40–44221356385211111921,376
45–4977768540615758542,137
50–542,2928292988821133,541
55–595,1385799922425,844
60 and over1,781285955122322,266
Totals10,2383,0351,85397345040516,954
    Children involved3,0353,7062,9191,8002,32813,788

Domestic Purposes Benefits—Persons who qualify for the domestic purposes benefit instituted in 1973 are:

  1. A woman with a dependent child or children who is living apart from and has lost the support of or is inadequately maintained by her husband, or who is divorced from her husband or, whose husband has been a mental patient for 6 months or a prisoner;

  2. An unmarried mother of one or more dependent children;

  3. A father of one or more dependent children who has lost his wife by death, divorce or some other cause.

The domestic purposes benefit is also paid to women without dependent children who come within the definition of "a woman alone", which is a woman who has never been married or who has lost the support of her husband, and who has cared for dependent children or for incapacitated relatives.

        In the case of both a solo parent and a woman alone, de facto marriages are considered as marriages.

        The other class of people who qualify for the domestic purposes benefit are those who are required to give full-time care and attention at home to a person who would otherwise have to be admitted to hospital.

        The benefits are subject to the same income test as a widows benefit.

        An applicant is required to exercise any right to maintenance and all maintenance payable is diverted to the department. In the event of maintenance exceeding the amount of benefit paid then the excess is paid out to the beneficiary.

Orphans' Benefits—A benefit in respect of orphanhood is payable in the case of a child under 16 years of age who was born in New Zealand or whose last surviving parent was ordinarily resident in New Zealand for a period of not less than 3 years preceding the date of his or her death, or whose last surviving parent cannot be found. A stepchild or an adopted child comes within the definition of the term, and payment may be made to any person for the time being having the care and control of the child. No payment is made on account of any orphan maintained in a State institution, but payment may be made to the governing bodies of homes and orphanages of religious or other organisations. For the purpose of assisting in the further education of any child, the benefit may be continued until the end of the year in which the child reaches the age of 18 years.

The number of benefits in force at 31 March 1973 was 316 (in respect of 430 children).

Family Benefits—Family benefits are payable irrespective of the income or property of the parents or children. Prior to 1 April 1946 family benefits were subject to a means test.

The rate of the benefit is $3 a week for each child, having been increased from $1.50 on 5 July 1972, and is normally paid to the mother of the children.

The term "children" includes stepchildren and adopted children, but does not include—

  1. Any child who has attained the age of 16 years, unless such child is continuing its education as a full-time pupil at a school or college, or is by reason of some physical or mental defect totally incapacitated from earning a living. In such cases the Commission may grant or continue the benefit until the end of the year in which the child reaches the age of 18 years.

  2. Any child who is not in fact maintained as a member of the family of the applicant.

  3. Any child in respect of whom any other benefit or pension (other than a war pension or allowance in respect of his own disablement) is payable out of public moneys.

The Commission may regard as a member of the applicant's family any child who, although not a child of the applicant, is being maintained as a member of the family.

In order to qualify for a family benefit at least one of the following conditions must be satisfied, namely—

  1. The child was born in New Zealand.

  2. The mother of the child was only temporarily absent from New Zealand at the time of its birth.

  3. The Commission is satisfied that the child is likely to remain permanently in New Zealand.

  4. The child has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months.

A benefit is not payable as of right in respect of any child committed to the care of the Commission nor in respect of any child in a psychiatric hospital but a benefit may be continued in certain circumstances while in a psychiatric hospital.

A family benefit or portion of a family benefit may be paid in a lump sum in advance for a period not exceeding 52 weeks in respect of the first child of a marriage or a child who has commenced his first year of intermediate secondary education.

A family benefit may be paid in cash, or to the credit of the Post Office Savings Bank account of the mother. The number of family benefits being paid to Post Office Savings Bank accounts at 31 March 1973 was 149,797 and the amount lodged during the year was $42,243,621. The total number of benefits in force at 31 March 1973 was 1,002,056 covering 1,021,378 children, compared with corresponding figures of 420,961 and 1,002,056 at 31 March 1972. Included in the total were 3 incapacitated children over the age of 16 years; and at the end of the 1972 school year there were 66,700 children over 16 at school in respect of whom benefits were being paid.

The following table gives the number of family benefits in force at 31 March 1973 classified according to the number of children for whom the benefit was paid.

Number of Children in Each CaseBenefits at 31 March 1973
1129,733
2141,784
391,336
444,228
516,953
67,354
73,199
81,575
9666
10 or over405
Total437,233

The average number of children in respect of whom benefits were paid was 2.25 per family in 1950–51, 2.30 in 1952–53, 2.33 in 1954–55, 2.36 in 1956–57, 2.39 in 1958–59, 2.45 in 1960–61, 2.51 in 1965–66, and 2.38 in 1971–72.

Under the provisions of the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964, family benefits may be capitalised and paid in advance to assist parents with the erection or purchase of house properties, whether previously occupied or not, additions or alterations to existing homes, or in certain circumstances the repayment of mortgages and other obligations on family homes. In outline, the measure provides for the capitalisation of up to $1.50 of the weekly family benefit in respect of each of one or more children from the age of 1 year up to the age of 16 years, provided that the total of the advance or advances in the case of any one family is not less than $400 nor more than $2,000. The maximum income limit for eligibility is $75 a week for a family with one child, rising by $5 a week for each additional child.

Details of family benefit capitalisation are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchApplications for Capitalisation ApprovedNumber of Children ConcernedCapitalised Value of Benefits
   $(000)
19638,88414,93110,503
19648,13713,6049,756
19658,28814,07410,162
19667,48512,9869,250
19676,62111,2838,238
19686,55310,8117,901
19697,70812,7449,212
19708,37314,88910,696
19717,89514,43510,370
19725,3089,9207,031
19737,165....

Invalids' Benefits—Subject to certain residential and other qualifications, every person of the age of 16 years and upwards; who is not qualified to receive an age benefit is entitled to an invalid's benefit if he—(a) is totally blind; or (b) is permanently and severely restricted in his capacity for work as the result of an accident or by reason of illness or of any congenital defect.

Provision is made for a medical examination, when necessary, to determine the extent of incapacity. An invalid's benefit may be paid in respect of a period of absence from New Zealand not exceeding 2 years in the aggregate, if the Director-General is satisfied that such absence was for the purpose of obtaining any special medical or surgical treatment, or in the case of blindness, for the purpose of undertaking vocational training or treatment of the eyes.

In computing the income of any blind person no account is taken of his personal earnings. In addition, the benefit of a totally blind person may within certain limits be increased by up to 25 percent of his personal earnings. The personal earnings of a severely disabled beneficiary may be disregarded in whole or in part in computing his benefit.

Miners' Benefits—Subject to the qualifications set out hereunder, a miner's benefit is payable to any person who, while engaged as a miner in New Zealand, contracted pneumoconiosis or any other occupational or heart disease and is thereby permanently and seriously incapacitated for work, provided that compensation in respect of the same disability is not being received.

There is no reduction in the benefit on account of the income or property of the applicant and/or his wife. If a person in receipt of a miner's benefit dies leaving a widow, such widow is entitled to a benefit during widowhood. This benefit is payable regardless of the circumstances of the widow.

Unemployment Benefits—An applicant for unemployment benefit is required to satisfy the Commission: (a) that he is unemployed; (b) that he is capable of undertaking and is willing to undertake suitable work; (c) that he has taken reasonable steps to obtain suitable employment; (d) that he has resided continuously in New Zealand for not less than 12 months at any time.

An unemployment benefit is not payable in respect of the first 7 days of any period of unemployment, except in special circumstances. The Commission may postpone, for a period not exceeding 6 weeks, the commencement of the benefit if the applicant: (a) has voluntarily become unemployed without good and sufficient reason; or (b) has lost his employment by reason of any misconduct as a worker. The benefit may be terminated if the beneficiary has refused or failed, without a good and sufficient reason, to accept any offer of suitable employment.

The benefit is payable so long as the beneficiary is unemployed or until he becomes eligible to receive another class of benefit, other than a family benefit—e.g., an age benefit.

A married woman is entitled to receive the benefit only if her husband is unable to maintain her. If a beneficiary is not receiving a benefit in respect of a wife, an allowance may be paid in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

The rates of benefit may be reduced having regard to the income received by the applicant or his wife in excess of $13 a week. For personal earnings of the applicant exceeding $10 a week the deduction is 10c for 10c of the excess. For income which is not earnings in excess of $13 a week the deduction is 10c for 20c up to $25 a week and thereafter 15c for every complete 20c.

The number of applications for unemployment benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1972 and 1973 were 28,249 and 27,276 respectively, 18,112 persons being granted a benefit in 1971–72 and 24,532 in 1972–73. At the end of March 1973, 1,782 benefits were in force, compared with 2,935 at the end of the previous year. Payment of additional benefit for a dependent wife was included in 7,036 of the benefits granted during 1972–73 and in 509 of the benefits in force at 31 March 1973.

Sickness Benefits—A person over the age of 15 years who is temporarily incapacitated for work through sickness or accident, and as a result suffers a loss of salary, wages, or other earnings, may apply for a sickness benefit. The amount of the benefit is limited to the amount by which the weekly earnings of the applicant have been reduced by reason of his incapacity. Where a person is engaged in business on his own account and by reason of sickness or accident is obliged to employ a substitute during the period of incapacity, the remuneration paid to the substitute is regarded as loss of earnings. Every application for a benefit must be supported by a medical certificate, and no benefit is payable for the first 7 days of incapacity except under special circumstances.

A married woman is entitled to receive a sickness benefit only if the Commission is satisfied that her husband is unable to maintain her.

Any applicant who is maintaining a home and who is not drawing a benefit in respect of a wife, may receive a benefit in respect of any person who has the care of his home.

The rate of benefit is reduced by 10c for every complete 20c of the total income, exclusive of war disablement or basic war-widows' pensions, of the applicant and of his wife or her husband, as the case may be, in excess of $13 a week but not in excess of $25 and 15c for every 20c in excess of $25 a week.

The number of applications for sickness benefits dealt with during the years ended 31 March 1972 and 1973 were 39,805 and 42,295 respectively. The number of persons granted sickness benefits was 35,349 in 1971–72 and 37,851 in 1972–73.

In the following table sickness benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1972 are shown according to the duration of the sickness benefit (based on a 20 percent sample of the estimated 39,500 benefits which ceased).

Period on Benefit (Weeks)Number of Benefits
MalesFemalesTotal
Up to 511,1203,33014,450
5–86,0402,1508,190
9–123,1101,7704,880
13–253,7804,1107,890
26–381,2709002,170
39–51510290800
52–77420170590
78–10316060220
104 and over23080310
Totals26,64012,86039,500

The following table gives a classification of sickness benefits according to the disease suffered by the beneficiary. The data were obtained from an analysis of a sample of 20 percent of the benefits which ceased during the calendar year 1972.

Disease CategoryMalesFemalesPercentage of Total
Infective and parasitic diseases1,1504003.9
Neoplasms540801.6
Endocrine system, metabolic, and nutritional diseases4401201.4
Diseases of the blood and blood-forming organs100600.4
Mental disorders2,6201,48010.4
Diseases of the nervous system and sense organs1,1702503.6
Diseases of the circulatory system2,1603006.2
Diseases of the respiratory system2,3607207.8
Diseases of the digestive system3,16089010.3
Diseases of the genito-urinary system5803402.3
Complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium..5,67014.4
Diseases of the skin and subcutaneous tissue1,0802503.4
Diseases of the musculosketal system and connective tissue1,5203004.6
Congenital anomalies2501100.9
Symptoms and ill-defined conditions1,9108306.9
Accidents, poisonings, and violence7,6001,06021.9
Totals26,64012,860100.0

Emergency Benefits—An emergency benefit may be granted on the grounds of hardship to any person who by reason of age, physical or mental disability, or any other reason is unable to earn a sufficient livelihood for himself and those dependent on him and is ineligible for any other monetary benefit other than family benefit.

Supplementary Assistance—Supplementary assistance is available to social security beneficiaries and others who have special commitments which cannot be met out of current income, have insufficient other resources, and are unable to help themselves. Continuing grants are made where the applicant's continuing commitments, e.g., food, fuel, rent, are in excess of the income received by this applicant, and lump sum grants may be made to meet some non-recurring expense. An analysis of these grants showing purpose and amounts of grants, is given in the parliamentary paper E. 12.

Since 1973 a telephone rental concession equal to one-half of the amount of the rental may be granted to persons in receipt of age, invalids', widows', or related benefits.

Reciprocity with Australia—The Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948, provided for reciprocity in relation to a wide range of benefits between New Zealand and the Commonwealth of Australia. The Act came into force on 1 July 1949. (A similar Act was passed in Australia and came into force on the same date.)

For the purpose of any application for a benefit (except the New Zealand non-income-test superannuation benefit) residence in Australia or birth in Australia is regarded as residence or birth in this country.

Applicants for age, invalids' or widows' benefits must be qualified on residential grounds to receive the corresponding pensions under the Social Services Act (Australia) as if their residence in New Zealand had been residence in Australia. No male person is entitled to receive an age benefit unless he has attained the age of 65 years. The Act also provides that the department shall treat blindness or permanent incapacity for work occurring in Australia as if it had occurred in New Zealand.

Part III of the Act deals with persons who, although ordinarily resident in New Zealand, are temporarily resident in Australia. Such residence is not a disqualification for a benefit. Benefits may be applied for and paid in Australia for a limited period, although the department may, in its discretion, postpone payment of the whole or any part of the benefit until the return of the beneficiary to New Zealand.

Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1973 comprised 644 age benefits, 52 widows' benefits, 45 invalids' benefits, 6 sickness benefits, and 3 unemployment benefits, a total of 750 compared with 674 a year earlier.

Reciprocity with United Kingdom—The Social Security (Reciprocity with United Kingdom) Act 1969 provides for reciprocity in a comprehensive range of benefits between New Zealand and the United Kingdom. The general principle of the agreement is that persons migrating from one country to the other will be taken into the social security scheme of the receiving country and paid benefits by the receiving country under the laws and conditions applicable to other residents of that country.

United Kingdom Residents in New Zealand—In New Zealand the agreement applies to former residents of England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, and the Isle of Man who claim age, superannuation, widows', orphans', family, invalids', sickness, and unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act. Permanent residence in New Zealand is a requirement for age, widows', superannuation, invalids', and orphans' benefits.

The agreement modifies the residential requirements of the Social Security Act and enables persons who formerly lived in the United Kingdom to be treated as if they resided in New Zealand during any period they lived in the United Kingdom. This does not, however, apply in respect of any period an applicant for age or superannuation benefit resided in the United Kingdom before reaching the age of 16. Though the normal qualifying age for a grant of age benefit in New Zealand is 60 years, no man claiming age benefit by virtue of the agreement is entitled to receive it till he reaches 65 years.

The United Kingdom continues to pay retirement pensions and widows' pensions to persons in New Zealand who are qualified under the national insurance scheme and, in such cases, New Zealand, where necessary, supplements the national insurance pensions to bring them up to the rate of the appropriate New Zealand benefit. There is no supplementation in cases where the national insurance retirement or widow's pension is equal to, or greater than, the corresponding New Zealand social security benefit. Reciprocal benefits in force in New Zealand at 31 March 1973 comprised 5,446 superannuation benefits, 6,128 age benefits, 278 widows' benefits, 2 orphans' benefits, 120 invalids, benefits, 4 sickness benefits, and 3 unemployment benefits, a total of 11,981 compared with 11,290 a year earlier.

New Zealand Residents in the United Kingdom—In the United Kingdom the agreement applies to former residents of New Zealand who claim retirement pensions, widows' pensions, widowed mothers' and guardians' allowances, family allowances, sickness and unemployment benefits under the National Insurance Act.

The United Kingdom scheme is a contributory scheme, and payment of benefits is dependent upon the satisfaction of specified contributory conditions. Persons who formerly lived in New Zealand are treated as if they had paid contributions under the national insurance scheme for each week during which they were resident in New Zealand. The qualifying age for retirement pensions under the National Insurance Act is 60 years for women and 65 years for men.

It is to be noted that, although a man may have been in receipt of an age benefit when he left New Zealand, he is not entitled to retirement pension in the United Kingdom unless he is 65 years of age. Special provisions apply to married women arriving in the United Kingdom from New Zealand as far as entitlement to the United Kingdom retirement pension is concerned.

Persons in receipt of social security benefits in New Zealand otherwise than by virtue of the Reciprocal Agreement, who leave New Zealand wholly or mainly for a visit to the United Kingdom, will normally have their benefits suspended on departure, but if they return to New Zealand within 12 months they will be paid arrears of their social security benefits for the period of their absence. If the absence exceeds 1 year but not 2 years, on return to New Zealand consideration is given to paying arrears of benefit for the first 6 months of the absence. If they apply for, and receive, national insurance pensions while in the United Kingdom, the amount paid by the United Kingdom will be deducted from the arrears of social security benefit payable on their return.

CHILD WELFARE—Child welfare increasingly means involvement with social problems. There is no specific statutory requirement that the Department of Social Welfare should undertake preventive work, but it is clear that the earlier assistance is given to prevent children becoming delinquent or suffering through neglect or ill-treatment, the more likelihood there is of it being successful. Welfare policy has developed along these lines and the department provides care, protection, and treatment for all kinds of children in need. There is a general realisation in the community that the whole of society is affected by the problems which social workers grapple with. Most of the children with whom social workers are involved suffer from disabilities other than those manifested in delinquency and, like children born out of wedlock, the majority of children are brought to notice through no fault of their own.

The Child Welfare Act 1925 provides for the maintenance, care, and control of children who are under the protection of the State, and generally for the protection and training of indigent, neglected' and delinquent children. Draft legislation in the form of a Children and Young Persons Bill is being considered for enactment in October 1974. In this Bill there is a distinction between a child as a person under 14 years and a young person as one between 14 and 17 years. A children's board is proposed for each social welfare district as a preventive measure to keep children out of court.

Besides clerical officers, child welfare activities involve over 400 social workers and over 450 institution workers. Casework duties include preventive work; investigations and reporting for the Children's Court; supervision of children in their own homes; foster home, institution, and work placement; adoption and ex-nuptial birth inquiry work; the licensing of foster parents defined in the Infants Act 1908; reporting to courts on matrimonial proceedings affecting custody of children; registration of child care centres; inspection of children's homes run by voluntary organisations and examination of requests made by them for financial subsidies; the oversight of immigrant and refugee children. Social workers receive assistance in many of these duties from about 120 honorary social workers, who are people of integrity and local standing in their communities.

Institutional care facilities include long-term training centres for difficult and delinquent children, short-term facilities providing classification, emergency, and temporary care for both infants and older children, and family homes which provide care for children of all ages either on a short-term or long-term basis.

Welfare of Children—Social workers undertake a wide variety of miscellaneous investigations and inquiries concerning the welfare of children. In the year ended 31 December 1972, 18,188 cases were handled. Cases may be referred by neighbours, police, teachers, employers, doctors, solicitors, etc., or by parents themselves who are seeking advice and guidance. Some of these cases will respond quickly to help. Others may need preventive oversight and guidance over several months or even 2 or 3 years. Financial help can be given in special cases. In a relatively small number of cases preventive help is not sufficient and court action is the outcome of inquiries.

Social workers, on receiving from the registrars notifications of ex-nuptial births, make confidential inquiries and assist the mother as necessary in making provision for her child. The higher number of such births in recent years has had its effect in the adoption situation. However, over half of these children born each, year remain with their mothers or with both parents who are cohabiting or who subsequently many, and not all the remainder are made available for adoption. In fact only 30 percent of children born out of wedlock are available for adoption. Placements in adoption homes are made by social workers for those children (about three-fifths) for whom placements have not been made by private persons and other organisations. Further details are given in section 4B, Births.

The smaller proportion of children being offered for adoption is thought to reflect the beginnings of a changing pattern in society, with an increase both in de facto marriages and in the proportion of mothers wanting to undertake the sole care of a child.

Under the Adoption Act 1955 a social worker must give prior approval to the placement for adoption of a child under 15 years, or alternatively, the applicants must apply for an interim order of adoption from the court. The court is required to obtain a social worker's report on such a placement before granting an order. A waiting period of at least 6 months is normally required, during which the placement is supervised by a social worker, before a final order can be made.

Any person who is not a close relative and who undertakes to care for a child under the age of 6 years apart from its mother for a period of more than 7 days for payment or reward must have her home licensed by a social worker. At 31 December 1972 social workers were visiting 426 children so placed.

Inspecting children's homes operated by private organisations and administering schemes of Government financial assistance to these homes is another important social welfare function. Financial assistance is given by payments of $7 per week for each child in care and subsidies of up to 50 percent on expenditure for extension or replacement of buildings or additions to facilities. A similar capital subsidy is available for private organisations to help in providing accommodation for unmarried mothers and their children.

Regulations for the registration and licensing of child care centres (e.g., day nurseries, creches, etc.) have been in force since 1961.

The Department of Social Welfare has built up a considerable body of knowledge on new trends and methods in the fields of both residential and day care for children. As a result, it has become an important point of reference for information and advice.

Children's Courts—Children's Courts are presided over by stipendiary magistrates who are authorised to exercise jurisdiction in these courts. Very wide discretionary powers are given to Children's Courts. Wherever practicable the hearings are conducted in premises apart from the Magistrate's Court, and no newspaper is permitted to publish either the names of children appearing before these courts or any particulars that are likely to identify a child.

A child for the purposes of the Act is a person up to 17 years of age.

Children's Courts deal with cases of children brought either (a) on a complaint under the Child Welfare Act that a child is neglected, indigent, delinquent, not under proper control, or living in a detrimental environment or (b) charged with an offence. After the court has heard the complaint or the charge and considered the social worker's report, the child—according to the needs of the case— may be committed to the care of the Director-General of Social Welfare, or placed under the supervision of a social worker for a period (usually 1 year or 2 years), or discharged with an admonition. Occasionally, orders for the payment of restitution may be made against either the child or parent, and fines also may be imposed. Alternatively, if the case warrants it, the child may be sent to borstal or to a detention centre or be placed on probation.

Appearances before the Children's Courts in the 3 latest calendar years and the rates per 10,000 children aged 10 to 17 years are given in the following table:

Reason for AppearanceAppearancesRate
197019711972197019711972
*These appearances represented 10,298 individual children (7,802 boys and 2,496 girls,). For 48 percent of the appearances the children involved had been before the courts previously.
For offences against special Acts, regulations, or bylaws860995962192320
For more serious offences8,2349,75510,157179208213
Subtotals9,09410,75011,119198231233
On "complaints" under the Child Welfare Act1,5712,0441,930
Totals10,66512,79413,049*

The decisions made in Children's Courts are shown in the summary below for the three latest calendar years.

Decision197019711972
Committed to the care of the Director-General of Social Welfare1,0451,1761,058
Placed under supervision of social workers3,7534,1764,067
Admonished and discharged with or without costs, restitution, or fine4,0215,2005,294
All other decisions1,8462,2422,630
Totals10,66512,79413,049

A new approach to the problem of delinquency was the establishment throughout New Zealand in 1959 of a youth aid section of the New Zealand Police. The aim is to detect delinquency at an early stage and, by close co-operation between social workers and specialist police officers, to deal with the less serious offenders without court action. The police, after consultation with social workers, decide whether or not there will be a prosecution. For those not being prosecuted appropriate action is taken, for example, in the form of a warning from the police or continuing informal supervision by social workers. During the year ended 31 December 1972, 12,435 cases were dealt with under this scheme without prosecution, compared with 10,978 cases in the preceding year.

Rates of children's Court appearances for all offences per 10,000 of population of relevant age are shown in the following table.

Age of Child (Years)BoysGirls
197019711972197019711972
10413332443
1183898910107
12164201199223133
13283301352627072
14437514517108142122
15629725729151164175
168981,1041,069197206223

The table shows clearly the way in which offending rates become higher with each year of age. It also shows that girls have relatively low rates compared with those for boys.

Since over 60 percent of all juvenile offending is accounted for by boys in the 14- to 16-year old age group the following table presents more detailed information on the offending rates for these groups per 10,000 of mean population in each age group.

Offencestoys 14 yearsBoys 15 yearsBoys 16 years
197019711972197019711972197019711972
All offences excluding technical offences421501503565655673745934921
Technical offences161314647056153170148
All offences4375145176297257298981,1041,069

State Wards—Where a child's circumstances or behaviour causes such concern that it is in his best interests for him to be removed from his own home, a magistrate in a Children's Court may make an order committing the child to the care of the Director-General of Social Welfare. This means that the legal guardianship is transferred from the parents to the Director-General, and the child is taken from home. However, continuing efforts are made to keep the child in touch with his own family and, if possible, to return him home eventually. Many of the children who are committed to the care of the Director-General and who are thereby under his guardianship are placed immediately in foster homes and go to school or work. Those who require special care and training which cannot be provided in the ordinary life of the community are placed in institutions administered by the Director-General. Some few reside in private institutions and some are in boarding schools.

Of the total of 16,235 children under the control and supervision of the Director-General of Social Welfare and his officers at 31 December 1972, 5,950 were under the guardianship of the Director-General and were placed as shown in the following summary.

Category*197019711972
*The categories within this summary have been amended from previous years. For purposes of comparison the 1970 figures have also been revised.
Residing in individual private homes (foster homes, employers' or relatives homes)3,7243,9344,204
In institutions administered by the Department of Social Welfare or Department of Justice (including those temporarily admitted)9961,0991,184
In hospitals (including psychiatric hospitals)176137138
In residential schools and colleges (including schools for handicapped children)172187183
In private institutions119150229
Attending university or teachers' training colleges18812
Totals5,2055,5155,950

For the children requiring institutional care and training the Department of Social Welfare administers several different types of institution. There are long-term training institutions for disturbed and delinquent adolescents. They are essentially open institutions providing full educational facilities with qualified and trained teachers and also a wide range of vocational training. Three other small institutions provide separately for girls and boys of primary school age who are so difficult or disturbed as to require special educational and social training. A small hostel for girls at Wellington provides for some who, while in ordinary employment, require for the time being the conditions of supervision and care obtainable in a hostel. There are 12 girls' homes and boys' homes in the larger centres and 3 reception centres (at Auckland, Hamilton and Greytown) which provide remand facilities, temporary care, and observation. Children not requiring institutional care but presenting behaviour and personality problems beyond the capacity of most ordinary foster parents are provided for in "Family Homes". These are private houses owned by the department and occupied rent-free by specially selected married couples who receive board payments and agree to care for children on a long-term basis as a condition of the tenancy. These homes are also used to provide transit accommodation in areas in which there is no receiving girls' home, or boys' home. Of the 78 homes in operation at 31 March 1973, approximately a third were used as hostels for working adolescents and for children being discharged from institutions.

Children Under Supervision—Children placed by the courts under supervision of social workers are supervised in their own homes, except that in a few cases, with the approval of the parents or guardians, the social worker arranges placement elsewhere—e.g., in employment. Magistrates have the authority to order that part or all of the period of supervision be spent in an institution. Some children placed under supervision respond well; where they do not they may appear before the court again and be committed to the care of the Director-General. There were 3,862 children under supervision at 31 December 1972.

Preventive cases, numbering 3,985 at 31 December 1972, consist of children who, without any court appearance, are being supervised and assisted by social workers under arrangements made voluntarily with the parents or guardians.

WELFARE OF MAORIS AND PACIFIC ISLANDERS—The legislative basis of the Maori welfare programme is the Maori Welfare Act 1962 and the aim is the social and economic advancement and the promotion and maintenance of the health and general well-being of the Maori community and the facilitation of full integration of the Maori race into the social and economic life of the country. An important feature of the programme is that it does not seek to impose standards from without; rather, it calls upon the Maori people to exercise control and direction of their own communities in the essentials of good citizenship and civic responsibility.

The Maori welfare organisations consist of two statutory groups and various voluntary groups. The statutory groups are:

  1. Maori associations comprising the New Zealand Maori Council, the district Maori councils, Maori executive committees, and the Maori committees. All are democratically elected and work independently of the department.

  2. The. Maori and Island Affairs Department, which works closely with all Maori groups as it realises that its main objectives cannot be achieved without full acceptance and participation by the people themselves.

The main organisation in the non-statutory group is the Maori Women's Welfare League. It was formed in 1951 and has branches throughout the country. Its membership approximates 3,000. Special tribal groups, social, sports, and cultural clubs, church groups, women's and other organisations are some of the many other groups which have their own spheres of action promoting and furthering the physical, social, spiritual, and moral well-being of the people.

The primary function of the Maori Women's Welfare League is to educate the mothers of the race to an appreciation of the higher standards of attainment on the home front. It also interests itself actively in education, particularly at the pre-school level.

The primary function of the New Zealand Maori Council is to encourage Maoris as individuals and in groups to take the initiative in matters affecting their own welfare and that of their kinsfolk, to be a forum of discussion in which they can crystallise their ideas and gain the co-operation of others in actively pursuing mutually agreed objectives and eventually achieving progressive improvement in the various spheres of welfare. By its own request it is charged with the duty of maintaining and promoting harmony between Maori and non-Maori.

The Maori and Island Affairs Department, through the activities of its welfare division in particular, collaborates with and gives Maori associations and other groups such assistance and advice as may be necessary or helpful so that the members themselves may find and apply their own solutions to their problems and develop and achieve the utmost satisfaction from their own culture. The department also collaborates with appropriate social welfare agencies, State and voluntary, in helping individuals and families who are experiencing difficulties in adapting themselves to their social and economic environment, accepting the full responsibility where a need is not being met. The department actively encourages these State and voluntary organisations to understand and to communicate successfully with the Maori so that they can work more effectively with him.

Maori wardens carry out special functions. They are appointed by the Minister at the initiative of Maori committees to whom they are responsible. Their function is to assist in the maintenance of order and in stamping out mischief before it becomes crime. Wardens do not usurp the duties of the police but are an influence among the people in maintaining law and order.

The Act provides for subsidies to be paid on moneys raised by the Maori people through their associations for the promotion of welfare. The subsidy granted in the financial year ended 31 March 1972 amounted to $38,366.

The Maori and Island Affairs Department, again primarily through its welfare division, assists Pacific Islanders of New Zealand nationality to adjust to the New Zealand situation and provides advisory services to individuals or groups facing difficulties. Special responsibilities are accepted for the housing, employment, educational, and welfare needs of Tokelau Islanders arriving under the official resettlement scheme.

An inter-departmental committee fosters and finances research into social and educational aspects of Maori and Islander welfare.

Maori welfare officers are intended to carry out quite a different range of functions from those of other social workers. They are not intended to replace child welfare officers, probation officers, truant officers, and so on. Although they are available when other social workers encounter problems which are peculiarly Maori, their primary function is to work with groups rather than individuals. For example, it is not strictly a Maori welfare officer's duty to deal with a Maori child playing truant from school, but if truancy is a common problem amongst Maori students in any locality, it is the welfare officer's duty to hold discussions with parents and try to convince them of the importance of ensuring that their children attend school regularly. A great deal of the time of the welfare staff is occupied in informing Maori parents of vocational opportunities open to their children, in recruiting and organising vocational training groups for school leavers, stimulating the formation of play centres and other pre-school groups, and in dealing with youth problems in the cities.

6 B—WAR PENSIONS AND REHABILITATION

GENERAL—The war pensions programme is largely the outcome of New Zealand participation in two world wars in which large numbers of citizens served as members of the forces. It applies also to service in Korea, South-east Asia, and in any emergency, including obligations undertaken under the charter of United Nations.

The war pensions scheme has developed from one which initially gave limited compensation for those returned from active service to one of comprehensive coverage for ex-servicemen who are disabled or incapacitated at any time of their lives as a result of their service, and for their dependants and also for the dependants of those who have died as a result of war service.

The war pensions legislation is designed to provide (a) basic pensions to compensate for disablement or death, which provide for physical loss and are therefore compensatory in character, and (b) supplementary pensions, in appropriate cases, to meet loss of income. The latter depend on the means of the pensioner and are economic in character, acting as income maintenance and being therefore similar to social security benefits.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY—All pensions payable to or on account of former members of the armed forces, the mercantile marine, and the Emergency Reserve Corps are governed by the War Pensions Act 1954.

ADMINISTRATION—For many years social security monetary benefits and war pensions have been administered by the same department.

The authority for paying war pensions is vested in the War Pensions Board, an independent body appointed by the Minister in Charge of War Pensions, with a chairman, a medical member, and a representative of the members of the forces appointed on the nomination of the New Zealand Returned Services Association. The administration of the War Pensions Act is, however, the responsibility of the Secretary for War Pensions who acts under the general direction and control of the Minister.

It is laid down that the onus of proving that death or disablement was attributable to service, or that the condition which resulted in death or disablement was aggravated by such service, shall not be on the claimant and that the War Pensions Board and the War Pensions Appeal Board shall give claimants the full benefit of all presumptions in their favour. A member who was graded fit for service when he entered the forces is deemed to have been absolutely fit at that time unless any defects were noted then or within the first 2 months of service. This presumption does not operate if the member failed to disclose any material fact to the medical examiner. The boards are not bound by technicalities or legal forms or rules of evidence, but determine all claims in accordance with their merits.

RATES AND ALLOWANCES—The list below summarises the rates of war pensions and allowances. The pensions for war disablement and war widows are now adjusted annually on a cost of living basis.

PensionWeekly Rate
1 Oct 19726 June 19731 Aug 197313 Feb 1974
*Adjusted annually at 1 April in relation to movements in the consumers' price index. The increase at 1 April 1973 was 50c, and at 1 April 1974 $1.80 for total disablement pension.
Disablement pension*$$$$
    Total disablement17.2017.7017.7017.70
    Special additional pension for blindness or serious disablement10.4010.6510.6510.65
Economic pension—
    Unmarried person21.0022.5023.7024.50
    Married person17.5018.7519.7520.35
Wife's pension17.5018.7519.7520.35
War widow's pension—
    Basic pension*12.6013.0513.0513.05
    Economic pension21.0022.5023.7024.50
    Mother's allowance—
      One dependent child11.0012.0012.8013.20
      Two dependent children14.0015.0015.8016.20
          Increased by $1.25 a week for each subsequent child
Orphan's pension11.0512.0512.5513.35
Child's pension3.003.003.003.00
Widowed mother's pension (totally dependent)—
    Basic pension12.6013.0513.0513.05
    Economic pension21.0022.5023.7024.50
Widowed mother's pension (partly dependent)—
    Basic pension4.004.004.004.00
    Economic pension18.7520.2521.4522.25
War service pension and war veteran's allowance—
    Unmarried21.0022.5023.7024.50
    Married male17.5018.7519.7520.35
    Married female17.5018.7519.7520.35
    Age supplement (each)1.501.501.501.50
    Gratuity (veteran's widow)33.6035.5536.7537.55
Dependent children (replacing the rates shown where there are dependent children)—
    Solo parent and one child32.0034.5036.5037.70
    Solo parent and two children35.0037.5039.5040.70
        Increased by $1.25 a week for each subsequent child
    Married couple and one child38.0040.5042.5043.70
        Increased by $1.25 for each subsequent child

Economic pensions, war service pensions, and war veterans' allowances are subject to a means test on income and are reducible if income from other sources exceeds $13 a week or $676 a year. In the case of a widow supporting a dependent child or children the allowable income without reduction in pension is, however, $17 a week. In the computation of a wife's pension, the income of the husband only is taken into account.

Travel grants and other concessions may be made to severely disabled persons.

The social security legislation permits basic war disablement and war widows' pensions to be paid concurrently with any social security benefit and to be entirely disregarded for income tests.

Pensions for Dependants—From 1 April 1971 wives' pensions have not been payable in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 unless such pension was already payable at that date. From 1 April 1971 the wife of a member of the forces pensioned for total blindness in respect of service on or after 3 September may receive a war service pension but not an age supplement. In addition to pensions for wives and children, a pension may be granted to any member of a deceased or disabled serviceman's family.

Economic Pensions—An "economic pension" is defined as a supplementary pension granted on economic grounds and is in addition to any pension payable as of right in respect of death or disablement. In considering a claim for an economic pension a War Pensions Board is required to take into consideration the ability of the claimant to obtain and retain suitable employment, the personal income and ownership of any property, the cost of living, and other relevant matters.

Servicemen pensioned for minor disablement do not receive economic pensions.

Servicemen pensioned in respect of service on or after 3 September 1939 have not, from 1 April 1971, been eligible to receive an economic pension unless already in receipt of an economic pension at that date. At 31 March 1973 there were 4,909 economic pensions in force.

War Veterans' Allowances—These make provision on economic grounds for ex-servicemen, mainly of the First World War, who have become unfit for permanent employment by reason of mental or physical incapacity. At 31 March 1973 there were 9,808 allowances in force.

War Service Pensions—From 1 April 1971 the war service pension is payable on economic grounds in respect of overseas service in the Second World War or any subsequent war or emergency in which members of the New Zealand forces have served. Payable subject to an income test, the pension is designed for disabled or prematurely retired ex-servicemen who saw service overseas after 3 September 1939. Ex-servicemen of other Commonwealth countries may also qualify as applicants for the pension.

An applicant must also fulfil one of the following conditions: (a) be in receipt of a war disablement pension of not less than 70 percent of the maximum pension payable for total disablement; or, (b) being in receipt of a war disablement pension of less than 70 percent, unable by reasons of physical or mental infirmity to undertake permanent employment.

There are residential qualifications of 5 years for an ex-member of New Zealand forces, or an ex-member of other Commonwealth forces, who was a bona fide resident of New Zealand at the commencement of the war or emergency in which he served, and 20 years for other applicants.

No account is taken of the amount of war disablement pension in determination of the amount of the basic war service pension. A war service pension cannot be paid concurrently with a social security benefit other than a family benefit.

The war service pension will ultimately be the only war pension paid for economic reasons. The rates and income exemption for this pension are similar to social security benefits and, by agreement with the War Pensions Board, the same general rules of treatment of income and assets are applied. In most respects, therefore, the war service pension is similar to its civilian counterparts, the age, sickness, or invalids' benefit as appropriate.

Where any war service pensioner and/or his wife has attained the age of 65 years, an age supplement of a maximum of $78 a year each is added to the basic war service pension. At 31 March 1973 there were 2,720 war service pensions in force.

EMERGENCY RESERVE CORPS PENSIONS—These pensions are payable where death or disablement was suffered by a member of the Emergency Reserve Corps in the course of service (including training), or was directly attributable to such service.

MERCANTILE MARINE PENSIONS—Pensions and allowances are paid in respect of death or disablement of members of the mercantile marine as a result of the Second World War.

SUPPLEMENTARY ASSISTANCE—Supplementary assistance is available on a similar basis to social security supplementary assistance. During the year ended 31 March 1973 there were 366 grants totalling $102,966, compared with 489 grants totalling $72,668 in the previous year.

WAR BURSARIES—Bursaries for educational purposes are available to children of ex-servicemen in receipt of war service pension or 70 percent disablement pension and of deceased ex-servicemen in respect of whose deaths war pensions are paid.

During 1972–73, 1,292 bursaries were granted, expenditure being $117,379 for the year. The 1971–72 figures were 1,491 bursaries and $135,665.

WAR PENSIONS MEDICAL RESEARCH TRUST BOARD—When a pensioner dies any unpaid pension money not paid to dependants in the normal way may be paid to the War Pensions Medical Research Trust Fund for research into mental disorders or other fields of medical research beneficial to former members of the forces. This Medical Research Trust Fund is administered by a trust board which ensures that the money is applied to research beneficial to former members of the forces.

STATISTICAL REVIEW OF WAR PENSIONS, ALLOWANCES, ETC.—During the year ended 31 March 1973 the department dealt with 3,120 applications for war pensions. Of these, 789 applications were lodged by ex-servicemen in respect of their own disabilities, the balance being made up of claims by dependants, applications for economic pensions, war veterans' allowances, war service pensions, and pensions in respect of peacetime forces. The total for the previous year was 3,730. Of these, 777 were in respect of the applicant's own disability.

The number of appeals to the War Pensions Board dealt with in 1972–73 was 201, of which 55 were upheld.

Summary of Disabilities for Which Pensions Granted 1939–73—The following is a summary of the disabilities attributed to war service from 1939 onwards and for which ex-service personnel had been granted pensions up to 31 March 1973.

Class of Disability or DiseaseType of Service
1939–45 WarKorean WarJ ForceVietnam*New ZealandTotal
*In previous years the figures in this column were included in New Zealand column.
Infections and infestations2,06892871582,333
Nervous systems (including mental illness)9,836441351,75411,652
Eye, ear, and nose7,53810922801,6349,383
Circulatory and blood systems2,7781131,0853,877
Metabolism and endocrine system445211628
Respiratory system3,860315411,2465,192
Disease of bones, joints, muscles, tendons, and ligaments5,54633101,9037,492
Digestive system4,803391311,2406,096
Generative system35711126485
Gunshot wounds and accidental injuries to bones, joints, and soft tissues8,46512731402,20010,863
Skin2,593311215583,195
Areolar tissues5022981
Tumours and neoplastic growths2302157290
Malformations3141133448
Amputations (not including fingers and toes)5174722550
Urinary tract652831164828
Debility446109555
Totals50,49853717114412,59863,948

The following table shows for all classes of war pensions the number in force, except peacetime forces and war service pensions, at the end of March in each year and the expenditure during the years given.

Year Ended 31 MarchFirst World War (1914–18)Second World War (1939–45)K ForceWar VeteransSouth AfricanMercantile MarineEmergency Reserve CorpsSupplementary AssistanceTotal
Number in Force
196313,10424,73720315,1851627817453,454
196412,55624,52118414,3501425821251,870
196511,94624,62916713,8941223829550,974
196611,38924,71619013,4881121837750,200
196710,67624,50820412,8451023538648,657
196810,16024,49723912,642720641947,990
19699,50724,37726112,366725944246,994
19708,83624,25425512,032625842345,839
19718,25024,04423011,7015261042344,689
19727,64023,27523710,183426649041,861
19737,05823,0752409,808222550740,717
Expenditure $(000)
19636,3786,4181812,72010841725,573
19646,7566,9672712,928101042926,731
19656,5867,1262213,3489943727,142
19666,5077,8292313,2999854827,728
19676,5718,0183313,6368955628,336
19686,3998,3104213,5218955828,352
19696,1258,5174613,58249410228,389
19706,3039,4345414,19541057130,077
19716,2099,8246015,10251277333,292
19726,53011,9077015,43051477334,036
19736,92114,7408416,399515510338,272

The foregoing figures of expenditure include the following: (a) travelling allowances of $2 a week paid to 985 pensioners at 31 March 1973; (b) clothing allowances, of which 1,227 were being paid at 31 March 1973; (c) gallantry awards. The following are not included: (a) costs of certain medical treatment not available under social security, amounting to $175,574 in 1972–73; (b) railway and bus concessions to pensioners with severe disablement and locomotive disabilities, costing $42,629 in 1972–73; (c) funeral grants which cost $50,511 in 1972–73, and (d) loans towards the purchase of motor vehicles by certain seriously disabled pensioners (16 loans in 1972–73 totalling $19,900).

Administration costs in connection with war pensions and allowances are included in the administration costs of the Social Welfare Department which are given in Section 6A.

Pensions paid in respect of the two World Wars and the Korean war and the Vietnam Force are shown by class in the following table.

At 31 MarchDisablement PensionsDefendants of Disabled Ex- membersOn Account of DeathTotal
WidowsParents and Other Dependants
First World War, 1914–18
19686,1867813,1761710,160
19695,6396633,193129,507
19705,1065823,135138,836
19714,6834983,06098,250
19724,1874193,02777,640
19733,7753282,945107,058
Second World War, 1939–45
196821,1579372,00439924,497
196920,9979652,04537024,377
197020,8629532,09234724,254
197120,5809562,19431424,044
197220,2565042,22429123,275
197320,1483962,28125023,075
K Force
196822595239
1969244863261
19702361054255
19712141015230
1972226614237
1973230424240
Vietnam Force
19727312177
1973109241116

The next table shows the number of disability pensions in force at 31 March 1973, classified according to percentage of disablement.

Percentage of DisablementFirst World War 1914–18Second World War 1939–45K ForceVietnamTotal
*Includes "over 100 percent" disablement which is a special rate pension for total blindness or other serious disablement.
100*7711,8081782,604
90–99401281169
80–891544412597
70–79324881921,216
60–691796628849
50–593991,3871621,804
40–495211,5601632,100
Under 401,38713,2811629314,923
Totals3,77520,14823010924,262

REHABILITATION—The Rehabilitation Act 1941 and the Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953 make provision for the re-establishment of ex-servicemen in civil life after service during a war or emergency.

The extent and nature of assistance is determined from time to time.

Rehabilitation Assistance—All forms of rehabilitation assistance available to ex-servicemen of the Second World War and K force ceased on 31 March 1965.

Resettlement assistance is available to men who have served in South-east Asia for 6 months prior to 1 April 1972 and for 12 months after that date.

Application for housing loans, which attract a 3% concession rate of interest, and interest free furniture loans of $400, must be lodged within 5 years from the date of return to New Zealand after qualifying service or 2 years after discharge from the forces whichever is the later.

Applications for subsidised trade training, and education assistance must be lodged within 2 years of return to New Zealand. Limited preferences in farm ballots are also available to ex-servicemen with a farming background.

Special provisions exist to ensure that rehabilitation assistance will continue to be available to all ex-servicemen whose rehabilitation may at any time be interrupted or become necessary as a result of disability arising from service.

Expenditure—Rehabilitation expenditure (including loan authorisations) for the 3 latest years ended 31 March was as follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 March 1971Year Ended 31 March 1972Year Ended 31 March 1973
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Educational facilities, including books, tuition fees, and subsistence allowance332622
Trade training—
    Payments to Disabled Re-establishment League, etc.1099
    Training of blinded ex-servicemen81414
Farm training and settlement (excluding loans)1,894
Loans—
    Interest concessions1,1881,045950
    Loans authorised3,8033,8154,161
Reserve Fund contribution5353112
Suspensory loans, etc.1
Totals6,9904,9625,268

6 C—SUPERANNUATION

GENERAL—Superannuation for all Government employees is available under the authority of the Superannuation Act 1956.

Local Government employees and employees of all statutory bodies are provided for under the National Provident Fund Act 1950 which also authorises certain schemes for members of the general public.

There are also a considerable number of private superannuation funds and some information about them is given at the end of this subsection.

The New Zealand Superannuation Corporation Bill has been introduced into Parliament and this legislation will directly affect the whole of the labour force in the area of superannuation. The essential features of the scheme to be introduced under the Bill art: that a minimum rate of contribution to it or an approved alternative scheme will be deducted from "income from exertion" for all persons and supplemented by employer contributions, that superannuation rights of persons will be fully portable between places of employment, and that the annuity payable at retirement will be adjusted each year in line with movements in the consumers price index. The annuity would become payable at the contributor's option between the ages of 60 and 65 years.

It is intended that the New Zealand Superannuation Scheme will act in partnership with similar plans operated by the private sector to provide second-tier superannuation benefits for all workers. The first-tier benefits, the present social welfare benefits, will continue. It is proposed that the scheme should be phased-in from 1975 over a period of 5 years, starting at 1 percent each from employee and employer, rising to 2 percent in the second year and by ½ percent in each of the subsequent years until the full rate of 4 percent from each is reached. Rights in respect of contributions to superannuation schemes before 1 April 1975 are not to be affected. Existing schemes may be approved for continuation if the benefits are fully comparable with the proposed New Zealand scheme.

A superannuation corporation independent of the Government is proposed for the administration of the scheme; its board of management would have power to allocate separate shares of the corporation's funds to portfolio managers for investment. It is estimated that the annual investment of such funds will be about 2½ to 3 percent of the gross national product. (Parliamentary paper, B.25, 1973, sets out the principles leading to the introduction of the legislation.)

GOVERNMENT SUPERANNUATION FUND—The Government Superannuation Fund in its present form was established on 1 April 1948. Its revenues consist of contributions, subsidies from the Consolidated Revenue Account and other funds, and interest earned on investments.

The fund is administered by a board consisting of the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Chairman of the State Services Commission, the General Manager of Railways, the Director-General of Education, the Director-General of the Post Office, the Commissioner of Police, five members appointed on the nomination of the various employee organisations, and one on the nomination of the Minister of Defence.

Membership—Membership of the Superannuation Fund is now available for all employees of the State. These include employees of departments of State under the control of the State Services Commission, and also those employed in the Education Service, the Railways Department, and the Post Office. Membership is compulsory for permanent members of the armed forces, the Police, and Prisons Service, also for members of the Judicature (judges of the Supreme Court and Court of Arbitration), Maori Land Court judges, magistrates, and members of Parliament. A contributor to the fund who enters the service of the Government of Western Samoa or of the Western Samoa Trust Estates Corporation may, if the board agrees, continue to contribute to the fund. In addition, the fund has continued to be the vehicle for the superannuation scheme for the Cook Islands and Niue Public Services.

Compulsory membership also applies to any person, other than a married woman, who has become permanently employed in the Government service after 1 January 1964, and who is at least 17 and less than 25 years of age.

Contributions—Those who decided not to join the adjustment scheme which commenced on 15 June 1969 (see under Benefits), pay contributions ranging from 5 percent to 10 percent of salary, depending on the age at which contributory service began. The rate of increase is in 1 percent steps for each 5 years of age, 5 percent being the percentage for those who join when under 30 years of age.

Those who have not opted out of the adjustment scheme and those who have begun their contributory service after 31 December 1969 pay 1 percent of salary additional to the above rates.

An alternative modified scheme, applicable to both situations, was introduced in 1955 under which contributors may elect to contribute only 60 percent of contribution rates and receive only 60 percent of the standard benefits.

Benefits—Upon retirement a contributor entitled to a retiring allowance may elect to accept a refund of his contributions, or an allowance. If he chooses the latter he may vary the normal allowance by electing to; (a) take an increased allowance to age 65, reducing thereafter, (b) surrender a portion of the allowance to provide after his death an annuity for his widow or other approved dependant, (c) surrender not more than one-quarter of his retiring allowance and to receive in lieu a lump sum payment equal to nine times the amount of the allowance surrendered.

Standard retiring allowances are computed at the rate of one hundred and twentieth part of the annual salary for each year of contributory service, to which is added an equal amount by way of employer subsidy. However, the latter is not permitted to exceed one-third of the annual salary. The annual salary for the purpose of this computation is taken to be the average of that received during the 5 years immediately preceding retirement, although in special cases (i.e., the first computed portion of the retiring allowance is less than $300) the average salary received during the last 3 years may be used if it results in a more favourable computation.

A scheme for adjusting retiring allowances in accordance with increases in the cost of living (as measured by the Consumers' Price Index) was introduced as from 15 June 1969. Annuitants qualify for these adjustments as from their sixtieth birthday or their date of retirement, whichever is the later (although there is provision for earlier qualification in the case of those who retire medically unfit). For those who had retired before 15 June 1969 their adjustments will be based on 60 percent of cost-of-living movement. For those who were contributing at that date and came into the adjustment scheme (see under Contributions) their adjustments will be based on 60 percent of cost-of-living increases plus a proportion of the additional 40 percent based on the relationship between the period during which they pay the additional contributions involved and their total period of contributory service. Those members with contributory service commencing after 15 June 1969 will receive adjustments based on 100 percent of cost-of-living changes.

Retiring allowances and other benefits are paid in advance in instalments every 28 days. No recovery is made should the beneficiary die during the benefit period.

When a married contributor dies, his widow may elect to receive a refund of his contributions or an allowance at half the rate of the allowance to which her husband would have been entitled had he retired on the date of his death. The widow of a superannuitant may elect to receive a refund of the amount of his contributions less any sums received by him during his lifetime, or to receive an annuity at one-half the rate of his retiring allowance, disregarding any election to take a variable allowance or to surrender part of the allowance for an approved dependant. Widows' annuities are included in the cost-of-living adjustment mentioned above, with the qualifying age reduced from 60 to 55 years.

The amount of the widow's annuity cannot be less than $390 ($234 in the modified scheme). In addition, $78 per annum ($46.80 in the modified scheme) is paid for each child under 16 years of age (or 18 if still receiving full-time education) left by a deceased contributor or superannuitant. The widow's benefit is payable only during widowhood but is reinstated if after remarrying she again becomes a widow.

When a female contributor or superannuitant dies leaving a husband who can satisfy the board that he was totally or partially dependent on her immediately before her death, a widower's annuity, calculated on a similar basis to the widow's benefit, may be paid.

Variation of General Conditions—As stated above, membership of the fund is compulsory for the Police, members of the Prisons Service, and for the armed forces. Members of the Police and Prisons Service are obliged to retire at age 60 and, to enable late entrants to obtain the equivalent of 40 years' service for superannuation purposes, there are special provisions for the computation of their allowances. Where contributory service commenced after age 25, each year in the Police and Prisons Service is deemed to be one year and one-seventh. Where contributory service commenced after age 20 but before age 25, a lesser proportion is added. An increased rate of contributions is payable by those whose service is scaled up. The standard benefits apply.

Members of the armed forces may qualify for a retiring allowance after 20 years' service irrespective of age, while for the general service qualifications range from 40 years' service to 65 years of age in accordance with date of entry into the fund. As from 20 April 1972 a special cost-of-living adjustment scheme was introduced for the armed forces. Participating members will pay an extra 0.7 percent of salary additional to the rate payable under the main adjustment scheme (see under Contributions). In return for this they are now entitled to cost-of-living adjustments reflecting movements in the Consumers' Price Index since retirement, although they do not receive the actual initial adjustment at an earlier time than any other superannuitant (see under Benefits).

Prior to the implementation in 1962 of equal pay for women in the State Services, female contributors could retire on completion of 30 years' service or on reaching 55 years of age. Those employed at 1 April 1962 may still do so but women who have joined the fund since then have to satisfy the same retiring allowance qualifications as do males.

Members of the Judicature contribute at the rate of 8 percent of their salary. Their retiring allowances are based on a scale which varies according to length of service. The result of the formula is that after 10 years' service a pension equal to six twenty-fourths of the annual salary at date of retirement is payable, increasing by one twenty-fourth of that salary for each year over 10. The allowance, however, is not to exceed sixteen twenty-fourths of that salary. A widow of a judge is entitled to half her husband's retiring allowance subject to a minimum of 15 percent and a maximum of 25 percent of the husband's final salary.

Magistrates and judges of the Maori Land Court contribute 9 percent of their salary. Their retiring allowances are based on one thirty-sixth of the annual salary at the date of retirement for each year of service, up to a maximum of two-thirds of that salary. The widow's benefit is calculated in the same way as for judges' widows.

Members of all the groups mentioned above are entitled to a retiring allowance at any stage if they become substantially unfit for further duty. The allowances are based on the period of contributory service completed and are computed in the normal manner.

Members of Parliament contribute 11 percent of an ordinary member's salary. A member qualifies for a pension if he retires from Parliament having completed not less than 9 years service as a member, or not less than 8 years when he has served throughout the duration of not less than three sessions. The allowance is payable from age 50 onwards. The allowance is computed at the rate of one thirty-second part of an ordinary member's salary for each year of service, with a maximum of two-thirds of that salary. The standard provisions for widows', widowers', and children's benefits apply.

STATISTICS—At 31 March 1973 there were 113,121 contributors who paid $32,018,612 for the year into the fund. The pensioners at the same time numbered 28,732 and were entitled to $36,131,093 a year, made up as follows.

Class of PayeeMalesFemalesTotalAnnual Allowances
    $(000)
Retired for age or length of service14,8353,36318,19829,784
Retired for ill-health8782061,084946
Widows and dependent widowers8,0958,0955,295
Children7196361,355106
Totals16,43212,30028,73236,131

Accumulated funds at 31 March 1973 amounted to $235,009,531. Total assets, which amounted to $235,856,560, included investments $228,586,600; interest due and accrued, $2,876,155; contributions in course of transmission, etc., $725,427; and cash in hand and at bank $3,668,378.

The average effective interest earnings of the fund for the year ended 31 March 1973 was 5.30 percent.

The total revenue of the fund for the year ended 31 March 1973 was $74,643,478 including members' contributions $32,182,011, interest on investments and on contributions $11,325,106, other items $577, and subsidy $31,135,784. The total amount expended during the year was $45,265,490 including retiring and other allowances $38,447,086, and refunds of contributions $6,818,404.

In the Parliamentary Superannuation Account revenue was $151,027 including contributions $72,104, subsidy $72,104, and interest $6,819. Expenditure on retiring and other allowances was $177,998 while refunds of contributions totalled $6,421.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of ContributorsAnnual Contributions*Interest Received From InvestmentsSubsidy From Government Trading Departments, and OthersAnnual Value of AllowancesAccumulated Fund
*Includes transfers from National Provident Fund.
  $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1969103,45114,5106,57420,17325,405138,319
1970105,00017,5727,27722,74130,250151,901
1971107,85723,5908,25528,06231,084174,944
1972109,01529,1709,64229,14133,267203,665
1973113,12132,18211,32531,13636,131235,010

NATIONAL PROVIDENT FUND—The National Provident Fund was established on 1 March 1911 with the object of providing a superannuation scheme for the public. The present legislative authority is contained in the National Provident Fund Act 1950 and its amendments.

The fund is administered by a board comprising the Minister of Finance as chairman, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Health, the Valuer-General, the Superintendent of the Fund, and up to three other members appointed by the Governor-General.

The board now provides five distinct services:

  1. Public Fund—It provides pension schemes for individual members of the general public and schemes for members of approved friendly societies, employees of firms, trade unions, etc.

  2. Local Authorities Superannuation—It administers superannuation schemes for employees of all local authorities, quasi-government organisations and other approved organisations.

  3. National Farm Workers Superannuation Scheme—It administers an employer subsidised superannuation scheme for farm employees.

  4. National Superannuation Scheme—It administers an employer subsidised superannuation scheme for employees of firms and companies.

  5. Local Authorities Investment Pool—It controls the investment pool into which local authorities may temporarily invest otherwise idle funds.

The State guarantees the benefits payable under the schemes and in most cases provides a subsidy to the extent of one-fourth of contributions. However, no State subsidy is payable in the National Farm Workers Superannuation Scheme and the National Superannuation Scheme. The Government guarantees minimum interest earnings instead. The trading quasi-government organisations in the local authorities schemes themselves meet the subsidy which is otherwise payable by the State in the case of the local authorities.

The State meets all administration expenses.

Public Fund—Membership of the public part of the National Provident Fund is open to any resident of New Zealand over the age of 15 years, and under the age of 60 years.

There are two schemes. The Level Premium Scheme, which is not at present available to new contributors, permits a contributor to purchase a predetermined amount of pension from age 60 years by the payment of fixed, regular contributions, with the first $20 per week of pension attracting the State subsidy of 25 percent of contributions. After 5 years' membership contributors qualify for ancillary benefits in the form of incapacity allowances and widows' and dependent children's allowances.

The Annual Single Premium Scheme, which is currently available, enables members to purchase a pension by making contributions of any amount as and when they like. At the end of each 12-monthly period the total contributions made during the periods are applied towards the purchase of a pension from age 60 years. Only the first $1,000 of contributions in any 12-monthly periods attracts State subsidy while, as in the Level Premium Scheme, the subsidy is limited to the first $20 per week of pension purchased. There is a widow's benefit provided.

In both the schemes the contributor, when he reaches 60 years of age, may defer uplifting the pension (but to not later than age 65) and the pension ultimately payable increases 10 percent for each year of deferment. At the same time he may elect to continue contributing and thus further increase the ultimate benefits.

When the pension becomes payable the following options are provided:

  1. The purchased pension may be accepted without any changes resulting from the following options.

  2. Both schemes—Up to one-quarter of the pension may be surrendered in exchange for a lump sum equivalent to nine times the amount of annual pension forgone.

  3. Level Premium Scheme—The contributor may elect to receive a joint and survivorship pension with wife (husband). This means that the pension is immediately reduced but continues unchanged until the death of the surviving spouse.

  4. Annual Single Premium Scheme—The contributor may elect to surrender portion of his pension to provide an additional amount for his widow or an annuity for an approved dependant.

Local Authorities Superannuation—There are uniform superannuation conditions for the employees of all local authorities in New Zealand, although slight variations are made to suit the special needs of particular groups, e.g., nurses and firemen. The schemes embrace the staff of quasi-government organisations, e.g., producer boards, but again there are special variations when required (e.g., aircrew of the National Airways Corporation and of Air New Zealand). The schemes also cover teachers in private schools.

The standard benefits and contributions are substantially the same as those for the Government Superannuation Fund (see section on that fund). As there is provision for transfer to and from the Government superannuation scheme the result is that State and local authority employees have a wide range of transfer without loss of accrued superannuation rights.

A scheme for adjusting retiring allowances in accordance with increases in the cost of living (as measured by the Consumers' Price Index), similar to that introduced in June 1969 for current and retired State employees, was introduced on 1 April 1971 for employees and annuitants of local authorities and other approved contributing employers. The scheme is applicable to all contributing employees, and annuitants where their former employer has agreed to participate and meet the costs of the subsidies involved. In all other respects the scheme is similar to that introduced in the Government Superannuation Fund.

National Scheme for Farm Employees—This employer-subsidised scheme was prepared at the request of the Federated Farmers of New Zealand for farm employees. The employee contributions to the scheme are subsidised dollar for dollar by the employer. These combined contributions are credited to the employee's account and attract interest up until retirement date (normally between 60 and 65 years of age). The total credit on retirement can be utilised in one of the following ways: (a) to purchase an annuity for life; (b) to take up to 25 percent of the total credit as a lump sum and use the balance an annuity for life; (c) to allocate not more than half the total credit to purchase a life annuity for a wife or (d) to utilise the whole or part of the total credit to provide housing or improved housing and to take such pension as is able to be purchased by any remaining portion of the total credit. All pensions from the scheme, paid to members aged 66 years or older, are adjusted annually as reserves allow and cost of living increases warrant. If the employee dies before electing to take his retirement benefit, his widow will be entitled to the benefit from his credit in the fund. She may defer making any election to uplift this benefit until a later date. All pensions paid from this scheme to widows aged 56 years or older increase annually as reserves allow and cost of living increases warrant. A contributing employee may withdraw his personal contributions plus 3 percent compound interest from the scheme after a minimum period of 10 years from the date of joining or he may cease contributing temporarily on permanently for any reasons, but still retain his accrued rights. His credit will continue to earn interest and bonuses until retirement age. Interest at the rate of 6.35 percent was credited to accounts in this scheme for the year ended 31 March 1973.

National Superannuation Scheme—The benefits and provisions in this scheme are the same as those for the national scheme for farm employees with the exception that there is no special provision to provide any part of the total credit for housing purposes. Any employee is eligible to join, providing his employer is willing to subsidise contributions dollar for dollar. Employers may subsidise staff into this scheme without the usual requirements of a trust deed. Interest at the rate of 6.35 percent was credited to accounts in this scheme for the year ended 31 March 1973.

Contributions to the National Provident Fund schemes may be claimed as a special exemption from income, for income tax purposes within the limits allowed by the Inland Revenue Department for superannuation contributions and life assurance premiums.

Investment Pool—Nearly 600 local authorities and other approved bodies are now paying money into the fund for investment. Since the inauguration of the pool in 1955 the total amount invested in the fund has been $1,379.3 million and the total amount withdrawn $1,233.1 million, leaving a balance of $146.2 million invested in the fund as at 31 March 1973. The following table shows the various terms for which the money is invested in the fund and the different classes of local authorities supporting the pool as at 31 March 1973.

Class of Local AuthorityAt Call3–6 months6–12 months1 and under 2 years2 and under 3 years3 and under 5 yearsSinking FundsTotal
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)
Cities and boroughs19.4542.7413.2583.3141.3987.1964.70242.063
Counties4.4170.2080.8260.5790.8132.3531.20810.404
Electric power boards3.2040.2271.1640.6960.0465.6832.64813.668
Fire boards0.6640.0010.0460.0270.0570.1040.1321.031
Harbour boards3.5830.1001.5410.2260.2504.8811.16711.748
Hospital boards5.1931.6214.1673.2140.7001.7158.50125.111
Sundry local authorities1.8210.4601.0140.2220.1621.8831.1676.729
Other approved bodies12.5315.7362.4074.1255.6135.06935.481
Totals50.86711.09414.42312.4039.03928.88419.525146.235

About one-half of the pool is made up of short-term deposits of up to twelve months which cannot be expected to be retained by the fund for very long and, as a result, a considerable portion must of necessity be invested in readily realisable short-term Government stocks. From the longer-term money has developed a "hard core" from which it has been possible for the fund to augment substantially its normal investable income for lending to local authorities.

Investment of Funds—The following table shows the details of investment of all funds, i.e., including pool moneys.

Class of SecurityInvestments at 31 March
197119721973
 $(000)
Government stock73,77658,17491,174
Local authority debentures169,618197,276234,986
Mortgages1,4301,4331,426
Company shares and debentures478474806
Western Samoan Government stock224348348
Totals245,526257,705328,740

Other Statistical Information—The numbers of contributors at 31 March 1972 were as follows.

FundMalesFemalesTotal
Public fund25,8414,81934,663
Local authorities13,9493,60417,553
Totals43,7938,42352,216

Summarised statistics are set out for the last 3 years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197119721973
New contributors5,4927,3368,785
Total contributors at end of year43,02147,02552,216
Pensioners and other beneficiaries8,0038,2668,604
Income—$(000)$(000)$(000)
    Contributions11,46417,29821,972
    Interest7,7399,12911,672
    State subsidy2,2383,5534,144
    Total income (including State subsidy)21,44129,98037,788
Outgo—
    Pensions (includes capitalisation of retiring allowances)4,2775,1325,749
    Other benefits1,7671,7521,983
    Total outgoing6,0446,8847,732
Funds at end of year141,976165,071194,503
Investment Pool at end of year109,15298,296146,235
 %%%
Effective earning rate of fund6.196.246.71

Private Schemes—Since 1921 the Commissioner of Inland Revenue has been the authority concerned with safeguarding the interests of employee members of private schemes. This position arose through taxation legislation giving the Commissioner an absolute discretion to allow a deduction for contributions by employers to a fund to provide superannuation benefits for their employees. The legislation provides no such deduction is to be allowed unless the Commissioner is satisfied the rights of employees are fully secured. When this requirement was introduced he evolved a comprehensive set of rules which had to be met to satisfy it. To ensure compliance with them those wishing to set up a fund qualifying for a deduction for employer contributions have been required to incorporate their proposals in a deed for submission to the department for approval.

Approval of the fund is also necessary before an employee can be allowed his contributions as a special exemption.

Self-superannuation schemes, sometimes known as "mutual" funds, must also be approved by the Commissioner of Inland Revenue before contributions by members can qualify for a special exemption. The tax legislation, when first introduced in 1957, applied to self-employed persons only but has since been widened so that it applies to any individual who becomes a member.

Approvals are given along lines similar to those applicable to staff superannuation schemes.

Of these schemes operating in 1973, 27 accepted contributions from the general public and 8 restricted membership to the members of the professional or trade association which established hem.

There is a great diversity in the pattern of benefits and scheme design generally in existing private schemes even though substantial numbers do fall into broad categories.

In April 1973 a survey was made of schemes approved by the Commissioner of Inland Revenue. Numbers of funds or employers at 31 March 1973 covered by the survey of staff superannuation funds are shown in the following table, along with members.

Type of FundNumberMembers
*Including approximately 5,000 Government and local authority employees.
Private lump sum funds3,994110,834
Private pension funds45950,917
Employers participating in the National Provident Fund schemes (including Govt. and Local Auth.)1,19112,960*
Totals5,644174,711

Thirty-six self- superannuation schemes had a membership of approximately 60,000.

6 D—FRIENDLY SOCIETIES

GENERAL—The earlier popularity of friendly societies in this country is shown in the following table.

YearMembers
188318,843
189026,013
190040,257
191068,006
192074,210
1930107,167
1940104,446
195074,991
196066,347
196565,325
196764,053
196863,106
196962,416
197061,463
197160,849
197260,157

This popularity can be readily understood, for the lodges provided not only a social centre for their members, but also benefits that were of very great value. These benefits were usually a sickness benefit, a death benefit and, what was often regarded as the major attraction, provision whereby, for a small sum, the member, his wife, and children could obtain the services of a doctor without charge and to obtain any medicines, free of cost, that might be prescribed. Auxiliary benefits to assist with hospital expenses were also introduced. Membership of the societies was profoundly affected by the introduction of the Social Security Act in 1938. In 1938 membership exceeded 113,700; between 1938 and 1945 the impact of the introduction of social security and the war caused a fall in membership of over 30,000—about 27 percent. Losses since then have been at a lower rate—below 2 percent per year. The problem for the societies has been their inability to attract new members in sufficient numbers to cover losses by deaths and withdrawals. Most of the funds are invested in first mortgage and have been maintained by increased earnings from interest and extensions of insurance activities.

Friendly societies are governed by the Friendly Societies Act 1909 and its amendments. All societies and branches must register with the Registrar of Friendly Societies, and also furnish annual statements of their finances.

Lodges and Members—The table following gives the number of registrations (i.e., of friendly societies proper, or lodges, together with benevolent societies, working-men's clubs, etc., registered under the Act) and of lodge members as at 31 December of the years shown.

Name of OrderRegistrationsLodge Members*
197019711972197019711972
Membership figure relates to "actuarial" societies only.
Manchester Unity Independent Order of Oddfellows22722221728,88728,57528,335
Independent Order of Oddfellows1771751756,1636,0765,906
National Independent Order of Oddfellows112118
Ancient Order of Foresters9391908,4728,3618,129
United Ancient Order of Druids13212912910,88610,65810,476
Independent Order of Rechabites3030291,9011,8581,787
Order of Sons of Temperance3332671,255244
Sons and Daughters of Temperance111434036
Hibernian-Australasian Catholic Benefit Society6866624,5584,7615,010
Protestant Alliance Friendly Society of Australia9910265247234
Isolated friendly societies757574
Working-men's clubs282828
Specially authorised societies107122121
Totals95195293961,46360,84960,157

During the year 2,122 members were admitted by initiation, etc., and 344 by clearance; 1,276 died, 406 left by clearance, and 1,476 by arrears, etc. Membership has dropped to half in the last 30 years.

The statistics given subsequently relate to the lodges (676 in 1972) for which returns were received and tabulated by the Treasury.

Mortality and Sickness—In the following statement of the mortality experience for the last 5 years no account has been taken of age incidence.

YearDeaths of MembersPer 1,000 Members at RiskDeaths of Members' WivesPer 1,000 Members at Risk
19681,34320.902684.17
19691,42022.372313.64
19701,41522.592503.99
19711,29420.942113.41
19721,27620.872544.15

The number of members sick during 1972 was 6,131 equal to 10.4 per 100 members at risk. The sickness experienced during 1972 was 174,396 weeks, equal to 28 weeks 2 days per sick member and 2 weeks 4 days for each member at risk.

Funds of Friendly Societies—The total funds of the societies and branches as at 31 December 1972 amounted to $37,219,928 made up as follows.

FundsAmountAssetsAmount
 $(000) $(000)
Sickness and funeral funds18,710Investments at interest30,629
Surplus appropriation funds, etc4,366Value of land and buildings6,022
Management funds, goods, etc.1,390Cash not bearing interest5
Distress, loans fund, etc.12,754Value of goods142
  Other assets144
  Owing by management funds278
Total37,220Total37,220

The net income from investments credited to the sickness and funeral funds for 1972 amounted to $1,144,898 the average rate being $6.43 percent, as against $6.32 percent in 1971.

The following table shows the amount of accumulated funds standing to the credit of friendly societies.

YearTotal FundsAverage Capital per Member
 $(000)$
196221,964330.62
196323,045348.62
196423,759362.88
196525,580391.58
196627,133420.51
196728,642447.17
196830,309480.29
196931,623506.65
197033,592546.54
197135,698586.67
197237,220623.17

Specially Authorised Societies—The majority of new societies registered in recent years have been specially authorised societies in the form of credit unions; the number of such societies registered is now 121.

The following statement shows the disposal of the funds of these societies in 1972.

FundsValueAssetsValue
 $(000) $(000)
Members shares and deposits17,309Personal loans8,282
Reserve funds970Mortgages6,164
Other442Other investments983
  Included in assets of societies subject to valuation3,292
Total18,721Total18,721

Medical Care Societies—The provision of benefits to provide part or all of the costs of medical or surgical attendance in return for voluntary contributions may be administered through a separate fund of a traditional friendly society or through a society providing only such benefits, including the costs of private hospital treatment. The latter type of society may be registered under the Friendly Societies Act 1909, but at least two are known not to be so registered. It is, therefore, not possible to give comprehensive statistics of either membership or funds related to such benefits. The number of individuals covered for such benefits is approximately 150,000 in societies registered under the Friendly Societies Act solely for the purpose and could be in excess of this figure in respect of traditional societies.

Chapter 9. Section 7; EDUCATION AND SCIENCE

7 A—EDUCATION

GROWTH OF EDUCATION—Since 1945 education has been marked by extensive growth. In 1945, school, college, and university enrolments combined were 328,000 or 19.3 percent of the population but by 1972 the combined enrolments had risen to 907,000 or 30.8 percent of the population. This growth is accounted for by increased births for the major part of the period; a marked tendency for more pupils to stay on longer at school and also to undertake further education after leaving school; and the development of new educational services. In the last 25 years pupils in primary schools have doubled and pupils in secondary schools more than trebled (with an eightfold increase in sixth and seventh forms), while the number of students in universities more than trebled and students receiving technical education quadrupled.

At the same time education has grown more intensive and education expenditure has expanded from 6 percent of total Government expenditure in 1945–46 to 17.8 percent in 1973–74.

The strongly egalitarian temper of New Zealand society—a product of historical, geographical, and economic factors—is reflected in education administration by the policy of making education at all levels freely available. In few other countries is there closer approximation to equality of educational opportunity—and few countries have a larger proportion of their populations in schools, colleges, and universities.

ADMINISTRATION—The Education Act 1964 provides for free and secular education in State primary and secondary schools, and compulsory education for all children between the ages of 6 and 15 years. University education is provided under the Universities Act 1961, and funds for universities are distributed by the University Grants Committee.

The central administrative body directing education is the Department of Education, whose permanent head is the Director-General of Education. The department consists of professional and administrative officers with its head office in Wellington. To bring administration closer to schools and institutions in the system the department has regional offices in Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, each under the control of a superintendent.

The Department of Education, in discharging its responsibility to the Minister for administration of the system, advises the Minister on policy and development, controls the expenditure of money voted, ensures that schools are built and equipped when and where required and that teachers are recruited and trained, checks that standards are maintained in schools, State and private, and assesses the efficiency of teachers. An important professional function of the department is to conduct curriculum revision and development and to recommend curriculum changes to the Minister.

Machinery for planning in the broadest sense as it affects national development has been set up in the form of an Advisory Council on Educational Planning. This body is concerned with the establishment of priorities in educational development.

The control and management of State primary schools are the responsibility of the ten education boards, and local secondary school boards control State secondary schools.

The Department of Education directly administers the Correspondence School and State special schools. It controls the inspectorate, supervises the staffing of schools, and conducts the School Certificate Examination. All State and registered private schools are visited regularly by inspectors who give assistance and guidance to teachers in educational matters. The department also administers the capital expenditure voted for school buildings.

There are a number of private primary and secondary schools in New Zealand conducted either by religious bodies or private individuals. These schools are required by the Education Act 1964 to comply with defined standards of accommodation and teaching as a pre-requisite for compulsory registration under the Education Act.

The Department of Education has official contacts with the National Council of Adult Education and the University Grants Committee but the universities are independent in their educational activities.

Education Boards and School Committees—Statutory boards (i.e., education boards administering State primary schools and governing bodies of secondary schools) are responsible for the schools in their area. They are the employing authorities of the teachers. They disburse the grants received from the Department of Education for maintenance of schools and building of new schools, and for equipment and teaching materials. No local rates are levied for education either by municipal or local education authorities.

Each State primary school controlled by an education board has its school committee, elected by the parents of pupils and adults resident in the school district. It is a statutory body charged with management of property and other matters on behalf of the board. The members of school committees form the electorates for electing education board members.

A school committee's essential function is the care of school buildings, grounds, and equipment, but, in addition to this, many interest themselves very keenly in the general activities of the school and provide, along with voluntary parent-teacher associations, a focusing point for local opinion on educational matters.

Secondary School Boards—Secondary schools are controlled and administered by their own boards of governors. The local boards controlling secondary schools (either singly, or several schools in the same town) are made up of representatives of the parents of pupils, of the education board of the district, and of other local groups and organisations. They are constituted by the Minister and published in the New Zealand Gazette. In some metropolitan areas, groups of secondary schools have been linked together for administrative purposes under secondary school councils but each school still retains its own board of governors which has a large measure of autonomy in the control and management of its own school.

Technical Institute Councils—Technical institutes, including the Technical Correspondence Institute, are controlled by councils with members representing business and industry, local authorities, the university and governing bodies of secondary schools.

Teachers' College Councils—Independent of education boards, teachers' college councils have been established. The councils have the usual administrative functions, combined with some professional responsibility for the training of teachers. They include representatives of education boards, of the Department of Education, the university, and of the teachers' organisations.

School Certificate—A School Certificate Examination conducted by the Department of Education is taken by the majority of pupils at the end of three years of secondary education. The course of each candidate must include English, history or geography or a foreign language, mathematics or science. A candidate may enter the examination in any number of subjects up to six and is credited with passes in the individual subjects in which he is successful.

Sixth Form Certificate—A new certificate was introduced in 1969 to replace the Endorsed School Certificate. Sixth Form Certificates are awarded to pupils who have satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year in at least four subjects beyond the level of School Certificate.

University Entrance—Pupils attending certain approved schools may be accredited for matriculation purposes provided they have completed a four years' secondary school course. Pupils not accredited for entrance to university may qualify by passing the University Entrance Examination which is conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

The University Bursaries examination and the University Entrance Scholarship Examination, taken by secondary school pupils usually in form 7, are also conducted by the University Entrance Board; they are competitive examinations for supplementary awards for study at a university.

Higher School Certificate—Higher School Certificates are awarded after a 5-year course to pupils who have been accepted for entry to the Sixth Form and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 2 years; and to pupils who have obtained a qualification recognised by the Universities Entrance Board for admission to a university in New Zealand and satisfactorily completed an advanced course of 1 year.

Private Schools—There are a number of private primary and secondary schools conducted by religious bodies or private individuals. Financial assistance is provided by the State subject to certain conditions. Academic bursaries, secondary school bursaries, and Maori scholarships may be tenable at private secondary schools. Assistance for transport by rail and road and a boarding allowance under certain conditions may also be given to pupils attending private schools, whether primary or secondary. School publications are supplied to private schools. From February 1970 Central Government has made grants to independent schools on the basis of teachers' salaries. For the first year the proportion was 20 percent and the estimated cost $2.5 million; the proportion is to rise to a maximum of 35 percent over 7 years; it reached 32.5 percent in 1974. Associated government controls are approved before new independent schools can be built and the requirement that after a transitional period, new teacher entrants to independent schools must possess certain minimum qualifications.

Co-education—Co-education applies at all stages of the school system. All State primary schools and some private primary schools teach boys and girls together. At the secondary level all district high schools and three-quarters of the State secondary schools have both boys and girls on their rolls, whilst the remaining quarter of the State secondary schools and nearly all of the private secondary schools are single-sex schools. A comparison of the total enrolment of all secondary schools (State as well as private) shows that over the last two decades, there has been a trend toward the provision of more co-educational than single-sex schools.

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION—The following table shows the net expenditure from public funds on each branch or service of education for the latest March years.

Item1971–721972–73
*Child Welfare transferred to Department of Social Welfare.
 $(000)
Programme—
            I—Administration and General7,5815,874
      II—Pre-school Education2,4142,732
      III—Primary and Secondary Education—
            Administration and support services44,11315,452
            State primary education101,812110,862
            State secondary education66,06273,960
            Assistance to private schools4,9776,889
            Special education3,7354,308
Sub-total220,699211,471
    IV—Higher Education
            University education57,34150,771
            Teacher training26,24826,940
            Senior technical education14,57513,433
Sub-total98,16491,144
    V—National Library and Child Welfare8,9362,173*
    VI—Buildings..63,445
            Totals337,793376,839

The foregoing figures do not include revenue received by universities, from endowments, fees, etc., which are available for educational purposes.

The following table gives Government expenditure on education and relates it to total Government expenditure. The share of public expenditure devoted to education has therefore increased significantly in relation to other forms of Government expenditure. Much of the increased spending has, of course, been a direct consequence of roll growth.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet Education Expenditure*As Percentage of Total Government Expenditure
Current (Salaries, etc.)BuildingsTotalCurrent Education ExpenditureTotal Education Expenditure

*Including Child Welfare up to 1972 and National Library Service.

†About 66 percent of present current expenditure is on salaries of teachers and other staff.

 $(million)percent
194613.62.416.05.16.0
195125.45.030.46.37.5
195644.812.857.66.98.8
196169.817.887.67.69.5
196384.019.6103.68.610.7
196492.422.0114.48.610.6
1965103.027.0130.08.811.1
1966113.628.0141.68.911.1
1967126.432.0158.49.511.9
1968142.132.5174.610.412.7
1969157.130.9188.010.712.8
1970175.233.9209.110.812.9
1971223.244.4267.612.014.3
1972287.450.4337.813.115.4
1973313.463.4376.814.117.0

The average annual compound rates of growth for types of education are shown in the following table.

Type of EducationExpenditureAverage Annual Compound Rate of Increase
19511971
*For 1966 year, not previously costed.
 $(million)percent
State primary171029
State secondary76412
Universities24416
Teacher training22013
Technical5*1121
All State education3026812

The following figures relate Government net expenditure on education to gross national product and mean population.

Year Ended 31 MarchExpenditure from Public FundsExpenditure as Percentage of Gross National ProductExpenditure per Head of Mean Population
*Provisional.
 $(000)percent$
196293,6583.438.34
1963102,8323.541.16
1964113,5743.644.54
1965128,9883.749.59
1966140,5093.753.08
1967157,2094.058.33
1968173,0494.263.27
1969186,0164.367.40
1970207,3424.474.35
1971265,5544.993.79
1972335,0515.4116.48
1973376,8395.3*128.16

An international comparison of public expenditure on education as a percentage of national income is given in the following table for selected countries. (Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.) Educational expenditures in many countries have been rising twice as fast as national income.

CountryPublic Expenditure on Education as Percentage of National Income
19551965
Austria3.984.79
Belgium3.996.48
Canada3.507.63
Denmark4.006.98
France3.736.05
Germany, West2.803.84
Italy3.796.48
Netherlands4.417.53
Norway4.276.98
Switzerland3.584.31
United Kingdom3.325.21
United States4.076.28

Australia's figure for 1965–66 (4.36 percent) was very similar to that for New Zealand.

International comparisons need to be treated with reserve because of the differing education systems and expenditure measures.

EDUCATION BUILDINGS—The increases in school population coupled with the increasing urbanisation of the population and the development of new housing areas has led to a continued expansion of the school building programme. Figures for additional classrooms completed in recent years are shown below. The figures do not include classrooms to replace obsolete accommodation.

YearPrimarySecondary
1963521330
1964501305
1965500266
1966479264
1967528304
1968559295
1969578302
1970603376
1971666451
1972847570

Since 1955 the "block" principle has been used in the planning of schools, giving improved teaching facilities and amenities at a lower cost. Development has continued with the design of new secondary schools in the light of changing needs.

Education boards are able to plan and build primary schools within specified limits or "white lines" defined on the one hand by a building code which lays down minimum requirements for each type of building, and on the other by the upper limit placed by the Government on the amount of money which it is prepared to allocate to any particular project. This provides for considerable flexibility in planning allied with cost control.

Further development has also taken place in the design and provision of relocatable classrooms.

In 1970–71 building expenditure was estimated at $14 million for primary schools and $14.1 million for secondary schools.

Within the limits imposed by Central Government policy and by finance allocated, local education boards, which employ architectural and specialist building staff, are responsible for the planning and building of primary schools. A building code, which was revised in 1970 to provide better facilities and to allow for more flexibility in the layout of primary and intermediate schools, ensures that basic requirements are met throughout New Zealand.

The pause in primary roll expansion, which is expected to last for some 3 or 4 years, is being used to introduce progressively the smaller class programme. This in itself requires well over 1,000 additional classrooms.

The period since the Second World War has been one of remarkable growth in secondary school enrolment. In part this results directly from increases in child population, which is known well before the pupils reach the secondary school level. Not so firmly predictable, however, is the length of stay of pupils at secondary school. The present trend towards longer stay has been unexpectedly accelerated or retarded from year to year according to conditions prevailing at the time. In these circumstances accurate planning schedules, in curriculum and in teaching methods have required additional or modernised accommodation. In urban areas particularly, where it is seldom easy to procure the large block of land (some 20 acres) needed for buildings and recreation, schools have tended to become very large and large schools require specialised accommodation.

Standardisation of plans for secondary schools has been necessary to cope with rapid expansion and to ensure economical construction. Successive plans evolved in the last 20 years have endeavoured to meet the requirements of changing concepts in the nature of secondary education and to accommodate the increasing rolls in compact building units. The department's building planners have regularly consulted representatives of the secondary teaching profession when developing new plans or amending existing ones. The latest plan, known as S68, incorporates improved facilities for senior pupils and is capable of expansion up to a roll of 2,000, if required. Up to the beginning of 1972 this plan had been used for 11 new schools.

Proposals prepared in the Department of Education for building and other capital requirements of technical institutes and teachers' colleges are considered, before submission to the Government, by special works committees representative of the Department of Education, the Ministry of Works and Development and the Treasury. Major capital works have been undertaken in recent years in both these areas. Two new primary teachers colleges (North Shore and Hamilton) were erected and major additions made to the existing permanent colleges following the introduction of 3-year training for primary teachers. A college for the secondary division of the Christchurch Teachers College has been built on a new site adjacent to the University of Canterbury. Senior technical education has also required substantial new buildings or additions to existing buildings, the biggest single project being the Central Institute of Technology.

University Buildings—University buildings in use in 1965 had an area of 2 million sq ft; estimated requirements for 1980 are 8 million sq ft for teaching, library, administration, and student union buildings. Building and other capital requirements of universities are handled through the University Works Committee. This committee prepares for the approval of the Government an annual programme of projected expenditure on university capital works—buildings, land purchase, furniture and equipment, and subsidies on halls of residence. Expenditure in recent March years has been: 1963–64, $3.9 million; 1964–65, $6.2 million; 1965–66, $7.6 million; 1966–67, $11.1 million; 1967–68, $13.8 million; 1968–69, $10 million; 1969–70, $9.9 million; 1970–71, $11.5 million; 1971–72, $14.6 million; 1972–73, $20. 1 million.

During 1973, the Government approved a building programme for the 5 years ending on 31 March 1978 setting out the University Grants Committee's latest assessment of the needs of the universities for capital works. Including the balances still to be spent on jobs under construction the total of the 5-year programme was over $135 million. New works included in the programme were teaching buildings for the growth of the existing universities and for the expansion of medical education.

The Government's policy of offering a subsidy on money raised by the universities and other bodies who wish to build and run halls of residence for university students has been in operation since 1963. By the end of 1971 it had resulted in the building of 15 new halls with 2,190 places and the extension of a number of existing halls to provide a further 292 places. This means that, in the 9 years since the policy had been in operation, 2,482 new places had been added to the 2,000 already in existence at a cost in subsidies of $5.7 million. Although the expanded and new halls have been valuable additions to the universities, it must be borne in mind that, during the same period, the university rolls have increased from 16,999 to 34,089. In 1965 the subsidy rate was set at a maximum of $2,880 a student place.

Technical Institute Buildings—There is a 5-year building programme for technical institutes which is kept under review by the Technical Institutes Works Committee. For the period 1970–75 expenditure is estimated to amount to $46.8 million.

Teachers Colleges—The 5-year building programme for teachers colleges is estimated to cost $30.9 million for the period 1970–75.

SCHOLARS AND STUDENTS—The numbers of scholars and students receiving instruction in educational institutions are shown in the following summary. The table refers to roll numbers at 1 July.

Type of Institution196719711972

*Pupils enrolled in special classes and clinics included in totals: 1967, 8,387; 1971, 9,962; 1972, 12,241.

†Correspondence school enrolments for Diploma in Teaching are no longer included in the table. There were 1,004 such students in 1972.

‡About half are adults attending hobby classes.

Pre-school—
    Play centres11,80217,67419,300
    Kindergartens20,88625,53026,870
 32,68843,20446,170
Primary—
    Primary schools395,614399,084396,653
    Intermediate schools47,14063,62267,506
    Forms I and II at Form I to VII schools1,5003,5093,712
    Chatham Islands schools143160151
    Correspondence school9431,1701,117
    Departmental special schools549631577
    Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind999193
    Private primary schools54,91051,00950,859
 500,898*519,276*520,668*
Secondary Forms III to VII—
    State secondary schools136,431156,671162,981
    District high schools and area schools5,4914,1683,870
    Correspondence school380603726
    Private secondary schools26,23229,26729,804
 168,534190,709197,381
Technical—
    Technical Correspondence Institute12,63915,45616,293
    Other Technical Institutes:
        Full-time students1,2051,9372,944
        Part-time students21,27131,33337,272
    Technical classes at other centres:
    Full-time students139299174
    Part-time students51,62749,74238,254
 86,88198,76794,937
Teacher training
    Teachers colleges5,1567,7918,083
    Kindergarten training centres243363412
    Technical institutes11....
 5,4108,1548,495
University institutions—
    Full-time internal students17,19424,99525,518
    Part-time internal students7,2379,0949,534
    Extra-mural students1,8823,1683,714
    Agricultural short courses493270217
    Medical short courses184836
 26,82437,57539,019
Grand totals821,235897,685906,670
Population age range 3 to 24 years (1 July estimate)1,161,7001,229,5001,239,200

The classification of the table has been revised. Some categories consequently cannot be directly compared with those presented in previous Yearbooks.

TEACHING STAFF—Statistics of full-time teaching staff at all educational institutions are shown in the following table.

Institution19711972
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
*Includes 603 manual training assistants employed at manual training centres.
Kindergartens668668690690
Primary
    State6,63410,90217,5366,69711,14217,839
    Private2421,3851,6272531,4071,660
 6,87612,28719,1636,95012,54919,499
Secondary
    State5,3863,7759,1615,6693,8229,491*
    Private6936281,3217237011,424
 6,0794,40310,4826,3924,52310,915
Technical institutes61379692738103841
New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute2531526825515270
 866949609931181,111
Teachers colleges463126589484130614
Kindergarten training centres2242632326
 465150615487153640
University institutions1,9822292,2112,0452142,259
Grand totals16,26817,83134,09916,86718,24735,114

The growth in school and university student population is illustrated by the diagram below, which is drawn on a logarithmic scale.

OVERSEAS STUDENTS—Overseas students attending New Zealand institutions at 1 July 1970 are shown in the following table.

Country of OriginUniversitiesTechnical InstitutesTeachers CollegesSecondary SchoolsTotalCombined
MFMFMFMFMF
Pacific
    Fiji2875110264613836495459
    Samoa59131129556312686212
    Tonga229341420393372
    Cook Islands1034222725433073
    Niue522119181129
    Tokelau Islands1778715
    Other islands1211513233503585
Totals396771732822207195648297945
Australia67812813762399
South-east Asia
    Malaysia1,034208382385167441,2472801,527
    Singapore10639427511746163
    South Vietnam692012712192
    Thailand43264717116444108
    Hong Kong23469291342
    Other countries245152141648
Totals1,299302613286201701,5694101,980
India Sub-continent4682325481866
Asia (remainder)2141354271138
North America341811225474390
Central and South America71229312
West Indies112134
Africa47111121501363
United Kingdom4515132462066
Europe1083113141225
Totals1,973453854637324403222,5358533,388

Projected Students—A projection of education rolls, made in 1972 by the Department of Education for Public Education in 1972 and based on policies and trends at the time, is set out in the following table.

RollsPre-SchoolTotal PrimaryTotal SecondaryTertiary*
*Equivalent full-time students.
Actual—
    196630,107486,386162,13830,882
    197143,204518,554190,70948,574
Projected—
    197654,200508,100230,50063,200
    198165,200545,100227,30081,600
Average Annual Rates of Increase—percent
    Actual—
        1966 to 19717.51.33.39.5
    Projected—
        1971 to 19764.6-0.43.95.4
        1976 to 19813.81.4-0.35.2

ANNUAL EXAMINATIONS—Examination passes at other than university examinations are set out in the following table.

YearSchool Certificate*Other ExaminationsUniversity Entrance*University Entrance ScholarshipTechnician Certification AuthorityTrades Certification Board

*Includes Certificate of Attainment.

†Includes Teachers' Certificates, Technological, Engineers' and Surveyors' Assistants, Public Service Shorthand Typists Examinations.

‡Provisional.

196215,4521,3286,403318664,976
196317,1441,4767,6844231014,875
196418,3471,6288,3325901515,306
196519,1161,6549,2625441825,694
196619,4901,3719,2339582616,170
196721,7761,5619,7621,0663476,756
196838,9921,86910,9881,0964308,559
196940,8442,74712,6261,18648511,450
197042,5442,65413,2041,35659012,136
197145,0781,04713,7571,52064112,600
197249,93392514,2911,59767613,900

In 1971 there were 1,085 candidates for the University Entrance Scholarships examination and 122 scholarships were awarded; the remaining 963 scholarship candidates and 4,696 others (5,659 in all) were candidates for bursaries and 3,460 bursaries were awarded.

Comparative figures for the number of candidates for the University Entrance Examination and the number of passes by accrediting and by examination are given in the following table.

YearCandidatesPasses
AccreditedBy Examination
196716,6518,3071,455
196818,8039,4871,501
196921,58010,6981,953
197022,60210,8152,390
197123,61511,3722,382
197224,57211,9652,326

SPECIAL EDUCATION—A comprehensive range of education services has been developed for handicapped children whose special needs cannot be met in an ordinary classroom.

Special classes for children who are backward (mildly mentally retarded), physically handicapped, deaf, visually handicapped, or maladjusted are established at ordinary primary schools, and are administered by the education boards. The boards also administer special schools for intellectually handicapped (moderately or severely mentally retarded) or severely physically handicapped children, classes in hospitals, schools in psychiatric hospitals, and speech clinics. Reading clinics have been established in some major centres to complement the help given in ordinary schools to those pupils who find learning to read particularly difficult.

Special classes for backward pupils are also provided in selected secondary schools, and classes for deaf pupils have been established in secondary schools in four cities. Most of these classes are administered by the boards of governors of the secondary schools concerned.

The Department of Education itself administers six residential schools—two for deaf children, two for backward children, and two for maladjusted children. The department also provides the teaching service in Social Welfare Department institutions for socially maladjusted children and the education service in adult penal institutions administered by the Department of Justice. The Department of Education also administers two important special education services—the advisers on deaf children provide guidance for the parents and teachers of deaf children, and the Psychological Service provides a comprehensive diagnostic, advisory, and counselling service for children whose scholastic or social progress is causing concern. Approximately 22,000 children were assisted by the staff of the Psychological or Visiting Teachers Services in 1972. The Psychological Service maintains close links with all other social and educational services for children, with the visiting teachers working with primary schools in city areas, and with an increasing number of guidance counsellors on the staffs of secondary schools.

In 1972, approximately 1,000 teachers were employed in the special education services, which enrolled some 8,000 children in special classes and schools at primary or secondary level and provided part-time tuition in speech and reading clinics for some 4,600 children.

The following table shows the number of pupils receiving special education at public primary schools (including intermediate, correspondence, and special schools) at 1 July 1972.

GroupBoysGirlsTotal
Blind and partially seeing8174155
Deaf and partially hearing419301720
Physically handicapped221154375
Health camp schools161124285
Hospital classes347262609
Speech clinics (part time)3,2131,3684,581
Intellectually handicapped9617411,702
Mentally backward1,5651,0172,582
Educationally retarded442125567
Maladjusted—
    Adjustment classes and special schools17856234
    Social Welfare Department institutions311120431
Totals7,8994,34212,241

The Department of Education co-ordinates the administration and development of the special education services for handicapped children through the district senior inspectors of primary and secondary schools.

PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION—Children below the age of 5 years are not enrolled in the State primary schools. They may be enrolled, however, at free kindergartens controlled by local free kindergarten associations, which are voluntary bodies formed for the purpose, or at play centres controlled by play centre associations. A National Advisory Council on Pre-school Education is being set up and also 10 district pre-school committees.

The Government provides training centres and pays the salaries of kindergarten teachers and full-time training centre staff. Subsidies of $4 to $1 on voluntary contributions raised for new buildings and $2 to $1 for initial equipment for free kindergartens are available from the Government for kindergarten associations. Since 1974 the Government has undertaken to provide sites for play centres. In July 1972 there were 26,870 children enrolled at 340 free kindergartens.

Play centre associations from 1974 have received the same Government assistance as kindergarten associations in the provision of sites and subsidies for buildings. In July 1972 there were 633 recognised play centres for approximately 19,300 children.

PRIMARY EDUCATION—At the age of 5 years a child may enter, and at 6 years must enter, a primary school or, if living in an isolated area, must enrol with the primary department of the Department of Education's Correspondence School. The top 2 years of the primary course, Forms I and II, may be taken at an intermediate or a Form I-VII school. On completing instruction in Form II, after usually 8 years' school attendance, a child normally enters Form III of a secondary school, or alternatively the secondary department of a district high school. All children are required to attend school until they reach the age of 15 years.

The curriculum of the primary and intermediate schools, as set out in the syllabuses of instruction, covers oral and written language (including reading and handwriting), mathematics, social studies, art and crafts, science, physical education (including swimming)., health education, music, and, for some children in Form II, French. At the Forms I and II levels woodwork and metalwork instruction is given to boys, and girls are taught homecraft and sewing.

Teachers have the assistance of specialist teachers in a variety of fields, including science, physical education, art and crafts, reading, mathematics, and music. Itinerant specialists are also available to help teachers in small rural schools and teachers of infant classes. Specialist assistance in helping children with special needs is provided by the psychological service, speech therapists, visiting teachers and advisers on deaf children.

Textbooks are issued free to pupils in all schools, both State and private. A series of basic primer readers and a considerable amount of equipment for primer classes are also provided by the Government.

State Primary Schools—The figures set out in the following table refer to all pupils in State primary schools and intermediate schools and departments, including Chatham Islands schools.

YearSchools (Including Intermediate Schools and Departments)Pupils at End of YearPupils for First Four Weeks of Third Term
Average of Mean Weekly Roll.Average AttendanceAverage Attendance as Percentage of Weekly Roll
19672,273468,021460,982432,03493.7
19682,294478,530465,818433,90693.2
19692,259481,847472,482444,44694.1
19702,257486,438475,213447,64694.2
19712,268487,926477,094448,32394.0
19722,250490,002477,195448,47294.0

The following table relates to pupils on the rolls of the State primary schools, Chatham Islands schools, and Forms I and II at intermediate schools at 1 July in each of the years shown.

Age in Years19701971
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
528,10226,57454,67627,56825,86053,428
629,58128,06857,64928,12526,32554,450
729,75528,45958,21429,19627,67556,871
830,27428,78359,05729,61528,42458,039
929,31528,46157,77630,07028,86458,934
1028,32226,77955,10128,99027,75356,743
1127,57026,26853,83828,48327,41655,899
1224,80522,85247,65727,20025,16652,366
139,9016,75516,65610,7507,51918,269
146744011,0756413941,035
1568571257161132
16 and over103114217109100209
Totals238,470223,571462,041240,818225,557466,375

Size of Classes—The size of classes at State primary schools at 30 September are shown in the following table.

Pupils in Class1969197019711972
Under 314,6865,5235,8486,541
31–353,3573,4293,6704,385
36–404,9455,0714,9184,279
41–451,302997810476
Totals14,29015,02015,24615,681
NOTE—Prior to 1970 special classes were excluded from this table, but from 1970 onwards special classes are included in the official size of class statistics. The table includes intermediate schools and departments and Chatham Islands schools.

Maori Pupils—At 1 July 1972 there were 72,005 Maori children attending State schools and 2,630 attending private schools. Staffing is more liberal in schools with a large proportion of Maori or other Polynesian children, more than 78 percent. A report by the National Advisory Committee on Maori Education was published in 1970.

Intermediate Schools—Pupils on the rolls of the 117 intermediate schools and 2 intermediate departments at the end of 1972, numbered 67,841. Of all children in Forms I and II at State primary schools at 1 July 1972, 60.8 percent were enrolled at the intermediate schools. The ages of pupils on the roll at 1 July of each of the latest 3 years were as follows.

Age, in Years197019711972
BoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
10308440748283381664324441765
119,42410,45219,87610,07311,41721,49010,69111,92221,613
1213,91612,94326,85915,76314,58730,35016,21715,56531,782
135,5333,7259,2586,2164,32810,5446,8485,00511,853
14340192532339206545287182469
1518123016102691221
16 and over112213213
Totals29,54027,76557,30532,69230,93063,62234,37833,12867,506

The average roll at September 1971 was 63,806 and the average attendance for the month was 60,058.

Private Schools—The following table contains the principal statistics of private primary schools.

YearNumber of SchoolsRoll at End of YearAverage Attendance*Teachers
BoysGirlsTotalMalesFemalesTotal
*Average attendance as at September.
196734227,88628,08855,97452,6572341,4271,661
196834427,30627,64654,95251,5602331,4051,638
196934426,70527,04553,75050,8332411,4181,659
197033826,05826,17452,23249,5902521,4041,656
197133126,23826,34952,58749,0862421,3851,627
197233126,45125,92252,37349,3862531,4071,660

The majority of the schools included in the preceding table are Roman Catholic Church schools, of which there were 256 at the end of 1972, with 44,617 pupils and 1,311 teachers (119 males and 1,192 females). The remaining private schools comprised 53 church schools of other denominations, with 263 teachers and 5,738 pupils, and 22 undenominational schools, with 86 teachers and 2,018 pupils.

SECONDARY EDUCATION—The secondary syllabus is based on a common core, consisting of English, social studies, general science, elementary mathematics, music, arts and crafts, and physical education, to be followed by a degree of specialisation within a wide range of subjects that may be taken to the School Certificate stage. All types of secondary schools are required to give all pupils during the first 2 years of their secondary course a minimum number of units of instruction in the common core subjects.

The following table shows the number of secondary schools in existence during each of the latest 6 years.

YearState Secondary SchoolsSecondary Departments of District High SchoolsPrivate Secondary SchoolsTotal
196719471115380
196819670116382
196920466116386
197021061115386
197121957115391
197222355114392

District high schools are State primary schools with a secondary "top" and the basic course is academic, as in the normal secondary school. Where staffing and equipment allow, special courses are provided in agriculture, commercial practice, and domestic science. In 1972, 25 of the State secondary schools enrolled only boys and 25 schools only girls, with 173 schools co-educational. Most of the private schools are single-sex schools. There were 74 State secondary schools with over 1,000 pupils. Only one secondary department of a district high school had a roll of over 200.

The inspection of secondary schools is carried out by inspectors of secondary schools attached to the Department of Education. In 1972 there were 54 inspectors.

The numbers of each sex attending schools providing secondary education at the end of 1972 were: State secondary schools, 81,735 boys and 75,284 girls; secondary departments of district high schools, 1,742 and 1,817; private secondary schools, 14,462 and 14,710; and full-time pupils of Correspondence School, 286 and 397.

During 1973 approval was given for the development of an improved guidance network in secondary schools and for the appointment of a further 40 guidance teachers.

Maori pupils—At 1 July 1972, 19,584 Maori pupils were receiving secondary education. This number comprised 17,530 pupils attending State secondary schools and 2,054 pupils attending private secondary schools.

Secondary School Hostels—In 1972 there were 37 State secondary school hostels. A programme for 5-day hostels at certain rural secondary schools is being developed to strengthen rural secondary education.

Attainment Levels of State and Private Secondary Schools—The following table gives particulars of pupils who left schools providing secondary education, classified according to years of attendance and attainments.

Year of Attendance19711972Attainments19711972
First1,2591,289University scholarship118137
Second7,3227,155University bursary3,2313,388
Third16,35316,932Higher School Certificate2,8472,897
Fourth16,06616,587University Entrance6,6877,201
Fifth9,88210,476Sixth Form Certificate5,3665,715
Sixth and over565486School Certificate (three or more subjects)5,9736,154
   School Certificate (one or two subjects)7,1137,095
   Other20,11220,338
Totals51,44752,925Totals51,44752,925

Probable Destination of State and Private Secondary Pupils—An indication of the vocations intended to be followed by pupils leaving secondary schools is contained in the next table.

Probable DestinationBoysGirlsTotalBoysGirlsTotal
 19711972
Full-time education at university4,0661,9736,0393,8731,9865,859
Further full-time education—
    Teachers college4871,6262,1133801,4351,815
    Kindergarten T.C.208208244244
    Technical training5654259907295101,239
    Commercial training1011,3051,4061441,3231,467
    Art54801345480134
Technical traineeships—
    Draughting cadets2856234723955294
    Technical trainees8913281,2198132581,071
Health services823,1453,2271073,1013,208
Office-
    Government6611,1961,8576681,1631,831
    Local authority10934745681349430
    Private enterprise1,5805,3456,9251,4294,9806,409
Shop and warehouse assistant1,3722,5943,9661,4212,6824,103
Skilled trades-
    Government81660876727113840
    Local authority1471916618239221
    Private enterprise5,4747036,1776,0327856,817
Farming2,7781982,9763,0342543,288
Factory and clothing workers1,0291,4112,4401,2311,5092,740
Domestic work and home1791,3321,5111241,4771,601
Armed forces5156257761473687
Other5,0852,7527,8375,8482,7798,627
Totals26,27625,17151,44727,73025,19552,925

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT—The Curriculum Development Unit was established in 1963 following a recommendation by the Currie Commission on Education. The principal functions of the Unit are the preparation and revision of school syllabuses from the infant department to the seventh forms, the provision of guides, handbooks and resource materials for teachers, the initiation of pilot schemes to test new courses and methods and communication to teachers of new or revised materials and methods. The staff of the Unit has increased rapidly in recent years to its level at June 1974 of 26 professional officers with responsibility for development in areas including science, mathematics, English, social studies, foreign languages, music, audio-visual media and examinations and testing.

RURAL EDUCATION: Consolidation of Schools—In order to give children in country districts the advantage of special equipment and more specialised teaching in larger schools, the consolidation of the smaller rural schools has been a feature of the last 20 years.

The first Form I-VII school was opened in 1962 and by 1972 there were 25 of these schools. This type of school usually developed from the translation of the secondary department of a district high school with the addition of Form I and II pupils from neighbouring primary schools. They receive improved staffing, accommodation, and equipment in the endeavour to promote equality of educational opportunity for country children.

The problem of full intermediate-type education has remained, however, for a large proportion of Form I and II children in smaller country districts. To provide for these children, another type of school—the area school—has been introduced. The first of this new type of school was opened in 1969 and was followed by a second in 1970. Area schools may be established in districts where there are no district high schools, or in other centres where there is a district high school which is too small to be replaced by a Form I-VII school. The area school is a unified school providing education from primers to Form V for all children in the immediate vicinity and from Form I-V from contributing schools in a wider area.

Transport and Boarding Allowance—In recent years school transport facilities have been steadily developed until now 16 percent of the total school population receive assistance in one form or another. Most of these pupils are conveyed by buses under contract to education boards or operated by the Department of Education.

The trend towards consolidating small country schools and improving educational facilities in larger rural centres has been paralleled by the continuing movement of families into provincial towns and cities. These factors are resulting in only a relatively small increase in transport services.

Pupils carried by the school transport services rose from almost 107,000 (including rail transport) in 1971 to just over 112,000 in 1972, while the number of separate transport services increased from 2,300 to 2,400. These services covered a total of over 22,000,000 miles for the year, at a cost of more than $9 million.

School boarding bursaries were increased in 1972 from $200 to $300 a year. The number of pupils receiving boarding bursaries is declining and stood at 3,827 in 1972. The decline in the number of pupils seeking boarding bursaries is significant and may be a reflection of the Government's measures for improving educational facilities in rural areas.

The next table gives particulars of the number of children transported to school and the number in receipt of boarding allowances as at 1 July 1972, according to the type of school attended.

Type of SchoolPupils on RollPupils Transported to SchoolPupils Receiving Boarding Allowance
State primary schools464,15965,015111
State secondary schools (including district high schools)170,56343,0762,140
Private primary schools50,8591,87276
Private secondary schools29,8042,2861,500
Totals715,385112,2493,827

Correspondence School—Correspondence classes are conducted for the education of children in very remote areas and for those unable to attend school because of lengthy illness or other causes. A corporate school spirit is developed through the school badge and uniform, daily radio lessons, club activities, the publication of a school magazine, periodical exhibitions of work, and by parents' and ex-pupils' associations. The personal link between the pupil and the school is strengthened by a number of teachers visiting pupils in their homes. At a district level, school day and school week gatherings are held in order to enable pupils to gain the opportunity of social education by working in the classroom.

Young persons in employment, including uncertificated teachers of small State primary schools, inmates of Department of Justice institutions, pupils of secondary schools who require examination subjects which their own schools cannot provide, officers of Government departments, and others who are unable to attend classes at secondary schools, also receive tuition as part-time students of the Correspondence School, In addition, the school enrolls teachers for the Diploma in Teaching courses.

In 1972 there were 7,355 pupils on the roll of the Correspondence School, 1,117 being in the primary division, 726 full-time and 4,192 part-time students in the secondary division, and 1,194 students taking the Diploma in Teaching course, and 316 students studying for Trained Teachers' Certificates. The staff of the school consists of the principal, deputy principal, 160 teachers, 26 tutors, and 44 clerical personnel.

Agricultural Clubs—More particularly in rural schools, practical interest in agriculture has been stimulated by the widespread formation of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. The pupils undertake projects in livestock rearing and crop growing which are judged annually on the club field day, usually held at the school or local centre.

The agricultural instructors and advisers on school science employed by the education boards play an important part in the formation of the clubs, and by giving technical advice do much to assure the successful completion of the various projects. The clubs receive active support from parents, teachers, and the farmers' organisations.

HEALTH SERVICES—Information on the medical and dental inspection of school children and the dental-clinic system is given in Section 5A (Public Health) of this Yearbook.

TRAINING OF TEACHERS—In 1972 there were nine teachers colleges (North Shore, Auckland Secondary, Ardmore, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin), with staffs totalling 614 (484 males and 130 females). At 1 July 1972 there were 10,689 students in training. This number includes 1,784 holders of secondary teacher studentships (Division U) and 266 holders of primary teachers studentships (Division S) who were attached to teachers colleges while attending universities as full-time students as part of their training for teaching, and 721 Division C students undertook training for secondary teaching. From 1964, Endorsed School Certificate (now Sixth Form Certificate) has been the minimum academic qualification for admission to Division A. Division C students are university graduates or near graduates at the time of admission.

The following table shows the number of students in these two groups at 1 July.

YearDivision ADivision CTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
19659513,0431802094,383
19669643,2271582044,553
19679323,2961832084,619
19681,1473,7672063345,454
19691,3244,2282323116,095
19701,3624,8172623026,743
19711,3284,9192283466,821
19721,4414,9973253967,159

The normal course of training for Division A students is a period of 3 years at a teachers college, followed by a further period of 1 year as a probationary assistant attached to a State primary school. The primary teachers' studentship scheme which was introduced in 1965 enables a number of selected students to attend university full time as part of the primary teacher training course. Specialist studentships are available to selected students who wish to become speech therapists or teachers of deaf children.

For students of Division C the course is for 1 year. These students are university graduates or near graduates who train for service in secondary schools. To enable students to qualify to teach home economics subjects, bursaries providing training at a teachers college and at a technical high school were instituted in 1943. There were 274 home economics students in the Auckland and Christchurch Teachers Colleges in 1972. Training is also provided for manual training instructors.

A concurrent secondary teacher training course (Division B) was introduced in 1966. The course provides for 3 years of concurrent training at a university or a technical institute and at a teachers college, and is available at Auckland Secondary Teachers College and at Christchurch Teachers College.

To be eligible for a secondary teacher studentship an applicant must have reached the age of 16 years on 31 December of the year of application, and must at the time of application have qualified for entrance to the university, or hold some equivalent or higher qualification approved by the Director-General of Education. Students are attached to the teachers college in the appropriate university centre, and a principal lecturer, appointed to each teachers college, supervises the work of the students and guides them during their university courses. Each student, on accepting the award, signs a bond that he will satisfy the stated conditions.

In 1972, 733 secondary teacher studentships were taken up and there were then 1,808 secondary teachers in training.

The ages and classification of students at teachers colleges 1 July 1970 are shown in the following table.

CourseUnder 17 Years17 Years18 Years19 Years20 Years21–24 Years25 Years and OverTotal
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMFCombined
*Students 21 years and over.
Division A—
    First year50579472056551191024430443326784951,8952,390
    Second year643578031615331041081285325604811,6002,081
    Third year1313959113541314810933473561,1911,547
    Specialist23181031761396372
    One-year course21254912216889
Totals50639922631,4923191,244283563335266992101,3624,8176,179
Division B—
    First year6241734191111151216072132
    Second year1513121625194115668970159
    Third year31141869391348675161
Totals625225031384038115552111235217452
Division C25252262613114262302564
Other Courses3721256418313365639353392
    Total—
        First year53631,04322274513814260712933711101468862,5713,457
        Second year648628881736041291421697631945701,8522,422
        Third year1343960213943121714846514421,2661,708
    Totals—
            197053691,0912851,6673501,3483286446795951872911,8985,6897,587
            1969556731,0572891,5823801,135266442818*809*1,8315,0816,912
            1968450781,0203091,533315884223338646*696*....1,5754,5216,096
            196734699672481,485276698187196488*508*....1,2683,8885,156
            196632699862771,495304694162189434*380*....1,2463,7765,022
            1965143809682631,479265538147178470*358*....1,2263,5644,790

NOTE—In addition, the following students were enrolled at teachers colleges in 1970:

 MenWomenTotal
Division "U" students (secondary teacher studentships)8578231,680
Division "S" students (primary teacher studentships)75185260

A further 17 students held secondary teachers bursaries.

Classified and included in the above table are three men and four women fee-paying students.

FREE TEXTBOOKS IN SCHOOLS—Free textbooks are supplied to all primary and secondary pupils in both State and private schools. Under the free textbooks scheme, the books remain the property of the school controlling authorities and are issued on loan to pupils. The school authorities have a wide discretion in their choice of suitable books.

SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE—This service, which is financed by the Department of Education and administered by the National Library of New Zealand, aims at giving children access to the best literature. Regular exchanges of children's and young people's books are sent on a circulating basis to approximately 2,880 schools. The schools served are primary, both public and private, intermediate, and district high schools. Pupils of the Correspondence School also receive books regularly.

All schools, including secondary schools, receive additional books on request. Some 1,186,910 requests were filled during the year 31 March 1972.

AUDIO-VISUAL TEACHING AIDS—A varied series of programmes linked with the curriculum are broadcast each school day from all main national radio stations. Special lessons are also broadcast each day for Correspondence School pupils.

Audio-Visual Aids—The National Film Library, a branch of the Department of Education, lends films and gramophone records free of charge to schools. It also lends films free-of-charge to other organisations having some educational purpose. Films are also supplied to the education services in Western Samoa, and in the Tokelau, Niue, Pitcairn, Cook, and Chatham Islands. A branch of the library situated in Auckland supplies films to schools and organisations in the upper half of the North Island and another in Christchurch serves the South Island except Nelson and Marlborough. The rest of New Zealand is serviced from Wellington.

The library contains more than 32,000 films with over 8,000 titles. Up to 7,500 reels of film are issued each week, and of these 80 percent go to schools or colleges. Approximately 2,700 schools and 2,800 other organisations having some educational purposes benefit from this service.

A number of filmstrips are produced each year by the Visual Production Unit. These and selected productions from overseas are available to schools on free loan from filmstrip libraries in the offices of education boards. They can also be purchased by schools for a nominal sum from the Department of Education. More than 1,500 titles are available to primary and secondary schools. Up to 36,000 issues of filmstrips are made each year. Nearly all schools are equipped with filmstrip projectors.

A tape-copying service is also provided by the National Film Library for schools, teachers colleges, and universities. Tapes submitted are transcribed from master tapes held by the National Film Library. The catalogue includes more than 200 master tapes.

A gramophone record library of 2,854 titles and 6,280 records is available for use by schools and teachers colleges. Issues exceed 12,600 records a year.

Museums—To assist schools to make the fullest use of the museums, an education officer is attached jointly to the museum and the teachers training college in each of the four main centres. Cases of exhibits are circulated amongst schools where pupils are unable to make regular visits to a museum.

School Publications—The School Journal, an illustrated paper, is published in four separate parts suitable for pupils in the various standard classes. Parts 1 and 2 are published six times in the year while Parts 3 and 4 for the senior classes appear four times a year. Bulletins dealing with topics of New Zealand history, geography, and nature study, and family life in other countries, are published every year. These and other publications are prepared in the School Publications Branch of the Department of Education and issued free to all primary and intermediate schools, both State and private.

A wide range of syllabuses, textbooks, and handbooks is published for secondary and primary schools.

New mathematics textbooks have been issued to all primary pupils in standard one and above.

Secondary school bulletins are published five times a year and issued free to all State and private secondary schools. They provide background reading for subjects of the revised curriculum, particularly in social studies, science, and literature. Te Wharekura, a bulletin in the Maori language, is published three times a year and issued free to secondary pupils studying Maori language.

The Education Gazette is published by the department twice a month. It is a medium for the dissemination of official information and for the advertisement of vacancies. Copies are distributed to educational authorities and to State and private schools.

Education, a magazine for teachers, is published 10 times a year.

A number of publications are published for the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation to accompany the broadcasts to schools.

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE—There are vocational guidance centres at Auckland, Papatoetoe, Hamilton, Napier, Wellington, Lower Hutt, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Vocational guidance officers see young people, and often their parents, at the centres, as well as visiting the secondary schools throughout the country. In the secondary schools, careers advisers are appointed from among the teachers. They spend part of their time on careers work, in close contact with the vocational guidance officers who keep them informed, by means of careers leaflets and bulletins, with up-to-date particulars about qualifications, entry, and training for some 700 occupations.

Interviews are given to young people at the centres and further interviews are undertaken by vocational guidance officers in schools. Various 1-week courses are conducted, mostly for pupils, by all centres. These include careers courses (visits to and discussions on places of employment), "Living in the City" or citizenship courses for rural pupils, and two residential courses for newly-appointed careers advisers. Short seminars for careers advisers are currently conducted in Auckland and are to be extended to other districts.

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION—The system of university education in New Zealand has evolved in recent years from a federal university with constituent colleges to a system of separate universities and a university college of agriculture. These are the University of Auckland, the University of Waikato (at Hamilton), Massey University (at Palmerston North), the Victoria University of Wellington, the University of Canterbury (at Christchurch), and the University of Otago (at Dunedin), with Lincoln College a constituent agricultural college of the University of Canterbury.

At the centre there is the University Grants Committee which functions under the Universities Act 1961. The primary function of the University Grants Committee is to advise the Government of the needs of New Zealand for university education and research. It determines the allocation of grants of money which it recommends for appropriation by Parliament to meet these needs, and reviews the expenditure by the universities of money appropriated by Parliament. The University Grants Committee is also responsible for the award of scholarships, and through its statutory subcommittee, the Research Committee, for the distribution of a Government grant for research. Another statutory subcommittee of the University Grants Committee, the Curriculum Committee, has responsibility in respect of the development of courses for degrees and diplomas. In the performance of its duties it is required to have regard to the comparative equivalence of courses.

The Universities Entrance Board was established on 1 January 1962 to maintain a common educational standard for admission to the universities. The board prescribes the conditions of examinations for University Entrance, Entrance Scholarships, the University Bursaries Examination, and Fine Arts Preliminary.

The special problems of legal education are the province of the Council of Legal Education which prescribes the examination requirements of candidates as barristers and solicitors of the court.

The characteristics of university systems vary from country to country. They show marked differences in levels and sources of finance, public or private; in the constitution of the student population and the means adopted to support it; and in the relationships of the universities to other forms of tertiary education. The characteristics of the New Zealand university system are distinguishable from those of other national systems and may be partly explained as reflecting the New Zealand point of view. Thus, in our welfare state, there has arisen a public expectation that most of the finance required for the capital and running needs of the universities, and for a contribution towards the support of students by bursaries, will come from the public purse.

The test which applies for entrance to university is not financial but achievement at secondary school. In a country where equality of opportunity for self-improvement still counts for much, the right to a university education is conferred by qualifying for University Entrance. It is true that the relatively open system of admission entails some uncertainties about student numbers and planning university facilities for them. It also leads to higher failure rates arising from the mixed quality of the first-year intake; but this situation is improving in some respects without depriving the universities of their characteristics of open entry. Seventh form work is now taken by the majority of entrants to the universities, and the fees charged and bursaries paid are now more closely geared to successful study after entry. It is likely, too, that the strengthening and diversifying of courses offered in the technical institutes will enable them to cater better for some students and improve the efficiency of tertiary education as a whole. In the meantime, however, relatively ready access to university education associated with flexible degree structures meets the national needs well and at a cost which is modest by overseas standards.

Apart from the income from students' fees and the relatively small amounts now available to some of the universities from endowments, the block grants from the Government determine the income of the universities to meet their running costs for each 5 years. Under the block grant system that has been in operation since 1950, grants have been calculated and approved 5 years in advance to enable the universities to plan their activities ahead in the knowledge of what their income from the Government will be. They are block grants in the sense that they are not itemised and their detailed calculation is not disclosed to the universities. This has the effect of making the governing bodies—the university councils—not only responsible for arranging their budgets within their incomes, but also free to make their own decisions about the allocation of new expenditure among the many competing academic proposals which arise within the institutions. With these grants the university councils have an obligation to cater for substantially increased student numbers by expanding existing classes and, subject to the scrutiny of the Curriculum Committee, to offer such new courses as they see to be warranted by the demands put on them by the students and by the New Zealand community in which they exist.

The universities regard as their primary function the pursuit and dissemination of knowledge through study, teaching, and research. They have always endeavoured to perform this function with due regard to the specific needs of New Zealand, through their professional schools and through the general disciplines.

The universities in Auckland, Wellington, Canterbury, and Otago, besides offering courses in the faculties of arts, science, commerce, law, and music, specialise in certain fields. The University of Otago provides courses in medicine and dentistry, mineral technology, home science, and physical education; the University of Canterbury provides courses in. engineering (mechanical, electrical, civil, agricultural, and chemical) and fine arts; the University of Auckland provides courses in architecture, fine arts, engineering (mechanical, chemical and materials, electrical, engineering science, and civil), and medicine; and the Victoria University of Wellington provides courses in public administration and social science Massey University provides courses in agriculture, horticulture, food technology, and veterinary science, as well as courses in arts and science, and also provides extra-mural tuition in a number of subjects to students throughout New Zealand. The University of Waikato offers courses in the schools of humanities, social sciences, and science and, in association with the Hamilton Teachers College, offers courses in its School of Education leading to a Diploma in Education and the degree of Bachelor of Education.

Free University Education: Scholarships—The most important awards for those entering university are the University Junior Scholarships. These scholarships are tenable for 3 to 6 years, depending upon the minimum time in which the holder, studying full time, could complete the recognised course taken under the scholarship. The University Junior Scholarship provides a scholarship allowance of $220 a year and is tenable with a fees and allowances bursary (see Bursaries below). These scholarships, together with privately endowed scholarships, are awarded on the results of the Entrance Scholarships Examination conducted by the Universities Entrance Board.

Scholarships awarded during degree courses include Senior Scholarships awarded by the individual universities and Lincoln College (and of a value to be determined by them). The various university institutions also have private scholarships for which their own students may compete. The scholarships awarded at the end of the university course, which are listed in full in the university calendars, include the Rhodes Scholarships, the 1851 Exhibition Scholarships, post-graduate scholarships, -and post-doctoral fellowships, the Macmillan Brown Agricultural Scholarships, the Shirtcliff Scholarships, the Gordon Watson Scholarship, the Shell Post-graduate Scholarship, the Michael Hiatt Baker Scholarship, the Rutherford Scholarships, and the National Research Scholarships. Most of the post-graduate scholarships and post-doctoral fellowships are tenable in New Zealand. The other awards are in general tenable overseas.

University Bursaries—The system of bursaries for students entering upon a university course is set out in the University Bursaries Regulations 1971.

Fees Bursaries are awarded to students following part-time or full-time courses who have qualified for entrance to the university either by examination or accrediting, been admitted ed eundum statum, or who, having been granted provisional admission, pass two units in any 1 year. These bursaries provide for payment of tuition fees during their term.

Fees and Allowances Bursaries are awarded to students who hold the Higher School Certificate and are tenable for any recognised course at a university provided that the bursar undertakes a full-time course of study in each year of the bursary. Also, a student who in any year is credited with passes in the subjects or units comprising a full-time course will qualify for a fees and allowances bursary.

A fees and allowances bursary entitles the holder to payment of tuition fees plus allowances of $180 in the first year of the bursary, and (subject to the attainment of a defined standard in his university work) $225 in the second year, $270 in the third year. $315 in the fourth year, $360 in the fifth year; and $405 in the sixth and later years.

Bursaries may be extended to assist students undertaking a second course of study, and further extended for study at the master's level.

The holder of a fees and allowances bursary who is obliged to live away from his home or his usual place of residence in order to attend a university affording tuition in the subjects appropriate to his course and year may also qualify for a boarding allowance of $350 a year.

Supplementary Allowances of $150 a year and $100 a year are awarded to students who gain the required grades in the university bursaries examination and who are holding a fees and allowances bursary. A supplementary allowance may also be awarded to a student who gains the requisite grade of pass in the subjects or units of a full-time university course.

All these bursaries are subject to strict rules as to suspension and cancellation. A student who in any year does not pass in a prescribed number of units or subjects will have his bursary suspended and it will not be reinstated unless in the next year of study he is credited with a prescribed number of passes. Only one such suspension is allowed and subsequent failure results in the termination of the bursary.

Further details of the amounts payable and other qualifying conditions for the various classes of bursaries are available from vocational guidance centres and from the Head Office of the Department of Education, Wellington.

Students—In 1972 there were 35,052 students actually in attendance at the seven universities; 3,616 were graduates, 31,436 undergraduates (1,223 were enrolled in more than one course). In addition, there were 3,714 students attached to the various universities, but exempt from lectures, and 253 students who were taking short courses. Comparable figures for the latest 5 years are given in the following table. Students now exceed 1 percent of the population.

YearStudents Attending LecturesExempt StudentsTotal
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
196717,5716,8601,21966326,313
196819,1707,6241,27275528,821
196920,7328,4771,38590031,494
197022,3109,5981,4721,06634,446
197123,23410,8551,7551,41337,257
197223,47711,5752,0791,63538,766

The following table gives particulars of internal students who were taking definite courses at universities, including agricultural college, during the latest 3 years. Additional information is published in Education Statistics of New Zealand available from the Department of Education, Wellington.

Course196919701971
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture1,712831,7951,692941,7861,7131101,823
Architecture489145034882451248941530
Arts and music5,0805,51410,5945,4885,97611,4645,5666,59612,162
Commerce2,8961903,0863,2002533,4533,2563103,566
Divinity225271842220424
Education2433495924107841,1944728641,336
Engineering2,213192,2322,387202,4072,308222,330
Fine Arts133134267128134262132144276
Food Technology117201371142914318236218
Home Science236236230230246246
Law1,9071812,0881,9932132,2061,9102632,173
Medicine and Dentistry1,0412121,2531,0282151,2431,0652421,307
Physical Education791201998712020786127213
Science4,2431,0735,3164,6931,2825,9755,1971,4576,654
Surveying6565109109121121
Veterinary Science270313013073334028654340
Others5823889707393951,1341,1325861,718
Totals21,0928,56929,66122,8819,80632,68723,93511,10235,037
Adjustment for students enrolled in more than one course36092452571208779701247948
Totals20,7328,47729,20922,3109,59831,90823,23410,85534,089

Students on the books of the university institutions in 1971 are shown in the following table.

AucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Universities
MFMFMFMFMFMFMFMF
Internal students—
    Full-time5,2241,9465742531,7324692,8831,2493,7601,268964643,0751,53418,2126,783
    Part-time1,5781,1172813983154841,2947569638255455374875,0224,072
    All internal students6,8023,0638556512,0479534,1772,0054,7232,0931,018693,6122,02123,23410,855
External students—
    Taking courses at Massey University7061571,2199865968393048481,4401,200
    Taking courses at own university372614118105261213366315213
All external students107876111,21998617717365421811141,7551,413
All Students6,9093,1508616623,2661,9394,3542,1784,7882,1351,018693,7932,13524,98912,268
    Overseas students included in total50175471616139343118544967373271301,996481

Selected arts, science, and commerce subjects specified by stages taken by internal students in 1970 are shown in the following table.

SubjectStage IStage IIStage IIIAt Post-graduate level
MFMFMFMF
English1,3371,3953616811883547892
Chemistry2,2955004001222554625329
Physics2,118313218149941649
Pure mathematics2,1754086781703096213722
Education6951,31619935711712614147
Economics1,7513175455619922708
History93080834531718313410057
Accounting1,2431104903240917343
Geography5843852331691391089514
French23948087212371102226
Applied mathematics1,11513993101151932
Psychology738657175141301418933
Political science5422851978578276111
Zoology6083042351171066013532
Philosophy609315102523517208
Anthropology185252511032430109
Sociology36436310210738525027
Geology50884151161086788
German18256331122556722
Botany1901041325956256616
Latin4251142741545
Russian355414201113101
Greek2633111121
Italian155671641267
Chinese153875151
Spanish162121712
Maori studies29157845
Japanese2337151238
NOTE—Students taking any of the subjects at stage I in an intermediate course are included. Excluded are all music special subjects and units, preliminary and reading knowledge subjects in languages, and such other subjects including some advanced specialist subjects, that are not organised by comparable stages I to III, and post-graduate. The subjects tabulated do not cover all arts, science, and commerce subjects taken by internal students. Students taking courses at the University of Waikato are excluded from this table as study at this university is not unit structured.

Internal students by years of university study in 1970 are shown in the following table.

Year of University StudyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Internal StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered*
MFMFMFMF
*Includes 112 external students.
First year4,9481,9578131,4285,7613,385621158
Second year4,0001,6446097224,6092,366465117
Third year3,0681,2475253983,5931,64530468
Fourth year2,3016805583742,8591,05421751
Fifth year1,4082676482752,05654214632
Sixth year or later1,5782251,854 '3813,43260622027
Totals17,3036,0205,0073,57822,3109,5981,973453

The ages of internal students at universities in 1970 are shown in the following table.

Age in Years at 1 JulyFull-time StudentsPart-time StudentsAll Students
MFMFMF
Under 1840039689489489885
182,6651,4962396792,9042,175
193,1871,4123294343,5161,846
203,1671,1633253053,4921,468
212,5176304213012,938931
221,9122895252332,437522
231,2091704701581,679328
24635953661041,001199
25–291,1151811,0563072,171488
30–3427178510185781263
35–398841295137383178
40 and over13166382245513311
Not stated63164
Totals17,3036,0205,0073,57822,3109,598

Holders of bursaries in 1971 by year of bursary, are shown in the following table.

Year of BursaryFees BursariesFees and Allowances BursariesMasters Bursaries
Full-time StudentsPart-time StudentsBursariesBursaries and Boarding AllowancesBursariesBursaries and Boarding Allowances
TotalFTotalFTotalFTotalFTotalFTotalF
First1,8815693982232,3207062,475796518159505149
Second614162120661,8616182,3107791813114530
Third1614452281,5355282,0996531
Fourth435411050764907105
Fifth4972641531131631
Sixth and over61913417119
Totals2,7547886463316,3891,9318,2782,383700190650179

The nature of residence of full-time students at universities in 1971 is shown in the following table.

Nature of ResidenceAucklandWaikatoMasseyVictoriaCanterburyLincolnOtagoAll Full-time StudentsOf These, Overseas Students Numbered
MFTotalMF
Living at home3,9812793102,0642,1471559017,0042,8339,8374317
In halls of residence6742598193874454561,2722,9541,3584,312393186
Boarding637106209372806702221,9774452,42234686
Sharing flat or house with other students1,7291717711,1291,4853471,7205,4761,8767,352980132
Other, and not known14912921801454948012711,0728115
Totals7,1708272,2014,1325,0281,0284,60918,2126,78324,9951,843436

Occupations of part-time university students in 1971 are shown in the following table.

OccupationMalesFemalesTotal
No occupation other than study402206608
On university staff515243758
Teacher7404211,161
Teachers college student7751,9312,706
Government employee7533431,096
Local body employee14067207
In private employment1,4473111,758
Self-employed person9826124
Housewife..426426
Full-time student at technical institute4610
Other occupation14892240
Totals5,0224,0729,094

Totals of assisted overseas students at New Zealand universities in 1971 by the nature of the assistance are shown in the following table.

Nature of AssistanceMalesFemalesTotal
Assisted by the New Zealand Government—
    Colombo Plan26868336
    Island Territories Scholarships492170
    Commonwealth Scholarships21627
    Aid to Africa Scholarships14317
 35298450
Other assistance from—   
Fijian Government54660
Tongan Government7411
Other governments (Malaysia, Hong Kong, Mauritius, Victoria)20323
WHO, UNESCO, CORSO, FAO11112
Fullbright Awards11
MARA Scholarships28634
Other50858
 17029199
All assisted overseas students522127649

Examination Performance—The examination performance of undergraduates in 1970 and 1971 is shown in the following table.

Examination Performance19701971
Full-timePart-timeFull-timePart-time
*Or equivalent
 percentpercent
Completed university degree or diploma18.37.617.68.3
Passed three degree units*48.01.448.919.3
Passed two degree units*12.917.614.0
Passed one degree unit*9.941.59.444.5
Passed none or half degree units*10.931.910.127.9
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

Three-quarters of the undergraduates are full-time. In 1970 there were 19,976 full-time and 6,910 part-time undergraduates. In 1971 there were 23,080 full-time and 7,754 part-time undergraduates.

It is relevant to the interpretation of these figures to note the following points:

  1. The student who passed all the work of a full-time course progressed at the rate required to gain a degree or diploma in the minimum time, for example, 3 years for the ordinary B.A., or B.Sc. degree.

  2. Although the students who passed two units or the equivalent were not fully successful, they nevertheless achieved a degree of success recognised as sufficient to justify the continuation of a bursary or its reinstatement after suspension.

  3. The figures are for all students who were enrolled on 1 April not only those who actually sat the final examinations. Those who drop out, and are therefore included in the group with no passes to their credit, are no doubt usually students with poor records, but this is not always so. Severe illness, for example, may interrupt the studies of the ablest of students.

Graduates—The numbers of degree graduates from New Zealand universities in 1970 and 1971 are shown in the following table.

CourseFirst DegreePost GraduatePost-Graduate Honours
197019711970197119701971
Agriculture62
Agricultural Engineering34
Agricultural Science9485551632
Architecture443932
Arts1,3591,49810279320331
Commerce3543599123135
Dental Surgery5347126
Divinity1310
Education182421
Engineering (Chemical)32361328911
Engineering (Civil)134134
Engineering (Electrical)82109
Engineering (Mechanical)5075
Engineering (Science)39
Fine Arts13
Home Science14921
Horticultural Science11131123
Law261287331213
Medical Science1111
Medicine and Surgery1101173
Music.162653
Pharmacy2017112
Philosophy110
Science7329223854149129
Social Science34
Technology19143
Veterinary Science24381
Totals3,4513,922195198555573

In addition, in 1970 doctorates were completed in science (8), medicine (5), philosophy (79), dental surgery (1), and literature (1), while in 1971 there were science (2), medicine (7), dental surgery (2), literature (1), law (2), philosophy (108).

Of those graduating with first degrees in 1971, 55.5 percent completed their qualifications in the minimum time, 23.5 percent in the minimum time plus 1 year, 10.5 percent in the minimum time plus 2 years, and 10.5 percent took over 2 years beyond the minimum time.

Time Taken to Complete First Degrees—The following table shows the time taken to complete first degrees for the year ending with the graduation ceremonies in. 1971.

DegreeMinimum TimeMinimum Time + One YearMinimum Time + Two YearsMinimum Time + Over Two YearsAll Students
TotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomenTotalWomen
Bachelor Honours
    Law3412248
    Science130242542115729
    Engineering14121321562
    Other361551..14216
Totals34141555413..40347
Bachelor
    Arts69142135319917686248841,468790
    Commerce15298136925735914
    Law145136461711323920
    Science427118206468112515765181
    Engineering130452016211 
    Medicine and Surgery108938321817512
    Agricultural science554311041004
    Other12751471414714220274
Totals1,835625865271408108411913,519,095

Staff—The staffing of university institutions in 1971 is shown in the following table.

PositionFull-time StaffPart-time Staff
MFTotalMFTotal
Teaching posts—
    Full professor335834366
    Senior lecturer, associate professor, reader, lecturer-in-charge8106387342244
    Lecturer7019479524037277
    Junior lecturer, assistant lecturer20859267751590
    Instructor, demonstrator, engaged in teaching45550583142725
Totals, established teaching posts2,0992292,3289461961,142
Other staff—
    Technician, research assistant, and other technical staff not engaged in teaching621229850172643
    Library staff61253314183250
    Administrative staff, clerical, and office staff24572096547175
    Groundsman, tradesman, cleaner, etc.43073503101125226
Totals, non-teaching staff1,3571,2752,632140254394

Of the full-time positions, there were 108 positions filled temporarily and 117 not filled, and of the part-time positions 32 were filled temporarily and 15 not filled.

TECHNICAL EDUCATION—In 1945, technical education was a variant form of secondary education. It was provided by separate technical high schools and technical departments in other secondary schools, and was avowedly vocational in purpose. During the past 10 to 15 years, technical education has been transferred from the secondary to the tertiary sector of the educational system. Technical high schools, as such, no longer exist. Vocational education and training is now provided by 11 technical institutes, supported by the technical departments of 43 high schools throughout the country.

This transformation is the result of a number of policy decisions which have had the effect of creating a demand for types of education and training that belonged not to the secondary but to the post-secondary school phase of a person's career. The Apprenticeship Act 1948, for example, made it compulsory for apprentices to undertake technical classes. At first, this requirement was met through attendance at evening classes, later by day-release classes and, increasingly in recent years, by block courses for which the apprentice is released by his employer to attend a technical institute as a full-time student (usually for 3 weeks). The establishment, in 1949, of the Trades Certification Board and of national trades examinations, gave point and direction to apprentice studies.

To provide a teaching service for students for whom technical education was not readily available, the Department of Education established the Technical Correspondence School (now the Technical Correspondence Institute) in 1946 and from small beginnings, with a staff of half a dozen or so, this institute now employs some 250 full-time tutors.

The beginnings of technician training date from the early 1950s and were a result of the efforts of the engineering profession to specify a role for a highly trained person whose qualifications were derived, not from study in a university school of engineering, but from theoretical studies taken in conjunction with industrial experience.

The New Zealand Certificate of Engineering was introduced in 1954. Experience of this qualification led, in 1960, to the establishment of the Technicians Certification Authority and, during the last 10 years, there has been a spectacular increase in the range of technician courses and the number of students studying for New Zealand certificates. The number of New Zealand certificates awarded annually has increased from 29 in 1960 to 676 in 1972. At the present time, technician studies account for 42 percent of the enrolments of technical institutes.

Technical education is being developed through national, regional, and local institutes. Approval for the establishment of a Central Institute of Technology was given in 1957; the institute opened in 1960 and commenced moving in 1972 to its permanent accommodation at Heretaunga—a building project costing $5.5 million. Included in this contract is a 500-bed hostel, which will provide living accommodation for the students who will come from all parts of the country to undertake full-time courses of 1 week to 4 years of instruction. Technical institutes have been established in the six main centres of population; and with the opening of Manukau Technical Institute in 1970, the first of a number of "satellite" institutes has been opened to serve the greater Auckland area. Following a recommendation of the National Development Conference, Government, in 1969, approved the establishment of technical institutes in centres where there was an assured teaching load for at least 10 full-time tutors. The first of the institutes to be set up under this policy—Southland and Nelson—opened in 1971. Since the 1966–67 financial year, more than $10 million has been spent on technical institute buildings alone.

Technical institutes now comprise Auckland, Manukau, Waikato, Taranaki Polytechnic, Palmerston North, Central Institute of Technology, Wellington Polytechnic, Nelson Polytechnic, Christchurch, Otago Polytechnic, Southland Polytechnic and the New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute.

In 1965, Government introduced technical institute bursaries for students attending approved full-time courses at technical institutes, and boarding allowances are also paid.

A Standing Committee on University Technical Institute Relationships has been set up to consider the problems of placement of courses and the rationalisation of tuition in the technician, semi-professional, and professional fields.

In 1972 over 90 percent of apprentices received their practical instruction at block courses. This practical instruction is supplemented by instruction in theory at evening classes, where numbers are sufficient to justify local classes, or else by correspondence tuition from the Technical Correspondence Institute. The examinations for apprentices are administered by the Trades Certification Board.

Trade and Technician Courses—The term "technician" covers a wide field, but national New Zealand certificate courses have been devised for engineering, draughting, draughting (architectural), science, building, quantity surveying, and commerce. In addition, at a lower level, there is a certificate in garage management and courses leading to certificates for radio technicians, telegraph and telephone technicians, engineering technicians, survey technicians, automotive engineering technicians, and forest rangers. The courses for these qualifications, and other courses not on a certificate basis, are devised by the Technicians Certification Authority, which was established under the Technicians Certification Act 1958 to prescribe courses and syllabuses and conduct examinations appropriate to the needs of persons in occupational groups. The instruction for the New Zealand certificate courses is given at part-time classes, or on a sandwich basis (i.e., regular intermittent periods in full-time classes), or by correspondence tuition from the Technical Correspondence Institute supplemented in the case of science and workshop by short practical courses, usually of 1 week per subject at junior levels and 3 weeks at the senior levels. All these practical block courses are at the Central Institute of Technology. In a few cases the stages can be taken at full-time courses in the technical institute, but for the first 2 or 3 years only. All New Zealand certificates require students to be suitably employed during the last two stages of the courses.

Apprentice training accounts for some 40 percent of the enrolment load of technical institutes.

In addition to the national trade and technician courses, there are a large number of courses available which have been organised regionally to meet local demands. These include courses in commerce, work study, electronic data processing, journalism, and in industrial and commercial design. In addition, instruction is given on the examination syllabuses devised by independent organisations, e.g., the New Zealand Society of Accountants, Chartered Institute of Secretaries, New Zealand Institute of Valuers, etc.

Statistics of students taking courses in technical education at 1 July 1971 are shown in the following table.

Full-time Courses: As at 1 July 1971MalesFemalesTotal Students
N.Z. Certificates—
    Architectural draughting38745
    Building2121
    Engineering1102112
    Quantity surveying1313
    Science235
Other—
    Accountancy88
    Business administration25631
    Chiropody2810
    Computers and E.D.P. programming252853
    Diploma of fine arts421961
    Design courses—
      Fashion132639
      General design291241
      Graphic191231
      Industrial14317
      Textile19524
    Graphic art352257
    Health inspector2525
    Hotel receptionist1919
    Journalism292756
    Management29332
    Maori pre-apprentice259259
    Occupational therapist4949
    Overseas technical teacher training1919
    Pharmacy10390193
    Retailing1717
    Senior business and secretarial999999
Totals8791,3572,236
Part-time Courses: As at 1 July 1971Day or Day and Evening CoursesEvening Courses OnlyMalesFemalesTotal Students
Apprentice trade classes2,68821,84323,74578624,531
Technician4,8876,3989,8271,45811,285
Professional2,3626,6308,1588348,992
Other vocational1,33414,9476,08610,19516,281
Non-vocational2,11233,3309,00726,43535,442
Totals13,38383,14856,82339,70896,531
Other CoursesStudent-weeksMalesFemalesTotal Students
*Including 283 full-time secondary pupils.
Trade block courses48,81015,92217016,092
Technician block courses6,2493,037833,120
Sandwich courses13,2451,501711,572
Totals68,30420,46032420,784
All students*..77,28340,032117,315

New Zealand Technical Correspondence Institute—Instruction is now given in 589 technical subjects and so far the institute has published 13 textbooks.

The main function of the institute is to provide technical education from apprentice up to advanced technician level for those who are unable to obtain such education through the usual institutions. In particular, the institute meets many demands for technical education in the building, electrical, and engineering occupations, and also provides courses in agriculture and horticulture, dairy manufactures, management and commerce, mining and fire engineering, surveying, textiles, and valuation. As all students are employed in an industry or profession, their correspondence studies are supported by practical experience.

The work of the Technical Correspondence Institute parallels the teaching given in the other senior technical institutes, and instruction is given in many subjects not taught elsewhere. The institute plays an important role in the education of many of the apprentices who sit the annual examinations of the Trades Certification Board. It also prepares a large percentage of candidates for the various examinations of the Technicians Certification Authority in engineering, building, commerce, draughting, and science as well as for other professional and industrial examinations.

The number of students on the roll at 1 July 1972 was 16,293. There is an establishment of 270 full-time tutors, besides the principal, and some 60 administrative staff.

Vocational Training Council—This council was established by the Vocational Training Act 1968. Its responsibilities and activities are set out in Section 32., Employment.

CONTINUING EDUCATION—Increased attention is at present being given to the future development of continuing and technical education, and the establishment of community colleges. In 1973 a feasibility study was published on the setting up of a community college in Hawke's Bay. The purpose of the study was to examine ways in which the normal vocational course structure of a technical institute could be broadened to include studies and activities for the general educational, cultural, leisure-time and social purposes of the community. In 1974 an officer for Continuing Education was appointed to the department. Consideration is also being given to a wider use of schools by the community.

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS OF LABOUR FORCE—The Census of Population and Dwellings includes a question on the highest educational and vocational qualifications obtained. An analysis concerning persons in the labour force in 1971 is set out in the following table; where persons have more than one qualification they have been included only once in the higher academic qualifications, for example, certificated teachers with a university degree are included in the university qualification group.

QualificationMalesFemalesTotal

*Includes nursing, commercial, engineering, draughting, etc.

†Includes electricians', plumbers', carpenters', joiners', radio and T.V. servicemen's, and motor mechanics'.

The labour force at the 1971 census comprised 784,969 males and 333,866 females.

University—
    Doctorate1,3441161,460
    Master's degree4,8741,2276,101
    Bachelor's degree23,1324,91928,051
    Diploma8,2931,79110,084
    Other78482
Teacher's Certificate15,06819,73634,804
Secondary—
    Higher School Certificate or equivalent, University Scholarship8,5244,26812,792
    University Entrance48,86225,40774,269
    School Certificate67,14951,244118,393
    Other32,81618,26251,078
Professional certificate*28,71031,12759,837
Trade certificate87,3241,76289,086
Other vocational19,8745,71525,589

EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT—The Advisory Council on Educational Planning has acted as the steering committee for the Educational Development Conference. The reports of the three conference working parties on "Aims and Objectives", "Organisation and Administration" and "Improving Learning and Teaching" have been published. Their recommendations will be discussed in small groups and at regional seminars during the public phase of the Conference in the first half of 1974. The findings of the Conference will be summarised in a paper on directions for educational development to be prepared by the Advisory Council on Educational Planning.

NEW ZEALAND COUNCIL FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH—The Carnegie Corporation of New York was instrumental in founding the New Zealand Council for Educational Research in 1933 and supported it with grants for 10 years. Since 1945 the council has been supported principally by State funds, the remainder coming from contributions from educational bodies, philanthropic foundations, business organisations, and its own trading operations. It has remained, however, under independent control as provided for in the New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1945.

In its research programme, the council has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and its main publications (48 research reports and 20 shorter studies in education) include critical surveys of major policy issues in New Zealand education and accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. These have brought about or helped reshape major developments in such areas as secondary, university, and adult education, intermediate schools, consolidation of rural schools, and care of children with special needs.

Since the 1930s, the council has served as the main source of supply for overseas and locally standardised educational and psychological tests used by universities, Government agencies, hospitals, business firms, and schools. In 1965 the council established a special Test Development Division to produce achievement tests designed specifically to suit the curriculums of New Zealand schools. Known as the Progressive Achievement Tests, they are now used extensively in schools throughout the country.

The council employs its own permanent research staff as well as temporary research fellows or project assistants, and it also assists honorary research workers in other institutions such as universities, teachers colleges, and schools. Its current research programme includes major projects related to educational planning, the supply of qualified people in the community, teaching practices, Maori and pre-school education, and services for children with special needs. The council also acts as a clearing house for information on educational matters and maintains six local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, Palmerston North, and Hamilton.

MAORI EDUCATION FOUNDATION—The Maori Education Foundation Act 1961 established the Maori Education Foundation for the general purpose of promoting and encouraging the better education of Maoris and of providing financial assistance for that purpose. By the end of 1972 the capital resources of the foundation had risen to $2,304,000. Some of the principal purposes for which the Board of Trustees is empowered to apply the income of the foundation include the education and vocational training of Maoris; the granting of financial assistance or of equipment to schools and institutions at which Maoris are receiving; education; the provision of bursaries to assist Maoris attending secondary schools or any New Zealand or overseas university, agricultural college, or institution of similar status; the provision of post-graduate scholarships for Maoris holding university degrees or diplomas; and the making of special research or study grants to Maoris undertaking special research or study projects. Although the bulk of the foundation's income is expended on grants to individuals, the major endeavours of the foundation are being concentrated on fostering the greater participation of Maori parents and children in play centres and kindergartens. During the 1972 academic year assistance totalling $351,000 was granted to 1,847 pupils and students. While 639 grants were of comparatively small amounts for school clothing or equipment, the bulk of the grants were towards the cost of board and tuition of secondary boarding school pupils. In a number of cases Foundation grants are a necessary supplement to other scholarships and awards. Financial assistance towards the cost of tertiary studies was offered to 129 students in 1972. Since operations commenced in 1962 the foundation has provided 13,084 awards to a total value of $1,806,000.

POLYNESIAN EDUCATION FOUNDATION—In 1972 a Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation was set up on similar lines to the Maori Education Foundation and is being run by the same staff but with a separate board of trustees. The target for the Foundation was $100,000, including a Government subsidy of $50,000. The aim is to assist children of Pacific Islands families in New Zealand to further their education.

ASSESSMENT OF MAORI AND POLYNESIAN CHILDREN—During 1970 the National Advisory Committee on Maori Education, a body representative of the Departments of Education and of Maori and Island Affairs, Maori leaders throughout the country, controlling authorities and teachers' organisations, held a number of meetings and study courses to establish priorities in the many proposals advanced by the department, the advisory committee, and teachers to improve the education of Maoris. The report of the committee was published in 1970, and during 1970 and 1971 action was taken to put many of the recommendations into effect, or to amend or accelerate moves already under way The main recommendations concerned the pre-service and in-service training of teachers, the strenghthening of the advisory service, extended provision for pre-school children, additional staffing for schools, primary, intermediate, and secondary, with a high proportion of Maori and Pacific Island Polynesian pupils, the teaching of Maori language in schools where there was a demand down to the Form II level, and the introduction of studies in Maori in past and present New Zealand society as a part of the new Forms I-IV social studies syllabus.

The educational performance and progress of Maori and Polynesian children as a whole group has not equalled that of other New Zealand children, for a variety of complex reasons, largely linguistic and cultural. As a general rule Maori and Polynesian children have not stayed on as long at secondary school and a relatively small proportion of those doing so have continued their education at the tertiary level. In some cases, this has not been possible economically. Strenuous efforts have been made, particularly in recent years, to encourage Maori children to continue their education as far as possible, by increasing the appreciation of their problems on the part of teachers, by creating school situations conducive to a desire for further education, and by involving parents more closely in their children's education. Practical assistance has been given by increasing the number and value of scholarships awarded each year by the Department of Education. The Maori Education Foundation has also given valuable help to Maoris, at the senior levels of education particularly. The importance of and the opportunities available in vocational education beyond the secondary school level have been brought to the notice of young Maoris through the schools and through vacation courses. Special trade training courses for Maori boys have been set up and extended.

If the efforts to upgrade the education of Maori and Polynesian children are measured solely in terms of the proportion who pass subjects in the School Certificate examination, who obtain a trade certificate or a New Zealand certificate at the technician's level, or who complete a university degree, it is obvious that there is still much room for improvement. But it is fair to state that a good deal has been achieved at all levels of education and that there is a greater awareness of the value of education on the part of children and parents. In the whole country, too, there is a better informed appreciation of Maori and Pacific Island Polynesian society and culture and of the need for special measures so that all children of these races in New Zealand receive the maximum benefit from the opportunities offered them.

Some evidence of improvement is seen in the statistics of pupils at secondary school.

PACIFIC ISLANDS EDUCATION—The Department of Education, in liaison with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Department of Maori and Island Affairs, assists other administrations, including those in the Cook Islands, Niue, Tokelau, Fiji, Tonga, Western Samoa, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, Pitcairn Island, New Hebrides, and British Solomon Islands Protectorate with their educational problems.

As part of the assistance, the Department of Education assumes responsibility for filling about 200 teaching and administration positions in the Pacific. Officers and teachers are inspected and their service, grading, and superannuation rights protected while serving in island positions. Advisory visits are made to most of the islands and supplies of modern textbooks and apparatus are sent regularly to some territories. The Islands Education Division has also printed books in the vernacular for some areas, and has helped in the development of a system for teaching English as a second language.

In addition, a very important function of the Islands Education Division is to operate and supervise closely a scholarship system which in 1972 enabled 406 island students to obtain in New Zealand schools, trade centres, teachers colleges, universities, Government departments, and private firms more advanced education and training than would otherwise be available to them. During the term of their scholarship these students are fully maintained by the Department of Maori and Island Affairs and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

In 1972 22 teachers from the Pacific attended the annual 6-month in-service course in New Zealand. Increasing numbers of students in island schools are availing themselves of the facility to sit New Zealand examinations. In 1972 there were 4,607 candidates from 65 schools compared with 3,447 in 1971 from 60 schools.

ADULT EDUCATION: National Council of Adult Education—The functions and powers of the National Council of Adult Education are set out in the Adult Education Act 1963. The council advisee University Grants Committee, the Director-General of Education and other bodies on adult education, co-ordinates and conducts pilot projects and experiments, maintains a national library and documentation centre on adult education, and publishes occasional papers and reports as well as a periodical entitled Continuing Education in New Zealand.

University Extension—Although full responsibility and control of their adult education activities rests with the universities, they use various systems to ascertain the views and in some cases to seek advice from various community interests.

The typical extension department in each university has a director in charge and a staff of lecturers in a range of academic disciplines. In addition to teaching, the lecturers may be responsible for planning and developing sections of the department's programme or have special responsibility for a geographical area and its programme. Two of the North Island universities also have lecturers specialising in work among the Maori people. All six universities now carry out extension work, and show marked differences in their approaches and systems of organisation. A large number of part-time lecturers supplement the activity of the full-time staff (numbering approximately 60). The work is carried out by various methods—lecture courses, study conferences, seminars, schools of varying length (both residential and non-residential), and correspondence courses. While most universities continue to provide substantial extension programmes of liberal studies for the general public, there has been a rapid increase in programmes designed for specialised groups, largely occupational. Some of these are national in scope.

Secondary Schools—The largest amount of organised adult education is being done by evening classes in secondary schools. Since the revision of the School Certificate regulations to allow single subject passes, there has been some increase in adult classes leading to the School Certificate Examination, though the bulk of the schools evening classes remain of a practical hobby nature. There has also been an increase in the number of technical institutes which cater for a wide variety of adult education interests. The National Council is interested in the co-ordination of these wider developments and provided advice and assistance.

Voluntary Agencies—Many voluntary organisations make some provision for adult education. For most of them, such as the Play Centres Federation which is heavily involved in parent education, adult education is incidental to their other purposes. The following two organisations, however, have adult education as their primary purpose.

Workers' Educational Association—District councils of the Workers' Educational Association exist in Auckland, New Plymouth, Wellington, Canterbury, Otago, and Southland. Small administrative grants are received from the respective universities with which the councils are associated, together with payment of tutors' fees for a limited number of courses approved by them. District councils, in their own right, organise additional courses, summer schools, public forums and seminars. The co-ordinating body is the New Zealand Workers' Education Association which also publishes the WEA Review.

Countrywomen's Co-ordinating Committee—This is a national liaison committee of the Country-womens Institute and the Womens Division of Federated Farmers; it has regional committees at Auckland, Hamilton, Palmerston North, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin and over 50 district committees. The organisation co-operates with other adult education organisations and also arranges classes of special interest to women.

Community Centres—Community centres on an experimental basis were opened some 20 or more years ago at Feilding, Christchurch, Westport, Dunedin, and Hawera. These centres received some assistance, directly or indirectly, from public funds. There are, however, many other community schemes supported by voluntary effort and without professional staff. Community centres in the overseas mould have not spread in New Zealand as was originally expected, and many which exist are merely sets of buildings available for community use.

SECTION 7 B—SCIENCE AND SCIENTIFIC SERVICES

The modern epoch is distinguished by application of science to problems of economic and human welfare … it is distinguished by a climate of human opinion, by some dominant views on the relation of man to the universe that foster science and its application.

(Simon Kuznets in Modern Economic Growth, Yale University, 1966.)

GENERAL—Economic growth and higher living standards depend on increased productivity and full development of national resources. In an age of technological advancement, progress depends in a large part on the application of research. In past years production, in particular that in agriculture, has been promoted by scientific research.

More than three-quarters of the scientific research in New Zealand is financed from Government sources. The Government supports science as a cultural, educational, and intellectual activity through the schools, universities, museums, and other ways; and itself engages in scientific research for its social and economic values. Industry supports research which may be of short- or long-term benefit to its business and, together with private individuals, supports research for philanthropic reasons.

The importance of the social sciences (e.g., economics, education, sociology, political science, demography) in a world increasingly dominated by science and technology is often overlooked. In a period marked by a rapid advance of scientific and technological progress, most evident in the development of industrialisation and the resulting changes in our culture and society, the social sciences have a vital role to play in making it possible to recognise, understand, and counteract the human and social problems brought about by these rapid changes. Public opinion now also expects that in development processes more attention be given to protecting the quality of the environment.

New developments in instruments and equipment, such as computers, facilitate the work of the scientist, but the analysis and solving of problems in the human interest derive essentially from the efforts of trained minds.

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH—By far the greatest part of finance for research in the national interest is provided by the Government, and most of this is spent by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, through its 21 divisions and branches, in subsidies to 10 grant-aided industrial research associations, and through special research grants to universities and other organisations.

Agricultural research still predominates, but expanding population and development of a broader-based economy have called for increasing industrial research, and there has been growing activity in the natural sciences and in scientific services for other Government departments and the general public. Further information is provided in the DSIR Information Series Bulletins and other publications.

Agricultural and Related Research—Scientific research has strongly influenced the long-continued trend towards more intensive farming, and the drive for intensification has in turn brought increasing sophistication to research.

The Soil Bureau has advanced from fundamental studies of soil genesis and the preparation of soil maps to examination of the balance of plant nutrients and the effect on this balance of man's use of the land.

Pasture improvement studies of the Grasslands and Applied Biochemistry Divisions, and later of the Plant Physiology Division, at first concerned mainly with increasing plant yield per acre, are now seeking more knowledge of the plant substances that contribute to the successful performance of the grazing animal, so that future plant selection can be guided by the yield of these nutrient constituents.

Biological and ecological research into plant pests and diseases by the Entomology and Plant Diseases Divisions seeks for more effective control by biological as well as chemical means.

The current change in research emphasis is evident right through to the end product, of which an ever-increasing variety is being developed. In the breeding and selection of cereals and vegetables (Crop Research Division) and fruit (Plant Diseases Division), account must be taken of storage and processing quality as well as field performance. Research in tobacco and hops is carried out at two special stations in the Nelson district.

A wheat-testing service and technical advice to millers and bakers are provided by the Wheat Research Institute, which is partly financed by a levy on the flourmilling and baking industries.

Competition with economic livestock for pasturage by introduced noxious animals such as rabbits, hares, and deer and the effect on forests and vegetative cover continue to be problems in intensive land use and conservation. As a basis for more effective control methods, the Ecology Division has intensified its study of these animals, and of bird species that damage farm and orchard crops. The division's work has recently been expanded to embrace environmental research on a broad basis, with the aim of enhancing the quality of living by protecting and improving the natural environment and ensuring that its management is to the benefit of man.

The Botany Division's study of all plant life provides basic information to several other divisions concerned with the role of plants in agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural production.

The increasing sophistication of research applied to agricultural production is nowhere more evident than in the extent to which the Applied Mathematics Division is now involved in the design of experiments so that they yield the maximum information, and interpretation of the results. The volume of research statistics being handled by the division's computer service is rapidly increasing.

Research associations closely associated with the department, and jointly financed by the department and the respective industries, are carrying out work of importance to agricultural production in the following fields: the production, distribution, and use of fertilisers; wool end uses, the physical, chemical, and biological properties of wool, and its handling, storage, transport, and marketing; basic and applied investigations to improve the quality of export meat; the production of milk in relation to the feeding, breeding, and management of dairy animals and the manufacture of dairy products, and the building, design, and efficiency of dairy machinery.

The entry of the United Kingdom into the EEC has necessitated and will continue to necessitate major changes in research emphasis, because we will not only have to seek and obtain new markets for our conventional exports but, in addition, we will have to diversify such exports and increase our exports of manufactured goods.

Although more rapid expansion, on a percentage basis, will take place in the manufacturing sector, agriculture will continue to be the mainstay of our economy. This will involve:

  1. More intensive investigation of the suitability of our soils for different types of agricultural and forestry use;

  2. The breeding of new and better varieties of pasture, particularly for hill country farming;

  3. The breeding of crops, including those suitable for irrigated land and mechanical harvesting, to meet the demands of our rapidly expanding food processing industry:

  4. The introduction of new parasites, viruses, and insect hormones to counter insect devastation of pasture and crops. This is particularly important because of the necessity to decrease the use of chemicals which produce unacceptable pesticide residues in our agricultural products and also cause local pollution;

  5. The introduction of overseas breeds of cattle to improve our beef production, and of other types of sheep to increase our lambing percentages; and

  6. The production of new products, such as edible leaf protein, from our agricultural raw materials.

Leaf protein has a high nutritive potential and has attracted increasing interest in recent years. Many countries are now exploring the possibilities of extracting it for use in the enrichment of animal and even human foods.

The largest use, at least initially, will be in pig and poultry feeds, because in New Zealand there is an urgent need for alternative, inexpensive protein feedstuffs of low fibre content.

A DSIR team, in co-operation with the Dairy Research Institute at Palmerston North, Massey University, and Lincoln College is investigating the feasibility of establishing a leaf-protein industry here. Work is being done mainly with lucerne, which gives high yields of protein per acre, but other green feed species—such as Tama ryegrass—are being used in the seasons when lucerne is not growing so that experiments can proceed on a year-round basis.

This research programme is based on the concept of an industry extracting about half of the total leaf protein; use of the crude protein extract as pig and poultry feed; use of the refined protein as additives in human foods; use of the solid plant residue—either fresh or dried—as ruminant feed; and use of the liquid residues to produce "food yeast" or similar products.

Undoubtedly our most exciting prospect for research in anticipation of changing needs in agriculture is the new controlled-climate laboratory at Palmerston North. Its main advantage is its ability to simulate, and maintain at will, any plant environmental condition from the tropics to the Antarctic. This national facility is available to other Government departments, the universities, and industry.

One of the projects for which it is currently being used is the development of new high-yield forages for livestock production based on adaptation of the high-producing tropical grasses to the colder New Zealand climate.

Maize has recently become an important crop, with greatly increased yield and range of adaptability. Research is now being undertaken to adapt it to a still wider range of environments and to a wide range of uses. Tolerance to cool conditions and even to frost during establishment and maturity is the main quality required to suit New Zealand conditions. A range of contrasting material is being assembled, and as desirable physiological characters are identified, means are being sought to introduce these to established commercial varieties and maintain high productivity.

Industrial and Related Research—Because of the small scale of many industries in New Zealand, it is even more necessary than in highly industrialised countries that Government should give some form of technical assistance. A number of branches of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research carry out research and service work for industry. A Science in Industry Unit co-ordinates and facilitates liaison with industry.

The Chemistry Division laboratories carry out materials and equipment testing for Government departments and investigate the extraction and processing of natural products and minerals.

To lead to commercial success, research in mineral processing must be taken right through to pilot-plant operations. This necessarily involves chemical engineering which has much in common with chemical engineering research for manufacturing industry. In addition, if some processing is done before export, the added value is substantially increased.

For this reason suitable staff and facilities are being built up within DSIR—

  1. To develop improved or new methods of processing New Zealand materials (from agriculture, forestry, and mining) and to bring these methods through pilot-scale production to a stage of commercial viability.

  2. To secure and disseminate technical and economic information from overseas concerning new processes and materials that may be relevant to New Zealand development.

  3. To establish a team of workers experienced in process control and instrumentation, to assist the processing industries.

  4. To help industry to improve the efficiency of its existing manufacturing processes which involve chemical transformations.

  5. To carry out technical and economic studies of manufacturing processes (e.g., plastics from natural gas) that might be suitable for local operations.

  6. To investigate and advise on efficient waste recycling, and pollution and effluent control systems for industry, and to develop better systems.

These pilot-plant facilities will be available to the universities and industry, not only to have work done there but also for the staff to actually work on the site.

In the Geological Survey, emphasis on economic minerals has increased since the establishment several years ago of an economic geology unit, and commercial interest in the development of petroleum, natural gas, and other minerals has been encouraged and assisted.

Assistance to industry by the Physics and Engineering Laboratory is principally in providing servicing equipment beyond the resources of small private enterprises and designing and developing installations and techniques especially for the small-scale units that predominate in local industry.

In New Zealand Government expenditure on research and development is not supplemented by industry to the same extent as most other developed countries, hence the total expenditure on research and development is relatively low as a percentage of gross national product. Greater industrialisation in other countries may be a factor that needs to be taken into account. Technology development and improved productivity can be expected to flow from greater investment in research and development. The laboratory is responsible for maintenance of the national standards of length, mass, force, and temperature, and for the changeover of these standards to metric measures.

Departmental geologists, engineering geologists, geophysicists, and chemists played a large part in the development of electrical power from geothermal steam in the volcanic centre of the North Island, and at Kawerau this work led to the direct use of geothermal steam in the pulp and paper industry. Continued geothermal exploration has revealed further extensive fields for geothermal power development.

The Auckland Industrial Development Division of DSIR is fully engaged in meeting an increasing demand from industry for scientific services. These include the application of the results of research and the use of precision measurement and data analysis, particularly in mechanical engineering, metallurgy, physics, and electronics. Major contributions have been made in medical instrumentation, and equipment covered by world patents is being manufactured commercially in Auckland for export. Overseas-trained professional staff are available for research on metal cutting and for measurement at high degrees of accuracy of length, roundness, straightness, and concentricity. Excellent facilities for metal analysis and industrial lubricant evaluation have also been established. A continuing study of the behaviour of fruit and vegetables in storage is proving beneficial to the development of our export markets.

The Christchurch Industrial Development Division provides similar services for South Island industry and makes a speciality of electrical engineering and safety equipment testing.

A 3 MeV proton-electron accelerator at the Institute of Nuclear Sciences is being used on work concerned with the development of both primary and secondary industry, as well as the natural sciences. The institute gives advice and assistance in the industrial use of isotopes.

Research associations concerned particularly with manufacturing industries carry out investigations and information liaison services in fellmongery, hide processing, tanning, and footwear manufacture; pottery, ceramics, and structural clay products: laundering, dry-cleaning, and dyeing; the coal industry and its products; and the building and cement industries.

Scientific Services—Continuous magnetic, ionospheric, and seismological observations are carried out by the Geophysics Division, as well as special projects on natural phenomena, and networks of geophysical and seismological stations are maintained from the Pacific to Antarctica. This division also operates the official New Zealand time service.

Physical, geological, and biological studies in the oceans round New Zealand are carried out by the Oceanographic Institute, with recent emphasis on work likely to help development of mineral resources and the fishing industry. Recent purchase of a German ship, renamed R.V. Tangaroa, and its equipment with on-board laboratories and accommodation and other facilities for scientific groups, greatly increase the institute's ability to conduct basic ocean studies and obtain data pertinent to economic exploitation of marine resources.

Chemical work in the investigation of crime and toxicology, and chemical and bacteriological examination of food, drugs, and water supplies form a large part of Chemistry Division's service to other departments.

Because of New Zealand's nearness to the Antarctic and its large dependency there, the work of the Antarctic Division as a co-ordinating agency for scientific studies and exploration in that area is of special importance. The International Geophysical Year 1957–58 had a considerable influence on research in the Ross Dependency, and since that time New Zealand has maintained a permanent scientific base in the Antarctic at Scott Base, with a temporary station at Vanda and a summer station at Cape Bird.

Scientific and industrial research must become of increasing importance to the country's development, and for the natural scientist New Zealand must continue to offer a fertile field of study, because of the large range of interests and problems it offers in a relatively small area.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—Almost all agricultural research within the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is now conducted by the Research Division, which has a staff of approximately 215 scientists and 340 technicians; the headquarters is at Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre, Hamilton.

A proportion of resources is devoted to servicing activities for farmers and advisory personnel. Chief among these are soil-testing services. In two soil-testing laboratories approximately 30,000 samples of soil from farms are analysed for pH and major elements to provide an estimate of the types and quantities of fertilisers required.

Research work is carried out at seven stations, at smaller experimental centres and areas, and on farmers' properties throughout the country. Of the seven stations, two undertake a range of experimental work embracing plant and animal research; three specialise in research on animal production and animal health, while the other two concentrate on soil fertility and horticultural problems respectively. In addition, there is a field research section whose function is to investigate local problems throughout the country and to test out, where possible, the findings of research stations in different environments. Such work is under the control of a number of research workers located in different parts of the country and is carried out on experimental areas and farms. A biometrics unit provides statistical services for research workers.

Major Agricultural Research Projects—Because of the vital importance of fertilisers to agricultural production, considerable work is being done on the fertiliser requirements of soils throughout New Zealand. Most major soil groups are being studied in detail. There are very few, if any, soils or areas where it has not been possible to establish pastures satisfactorily with suitable fertilisers, seed, inoculants, and in some cases drainage. Problem areas such as sands, peats, gumlands, pakihi soils, and high country (up to about 3,000 ft) have been successfully and profitably improved, using specialised techniques and often specialised equipment.

From animal production research, targets have been set which are acting as a spur to producers. Six hundred pounds of milkfat or beef per acre; 300 lb of lamb and over 100 lb of wool—these are the levels of production which have been achieved from selectively-bred animals grazed on productive, well-utilised pastures. Studies of different classes of sheep in relation to beef cattle have provided valuable information on the most profitable type of stock to run.

Recently established projects are also examining the profitability and the problems involved in beef production from animals of dairy breed origin both as an integrated system with conventional dairying and as a separate specialist enterprise.

Animal health research is concerned with most of the important diseases which afflict sheep and cattle. Internal parasites, mastitis, salmonellosis, facial eczema, bloat, tuberculosis, brucellosis, and hypomagneasemia are all being investigated with the aim of finding more effective methods of prevention and control.

As farming becomes more intensive, diseases can have much greater effects, and science must continue to find answers to existing and changing problems.

OTHER SCIENTIFIC ORGANISATIONS—As may be seen from the tables which are included on the following pages, these two departments (Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries) between them spend approximately 71 percent of the Government science expenditure classified under the science budget. Another large area of expenditure is that of the New Zealand Forest Service whose science functions are discussed in the section on forestry.

The Meteorological Service (Ministry of Transport), the Department of Health, other Government departments, the universities, the Medical Research Council, private industry, and research associations are the other major areas in which scientific activities are undertaken.

The only major endowed research organisation in New Zealand, the Cawthron Institute at Nelson, was established in 1920. The institute was founded in Nelson as a result of a bequest of $500,000 under the will of Thomas Cawthron. As the value of the investment of the bequest has declined the institute has received increasing grants from the Government through the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The grant now amounts to about half the annual income of the institute.

Among the other organisations undertaking research are the various museums, the Carter Observatory, and a number of amateur and near amateur groups, particularly in astronomy.

Medical Research—The organisation of medical research is discussed in Section 5A, Health, with particular reference to the Medical Research Council and the National Health Institute. The Medical Research Council funds various units (mainly in Dunedin associated with the University of Otago) and in addition research is carried on by the local medical research foundations and the Cancer Society and the Heart Foundation.

Social Sciences—Most of the research material published in the social sciences has been prepared by such organisations as the New Zealand Council for Educational Research, the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, the Agricultural Economics Research Unit, the Monetary and Economic Council, and the universities. The National Research Advisory Council has compiled an index of current research in the social sciences.

Since 1945 the New Zealand Council for Educational Research has been supported in the main by State funds, supplemented by contributions from educational bodies and business organisations. The council, which is under independent control, has concentrated on New Zealand problems, and many of its publications consist of critical surveys on various aspects of New Zealand education and of accounts of outstanding experiments in school practice. There are local institutes for educational research in Auckland, Wellington, Palmerston North, Christchurch, and Dunedin.

The New Zealand Institute of Economic Research was founded in 1958 and is an independent non-profit-making incorporated society. Its object is to increase knowledge of New Zealand's economic development through research, education, and the training of research workers. It conducts its research in co-operation with the universities and other agencies.

The Agricultural Economics Research Unit was established at Lincoln College in 1962 with an annual grant from the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. It also receives grants for particular projects from other sources. The unit has a long-term programme of research in the fields of agricultural marketing and agricultural production and the relationship between agriculture and the general economy.

In addition to these three organisations and the universities a number of Government departments and agencies undertake research work for their own needs.

Government departments which undertake some research in the social sciences for their own requirements include: Education; Justice; Labour; Statistics; Social Welfare.

PRESENT ORGANISATION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH—About 76 percent of the money spent on scientific research in New Zealand comes directly from Government sources.

The expenditure by the various organisation groups is approximately:

Government departments, 65 percent; universities, 12 percent; industry, 13 percent; research associations, 7 percent; other organisations, 3 percent.

The National Research Advisory Council was established on 1 April 1964 to advise the Minister of Science on—

  1. The promotion and development of scientific research in New Zealand.

  2. The planning and co-ordination of scientific research and services in New Zealand, including—

    1. The determination of priorities among research activities of Government departments having regard to research done by other organisations;

    2. The provision of scholarships and fellowships and the promotion of the training of research workers;

    3. The association of Government with industry in the promotion of fundamental and applied research, including the promotion of research associations;

    4. The collection and dissemination of scientific information including the publication of reports and journals.

  3. The promotion of co-operation with the governments of or organisations in other countries, or with international organisations, in scientific matters.

  4. Any other matters that are appropriate for the carrying out of any other above-mentioned functions, or that are referred to it by the Minister.

The council has nine members, six (including the chairman) appointed by the Governor-General together with the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Secretary to the Treasury. The council is responsible to the Minister of Science who discusses reports or proposals with other Cabinet Ministers whose departments may be affected. This council replaced the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research established in 1926.

At present, Government science activities are distributed amongst 15 Government departments—Agriculture and Fisheries, Defence, Education, Electricity, Forest Service, Internal Affairs, Justice, Labour, Lands and Survey, Maori and Island Affairs, Scientific and Industrial Research, Social Welfare, State Services Commission, Transport, and Works and Development.

Science Budget—A science budget for all Government expenditure on scientific activities, including social sciences, was introduced on 1 April 1970. The formation of a science budget was recommended by the National Research Advisory Council in their 1968 annual report and was approved by Cabinet in that year. The budget, which is both a financial and a manpower budget, contains a forward programme for science.

Government Expenditure on Science—The following tables show the amount spent on scientific research under the science budget by Government research establishments and the grants given by these establishments to other scientific organisations. Medical research is not included in the science budget.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE THROUGH THE SCIENCE BUDGET
DepartmentGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants
1970–711971–721972–731970–711971–721972–73
 $(000)
Agriculture and Fisheries6,5397,4779,004170284399
Forest Service1,9972,3382,858202134
Scientific and Industrial Research11,70413,87216,1541,3511,7692,118
Transport2,1632,4263,5471542
Works1,4661,4821,702157150155
Other Departments1,6181,9852,190682765876
Totals25,48729,58035,4552,3952,9893,624
GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE BY SCIENTIFIC ACTIVITY
Scientific ActivityGross Expenditure on ScienceGrants
1969–701970–711972–731970–711971–721972–73
 $(000)
Agriculture10,75212,82215,1811,0161,5971,809
Forestry2,4322,7823,397222337
Fisheries9549921,207131423
Minerals9691,0211,201132144155
Manufacturing1,4081,6701,95721987128
Building and Construction77683596477150204
Transport368427879254365
Natural environment6,0206,8178,114186145297
Social sciences314422539117149203
Human health446517593111113
Fundamental research17619658560613654
Other scientific services1,031656765171336
Totals25,48729,58035,4552,3952,9893,624
GOVERNMENT RESEARCH EFFORT
Year Ended 31 MarchGross Expenditure on SciencePercentage of Total Government ExpenditurePercentage of Gross National ProductStaff Employed
 $(000)   
197125,4871.590.473,629
197229,5801.590.473,691
197335,4551.600.503,930

In a study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) on reviews of national science policy, the following comparisons are made for 1967 of gross domestic research and development expenditure for economic and social purposes (in U.S. dollars per head of population): United States, $34.5; Netherlands, $25.8; United Kingdom, $24.0; Canada $23.7; Sweden, $22.1; West Germany, $20.4; France, $19.0; Belgium, $14.1; Norway, $10.0; Japan, $9.3; Italy, $5.4; Austria, $2.8.

In another study OECD has calculated civilian research and development expenditure as a percentage of gross national product to give the following country comparison. (This omits military and defence expenditure which inflates the expenditure unevenly for many countries.)

Source: Review of National Science Policy of Netherlands, 1973

CountryYearPercent of GNP
United States1,9672.2
Netherlands1,9672.15
United Kingdom1966–671.7
France1,9671.6
West Germany1,9671.5
Japan1,9671.4
Canada1,9661.1
Norway1,9670.9
Belgium1,9670.85
Italy1,9670.65
Ireland1,9670.6
Austria1966–670.6
Greece1,9660.2

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT—In 1969 the National Development Conference adopted a number of recommendations on research in relation to national development. These recommendations have been dealt with by the National Research Advisory Council, which is a sector council of the National Development Council.

Bibliography—Further information on New Zealand scientific services may be obtained from:

Department of Scientific and Industrial Research: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper H.34.

Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper H.29.

Medical Research Council: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper H.31B.

National Research Advisory Council: Annual Reports, Parliamentary Paper H.41.

DSIR Research 1970: DSIR Information Series Bulletin No. 77.

National Research Advisory Council: Some Aspects of Technical Manpower in New Zealand, N.R.A.C. Publication 2, Wn, 1967.

Callaghan F. R. ed.: Science in New Zealand, Wn, Reed 1957.

Jansen, H. ed.: Directory of New Zealand Science, 4th Ed., 1962, Wn.

McBride, C. P. and de Joux, Christine: Scientific Research in New Zealand, Government Expenditure and Manpower, 1926–66, N.R.A.C. Publication 1, Wn, 1966.

Otago University Science Students' Association: Science Record (this contains the only published list of science research topics studied in all New Zealand universities).

Report of the Committee on Education, Training, and Research to the National Development Conference—May 1969.

Research in the Department of Agriculture: Annual Report of Research Division 1969–70.

R. E. Gibson and N. E. Harcourt: An Index of Current Research in the Social Sciences, N.R.A.C. Publication 3, Wn, 1971.

Chapter 10. Section 8; JUSTICE

SOURCES OF LAW—The law of New Zealand consists of the common law, certain statutes of the United Kingdom Parliament, statutes of the New Zealand Parliament, and regulations, bylaws, and other forms of subordinate legislation made under statutory authority.

The common law, sometimes referred to as case law or judge-made law, has been built up over the centuries by the courts in England and, later, in New Zealand and other countries where it was introduced. Like any living law, the common law continues to develop.

In New Zealand the policy of the courts has been to preserve uniformity with the common law in England. This is partly for reasons of convenience and partly because of the assumption prevailing in New Zealand that there is a single common law, the law of England, and that there are not separate, though similar, common laws in different countries.

United Kingdom statutes in force in New Zealand comprise those passed before 1840 which were applicable to the circumstances of the colony at that date, and those passed between 1840 and 1947 which extended to New Zealand expressly or by necessary implication. Many of these statutes have, of course, since been repealed. In 1947 New Zealand adopted the Statute of Westminster, and our Parliament has since been the sole authority with inherent power to legislate for the country. There are no constitutional restrictions on the laws Parliament can pass.

LAW REFORM—In any progressive society the law requires alteration from time to time if it is to reflect the life of the community and adequately give effect to the needs of the people. As in other countries in modern times, legislation is by far the most important means by which the law of New Zealand is adapted to changing circumstances. The responsibility of bringing before Parliament proposals for the revision of the common law and that part of the statute law not administered by other departments of State is in the hands of the Minister of Justice. The Minister is assisted in carrying out his responsibility by the Law Revision Commission, an advisory body set up in 1965 as successor to the Law Revision Committee. The commission is a part-time body with the Minister of Justice as chairman. Its principal functions are to prepare programmes for the reform of the law, to indicate the order in which topics should be examined, to allocate the work, to study particular topics from time to time, and to exercise a general oversight over law reform. In addition to the commission there are five standing committees each specialising in a particular area of the law. These committees consider topics referred to them by the commission or by the Minister and report thereon to the Minister of Justice. The chairman of each committee is a member of the commission.

Public Acts and regulations are drafted in the Law Drafting Office. The ordinances of the 1840s issued when New Zealand was a Crown colony, began a tradition of good drafting that has continued to the present. Allowing for the inescapable complexity of much modern legislation, New Zealand statutes are distinguished by a clarity, accuracy, and simplicity that have been equalled in few other countries.

COURTS—The hierarchy of counts in New Zealand comprises the Court of Appeal, the Supreme Court, and the Magistrates' Courts. All exercise both civil and criminal jurisdiction. Under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, particular magistrates are appointed by the Governor-General to exercise the domestic jurisdiction of the Magistrates' Courts. Children's Courts hear cases against children under 17 years of age.

As constituted by the Judicature Amendment Act 1957 the Court of Appeal consists of the Chief Justice by virtue of his office as head of the judiciary and of a president and two judges of the Court of Appeal appointed by the Governor-General. An additional judge or judges of the Supreme Court may be nominated by the Chief Justice to sit on the Court of Appeal. The judges of the Court of Appeal are also judges of the Supreme Court, but have seniority over all other judges of that court except the Chief Justice or the acting Chief Justice.

The Court of Appeal may from time to time appoint ordinary or special sittings and may make rules in respect of places and times for sittings and similar matters. This court, unlike other courts, exercises an appellate jurisdiction only. In addition to ordinary appeals from the Supreme Court, certain other proceedings in inferior courts may, on an order from the Supreme Court, be removed into the Court of Appeal for argument. The Court of Appeal also determines criminal appeals under the Crimes Act 1961.

All decisions of the Court of Appeal are final except where an appeal lies to Her Majesty in Council (the Privy Council). In cases where the amount at issue exceeds $5,000 there is an appeal as of right. In other cases leave to appeal is required. This leave may in most cases be granted either by the Court of Appeal or by the Privy Council itself. The Privy Council thus remains the final court of appeal in almost all civil cases and may also occasionally hear appeals in special criminal cases.

The Supreme Court, which was first established by the Supreme Court Ordinance 1841, is now constituted under the Judicature Act 1908. The members of the court are a Chief Justice and 17 other judges, the number being fixed by statute. An additional judge or judges may be appointed whenever the Governor-General deems it necessary by reason of absence or anticipated absence of any of the judges on leave prior to retirement, each appointment being a permanent one from the time when it is made. The fixing of the number of judges, together with the provision that the salary of a judge shall not be diminished during his term of office, is an important safeguard for the principle of judicial independence. Judges, who must retire at 72 years, are appointed to hold office during good behaviour and may be removed only by the Queen upon an Address by the House of Representatives.

In 1968 a separate Administrative Division of the Supreme Court was created. It consists of not more than four judges of the Supreme Court assigned to the Administrative Division by the Chief Justice. The Administrative Division determines disputes over the valuation of land and hears claims for compensation when land is taken for public purposes. It hears appeals from administrative tribunals under the following Acts: War Pensions Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Cinematograph Films Act. Animal Remedies Act, Land Act, Medical Practitioners' Act, Pharmacy Act, Nurses Act, Trade Practices Act, Distillation Act, Mining Act, Coal Mines Act, Town and Country Planning Act, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act, and Clean Air Act. Other classes of applications may be referred to it by the Chief Justice.

Magistrates' Courts are set up under the Magistrates' Courts Act 1947 and possess an extensive jurisdiction in both civil and criminal cases and domestic proceedings. The jurisdiction of the court is exercised by stipendiary magistrates, whose number is limited by statute to 50, there being 47 at present holding office. Justices of the peace can sit as a Magistrate's Court to hear a limited number of minor criminal charges.

Stipendiary magistrates must have been qualified as barristers and solicitors of the Supreme Court for at least 7 years. They are appointed by the Governor-General, and may be removed by the Governor-General for inability or misbehaviour only. They retire at 68 years of age.

Apart from these courts of general jurisdiction there are in New Zealand several courts with specialist functions. These include the Maori Land Court and Maori Appellate Court, which have jurisdiction in respect of questions relating to Maori land.

There are also numerous administrative tribunals exercising functions of a judicial nature and performing an important and increasing role in the legal system (a list was published in the 1971 and earlier issues of the Yearbook).

JURIES—The institution of the jury is regulated in New Zealand by the Juries Act 1908. Subject to certain exceptions, every British subject between 20 and 65 years of age and resident within 15 miles of a Supreme Court centre is liable to serve on a jury. Women have the right to exemption on request.

The list of exempted persons is contained in the Juries Amendment Act 1951. The following is a summary of the persons now exempted from jury service:

Members of the Executive Council and of the House of Representatives; judges of the Supreme Court and of the Compensation Court; judges and members of the Court of Arbitration; judges and commissioners of the Maori Land Court; magistrates; visiting prison justices and members of parole boards; coroners; the chairman of the Local Government Commission; the chairman and members of the Licensing Control Commission; officers of Parliament; clergymen; nuns; persons wholly engaged in teaching and school inspectors; barristers and solicitors; medical practitioners, nurses, ambulance drivers, and dentists; registered chemists; members of the armed forces; Police and traffic officers; pilots, masters, and crews of vessels; members of fire brigades; certain Civil Defence personnel; members of an Inland Revenue Board of Review and certain officers of the Department of Justice, including those engaged in court or prison work, and wives of prison officers.

Special juries are provided for in section 71 of the Juries Act. That section provides that in a civil action in the Supreme Court triable by jury either party may, by leave of the court or a judge thereof, procure trial by a special jury instead of a common jury. Except with the consent of all the parties, however, no action may be tried with a special jury unless in the opinion of the court or a judge difficult questions in relation to scientific, technical, business, or professional matters are likely to arise.

LEGAL PROFESSION—In December 1972 there were 2,920 members of the New Zealand Law Society holding practising certificates.

PENAL SYSTEM—The penal system exists to protect the community against those who would break the laws which are laid down so that citizens may live harmoniously together and the common good be promoted. This purpose is achieved principally through the processes of deterrence and reformation; in modern times in New Zealand as in other countries an increasing emphasis is being placed on the reformation and rehabilitation of the offender.

The paramount policy is to ensure first that those who, by reason of the nature of their offences or character of their offending, are a serious danger to society are removed from the community. Subject to that, the goal is to deal with offenders within the community wherever possible—that is, to impose sanctions that do not involve imprisonment. Where prison or other forms of detention are necessary the aim is to do as much as possible during the sentence to rehabilitate the offender and to bridge the gap between institution and free society. The interest of the community as well as of the offender is promoted by his reformation.

Treatment of Offenders Within the Community—The principal penalties available to the courts in dealing with offenders outside a prison are fines, probation, and periodic detention.

Fines—Fines are by far the most common sentence imposed by the courts in New Zealand, even if traffic offences are not taken into account. For very minor offences the imposition of a fine is the only sanction available to the courts, but even where there is power to sentence the offender to a term of imprisonment the courts often content themselves with fining him.

Probation—The legislation on probation is contained in Part I of the Criminal Justice Act 1954. The court may release on probation any offender guilty of an offence punishable by imprisonment either on indictment or summarily. Probation is a conditional suspension of imprisonment and provides the opportunity for an offender to rehabilitate himself in the community. An offender may be released on probation for a period of not less than 1 year or more than 3 years and during this time he must accept the supervision of a probation officer and observe conditions imposed regarding employment and residence, associates, and general behaviour. These conditions are automatic, but the courts have power to impose further conditions at their discretion on granting probation. This power makes probation a very flexible type of treatment and is coming to be more freely and imaginatively used. Where the offence consists of the destruction or damage of property, restitution of the whole or part of the loss is commonly required as a condition of probation. Some courts have in suitable cases made it a condition of probation that the offender do particular work of value to the community in his spare time. The probation method is widely used.

Persons on probation at 31 December were as follows: 1967, 4,166; 1968, 4,318; 1969, 4,868; 1970, 5,204; 1971, 5,878; 1972, 5,837. In December 1972, of all offenders on probation and in penal institutions, 69.9 percent were on probation.

Periodic Detention—The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1962 made provision for sentences of periodic detention. Pursuant to this legislation residential work centres have been set up in Auckland, Otahuhu, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill. Some of these are available for offenders under 21 years, and some for adults generally. Where the Act applies, any person of the ages specified who is convicted of an offence punishable by imprisonment or who wilfully refuses to pay a fine may be sentenced to periodic detention for any term up to 12 months Under the sentence he is required to attend a work centre on a certain number of occasions each week and while in custody must attend classes or groups, undergo physical training, or perform work either in the centre or outside it. Work outside a centre may be at a hospital or school, at the home of an elderly or infirm person, or on Crown or local authority property. Work centres for young people provide sleeping accommodation as well as other facilities, and in practice such offenders sentenced to periodic detention are usually required to attend during the whole of a weekend. Non-residential centres have been opened at Auckland, Christchurch, Hamilton, Lower Hutt, New Plymouth, Otahuhu, Papakura, Wellington, Whangarei, Tokoroa, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Palmerston North, Wanganui, Petone, Dunedin, and Invercargill. At 31 March 1972 there were 720 detainees reporting.

Other Powers of the Court—Although not sentences in the strict sense various other means are available to the courts in dealing with offenders whose offences are not serious. They include conviction and discharge, the effect of which is that the offender has a conviction recorded against him but no sanction is imposed, and conviction coupled with an order that the offender come up for sentence if called upon within a specified period. This is a suspension of punishment conditional upon good behaviour but is not subject to the positive conditions of a probation order.

Finally the court, although it may find an offender guilty, may discharge him without conviction if it considers the offence to be of a trivial or technical character.

Detention in Penal Institution—The sentences of detention which the courts may now impose are as follows—

  1. Borstal training, which means detention in a borstal institution for an indefinite period not exceeding 2 years. The offender must be at least 17 years (in special cases 15) but under 21 years. The time of his release is decided by the appropriate Borstal Parole Board, which must consider his case from time to time. After his release he is on probation for 12 months.

  2. Detention in a detention centre, the term fixed by statute being 3 months. The offender must be at least 16 but under 21 years of age, and he may earn up to 1 month's remission of his sentence by good conduct. After his release the offender is on probation for 12 months.

  3. Imprisonment for a stated number of years or for life. An offender sentenced to imprisonment for a fixed term may earn remission of up to one-quarter of his sentence, or, in exceptional circumstances, up to one-third.

  4. Preventive detention, which means detention in prison for an indefinite term to be decided by the Prisons Parole Board, but in any event not less than 7 years. This sentence may be imposed on conviction for certain sexual offences if the offender has been convicted for a sexual offence on at least one previous occasion. The offender must be 25 years of age or over. After serving 7 years of his sentence the offender may be released on probation on the recommendation of the Parole Board, provided the board is of opinion that he is not likely to resume his criminal career. The period of probation in each case extends for life. Preventive detention was restricted to sexual offenders by the Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967. Hitherto, it had been available for persistent offenders in a number of other cases.

Restrictions on Imprisonment—The policy is to restrict detention of offenders in an institution as far as is practicable consistent with the protection of the community from dangerous criminals. In particular short-term imprisonment is usually open to objection on several counts. The Criminal Justice Amendment Act 1967 accordingly provides that no court is to sentence any person to imprisonment for a term of less than 6 months unless, having regard to the nature of the offence and all the circumstances of the case, the court is of opinion that no other punishment than imprisonment is appropriate.

CRIMINAL JURISDICTION: Court of Appeal—The law relating to criminal appeals from the Supreme Court is contained in the Crimes Act 1961.

If it allows an appeal, the Court of Appeal may quash the conviction, vary the sentence, or order the case to be retried in the Supreme Court.

Applications filed in criminal cases and the results of the appeals are shown in the following table.

YearApplications FiledSentence VariedAppeal Dismissed or Disallowed
1,967821666
1,9681081494
1,969861472
1,9701041886
1,97111110101
1,9721021785

Supreme Court—Criminal cases in the Supreme Court are of two classes—those in which the accused person has pleaded guilty in the Magistrate's Court and has been committed to the Supreme Court for sentence or has been committed for trial and subsequently changed his plea to guilty, and those actually tried in the Supreme Court.

The following table gives a summary of criminal cases dealt with in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 6 years. Frequently a series of charges is preferred against the one offender and this serves to explain the distinction between total cases and distinct persons.

YearTried in Supreme CourtSentences in Case of Committal for SentenceTotal SentencesTotal
Indictments and InformationsConvictions
MFMFMFMF
Total Cases
1,9671,00081487471911167858736
1,9681,468538573544341,300391,339
1,9691,112916032644091,043351,078
1,970755178395123677291,0721521,224
1,9711,0596450831604101,112411,153
1,9721,2918675239576141,328531,381
Distinct Persons
1,967410332462050229622318
1,968432222671368333516351
1,969390242411256529717314
1,9703353121816119733723360
1,9713633123616147538321404
1,9724293029120156944729476

Of the 459 distinct persons indicted during 1972, 311 were convicted, 4 are awaiting trial, and 114 acquitted, and the prosecution was not proceeded with in the remaining 30 cases.

The next table summarises the offences of persons convicted and sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 6 years.

YearTotal Convictions and SentencesDistinct Persons Convicted and Sentenced
Offences Against the PersonOffences Against Property and ForgeryOther OffencesTotalOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property and ForgeryOther OffencesTotal
1,9672284525673613714338318
1,9682321,025821,33912618936351
1,969219790691,07813015925314
1,970269898571,22414017545360
1,9712697701141,15316418060404
1,9723109471241,38119521467476

The table which follows shows the number of distinct persons sentenced in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years classified according to the principal types of offences.

Type of Offence19681969197019711972
*Includes persons charged with murder but convicted of manslaughter.
Murder42752
Attempted murder23113
Manslaughter*496612
Traffic offences involving death or injury44315
Assaults and wounding45485881109
Sexual offences5860586457
Other offences against the person94767
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering8067647573
Theft, receiving, and fraud85788484110
Other offences against property1011201923
Forgery and uttering143728
Other offences3625456067
Totals351314360404476
Per 10,000 mean population1.271.131.281.411.63

Sentences imposed in the Supreme Court during each of the latest 5 years were as follows:

Sentence19681969197019711972
*Also includes persons committed into the care of the Department of Social Welfare.
Probation (under Criminal Justice Act)3834654063
Ordered to come up for sentence1623131316
Discharged10699
Fined4862365444
Imprisoned210171233243291
Detention centre (includes periodic)*6311732
Borstal training191392420
Preventive detention4224
Detained in mental institution11
Totals351314360404476

In 1941 the death sentence for murder was abolished. It was restored in 1950 by the Capital Punishment Act but was again abolished by the Crimes Act 1961. The only crime for which the death penalty may be imposed is treason. On conviction for murder a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment is imposed.

Flogging and whipping were also abolished in 1941 and have not been restored.

Magistrates' Courts—Magistrates deal with the majority of indictable offences. They have jurisdiction over all crimes against property and all but the most grave of other crimes, such as treason, homicide, rape, and perjury. If the magistrate deals summarily with an indictable offence, he may impose a sentence of imprisonment of up to 3 years or a fine of up to $1,000, or both. A magistrate may, however, decline to deal with an offence summarily, in which case the accused is committed for trial in the Supreme Court in the ordinary way. The accused person has, moreover, the right to claim jury trial if he is charged with any offence, indictable or summary, punishable by imprisonment for more than 3 months.

The following table classifies the convictions in Magistrates' Courts into more common offences or groups of offences for the latest 5 years. The figures refer to total charges, with the corresponding number of distinct cases following the totals in each year. There were 27,533 charges against females in the 261,521 total charges and 24,092 females in the 211,595 distinct cases for 1972.

Type of Offence19681969197019711972

*Counting only the principal offence in cases where a person is charged simultaneously with two or more offences.

†Excludes offences of negligence or drunk in charge causing death or injury; conversion; drunk in charge including excessive blood alcohol; failing to take breathalyser or blood tests; failing to stop after accidents involving injury.

‡From 1 April 1969 excludes overparking offences and from 1 July 1971 some speeding offences, both being handled by traffic controlling authorities and previously dealt with as court cases.

§Not offences; included only for administration purposes. Since 1 January 1970 maintenance, separation, and paternity orders have been returned separately under the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, statistics for which may be found at the end of this section.

Common assault2,3412,3132,6033,085*3,405
Sexual offences706600558638*693
Other offences against the person1,1071,4481,6071,722*1,874
Theft6,8306,6686,7177,3897,456
Wilful damage1,1791,2311,3171,4801,751
Other offences against property (including forgery)10,2119,53810,55611,76712,321
Drunkenness (including drunk in charge, etc.)4,9994,1724,1433,7583,111
Offensive conduct or language, and vagrancy4,7985,1685,8476,0395,328
Other offences against good order1,0733,1224,3856,2477,472
Breach of probation639737880937819
Offences relating to dangerous drugs183170235481532
Failing to pay maintenance2,0962,0641,2281,3181,510
Other offences relating to administration of justice, drugs, etc.9608741,0641,2911,123
Failing to furnish return and making false return of land and income1,7211,9861,8251,7133,302
Unlawfully on licensed premises and other breaches of Licensing and Sale of Liquor Act7,4787,0606,0867,2547,028
Deserting merchant ships1341551739552
Other offences5,8966,7046,3366,4877,497
Sub-totals52,35154,01055,56061,70165,274
Minor traffic offences203,003171,440159,655179,230166,457
Application for prohibition order§651605595176218
Applications for maintenance, separation order, etc.§1,1771,301136
Application for paternity order§38940028
Totals257,571227,756215,974241,107231,949
Distinct Cases*217,357189,326176,851199,732190,019
Rate per 10,000 mean population for convictions, excluding minor traffic offences and applications190.1194.3197.0215.4223.8

The next table classifies the result of hearing in all distinct cases heard in 1972.

Result of HearingOffences Against the PersonOffences Against Property, Forgery and CurrencyOffences Against Good OrderOffences Affecting Administration of Justice, etc.Other OffencesTotal

*Minor traffic offences accounted for 138,998 of the cases where fines were imposed.

†Mostly orders made.

Committed for trial or sentence16732326575578
Imprisonment5261,369890287833,155
Detention in detention centre9128289452509
Periodic detention19362037042231,248
Detention in borstal institution, etc.8044165644654
Released on probation4822,014576130613,263
Convicted and ordered to come up for sentence if required359488321166421,376
Fined*3,0374,930150,40190513,033172,306
Convicted and discharged (or pay costs)1994614,5593467466,311
Suspended imprisonment (maintenance cases)1,0841,084
Miscellaneous1635291761158
Dismissed, withdrawn, or struck cut8081,23114,1601,5991,56319,361
Discharged under section 42 of Criminal Justice Act204514648621641,592
Total distinct cases6,16212,708172,1344,80415,787211,595

Traffic Offences—Traffic offences form a large proportion of summary convictions. The most frequent traffic offences dealt with are breaches of parking regulations and excessive speed. Since 1 April 1969 parking infringements which result merely from overstaying a time limit have been dealt with outside the criminal law and from 1 July 1971 some local authorities and the Ministry of Transport have imposed speeding infringement penalties.

The following table analyses all traffic convictions dealt with in Magistrates' Courts for the latest 5 years.

Offence19681969197019711972

*Excludes trailers and caravans.

†Drop from previous years is due to a change in legislation.

Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing death62811069498
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle causing injury135144166206215
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing death21549
Driving, or in charge of, motor vehicle under the influence of drink or drugs causing injury35786
Failing to stop motor vehicle after accident involving bodily injury9812289156242
Unlawfully converting vehicle to own use1,4981,2971,6941,8031,898
Driving, or in charge of, motor or other vehicle under the influence of drink or drug1,4262,2134,2735,7366,636
Exceeding speed limits55,67150,86245,42747,90232,808
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of motor vehicle29,83929,81728,60633,42833,138
Reckless, dangerous, or careless use or driving of other vehicle238196196139111
Incorrect lighting of vehicles7,2536,3245,5985,6755,841
Offences relating to the registration, etc., of motor vehicles15,04911,9877,8329,0419,685
Offences relating to driver's licence14,57615,97717,57219,37717,597
Breaches of parking regulations56,53331,68626,00634,35534,072
Other traffic offences23,84425,02128,41829,30233,205
Totals206,227175,733165,995187,226175,561
Convictions per 1,000 of mean population74.9063.2158.8765.3660.19
Convictions per 1,000 motor vehicles*181.13152.98137.33147.14130.13

The previous table excludes the more serious cases involving death or injury, which are sent forward to the Supreme Court for trial or sentence. In 1972 two cases were sent forward, one being for reckless or dangerous driving causing death and the other for drunken driving causing injury.

Disqualifications of drivers by length of disqualification are shown in the following table.

Period for which Driver Disqualified196719681969197019711972
*In addition there were 4,034 probationary licence holders disqualified. The decrease of 981 on 1971 figures (5,015) is accounted for by the revoking of regulations relating to probationary motor drivers' licences as from 10 August 1972, figures included from this date onwards relate only to probationary motor cyclists.
Under 3 months3,1922,4432,1862,6612,5622,118
3 months and under 6 months4,1665,2305,9966,1464,5814,638
6 months and under 1 year1,4671,3392,3303,3234,6635,411
1 year and under 2 years2,4962,4283,2174,4804,0955,026
2 years and under 3 years4084945309691,0451,128
3 years and under 4 years1,0931,3089981,197513408
4 years and under 5 years949751943334
5 years and over135141117122165140
Total disqualifications13,05113,48015,42518,99217,657*18,903

Drunkenness—The following table shows the number of convictions for all types of drunkenness, together with the rate per 1,000 of mean population, for each of the latest 5 years.

YearConvictions for DrunkennessPer 1,000 of Mean Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
1,9684,8141854,9993,510.131.82
1,9694,0011714,1722.880.121.50
1,9703,9591844,1432.810.131.47
1,9713,6021563,7582.520.111.31
1,9723,6021673,1112.020.111.07

Repeated (or duplicate) convictions against the same person are included in the statistics shown in the preceding table, but the figures do not include cases of application for prohibition orders of which there were 218 in 1972, 176 in 1971, and 595 in 1970. In addition 5,859 persons were convicted of driving or attempting to drive with excessive blood alcohol concentration in 1972, compared with 4,894 in 1971.

Offences by Women—Of the 261,521 charges dealt with in the Magistrates' Courts in 1972, 27,533, or 10.5 percent, were preferred against females. This figure showed an increase of 420 from the 1971 total of 27,113.

Most of the offences for which summary convictions are entered against women are of a relatively trivial nature, such as minor breaches of traffic regulations.

Convictions for more serious offences are set out in the following table.

Offence19681969197019711972
Common assault625565104134
Drunkenness149151184156167
Burglary, breaking and entering, etc. ..29681106104109
Theft1,4461,3801,5711,7711,884
Fraud and false pretences406247386534462
Offensive conduct or language183197251273245
Vagrancy328262271259148

Women received into prison under sentence during 1972 numbered 310 compared with 289 in 1971. The more prevalent offences concerned were (with the previous year's figures in parentheses); robbery and stealing from the person, 16 (3); burglary, breaking and entering, etc., 18 (18); theft, 66 (59); fraud and false pretences, 18 (18); vagrancy, 20 (41); failing to pay fine, 71 (54); breach of probation, (24); common assault, 10 (9).

Assessment of Crime—One important index of crime in the community is the number of those who are convicted of offences. This gives a useful guide to the amount of crime, providing the proportion of crime reported and the proportion of known crime whose perpetrators are detected remains more or less constant. This, of course, may not be a justified assumption. A greater number of court convictions might mean merely more efficiency by the police and a greater willingness on the part of the public to report offences that previously went unreported. Care should therefore be taken to avoid reading too much into figures for court convictions.

Over the latest 10 years 1963 to 1972 the number of convictions in the Magistrates' Courts (excluding minor traffic offences) increased by 39.1 percent in relation to the population. The trend over most categories of serious crime has been upwards. The number of persons with convictions against property (including forgery) in the Magistrates' Courts increased by 90 percent. For burglary, breaking and entering 61 percent more were convicted in 1972 than in 1963. For offences against the person (of which common assault, and assaulting, resisting, or obstructing the police are the more frequent offences) convictions have more than doubled. The phenomenon of increasing serious crime is not confined to New Zealand, and indeed the situation is much worse in many overseas countries.

History and current experience alike testify that crime almost invariably flourishes in large cities, particularly those that are growing rapidly, and drawing large numbers of young people from a less sophisticated environment. This is less a penal problem than a social one. In New Zealand it has occurred to a marked degree only recently.

The following table gives an annual comparison by ages of the persons sentenced to penal institutions. In 1965, 32 percent of persons sent to prison were 20 years of age or younger; in 1972 the proportion had risen to 41 percent. Similarly, 65 percent of those imprisoned in 1965 were under 30 years of age, in 1972 the proportion had risen to 74 percent.

Age in Years19651969197019711972
152825568869
16117165223317321
17228343380474485
18267378454508490
19241312427454464
20238287437509442
21–247227971,0441,2151,113
25–29459499600701702
30–34313335387421436
35–39271244253298296
40–44227224222254239
45–49158141196205199
50–541269595150129
55–596854585853
60–643830162739
65–69127121219
70 and over74145
Totals3,5203,9404,8615,6955,501

PROBATION—The following figures show the numbers of persons placed on probation during each of the latest 11 years.

YearNumber Admitted to Probation
1,9621,978
1,9632,162
1,9642,024
1,9652,456
1,9662,773
1,9673,033
1,9683,345
1,9693,794
1,9704,062
1,9714,274
1,9724,687

The next table gives the number of offenders in each group placed on probation during 1971, together with the period of their probation.

Age in YearsPeriod of ProbationTotal
1 Year15 Months18 Months2 Years2½-3 Years
MFMFMFMFMFMF
*Includes 6 offenders with 16 months probation.
Under 201,0082171033737172461954372,352494
20–24411702842634016626161884141
25–2912927141061262610332148
30–399520314617521817221558
40–494182283197419419
50–5918691651388
60–69623211123
70 and over
Totals1,70835015281,192*24576815396153,916771

PRISONS AND PRISONERS—The New Zealand prison population is accommodated in 33 institutions comprised of 17 prisons, 6 borstals, 3 detention centres, and 7 police jails. Any person serving a sentence of not more than 30 days may be detained at any police station, which is also deemed to be a prison for that period.

The prison population during the year 1972 is shown in the following table.

CategoryMalesFemalesTotal
Persons in prison at January 19722,5131232,636
Receptions during the year (including multiple receptions of the same person, but excluding transfers)10,10368510,788
Discharges during the year (including multiple discharges of the same person, but excluding transfers)10,19969610,895
Persons in prison at 31 December 19722,4171122,529
Daily average number of prisoners2,5231202,643

The number of inmates in penal institutions reached a peak in early 1972, gradually declined during the following 6 months and dropped sharply at the end of the year. Offenders in custody in December 1972 were the lowest total for 2 years.

Not all prisoners received were actually persons undergoing sentence on conviction for criminal offences. Many, for example, are in custody awaiting their trial. In 1972, 211 debtors were released after being detained or imprisoned for non-payment of debt following a court order; 58 were classed as mental defectives and transferred to mental hospitals, while 4,444 persons were not returned to prison after release for hearing of the charge, being acquitted, fined, placed on probation, etc.

The following table analyses the ages and offences of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1972.

Age, in YearsOffences Against the PersonBurglary, Theft, and FraudConversion, Wilful Damage, etc.Vagrancy and DrunkennessOther OffencesTotal
Sexual OffencesAssaultsOther
Under 2.13821847804362617412,271
21–242510335303101255211,113
25–292164202013525336702
30–393148221872351370732
40–4917202120745227438
50–591234722890182
60 and over621792963
Totals1504561281,6795302442,3145,501

The next table gives particulars of ages and length of sentence of distinct persons received into prison under sentence during 1972.

Age, in YearsLength of Sentence
Under 1 Month1 Month and Under 3 Months3 Months and Under 12 Months1 Year and Under 3 Years3 Years and Under 5 Years5 Years and OverOtherTotal

*Includes detention in a detention centre.

†Includes borstal detention.

‡Sentenced to life imprisonment.

Under 21259227792*94830152,271
21–24241242368222231611,113
25–29139186209134259702
30–391821912011143842732
40–491211061327081438
50–596042472751182
60 and over18161312463
Totals1,0201,0101,7621,5271334635,501

The special types of detention (or imprisonment) imposed during 1970 are included in the previous table. The following table gives these special types of detention by age of detainee at the time of conviction.

SentenceAge in Years
15161718192021–2425–5455–59Total
Borstal training—
    Males58128213170123452739
    Females521181510574
Detention centre41381631319433563
Preventive detention

Of the total of distinct persons received into prison in 1972, 80.4 percent had been convicted for an offence on at least one previous occasion, and 43.2 percent of these had been convicted more than six times.

The number of prisoners received to serve a sentence imposed during the year 1972 for criminal offences was 6,083 but deducting multiple receptions of the same prisoner, the number of distinct persons was 5,501 (5,191 males and 310 females). The corresponding total for 1971 was 6,395 and there were 5,695 distinct persons (5,406 males and 289 females).

An analysis is given below of distinct persons received into prison according to nature of sentence imposed for the 5 latest years.

Nature of Sentence19681969197019711972
Imprisonment3,3612,9323,6544,2444,125
Detention centre344397442558563
Borstal training616609764889813
Preventive detention4214
Totals4,3253,9404,8615,6955,501
        Rate per 10,000 of mean population15.6914.1517.2119.8818.70

The next table shows the number of persons in prison at 31 December in each of the latest 11 years.

At 31 DecemberPersons in JailProportion per 10,000 of Population as at 31 December
Undergoing SentenceOn Remand and Awaiting Trial, etc.TotalUndergoing SentenceTotal in Prison
1,9621,704561,7606.857.07
1,9631,744601,8046.867.09
1,9641,685721,7576.496.76
1,9651,652501,7026.246.43
1,9661,897671,9647.077.32
1,9671,977762,0537.247.52
1,9682,021722,0937.337.59
1,9691,963842,0477.057.35
1,9702,282832,3658.088.37
1,9712,544922,6368.889.20
1,9722,447842,5318.398,68

PRISONS POLICY: Classification—The key to successful prison work lies in understanding the individual prisoner, and in order to assist the prisons administration to this end, classification boards operate in the three main reception centres, Mt. Eden Prison, Wellington Prison, and Christchurch Prison, and in Wi Tako Prison, an institution for those in prison for the first time.

A census of convicted persons under the official jurisdiction of the Department of Justice was taken as at midnight on 4 July 1972. The census covered the categories listed in the following table.

CategoryMalesFemalesTotal
Sentenced persons—
    In custody—
        Prisoners1,605401,645
        Borstal trainees71668784
        Detention centre9393
    In the community—
        Periodic detainees473473
        Probationers and parolees6,3021,0637,365
Total sentenced persons9,1891,17110,360
Unsentenced persons—
    Remands13913152
Total persons9,3281,18410,512

For prisoners only, the terms of the sentences were as follows.

Length of SentenceMalesFemales
Under 6 months19913
6 months and under 1 year31210
1 year and under 3 years69811
3 years and over3966
Totals1,60540

This shows the accumulation in prison of persons with longer sentences. It gives a more useful indication of the sort of populations with which prison officers have to deal.

The census revealed that a high proportion of persons included had had previous penalties. As would be expected this was most marked among prisoners. Seventy-two percent of male prisoners (42 percent of females) had been in penal custody before the present sentence. (Penal custody included prison, borstal, or detention centre.)

Comparable figures for males in other statuses were 31 percent of borstal trainees, 24 percent of probationers and parolees, 23 percent of periodic detainees, and 2 percent of detention centre detainees.

The great majority of persons in the census were aged 24 years or less—73 percent of the total. All sentenced persons by sex and age group are given in the next table.

Age group (years)MalesFemales
15–193,808606
20–242,806321
25–291,00288
30 and over1,573156
Totals9,1891,171

In general the level of education reached by the persons in the Department of Justice census was low. Only 22 percent of male and 24 percent of female sentenced persons remained at school beyond form IV. (Out of school-leavers in 1972, 50 percent remained at school beyond form IV level.)

Educational LevelMalesFemales
Illiterate19
Special School12312
Primary1,232152
III Form1,957260
IV Form3,058387
V Form1,705235
VI and VII Forms20640
Secondary, not otherwise specified60622
University723
Technical/Tertiary174
Not known19456
Totals9,1891,171

Every man sentenced to imprisonment for a term of 6 months or more (or in some cases for shorter terms) comes before the classification board which can call upon a chaplain, psychologist, psychiatrist, education officer, probation officer, or any other form of specialist service to assist in defining the offender's character and potential and advise upon the most hopeful form of treatment while he is in prison.

Measures Employed in Treatment: Vocational Training—Prisoners are put to work on some form of constructive employment, whether it be industrial production in a secure institution or food production on a prison farm. In addition, and particularly for the younger offender, an attempt is made to teach some trade skills.

Non-vocational Training—A variety of evening activities have been introduced into the prisons and training benefit is derived from these activities, whether they be recreational, educational, cultural, individual, or collective.

There are full-time teachers in Auckland Prison, Mt. Eden Prison, Christchurch Prison, Tongariro Prison Farm, Wi Tako Prison, Waikeria and Waipiata Youth Centres, Arohata and Invercargill Borstal Institutions, and part-time teachers in many other institutions. It is their task to seek to improve the general education of those prisoners who have been unable to reach the level of Form II, and also to assist those who are undertaking further education or technical courses through a Correspondence School. The interest shown in education is encouraging, since in many cases it fits a prisoner for better employment on his release and thereby helps to reduce the chances of his further offending.

All institutions receive at regular intervals a supply of well-chosen books from the National Library Service and, in addition, inmates are permitted a free use of the library's request service.

Group Therapy—Group discussions are part of the programme of institutions. These groups of about seven or eight inmates meet regularly with an officer under informal conditions to discuss their problems and attitudes.

The leadership of a group is not confined solely to professional psychologists. Many are led by selected custodial officers who receive subsequent help and guidance from professional staff.

The primary aim of a group discussion is to help inmates to come to a closer understanding of themselves and their problems. At the same time the groups also encourage inmates to form constructive relationships with officers.

Earnings—All prisoners are credited with modest earnings based on a system of marks assessed according to diligence and conduct. A portion of the earnings may be spent on tobacco, confectionery, and toilet necessities in a prison canteen, and this provides an incentive to good work and conduct. At the same time the loss of this privilege is a useful disciplinary measure.

Punishments—An inmate charged with one of the less serious offences against discipline appears before the superintendent, who may impose a penalty or in his discretion refer the case to a visiting justice or to the court. A visiting justice may deal with all cases of offences against discipline and must deal with those which are outside the jurisdiction of the superintendent, unless he thinks they should be brought before the court. His powers of punishment are wider than those of a superintendent. The provisions as to offences and punishments are the same for both prisons and borstals.

Pre-release Hostels—The setting up in 1961 of the first pre-release hostel at Invercargill for male borstal inmates was an important step forward toward the goal of bridging the gap between the wholly controlled life of the penal institution and the responsibilities and temptations of free society. Further pre-release hostels have been established for male borstal inmates at Auckland, Hamilton, and Wellington, at Auckland and Christchurch for adult male inmates, and one in Wellington for female borstal inmates. Selected inmates are sent to these hostels during the last part of their sentence. They live at these hostels and spend their leisure time there under supervision while working in the community.

Release to Work—Under the Penal Institutions Amendment Act 1961, inmates may be released during the day to engage in private employment. The selection of inmates for this privilege is made on the recommendation of the superintendent of a penal institution, by a special committee chaired by a magistrate. The inmates are required to contribute part of their wages towards the cost of their maintenance in the institution and part may also be withheld in satisfaction of outstanding fines or debts. The balance is made available to their dependant or is held by the Department of Justice for payment upon final release.

Post-release Care—Offenders serving a sentence of borstal training, preventive detention, or imprisonment for 12 months or more are discharged on probation. For a period of time they must be under the supervision of a probation officer and, during any part of that period falling within the maximum period they could have been detained in an institution, are subject to recall if their behaviour on release is not satisfactory. Offenders sentenced to detention in a detention centre are also subject to probationary supervision for 12 months following release. The period of supervision has a dual purpose—it is the protection of the community against further offending and it is at the same time an aid to the prisoner to re-establish himself. The step from custody to freedom is a difficult one for prisoners, many of whom require assistance, advice, and discipline during this period.

An offender serving a sentence of imprisonment of less than 12 months is on probation after release if the sentencing court so orders.

Parole System—The introduction of types of sentences designed to encourage the rehabilitation of an offender or to protect society against the hardened criminal, rather than merely to inflict punishment for an offence which has been committed, has created the need for a procedure to enable a person serving one of these sentences to be released as soon as he shows that he is fit to be returned to society.

This need is filled by the parole boards which have the responsibility of reviewing the cases of all persons sentenced to borstal training, preventive detention, or life imprisonment, and of recommending, or in the case of borstal trainees directing, release on probation at the appropriate time.

There are at present five parole boards: the Prisons Parole Board, which deals with all offenders except those sentenced to borstal training, and four Borstal Parole Boards which between them have jurisdiction over all borstal trainees. The Prisons Parole Board is now required to consider the case of every offender sentenced to a finite term of imprisonment for 6 years or more (thus excluding those sentenced to preventive detention or to life imprisonment, whose cases are dealt with under separate provisions) after the offender has served 3½ years of his sentence, and annually thereafter until the offender is released.

The Prisons Parole Board consists of a judge of the Supreme Court as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, and at least one but no more than five other members, all except the Secretary for Justice being appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and being eligible for reappointment.

Each Borstal Parole Board consists of a magistrate as chairman, the Secretary for Justice, the superintendent of the local borstal institution in respect of which the board is appointed, and two residents of the locality in which the institution is situated. All the members except the Secretary for Justice and the superintendent are appointed by the Governor-General for 3 years and are eligible for reappointment.

Categories of persons whose cases were considered by the Prisons Parole Board and the Borstal Parole Boards during each of the latest 6 years were as follows:

YearBorstal DetentionImprisonmentHabitual Criminals or Preventive DetentionPerson on ParoleTotal
1,9671,641154191,706
1,9681,5924249391,722
1,9691,6733835171,763
1,9701,764442291,839
1,9712,084259162,134
1,9721,794421361,855

Of the cases coming before the boards in 1971, there were 761 recommendations made for release on probation and 11 persons on parole were favourably recommended for discharge.

JUVENILE OFFENDERS—Children's Courts were established in New Zealand under the Child Welfare Act 1925. All offences, except murder or manslaughter on the one hand, and certain traffic offences not punishable by imprisonment on the other, committed by children under 17 years are dealt with in Children's Courts, the procedure and rules of which differ widely from those of the ordinary courts. In addition, when an offender between 17 and 18 years comes before a regular court, the court may order his case to be heard in the Children's Court.

Unless no other suitable room is available, sittings of the Children's Court are not held in a courtroom and, where a Children's Court is in the same building as any other court, it does not sit when that other court is in session. Proceedings in Children's Courts are not open to the public, and no report of them may be published except with the consent of the presiding magistrate.

When a child is brought before a Children's Court and charged with any offence, it is not necessary to record a conviction even if the charge is proved. The court has power without recording a conviction to impose any penalty or make any order as if a conviction had been recorded.

The cases heard in the latest 3 years resulted as follows:

DecisionTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
197019711972197019711972
*Includes periodic detention.
Dismissed or withdrawn1,3881,5411,490870947887
Admonished and discharged4,1525,2745,1012,5223,1022,873
Committed to care of Social Welfare Department2,8312,9123,2451,2101,2701,241
Placed under supervision7,1198,0698,2593,6573,8943,532
Committed to an institution*1,4121,8992,155411567609
Fined2,7853,6493,7742,1202,6052,733
Otherwise dealt with1,8152,2942,4188471,0041,099
Total cases21,50225,63826,44211,63713,38912,974

The following table shows the number of cases dealt with in Children's Courts during each of the latest 11 years. It is shown in two ways: i.e., total charges (meaning each offence counted once irrespective of the number with which a person is charged at the one time); and distinct cases (meaning only one charge, the most serious, is counted, irrespective of the number a person is charged with at the time). All the Children's Court tables are shown in this way.

YearTotal ChargesDistinct Cases
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
1,9628,0921,3309,4223,7138974,610
1,9639,0001,41410,4144,1391,0475,186
1,9649,0991,66510,7644,5471,1955,742
1,9659,6542,00011,6544,7641,4536,217
1,96611,5122,45013,9625,5761,6567,232
1,96712,4762,63815,1145,9721,8417,813
1,96813,7783,14016,9186,6811,9968,677
1,96914,8353,15317,9887,2612,0709,331
1,97017,7853,71721,5029,1082,52911,637
1,97121,2344,40425,63810,5542,83513,389
1,97222,1664,27626,44210,3422,63212,974

Detailed statistics for Children's Court cases during each of the latest 5 years are as follows:

Type of Offence19681969197019711972

*Includes forgery and uttering.

NOTE—Distinct cases figures are included in those for total charges.

 Total Charges
Sexual offences148169144185153
Assaults342463534783818
Other offences against the person3538635967
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering4,3124,1184,6876,5016,252
Theft, receiving, and fraud5,3375,4316,3927,5908,162
Unlawful conversion of vehicles1,5622,1663,0193,2713,960
Wilful damage477471523812904
Other offences against property*126216925207255
Offences against good order1,2421,5531,8992,2402,266
Indigent or delinquent child1,9912,1092,3001,9221,590
Other offences1,3461,2541,0162,0682,015
Totals16,91817,98821,50225,63826,442
Distinct Cases
Sexual offences111128116139113
Assaults287386429632678
Other offences against the person3233584957
Robbery, burglary, and breaking and entering1,7441,7111,9752,7672,608
Theft, receiving, and fraud2,3092,4003,0273,5293,560
Unlawful conversion of vehicles5637338711,2331,305
Wilful damage215200262399436
Other offences against property*47853823381
Offences against good order8439891,2491,4421,364
Indigent or delinquent child1,6411,8492,0261,7711,437
Other offences8858171,2421,3951,335
Totals8,6779,33111,63713,38912,974

CIVIL JURISDICTION: Supreme Court—The jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is twofold, original and appellate. It has by statute a general jurisdiction to administer the laws of New Zealand. One important aspect of this original jurisdiction is an inherent power to control inferior Courts and judicial tribunals through the writs of certiorari and prohibition. This is essentially a power to determine the limits of jurisdiction of other Courts and is to be distinguished from its appellate function by which the Supreme Court reviews a case which was properly heard and determined by a lower Court. An appeal to the Supreme Court lies only where it is provided for by statute. With certain exceptions, all cases determined in the Magistrate's Court are subject to appeal to the Supreme Court.

The next table shows the number of actions commenced, cases tried, and judgments entered, together with the amounts for which judgments were recorded in the civil jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in the latest 11 years.

YearNumber of Actions CommencedCases TriedJudgments Recorded (Entered or in Cases Tried)
With JuryWithout JuryNumberAmount ClaimedAmount Recovered
     $(000)$(000)
1,9621,8911442864661,9021,037
1,9632,00814125643,0351,865
1,9641,9671062413451,601889
1,9652,183982963192,1051,181
1,9662,555892963252,4191,370
1,9672,9521662734253,3731,850
1,9682,9761573405783,5651,917
1,9692,9351332794693,9762,165
1,9703,2731143625363,2461,712
1,9713,8491203936394,4602,569
1,9723,9031083495374,7512,484

Court of Appeal—During the 5 years 1968 to 1972 there were 240 civil appeals, of which 96 were allowed, and also 3 cases removed to the Appeal Court, 2 resulting in judgment for the plaintiff, and 1 for the defendant.

Magistrates' Courts—Magistrates' Courts may now hear all claims up to $3,000, but if the parties agree in writing that the court shall hear their case it has jurisdiction whatever the amount claimed. In the exercise of this jurisdiction it may grant the same remedies, legal and equitable, as the Supreme Court.

The following table shows the number of plaints entered, cases disposed of, amounts sued for, and amounts for which judgment was recorded in the Magistrates' Courts during the latest 11 years.

YearPlaints EnteredCases Disposed of
NumberTotal Amount Sued forNumberTotal Amount ClaimedTotal Amount for which Judgment Entered
 $(000) $(000)$(000) 
1,962108,6988,92460,5374,6844,102
1,963112,6929,52066,6635,1924,472
1,964115,9029,44469,0165,1544,554
1,965112,81311,52669,6905,2444,644
1,966118,97610,99167,8055,4874,934
1,967128,51812,35173,5086,2575,425
1,968127,51713,78181,1557,5366,393
1,969115,01812,70871,4356,9166,102
1,970111,39312,93068,1606,8756,100
1,971120,38815,32675,0357,5976,663
1,972132,03620,12677,0579,5018,009

The average amount claimed in each plaint was $77 in 1962 and $123 in 1972.

COMPENSATION FOR VICTIMS OF CRIME—The Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963 introduced the first statutory scheme in the world for compensation by the State to persons injured by crimes of violence and to the dependants of persons killed by such acts. The scheme is administered by the Crimes Compensation Tribunal, consisting of a judge, or a person qualified to hold judicial office, as chairman and two other members. Compensation may be awarded in respect of any one or more of the following matters:

  1. Expenses actually and reasonably incurred as a result of the victim's injury or death.

  2. Pecuniary loss of the victim as a result of total or partial incapacity for work.

  3. Pecuniary loss to dependants as a result of the victim's death,

  4. Other pecuniary loss resulting from the victim's injury and any expenses which in the opinion of the tribunal it is reasonable to incur.

  5. Pain and suffering of the victim.

The maximum amounts that may be paid in respect of (b) and (c) are the same as those payable under the Workers' Compensation Act. The maximum amount for other pecuniary loss and for expenses is $2,000 and the maximum for pain and suffering is $1,000.

In considering any application for compensation the tribunal may take into account any behaviour by the victim which may have contributed to his injury. It is not the policy of the Act to permit double compensation, and the tribunal is therefore directed to deduct any amount that may be received by the victim or his dependants in consequence of the injury, for example, social security benefits or worker's compensation. However, the proceeds of any accident insurance policy need not be taken into account.

The Act makes provision for recovery from the offender, where appropriate, of any compensation paid to his victim under the scheme. The Secretary for Justice has a discretion to apply to the tribunal for an order requiring the offender to pay to the State the whole or any part of the compensation awarded to the victim or his dependants.

The following table shows the trend of operations under the Act.

Action19681969197019711972
Applications filed3444406776
Cases in which an award made2532334648
Amounts of awards$11,261$15,605$14,552$28,156$18,902

LEGAL AID—The Legal Aid Act 1969 introduced from 1 April 1970 a scheme of legal aid in civil proceedings for persons of small or moderate means, and gave effect to the principle that no persons should be prevented by lack of means from having his grievances heard and determined fairly by the courts of the land. The scheme applies to practically all civil proceedings other than divorce. In order to receive legal aid the applicant must have a sufficiently meritorious case. Except in special cases of hardship, every aided person is required to make a contribution of $30 towards the cost of proceedings, and he will be liable to make an additional contribution proportionate to his income and capital resources.

Of the applications received by the 19 district legal aid committees during the year ended 31 March 1973, 7,083 applications were granted, 426 were refused, 140 were withdrawn, and 198 lapsed. In the Supreme Court, domestic applications (numbering 248 out of 658 applications) represented 37.6 percent of all applications made. In the Magistrate's Courts, domestic applications (numbering 7,258 out of 7,603 applications) represented 95.4 percent of all applications made.

The amount paid out in legal aid in the year ended 31 March 1973 was $416, 334;set off against this were contributions of $59,401 from legally aided persons and recoveries of costs of $73,978. The net cost was $282,955.

Comparatively few problems have been presented to district legal aid committees. Such problems as do arise are referred to the Legal Aid Board which gives advice or makes a ruling as required in the particular case. It is expected that legal aid applications will continue to increase as the legal aid scheme becomes more widely known.

The Social Welfare Department is responsible, in accordance with the Act, for investigating the resources of persons applying for legal aid; for assessing their "disposable income" and "disposable capital" within the statutory limits and reporting to district committees on the maximum contribution, if any, that applicants should be expected to pay towards the cost of the proceedings in respect of which legal aid is sought.

THE LAW AND THE FAMILY—The work of Magistrates' Courts used to be classified as civil and criminal. Domestic proceedings were procedurally and administratively an uneasy appendage of the criminal side. Following the passing of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968, the domestic side of the work of Magistrates' Courts ranks as a separate division alongside the civil and criminal divisions. There is, for instance a separate domestic record book, separate domestic statistics, and, wherever practicable, special courtrooms designed for the hearing of domestic cases. The aim here is to achieve a procedure which, though informal, still preserves dignity.

Domestic Proceedings—The basic objects of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968 are fourfold.

The first is to empower the court to ensure that a greater measure of justice is received by parties to domestic proceedings. The court is given much greater powers to ascertain the truth. It may call any person as a witness, and may require a lawyer to be provided—at public expense—to assist the court.

In proceedings where the paternity of ex-nuptial children is in question, the important new concept of blood or genetic tests has been introduced. Though such tests can conclusively prove only that the man in question is not a child's father, the court can nevertheless be greatly assisted in arriving at the truth of such matters.

The second major aim of the Act is to encourage by all practicable means the reconciliation of warring married couples. A duty is imposed on the court, and on the lawyers acting for each spouse, to give consideration to the possibility of reconciliation, and to take all proper steps towards assisting a reconciliation. It is now possible to institute special legal proceedings for conciliation, quite separately from other proceedings under the Act.

On the other hand, the Act acknowledges as a fact of life that reconciliation procedures may fail, or be obviously hopeless. In such circumstances, separation orders are made available on broad and untechnical grounds. Legal recognition (in the form of a separation order) is now given to the fact that a relationship has actually and permanently broken down.

Third, the Act seeks to ensure that parents have an equal legal responsibility to provide for all their children, whether born in or out of wedlock. As an extension of this principle, the Act for the first time places on the father of ex-nuptial children a limited legal responsibility to maintain their mother. He may be required to maintain her for up to 5 years after the birth of such a child—in other words, till the child reaches school age. Previously, such men were liable to maintain the children only, leaving the mother to fend for herself.

The last major object of the Act is to deal with the perennial problem of maintenance, in such a way that both husbands and wives are dealt with as fairly as possible, and also to ensure that the person liable to pay such maintenance does not escape that obligation.

The basis for the making of maintenance orders has been much simplified and the courts have been given clear guidelines on the principles to be followed when making them. Also, the procedure for enforcing maintenance orders has been considerably tightened up.

The following tables give statistics for the year ended 31 December 1971 of applications and orders made under the provisions of the Domestic Proceedings Act 1968.

Nature of OrderApplicationsOrders Made

*Custody, 872; guardianship, 127. Custody order in favour of mother, 801; in favour of father, 40; in favour of other parties, 18 and 13 divided.

†Maintenance included in 436.

Separation2,706929
Maintenance3,1291,233
Custody or guardianship1,622999*
Non-molestation608241
Tenancy23083
Matrimonial home899295
Paternity1,072439
Consent to marry4732
Minors' contracts169

The following were the grounds for the separation orders: serious disharmony, 745; defendant's conduct, 129; disharmony and conduct, 49; assault, 6. Twenty-two of the applicants were husbands.

Ages at time of marriage of parties separated in 1971 are given below.

Age of Wife (in Years) at MarriageAge of Husband (in Years) at Marriage
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and overNot KnownTotal
16–19116195391427373
20–242117910027121340
25–2921440227792
30–3479176847
35–392343214
40 and over1322834
Not known..2929
Totals13939719287324636929

The next table shows, in the case of separation orders for 1971, the age of wife at marriage and duration of marriage.

Duration of Marriage, in YearsAge of Wife (in Years) at Marriage
16–1920–2425–2930–3435–3940 and overNot KnownTotal
Under 1551314
11414111435
227143512153
330253216168
43823412169
53116812361
625226211158
72115821148
82424511156
92415221145
10–1455631915163162
15–193834118243100
20–2426421162188
25 and over14281021156
Not known11516
Totals3723419247143429929

The next table gives details as to the amounts of weekly maintenance ordered in 1971.

Amount OrderedOrders for Weekly Payments in Support of—
Wife onlyChildren onlyWife and ChildrenTotal Orders
$    
Under 1931022
1–41039453
5–9239425142
10–14345756147
15–19212892141
20–242411150185
25–29181200219
30–34112177190
35–39228690
40–4912930
50 and over11112
Not known22
Totals1542378421,233

Numbers of children involved in custody orders granted in 1971 are given next.

ItemNumber of Children Involved
123456789Total
Number of orders2512831689438201521872
Total children2515665043761901201051692,137

The amount of weekly payments ordered in 1971 in the case of paternity orders are set out below:

AmountNumber of Orders
$ 
Under 15
1–24
3–464
5–6178
7–822
8–99
10–1457
15–1948
20–2428
25–299
30–395
Not Known7
Total orders436

POLICE—The Police Service in New Zealand is a national one maintained by Central Government.

The law relating to its establishment and regulation is contained in the Police Act 1958.

Organisation—The national administrative and operational control of the Police Service is vested in a Commissioner who is responsible to the Government through a Minister of Police. His senior assistants at Police National Headquarters, Wellington, are his deputy, with responsibility for personnel and development, and a second Assistant Commissioner in charge of crime and operations.

Apart from criminal investigations and the normal police duties under the statutes, other functional responsibilities include crime prevention, youth aid, training, and coping with armed offenders.

For operational purposes New Zealand is divided into 16 police districts. Auckland district, by virtue of its greater population, is controlled by an assistant commissioner. Other districts, because of their varying size, are commanded by officers ranging in rank from chief inspector to chief superintendent.

Policing is maintained by a system of mobile and foot 'beats' co-ordinated by an effective communications net which permits cohesion and direction of operations.

In addition to the enforcement of the criminal law and the Police Offences Acts, there are various statutes of a regulatory nature which the members of the Police are called upon to administer, wholly or partly, such as the Arms Act, Sale of Liquor Act, Gaming Act, Narcotics Act, Transport Act, Pawnbrokers Act, Secondhand Dealers Act. They also undertake certain inquiries and other duties on behalf of other departments of the Government service.

Police in country districts in some cases hold such additional appointments as registrars and bailiffs at Magistrates' Courts, probation officers, and honorary fishery officers.

Recruiting—Male recruits for the Police, for entry as constables, must be between the ages of 19 and 35 years. Cadets must be between the ages of 17 years and 18 years 3 months. Male recruits and cadets must have a height of not less than 5 ft 8½ in. The term of cadetship at the Police Training School is 19 months and on successful completion of the course and on attaining the age of 19 years, cadets are appointed constables.

Female recruits, who enter as constables, must be between the ages of 20 and 33 years with a height of not less than 5 ft 5 in.

All candidates for entry into the Police must pass a departmental education pre-entry test and also a medical test. They must be of good character, smart, active, and intelligent. Selection is made only after exhaustive inquiries into the character, antecedents, and qualifications of the applicants. On appointment, male and female constable recruits undergo a 3 months' course of training at the Police Training School, Trentham, where they receive training in their powers and responsibilities as police officers, fitting them to deal with the situations which may be faced on duty.

Examinations are required to be passed for promotion to sergeant and senior sergeant and to commissioned rank. Promotion through the ranks of those qualified by examination is governed principally by merit, seniority being a deciding factor only when equality in merit exists.

Members who show an aptitude for detective duty are detailed for service in the Criminal Investigation Branch. Detectives are attached to each of the 16 district headquarters and to some of the larger outlying police stations, and they undertake duty, as required, in the investigation and detection of serious crime throughout the country.

Strength—The effective strength of the Police at 31 March 1973, inclusive of 98 women police, was 3,560 (3,076 Uniform Branch, 484 Criminal Investigation Branch).

Women Police—At 31 March 1973 the women police consisted of 2 senior sergeants, 2 sergeants, and 94 constables, and these were stationed in cities throughout New Zealand.

Women police receive the same pay as the men, they are called upon to perform similar duties, and they are required to compete with the men for promotion.

Chapter 11. Section 9; DEFENCE

DEFENCE POLICY—The maintenance of defence forces and a defence potential in New Zealand are related to support of broad national objectives. Some of these objectives are relatively fixed because they reflect unchanging basic factors, such as resources, geographical remoteness, and dependence on overseas trade. Others are the products of history or circumstances; the more substantial objectives in relation to national security involve preserving the security, national interests, and independence of New Zealand; helping to maintain the stability and security of New Zealand's allies; and providing material backing to political efforts to preserve peace and to make collective defence, whether through the United Nations or through regional arrangements, as effective as possible. Defence policy has been elaborated in parliamentary papers A.19 in 1961, A.8 in 1966, and A.5 in 1972. International relationships are discussed in Section 2 of this Yearbook.

CONTROL AND CO-ORDINATION OF DEFENCE—The Governor-General as Commander-in-Chief is empowered to raise and maintain the Royal New Zealand Navy, the New Zealand Army, and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. These forces, together with public servants appointed under the State Services Act 1962, constitute the Ministry of Defence, which is responsible under the Minister for the central control of the whole field of national defence.

The Secretary of Defence is permanent head of the ministry and principal civilian adviser to the Minister, responsible in particular for co-ordinating the business of the ministry as a whole, including long-term financial planning as well as supervision of defence expenditure. In accordance with the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, the Secretary of Defence prescribes the pay, allowances, expenses, and other conditions of employment of all servicemen and public servants in the ministry.

The Chief of Defence Staff is principal military adviser to the Minister; he is convenor and chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee and conveys its advice to the Minister. Like the Secretary of Defence, he carries out inspections of the services and reports to the Minister.

Command and Administration—The Defence Council is responsible for the administration and, through the officers appointed for the purpose, the command of the New Zealand armed forces. The Defence Council consists of the Minister as chairman, the Secretary of Defence and the Chief of Defence Staff as deputy chairmen, and the Chiefs of Staff of the three services. The Secretary to the Treasury and the Secretary of Foreign Affairs are associate members. In addition, the council may from time to time co-opt officers of other departments of State. Without limiting the duties of the Secretary of Defence or the Chief of Defence Staff, the Defence Council is responsible for advising the Minister on important matters of defence policy.

Roles of the New Zealand Armed Forces—The roles and missions of the New Zealand armed forces are related to the following tasks:

  1. To provide regular forces for low intensity ground/air/naval operations in a variety of situations in our area of direct strategic concern.

  2. To provide regular forces for maritime reconnaissance/surveillance patrols over New Zealand territory and the surrounding waters.

  3. To maintain forces trained and available for use in a major emergency.

In addition, they discharge, wherever possible, a number of secondary roles, including:

  1. Assistance to the New Zealand community.

  2. The provision of defence aid, including technical assistance, to friendly governments in Southeast Asia and the South Pacific.

  3. Contributions to United Nations peace-keeping operations

Co-operation With Other Countries—To facilitate exchanges on military matters New Zealand defence liaison staffs are maintained in London, Canberra, Washington, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, Indonesia and Thailand. In addition, the head and deputy heads of the New Zealand Defence Staff, Washington, are accredited to the Canadian service authorities as advisers to the New Zealand High Commissioner in Ottawa. New Zealand officers are also employed in the SEATO Military Planning Office, Bangkok. The United Kingdom, Australia and Malaysia have service representatives attached to their respective High Commissions in Wellington and there are service attachés on the staff of the United States Embassy in Wellington. Several other countries have service attachés accredited to, but not resident in, New Zealand.

DEFENCE SCIENCE—The Defence Scientific Establishment is at Auckland and is particularly concerned with research in fields of concern to the Royal New Zealand Navy and the Royal New Zealand Air Force. The establishment also carries out metallurgical and other specialised studies related to the adaption of equipment to the New Zealand environment.

Co-ordination of defence science policy is achieved through the Ministry of Defence, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the National Research Advisory Council. Commonwealth and allied co-ordination is achieved by membership of specialised bodies.

The Defence Scientific Establishment has been responsible for useful savings of foreign exchange, both in the rejection of faulty equipment, as a result of metallurgical testings, and in enabling tasks previously carried out overseas to be undertaken in New Zealand. Electronic equipment produced by the Defence Scientific Establishment which has commercial potential has been made available to New Zealand industry for development and production and the work of defence scientists could result in the introduction into industry of new techniques bringing more economical production.

LEGISLATIVE AUTHORITY FOR THE ARMED SERVICES—The principal statutes governing the armed services are the Defence Act 1971 and the Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971.

DEFENCE EXPENDITURE—Expenditure on defence in the 3 latest years ended 31 March was made up as follows.

Item1970–711971–721972–73
 $(m)$(m)$(m)
Personnel63.0776.5779.76
Travel, transport, and communications3.953.824.94
Maintenance, operation, upkeep, and rental5.706.267.85
Materials and supplies20.8417.5019.21
Services2.582.582.81
Other operating expenditure0.690.560.92
Grants, contributions, subsidies0.040.08
Capital works2.861.651.30
Capital expenditure9.3412.2312.95
Totals109.07121.17129.82

About 74 percent of the Defence Vote is spent within New Zealand, mainly on salaries, capital works, servicing, and general operating costs, so that there is an important feedback into the economy. Attempts are being made to become more self-supporting logistically.

The memorandum of understanding signed in 1969 between the governments of Australia and New Zealand provides, in effect, for the establishment of an Australian and New Zealand defence production community and has as its aim the maximum reciprocity m defence procurement. Opportunities have thus been opened to New Zealand manufacturers not only in a wider market, but also in the identification of new industrial technologies. Since the signing of the memorandum there has been a small, but steady growth of orders placed in New Zealand for Australian defence requirements. Defence production in New Zealand will promote the enforcement of high standards of quality control to suit the exacting standards demanded by service requirements. The consequent upgrading of technology and industrial skill should be significant.

The industrial spin-off from defence spending will depend in large measure on the response of New Zealand manufacturers to the opportunities provided by the memorandum of understanding with Australia. Should these opportunities be taken, new technological skills will be introduced and the base of manufacturing industry will be broadened with a consequent improvement in the capacity to compete in export markets.

Defence expenditure is related to Government expenditure and gross national product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchDefence ExpenditurePercentage of Government Expenditure*Percentage of Cross National Product
*Excludes repayment of public debt.
 $(m)percentpercent
1,96255.566.22.0
1,96356.166.01.9
1,96458.205.91.8
1,96573.946.82.1
1,96681.206.92.1
1,96788.587.02.2
1,96887.116.82.1
1,96986.346.32.0
1,97089.726.11.9
1,971109.076.32.0
1,972121.176.52.0
1,973129.825.92.0

STRENGTH OF DEFENCE SERVICES—The following table gives the strengths of the regular forces of the three services over the last 11 years.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceTotal
1,9632,8775,0494,05811,984
1,9643,0355,5594,33812,932
1,9652,9765,3744,39012,740
1,9662,9225,5494,38112,852
1,9672,9345,6204,37812,932
1,9682,9125,8404,48513,237
1,9692,9355,7304,49813,163
1,9702,9755,7824,53013,287
1,9712,9415,6384,41312,992
1,9722,9665,4494,22212,637
1,9732,9725,4984,31912,789

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND NAVY—The Government in New Zealand has since the earliest days made provision for naval forces in its defence measures. Royal naval vessels regularly visited New Zealand waters, but these were soon supplemented by a number of Government-owned vessels, the first of which was the Australia, a schooner purchased from India in 1842. In addition, in 1877 the New Zealand Government began regular financial contributions towards maintaining Royal naval ships in New Zealand waters. In 1921 the naval forces became the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy, and in 1941 they became the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Naval Staff exercises command and control of the Royal New Zealand Navy assisted in the performance of his functions by the naval staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

State of the Navy—Her Majesty's New Zealand ships, as at 30 September 1972 were:

†On loan from U.S. Navy
  One frigate maintained in the Malaysia/Singapore area as a contribution to the ANZUK force. The remaining ships in commission are normally employed on exercises in New Zealand and overseas and undertake visits to foreign ports and around New Zealand and the South Pacific.
Frigate (Leander class)Waikato
 Canterbury
Frigates (Otago class)Otago
 Taranaki
Survey shipLachlan 
Research shipTui 
Ocean minesweepersKiamaTraining and fishery protection.
 Inverell
Motor launchesElevenFishery protection, training, survey work, harbour duties, RNZNVR Divisions.

The naval base at Devonport, Auckland, consists of the office of the Commodore Auckland (the administrative authority of the RNZN), HMNZS Philomel (the naval barracks and training establishment), the Royal New Zealand Naval Hospital, and dockyard.

The dockyard (administered by a captain superintendent) includes the naval supply depot and the RNZN Armament Depot at Kauri Point. The dockyard is capable of refitting ships up to light cruisers.

HMNZS Tamaki is the new entry training establishment for the Navy and is situated at Narrow Neck, Devonport, Auckland. HMNZS Irirangi is the wireless station and is situated at Waiouru in the centre of the North Island.

HMNZS Wakefield is the Wellington shore establishment of the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Personnel—Entry into the Royal New Zealand Navy is open to young men through the following channels:

Artificer apprenticesAges 15 years to 17 years 6 months on day of entry.
Youth/Adult entriesOver 16 years and under 25 years on day of entry.

All new entries receive their basic training in Tamaki. Technical and specialist training is, as far as possible, carried out in New Zealand, but where no facilities exist, ratings attend courses in naval establishments in Australia and the United Kingdom.

There are two schemes for direct entry as officer cadets on the General List. Candidates between the ages of 15 years and 16 years 6 months are eligible for selection as cadet midshipmen; these cadets carry out training at the Royal Australian Naval College, Jervis Bay, New South Wales, before either proceeding to the United Kingdom for specialist technical training or returning to New Zealand to attend a university degree course at the University of Auckland, followed by technical specialist training. The degree course undertaken is dependent on the specialisations which are: B.A. or B.SC.—seamen specialisation; B.E. (electrical or marine engineering)—engineering specialisation; B.COM. or LL.B.—supply specialisation.

To cater for the older age group, young men between the ages of 17 years and 20 years on 1 January of year of entry are eligible for selection as midshipmen to attend a university degree course at the University of Auckland followed by professional technical training. On completion of their training they take up appointments as trained officers in the Royal New Zealand Navy.

Suitable ratings who qualify educationally and professionally are eligible for promotion to officer rank.

Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service—The Women's Royal New Zealand Naval Service was first formed in 1942 as a wartime service. In 1949 the WRNZNS became a permanent part of the Royal New Zealand Navy. Employment of members of the WRNZNS is varied and includes duties as cooks, stewards, writers, shorthand typists, motor-transport drivers, and teleprinter operators.

Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve—There is a division of the Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve in each of the four main centres—Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin—where reservists are given the basic elements of naval training.

Strength of the Navy—The strength of the Navy was as follows:

CategoryAt 31 March 1971At 31 March 1972At 31 March 1973
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female)328292295
    Ratings2,5312,5782,580
    WRNZNS ratings829697
Total2,9412,9662,972
Non-regular Forces
    Royal New Zealand Naval Reserve officers766
    Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve all ranks299273295
    Royal New Zealand Naval Fleet Reserve ratings2,5532,2252,191

THE ARMY—The New Zealand Army is raised, maintained, and organised under the authority of the Defence Act 1971, and the policy outlined in the Defence White Paper 1972. It comprises a Regular Force, Territorial Force, and the Army Reserves.

Personnel are posted to one of the following corps:

    Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery.

    Royal New Zealand Armoured Corps.

    Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers.

    Royal New Zealand Corps of Signals.

    Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment.

    New Zealand Special Air Service.

    New Zealand Army Air Corps.

    Royal New Zealand Army Service Corps.

    Royal New Zealand Army Medical Corps.

    Royal New Zealand Army Ordnance Corps.

    Corps of Royal New Zealand Electrical and Mechanical Engineers.

    Royal New Zealand Dental Corps.

    Royal New Zealand Chaplains Department.

    New Zealand Army Pay Corps.

    New Zealand Army Legal Service.

    Royal New Zealand Provost Corps.

    Royal New Zealand Army Education Corps.

    Royal New Zealand Nursing Corps.

    New Zealand Women's Royal Army Corps.

Command and Administration—The Chief of General Staff exercises command and administration of the Army assisted in the performance of his functions by the general staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—In New Zealand the Army is organised into two commands, each of which has a functional responsibility nationwide, and is directly responsible to Defence Headquarters for the performance of its functions:

  1. Home Command—Provides the home support for the Army in New Zealand.

  2. Field Force Command—Commands and administers those elements of the Army in New Zealand which have an operational role in the event of mobilisation.

Units and staff deployed overseas remain under national command.

Training

  1. Regular Force—Officers are commissioned on graduation from officer training colleges in Australia and Britain except in the cases of special entry and quartermaster officers who are commissioned from the ranks. Post-graduate and specialist training is received either in New Zealand or overseas.

  2. Regular soldiers are trained at corps schools or depots and in Army units stationed within New Zealand and overseas. In certain cases specialist training is received at overseas training establishments in Australia, Britain, or the United States.

  3. Territorial Force—Recruits usually undergo 6 weeks' all-arms soldier training followed by 6 weeks' specialist soldier training in Territorial Force depots. To be classed efficient, all ranks are required to undertake a minimum of 20 days part-time training annually, of which 14 days should be in - camp training.

  4. Training Establishments—Units of the Army are responsible for the continuation training of all members of their units. Certain schools and depots are, however, provided to conduct basic soldier training and other formal courses in specialised fields. The majority of these training establishments are located in Waiouru Camp.

Manning—Manpower for the Army is provided from the following sources:

  1. Regular Force Enlistment

    1. Officers who volunteer to serve in the Regular Force for initial periods of from 5 to 12 years, depending on method of entry.

    2. Soldiers who normally volunteer for a minimum period of 3 years.

  2. Territorial Force Volunteers (T.F.V.)—Men between the ages of 18 and 44 are accepted for service in the Territorial Force providing that they are British subjects, are medically and dentally fit, and, if Pacific Islanders, have been granted permission to reside permanently in New Zealand. Women who are single and between the ages of 18 and 35 (nurses to age 40) and who meet the above requirements are also acceptable. In all cases voluntary service is to retiring age for rank with right of release at any time during service.

The Army is offering an initial training course of 12 weeks, which can be taken at once or in two camps of six weeks. Trainees are paid $57.26 a week for a single soldier, and $61.46 for a married man while in camp.

Strength of the Army—The strength of the Army was as follows:

CategoryAt 31 March 1971At 31 March 1972At 31 March 1973
Regular Forces
    Officers (male and female)..741742717
    Other ranks..4,7344,5444,581
    RNZNC and NZWRAC (other ranks)..163163200
Total..5,6385,4495,498
Non-regular Forces
    Territorial Force (all ranks)..11,52711,4053,155
    Officers Reserve..913864601
    Class A ReserveOther ranks5,2704,6894,725
    Class B Reserve2,0452,0761,983

THE ROYAL NEW ZEALAND AIR FORCE—The Royal New Zealand Air Force was constituted as a separate armed service by the Air Force Act 1937 and its administration was vested in an Air Department which was responsible for military aviation and the regulation of civil aviation in New Zealand. With the passing of the 1964 Defence Act the Air Department was absorbed into the Ministry of Defence.

Command and Administration—The Chief of Air Staff exercises command and administration of the Royal New Zealand Air Force assisted in the performance of his functions by the air staff as well as the integrated staff of Defence Headquarters.

Organisation—The RNZAF consists of: (a) the Regular Air Force; (b) the Territorial Air Force; (c) the Air Force Reserve.

There are six RNZAF bases, all located in New Zealand. The RNZAF is divided into two groups, namely, Operations Group which has responsibility for the operational functions of the RNZAF, and Support Group which is responsible for all RNZAF training and certain support functions. Headquarters Operations Group is at RNZAF, Auckland, and Headquarters Training Group at RNZAF, Wigram. In addition, the RNZAF provides support for the search and rescue organisations in New Zealand and the South Pacific area.

The operational units of the RNZAF comprise: a medium/short-range transport squadron based with the ANZUK force in Singapore; maritime, long and medium range transport and helicopter squadrons based at RNZAF Auckland; and a ground attack squadron, a jet operation conversion squadron, and a communication transport squadron at RNZAF, Ohakea.

Technical Services—The technical branch of the RNZAF consists of aircraft, armament, and radio divisions. Technical direction of RNZAF engineering services is co-ordinated in Air Staff, Defence Headquarters. Specific levels of aircraft maintenance are assigned to bases and squadrons. A range of overhaul and repairs and some manufacture of aeronautical equipment is carried out at No. 1 Repair Depot, RNZAF Base, Woodbourne. A proportion of repair and overhaul work is contracted to civil industry in New Zealand and overseas.

Supply Support—Spares and equipment required by the RNZAF are provided through the support branch of Defence Headquarters, which is also responsible for the control and administration of catering and movements. The main sources of supply for technical spares equipment are the RAF and United States services.

Personnel: Regular Air Force, Officers—Candidates for commissions in the general duties (flying) branch are drawn mainly from civil life. Candidates for other officer branches are mostly selected from the ranks. After a probationary period of service, candidates are granted short-service commissions (with the opportunity of qualifying for a permanent commission later). Some personnel are enlisted as officer cadets and on completion of up to 4 years' military and university studies are granted permanent commissions in the general duties, technical, administrative, and supply branches.

Airmen and Airwomen—Service for airmen in the Regular Air Force is mainly through initial engagement of 4 years on the Active List with a Reserve liability of 4 years. Twelve-year engagements are granted to personnel who are selected for administrative and technical training under the New Zealand Certificate (NZC) Trainee Scheme. NZC trainees commence service at the Airman Cadet School, RNZAF, Woodbourne, and over a 4-year period are trained to an advanced level in their Air Force trade and at the same time qualify for the appropriate New Zealand Certificate. For airwomen, the initial term of engagement is normally 3 years with no Reserve obligation. Opportunities exist for both airmen and airwomen to extend their initial period of service either by short periods or for 20 or more years so as to qualify for a retiring allowance from the Government Superannuation Fund.

Non-regular Forces—The non-regular forces of the RNZAF consist of:

  1. Territorial Air Force.

  2. the Air Force Reserve.

The Territorial Air Force is manned by specialist officer branches and the members of the band of the RNZAF. The Air Force Reserve comprises Active Reserve personnel who either have Reserve obligations following service in the Regular Air Force or who volunteer on the expiry of this obligation. The General Reserve has no training obligations in time of peace.

Training: Flying Training—The initial training of all RNZAF aircrew and the basic flying training of pilots, navigators, and air electronic operators is undertaken at the Flying Training Wing at RNZAF, Wigram. New Zealand Navy and Army pilots, and RNZAF flying and navigation instructors are also trained by the Wing.

Ground Training—Airmen complete two levels of training, specialist and advanced. Courses vary in length and advanced training follows approximately 2 to 3 years after specialist training. Both levels of training are conducted at trade training schools. Airman cadets take an education, general service, and basic training course for 12 months at the Airman Cadet School, RNZAF, Woodbourne. Specialist courses in management and leadership for junior and senior non-commissioned officers are held. An increasing amount of training is now conducted at joint service schools and by civilian training establishments.

Officer Training—The RNZAF conducts formal courses of officer training in New Zealand at three levels: indoctrination of officer cadets; junior command and staff training for flight lieutenants and senior command; and staff training for squadron leader and wing commanders. In addition, selected RNZAF officers attend staff colleges in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Each year up to 10 officer cadets are recruited under a university cadetship scheme conducted in conjunction with the University of Canterbury where they study for bachelors' degrees. Officer cadet and university cadet training is carried out at RNZAF, Wigram, and the two levels of command and staff training are carried out at the Command and Staff College, RNZAF, Auckland.

Strength of the Air Force—The strength of the RNZAF was as follows:

CategoryAt 31 March 1971At 31 March 1972At 31 March 1973
Regular Forces
    Offices (male and female)745700713
    Airmen (male and female)3,3973,2903,320
    WRNZAF—airwomen271232286
Totals4,4134,2224,319
Non-regular Forces
    Territorial Air Force115116118
    Active Reserve551507464
    General Reserve1,1231,005933

New Zealand Cadet Forces—A reorganisation of the non-regular forces, commenced in 1970, was embodied in Part III of the Defence Act 1971. The Act established the New Zealand Cadet Forces, in their own right and not as parts of the armed forces as before.

The Act authorises the Defence Council to raise and maintain elements of the sea cadets, school cadets and air training corps and also to allocate funds exclusively for the support of cadet activities as distinct from those of the armed forces. Civil sponsoring bodies for the cadet forces, recognized by the Act, which share responsibility for the corps with the Ministry of Defence are the Navy League of New Zealand, the Air Cadet League, and the Dominion Council of the Returned Services Association. The conditions and limitations of Government support given in the Act now show the cadet forces as a youth and leadership scheme operating under the auspices of the Ministry of Defence.

The strength of the New Zealand Cadet Forces as at 31 March 1973 was 10,005 cadets and 411 cadet officers. There was a sea cadet corps of 15 open units and 10 School units, a school cadet corps of 24 school units and an air training corps of 41 open and 10 school units.

ARMED FORCES OVERSEAS—The following is a brief account of New Zealand's contributions to the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve, and of other elements of the New Zealand armed forces serving overseas since the end of 1967.

In 1968 the then British Government had proposed to withdraw British forces from South-east Asia by the end of 1971, disbanding the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve. The five powers concerned—Australia, Britain, Malaysia, New Zealand, and Singapore—accordingly examined the establishment of a new basis for defence co-operation. Ministerial meetings were held in Kuala Lumpur in June 1968 and in Canberra in June 1969 to carry forward this collaboration. The New Zealand and Australian Prime Ministers announced on 25 February 1969 that the two countries would maintain forces in the area, subject to the continuing consent of the Malaysian and Singaporean Governments.

Following the British general election in June 1970, however, the new Government announced that some British forces would be retained in the area after 1971. The other four powers, Malaysia, Singapore, Australia, and New Zealand, welcomed this announcement. The British Supplementary Statement on Defence Policy, issued in October 1970, announced the composition of the British forces to be maintained in the area.

Five Power Defence Arrangements—The Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement, under which New Zealand had maintained forces in Malaysia as part of the Commonwealth Strategic Reserve, was terminated on 1 November 1971. It was replaced by the five power defence arrangements, by which Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom separately concluded agreements with Malaysia and Singapore. Within the framework of these arrangements, and at the request of the governments of Malaysia and Singapore, the three first-mentioned nations have agreed to station elements of their armed forces in these countries. To facilitate effective control and direction and to ensure efficient and economical logistic support, these forces have been grouped into an ANZUK force. This grouping is essentially an administrative and logistic convenience for the three partners concerned and the ANZUK force as such is in no sense intended to be a five power force. The force comprises a naval and air component, an Army brigade, and a logistic support group. It is designed to promote stability in the area and to assist in the development of the armed forces of Malaysia and Singapore. New Zealand's contribution to the combined force is a frigate, an infantry battalion, and an Air Force transport squadron. Personnel are also contributed to the ANZUK Support Group.

On 5 July 1973, in commenting on the Australian Government's announcement of a withdrawal programme for most of its ground forces stationed in Singapore under the Five Power Defence Arrangements by April 1975, the Prime Minister reaffirmed that New Zealand forces would remain in the area as long as they were wanted by the governments concerned. The Prime Minister indicated that modifications would be needed in the command and logistics arrangements for our forces in the light of the Australian withdrawal programme, and that, in line with the Government's expressed wish for closer bilateral relationships with countries in South-east Asia, these arrangements will in future emphasise the national character of New Zealand's contribution to the Arrangements. It is expected that a New Zealand national force headquarters will be established early in 1974.

Thailand: In January 1966 a specialist team of some 15 men of the Corps of Royal New Zealand Engineers went to Thailand to provide capital and technical assistance under the Colombo Plan in the building of a road in North-east Thailand, from Borabu towards Buriram, a distance of 170 kilometres. In addition to providing the supervisors and instructors for the project, New Zealand provided much of the equipment for the building of the road. In October 1967 the strength of the team was increased to 21, and the attachment of 2 Ministry of Works overseers to the project was also approved.

Periodic attachments of mechanical engineering staff were made since the middle of 1969 and the Thai and New Zealand Governments have provided much additional equipment for the project, which was completed in December 1971. The road is proving a valuable asset to the region it serves.

South Vietnam: In June 1964, at the request of the Republic of South Vietnam, an Army engineer detachment was sent to South Vietnam to help in reconstruction and development projects. The team returned to New Zealand in June 1965. The following month, in response to a further request from the South Vietnamese Government, an artillery battery was sent to South Vietnam. In May 1967 this was joined by a reinforced infantry company drawn largely from the battalion in Malaysia. The company, which served with the Australian Task Force, was joined late in 1967 by a further reinforced infantry company from Malaysia, thus increasing the New Zealand forces in Vietnam to some 550 personnel. In May 1967 a joint services medical team was deployed to South Vietnam for operations with the United States Agency for International Development.

The Prime Minister announced in August 1970 that as a first step in phasing out New Zealand forces an infantry company comprising 144 men would be withdrawn without replacement later in the year. This change was implemented in November. At the same time plans were made to provide assistance with the training of Vietnamese forces; five personnel were attached to the 1st Australian Army Training Team, Vietnam, in October 1970.

In January 1971 a 25-man Army training team arrived in South Vietnam to participate in a joint South Vietnamese - New Zealand training wing at Chi Lang National Training Centre in Chau Doc Province in the Delta. Courses began in March.

In May 1971, 161 Battery, one of the longest-serving allied units in South Vietnam, returned to New Zealand. On 18 August 1971 the Prime Minister announced that the Government had decided to complete the withdrawal of New Zealand combat units by about the end of 1971. The main elements involved were the remaining infantry company and personnel integrated into the ANZAC force. The services' medical team at Bong Son transferred responsibility to the South Vietnamese in November 1971. The New Zealand Army training team and personnel attached to the Australian Army training team continued to serve in South Vietnam.

In March 1972 a second training team consisting of 16 Army and 2 RNZN personnel left New Zealand to assist a United States Army training group in the training of newly raised Cambodian infantry units at Dong Ba Thin in South Vietnam. The New Zealand team was responsible for carrying out weapons training and medical instruction but was recalled in December 1972 following the change of Government in New Zealand.

All New Zealand servicemen serving in South Vietnam have been withdrawn.

United Nations Observers: At the request of the Secretary-General of the United Nations, New Zealand has provided military observers in United Nations truce supervisory operations in Kashmir since 1951 and in the Middle East since 1954. The number of observers in Kashmir has been four, except for the period of hostilities in mid-1965 when, for a short time, New Zealand provided nine officers. The number of observers in the Middle East has varied between two and seven. In 1973 there were five New Zealand observers in the area.

Aid to Malaysia and Singapore—In addition to direct military help in maintaining security in the area, New Zealand has since early 1964 undertaken a programme of defence aid to Malaysia and Singapore.

Up to 31 March 1973 military equipment valued at approximately $923,720 had been given to Malaysia and $292,971 to Singapore, and a total of 1,055 Malaysians and 163 Singaporeans had trained or were training in New Zealand. In addition, New Zealand military personnel have been seconded to the Malaysian and Singaporean armed forces to assist with training. In March 1973 there were 10 New Zealand servicemen on loan to the Singapore armed forces.

Provision has been made for the extension of the defence aid programme to Malaysia and Singapore at an estimated cost of $450,000 up to 31 March 1975.

Aid to South PacificFiji: A Defence Assistance Agreement applies with Fiji. At 31 March 1973 there was one New Zealand Army Officer seconded to Fiji and 54 Fijians training in New Zealand.

Tonga: A renewal of the assistance programme for Tonga to last until June 1976 was approved on 9 April 1973 with a budget total over the 3 years of $30,000. At 31 March 1973 one New Zealand Army Officer was seconded to Tonga and 3 Tongans were training in New Zealand.

STRENGTHS OF ARMED SERVICES IN WAR: South African War—Approximately 6,500 troops from New Zealand served in the South African War.

First World War, 1914–18—A total of 124,211 persons (including 91,941 volunteers) were called up for overseas and home service prior to 12 November 1918. Of these, 100,444 went overseas. This total comprised 98,950 troops serving with the New Zealand Expeditionary Forces in the European, Mediterranean, or Samoan areas; 550 nurses; and 944 others (including 211 British Army reservists, 541 naval personnel, and 192 Royal Flying Corps personnel). In addition, it was known that 3,370 (not included above) left New Zealand and enlisted in British and Australian forces, while others (exact numbers unknown) are known to have joined Canadian and South African forces.

At Armistice date in November 1918 New Zealand had over 56,000 troops overseas, and a further 10,000 were ready to embark or in training.

The troops provided for overseas service represented nearly 10 percent of the total population of New Zealand in 1914 and over 40 percent of the male population between the ages of 20 and 45 years. These percentages do not take into account New Zealanders who served in the British or Australian naval or military forces.

Second World War, 1939–45—Approximately 60,000 men volunteered for service in the New Zealand forces in the Second World War before conscription was introduced in July 1940.

The net intake of men to the armed forces—i.e., exclusive of transfers between the services and of re-entries—was 194,000, equivalent to 67 percent of the male population between the ages of 18 and 45 years. In addition, approximately 10,000 women served in the forces. It is estimated that approximately 140,000 persons served overseas.

A total of 104,988 Army personnel served overseas with the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force, and, of these 99,343 (97,893 males and 1,450 females) left New Zealand on or before 15 August 1945, and 5,645 (5,491 males and 154 females) left New Zealand on or after 16 August . (Some detailed tables are given on pages 269–271 of the 1956 issue of the Yearbook.)

The following table shows the approximate strength of each of the services from the outbreak of war in September 1939 at yearly intervals until August 1945, when hostilities ceased. The figures at July 1942 are also shown, as that month marked the peak for mobilisation, there being 151,073 men in the armed forces at that time, representing approximately 43 percent of the male population of military age.

As at 31 MarchNavyArmyAir ForceAll ServicesFemale Personnel (Included in Previous Columns)
In New ZealandOverseasTotal
1939 (September)1,32018,0001,48620,39241420,806
1,9401,79129,3003,80827,6287,27134,89918
1,9413,57975,14810,21354,99733,94388,940202
1,9425,605109,38918,22882,20151,021133,2222,356
1942 (July)6,110124,77323,666104,49050,059154,5493,476
1,9437,657104,08733,77782,74062,781145,5217,302
1,94410,01872,66241,59555,03969,236124,2757,942
1,94510,41246,69835,00442,73149,38392,1145,609
1945 (August)10,46640,94231,57836,96246,02482,9864,632

CASUALTIES ON ACTIVE SERVICE—The following table gives particulars of casualties suffered on active service by members of the armed forces in the wars, etc., listed. For the Second World War the figures shown for Navy and Air Force include New Zealand personnel serving with the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force respectively. Deaths and injuries due to accidental causes while on active service are included in the figures of deaths and wounded respectively. The number shown as "missing" refers to the number so classified at the end of the period quoted.

Deaths (Including Died as Prisoner of War)Wounded and InjuredPrisoners of WarWounded and Taken Prisoner of WarInternedMissingTotal
*At 4 August 1919 this total comprised 16,688 deaths, 41,315 wounded, and 1 missing.
South African War, 1899–1902228166394
First World War, 1914–18 (up to 12 November 1918)—
    1 N.Z.E.F.16,30241,2623568458,004*
    Samoa22
    Nurses1313
Totals16,31741,2623568458,019
Second World War, 1939–45 (up to 31 December 1946)—
    Navy573170543800
    Army6,79315,3246441,2194630,026
    Air Force4,14925552032234,979
    Mercantile Marine110123233
Totals11,62515,7497,2181,2511494636,038
Jayforce (up to December 1948)1111
Korea (up to December 1954)
    Navy213
    Army37801118
Totals39811121
Malaya (up to September 1960)—
    Army102131
    Air Force527
Totals152338
Vietnam (up to 31 December 1972)—
    Army35187222
Totals35187222

PERSONS WITH OVERSEAS WAR SERVICE—Census statistics on overseas war service are now given.

Wars19661971
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Overseas service—
    Second World War143,3605,758149,118133,1667,317140,483
    First World War34,30078735,08725,01491225,926
    Japan, Korea, Malaya or Vietnam......21,61034521,955

War veterans at the 1971 census were concentrated in specific age groups: 34.9 percent of the veterans who served overseas in the First World War were aged 70–74 years and 63.0 percent were aged 75 years or over; 27.2 percent of the veterans who served overseas in the Second World War were aged 45–49 years; 29.9 percent were aged 50–54 years and 20.4 percent were aged 55–59 years.

PERSONS WITH WAR SERVICE IN NEW ZEALAND ONLY—In 1971 there were 53,265 males and 7,399 females in New Zealand who had been mobilised in the Second World War for at least 28 days in home service only; comparative figures in 1961 were 92,022 males and 8,318 females.

CIVIL DEFENCE—In 1959, a Ministry of Civil Defence was established within the framework of the Department of Internal Affairs, and three regional commissioners were appointed to implement Central Government policy within their regions. For civil defence purposes, the North Island was divided into two regions and the South Island formed a third region.

The Civil Defence Act 1962 put into legislative form the concept and machinery of a national civil defence scheme. It provided for the formation of national and regional civil defence committees, advisory planning committees, the appointment of a secretary for civil defence, and a director and deputy director of civil defence.

Various planning committees have been established and are responsible for formulating national civil defence plans for consideration by the National Civil Defence Committee prior to being submitted to the Minister of Civil Defence, who is given power under the Civil Defence Act to approve them as national plans.

These national plans indicate resources available, the particular requirements to be incorporated in regional and local authority plans, and basic procedures for action in a civil defence emergency for communications, fire fighting services, law and order, medical arrangements, public relations, supply and services, traffic control, transport, and welfare and evacuation. A plan for Government Action in Major Disaster outlines the role of Central Government and of individual Government departments.

The preparation of local civil defence plans and the establishment and training of an organisation to implement such plans and make them functional is the responsibility of local authorities. Every local authority is required by the Civil Defence Act to have an operational civil defence plan. The plan must be approved by the Ministry of Civil Defence and up-dated as changes in national plans or conditions in the area affect it.

The Ministry of Civil Defence assists local authorities by conducting training and other courses for their key personnel and also makes officers available to help them run their own courses. Training manuals and operational forms for use by local authorities are supplied by the ministry. The Government pays a $1 for $1 subsidy on certain categories of civil defence expenditure by local authorities. Examples are salaries of civil defence staff and cost of radio equipment, erection of civil defence headquarters, training equipment, first aid training, etc.

There is provision in the Civil Defence Act for the recruitment and training of civil defence police and traffic officers. During a civil defence emergency these recruits are employed on the more routine duties thus releasing the highly trained permanent personnel for more important duties related to the situation. The establishment of civil defence police and traffic officers are 3,500 and 2,000 respectively.

SECURITY INTELLIGENCE SERVICE—The New Zealand Intelligence Service Act 1969 gave statutory recognition to the Security Service which was established on 28 November 1956. Subject to the control of the Minister in charge of the service, functions of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service are to obtain, correlate, and evaluate intelligence relevant to security and, as appropriate, to advise Ministers on matters relevant to security. It is not a function of the Security Intelligence Service to enforce measurer for security. Offences under the Act include subversion, espionage, and sabotage. There is a commissioner of security appeals.

Chapter 12. Section 10; LAND REGISTRATION AND VALUATION

10 A—REGISTRATION OF TITLES AND TRANSFER OF LAND

REGISTRATION OF LAND OWNERS—Practically all title to privately-owned land and interests in land in New Zealand is held under the land transfer system administered under the Land Transfer Act 1952. This system was introduced into New Zealand in 1870 and was based largely on the Torrens system of registration of title devised for South Australia.

This land transfer system provides a simple and cheap method of recording the transfer and other dealings with land and at the same time to ensure security of title by a system of State guarantee. The mechanics of recording dealings are provided by the creation of a register, each folio of which is an office duplicate of the owner's tide. The folio or title has recorded on it full particulars of the proprietorship to the land, together with any changes which occur through transfer, death, or other devolution, and the encumbrances to which the land becomes subject. The cardinal principle of the Land Transfer Act is that the register is everything and that the purchaser gets, upon the registration of a transfer, an indefeasible title against the world.

When national or district schemes for drainage, irrigation, water supply, or sewerage which result in improvement to land are undertaken, statutory authority is customarily given to charge part of the cost against the land. These charges are recorded against the titles concerned.

Special procedures are necessary for the registration of dealings with Crown land and Maori land and these are contained in the Land Act 1948, the Maori Affairs Act 1953, and the various related Acts respectively.

The Joint Family Homes Act 1964 provides for settlements of land as "joint family homes" and wide use is made of this procedure year by year. (Sec Section 19.)

Certificates of Title Issued—The following table shows the number of certificates issued for the latest 12 years.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal
196329,724
196430,076
196535,258
196639,760
196742,692
196846,118
196942,669
197037,525
197141,639
197239,270
197344,779

MAORI LANDS—Before European settlement, all the land in the country was held by the various groups and tribes of the Maori people in accordance with their traditional customs and usages, and the land so held was described as Maori customary land. By the Treaty of Waitangi the exclusive rights to purchase such land was reserved to the Crown. Practically all of the land which was formerly Maori customary land has now been converted to other forms of title by one or other of the following processes:

  1. Purchase or other acquisition by the Crown (from whom in turn the European colonists obtained land for farms, etc.).

  2. The issue of a Crown grant to a Maori owner on the recommendation of the Maori Land Court.

  3. The issue of a freehold order by the Maori Land Court in favour of the Maori or Maoris found entitled upon an investigation of title. This process was used instead of process (b) after the introduction of the land transfer system into New Zealand.

Land which was included in titles issued under processes (b) and (c) became known as Maori freehold land.

Maori freehold land becomes Crown land if all interests in it are purchased or otherwise acquired by the Crown, or becomes European land when bought or inherited by a person of less than half Maori blood, or is declared to be so by the Maori Land Court. Provision was made in Part I of the Maori Affairs Amendment Act 1967 for the removal of the special status of "Maori land" from land owned by up to four persons and meeting certain other requirements.

Maori Land Court—The Maori Land Court consists of a Chief Judge and such other judges as the Governor-General may from time to time appoint. It is a Court of Record and its general function is to deal with problems peculiar to multiple ownership of Maori lands including the partitioning and combining of titles for better utilisation, the effecting of exchanges, directing the holding of meetings of owners, and confirming or disallowing resolutions passed by such meetings, confirming sales, and making other miscellaneous orders.

The Maori Appellate Court consists of any two or more Judges of the Maori Land Court, provided that two Judges at least shall concur in every decision of the court. With certain exceptions, the Appellate Court determines appeals, whether on law or on fact, from all final orders of the Maori Land Court.

During 1972–73 the Maori Land Court conducted 77 sittings throughout New Zealand and dealt with some 9,434 affiliations, from which a total of 27,618 orders were made. Because of the very large number of cases under the former succession system which continue to arise, the jurisdiction of the court was extended by a further 2 years to 31 March 1975.

ACQUISITION OF LAND—Safeguards have been made for long-term planning in the use of land, whether publicly or privately owned, in order to ensure that it and its resources are used to the best advantage of the community as a whole. Legislation introduced in 1968 and 1969 (by amendment to the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952) prevents, where there is an operative regional planning or proposed or operative district scheme, the acquisition by overseas interests of land of 4,000 sq metres or over designated or zoned as a reserve, or public park, or for recreational purposes, or as private open space, or for preservation as an object or place of historical or scientific interest, or of natural beauty, or any proposed such purpose and all islands or parts of islands within 150 kilometres of the mainland, and the Chatham Islands. Where there are no regional or district schemes the legislation applies to any land of 4,000 sq metres or over in area and the purchase may not be approved if the land is likely to be required for reserve purposes. The legislation also covers rural and farm land of 2 hectares or over. Here a purchase may be approved if specified conditions, directed to ensuring beneficial use of the land from a national viewpoint, or permanent future residence, are met.

The court shall grant its consent where the purchaser or lessee is a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand, i.e., who has resided in New Zealand for 2½ years and the court is satisfied that he intends to continue to reside in New Zealand. Where the purchaser or lessee is not a person ordinarily resident in New Zealand or is an overseas company, the court shall not grant its consent unless it is satisfied that: the land is not required for any reserve, public park, recreation purposes, or for preservation as an object of historical or scientific interest or natural beauty; and that the land is not an island less than 150 kilometres from the nearest part of the coast of the North Island or the South Island or forms part of the Chatham Islands. In the case of farm land, the court must be assured that the purchaser or lessee intends to conduct experimental or research work on the land which will benefit agricultural industries in New Zealand or the community generally, or that the land will be used for purposes other than agricultural with greater advantage to the community, or in the case of an individual that he intends to reside permanently in New Zealand and farm the land exclusively for his own use and benefit and has the ability and means to do this.

Part I of the Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act authorises the Minister of Lands to take in certain circumstances any farm land that is suitable for settlement, and is, or when subdivided and developed will be, capable of substantially increased production. Land cannot be taken from any person owning less than the equivalent of two economic farms, and provision is also made for the retention of land for the owner's children. The owner may object to a Land Valuation Committee or the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court to the taking of land. The court may also be called in to assess compensation for land taken if the owner does not accept the Crown's offer.

Part II deals with the control of sales and leases of farm land to prevent undue aggregation. The Act applies to sales of freehold farm land and, with certain exceptions, to leases of farm land for terms of 3 years or more. The consent of the court is required to such transactions unless the purchaser or lessee files a declaration with the District Land Registrar within 1 month of the date of the transaction to the effect that he owns no farm land, has no interest in any estate or trust owning farm land, has not since the passing of the Act transferred any farm land to any person as trustee or created any trust in respect of farm land, and that he has entered into the transaction solely on his own behalf.

The Act prevents the purchase of farm land, without the consent of the court, by a trustee for any person under the age of 17 years, or the purchase by a company or trustee for a company to be formed where the shareholders are fewer than 10 in number and any member of such company is under the age of 17 years (or where shares will be held in trust for any person under that age at the date of the transaction).

LAND TRANSFERS—The following table shows transfers registered under the Land Transfer Act during the latest 11 years. (1 hectare = 2.47 acres.)

Year Ended 31 MarchUrban PropertiesRural PropertiesAll Properties: Total Consideration
NumberAreaConsiderationFreeholdTotal Freehold and Leasehold
NumberAreaConsiderationNumberConsideration
 hectareshectares   
   $(m) (000)$(m) $(m)$(m)
196346,2776,114237.36,78245992.57,28999.1336.4
196451,9426,706299.17,269525111.07,894120.8419.9
196559,9837,368362.78,642643156.69,565173.5536.2
196661,5817,426394.09,281631185.39,927198.6592.6
196759,1516,166394.08,914644184.09,488195.2589.2
196855,8205,710390.57,566451141.28,105151.4541.8
196957,8545,621426.47,329505141.27,801150.1576.5
197063,7286,506530.78,480574184.18,896193.7724.4
197174,0207,122701.79,080628205.09,590217.3918.9
197276,5437,442786.89,106514190.09,499198.6985.4
197394,0158,8551,068.010,760620260.611,178271.91,339.9

Land being purchased for enlargement of existing holdings continues to form a significant proportion of the sales of freehold farm land sold on the open market (that is, including family sales). During 1972, 42.9 percent of purchasers of farm property in the main farming categories were farmers enlarging their holdings. Another 13.8 percent were farmers who had previously sold a farm. Businessmen buying farm land represented 5.4 percent of the purchasers while new farmers and those wishing to purchase property for non-farming use, accounted for 32.8 percent and 5.1 percent respectively of the total number of purchasers. Leaving aside the purchasers of horticultural land, the respective proportions were 46.8 percent for farm enlargement, 13.8 percent farm change, 5.1 percent businessmen buyers, 29.5 percent new farmers and 4.8 percent as buyers wishing to use the property for non-farming purposes.

For urban transfers, in the four main regions in 1972, Wellington had the highest average prices for both sections and houses ($4,467 and $15,820); followed by Auckland ($4,326 and $14,366); Christchurch ($4,452 and $12,464) and Dunedin ($2,376 and $9,455).

Urban Land Transfers—The following table shows urban land transfers by consideration group for March years.

Consideration GroupFreeholdLeaseholdAll Urban Transfers
NumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage ConsiderationNumberTotal ConsiderationAverage Consideration
$ $(million)$(000) $(million)$(000) $(million)$(000)
 1971–72
Under 2,000  10,54012.71.23370.30.910,87713.01.2
2,000–2,999  6,00914.32.41220.32.46,13114.62.4
3,000–3,999  4,99316.93.4830.33.35,07617.23.4
4,000–9,999  22,700158.07.04483.27.223,148161.27.0
10,000–59,999  24,433327.213.44916.713.524,924333.913.4
20,000–49,999  5,364143.826.81614.527.95,525148.326.8
50,000–199,999  73961.583.2292.482.576863.983.2
200,000 and over8933.4374.851.5290.89434.8370.3
All groups74,867767.710.31,67619.111.476,543786.810.3
  1972–73     
Under 2,000  10,89113.11.23300.31.011,22113.41.2
2,000–2,999  7,61918.12.41130.32.37,73218.42.4
3,000–3,999  5,87920.03.4960.33.35,97520.23.4
4,000–9,999  23,990161.16.74032.87.024,393183.96.7
10,000–19,999  32,882456.213.95277.113.533,409463.313.9
20,000–49,999  9,901265.726.81544.227.610,055269.926.8
50,000–199,999  1,11087.859.1322.579.31,14290.479.1
200,000 and over7926.0329.092.5282.78828.5324.2
All groups92,3511,047.911.31,66420.112.194,0151,068.011.4

In general, transactions included in the under $4,000 group would involve vacant sections, although many building sections are now priced above this level.

Urban land transfers involving consideration between $10,000 and $19,999 would be, in the main, residential properties, although there are many houses in the next highest group, particularly in the main urban areas.

The range of transactions involving $50,000 or above would represent mainly commercial and industrial properties.

The following table shows urban land transfers by land registration districts.

Registered in Land Registration District1971–721972–73
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
  hectares  hectares 
  (000)$(million) (000)$(million)
North Auckland25,7952.7309.631,3533.1401.8
South Auckland10,5431.188.013,4601.4128.1
Gisborne7920.16.18890.17.6
Hawke's Bay2,7540.324.83,3560.433.9
Taranaki1,7080.214.82,0230.220.0
Wellington14,3291.2162.217,7991.5232.9
Marlborough7020.15.41,0150.18.6
Nelson2,0130.216.02,1510.220.2
Westland4161.95032.1
Canterbury10,8141.0105.613,1861.2141.5
Otago4,3010.432.95,5670.548.4
Southland2,3760.21,9622,7030.323.1
Totals76,5437.5786.894,0158.91,068.0

The urban areas of Auckland are included in the North Auckland Land Registration District.

Rural Land Transfers—The following analysis shows transfers of rural freehold properties classified by size groups.

Size Group (Acres)*1971–721972–73
NumberAreaTotal ConsiderationNumberAreaTotal Consideration
*1 acre = 0.405 hectare.
  hectares  hectares 
  (000)$(million) (000)$(million)
Under 304,91615.853.65,95019.679.5
  30–494918.08.65819.412.7
  50–991,04130.724.91,15934.132.0
100–14969634.222.275436.927.3
150–24974958.227.088668.735.3
250–49962689.324.7776112.636.3
500 and over587277.629.0654338.837.5
Totals9,106513.8190.010,760620.1260.6

The next table gives average consideration per acre by size group and weighted average price per acre of rural freehold land transfers for the latest 5 years. (The weighted average price is based on total acreages transferred during the period April 1953-March 1966.)

Size Groups (Acres)*1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
*1 acre = 0.405 hectare.
 $$$$$
Under 301,238.231,300.011,422.641,370.261,640.82
30–49418.23398.66402.04434.78545.33
50–99315.25305.54339.34328.55380.32
100–249189.33209.13211.06215.72240.24
250–499107.30119.77121.15112.09130.53
500 and over28.8639.1541.4642.2944.78
Weighted overall average price per hectare272.21301.07315.80312.36373.95

The following table shows all rural land transfers, freehold and leasehold, by land registration districts for the year ended 31 March 1973.

Registered in Land Registration DistrictFreeholdLeaseholdTotal
NumberAreaConsiderationNumberAreaConsiderationNumberAreaConsideration
  hectares$(million) hectares$(million) hectares$(million)
  (000)  (000)  (000) 
North Auckland2,60383.254.5622.61.12,66585.855.6
South Auckland2,22091.467.0736.02.22,29397.469.2
Gisborne21142.64.3217.60.623250.24.9
Hawke's Bay52547.716.3365.51.556153.217.8
Taranaki56133.815.3394.91.260038.716.5
Wellington1,33088.131.9273.30.91,35791.532.7
Marlborough26028.24.32012.00.728040.25.1
Nelson36116.34.9323.20.239319.55.1
Westland713.90.6191.10.2905.10.8
Canterbury1,38186.334.6203.30.61,40189.635.2
Otago61961.912.82811.30.864773.213.6
Southland61836.614.24110.11.265946.715.4
Totals10,760620.1260.641871.011.311,178691.0271.9

10 B—VALUATION OF LAND

GENERAL—Equitable land values are a basis for many of the relations of the Central Government and local authorities with the individual. In particular they are required in connection with the following: (a) the levying of land tax; (b) the apportionment of rating levies over contributory local authorities; (c) the levying of rates by local authorities; (d) the advancing of money on mortgage by Government departments and by trustees under the Trustee Act; (e) the assessing of stamp, estate, and gift duties; (f) the fixing of prices payable to the Crown or by the Crown for transfers of land.

SYSTEM AND PROCEDURE—The Government Valuation of Land Act 1896 set up a separate Government department charged with the duty of assessing the values of real estate for taxation and other purposes of the Central Government and for local rating purposes. The present law relating to the valuation of land is contained in the Valuation of Land Act 1951, and in the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948.

The work of the Valuation Department is directed by the Valuer-General, the actual work of valuing being done by district valuers and assistant valuers. The duty of a valuer is to examine each property and to estimate (a) the value of the land; (b) the value of the buildings (if any) and other improvements (if any) upon such land; and (c) the capital value of the property.

Valuers are enjoined not to strain after high values, not to accept special prices paid for land in exceptional circumstances, but to determine the value neither above nor below the fair selling value in view of the many and diverse purposes for which the values are used.

Generally, under the New Zealand law, the increased value attaching to any piece of land which is due to the successful working of other lands in the district, or to State or local authority expenditure on public works, or to the general prosperity and development of the country, forms portion of the "land value".

“Improvements" on land are defined, with certain provisos, as any work done or materials used on or for the benefit of the land by any owner or occupier resulting in an increase in the value of the land. With the introduction of land value in 1970 (in place of unimproved value) the term "improvements" correctly speaking, includes only those items of work done or material used which result in structural additions to the property.

The "capital value" is, broadly speaking, the unencumbered market value of the land at date of valuation, and the "value of improvements" is the added value given by the "improvements".

THE VALUATION ROLL—A valuation roll is prepared for each district over which a territorial local authority has rating jurisdiction, setting forth the ownership, description, and valuation or each property, including rates postponement and special rateable values where these are required to be determined.

Revision of Rolls—District valuation rolls are revised by the Valuer-General at intervals of not more than 5 years unless for good reason he decides otherwise.

The Supplementary Roll—There is, in addition to the district valuation roll for each district, a supplementary roll for that district. Generally, all special valuations of land made during the currency of a district roll for particular purposes—e.g., the granting of loans by Government departments or trustees on the security of lands, the assessment of stamp, gift, and estate duties—are entered on the supplementary roll.

Objections to Valuations—In the case of a revision of a district roll, the Valuer-General, any local authority, or any owner whose name appears on the roll, may object to any valuation thereon. Where a particular property only is revalued, only the owner has a right of objection. If, after the Valuer-General has reconsidered the matter, the objector is still dissatisfied he may ask for the objection to be heard by the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court.

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISION OF THE SUPREME COURT—The Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948 as amended in 1968, provides for objections under the Valuation of Land Act to be determined by the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court. In addition to its jurisdiction

under the Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948, the Division hears claims for compensation under the Public Works Act 1928 and determines values under the Land Settlement Promotion Act 1952. Land valuation committees for particular localities operate under the general jurisdiction of the Division. There is a right of appeal from a committee's decision to the court with a further right of appeal to the Court of Appeal in certain cases.

If any owner who has objected to a valuation made at a revision of a district roll is not satisfied with the value of the land as fixed by the Division's order, he may, within 14 days of the sealing of the order, give notice to the Valuer-General that he requires the capital value to be reduced to the value which he (the owner) considers to be the fair selling value as specified in his notice (but not less than the aggregate amount owing on mortgages or other charges on the land), or the land to be acquired on behalf of Her Majesty, or sold, at that value. There is also provision that if the Valuer-General is of the opinion that the value has been fixed by the Division at less than the capital value, he may, within 14 days after the sealing of the Division's order require the owner to consent to what he (the Valuer-General) considers is the fair capital value, and, failing such consent being given within 30 days after notice is delivered, he may, with the approval of the Governor-General in Council, acquire the property at that value on behalf of Her Majesty.

VALUATIONS IN RELATION TO RATING—The district valuation roll so long as it continues in force is by law the roll from which the valuation roll of every local authority rating on the capital or on the land value is framed.

The third major rating system is the annual (rental) value system, where the annual values are assessed by valuers appointed by the local authorities concerned. The Valuer-General may be so appointed. The annual value is defined as the rent at which a property would let from year to year reduced by 20 percent in the case of houses, buildings, and other perishable property, and by 10 percent in the case of land, but it may not be less than 5 percent of the value of the fee simple. A new valuation roll in this regard is prepared either annually or triennially.

Parts IV and V of the Rating Act 1967 provide for local authorities to grant applications for rates postponement in respect of certain residences in commercial and industrial zones and for farmlands in counties with valuations reflecting potential use for urban development. Rates postponement values are determined either under the Valuation of Land Act or the Rating Act. According to the system of rating in force, special rateable values for non-conforming commercial or industrial land in residential or rural zones are also provided for in order that these classes of properties will not enjoy a rating advantage. Likewise special rateable values may be determined for rural or residential land or commercial or industrial areas, for single-unit dwellinghouses in areas where values are influenced by demand for multi-unit housing, and for "existing use" properties within the meaning of Section 36 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1953.

Part VI of the Rating Act provides for rating relief for farmlands subject to rates levied by borough (or city) councils, independent town councils, and county councils in respect of county towns. The Act provides that these local authorities may assess valuations for rating purposes for such farmlands lower than the normal rateable values.

Equalisation of Values—The Rating Act, Part IX, provides for an equitable adjustment of rates and of levies based on rateable values as between the several constituent districts comprising the district of an ad hoc local authority where those constituent districts have been revalued by the Valuer-General at different times. Provision is also made for equalisation to be done where the several ridings of a county have been revalued at different dates.

CAPITAL AND UNIMPROVED VALUES OF LAND—The figures in the following table show valuations over a long period of years for the whole of New Zealand; they are gross values and include the value not only of rateable properties but also of churches, schools, unoccupied Crown lands, and other lands exempt from local rating.

At 31 MarchCapital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land*

*Included in previous column.

†Includes the districts revalued after 1 March 1971 in the "land value" basis provided for by the Valuation of Land Amendment Act (No. 2) 1970 which came into effect on that date.

 $(million)
1878199.1125.1
1885226.5..
1888222.3151.0
1891244.4151.7
1897277.2168.8
1902309.6189.7
1906395.4245.9
1907473.3299.4
1909543.0345.5
1911586.2368.1
1913681.1425.9
1915742.1461.4
1916778.3482.6
1917810.9502.2
1918842.8521.8
1919891.1552.0
1920940.2581.8
19211,037.2635.3
19221,089.0658.3
19231,106.8661.6
19241,137.0667.7
19251,174.7678.6
19261,206.5682.1
19271,236.5683.0
19281,262.9670.4
19291,301.8689.5
19301,329.1677.8
19311,335.6663.3
19321,325.7643.6
19331,307.4629.1
19341,300.7619.5
19351,275.2602.3
19361,271.6591.4
19371,264.5575.7
19381,272.7564.7
19391,305.8565.6
19401,321.0557.8
19411,346.2555.1
19421,363.8553.8
19431,368.4553.8
19441,377.6554.1
19451,394.7555.0
19461,420.9558.4
19471,492.8568.5
19481,592.1583.2
19491,778.5614.3
19501,971.8648.9
19512,225.5698.3
19522,629.8788.5
19533,064.7899.6
19543,405.5974.3
19554,136.61,158.2
19564,613.21,288.8
19574,992.71,395.1
19585,354.51,502.3
19595,664.51,610.6
19606,132.51,779.6
19616,497.41,905.7
19626,945.72,061.1
19637,373.62,212.1
19647,760.42,345.8
19658,459.22,644.5
19669,085.02,865.5
19679,836.13,184.2
196810,631.63,487.0
196911,349.73,705.2
197012,515.64,170.7
197113,305.74,489.0
197214,331.35,046.3
197315,657.25,704.1

Between 1943 and 1950 values were stabilised through the operation of the Servicemen's Settlement and Land Sales Act 1943, and the increases shown in this period mainly reflect the writing into new valuations of increases which had occurred prior to 1943.

The lifting of land sales control on urban properties in 1950 and on rural properties in 1951 was reflected in the general revaluations.

In the following table the gross values and rateable values are analysed in more detail.

As at 31 MarchGross ValuesRateable Values
Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land*Capital Value (Land and Improvements)Unimproved Value of Land*

*Included in previous column.

†Includes the districts revalued after 1 March 1971 on the "land value" basis provided for by the Valuation of Land Amendment Act (No. 2) 1970, which came into effect on that date.

($million)
Counties
19684,163.31,399.13,795.51,329.2
19694,482.01,486.04,213.91,432.5
19704,855.11,586.24,564.11,525.5
19715,193.81,759.94,860.51,685.1
19725,516.62,085.85,176.82,015.6
19735,890.62,407.95,524.72,325.5
Boroughs
19686,448.92,084.95,723.61,888.7
19696,839.02,212.66,232.02,047.3
19707,638.52,580.46,953.52,384.9
19718,088.02,724.87,379.12,527.4
19728,790.82,956.18,029.12,747.8
19739,741.93,291.68,910.83,051.9
Independent Town Districts
196819.43.016.22.7
196928.76.626.26.3
197022.04.119.33.8
197123.84.420.74.0
197223.94.520.84.1
197324.74.621.74.3
Grand Totals
196810,631.63,487.09,535.33,220.6
196911,349.73,705.210,472.13,486.1
197012,515.64,170.711,536.93,914.2
197113,305.64,489.112,260.34,216.5
197214,331.35,046.313,226.74,767.5
197315,657.25,704.114,456.25,381.7

The fact that land valuations are not continuously up to date has the effect in the preceding tables of delaying the appearance of other than the steepest movements and of reducing their apparent magnitudes.

With the present resources at the Valuation Department's disposal an up-to-date revaluation of all properties in New Zealand would be an impossible task, but by using the principle of valuation equalisation, mentioned earlier, it is possible to compile up-to-date gross values by local body districts for the whole country. These gross figures have been compiled, on the level of values as at 31 March 1966; they are recorded in a research paper issued by the department and are shown in the following table.

Territorial AreasCapital ValueUnimproved Value
 $(million)$(million)
Counties4,268.01,469.4
Boroughs and cities6,218.32,105.3
Town districts18.62.9
Miscellaneous4.22.2
Totals10,509.13,579.8

A comparison of these totals with the gross values shown for the year ended 3.1 March 1966, given previously, illustrates the point that valuation statistics tend to have the effect of delaying current movements in the property market.

The next table shows the percentage distribution of area and population as at 1 April 1972, and of rateable property values between the different types of local authority districts as at 31 March 1972.

Local Authority DistrictAreaPopulationRateable Property Values
Capital ValueUnimproved ValueValue of Improvements
 Percentage Distribution
Counties99.330.739.142.337.4
Boroughs0.768.960.757.662.4
Town districts (independent)..0.30.20.10.2
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

Particulars of values for each county, borough, and independent town district in considerable detail are contained in the Report on Local Authority Statistics.

VALUERS' REGISTRATION BOARD—The Valuers Act 1948 provides for the registration of land valuers and for some control of their work. There is a Registration Board under the chairmanship of the Valuer-General, which issues certificates for registration to all valuers and annual practising certificates to public valuers. The main objects of the Act are to secure a high standard of valuation work throughout the country and to encourage competent valuers. There were 1,038 registered valuers at 31 March 1973.

Chapter 13. Section 11; TRANSPORT

11 A—SHIPPING

PORT DEVELOPMENT—New Zealand is now involved in unit and container techniques which have brought about a revolution in handling methods and a new concept of co-ordination of transport through the substitution of capital-intensive for labour-intensive operations.

An Exports and Shipping Council was set up in 1964 to promote economy and efficiency in the handling of New Zealand's exports and to speed up the turnaround of ships by streamlining procedures. Streamlining primarily involves a reduction in the number of calls made by overseas ships at New Zealand ports, and such activities arise partly from the need to offset increases in freight rates. (Outward freight on exports exceeds $100 million and inward freight on imports exceeds $70 million.) There is a cargo-handling co-ordination committee serviced by the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport and affiliated to an international association with a control office in the United Kingdom.

To ensure the control of harbour development a New Zealand Ports Authority has been established. Amongst its several functions is the fostering of an efficient and integrated ports system and, to that end, the preparation of a national ports plan.

Under this plan, harbour authorities must obtain the authority's approval for major capital projects, e.g., container cranes, storage sheds, tugs. Consents granted during the year ended 31 March 1973 involved developments costing $11.7 million.

A recently introduced feature in port development has been the introduction of offshore loading terminals (for bulk loading of ironsands) at Waverley near Wanganui, and Taharoa near Raglan.

The authority has designated Auckland and Wellington as the first container ports and both have installed containerised cargo facilities. There are also facilities at Port Chalmers. A container service to the United States began in August 1971 and to the United Kingdom in September 1972 from the ports of Auckland and Wellington. Port Chalmers is also included as one of the New Zealand container ports in one of the New Zealand - United States container runs.

Additional information to that contained in this section on port, cargo, and shipping statistics may be found in the Report on Transport Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics.

NEW ZEALAND SHIPPING CORPORATION—In 1973 a Government-owned shipping corporation was set up to establish and operate shipping services as empowered by the Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973. The New Zealand Shipping Corporation has purchased two ships of 12,227 tons, now known as N.Z. Waitangi and N.Z. Aorangi which can carry 24 and 1-8 containers on deck respectively, and these are engaged on New Zealand - United Kingdom trade.

A third ship the Coastal Trader has been purchased for roll-on roll-off operations on the Auckland - Lyttelton - Dunedin run.

PORT STATISTICS—Demands made on ports by overseas and coastal vessels are illustrated in the following table, which gives the total number and tonnage of all calls made each year.

YearOverseas VesselsCoastal VesselsTotal
Number of CallsNet TonnageNumber or CallsNet TonnageNumber of CallsNet Tonnage
  tons(000) tons(000) tons(000)
19623,60316,45710,6545,46714,25721,924
19633,76416,43311,0766,18914,84022,622
19643,56815,69010,6537,02214,22122,711
19653,45215,4869,7667,21313,21822,699
19663,60516,7839,4278,06313,03224,845
19673,33115,6219,1568,79112,48724,412
19683,49716,5388,7048,63212,20125,170
19693,64817,0708,1508,24111,79825,311
19703,75717,2587,6718,32211,42825,580
19713,55116,7407,7538,50411,30425,244
19723,77018,9677,9809,77911,75028,746

Industrial development and improved internal transport services coupled with the use of roll-on roll-off freighters between all main ports has led to the closing of some of the smaller ports and a reduction in the number of vessels in the coastal fleet. Coastal shipping has advanced to the stage where about half the general cargo is carried in units, including containers, and railway wagons. Daily return trips between Wellington and Picton by the three Government rail-road ferries has countered the fall in calls by traditional coastal vessels. (See Section 11B.)

The following table shows for the 3 latest years the total entrances of merchant shipping at the various ports. Overseas and coastal vessels calling at more than one port in the course of a single voyage have been recorded as entered at every port visited.

Port197019711972
Number of CallsNet Tonnage (000)Number of CallsNet Tonnage (000)Number of CallsNet Tonnage (000)
Parengarenga....1232211821
Houhora14251122
Awanui376305519
Mangonui244183234
Whangaroa614181
Bay of Islands632115023544186
Whangarei6282,6216092,7436782,906
Mangawhai....14222325
Auckland2,3795,1452,2695,0702,4465,889
Onehunga1949521510318096
Raglan321446234022
Taharoa324
Thames203162132
Tauranga5571,7615561,8145952,035
Gisborne11722610520276158
Napier3811,4092921,1413091,351
Taranaki373889247796209873
Waverley76517173
Wanganui1005791538252
Wellington2,2344,9772,2834,8232,4775,860
Picton1,0281,5731,0501,6401,2061,839
Nelson458612453604487652
Motueka2515
Tarakohe211129232136223137
Westport1429414699139135
Greymouth622940154016
Jackson Bay156201094
Lyttelton1,0232,9489902,7251,0453,262
Timaru228629227713209691
Oamaru743155213714
Otago3651,0213331,0613231,198
Bluff4811,0444831,0514651,085
Halfmoon Bay157441624615445
Totals11,42825,58011,30425,24411,75028,746

In the case of Wellington, Lyttelton, Picton, Bluff, and Halfmoon Bay the figures reflect the sailings of inter-island ferry services.

All Calls of Overseas Vessels—The following table shows for the 3 latest years the number of calls and net tonnage of overseas vessels arriving at New Zealand ports, either direct or coastwise.

Port197019711972
Number of CallsNet Tonnage (000) of VesselsNumber of CallsNet Tonnage (000) of VesselsNumber of CallsNet Tonnage (000) of Vessels
Bay of Islands322053723229183
Whangarei1131,4511311,5631341,612
Auckland1,0544,6421,0354,6341,0995,329
Onehunga22141682610
Raglan212121
Taharoa324
Tauranga4621,7174461,7614751,981
Gisborne371933817432135
Napier2701,2392159932441,184
Taranaki146703134632129679
Waverley76517173
Wanganui885768
Wellington5162,3284672,1244982,659
Picton25972510127110
Nelson103504103490111523
Westport9497108
Greymouth153
Lyttelton4651,9204031,6724451,914
Timaru114518113555117559
Oamaru23
Otago205829197884191980
Bluff172880167837170893
Totals3,75717,2583,55116,7403,77018,967

The inward overseas tonnages of ships in the preceding table are converted to percentages for the major ports in the next table.

Port19681969197019711972
 percent
Whangarei8.48.98.49.38.5
Auckland26.726.326.927.728.1
Tauranga9.49.710.010.510.4
Napier7.47.97.25.96.2
Taranaki3.64.04.13.83.6
Waverley0.40.9
Wellington13.813.413.512.714.0
Other North Island2.11.82.42.51.9
North Island71.471.972.572.873.7
Lyttelton10.910.911.110.010.1
Timaru4.03.83.03.32.9
Otago5.15.44.85.35.2
Bluff5.35.05.15.04.7
Other South Island3.23.03.53.63.4
South Island28.628.127.527.226.3

OVERSEAS SHIPPING: Ports of Arrival and Departure—The next table shows the extent to which various ports were made the first port of arrival or the last port of departure by overseas vessels during the last 3 years.

PortEntered as First CallCleared as Last Call
197019711972197019711972
 net tonnage (000) of vessels
Whangarei1,2581,3271,3891,2881,2711,346
Bay of Islands245149245756
Auckland3,0502,9153,5482,1162,1632,711
Onehunga10631077
Raglan11
Taharoa2424
Tauranga6937377601,0461,1171,244
Gisborne131516555052
Napier115100183399365471
Taranaki8172124224183194
Waverley6517365160
Wanganui767
Wellington8157841,129676546830
Picton172520232625
Nelson281281292196303345
Greymouth3
Lyttelton341358462298305334
Timaru8661121107157145
Otago65156256215261270
Bluff180260245283376459
Totals7,0327,2148,7986,9667,2608,679

As will be seen, in 1972 53 percent of overseas vessels (on a tonnage basis) arriving in New Zealand made Auckland or Wellington their first ports of entry, and 41 percent used one of these two ports as the final departure point. Most of the tonnage at Whangarei comprises overseas oil tankers, whose calls are practically limited to that port.

Passengers—The overseas passenger traffic is concentrated principally at Auckland and Wellington. Small numbers of overseas passengers, however, arrive at and leave from the other ports. The following table gives the numbers of passengers arriving at and departing from each port for the latest 5 years.

PortPassengers Arriving from OverseasPassengers Departing for Overseas
Year Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 31 March
1968196919701971197219681969197019711972
Auckland24,09722,21719,70123,63225,60323,23424,01121,70124,37726,067
Napier681577712543159124174118187
Wellington18,56711,0698,93110,4938,78717,26310,4358,6669,1714,016
Lyttelton16075204141660284502589253205
Otago1648189092342517
Bluff7510129428971296018075
Other4332584707171,0177582893948301,225
Totals43,41633,79029,40335,20336,14641,88535,58231,61834,95431,792

Entrances and Clearances of Overseas Vessels—The following table gives the number and net tonnage of overseas vessels entering and clearing New Zealand ports during the last 11 years (recorded at the first port of arrival and final port of departure only), and distinguishes those entered and cleared "with cargo" from those "in ballast".

YearWith CargoIn Ballast*Total
VesselsNet Tonnage (000)VesselsNet Tonnage (000)VesselsNet Tonnage (000)
* "In ballast" means (a.) inwards—"having no cargo for discharge in New Zealand", such as cruise ships and vessels to load exports; (b) outwards—"having no cargo loaded in New Zealand", such as cruise ships, empty tankers, and phosphate ships.
Entered
19628504,0551417349914,789
19638834,1461467641,0294,910
19649014,5921698491,0705,441
19658974,6371719871,0685,624
19669154,9812031,1471,1186,128
19677884,1802441,6581,0325,838
19688174,3263772,3191,1946,646
19698394,4673912,4671,2306,934
19709485,1223501,9101,2987,032
19719095,0383872,1761,2967,214
19721,0086,0144592,7841,4678,798
Cleared
19626803,0643201,8211,0004,885
19637303,0443041,8321,0344,876
19647333,3853191,9731,0525,358
19657433,2803252,2651,0685,545
19667373,2953812,8061,1186,101
19677303,1493272,7371,0575,886
19688793,4453163,1071,1956,553
19699403,8912902,9961,2306,887
19709894,2192832,7471,2726,966
19719564,0353583,2251,3147,260
19721,0594,9184023,7611,4618,679

Direction of Overseas Shipping—Particulars of the number, net tonnage of the ships and deadweight tonnage of cargo carried by vessels entered and cleared (whether with cargo or in ballast) between New Zealand and selected countries are given in the following table.

CountryNo.1971Cargo tonnage (000)No.1972Cargo tonnage (000)
Net Tonnage (000)Net Tonnage (000)
*Predominantly unrefined oil imports from Middle East countries.
Entered
Australia4592,0151,5514662,3531,914
Fiji46309746838144
France83735137344
Japan2711,3204032971,587442
New Caledonia36835361149
Singapore188910933211310
Tonga136010269311
United Kingdom109669475104687349
United States79420301115850445
Other countries2572,2124,263*3092,4484,344*
Totals1,2967,2147,2261,4678,7987,912
Cleared
Australia4191,8865254742,396572
Fiji552898974345111
France2912712631154124
Japan2921,4562,6593011,6393,463
New Caledonia426039 '344135
Singapore13106283433040
Tonga91143171732
United Kingdom125721609122716584
United States6739422498781212
Other countries2632,1044882762,103533
Totals1,3147,2604,7911,4618,6795,676

Shipping Between New Zealand Overseas Territories and the Cook Islands—In the tables of overseas shipping no account is taken of ships moving between the main islands of New Zealand and New Zealand overseas, territories and Cook Islands. Information on cargoes will be found in section 38, Overseas Territories and the Cook Islands.

Registry of Overseas Ships—The following table shows the country of registry of vessels (whether with cargo or in ballast) arriving and departing in 1972.

Country of RegistryArrivals 1972Departures 1972
Net Tons%Cargo Tonnage%Net Tons%Cargo Tonnage%
 (000) (000) (000) (000) 
Australia991.1821.01041.2180.3
Denmark1772.01722.21842.11011.8
Japan1,13912.988311.21,13713.11,53927.1
Liberia1,08112.31,20415.21,10112.71,66529.3
Netherlands3604.12963.73353.91703.0
New Zealand4164.77549.54004.656610.0
Norway5486.21,13914.45386.2601.0
Panama Republic3393.92573.23714.32334.1
United Kingdom3,00334.12,31929.32,88333.291216.1
United States2813.2170.22733.2320.6
Other countries1,35515.478810.01,35015.63806.7
With cargo6,01468.47,912100.04,91856.75,676100.0
In ballast2,78431.63,76143.3
Total8,798100.07,912100.08,679100.05,676100.0

NEW ZEALAND SHIPPING REGISTER—The figures for vessels registered in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last 11 years are as follows. In 1972 new coastal tankers and a road-rail ferry were registered. The tonnage of the New Zealand fleet has been declining while; those of most other countries have been increasing.

YearSteam and Motor VesselsOther Vessels*Totals
VesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet Tonnage
*Includes sailing vessels, and barges, dredges, etc., not self-propelled.
1962493250,399124,724402,6522,096533253,051126,820
1963496244,047120,603504,0513,505546248,098124,108
1964521251,032122,798534,1803,628574255,212126,426
1965534235,506114,309604,2733,699594239,779118,008
1966556238,149112,520654,3353,720621242,484116,240
1967589223,571103,090685,2444,612657228,815107,702
1968597223,573102,461726,1145,318669229,687107,779
1969625208,98695,282645,4024,599689214,38899,881
1970659210,66795,702695,7264,811728216,393100,513
1971702196,7687,759705,8414,945772202,01792,704
1972724182,25679,931745,8224,898798188,07884,829

In the table which follows, the vessels on the New Zealand register at 31 December 1972 are classified and listed for the various ports of registry.

Port of RegistrySteam VesselsMotor VesselsOther Vessels*
VesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet TonnageVesselsGross TonnageNet Tonnage
*Includes sailing vessels and barges, dredges, etc., not self-propelled.
Whangarei221,9402893307205
Auckland103,0711,38846274,25234,544465,1224,411
Tauranga64724645429
Napier1819449193,6641,435
Wellington1211,2404,3418647,48120,81914274226
Nelson274,8761,941
Lyttelton53,5781,253172,32391366025
Timaru61,641588152
Dunedin22,4359552122,23610,199
Invercargill2969368261,259403
Totals3222,1128,754692160,14471,177745,8224,898

Auckland is the port of registry of the majority of the vessels forming New Zealand's maritime fleet, the average net tonnage of the 518 vessels on the Auckland register being only 78 tons.

Of the 798 vessels registered in New Zealand at the end of 1972 only 59 were classified as employed in the coastal or foreign trade. A great number of vessels are employed exclusively within "restricted limits" or are pleasure craft.

CARGO STATISTICS—With cargo statistics it should be noted that the term "ton" does not invariably denote a weight of 2,240 lb. It is practicable to obtain the actual weights involved for only a portion of the goods handled. In other cases close approximations are made by applying uniform formulas as to the number of bales, cases, sacks, etc., to the ton. A considerable portion of trading goods, however, is recorded in measurement tons, 40 cubic feet of space being regarded as the equivalent of a ton. As the practice is uniform, comparisons from year to year are not appreciably affected, nor are comparisons between ports, unless there is a radical difference in the class of trade carried on, in which case recourse should be had to consideration of items of trade. Since a much larger proportion of imports are in measurement tons, direct comparisons of tonnages of imports and exports are not always valid.

The following table gives a summary of the tonnage of cargo passing through all ports for the last 11 years. Cargoes handled by waterside workers comprise about two-fifths, with tonnages of 11.6 million tons in 1971 and 11.8 million tons in 1972. The charging and discharging of oil tankers has contributed over one-third to total tonnages in recent years, and other bulk cargoes are loaded and unloaded by special methods. Half of coastal and trans-Tasman cargoes are handled by roll-on roll-off methods, in 1972 1,967,000 tons out of 3,855,000 tons.

YearInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

*Excluding transhipments.

†Transhipments included twice.

manifest tons (000)
19622,4645,1571162,2312,04512,130
19632,8825,6971092,5502,12013,467
19643,8387,1871033,5042,59317,328
19654,9457,181854,6882,57419,558
19665,5427,942745,2142,67721,523
19675,4076,887525,1052,92720,431
19685,6107,286405,4133,95122,341
19695,6647,527345,4484,59923,305
19706,1938,322616,0354,77025,442
19716,2288,478816,0485,29326,209
19726,8949,202946,7526,22829,265

With the rise of ports handling specialised cargoes and major ports mechanically handling bulk loads and goods in containers on and off cellular container ships, the pattern of cargo movements has changed rapidly. Technical developments in packaging (containers, pallets) and transport (bulk loading) has tended to concentrate mechanised handling of cargo through a few ports with the consequent displacement of the manual labour of waterside workers. Cellular container ships made 30 voyages in the year ended 30 September 1972 and they handled an average cargo of 7,605 tons a ship, made an average of 2.67 port visits per ship and averaged 7.67 days on the coast. They unloaded 68,525 tons of cargo and loaded 159,618 tons; the working of these ships involved the handling of 27,192 containers, about one-third of which were empty.

A summation of cargo movements through ports shows that total tonnage throughputs of New Zealand ports have more than doubled since 1962 largely as the result of the double handling of oil to and from the refinery, and the growth of exports of forest products. Tonnages of farm produce—butter, cheese, meat, wool, and fruit—have remained stable over the years but have dropped from 11.62 percent of total throughput to 5.81 percent in 1970; tonnages of bulk commodities such as cement, coal and coke, grain and fertilisers have also fallen as a percentage of total throughput. The movements of timber, softwood, and oil products, on the other hand, constitute an even greater share of the traffic. The figures and percentages for different types of cargo are given in the following table.

Item1962196819691970
*Mostly refrigerated, except wool.
 Tons (000)Tons (000)Tons (000)Tons (000)
Inward cargo7,73712,93613,22514,576
Outward cargo4,3939,40510,08010,866
Total throughput12,13022,34123,30525,442
Farm Produce*
    Butter187199199182
    Cheese998110398
    Meat, frozen522639714649
    Wool304333357318
    Fruit, fresh272200210231
    Totals, farm produce1,3831,4521,5851,478
Forest Products
    Totals, timber, softwood, etc.5311,6691,9932,220
Bulk Commodities
    Cement640871914996
    Coal and coke644486433294
    Grain263316361295
    Fertilisers9871,4401,5691,546
Totals, bulk commodities2,5343,4473,5583,635
Oil Products
    Totals, oil products2,4848,6008,5129,385
Other Cargo
    Totals, other cargo5,1987,1737,6568,724

The next table shows for each port the total inward and outward cargo in 1972. Loadings of bunker fuels amounting to 456,744 tons are not included. A large proportion of the coastal movement concerns oil tankers working from the Whangarei refinery, while the movements of cars by tourists builds up the Wellington, Picton and Lyttelton tonnages.

PortInward*TranshipmentsOutward*Total Tonnage
CoastalOverseasCoastalOverseas

*Excluding transhipments.

†Transhipments included twice.

 manifest tons
Parengarenga7,43967,90975,348
Houhora3,6553,655
Awanui20,15220,152
Mangonui7,4447,444
Whangaroa2,6922,692
Bay of Islands3,6447536023,44027,519
Whangarei332,7243,590,270893,287,67176,3817,287,224
Mangawhai12,24412,244
Auckland1,470,9992,383,14234,904149,612813,2564,886,817
Onehunga109,4254,83511960,22511,372186,095
Raglan28,77979314629,718
Taharoa136,401136,401
Thames2631,5231,786
Tauranga511,184295,49328,2311,826,7192,661,627
Gisborne19,1294977,56254,34281,530
Napier279,651319,1213,874381,454984,100
Taranaki223,730304,712171,766157,556857,764
Waverley941,868941,868
Wanganui78,1173,96127382,351
Wellington1,505,726990,74548,4361,093,299359,0144,045,656
Picton769,4562,608769,48528,5791,570,128
Nelson142,76636,97834342,104502,006724,540
Tarakohe28,036225,152253,188
Westport1,2216,567240,0501,720249,558
Greymouth3,6392,90724,16530,711
Jackson Bay5,2015,201
Lyttelton762,577604,0359,824377,773187,2781,951,311
Timaru133,56551,4791960,913216,975462,970
Oamaru47211,13511,607
Otago266,290198,17660451,390198,933715,997
Bluff176,800405,66257,845310,334950,641
Halfmoon Bay4,8262,2947,120
Totals6,894,4019,202,05694,3386,752,2026,227,62829,264,963

Transhipments—Cargo under this heading increased from 81,000 tons in 1971 to 94,000 tons in 1972. This reflects the trend of centralising cargo to meet the needs of container and roll-on roll-off vessels and is specially noticeable at the port of Wellington.

Inward Overseas Cargo—The following table shows the tonnage of some major items of inward overseas cargo handled in 1972. Transhipments are included.

PortIron and SteelMachineryFertilisersMotor Spirit, KeroseneOil, Other MineralMotor Vehicles and PartsGypsum, Plaster of Paris
 manifest tons
Whangarei2,174148,3573,424,1471,44812,868
Auckland351,26092,314325,989287,40810,973250,64060,145
Tauranga10,121334180,64032,904177
Gisborne
Napier8,9401,123267,1375,333324
Taranaki7,48712,339267,62621,132
Wellington65,82328,7091,110201,55942,262258,972157
Nelson6392934,4381,26016,2859,265
Westport6,100
Lyttelton41,1847,493124,751113,1066,92658,31523,991
Timaru1311,27043,3722,055
Otago13,8271,74469,24818,851447,8905,490
Bluff3,535762142,201141,201
All other ports1032322,2922,868
Totals505,224146,6131,577,101660,4373,484,352601,307118,016
PortFresh FruitGrainSugarTextilesAll Other GoodsTotal
 manifest tons
Whangarei1,3653,590,359
Auckland78,94412,119155,08369,427719,5562,413,858
Tauranga1171,306295,493
Gisborne497497
Napier8436,180319,121
Taranaki1863915,901304,712
Wellington1,115777419,124382,3781,001,990
Nelson41774,38636,990
Westport4676,567
Lyttelton27,7813325,629175,276604,458
Timaru1514,63651,479
Otago16312,20179,235198,694
Bluff25257,924405,662
All other ports69,71715,218
Totals108,00313,096155,508116,5571,758,8249,245,098

Outward Overseas Cargo—In the section dealing with the export trade it is pointed out that pastoral products make up over 80 percent by value of New Zealand's exports. The following table shows how the various ports participated in the handling of the volume of the main items in the outward overseas cargo, including transhipments, during 1972.

PortButterCheeseOther Milk ProductsFrozen and Preserved MeatHides and SkinsTallowWool
 manifest tons
Bay of Islands8,6553,16110,86942629
Whangarei23,37427,15817353437
Auckland27,52612,378169,279164,90022,59318,40164,230
Onehunga49102251256146
Tauranga46,5394,210118,8925641,4702,517
Gisborne30113,3071242,324
Napier11145,70689,26713,60813,38566,688
Taranaki22,77054,78015,66236,6773,1993,9364,724
Wellington9,24215,68324,494123,34523,2423,97479,299
Picton5,23784471
Nelson1852,6731,0353,032891,494254
Lyttelton1,5773,32232,3778,1107,86837,228
Timaru1,33044195,6804,0004,96125,341
Otago14333131,4016,5574,53636,241
Bluff1695,414340115,3766,72711,79446,327
Totals138,66398,400370,016722,33088,29173,127365,727
PortFresh FruitBeans and PeasPaper, Newsprint, etc.Timber, SoftwoodIron SandAll Other GoodsTotal
 manifest tons
Bay of Islands8423,440
Whangarei51425,08676,381
Auckland8,8743477,2158,336317,778821,857
Onehunga203131361,2859,26311,416
Taharoa136,4011.36,401
Tauranga745151,1491,353,003147,6301,826,719
Gisborne1127,36710,90854,342
Napier50,652304123,89217,927381,454
Taranaki218,5537,252157,556
Waverley941,868941,868
Wellington3943,2621622,861110,247396,205
Picton5,65911,3765,75228,579
Nelson77,350241412,3053,611502,269
Lyttelton1,26317,386994,89774,991189,118
Timaru6,02910079,093216,975
Otago8,11548286,84924,278198,933
Bluff5254,94869,187310,334
All other ports121,7081,720
Totals153,27328,117158,7612,095,7981,078,269904,7956,275,567

MARINE OFFICERS' CERTIFICATES—The examinations for masters, mates, and engineers serving in the mercantile marine are conducted by the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport, the regulations relating to these examinations being similar to those of the Department of Trade and Industry with such modifications as are necessitated by local conditions. The U.K. Department of Trade and Industry recognises the following certificates only as of Commonwealth validity: Extra Master, Master, First Mate, and Second Mate Foreign-going ships, First- and Second-class Steam and Motor Engineers. It is a condition of such recognition that candidates must possess service qualifications and pass examinations similar and not inferior to those prescribed by the Department of Trade and Industry. There are examinations for masters and mates, and for marine engineers in both the foreign-going and home trade.

SHIP SURVEY STATISTICS—The Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport carries out the survey of ships as required by the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, and 1,190 certificates of survey were issued in 1971. The department is also required to issue certificates to vessels engaged in international voyages in accordance with the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960, to which New Zealand is a signatory. Also special surveys are made for seaworthiness after damage, for efficiency of equipment, and for tonnage measurement.

LIGHTHOUSE SERVICE—On headlands, capes, reefs, and shoals around the 4,330 miles of coastline there are 280 navigational aids. These aids comprise 25 manned lighthouses, 122 automatic lights, 101 day beacons, 16 navigational buoys, 3 fog signals, and 13 radio beacons, and represent a capital investment of $5 million approximately. Their maintenance and servicing is a responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport, and involves an expenditure of approximately $750,000 annually. Lighthouse tenders, aircraft, helicopters, and road transport along with a number of workshops are used to provide the mariner with reliable navigational aids. Light dues collected from ships meet most of the running costs of the service.

The "Xenon gas" light installed on Tiritiri Matangi Island, the main coastal approach light tower to Waitemata Harbour, is of 11 million candlepower, and is one of the most powerful in the Southern Hemisphere.

WRECKS—In the case of any wreck or shipping casualty in New Zealand waters a superintendent of mercantile marine, or other person empowered by the Minister of Transport, institutes an inquiry into the cause and circumstances of such casualty. If necessary, a formal investigation is held by a magistrate, who has power to cancel or suspend the certificate of any officer from whose wrongful act or default damage has resulted.

Should any wreck occur on the coast, or in any river or lake, the receiver of wrecks for that district has the necessary authority to be used in the preservation of life and property.

The number of shipping casualties reported during the year ended 31 December 1971 are shown in the following table. It should be noted that the figures list all casualties including small craft.

Type of ShipMachinery, Breakdown, and MiscellaneousCapsizing and CollisionsStranding and GroundingFounderingFireTotal
Passenger
Cargo434112
Fishing752316253
Dredge, tug, etc.32117
Pleasure craft27101210968
Totals4120402613140

PLEASURE CRAFT—The Census of Population and Dwellings 1971 revealed that 77,529 households (9.7 percent of all households) had one or more pleasure boats. Of such households, 50,971 were in main urban areas as shown in the following table.

Urban AreaHouseholdsHouseholds with Boats*
*One or more.
Whangarei9,3441,825
Northern Auckland32,9905,505
Western Auckland24,0083,338
Central Auckland89,9638,701
Southern Auckland42,2385,399
Hamilton21,8392,241
Tauranga11,7731,866
Rotorua9,7491,165
Gisborne8,316577
Napier12,604913
Hastings12,998957
New Plymouth11,519666
Wanganui11,192610
Palmerston North16,427944
Upper Hutt Valley8,083445
Lower Hutt Valley26,0611,736
Porirua Basin11,339964
Wellington42,7912,431
Masterton5,458351
Nelson10,9051,526
Christchurch81,7055,664
Timaru8,589492
Dunedin32,8431,927
Invercargill14,140728
Totals of 24 urban areas556,83850,971
Percentage of total100.09.2

11 B—RAILWAYS

RAILWAY DEVELOPMENT—A network of railways extending over nearly 3,000 route miles links almost all the principal centres of population in New Zealand and carries a large share of the passenger and freight traffic to and from the towns and cities. Practically all the railway services in the country are provided by the New Zealand Government Railways Department, using the title New Zealand Railways for trading purposes. The department also operates road services over more than 5,000 route miles of highways; and a rail and road vehicle and passenger ferry service across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton. A total staff of almost 21,000 people is employed by the department.

Recent years have witnessed notable progress in development of the system and a steady increase in the carrying capacity of its main lines. Extensive use is being made of the latest developments in railway-transport technology, including diesel and electric traction, transistorised equipment for centralised traffic control, mechanised equipment for freight handling and track-maintenance work, and electronic data-processing machines to assist with accounting and statistical operations. Many new types of goods wagons have been and are being introduced, and numerous station buildings, goods sheds, bridges, etc., are being replaced by up-to-date structures in a continuing programme.

The largest railway construction project in recent years was completed with the opening in January 1971 of the 75-acre Te Rapa marshalling yard near Frankton. The massive yard is the first in New Zealand to have a semi-automatic hump-shunting system, while the refined electronic devices incorporated in the system make it also the most advanced. Designed initially to handle some 3,000 wagons a day, it will ultimately have a capacity to sort 5,000 daily.

A major project still in the course of construction is the 15-mile Kaimai Deviation, including a 5½-mile tunnel through the Kaimai Hills, which will shorten the railway distance between the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty districts.

A loan of $13.73 million was made available by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development early in 1971 to assist a 6-year railway capital development programme. The loan was to meet the overseas content of the cost of wagons and workshops and signalling equipment due for delivery during the first 3 years of the new programme. This loan followed upon an I.B.R.D. loan of $36 million made available in 1965 to cover the overseas content of the cost of a rolling stock re-equipment programme which was completed in 1970 at a cost of $54 million.

BRIEF HISTORY—In 1860 a contract was let by the provincial government of Canterbury for the construction of a railway from Lyttelton to Christchurch, and the first portion of this line was opened on 1 December 1863*. A line from Invercargill to Bluff Harbour was opened on 5 February 1867, and meanwhile, in 1865, the Auckland Provincial Council had begun construction of a line from Auckland to Drury.

In 1870 the Central Government established an Immigration and Public Works Department which had as one of its main objects the building of a system of railways to open up the country for settlement. By 31 March 1880, 1,182 route miles of State-owned railways were open for traffic, and by 31 March 1900 more than 2,100 route miles in 10 separate sections were in use. The 369-mile trunk line between Christchurch and Invercargill was completed in January 1879, but it was November 1908 before the 426-mile North Island main trunk railway between Auckland and Wellington was ready for traffic throughout.

Other main lines were completed, to link most of the short isolated sections. The last line to be completed was that from Christchurch to Picton, in 1945. Since then, between 1950 and 1957, 63 miles of branch lines have been built in the North Island to serve the extensive man-made forests.

In 1957 the main highway between Blenheim and Nelson was deemed, for the purpose of calculating passenger fares and freight charges, to be a "notional railway" connected at Blenheim to the railway system.

Over the years since the railways were first built, vast improvements have been made and many sections reconstructed at considerable expense to ease gradients, shorten distances, and reduce curvature. Several of these major railway deviations involved the boring of long tunnels, such as those on the Wellington-Tawa deviation, opened in June 1937; the Turakina-Okoia deviation, opened in December 1947; and the Rimutaka deviation between Upper Hutt and Featherston, opened in November 1955.

EXTENT OF THE SYSTEM—The total route mileage of railways vested in the New Zealand Government Railways Department and open for traffic at 31 March 1973 was 2,982–1,622 miles in the North Island and 1,360 in the South Island. In addition, the Railways Department was working traffic over a further 4 miles of railways owned by other Government departments. Double line was provided over a total of 158 route miles, of which 129 miles were in the North Island.

A total of 62 route miles of railway electrified on the 1,500-volt direct current, overhead contact system was in use at 31 March 1973. The 8½-mile Otira - Arthur's Pass section of the South Island transalpine line, including the Otira Tunnel, was electrified in 1923; the 7-mile Wellington-Johnson-ville line in 1938; and the 24½-mile Wellington-Paekakariki line in 1940. The first section of the Wellington - Hutt Valley electrification was brought into operation in 1953, and the last stage of this project, covering 22 route miles, was completed in July 1955. The 6-mile Christchurch-Lyttelton section, including the Lyttelton Tunnel, was electrified in 1929 but changed to diesel traction in 1970.

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND ENGINEERING—In most instances, Government railways in New Zealand were constructed by the Public Works Department, now the Ministry of Works and Development, and handed over to the Railways Department upon completion. Recent practice has been for the Ministry of Works and Development to construct the earthworks, bridges, tunnels, and buildings, and for the Railways Department to lay the tracks and install signals.

Track—All track is laid to a gauge of 3 ft 6 in. Steel rails for main lines weigh 91 lb per yard, but several secondary and branch lines have been laid with rails weighing 72 lb per yard. Much of the track, not yet renewed since these standards were adopted in 1950, is still laid with rails weighing 85, 70, and 55 lb per yard. About 65 miles of track are completely renewed each year. Timber sleepers, laid 2,400 to the mile, have traditionally been of Australian hardwood, but since 1960 substantial and increasing use has been made of treated radiata pine sleepers from New Zealand mills.

*A special article in the 1963 issue of the Yearbook (pp. 1175–1195) outlined the first 100 years of railway development in New Zealand.

Bridges—To carry the railways across gorges, rivers, and streams in New Zealand, about 2,600 bridges and viaducts have been built with an aggregate length of 55 miles. The longest railway bridge is that over the Rakaia River, 34 miles south of Christchurch. Completed in 1939 to replace an original timber structure of the 1870s, it is 5,720 ft (1.08 miles) long.

The highest viaduct is the Mohaka, completed in 1937 to carry the Napier-Gisborne railway 318 ft above the bed of the Mohaka River. Twenty New Zealand railway viaducts altogether carry the rails more than 110 ft above the streams they cross.

Tunnels—There are 183 railway tunnels with an aggregate length of 53 miles in use, 107 in the North Island and 76 in the South Island. The two longest tunnels are the Otira (5 miles 26 chains) on the Midland Line in the South Island, opened in 1923; and the Rimutaka (5 miles 37 chains) on the Wairarapa line in the North Island, opened in 1955. Excluding city tube railways, these stand nineteenth and sixteenth respectively in a list of the world's longest railway tunnels. The Kaimai Tunnel, under construction on the Kaimai Deviation, will be 5 miles 39 chains long.

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service—An air freight service across Cook Strait was commenced in February 1947; information on its operation is given in subsection 11D.

Cook Strait Rail Ferry Service—Two ferries carrying rail and road vehicles, and passengers, are operated by the Railways Department between Wellington and Picton. The Aramoana (4,160 tons) and Aranui (4,542 tons) are each designed to carry a maximum of 30 railway wagons, or about 85 motorcars, on the vehicle deck and a flutter 30 motorcars in an upper-deck garage. There is all-weather accommodation in lounges and cabins in each vessel for about 500 passengers, but it is possible to carry just over 1,000 passengers per ship on special occasions. Regular sailings with the Aramoana began in August 1962 and a two-ship timetable was introduced with the advent of the Aranui in June 1966. In November 1971 the Railways Department took over maritime operation of these ferries from the Union Steam Ship Company.

A third ferry, Arahanga, entered the service in December 1972, and a fourth vessel, Aratika, is expected to operate from August 1974. Both are of a larger design than the first two ferries and are designed for freight only, with limited accommodation for road truck drivers.

ROLLING STOCK: Passenger Cars—The first diesel railcars on New Zealand railways were placed in service in 1936. At 31 March 1973 a fleet of 36 was in use on passenger services.

Multiple-unit electric coaches were first introduced on the Johnsonville line in 1938. By 1956 a fleet of 49 motor coaches and 79 trailer coaches was in use on Wellington suburban train services. A typical three-coach set comprising one 600 hp motor coach and two trailer coaches weighs 96 tons unladen, measures 188 ft 6 in. overall, and seats 200 passengers. This stock can accelerate rapidly from stops and operates up to 50 m.p.h. in normal service.

Wagons—The Railways Department's fleet of goods and livestock wagons at 31 March 1972 totalled 29,463, with a total carrying capacity of 421,063 tons. In recent years thousands of new wagons have been introduced, including long, covered bogie wagons with wide doorways for mechanical loading of palletised freight, for use on express goods trains. Special-purpose wagons include those designed for log traffic, packaged timber, and bulk commodities such as cement, flour, plaster, heated tallow, sulphuric acid, and aluminium sulphate, and wagons for coal traffic for the Mission Bush steel mill. Many bogie flat-top wagons have also been built or modified for the ever-increasing volume of container traffic. In addition to the wagons owned by the department, another 247 privately-owned wagons are also in use, mainly for petrol and cement traffic.

SPECIAL SERVICES—A fast daytime express diesel railcar with hostess service was introduced between Wellington and Auckland in October 1968, running three times a week each way. In December 1972 the Blue Streak railcars used on this run were transferred to the Wellington - New Plymouth route. New Silver Fern diesel-electric railcars, fully air-conditioned, took over the Wellington-Auckland service, the frequency of which was doubled to six times a week.

Meanwhile, in December 1970, the Southerner diesel-powered express trains with refurbished cars and on-train buffet service were introduced between Christchurch and Invercargill, and in September 1971 two complete new air-conditioned sleeping-car trains were placed in service between Wellington and Auckland. These overnight Silver Star expresses provide the highest standard of passenger travel comfort on New Zealand Railways.

Another refurbished express train, the Endeavour, was placed in service between Wellington and Napier in November 1972. Buffet cars on the Southerner, Silver Star, and Endeavour provide light meal and refreshment services for passengers. The ordinary express trains between Wellington and Auckland are also being upgraded. This new service, expected to be ready in 1975, is to be called the Northerner.

MOTIVE POWER—From 1949 steam power was steadily replaced by diesel traction. All steam locomotives in the North Island were replaced by diesel locomotives by the end of 1967, and those in the South Island by 1971 with the exception of three retained for a Lumsden-Kingston tourist vintage train. In November 1972 15 "Dx" diesel electric locomotives weighing 96 tons and with double the horsepower of the "DA" class locomotives were introduced to haul express trains between Wellington and Auckland.

The proportions of railway traffic moved by the different types of motive power are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchPercentage of Total Traffic Moved by
Steam LocomotivesDiesel LocomotivesDiesel RailcarsElectric LocomotivesElectric Multiple Units
196340.148.14.32.94.6
196434.354.24.22.94.4
196530.858.33.82.94.2
196626.363.03.72.84.2
196721.867.63.72.84.1
196818.172.63.12.04.2
19698.483.72.71.14.1
19701.291.72.51.03.6
19710.892.52.40.83.5
19720.293.42.20.63.6
19730.194.31.90.53.2

There were 287 main-line diesel-electric locomotives at 31 March 1973, and 14 electric locomotives apart from 277 diesel shunting locomotives.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Gross revenue and expenditure on the railways (including subsidiary services) are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue

*In addition, a 53rd week's revenue of $2,014,433 was taken into the department's accounts for the year ended 31 March 1969. Because there was no corresponding expenditure, this sum has not been included in the tabulated figures, in order to maintain comparability with previous years. The additional revenue became available because accounting procedures over the past few years had taken only 52 weeks' (364 days') revenue into account each year, and the additional days had now accumulated into a full week.

†Deficit recovered from General Reserve.

‡Deficit met by National Development Loans.

 $(thousand)
196885,83284,6601,172
196990,015*86,4953,520*
197099,72994,1215,607
1971105,242112,827-7,585
1972122,368126,696-4,328
1973134,990138,340-3,350

The chief items of expenditure for 1972–73 were: wages $87,768,463; locomotive fuel (including electricity), $2,814,167: stores and material, $19,911,137; depreciation, $9,979,211; miscellaneous, $17,866,917.

The revenue and expenditure for recent years, distinguishing between railway operation and other items, are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGross RevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or Loss
Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services, etc.Railway OperationSubsidiary Services etc.
*See footnote to preceding table.
$(thousand)
196871,65314,17971,88012,780-227+1,399
196974,60215,41372,89213,603+1,710+1,810*
197083,19416,53579,83614,286+3,358+2,249
197186,99918,24396,50216,324-9,503+1,919
1972101,29621,072107,27719,419-5,981+1,653
1973112,16222,828117,19721,143-5,035+1,685

The respective Island figures of revenue and expenditure for railway operation only (i.e., omitting subsidiary services) are given below for the 1972–73 year.

AreaRevenueExpenditureNet Revenue or LossRatio of Expenditure to Revenue
 $(thousand)percent
North Island81,48582,516-1,031101.3
South Island30,67734,681-4,004113.1
Total112,162117,197-5,035104.5

The revenue and expenditure of the various subsidiary services conducted by the Railways Department is set out in the following table. Full working costs are charged against these services, and interest which is debited to road services and rail ferries is credited to miscellaneous receipts as revenue.

ServiceRevenueExpenditure
1970–711971–721972–731970–711971–721972–73
*Accounting system changed by excluding ancillary lorry hire for rail operations.
 $(thousand)
Advertising service302331355217251268
Departmental dwellings9449591,0461,9742,1702,320
Road services—
    Passenger and goods8,52110,3969,932*8,78710,39310,003*
Cook Strait rail ferry service6,1977,8909,7695,3466,6048,552
Miscellaneous2,2791,4961,726
Totals18,24321,07222,82816,32419,41921,143

Revenue—In the following table the railway operating revenue is classified according to the class of traffic, etc., from which it was derived.

Year Ended 31 MarchPassenger TrafficGoods, Livestock, and ParcelsCatering ServicesTotal
 $(thousand)
19685,29464,7851,57471,653
19695,41967,4771,70674,602
19705,67275,7091,81383,194
19715,83079,0992,07086,999
19727,01092,0182,268101,296
19737,174102,7742,214112,162

The revenue from passenger fares and luggage during the year 1972–73 represented an expenditure on railway travel of $2.45 per head of mean population. The total railway operating revenue was equal to $38.25 per head.

Expenditure—The railway operating expenditure under various heads is now given.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance of Way and WorksMaintenance of Rolling StockLocomotive TransportationTraffic TransportationHead Office and General Charges*Catering ServicesTotal
*Includes superannuation subsidy.
 $(thousand)
196817,32917,18911,53521,6692,4541,70471,880
196917,22918,15211,51321,6742,5011,82372,892
197019,27820,47811,83323,4752,8561,91679,836
197124,10523,76214,04628,8673,4532,26996,502
197226,71224,58815,60032,6175,2822,478107,277
197329,89926,31416,94334,6195,9013,521117,197

Expenditure has been influenced by progressively higher rates of pay and improved conditions of employment.

Capital Expenditure—The expenditure on capital works and new equipment is set out in the following table.

Item197119721973
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Plant and equipment1,4111,7422,198
Works programme5,3864,7975,038
Rolling stock4,94410,28211,714
Motor vehicles9371,5481,029
Rail ferries1,6144,9733,442
Totals14,29223,34223,421

This capital expenditure has been met from the department's own depreciation reserves, from the loan granted by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and buyer's credit.

The relative proportions of capital funded from these sources were as follows:

Source19711972973
 $(000)percent$(000)percent$(000)percent
Railway depreciation10,7977612,5795418,02977
I.B.R.D. loan2,3651644422,47411
Buyer's credit1,130810,319442,91812
Totals14,29210023,34210023,421100

RAIL PASSENGER TRAFFIC—The completion of the suburban railway electrification at Wellington in 1955 and the introduction of fast railcar services between 1955 and 1959 resulted in peak passenger patronage in 1961–62, but since then there has been a steady decline in passenger journeys in face of competition from other forms of transport.

The decline in non-suburban passenger traffic is attributable to the increased use of private cars and the development of air services. The operations of the department's Road Services Branch are outlined under another heating at the end of this section.

The following table sets out the numbers of rail passenger journeys and the corresponding receipts.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of JourneysPassenger Revenue
SuburbanNon-suburbanTotalSuburbanNon-suburbanTotal
*Traffic in this year was affected by the suspension of services for 10 days in May 1967 because of a strike by a section of the staff.
 (000)(000)(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1968*20,1222,06422,1861,9473,3475,294
196920,3001,96222,2612,0523,3675,419
197019,1831,84821,0312,1813,4915,672
197119,0971,91121,0082,2103,6205,830
197218,3351,78020,1162,7944,2167,010
197317,0601,50518,5652,9374,2377,174

GOODS AND LIVESTOCK TRAFFIC—The following table shows the tonnage of goods and livestock traffic, and revenue received.

Year Ended 31 MarchGoods and Livestock (excluding Parcels) CarriedGoods, Livestock, and Parcels Revenue
TonnageNet Ton-milesNorth IslandSouth IslandTotal
*Revenue from parcels traffic was 52,645,738.
 (000)million$(000)$(000)$(000)
196810,5811,405.145,61419,17164,785
196910,7981,502.947,64919,82767,476
197011,5931,676.654,21021,49975,709
197111,8501,756.757,10721,99279,099
197211,3111,698.266,32725,69192,018
197312,1271,874.474,02628,748102,774*

RAIL FERRY TRAFFIC—Traffic statistics for the rail ferry service across Cook Strait are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchReturn CrossingsPassenger JourneysMotor Vehicles (Passengers' and Goods)Freight in Railway Wagons
NumberManifest TonnageDeadweight TonsManifest Tons

*The number of sailings was affected by industrial disputes.

†Excludes short distance journeys within Marlborough Sounds.

1968974339,12466,067330,335343,791581,542
19691,032372,98476,067380,335421,064679,948
19701,049433,69989,055445,275507,281752,098
1971996*447,21590,533452,665498,324687,951
19721,031*508,80795,942479,710513,104662,450
19731,319*545,407109,816549,080618,045813,922

Financial statistics for the Cook Strait ferry service are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueExpenditure, Total
PassengerRefreshmentPassengers Motor VehiclesGoods (Rail and Road)Total
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
19685691546813,2254,6303,788
19696341697703,7495,3234,221
19707202028934,0765,8914,495
19717972269594,2156,1975,346
19721,1143051,2125,2597,8906,604
19731,4633281,5456,4339,7698,552

The following diagram illustrates the traffic on the railways and road services.

RAILWAY EMPLOYEES—The average number of persons employed by the State railways throughout the year ended 31 March 1973 was 20,799, (excluding 401 sea-going staff employed on the Cook Strait rail ferries), compared with 20,688 a year earlier.

ACCIDENTS AT LEVEL CROSSINGS—Accidents at level crossings with roads resulted in the death of 11 people and injury to 53 others in 1972–73; in the previous year 9 were killed and 49 injured. In furtherance of departmental policy, an additional 22 automatic road-crossing alarms were installed in 1972–73.

PRIVATE RAILWAYS—There are a number of short private railways in New Zealand, principally lines serving collieries and other industrial undertakings. There is a 7-mile line of the Ohai Railway Board, extending from Wairio (north-west of Invercargill) to coal mines at Ohai. The Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., in the North Island operates a 6½-mile private line from Awakeri to their mill at Whakatane in the Bay of Plenty.

RAILWAY OPERATED ROAD SERVICES—There is a network of railway-operated road services the origin of which dates back to November 1926 when a bus service between Napier and Hastings was purchased. Others were acquired in the following years (notably the services within the Hutt Valley and between the Hutt Valley and Wellington in 1927 and 1928), but it was 1934 before the first long-distance coach service was taken over. The main development of the network took place between 1936 and 1951, when the route mileage over which licences were held rose from 260 to 5,992. How the Railways Department runs more than 25 percent of the total vehicle mileage of all licensed road passenger service operators in New Zealand (see section 11C), and maintains in its fleet more than 20 percent of all the vehicles used to provide road passenger services throughout the country. At 31 March 1973, the Railways Department's road services branch employed a staff of 1,499.

Suburban bus services at Auckland, Rotorua, Hastings, Hutt Valley, Wellington-Khandallah, Titahi Bay, Paraparaumu, and Dunedin, with a fleet of 257 vehicles at 31 March 1973, carried 13,248,000 passengers and earned a total revenue of $2,107,237. All the other road passenger services, both long and short distance, with 593 coaches, buses, and other vehicles, carried 7,618,000 passengers and earned a revenue of $7,171,205. The routes of the services in operation at 31 March 1973 covered 5,545 miles of highway.

In addition to the road passenger services, a small number of road goods services were operated. Goods traffic on these services, for which some 78 motor vehicles were maintained, produced a further $653,277 in 1972–73. A Rail Ancillary Goods Service is operated by the department's Traffic Branch for the carriage of goods consigned to or from wayside stations.

The following selected statistics illustrate the development of the Railways Department's road services operations.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoute Miles at 31 March*Number of Passenger Vehicles at 31 MarchNumber of Other Vehicles at 31 MarchTotal Passenger JourneysTotal Passenger and Goods RevenueTotal Expenditure, Including Interest Charges

*Route mileage for which licences are held.

†From 1 April 1972, the cost of Rail Ancillary goods road service was no longer included in Road Services revenue and expenditure.

    (000)$(000)$(000)
19464,50746415416,5882,1981,918
19515,99274930124,0914,2164,320
19565,84276335619,2715,1705,036
19615,75473533221,3705,6745,638
19665,85872937822,2976,3856,343
19685,89976237721,3966,7296,906
19695,91976537222,5857,2087,241
19705,92577737722,1757,7607,714
19715,94277637922,6338,5218,787
19725,95978637621,76310,39610,393
19735,97477836020,8669,93210,003

11 C—ROADS AND ROAD TRANSPORT

GENERAL—Capital investment in New Zealand's roading and road transport system exceeds that of all other forms of transport services. There are over 59,000 miles of roads and over 1 million motor vehicles, while the population census in 1966 revealed that there were 34,906 road transport drivers, 13,533 persons engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads, 16,653 persons whose occupations involved carrying and cartage services, 22,206 persons occupied in the repair of motor vehicles, and 7,205 persons engaged in motor-vehicle assembly and body building.

ROADS AND BRIDGES—Rising levels of investment in roads and road transport are a measure of the importance of motor vehicles in our modern environment. This form of transportation developed mainly because it permitted a way of life people desired and a form of travel which they found highly convenient, but investment levels have become so large and all-pervasive that they affect every corner of our social, economic, and political life. Furthermore, future economic development depends largely on the mobility of the motor vehicle. This mobility has been achieved by the development of an effective roading network and will be retained and improved only through progressive policies aimed at meeting future needs. For these reasons roads and road transport can be expected to play an increasingly important part in New Zealand's national development. In terms of ton/miles of freight carried, road transport has doubled in the last 10 years and now comprises approximately half of total freight movement. Farm production, for example, relies heavily on road transport.

The cost of providing adequate roads in New Zealand as a proportion of annual investment is relatively high in comparison with other countries. The cost of construction varies considerably from place to place, depending upon topography, soil types, rainfall and availability of aggregate. While a road of 18 feet sealed width can be built for $5,000 per mile in some places, a road of comparable standard can cost anything up to $50,000 per mile in less favourable localities.

Annual roading expenditure by central and local government now exceeds $100 million, or approximately 2.3 percent of gross national product. Maintenance comprises about one-third of the expenditure.

Because of its many swiftly-flowing rivers and streams and its inland gorges and deep ravines, New Zealand is faced with major bridging problems, which are perhaps different in character and more complex than those generally found elsewhere. A major programme of replacement and new construction has been under way for many years. In recent years expenditure from the National Roads Fund has resulted in over 5 miles of new bridging being built each year; some 12 percent of expenditure is involved in bridging.

Motorways are expensive to construct and are justified only in areas of high traffic density. They require strong foundations and thick surfacings to stand up to the heavy, fast, and continuous traffic. They confer two great benefits—greatly increased traffic capacity and greater safety. The limited number of access points, designed to permit smooth and safe entrance and exit, and the complete absence of ordinary intersections, contribute substantially to safety and the uninterrupted, fast flow of traffic, which also reduces transport costs.

The Auckland motorway system is one of the largest engineering undertakings ever attempted in New Zealand and one which is changing the face of metropolitan Auckland. An indication of the size and complexity of motorway design is gained from the statement that the cost of the large dual interchange for the Auckland inner city part of the motorway system will be of the order of $20 million, including land purchase. The 4,600-ft Thorndon overbridge on the Wellington Motorway is the largest bridge contract in the history of the Ministry of Works.

Details of formed roads and streets at 31 March 1972 are given in the following table.

Nature of SurfaceCities and BoroughsCountiesTown DistrictsTotal
County RoadsState Highways and Motorways
 miles
Paved and sealed5,74014,4896,2909426,613
Metal or gravel45826,6167164827,838
Unmetalled744,76074,841
    Totals: formed roads6,27245,8657,00614959,292

There are 9,773 bridges of 25 ft and over with a total length of 910,369 ft.

Auckland Harbour Bridge Traffic—From May 1959, when the toll bridge opened, to March 1973, it has carried 160 million vehicles. In the 1972–73 year the bridge had a daily average of 56,124 vehicles crossing it: the highest daily figure being a record 70,513. With traffic totals continuing to grow it is estimated that the eight-lane facility will reach its ultimate carrying capacity in 1980.

Traffic totals for March years are shown in the following table.

Class of Vehicle1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73*
*From April 1972 one-way (northbound) toll collection was introduced and no specific vehicle analysis is now available for southbound traffic.
(thousand) 
Cars11,43312,38513,97615,63017,3189,522     
Motor cycles, etc.233242248277365219     
Buses272264270270268137     
Trucks446465505519543301     
Non-revenue traffic20120415414112663     
Southbound..........10,244     
Totals12,58513,56015,15416,83618,62020,485     

Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel—This tunnel was opened in 1964 and is 1¼ miles long. There is an increasing volume of traffic using the Christchurch-Lyttelton road tunnel as shown in the following table for March years.

Class of Vehicle1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
Cars964,659931,669991,4001,081,6641,223,8441,330,097
Motor cycles, etc.84,64768,42162,00359,90471,79972,336
Buses14,35614,23314,37714,32115,78123,281
Trucks154,512182,970200,505215,929218,373245,506
Non-revenue traffic34,15433,20634,13836,14835,30237,380
Totals1,252,3281,230,4991,302,4231,407,9661,565,0991,708,600

ROADS ADMINISTRATION—The main statutes covering roads administration in New Zealand are the Public Works Act 1928, the Municipal Corporations Act 1954, the Counties Act 1956 and the National Roads Act 1953. Administration of the country's roading system is exercised by municipalities in respect of streets, by county councils in respect of county roads, and by the National Roads Board in respect of State highways.

The National Roads Board is charged with the responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs. The Board came into being in 1954 as the result of the passing of the National Roads Act. This same Act provided for the establishment of the National Roads Fund. Under the chairmanship of the Minister of Works and Development, the National Roads Board is an organisation of 10 members, representative of the private motorists, commercial vehicle owners, counties, municipalities, the Ministry of Works and Development, and Ministry of Transport. It is of interest to note that Government members are in a minority. The representative nature of the Board ensures that the widest possible background of knowledge and experience is brought to bear on roading matters. Essentially the Board is a politically orientated policy-making body; it is required to think nationally and to act nationally. The most important functions of the Board are:

  1. to administer the National Roads Fund.

  2. to provide a roading system adequate for New Zealand's needs.

  3. to advise Government on all matters concerning roading including the provision of finance.

  4. to assist and advise local authorities on roading problems.

  5. to undertake at intervals of not more than five years a comprehensive survey of the roading positions in New Zealand.

The money in the National Roads Fund is derived from road taxation paid by the users, the private motorist and the commercial vehicle operator. Through this roads fund the money is returned to the road user in the form of safer, smoother, more economical travel. It is an inviolate fund. Under the legislation by which it was brought into operation on 1 April 1954, all taxation paid into it must be immediately available and be used for roading purposes. In effect the National Roads Act provided for an independent fund at the disposal of an independent board and removed the element of uncertainty associated with annual appropriation of funds through Parliament. Nevertheless opportunity is provided for Parliament to debate the Board's activities.

The National Roads Board can be likened to a board of directors with the Minister of Works and Development as chairman and Director of Roading as chief executive officer. The Board meets regularly once a month. Most of the business is conducted in open meeting with representatives of the press in attendance.

The Board employs no staff directly but the Ministry of Works and Development provides an engineering and administrative service for which it is paid 5 percent of total National Roads Board expenditure. The roading division of the Ministry of Works and Development carries out the executive functions of the Board and in servicing the Board calls on the specialist services of other divisions and branches of Ministry of Works and Development as required, e.g., bridge design, land purchase, accounts, legal, etc.

There are approximately 7,233 miles of State highway, for which the Board meets the full cost of construction and maintenance. In addition, there are some 43,839 miles of county roads and 6,098 miles of municipal streets, maintenance and construction of which are subsidised by the Board. The National Roads Board is the controlling authority for State highways. As the Board's agent, Ministry of Works and Development has responsibility for financial control and technical control. In certain cases, the Board has delegated its powers of construction and/or maintenance to local authorities.

In the case of county roads and municipal streets, responsibility lies with the local authority concerned. Apart from the question of standards on major works, there are no strings and no overriding control by Central Government.

Under the National Roads Act, in December of each year the Board is required to estimate its income for the following year and to make its primary allocations of funds expected to be available. At the present time there are three sectors and funds are allocated on the following basis: for counties—not less than 23 percent of motor revenue; for municipalities—not less than 16 percent of motor revenue; for State highways—not less than 50 percent of motor revenue; this leaving 11 percent of motor revenue for allocation to any or all of the above, at the discretion of the Board.

For purposes of roading administration, New Zealand is divided geographically into 22 roads districts and funds are allocated by the Board to each sector in each district as fairly and equitably as possible having regard to particular needs.

In each roads district there is an advisory body known as a District Roads Council. These councils are representative of the same interests as the Board itself. Although they have no executive powers, their recommendations concerning relative priorities have considerable influence on board decisions. In addition to its regular meetings the Board makes visits of inspection to several roads districts each year. These visits afford an opportunity for Board members to get a better appreciation of local problems, needs, and conditions through observation and discussion, and to maintain personal contact with District Roads Councils. The Board is thus able to keep in close touch with the roading problems of New Zealand, and is better able to discharge its responsibility of providing an adequate roading system balanced to meet the country's needs.

Finance—A National Roads Fund has been established within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation with an annual contribution from the Government. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Motor spirits tax of 18.10c per gallon (4c per litre) is paid into the National Roads Fund. An equivalent mileage tax is payable for diesel-powered motor vehicles: Quarterly licence fees under the Heavy Motor Vehicles Regulations range from $4.83 (not above 2½ tons) to $63 (11 tons), with $7 for each additional ton above 11. The fees for farmers' trucks range from $2.67 on a corresponding basis. Heavy traffic fees, less the cost of collection, are paid into the National Roads Fund. Tax imposed under the Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 (3c per gallon from February 1971) is not credited to the National Roads Fund.

Following is a statement of receipts and expenditure of the National Roads Fund for the latest three March years.

Item1970–711971–721972–73
Receipts—$(000)$(000)$(000)
    Petrol tax (net)66,80773,03378,493
    Mileage tax4,8345,9595,679
    Fees and charges—
        Heavy traffic fees9,82010,10710,794
    Contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account10103,000
    Miscellaneous receipts—
        Repayments of plant purchases621
        Repayments of advances to local authorities155
        Rents427497627
        Sales of land and buildings127271110
        Interest on plant purchases
    Bailey bridging hire1075
    Interest on investments786792
    Miscellaneous268563
Total receipts82,12390,64398,869
Expenditure—
    Highways maintenance14,01414,35715,705
    Highways construction31,12332,64837,964
    Local authority roading subsidies and grants34,91735,24341,115
    Local authorities advances3665
    Administration and general expenses—
        Ministry of Works administration4,3364,1904,995
        Fees and travelling expenses263935
        Miscellaneous expenses431515816
    Bridging expenses—
        Bailey bridging, etc.107140154
    Unauthorised expenditure669
Total expenditure84,99837,137100,858
    Balance in Fund at end of year7884,2942,018

In the following table are shown the amounts which have been expended on State highways construction, renewal, or maintenance during the last five years. Maintenance figures include the cost of flood damage restoration when applicable. There are 7,237 miles of State highways, of which 90 percent are now sealed.

Class of Expenditure1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
*Motorway structures included from 1968–69.
 $(thousand)
Construction and improvement20,12822,73526,38525,97429,352
Bridges and other structures*5,5815,9134,7386,6748,612
Maintenance, repairs, etc.12,41012,16714,01414,35715,705
Totals38,11940,81545,13747,00553,669

State Highways—The National Roads Act provides for the declaration of roads as State highways with the approval of the Minister of Works and Development. In 1969, the National Roads Board reviewed the State highway system, and re-affirmed the principle that the network must continue to be based on the pattern of national development, needs of defence, and directness of route and main travel desire lines. The most important principles in designing a State highway system are that the total mileage of the system must be based on routes of primary importance; that routes must be equitably distributed in relation to the pattern of national development; and that routes must be confined to those which have characteristics in keeping with the function of the system.

Although urban development with its growing industrialisation is a predominant problem, the National Roads Board is also aware of the need for continued development of a fully effective inter-regional network with adequate rural feeder roads. Balanced development of the total network is essential if primary production is to increase and production costs are to be restrained.

Highway Standards—In order to qualify for highway subsidies local authorities are required to carry out works to a standard approved by the National Roads Board. Subsidies are not payable unless the approved standard is observed, although work of a higher standard may be undertaken provided that the additional expenditure involved is found by the local authorities concerned. From time to time the Board's standards are revised to meet the latest developments in highway practice and engineering design and also to cater for the requirements of increasing traffic. Roadmaking materials used in highway works are subject to standard tests.

Motorways—The Public Works Act makes provision for the declaration of motorways. Motorways provide efficient and economic means of communication, while the control of access and the total elimination of ribbon development will go far to improve road safety and prevent obsolescence.

The total mileage of motorways in use at 31 March 1973 was 71.07 miles.

National Roading Expenditure—Details of New Zealand public roading expenditure financed from the National Roads Fund, the Consolidated Revenue Account, and local authority funds (both from revenue and loans) are summarised as follows:

Item1971–721972–73
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
State highways expenditure 47,005 53,669
Subsidised highway, section 12A 397 609
County roading expenditure—
    From county funds19,212 19,744 
    From National Roads Funds20,406 23,552 
    From Consolidated Revenue Account (vote: "Roads")2,289 2,387 
  41,906 45,683
Municipal roading expenditure—
    From municipal funds20,319 24,226 
    From National Roads Funds13,236 15,752 
  33,554 39,978
  122,863 139,939

NOTE—Table above does not include subsidies paid under section 12A of the National Roads Act (to the Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority ($1,000,000) and the Christchurch Road Tunnel Authority ($200,000) plus $1,980 expected by the Ministry of Works and Development on the reinstatement of approaches after experimental works) which in total amounts to $1,201,980.

During the year ended 31 March 1973, 48 miles of new sealing on highways were completed, giving an aggregate of 6,559 miles sealed, or 91 percent of total highway mileage.

New bridging totalled 4,841 linear feet, compared with 6,924 linear feet in the previous year.

Local Authority Roading—The National Roads Board pays a basic subsidy at the rate of $1.50 for each $2 that is spent by local authorities out of their own funds on such programmes of subsidised works as have been accepted for a financial year by the Board, and approves grants in special cases.

In recognition of the urgency and importance of the country's bridge renewal problem, the Board makes generous grants for local authority bridge replacements. Wooden bridges built 50 and 60 years ago, which have served the country well, continue to deteriorate at a greater rate than replacements can be built. In 10 years to March 1973 there have been 2,648 bridges completed, totalling 164,709 ft (32.05 miles).

For the year ended 31 March 1973 the following amounts were paid to local authorities from the National Roads Fund for roading.

Local AuthoritySubsidyGrantsTotal
 $(thousand)
Municipalities9,9325,81915,751
County councils (including road boards)13,46410,08723,551
Totals23,39615,90639,302

Loan Assistance—To assist counties and municipalities with their planning the National Roads Board meets 30 percent of the cost of approved transportation surveys in urban areas. Plans have been completed or are in the course of preparation in all city areas with a population in excess of 30,000 people.

Needs studies have been made for county and municipal roading and the Board has carried out regional surveys to assess relative needs.

It is envisaged that more comprehensive and co-ordinated surveys will become necessary as development increases in complexity, and that the Board's criteria will need to extend further into the field of productive economics.

Development Roading—In addition to the expenditure on roading from the National Roads Fund, moneys are provided annually by the Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) for development of road construction. Under this heading subsidies are paid to local authorities for the construction of new road giving access to farmlands being brought into production. This Vote also finances access road to lands being prepared for farm settlement by the Lands and Survey and Maori and Island Affairs Departments, as well as certain new roading of a national development character.

New roads constructed for farm access are handed over to the care of local authorities, while national roading normally becomes the responsibility of the National Roads Board for maintenance as part of the State highway system.

Government roading expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) for the year ended 31 March 1973 was $2,387,109.

Overall Roading Expenditure—The following table shows the total expenditure on roading from all sources for the year ended 31 March 1973.

National Roads Fund—$(000)$(000)
    State highways53,669 
    Subsidies, etc. – local roading41,115 
  94,784
Consolidated Revenue Account (Vote Roads) 2,387
Local authority funds—
    Municipalities24,226 
    County councils19,74443,970
Total 141,141

Roading expenditure over the latest 11 years is related to gross national product in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRoading Expenditure: Central and Local GovernmentTotal as Percentage of Gross National Product
MaintenanceConstructionTotal
*Provisional.
 $(million)percent
196327.1647.2574.412.47
196427.4756.3683.832.62
196527.6758.8286.492.48
196629.6369.5299.152.65
196731.3467.4898.822.53
196831.6260.9692.582.30
196936.0966.20102.292.35
197035.5873.93109.512.30
197142.0776.97119.042.18*
197245.0679.01124.071.98*
197342.5198.63141.141.96*

REGISTRATION AND LICENSING OF MOTOR VEHICLES—The amounts for initial registration fees are: motorcars, from $16 to $50 according to engine capacity; motor cycles, $10; power cycles, $6; light trucks, $30; heavy trucks, $50; trailers, $10; tractors, $2; traction engines, $10; and any other motor vehicles, $20. Annual licence fees are as follows: power cycles, $4; motor cycles, $6; motorcars and private station wagons, $10; traction engines, $3; trailers (not exceeding 2 tons laden weight), $6. Other fees include drivers' licences, $1; changes of ownership, $5; and dealers' licences (motor cycles, $6; any other motor vehicles, $10). All such fees, except those for drivers' licences which are payable to the local authorities, have been credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account since 1 July 1967.

The various types of motor vehicles licensed as at 31 March in each of the last five years are itemised below.

Type of Vehicle1,9691,9701,9711,9721,973
Cars833,488861,958908,253955,4461,020,778
Rental cars3,0683,2223,6614,0074,197
Private taxicabs165157159129129
Light goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight 2 tons and under)99,073101,814110,385117,441122,485
Heavy goods service vehicles (i.e., gross laden weight over 2 tons)67,91469,66371,37773,18472,169
Contract vehicles1,5791,5941,1821,1391,117
Omnibuses2,7132,6882,6432,6132,564
Public taxicabs2,9002,8912,9182,9372,993
Service coaches499455470489536
Motor cycles29,64729,17632,09939,32647,476
Power cycles18,23318,82620,97423,61424,950
Totals, motor vehicles1,059,2791,092,4441,154,1211,220,3251,299,394
Trailers, including trailers exempted from payment of annual licence fees and caravans201,264211,539224,667238,798256,281
Dealers' cars3,5693,6363,7094,0474,131
Dealers' motor cycles103109133172222
Vehicles including cycles exempted from payment of annual licence fees (farm tractors, etc.)75,60677,88981,70786,83592,930
Totals, all vehicles1,339,8211,385,6171,464,3371,550,1771,652,958

Motor vehicles exempted from the annual licence fee include a miscellaneous collection of machines such as fanners' motor vehicles used solely on the farm and only venturing on roads to proceed from one part of the farm to another, or from farm to garage for repair, etc., excavators, scoops, trench diggers, cranes, and logging trucks (used on private roads), etc.

The rate of increase in the number of motor vehicles has exceeded the rate of increase in population. The following table shows the changes in relationship between the number of licensed vehicles and population as at 31 March in the latest 11 years.

As at 31 MarchNumber of Persons in Population per CarNumber of Persons in Population per Motor Vehicle (Excluding Trailers)
19634.32.9
19644.12.8
19653.82.7
19663.72.6
19673.52.5
19683.42.5
19693.32.4
19703.32.4
19713.12.3
19723.02.2
19732.92.1

The countries with fewest persons per motor vehicle are, in order, United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, but the standard of vehicles is not uniform.

The next table shows the estimated total consumption of motor spirits in New Zealand, together with the quantity consumed by motor vehicles on public roads, for each year during the last 12 years. Statistics for diesel fuel used on public roads are not included. Diesel consumption in the year ended 31 March 1972 was 186 million gallons, but this included other purposes than road usage.

Calendar YearConsumption of Motor Spirits
By Motor Vehicles on Public RoadsTotal Consumption
 (million gallons)
1961245.4296.4
1962253.0298.7
1963273.0317.1
1964294.9339.7
1965312.7356.8
1966333.8373.8
1967339.7378.4
1968344.6382.9
1969367.4400.9
1970381.9416.6
1971396.4431.0
1972422.8455.8

The following diagram illustrates the trend that has taken place in the number of motor vehicles licensed, and in the consumption of motor spirits by motor vehicles. Diesel-fuel consumption which has grown substantially in recent years, is not available. This influence should be recognised when analysing petrol consumption values.

Estimates based on survey data collected during the New Zealand Transport Study indicated, that the average travel in 1972 for passenger cars and light vehicles was 8,496 miles; for heavy goods-service vehicles the average was 12,759 miles; and for passenger-service vehicles the average was 17,311 miles.

Registrations of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country are as follows for the six latest years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCarsMotor Cycles (Including Power Cycles)Commercial VehiclesTrailers and CaravansTotal Registrations
196853,5083,86713,43919,05289,866
196949,8173,46512,04118,00583,328
197057,0194,24218,00717,72096,988
197172,50610,79222,17218,484123,954
197280,06918,69425,94220,823145,528
197395,58220,63723,97122,235162,425

ROAD TRANSPORT—The Transport Act 1962 is the main legislation governing road transport and the operations of the Ministry of Transport; attendant regulations set out the rules of the road, the requirements as to motor vehicle equipment, and the obligations of motor drivers and owners and pedestrians.

Transport Licensing—Transport licensing is primarily an economic measure to achieve better coordination of road and rail transport and to prevent excessive competition and duplication of services within the road transport industry. Public passenger buses, taxicabs, rental vehicles, and harbour ferries can only be operated with a licence. A transport licence is also needed for the cartage of goods in the following circumstances:

  1. When they are carried for hire or reward by means of a motor vehicle.

  2. When they are carried in competition with the New Zealand Railways beyond specified distances whether for hire or reward or not, except with vehicles which together with their load, weigh 2½ tons or less and farmers' vehicles with a payload of up to 5 tons.

Thus goods service licensing extends beyond the common carrier operating throughout the country and can include farmers and businesses carrying their own goods in their own vehicles, if these vehicles are over the laden weights or carrying the load prescribed above and they wish to operate them beyond certain distances.

In general, goods cannot be carried by road between places where a route is available which includes at least 40 miles of rail. However, certain commodities (particularly some foodstuffs) can be carried without this restriction up to 50, 75, or 100 miles, and for some goods, such as livestock, fresh meat, poultry, or fresh fish there is no restriction at all. In addition, this restriction ceases to apply where use of the railway would increase the journey by more than one-third of the shortest road route available. The licensing authorities (see below) may also grant exemption from the railway restriction in particular cases where this is in the public interest.

Apart from these exemptions in respect of competition with the railways, there is complete freedom from transport licensing for certain special or limited transport services.

New Zealand is divided into 11 transport licensing districts (including one harbour ferry district at Auckland) which are administered by five full-time licensing authorities appointed by the Minister of Transport for terms of up to 5 years. They adjudicate on applications for a licence to enter the industry, on transfer or renewals of licences, and on changes to or withdrawals of transport services.

The factors to be considered in dealing with these applications are specified in the Transport Act 1962, and emphasis is placed on consideration of the public interest and of users of public transport. There is a right of appeal from the decisions of licensing authorities to the Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Charges for transport services do not come within the jurisdiction of the licensing authorities. Public bodies operating public passenger services fix their own charges; the Secretary for Transport all others. In every case there is a right of appeal to a Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Both the Minister of Transport and licensing authorities have powers in respect of public inquiries into or reviews of transport services and licences. Reviews of taxicab services must be made at least every three years in the four main centres and in other centres with a population of more than 10,000.

In general, licences may be either continuous, seasonal, or temporary (not more than 14 days). However, all rental service licences have a duration of three years after which application must be made for their renewal.

Operations of Licensed Goods and Passenger Services—The following tables review the operations of licensed road transport services. The first of these tables gives the estimated overall figures concerning licensed road goods services for each of the five latest years ended 31 March.

Road Goods Services..1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72

*At 31 December.

†Provisional.

Revenue$(000)139,600153,100177,900192,400211,000
Capital invested$(000)104,900114,900127,400136,000138,000
Vehicle-miles(000)324,100330,000353,000338,000345,000
Goods-service licencesNo.6,7626,694*6,619*6,697*6,736*
Average revenue per vehicle-milec44.4346.3950.4656.8861.20
Average miles per vehicleNo.15,79516,42117,19017,09317,482

The second table shows traffic data, revenue, and number of vehicles used by the road passenger services operating in New Zealand, and is inclusive of services in the four metropolitan transport districts, for each of the five latest years ended 31 March.

Road Passenger Services1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72*
*Provisional.
Traffic statistics—
    Passengers carried(000)172,948171,148153,346149,934146,000
    Vehicle-miles(000)81,44083,32481,36785,33381,600
Revenue$(000)25,89027,28928,37130,82934,280
Revenue per milec31.7932.7534.8636.1342.0
VehiclesNo.3,8163,9193,8043,9713,523

Statistics on bus services run by the New Zealand Railways (included above) are given separately in Section 11B.

The following table sets out statistics of taxicab services for the five latest March years.

Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72

*Includes private-hire taxicabs. At 31 December 1970 there were 2,921 public taxicab authorities issued by transport licensing authorities.

†Provisional.

Estimated total capital invested in cabs$(000)5,2585,2775,3405,8006,100
Mileage run(000)102,900106,600102,300105,600107,400
Revenue$(000)13,98014,70014,90016,70018,400
Revenue per milec13.5913.7914.5415.8017.20
Vehicles*No.3,0443,0653,0483,0773,122

Statistics of the rental vehicle industry are set out in the following table for March years.

Item1,9691,9701,9711,972
*This is the number of vehicle, authorities issued by transport licensing authorities, not necessarily the actual number of vehicles.
Cars authorised..3,6613,8104,2344,519
Other vehicles authorised*..9079901,0911,264
Mileage run(000)53,96857,05671,71077,900
Estimated total revenue$(000)6,5006,6009,5009,800
Revenue per milec12.0411.5613.2412.60

Economic Research—The Ministry of Transport has intensified its economic research into transport operations and determined a long-term research plan. An association of business consultants has been commissioned to make a comprehensive transport policy study for examination by the Government.

Household Motorcars—Availability of motorcars to households at the Census of 1971 is shown in the following table.

AreaTotal HouseholdsMotor Cars Owned or Business Car Available for Use
OneTwo or More
Urban Area—
    Whangarei9,3445,2522,179
    Northern Auckland32,99018,0068,152
    Western Auckland24,00813,3787,079
    Central Auckland89,96342,21920,831
    Southern Auckland42,23822,69311,706
    Hamilton21,83911,9776,066
    Tauranga11,7377,0083,033
    Rotorua9,7495,2342,577
    Gisborne8,3164,5751,842
    Napier12,6046,9942,974
    Hastings12,9987,1393,450
    New Plymouth11,5196,4632,656
    Wanganui11,1926,2192,477
    Palmerston North16,4279,0404,261
    Upper Hutt Valley8,0834,7761,905
    Lower Hutt Valley26,06113,9616,441
    Porirua Basin11,3396,0722,268
    Wellington42,79121,1988,225
    Masterton5,4583,0731,331
    Nelson10,9056,3532,759
    Christchurch81,70542,90221,468
    Timaru8,5894,9821,798
    Dunedin32,84317,1686,196
    Invercargill14,1407,7673,486
Totals of 24 urban areas556,838294,449135,160
Percentage of total100.052.924.3
    New Zealand total801,886441,459192,776
Percentages of total100.055.124.0

Transport to Work—The following table from the 1971 Census of Population indicates the dependence of the labour force on road transport to work.

AreaDrive Car, Van, or TruckPassenger In Car, Van, or TruckBusCycle, MotorcycleTrainTotal Actively Engaged*
*Includes persons who walk and farmers and others.
Urban Area—
    Whangarei6,7681,6381,113387712,496
    Northern Auckland21,0644,5789,8069503042,710
    Western Auckland19,2463,8135,28081259934,477
    Central Auckland57,22511,55033,5982,9831,302129,825
    Southern Auckland32,6956,3229,1701,8891,64361,138
    Hamilton17,1643,0833,2052,0672031,891
    Tauranga8,3251,544695822914,102
    Rotorua8,3781,9921,3165343915,355
    Gisborne5,6531,0304101,5571210,848
    Napier8,8591,5441,0901,6742916,028
    Hastings9,0911,5626382,371817,241
    New Plymouth7,8641,5181,6737431514,721
    Wanganui7,0951,2188472,0312013,800
    Palmerston North11,7231,9971,1583,3472022,823
    Upper Hutt Valley5,4101,3515225652,85912,640
    Lower Hutt Valley17,2694,1914,9011,0466,76639,484
    Porirua Basin6,0062,1561,4561808,03217,338
    Wellington23,4775,51821,1701,1263,10768,777
    Masterton3,778773241777487,286
    Nelson7,2911,5515841,1522113,239
    Christchurch54,2768,16715,24815,964526109,719
    Timaru5,4578458001,129510,452
    Dunedin20,0374,3747,8141,46386143,083
    Invercargill10,2173,0371,6901,7481519,495
Totals of 24 urban areas374,36875,352124,42547,31723,993778,968
Percentages of total48.19.716.06.13.1100.0
    New Zealand totals494,188107,816132,21965,15325,9721,118,835
Percentages of total44.29.611.85.82.3100.0

TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS ON ROADS—Motor-vehicle accidents involving death or personal injury are required by law to be reported to the Police. For the year ended 31 December 1972, 14,654 such accidents, resulting in 713 fatalities and in injuries to 22,315 other people were reported. Comparative figures for 1971 and 1970 were (1970 figures being given in parentheses): number of accidents 14,004 (13,300); fatalities 677 (655); persons injured 21,607 (20,791). The increases must be related to the growing number of vehicles on the roads.

Details of the nature of road accidents for the calendar year 1972, which have been compiled by the Ministry of Transport, are set out in the following table.

Nature of AccidentFatal AccidentsInjury AccidentsTotals
Overtaking31456487
Head-on collision (not overtaking)961,0371,133
Rear-end collision7802809
Loss of control or running off road on straight601,3651,425
Loss of control or running off road while cornering1532,2682,421
Collision with obstruction27864891
At intersections—
    Vehicles moving in same direction, one turning151,1231,138
    Vehicles moving in opposite direction, one turning right25940965
    Vehicles crossing paths, not turning441,3451,389
    Vehicles crossing paths, turning17866883
Vehicles merging4197201
Vehicle manoeuvring5649654
Pedestrian crossing road1031,6561,759
Pedestrian, other17248265
Miscellaneous18216234
Totals62214,03214,654

The age groups of drivers involved in accidents causing death or injury in 1971 are shown in the following table in relation to the numbers holding driving licences.

Age Groups (Years)Drivers Licensed*Drivers Involved in AccidentsPercentage Involved in Accidents
*Approximate
Under 1538
157,8003945.1
1619,2008904.6
1728,8001,2564.4
1833,5001,3724.1
1936,0001,3183.6
2038,6001,1903.1
21 to 25212,7003,7721.8
26 to 30171,9002,2211.3
31 to 35149,8001,6411.1
36 to 40133,6001,4221.1
41 to 45130,6001,3551.0
46 to 50125,9001,1540.9
51 to 55103,5009330.9
56 to 6091,4008470.9
61 to 6566,9006330.9
66 to 7041,6003650.9
Over 7032,5004041.2
Unknown833*..
Totals1,425,00022,0381.5

There were 16,222 persons on the register of disqualified drivers at 31 December 1972.

The ages of persons killed and injured in motor accidents is shown in the following table.

Age Groups (Years)KilledInjured
19691,9701,9711,9691,9701,971
Under 5182424616683677
5–9303438845937970
10–142825251,0791,1741,307
15–191061321315,204..5,9776,572
20–2481941193,4733,9204,064
25–294249361,3961,5411,594
30–342437338821,0671,076
35–39243025762842853
40–44303034725872824
45–49253833689827736
50–54233232668701691
55–59252440583613649
60–64272832453529543
65–69282518380404402
70 and over595357530553559
Unknown age44115190
Totals57065567718,72620,79121,607

A classification of road users killed and injured during the calendar year 1971 is given in the following table.

Type of CasualtyKilledSeriously InjuredWith Minor InjuriesTotal
Driver of—
    Car2092,6104,0136,832
    Rental car4354180
    Taxi1123245
    Van21204347572
    Truck1087137234
    Articulated truck16916
    Bus369
    Other78823
Motor cyclist418691,1322,042
Power cyclist3150230383
Passenger2273,0415,1078,375
Pillion rider8177353538
Cyclist293617221,112
Pedestrian1137871,0741,974
Other3163049
Totals6778,36613,24122,284

Accident statistics for 6 latest calendar years are given in the following table.

Calendar YearPersons KilledKilled per 10,000 Vehicles on RoadPersons InjuredInjured per 10,000 Vehicles on RoadCasualties (Killed and Injured) per 30,000 Vehicles
*Provisional.
19675705.2817,409161.4166.7
19685224.7317,693160.3165.0
19695705.0018,726164.3169.3
19706555.5620,691176.4181.9
19716775.4521,597173.9179.3
19727135.4322,315*169.8*175.2*

Statistics of deaths resulting from motor vehicle accidents are available for many years from vital statistics, these figures being discussed briefly in Section 4c.

The following table shows motor accident death and injury rates in 1972 for New Zealand in comparison with other countries.

CountryPersons KilledPersons InjuredKilled per 10,000 VehiclesKilled per 100,000 PopulationInjured per 10,000 VehiclesInjured per 100,000 Population

*Year ended 30 June 1972.

†1970 Data.

New Zealand71322,3155.424.6169.8769.7
Australia*3,42339,8156.626.3172.7690.9
Great Britain7,779352,0134.914.1220.0636.0
United States55,0002,000,0004.826.7173.9970.0

ROAD SAFETY: Enforcement of Traffic and other Laws—Traffic on roads in six cities and boroughs is controlled by local authorities. Elsewhere throughout the country it is controlled by the Ministry of Transport which is also responsible for traffic on motorways within all urban areas. In national emergencies or major disasters, all traffic control comes under the supervision of the Ministry of Transport.

In addition to regulation of traffic and standards of driving, traffic officers enforce the laws relating to heavy traffic, tyre pressures, and the allowable weights of vehicles and loads on different classes of road. They also enforce the legislation concerning the licensing of road transport services.

Traffic officers are not part of the Police and do not engage in criminal investigations. They form however, a uniformed and disciplined enforcement body and close liaison is maintained with the Police. Traffic officers have the power to arrest without warrant persons driving under the influence of drink or drugs, or being in charge of a motor vehicle while under the influence of drink or drugs and refusing to deliver ignition keys.

Persons giving a traffic or police officer good cause to suspect that they are driving with a blood-alcohol concentration of 100 mg or more per 100 ml of blood may be required to give a blood sample for analysis. An initial test with a breath-test device is used as a screening process.

Wearing of seat belts is now compulsory for drivers and front-seat passengers in most classes of vehicles registered after January 1965. Children under 15 years of age are exempt, and there are other exemptions for certain occupational groups and on medical grounds.

From 1 December 1973 it has been compulsory for all motor cyclists and pillion riders to wear safety helmets at all speeds.

Offences—Penalties are awarded by Courts for driving and other offences under the Transport Act 1962 and attendant regulations. There is also a system in operation whereby points are automatically registered according to a fixed scale against persons convicted of driving offences.

The Secretary for Transport has authority to suspend drivers' licences for 6 months where 100 or more demerit points are received in less than 1 year, or for 3 months where this number of points are received within 2 years. Official warnings are issued and compulsory interviews take place before these levels are reached.

Breaches of certain parking, speeding, and overloading laws are dealt with under an infringement system. A person committing an infringement must pay a specified fee within a certain time. Failure to pay the fee is an offence.

Speed Limits—The maximum speed for highways generally is 55 miles an hour, although there are 60 mph areas on suitable highways. However lower limits are prescribed for certain vehicles, e.g., 50 mph for heavy passenger vehicles; and 40 mph for heavy goods vehicles. A top limit of 50 miles an hour was imposed in 1973 to conserve oil products.

A general speed limit of 30 mph is fixed in cities, boroughs, town districts, or other localities declared to be closely populated districts. Areas with a speed limit of 40 mph may also be specified by the Minister of Transport; and limited speed zones may be established for which the maximum permitted speed may be either 55 mph or 30 mph depending on conditions and circumstances.

Inspection of Motor Vehicles—All vehicles using the roads must be inspected every six months to ensure that their mechanical and structural fitness is of a satisfactory standard. Most lightweight vehicles are required to have a warrant of fitness which can be issued at approved garages, or at testing stations operated by local authorities or the Ministry of Transport. All heavy vehicles, with minor exceptions, undergo a more exacting examination for a certificate of fitness, which, in respect of passenger service buses, has special regard for the safety and comfort of passengers. Taxicabs and rental vehicles also require a certificate of fitness.

The design and standard of construction of vehicles manufactured, assembled, or modified in New Zealand are also regulated to ensure safety.

Insurance—Under the Accident Compensation Act 1972 a motor vehicle scheme provides cover for everyone in respect of personal injury caused by motor accidents. There is a Motor Vehicle Fund financed by premiums paid with the annual licence fee. The legislation came into effect on 1 April 1974, replacing the compulsory third-party scheme previously operating.

Road Safety Education—Publicity directed towards road safety is carried out through the press, radio, and television and by means of posters, etc. Special road safety campaigns and traffic improvement courses are held from time to time. Great emphasis is placed on instruction in schools by uniformed road traffic instructors who visit all schools at least twice a year, and also lecture to teachers' colleges and other groups.

The New Zealand Defensive Driving Council provides a safety course for all licensed drivers.

Road Safety Council—The New Zealand Road Safety Council also advises the Government on matters of road safety. Safety committees deal with local issues and make recommendations to the Council.

TRAFFIC OFFENCES—The following table shows the nature of the offences resulting in convictions during the latest three calendar years. The table covers only offences reported by officers of the Ministry of Transport; in addition some city councils employ their own traffic control staff and total convictions are therefore rather higher than shown. Convictions in Magistrates' Courts for the calendar year 1971 were, for instance, 187,226.

Type of Offence1270*19711972‡

*Overloading infringement system commenced from May 1970.

†Speeding infringement system commenced from July 1971.

(a) Accident promoting offences-
        Driving or attempting to drive, while under the influence of drink or drugs302299295
        In charge of motor vehicle while under the influence of drink or drugs1118590
        Breath test blood-alcohol offences1,5502,9663,200
        Warrant of fitness offences10,20110,6829,758
        Certificate of fitness offences585678635
        Certificate of loading offences176239319
        Exceeding certificate of loading88149105
        Reckless driving68142126
        Driving in a dangerous manner435480618
        Driving at a dangerous speed476596701
        Driving without reasonable consideration....418
        Careless use of a motor vehicle3,2984,0333,989
        Overtaking offences1,7321,8261,481
        Failure to keep to the left2,6122,9592,686
        Failure to yield right of way1,3881,7341,074
        Failure to stop in half clear road380456688
        Exceeding 30 mph19,54321,23711,652
        Exceeding 40 mph1,0111,372593
        Exceeding 55 mph3,9483,8571,430
        Exceeding 60 mph1,164937312
        Breaches of limited speed zone56912
        Exceeding temporary speed limits3665851,273
        Exceeding bylaw, etc.....149
        Failure to stop at traffic lights....1,858
        Failure to stop at compulsory stop sign5,6156,5893,834
        Failure to give way at a give way sign....612
        Failure to yield right of way at pedestrian crossing285349331
        Failure to stop or give way for siren....27
        Failure to comply with road signs....845
        Cycling offences941943501
        Pedestrian offences12813297
        Passenger offences....99
        Horse traffic offences....9
        Motor cyclist exceeding 30 mph without safety helmet (rider or pillion)1,1091,7731,576
        Provisional motor cyclist exceeding 30 mph....202
        Exceeding 40 mph with trailer1,3411,309793
        Exceeding 40 mph with heavy motor vehicle759579148
        Exceeding 45 mph with pillion passenger310533504
        Exceeding 50 mph (omnibus)5910
        Exceeding 50 mph by probationary driver436648249
        Exceeding other limits12616786
        Defective brakes394467598
        Lighting offences3,2383,2893,545
        Failure to dip lights136155167
        Mechanically defective or unsafe vehicle2,9535,3236,335
        Trailer offences....375
Totals67,26677,58664,405
(b) Non-accident promoting offences—
        Failure to obey officer....779
        Failure to fulfil duties after accident....226
        Owner failing to supply information..3221,577
        Failure to pay parking infringement fee317540813
        Failure to pay overloading infringement fee4521160
        Failure to pay speeding infringement fee....885
        Heavy traffic licence not carried or no heavy traffic licence1,2581,4641,302
        Heavy traffic licence defaced or obscured6978
        Exceeding heavy traffic licence7189351,112
        Mileage tax offences....176
        Driver's licence offences8,0889,3719,956
        Driving whilst disqualified680788742
        Probationary drivers offences1,5691,581879
        Vehicle licences and registration offences2,6952,9073,103
        Breaches of drivers' hours regulations152186
        Over 100 demerit points....32
        Other miscellaneous offences5,9215,720175
        Safety belt offences....99
        Noisy motor vehicles1,5501,7341,563
        Emitting excessive smoke6799130
        Loading offences278544818
        Other nuisances....71
        Conversion....1
        Aiding and abetting18310877
        Stock offences....16
        Other bylaw offences....20
        Unlicensed goods service284394
        Breach of goods service licence128118449
        Exceeding rail restriction mileage275891
        Unlicensed passenger service141
        Breach of passenger service licence929
        Rental vehicle offences272845
        Taxicab offences51015
        No vehicle authority or not carried66125172
        Other transport licensing offences144227179
Totals23,82526,77925,931
(c) Parking offences6,66312,75820,499
Totals—all offences97,754117,123110,835
(d) Notices issued for infringements
        Parking96,350131,629199,749
        Speeding..17,09237,712
        Overloading1,818*2,4475,152

URBAN PASSENGER SERVICES OPERATED BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The data provided in this section covers the whole of the urban passenger transport services operated by local authorities, and no account is taken of the various motor-bus services operated by the New Zealand Government Railways, or by any private enterprise.

In the last 20 years motor and trolley bus services have increased and electric tramways have been superseded. The last tramway system serving a city area was in Wellington, and this was terminated in May 1964. Wellington, however, still retains 31 chains of track for the only electric cable tram service now operating in New Zealand.

From 1 November 1969 to 31 March 1971 local authorities received grants from the Ministry of Transport of twice the amount of heavy traffic fees paid in relation to urban passenger service operations. From 1 September 1972 a grant equivalent to heavy traffic fees paid on urban passenger buses is being paid to all operators, municipal and private. In April 1973 the grant was increased to 150 percent of heavy traffic fees paid.

An Urban Transport Council has been established under the Transport Act with the function of administering Government assistance by way of loans and grants to urban public passenger transport operators, both public and private; and to encourage and conduct research into urban passenger transport and associated matters.

For the 1972–73 financial year the Council was granted $1 million by Central Government to provide capital loans or grants to the transport operators and they allocated $826,000 to local authorities (including New Zealand Railways) and $174,000 to private operators for this purpose.

Details of revenue and expenditure incurred by Local Authority passenger services only are given in the following table. In the latest year losses exceeded $4 million, with only Eastbourne Borough Council making a profit.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenueAverage Fare per PassengerRevenue per Mile RunExpenditureExpenditure per Mile Run
Passenger FaresTotalOperating ExpensesCapital ChargesTotal (incl. "Other")
 $(000)$(000)cc$(000)$(000)$(000)c
Auckland
19693,3643,4628.4346.103,2336673,90051.93
19703,3643,5338.4847.773,4336504,08355.21
19713,7113,9729.4053.423,9446384,58361.63
19724,1044,17510.8256.004,3476925,03967.58
19736,3816,93913.0249.677,5846008,18458.59
Gisborne
1969596310.0434.015986736.51
1970596310.7133.686086836.48
1971656811.2136.4169128143.04
1972717513.1342.0868127944.87
1973677013.1342.8267117847.44
New Plymouth
19691261295.4425.3314816332.38
19701351435.8628.6015817334.64
19711451596.3331.8517919438.92
19721561607.0532.0221222745.39
19731541507.2933.3022924751.16
Palmerston North
196994979.5127.28931711030.89
197095999.6828.45961811332.56
197111011310.0829.401251814337.06
197211912310.9529.691533318644.97
197311411711.1326.941834723052.96
Eastbourne
196915216214.0033.461233215832.51
197015216614.0336.721293416436.13
197116919015.4642.151393017438.74
197217719016.4640.921523118940.80
197319220718.0347.831643520246.74
Wellington
19692,0542,0987.7051.182,2914282,71966.33
19702,0342,0807.6550.912,4634182,88170.50
19712,0712,1187.7753.783,0624183,48088.35
19722,4682,5229.3162.513,6214044,02599.77
19732,4512,5749.6267.053,8823524,235110.31
Christchurch
19691,4211,4448.2231.681,5462961,84240.42
19701,4541,5248.2833.341,6372901,92742.15
19711,5801,7079.2437.561,9871102,09746.15
19721,8321,85911.3440.252,3091732,48353.77
19731,7891,85711.4740.202,4952302,72458.99
Timaru
196968736.0527.65812310439.38
197073816.9230.75872811543.70
197179906.7435.03972812548.52
197286937.9136.431143014456.25
197385957.7735.181273416059.22
Dunedin
19697798108.0246.888402281,06861.81
19707668028.0548.688631881,05163.77
19717357708.5250.689741601,13374.60
197296299711.3761.531,1431551,29880.11
19731,0371,07314.0168.111,2172141,43190.85
Invercargill
19691171226.1826.741533318540.57
19701191216.4725.281593119039.60
19711191226.7926.061923222447.69
19721221268.70x30.662082823557.49
19731261319.2432.542232925262.56
Totals, All Services
19698,2358,4608.1141.998,5671,73210,31751.21
19708,2518,6138.1643.219,0851,66510,76554.01
19718,7849,3108.8147.2910,7681,44612,23562.14
197210,09810,31910.47x51.7212,3261,55913,90769.71
197312,39613,22211.8550.4916,1711,55117,74367.76

Details of vehicles, miles run, and passengers carried are given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVehiclesMiles RunPassengers CarriedPassengers per Mile Run
Trolley BusesMotor BusesTrolley BusesMotor Buses

*Includes two cable cars.

†Includes cable car mileage; 1968–69, 38,000; 1969–70, 38,000; 1970–71, 37,000; 1971–72, 38,000; 1972–73, 31,000

   (000)(000)(000) 
Auckland
19691272352,9934,51739,9125.31
19701272272,9174,47939,6585.36
19711262162,9254,51039,3865.30
19721262162,8914,56537,9195.09
19731264302,82211,14749,0003.51
Gisborne
1969101855893.19
1970111885552.96
1971101885783.08
1972101775423.06
1973101645113.11
New Plymouth
1969225052,3104.58
1970225012,3054.60
1971224992,2854.58
1972225002,2164.43
1973224822,1094.38
Palmerston North
1969153559902.79
1970143489822.82
1971143861,0922.83
1972144141,0892.63
1973184351,0232.35
Eastbourne
1969194851,0882.24
1970194531,0832.39
1971194501,0952.43
1972194641,0762.32
1973194321,0622.46
Wellington
1969121*1461,8852,21526,6706.51
1970121*1411,8622,22426,5846.51
1971121*1351,9092,03026,6396.76
1972116*1351,9612,07326,5066.57
1973117*1351,6482,19125,4666.63
Christchurch
19691664,55817,2913.79
19701664,57117,5713.84
19711664,54517,0953.76
19721664,61916,1473.50
19731674,61815,6033.38
Timaru
1969132641,1284.27
1970132631,0514.00
1971132571,1694.54
1972132561,0894.25
1973132701,0924.04
Dunedin
196959438398899,7035.62
197054437239259,5115.77
197142476139068,6355.68
197242475391,0818,4615.22
197334574791,0967,4064.70
Invercargill
1969234571,8934.14
1970234791,8343.83
1971194691,7483.73
1972194091,4043.15
1973194031,3633.38
Totals: All Services
1969307*6925,71714,429101,5745.04
1970302*6795,50214,430101,1335.07
1971289*6615,44714,24199,7225.07
1972284*6615,39214,55896,4484.83
1973299*8904,97121,238104,6954.00

The length of routes covered by the services are given in the following table.

Area and ServiceAt 31 March
19691970197119721973
Auckland—mchmchmchmchmch
    Trolley bus57675767576757675767
    Motor bus1523215501550155040513
Gisborne—
    Motor bus180180180170180
New Plymouth—
    Motor bus23682368240240310
Palmerston North—
    Motor bus694079408340840900
Eastbourne—
    Motor bus160160160160160
Wellington—
    Trolley bus324324324324324
    Motor bus59435943594359435243
    Tram, cable031031031031031
Christchurch—
    Motor bus1634016479165241655916559
Timaru—
    Motor bus250250251123112311
Dunedin—
    Trolley bus25202520224717342011
    Motor bus44354435322146575019
Invercargill—
    Motor bus270270280280280

11 D—CIVIL AVIATION

GENERAL—New Zealand today ranks among the leading nations of the world in terms of use of air transport per head of population.

Jet services operate on the main trunk routes in the country. Air transport has become increasing popular between the North and South Islands and between main centres such as Auckland and Wellington.

The promotion of tourism and the growth of international aviation have gone hand in hand. Air New Zealand operates over many Pacific routes in competition with other airlines and New Zealand has financed the construction of an international airport at Rarotonga in the Cook Islands.

DEVELOPMENT OF AVIATION—During the early 1920s an appreciable amount of air taxi and charter flying was carried out and the aero club movement began in 1927. The first registered company commenced services in 1934, on the route Inchbonnie - Hokitika - Franz Josef Glacier, on the West Coast of the South Island. Subsequent extensions of services up to the outbreak of war in September 1939 resulted in a network over most of New Zealand. During 1946 and 1947 the New Zealand National Airways Corporation absorbed all then existing scheduled commercial services, and by adding to the fleet of aircraft was able to commence new services.

Regular international air services did not begin before the Second World War despite a number of gallant pioneer flights. Tasman Empire Airways Ltd. (TEAL) was incorporated in New Zealand on 26 April 1940, following a formal inter-governmental agreement on air traffic rights across the Tasman Sea on 10 April 1940. The company's first operation commenced between Auckland and Sydney on 30 April 1940 with the flying boat Aotearoa.

In June 1950 the company took over the Auckland-Suva service from New Zealand National Airways Corporation. The Wellington-Sydney service was inaugurated on 3 October 1950 and the Christchurch-Melbourne service on 28 June 1951. With the withdrawal of flying boats from Tasman routes, the Wellington-Sydney service was temporarily discontinued in June 1954 and a new service from Christchurch to Sydney using Douglas DC6 aircraft was commenced in the following month. The same type of aircraft were also employed on the Auckland-Fiji route from June 1954. The first Lockheed Electra turboprop aircraft was brought into use on the trans-Tasman service in December 1959, and by March 1960 all TEAL services between Australia, New Zealand, and Fiji, were being operated by the company's fleet of three Electras.

It had become clear that the monopoly of the Tasman air traffic formerly reserved to TEAL could not be much longer maintained in New Zealand's interests and this fact, together with the spread of jet aircraft throughout the world, led to planning for the company to extend its services to the United States and elsewhere, for which purposes it would require large jet aircraft. In these new circumstances the Australian and New Zealand Governments agreed that New Zealand should purchase the Australian shareholding and thus become the sole owner of the company. In March 1961, an agreement to this effect was concluded and at the same time a bilateral air services agreement was negotiated between Australia and New Zealand whereby each country granted to the airline of the other rights to and beyond its territory. Subsequently, the New Zealand Government negotiated traffic rights for Air New Zealand in Honolulu, Los Angeles, Pago Pago, Hong Kong, Tahiti, Noumea, Kuala Lumpur, and Singapore, in addition to the company's traditional rights in Fiji and the rights already obtained in Australia. (The change of name from TEAL to Air New Zealand was made on 1 April 1965.) Pure jet services to the United States, Singapore, and Hong Kong were inaugurated during 1965–66; prop-jet Electra services were retained for Wellington-Tasman flights until replaced by DC8 jet aircraft in June 1972. Services to Los Angeles are operated via Fiji, Honolulu, and Tahiti.

The operations of Air New Zealand earn or save an estimated $28 million in overseas funds and make an important contribution to the country's external balance of payments. Air New Zealand made a profit of $2.5 million in 1972–73. A profit was also made in each of the 18 preceding years. The company has three DC10 aircraft, with a fourth on order, and mates high utilisation of its 6 DC8s. The revenue ($64.7 million) of Air New Zealand in 1972–73 was derived in the following proportions: Passenger services 73.7 percent, freight and baggage 7.2 percent, charters 5.8 percent, mail 3.3 percent, and other sources 10 percent. New Zealand custom provided the biggest share of the revenue, 48.8 percent, followed by Australia, 20.5 percent, North America 14.7 percent, the United Kingdom and Europe 7.5 percent, the Far East 4.8 percent, and the Pacific Islands 3.7 percent.

CURRENT AIR SERVICES—The major air transport services within New Zealand are provided by the National Airways Corporation which operates a network linking all major centres.

Secondary services are provided by smaller operators such as Mount Cook Airlines and Air North a subsidiary of Geyserland Airways. In addition, air charter and air taxi services are provided from most major aerodromes by licensed aero clubs or small operators

Air freight services are provided by Safeair Ltd., which also provides a regular passenger and freight service between both Wellington and Christchurch and the Chatham Islands under a contract arrangement with the Government.

A private express air freight service, between Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin operates overnight and provides an air freight service with customer door-to-door delivery.

National Airways Corporation in association with ground transport operators offers an express air freight service over their whole air transport network in addition to their normal freight services from and to city freight depots.

The agricultural aviation industry has continued to flourish and an increasingly significant role is being played by rotary wing aircraft.

Aero clubs and flying schools provide facilities for training and for private flying, and at most aerodromes licensed air charter and air taxi services are provided by the smaller operators.

International air services are operated by New Zealand's own international airline, Air New Zealand Ltd., and other regular international air services are provided by BOAC, QANTAS, Pan American World Airways, American Airlines, and UTA French Airlines.

LEGISLATION—The principal legislation affecting civil aviation in New Zealand is the Civil Aviation Act 1964. This Act established the Department of Civil Aviation which later, under the Ministry of Transport Act 1968, became a Division of the Ministry of Transport. The principal functions of the Division are stated to be: (a) to promote and encourage the orderly and economic development of civil aviation; (b) to exercise such functions as may be necessary to ensure the safe operation of aircraft; (c) to initiate and carry out surveys into any aspect of civil aviation.

The Director of the Civil Aviation Division has statutory powers of his own in regulatory matters. The Ministry of Transport embraces also the New Zealand Meteorological Service and the Office of Air Accidents Investigation headed by the Chief Inspector of Air Accidents.

The Air Services Licensing Act 1951 made provision for the establishment of the Air Services Licensing Authority, a four-man independent body, with the primary function of receiving and determining applications for the grant, renewal, amendment, or transfer of air service licences. Under the Act, an air service licence is essential for any air transport or specified aerial work conducted for hire or reward. There is a right of appeal against the decisions of the Air Services Licensing Authority to the Air Services Appeal Authority. International air services are governed by intergovernmental air transport agreements and the International Air Services Licensing Act 1947.

In May 1966 most international airlines, including Air New Zealand, entered into what is known as the Montreal Agreement which also has provisions concerning the liabilities of international air carriers towards their passengers. As a result of the number of different conventions covering the subject there are different limits of liability for the death of a passenger depending on the routes over which the passenger has arranged to travel. The limits may be either $6,000, $12,000, $42,000, or up to US$75,000. New Zealand has now signed the Guatemala Protocol to the Warsaw Convention which will introduce the concept of absolute liability with a limit of US$100,000.

The Carriage by Air Act 1967 governs the liabilities of domestic air carriers towards their passengers and consignors of goods. Briefly, it provides that an air carrier is liable for damage resulting from the death or personal injury of a passenger as a result of an accident unless the carrier can prove that it took all necessary measures to avoid the damage. The limit of liability is set at $42,000. This compares with the situation under the former law whereby the claimant had to prove the negligence of the air carrier and the maximum amount which could be claimed in damages was $10,000.

The Airport Authorities Act 1966 empowers local authorities, with the consent of the Governor-General in Council, to establish, improve, maintain, operate, or manage airports. In pursuit of these objectives local authorities may enter into joint venture agreements with the Crown.

Effect is given to the Tokyo Convention 1963 relating to offences committed on board aircraft, the Hague Convention 1970 relating to hijacking, and the Montreal Convention 1971 relating to aerial sabotage, by the Aviation Crimes Act 1972.

AIR NAVIGATION SERVICES AND FACILITIES—The Civil Aviation Division of the Ministry of Transport is the responsible authority for the provision of all facilities for air navigation in New Zealand, its island territories, and the Cook Islands, and by delegation the facilities for flying operations in Western Samoa.

Air navigation facilities include a variety of electronic aids such as non-directional medium-frequency beacons. (NDB), very high-frequency beacons (VOR), instrument landing systems (ILS), surveillance radar (SRE), precision approach radar (PAR), distance measuring equipment (DME), and also visual aids to navigation including visual glide slope indicators (VASI), high and low intensity approach, runway, and taxiway lights, aerodrome identification beacons, obstruction lights, hazard beacons, runway markings, cloud height measuring devices, wind strength and direction indicators, etc.

To assist the safe, orderly, and expeditious use of the air navigation system the Division provides a comprehensive ground services organisation comprising air traffic control units, communications services, crash-fire services, a search and rescue service, and ground safety organisations. Units of the ground services organisations are located at the majority of aerodromes served by regular scheduled air transport services in New Zealand and Pacific island territories operating from control towers and associated departmental buildings. In addition, control centres and communications centres are established at Auckland and Fiji for the conduct of international operations and at Wellington. Christchurch, and Dunedin to provide services to en-route aircraft throughout the entire country, A search and rescue service is provided from rescue co-ordination centres established by the Division whose responsibility it is to co-ordinate the effort and resources of military and civil agencies in the planning and direction of major search and rescue operations, whether air, land, or sea.

The Division maintains a flight supervision and standards service and conducts examinations and issues licences for all categories of aircrew and ground personnel. Specially equipped aircraft and qualified aircrew are continuously engaged on the checking and calibration of all air navigation facilities.

An Aeronautical Information Service prepares and publishes New Zealand Aeronautical Information and Notices to Airmen and, in collaboration with Lands and Survey Department, produces aeronautical maps and charts, etc.

An aeronautical training college is established at Christchurch International Airport where regular courses are conducted in air traffic control, meteorology, radio engineering, communications, and crash-fire procedure.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—A summary statement of operating and capital costs and recoveries of the Civil Aviation Division for years ended 31 March is now given.

ItemCostsRecoveries
1971–721972–731971–721972–73
Operating$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Civil Aviation, New Zealand—
    Regulatory and general1,4401,610163166
    Airports1672285758
    Airways7,7338,9714,4144,532
Civil Aviation, South Pacific territories34325635
Totals9,68311,0654,6374,761
Capital    
Civil Aviation, New Zealand—
    Regulatory and general8145
    Airports2,4764,16641285
    Airways1,8312,414
Civil Aviation, South Pacific territories2,5252,332
Totals6,8408,92641290
Grand totals16,52319,9915,0494,851

NATIONAL AIRWAYS CORPORATION—The major domestic air transport operator is the New Zealand National Airways Corporation which provides regular services to 23 centres throughout the North and South Islands.

The corporation's fleet consists of 4 Boeing 737s, 5 Vickers Viscount 807s, and 13 Fokker Friendships.

Statistics of operation of the National Airways Corporation for the 4 latest years are shown in the following table.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–72
Revenue mileage flown10,097,26510,405,12110,478,0289,962,329
Revenue passengers carried—
    Schedule1,440,1351,494,3511,489,8601,638,273
    Charter15,94513,20512,84117,464
Passenger-miles created (000)—
    Schedule547,105568,787609,195634,345
    Charter8,5807,5006,8638,362
Revenue passenger-miles (000)—
    Schedule383,901404,919407,495450,131
    Charter5,2924,6064,4705,454
Average passenger journey (miles)267271274275
Freight ton-miles (000)—
    Schedule5,8726,3836,6078,025
    Charter
Mail ton-miles746,999799,842701,762690,678
Total revenue load factor63.6067.1263.7466.91
Revenue passenger load factor70.1771.1966.8970.96
Operating expenditure ($)24,427,08827,997,60632,442,05434,120,818
Operating profit ($)964,8541,086,348704,7773,167,728

The corporation is charged under the National Airways Act 1945 "with establishing and operating national air transport services to meet the needs of the people of New Zealand". The corporation has therefore sought constantly to improve the standard and scope of its service whilst keeping fares at a low level. The expansion achieved during recent years is indicated by the increase in,; revenue passenger-miles on scheduled services from 383 million in 1969–70 to 450 million in 1972–73.

FLYING OPERATIONS—The following table gives the summarised results of the operations of scheduled commercial air services.

Year EndedHours FlownMiles Flown (000)PassengersFreight lb (000)*Mail lb (000)Passenger-miles (000)Freight Ton-miles* (000)Mail Ton-miles (000)
*Includes excess baggage.
March
    196364,0729,575822,950139,6532,464211,8996,775397
    196464,4459,887873,246115,7842,552228,2096,243394
    196571,78710,894984,511127,6992,542262,3677,041431
    196678,85311,9691,113,363151,1692,815296,6298,160453
    196774,69812,2611,170,949128,4832,983311,0367,709470
    196875,58212,1961,173,116104,0223,708310,6317,376646
    196971,88711,6061,305,020113,6163,692344,4428,491684
    197066,81011,7971,478,785150,1574,191391,3959,615754
    197166,64311,9101,534,878160,7754,411413,43510,509808
December
    197066,55111,8671,543,852162,0024,561419,58910,578825
    197167,80012,2651,544,758155,3133,978417,74810,872720
    197270,32012,8871,651,921148,3995,186451,28811,931690

Cook Strait Rail/Air Freight Service—The New Zealand Railways Air Freight Service was commenced officially in February 1947 following a number of special inter-island freight flights which had been carried out by the Royal New Zealand Air Force at the request of the Railways Department to meet a shipping emergency. The service was conducted by the RNZAF, operating Dakota aircraft, until June 1947, when the service was handed over to the New Zealand National Airways Corporation, which continued to operate with Dakotas.

In 1950 the Railways Department decided to allow private enterprise the opportunity of tendering for the contract to run the service, and the successful tenderer was Safeair Ltd. In 1972 this firm was absorbed by National Airways Corporation. The service is at present being maintained by five Bristol Freight aircraft on a daily basis, the number of trips varying according to the amount of cargo offering. Same charter work has been undertaken in recent years.

Traffic statistics for this freight service for recent years are as follows. The drop from the peak figures of 1961–62 can be attributed in part to the operation of the rail-road ferry G.m.v. Aramoana across Cook Strait between Wellington and Picton from August 1962. There was further competition when the sister ship G.m.v. Aranui was introduced in 1966.

Year EndedTrips FlownHours FlownMiles FlownFreight lb (000)Freight Ton-miles (000)Passengers
March—
196312,3815,050660,924110,6252,650927
196410,5884,265560,13087,6562,067809
196511,3154,558591,79695,7642,239899
196613,1825,894778,501116,8702,9931,500
196710,9225,139677,00393,5352,549902
19688,5374,167557,84669,3542,170531
19698,1913,952532,42672,9842,143480
197015,8986,337849,437108,6853,434413
197113,3837,152967,791114,9483,7143,445
December—
197013,50610,3691,451,352110,9703,9253,625
197113,2299,3771,310,918108,6294,0273,113
197212,0168,2671,131,43495,4314,1133,253

AERIAL WORK—Aerial topdressing as a means of improving hill pastures and checking and preventing soil erosion was begun commercially in 1949. The industry developed rapidly and is now an established feature of the national economy. About half of the total fertiliser and lime applied to farms in New Zealand is spread by means of aircraft.

Aerial spraying (i.e., the release from the aircraft of agricultural chemicals in liquid form, such as insecticides and weedicides) has also been developed. The volume of this work has increased to more than 8 million gallons a year. A technical qualification is now mandatory for pilots engaged in the application of all agricultural chemicals. The qualification is to ensure that pilots are familiar with the chemical properties and correct techniques in applying the agricultural chemicals, many of which are highly toxic.

A summary of aerial work operations follows.

ItemYear Ended 31 December
197019711972
Hours flown111,554108,246134,657
Number of operators767979
Material distributed—
    Fertiliser and lime (tons)855,863817,3911,105,355
    Seed (tons)1,6671,3961,619
    Spray (gallons)6,094,2087,175,7048,054,764
    Animal poison (tons)5,5913,6354,543
    Supplies (tons)1,0573,7771,527
    Fencing (tons)7881,2181,645
    Dusts (tons)452819
    Prills (tons)22418492
    Miscellaneous (tons)3,4722,5072,978

INTERNATIONAL AIR SERVICES—New Zealand's own airline, Air New Zealand Ltd., provides services to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Hong Kong, Singapore, Norfolk Island, New Caledonia, Fiji, American Samoa, Rarotonga, Tahiti, Honolulu, and Los Angeles. Air New Zealand's fleet comprises six Douglas DC8s and three Douglas DC10s. Air New Zealand now operates international services to and through the new Cook Islands airport at Rarotonga.

Other services through New Zealand include: Pan American World Airways—from the United States to Auckland via Tahiti; through Honolulu and Pago Pago to Auckland; British Airways—twice weekly from the United Kingdom to Sydney, Auckland, and beyond to Fiji, linking with flights to London; Union de Transport Aeriens—weekly from Los Angeles via Tahiti to Auckland and beyond to Noumea; and QANTAS—a full range of trans-Tasman services linking with regional and United Kingdom services out of Sydney.

A minority financial interest is retained in the regional South Pacific operators: Polynesian Airlines Ltd. (PAL)—operating between Western Samoa, American Samoa, Tonga, Niue, and Nandi; and Air Pacific Ltd.—operating between Fiji, the British Solomons, the Gilbert and Ellice Islands, the New Hebrides, Western Samoa, Tonga, Nauru, and Port Moresby.

TOTAL TRAFFIC FOR OVERSEAS AIRLINES—Total traffic figures for overseas airlines operating to and from New Zealand, showing passenger movements, freight, and mail separately, are given in the following tables for calendar years.

RoutesPassengers Entering New ZealandPassengers Leaving New ZealandTotal Passengers
19711,9721,9711,9721,9711,972
Trans-Tasman—
    Auckland-Sydney96,320105,38590,90394,085187,223199,470
    Auckland-Melbourne16,46924,43016,20922,09932,67846,529
    Auckland-Brisbane15,37317,83315,93017,29131,30335,124
    Wellington-Sydney29,10534,67227,96932,14157,07466,813
    Wellington-Melbourne6,9219,1117,6159,20414,53618,315
    Wellington-Brisbane3,4764,5483,6124,7397,0889,287
    Christchurch-Sydney46,80947,93547,14450,16993,95398,104
    Christchurch-Melbourne21,78122,65820,84823,58742,62946,245
Totals236,254266,572230,230253,315466,484519,887
Pacific—
    Long haul26,88137,08228,63339,19455,56476,276
    Short haul59,85168,55456,43066,679116,281135,233
Totals86,732105,63685,063105,873171,845211,509
RoutesRevenue Freight Entering New ZealandRevenue Freight Leaving New ZealandTotal Freight
197119721971197219711972
Trans-Tasman—kilograms(000)
    Auckland-Sydney1,9252,4592,8653,2374,7905,697
    Auckland-Melbourne3725994765958481,194
    Auckland-Brisbane3191290374321465
    Wellington-Sydney401602301299703900
    Wellington-      
Melbourne11414595156209301
    Wellington-Brisbane61915292049
    Christchurch-Sydney8607719307821,7891,554
Christchurch-
Melbourne170221312262481483
Totals3,8784,9085,2845,7349,16210,643
Pacific—
    Long haul3445871,6472,2091,9922,796
    Short haul2563671,4371,8421,6932,208
Totals6009543,0844,0513,6845,004
RoutesMail Entering New ZealandMail Leaving New ZealandTotal Mail
 1,9711,9721,9711,9721,9711,972
Trans-Tasman—kilograms
    Auckland-Sydney449,648440,563147,622169,574597,270610,137
    Auckland-Melbourne17,94156,4538,22417,24726,16573,700
    Auckland-Brisbane11,71714,9727,0568,69018,77323,662
    Wellington-Sydney137,006122,99376,49677,150213,502200,143
    Wellington-Melbourne5,57110,2005,2906,48310,86116,683
    Wellington-Brisbane176446815313991759
    Christchurch-Sydney43,15259,46437,88339,15281,03598,616
    Christchurch-Melbourne11,64410,92911,62211,30623,26622,235
Totals676,855716,020295,008329,915971,8631,045,935
Pacific—
    Long haul166,096202,96399,863117,642265,959320,605
    Short haul96,60193,025203,315188,374299,916281,399
Totals262,697295,988303,178306,016565,875602,004

AIR FREIGHT—Air freight involves mostly exports and imports to and from Australia, and imports from United States and United Kingdom. Exports concern mainly made-up textiles, meat, fish, and live animals, notably racehorses. Imports air-freighted are mainly machinery, scientific instruments> pharmaceutical products, and textiles.

AIRPORT STATISTICS—The following table shows airport activities for the 2 latest years ended 31 March.

AirportMovements of Passenger PlanesFreighter Plane MovementsPassenger Arrivals and Departures
InternationalDomestic
1971–721972–731971–721972–731971–721972–731971–721972–73
*Those airports serviced by N.A.C., Safeair, and Mount Cook Airlines not separately listed.
Auckland5,7406,61618,86620,4908771,2301,058,1741,235,714
Blenheim3,0792,60311,0599,16464,17263,112
Christchurch1,6421,67018,57418,4413,1293,665751,420838,215
Dunedin8,2498,315227316158,390182,962
Gisborne5,8286,00857,39062,094
Hamilton5,3985,856589675,34285,592
Invercargill5,8475,3398480,82493,191
Napier6,4757,02961484,65098,319
Nelson8,6818,2311,050920129,456142,251
New Plymouth4,1123,7731064,40571,306
Palmerston North6,1595,789162283,72591,528
Rotorua6,9417,36976,79586,407
Wellington1,4881,29031,17532,09914,00612,498898,7951,024,860
Other*23,22044,53110798243,190357,909
Total8,8700,000152,604000,00030,54300,0003,826,7280,000,000

AERO CLUBS AND COMMERCIAL FLIGHT TRAINING ORGANISATIONS—The next table gives a summary of the training activities of aero clubs and other flying organisations.

Year EndedClubs* OperatingMembershipAircraft in useHours FlownAb Initio Pupils Under Training
AssociateFlyingDualSolo
*Other organisations included are given in parentheses.
March
    196839 (16)2,4137,27423847,52983,7771,803
    196939 (13)2,1036,78123944,09971,1421,816
    197040 (18)1,9136,30825948,89676,2531,857
December
    197040 (18)1,9346,38125947,49476,9291,893
    197141 (19)1,7915,81023848,05576,1691,905
    197238 (20)1,5636,16527348,48977,0222,012

LICENCES—A summary of licences and certificates current at 31 March in the 5 latest years is given below.

Type of LicenceAt 31 March
19691,9701,9711,9721,973
Flight Crew (ICAO) Type—
    Pilots licences—
    Student Pilot3,4983,3303,4273,2463,328
    Private Pilot2,9092,8373,1462,8023,409
    Commercial Pilot896908917965970
    Airline Transport Pilot376397409417428
    Pilot Licence Ratings—
    Instructor420395444479505
    Instrument545548559601666
    Compass2627232423
    Chemical239243258278298
    Towing237260268300292
    Navigator Licences—
    Flight Navigator941041038273
    Licences to Operate Radio Equipment in Aircraft—
    Flight Radio Operator
    Flight Radio Telephone Operator Rating3,8874,0464,6684,4444,694
    Flight Engineer Licences—
    Flight Engineer5961717484
Other Licences, Certificates, etc.—
    Aircraft Maintenance Engineer Licences513534583638686
Aircraft—
    Certificates of Registration1,0471,0731,1131,1281,221
Aerodromes—
    Public Licences4946505856
    Private4546505052
    Authorised Places369186185
    Government Civil2118232322
Air Service Certificates5555686764

CIVIL AIRCRAFT ACCIDENTS—Civil aircraft accidents are investigated by the Office of Air Accidents Investigation headed by the Chief Inspector of Air Accidents who has statutory powers of his own in respect of his investigative duties and responsibilities.

The following table shows accident rates per 1,000 hours flown in the various categories of flying activity. Private flying and gliding are not included.

Operational CategoryAverage Rate for 5-Year PeriodAccident Rate 1972
1964–681965–691966–701967–71
Airlines0.040.040.020.000.00
Non-scheduled, charter, and air taxi3.343.372.011.872.15
Aerial work—
    All sectors4.054.234.334.202.75
    Agricultural aviation3.663.703.763.522.36
Aero clubs and flying training schools3.283.262.832.822.36
All categories2.602.692.542.501.94

Chapter 14. Section 12; COMMUNICATIONS

12 A—POST OFFICE

GENERAL—The main role of the New Zealand Post Office is to provide the nation with telecommunication and postal services, to operate a savings bank, and conduct agency services on behalf of Government.

HISTORICAL—With the arrival of Governor Hobson in 1840 the first post office proper was set up at Kororareka (now Russell). The same year saw the establishment of offices at other settlements in the north and at Port Nicholson (Wellington), and the beginnings of overland mail routes. By 1858, 73 post offices had been opened to provide communication services for the scattered settlers. In that year a Post Office Act was passed making the Post Office an independent department of State.

The system of communication by telegraph was inaugurated in the 1860s. A separate department, the Telegraph Department, was created by Act of Parliament in 1865 to take responsibility for the erecting of telegraph lines and the opening of morse telegraph offices. The North and South Islands were linked by telegraph cable in 1866 and by telephone cable in 1926.

The telegraph and postal services were amalgamated in 1881. Under the Post Office Act 1959, the name of the department became the Post Office, and the Minister's title became Postmaster-General.

A table in the Statistical Summary towards the back of Yearbook shows the growth of postal and telecommunication activities over the last 50 years.

POSTAL BUSINESS—At 31 March 1973 there were 1,467 post offices in New Zealand. The following table shows the numbers of articles posted in the latest 6 years.

Year ended 31 MarchLetters and PostcardsPrinted Papers, Commercial Papers, Newspapers, and MagazinesParcelsTotal
 million
1968269.1282.916.2568.2
1969279.9279.215.8574.9
1970288.8291.115.7595.4
1971311.4286.117.3614.8
1972303.7302.216.2622.1
1973314.6314.216.0644.8

The average numbers of items posted in New Zealand per head of population during the year ended 31 March 1973 were: letters and postcards, 107.3; printed matter (printed papers, commercial papers, newspapers, and magazines), 107.1; parcels, 5.5.

Chartered air services are used to convey the bulk of surface mail between the North and South Islands.

There are 103,550 private boxes installed at 627 post offices.

Rural Mail Delivery—The rural delivery system enables country residents to obtain postal notes, money orders, and stamps, to register correspondence, and to collect or post their mail in boxes at or near their gates. The deliveries are generally performed by contractors who handle the mail in conjunction with the carriage of goods, and thus the rural mail delivery is in many areas the medium by which residents obtain their newspapers, bread, parcels, etc. Boxholders more than doubled in the 25 years to 1965 when they reached 75,000. At 31 March 1972 the total was 77,601 and at 31 March 1973 it was 79,366. The cost of the rural delivery service is $2.17 million a year.

Inland Airmails—On 16 March 1936 the first regular airmail services linking up larger centres of population were established between Palmerston North and Dunedin, and between Nelson, Blenheim, and Wellington. As air services increased in frequency and extent the airmail facilities were correspondingly expanded, The present network extends from Kaitaia to Invercargill.

The numbers of letters and parcels carried by air in New Zealand are now shown.

Year Ended 31 MarchLettersParcels
196819,513,000282,938
196922,429,000293,545
197022,971,000304,791
197127,712,000328,185
197222,322,000279,803
197318,727,000277,742

Overseas Airmails: The weight of airmail dispatched from New Zealand is about 21.77 percent of the total amount of mail forwarded overseas each year. In 1972–73, 563,166 lb of letters, 388,040 lb of newspapers and packets, and 389,655 lb of parcels were posted by overseas airmail.

Trans-Tasman Air Services—The first flight of the regular trans-Tasman service linking Auckland and Sydney took place on 30 April 1940, connection being made at Sydney with the Empire service to London. The existing service provides for flights between New Zealand (Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch) and Australia (Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane) with a frequency overall of at least one flight each day.

New Zealand - United Kingdom Air Service—This service is now operating daily to London, the transit time New Zealand to the United Kingdom being normally 1 to 2 days.

New Zealand-Hong Kong and Singapore Air Services—There is a twice-weekly direct service from Auckland to Hong Kong and a thrice-weekly service from Auckland to Singapore. Airmail to countries in the Far East is also dispatched to Sydney for reforwarding.

Trans-Pacific Services—The trans-Pacific service operating between New Zealand and North America commenced on 20 July 1940. Airlines now operate a daily service to the United States.

Pacific Island Services—Airmails are forwarded by New Zealand operated air services to the Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Hawaii, New Caledonia, and American Samoa (Pago Pago). Local air services provide connections from Pago Pago to Apia, and from Nandi (Fiji) to Nukualofa (Tonga), Niue, Apia (Western Samoa), the British Solomon Islands, New Hebrides, and the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. Direct airmail services from New Zealand also operate to Norfolk Island.

Overseas Parcel Post—Particulars of overseas parcels received and dispatched in each of the latest 6 years are contained in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchOverseas Parcels ReceivedOverseas Parcels Dispatched
NumberWeightCustoms DutyNumberWeight
  lb$(000) lb
1968533,1644,740,2521,252365,4592,024,821
1969533,4054,691,5111,630400,2312,077,052
1970554,7224,803,0441,626418,3922,154,185
1971658,2095,442,9551,815458,5432,373,307
1972672,0097,147,4881,863476,9422,586,067
1973655,6015,494,8721,846450,1482,538,713

Postal Mechanisation—The Wellington Postal Centre is extensively mechanised, similar modern centre is being built at Christchurch, and another is also planned for Auckland.

MONEY ORDER AND POSTAL NOTE SERVICES—Details of these services are now given.

Money Orders—New Zealand has reciprocal money-order agreements with all British Commonwealth countries and also with the United States of America, the Republic of Ireland, South Africa, and Tonga. Money orders may also be issued in New Zealand for payment in any other country with which the United Kingdom has exchanges of money orders.

For payment within New Zealand the maximum amount for a single order is $200, but there is no limit to the amount which may be remitted. The commission is computed on each individual order.

For money orders issued for payment overseas there is a limit for most countries of $80 for a single order. There are two special rates of commission, one rate applying to Australia (and countries advised through Australia), Fiji, Norfolk Island, and Tonga, and the other rate to all other countries.

During 1972, 1,453,216 money orders were issued in New Zealand for a total of $45,005,127, and of that total 149,733 orders of a value of $2,676,309 were issued for payment overseas. Money orders issued overseas for payment in New Zealand in 1972 numbered 59,368 with a value of $1,297,085.

Postal Notes—Postal notes ranging from 10c to $2 and for $3, $4, and $5 are issued in New Zealand for payment within New Zealand, Niue, and the Cook Islands.

Postal notes are negotiable, and their period of validity is unlimited. They are, therefore, a popular medium for making small inland remittances by post, and during the year ended 31 December 1972, 4,070,752 postal notes valued at $9,228,212 were purchased by the public.

British Postal Orders—These are both issued and paid in New Zealand. Denominations sold in this country are 5p, 7½p, 10p, 12½p, 15p, 25p, 50p, 75p, £1 and £2 sterling. (In decimal currency, which has applied in the United Kingdom from 15 February 1971, 5 pence equals the previous 1 shilling.) Commission is payable. For all remittances in excess of £2 per day a permit is required.

As these orders are payable in several British Commonwealth countries they are a popular medium for making small postal remittances to overseas countries, particularly the United Kingdom.

During the year ended 31 March 1973 the Post Office sold 1,007,170 British postal orders valued at $2,879,577, and paid 142,219 orders valued at $594,564.

Gift Tokens—Post Office gift tokens were introduced on 15 December 1969 to enable people to buy savings gifts from the Post Office. They are issued free of commission in denominations of $1, $2, and $5. They may be credited to any type of Savings Bank account, or used to purchase bonus bonds or national development bonds. Gift tokens issued in the year ended 31 March 1972 amounted to $188,986.

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK—Details on the Post Office Savings Bank are given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TELEPHONE SERVICES—The following table indicates the growth of telephone installations (the figures are as at 31 March).

Item1,9701,9711,9721,973
Main telephones—
    Automatic675,729716,862746,487794,655
    Manual127,076118,466109,88290,749
Extension telephones393,228420,613441,800466,217
Public telephones4,6384,7514,9184,990
Private line telephones603449293266
Toll offices1,3161,2861,2891,257
Total telephones1,202,5901,262,4271,304,6691,358,134
Telephones (all types per 1,000 population)427411448457
Applicants awaiting installations13,92315,42613,38215,319
Number of toll calls66,956,19367,856,88864,803,47367,072,087

About one-sixth of the main telephones are business telephones (in 1972 there were 145,011 business telephones). At 31 March 1973 there were 885,404 subscribers and 15,319 waiting applicants of whom about 58 percent were in the Auckland City and environs.

Thirty new automatic exchanges were brought into service during the year ended 31 March 1973; also substantial progress was made in the extension of free calling areas, thereby eliminating toll fees between outlying exchanges and their town or city centre; 15 more exchanges were provided with this service.

According to the latest comparative data available (January 1972), compiled by the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., New Zealand ranks fifth in the number of telephones per 100 of population, the leading countries being the United States of America (60.13), Sweden (57.58), Switzerland (50.91), Canada (47.35), and New Zealand (44.04).

A broadband toll link, comprising microwave, radio and co-axial cable systems, connects main centres from Whangarei to Dunedin. The installation of a $3 million microwave radio telecommunications system between Wellington and Auckland is to be completed in 1973. The present link is by co-axial cable from Auckland to Hamilton and from Palmerston North to Wellington with a microwave radio system between Hamilton and Palmerston North. The new link runs from Wellington to Auckland via Masterton, Napier, Taupo, Rotorua, and Paeroa.

A 5-year supply agreement has been entered into with Nippon Electric Co. Ltd. of Japan for the supply of crossbar automatic telephone switching equipment.

Subscriber Toll Dialling (STD) which will enable subscribers to dial direct to other automatic subscribers without the need to go through a toll operator is to be introduced into New Zealand telephone system progressively from 1975.

Free local telephone calling is provided in New Zealand, as distinct from charging for each local call as followed by many overseas administrations.

The following table shows the classifications of telephone exchanges and the annual rental rates for different classes of connection as from 1 October 1971.

Class of ExchangeClass of ConnectionAnnual Rate Within Base-rate Area
BusinessResidential
  $$
Class I Automatic exchanges with more than 10,000 paying subscribers.
(Typical exchanges are Auckland, Christchurch, Dunedin, Hamilton, Invercargill, Palmerston North, and Wellington.)
Individual134.7561.10
2-party98.0052.88
3-party93.1051.70
4-party88.2050.53
5-party80.8547.00
6–10 party73.5042.30
Class II Automatic exchanges with 3,001–10,000 paying subscribers
(Typical exchanges are Blenheim, Masterton, Levin, and Oamaru.)
Individual128.6361.10
2-party95.5552.88
3-party90.6551.70
4-party85.7550.53
5-party78.4047.00
6–10 party71.0542.30
Class III Automatic exchanges with 2,001–3,000 paying subscribers.
(Typical exchanges are Alexandra, Marton, and Westport.)
Manual exchanges with over 3,000 paying subscribers.
(A typical exchange is Taupo.)
Individual116.3858.75
2-party91.8850.53
3-party86.9849.35
4-party82.0848.18
5-party75.9544.65
6–10 party68.6039.95
Class IV Other exchanges affording continuous service.
(Typical exchanges are Hokitika, Picton, and Queens-town.)
Individual110.2554.05
2-party85.7547.00
3-party80.8545.83
4-party75.9544.65
5-party68.6042.30
6–10 party61.2537.60
Class V Exchanges observing restricted hours of service.
(Typical exchanges are Kawhia and Waitotara.)
Individual85.7545.83
2-party71.0539.95
3-party66.1538.78
4-party63.7036.43
5-party58.8034.08
6–10 party56.3532.90

For stations located outside the boundary of the base-rate or special rate area of an exchange a mileage is added to the rental, depending on the distance by line measurement from the base-rate or special rate boundary to the respective subscriber's station.

TELEGRAPH SERVICES: Telegrams—The downtrend in inland telegrams continued in New Zealand but at a slower rate than in any of the preceding five years. In the year to 31 March 1973 5.0 million telegrams were lodged compared with 5.1 million in the preceding year. Of these, 63 percent were lodged by telephone, 14 percent by telex, and only 23 percent handed in over Post Office counters. On the other hand, 48 percent were delivered by messenger, 42 percent telephoned to the addressee, and 10 percent telexed.

The public telegraph network comprises 119 teleprinter offices. These offices interwork through gentex (automatic circuit switching) augmented by point-to-point circuits between the major cities. Ninety-two percent of all telegrams incur only one transmission.

Telex Service: Telex—the international abbreviation for Teleprinter Exchange Service—is a customer-to-customer service using page teleprinters. An international manual telex service for communicating with overseas subscribers commenced in New Zealand on 1 September 1960 with 16 subscribers. Service was then available with 23 overseas countries.

Automatic telex service was introduced in New Zealand on 13 May 1964 with 150 subscribers. This service absorbed the previous international connections and enabled all New Zealand telex subscribers to communicate with each other as well as with overseas telex subscribers. International service is now available with 155 countries. An important development in New Zealand's international telex service was the introduction in July 1968 of automatic subscriber-to-subscriber calling. Telex subscribers in New Zealand can now dial direct to subscribers in many countries including Australia, Britain, Canada, Fiji, Japan, and the United States, without the aid of the international operator. At 31 March 1973 there were 1,587 subscribers, an increase of 258 over the previous year.

The annual rental is $650 for a standard machine and $900 for a teleprinter equipped with a tape reperforator and transmitter. In the year to 31 March 1973 rentals totalled $1,203,660 and call revenue was $1,940,569.

The range of telex services was extended on 1 July 1971 with the provision of a public telex booth at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin, and the introduction of a telex service. Teltex enables telex subscribers to lodge telex messages at Chief Post Offices for hand delivery to the addressees. At the same time the telexogram service (delivery of telegrams by telex) was extended to provide for Chief Post Offices to send telexograms to subscribers throughout New Zealand (formerly telexograms were restricted to local subscribers). As at March 1972 public telex booths were handling about 200 calls a month, mostly international; patronage of the telex service had grown to over 2,000 messages a month, and additional long-distance telexograms averaged 3,000 a month.

Datel—The use of computers in the commercial sector has created a need for facilities for transferring data from one point to another. A new post office service, called datel, has been introduced for data communication using the existing telephone network, and calls are lodged as for telephone calls.

INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATIONS: Cable Links—Telegraphic communication overseas was first established between New Zealand and Australia by means of the Eastern Extension Telegraph Company's cable from Wakapuaka (Nelson) to Sydney in 1876, and between Auckland and Canada via Norfolk Island, Suva, and Fanning Island in 1902. In 1945, the Commonwealth's external telecommunications systems were brought under Government control and, in accordance with the Commonwealth Telegraphs Agreement 1948, the New Zealand Post Office purchased the assets in New Zealand of Cable and Wireless Ltd., the private company previously controlling these services, and took over the operation of the overseas cable services.

In July 1962 a new submarine cable with a capacity of 80 telephone channels was brought into operation between New Zealand and Australia as part of a Commonwealth round-the-world cable project. The cable was extended from New Zealand to Fiji in December 1962, and in December 1963 was further extended, via Hawaii, to Vancouver and across Canada by microwave to Montreal. At Montreal it links up with the trans-Atlantic telephone cables, to connect with Britain, and provide high-quality circuits for telephone, telegraph, and telex communication between New Zealand, Australia, Fiji, Canada, the United States of America, and Britain. This cable system links New Zealand with most of the world's major countries, and it was supplemented by the bringing into service in March 1967 of the South-East Asia Commonwealth Telephone Cable which extended the system from Australia to New Guinea, and (via Guam) to Malaysia, Hong Kong, and Singapore.

An additional high capacity trans-Tasman submarine cable a joint New Zealand - Australia multi-million dollar project, is planned to be in use in 1976.

International Telephone Service—Telephone communication by cable, satellite and radio is now available to almost all countries of the world, as well as to Ross Dependency (Scott Base), Raoul Island, Chatham Islands, Campbell Island, passenger ships, and H.M. New Zealand and Australian warships.

An international Gateway telephone exchange in Auckland handles all New Zealand's outgoing and incoming international telephone calls. The international operators dial direct to subscribers in other countries, and overseas operators dial direct to subscribers on automatic telephone exchanges in New Zealand.

Satellite Communications—Because of the rapid increase in international telecommunication traffic, an earth station has been constructed at Warkworth, near Auckland, for communicating with other countries via satellites in space.

In addition to providing additional international telecommunications facilities, the earth station makes live television relays practicable. The earth station works through a satellite over the Pacific Ocean.

International Radio Services—The first wireless-telegraph station in New Zealand for communicating with ships at sea was opened at Wellington on 26 July 1911.

In November 1953 a high-power radio transmitting station was opened at Himatangi providing at that time for direct New Zealand - United Kingdom radiotelephone and telegraph circuits. These circuits are now provided via cable, and satellite and the Himatangi radio station is used generally for services with places in the Pacific area to which there are no cable facilities. The receiving station complementary to Himatangi is Makara Radio.

Direct radio circuits are operated from New Zealand to Apia, Rarotonga, Niue, and Noumea. Communication is effected with outer islands in the Cook group by Rarotonga Radio through small feeder stations. Small stations in the Tokelau Islands communicate with Apia Radio.

Other principal stations under the control of the New Zealand Government are located at Auckland, Wellington, and Awarua on the New Zealand mainland, at Niue, and at Chatham Islands. Facilities are provided for the transmission of radiotelegrams to ships at sea, and special rates operate for vessels registered in New Zealand and Australia.

INLAND RADIO SERVICES—The use of mobile radiotelephone services continues to grow. Post Office very-high-frequency service available from 61 base stations meets the mobile communication requirements of 3,542 subscribers operating 25,420 mobile units. A miscellany of private and Government owner-operated stations provide mobile radiotelephone services through 2,453 base stations for a further 8,693 mobile units. Radiotelephone services continue to provide essential service for isolated communities which cannot reasonably be reached by landline—e.g., isolated settlers, alpine huts, etc. There is also a free radio-medical service for ships at sea and for lighthouses on the New Zealand coast for use in emergency. New licences were issued for radiotelephone stations in 699 small commercial and pleasure craft operating round the New Zealand coast bringing the total number of ships licensed to 6,961. There are 4,518 licensed amateur stations in New Zealand. These are intended to provide facilities for experimental communication between persons interested in radio science as a hobby, and are issued only to holders of amateur operators' certificates. In the Citizen radio service 1,143 new walkie-talkie sets were licensed making a total of 7,157 sets in use throughout the country. There are now 60,823 radio transmitting stations of all types licensed compared with 55,995 in 1972.

Direct radio circuits are operated between the New Zealand mainland and the Chatham Islands.

Smaller stations are established at certain lighthouses on the New Zealand coast and also on a number of adjacent islands. Marine radio beacons are operated at the lighthouses at Cape Reinga, Cuvier Island, Moko Hinau Island, East Cape, Portland Island, Stephens Island, Baring Head, Cape Campbell, The Brothers, Godley Head, Taiaroa Head, Dog Island, and Puysegur Point.

REVENUE—The revenue of the Post Office for the latest financial years is now shown.

Item1969–701970–711971–721972–73
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Postal revenue—
    Postages25,08526,47531,67132,110
    Private box and bag rentals and rural mail delivery fees504253623660
    Miscellaneous489310598
 25,63727,09132,39932,868
Telecommunications revenue—
    Telex1,2351,6282,3863,161
    Telegraph4,0544,0824,6595,229
    Tolls29,67732,94145,21948,504
    Telephones49,06252,45471,56982,292
    Overseas telecommunications4,6786,0187,4348,582
    Radio298299352364
 89,00497,422131,619148,132
Miscellaneous revenue—
    Fees from Government departments, etc.3,4663,9074,3064,508
    Money order and postal note commission404454519532
    Rents received284291286325
    Other revenue704693714509
 4,8585,3455,8255,874
Total revenue119,499129,858169,843186,874

Revenue and expenditure for the latest 11 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRevenue $(000)Expenditure $(000)
196364,87464,777
196470,18370,068
196577,84176,586
196686,96284,890
196791,52693,582
1968106,607100,781
1969112,793106,575
1970119,499117,087
1971129,858143,548
1972169,843169,495
1973186,874138,885

CAPITAL—Capital expansion necessary to meet demand requires substantial provisions for new telecommunications systems and the replacement of those which have become obsolete. Accommodation to house this equipment, to provide post offices in newly developed areas, and to replace old and inadequate offices is an important part of Post Office capital development.

Capital expenditure on telecommunications development and buildings is financed partly by the Post Office, and partly from National Development Loans Account on which interest is paid at the rate of 5 percent. The interest payment amounted to $15.5 million in 1972–73.

In 1972–73, $23.9 million was spent on the development of telecommunications systems and $5.9 million on buildings. In addition, $7.0 million was invested in other assets such as motor vehicles, tools and plant, and office equipment. This expenditure was financed from Post Office resources, National Development Loans Account and capital equipment credit arrangements. The capital liability of the Post Office is now $333.8 million and liability under capital equipment credit arrangement is $1.7 million.

WORK PERFORMED FOR OTHER DEPARTMENTS—Because it has numerous small offices readily accessible to the public, the Post Office also undertakes agency work for other Government departments. Among the principal activities in this connection are the receipt and payment of moneys on behalf of the various departments, the more important of which are enumerated below.

Receipts—For the following departments: Education (examination fees, etc.), Health, Inland Revenue (land tax and income tax, under PAYE system), Lands and Survey, National Roads Board (special mileage tax on motor vehicles), Public Trust Office, State Advances Corporation (State rents, loan and interest repayments), Electricity (some electric-power receipts), Ministry of Transport, Tourist and Publicity, Valuation, Customs (collection of Customs duty and sales tax), Treasury (Government Superannuation and National Provident Fund receipts).

Payments—Departments of Social Welfare (social security benefits and war pensions, etc.), Health (refunds of medical expenses), Defence, Labour (subsidised wage payments), Public Trust Office, Police (witness warrants), Treasury (Government superannuation payments and miscellaneous payments for other departments), Ministry of Works and Development, and for Reserve Bank (interest warrants and coupons).

Other services performed by the Post Office are the issue of licences in respect of motor vehicles and radio apparatus, and assistance to the Marine and Civil Aviation Divisions of Ministry of Transport on radio matters. In some of the smaller centres postmasters act as registrars of births, deaths, and marriages, also as registrars of electors.

Other activities, not strictly departmental, include the receipt of motor vehicles insurance (third-party risks) premiums under the Transport Act 1962, the issue of fishing and game licences on behalf of acclimatisation societies, organising and selling health stamps, and collecting television licence fees.

STAFF—Staff numbers at 31 March are shown in the following table.

Classification1,9691,9701,9711,9721,973
Permanent staff26,38926,91227,66527,88828,518
Temporary and non-classified staff3,6624,2444,6944,5854,647
Total staff30,05131,15632,35932,47333,165

VEHICLES—The Post Office fleet as at 31 March 1973 consisted of 4,365 vehicles—1,122 trucks, 1,944 vans, 1,292 cars, and 7 motor scooters. Of this fleet, 439 vehicles are used for hire to other departments, 2,960 for engineering construction work, and 966 on postal, telegram delivery, and other general work. The fleet travelled 39.5 million miles in the year ended 31 March 1973.

12 B-RADIO AND TELEVISION BROADCASTING

GENERAL—A restructuring of the radio and television broadcasting services became necessary in 1973. It was radio's own capital resources that were called on in the early 1960s to establish a television network. The expensive and glamorous partner it helped to promote devoured its commercial radio advertising income and its licence revenues. The extension and improvement of radio services was brought virtually to a standstill. With the subsequent licensing in the early 1970s of private stations to operate in all the major advertising markets public radio, already in difficulties, was placed under strain. Programming was vitally affected. Local services were made increasingly commercial; a number of those that were able to continue providing non-commercial programmes were networked to become emanations from the centre, at the expense of interest, character, and innovation in programmes.

In the face of television and private stations, public radio services were becoming less popular, less attractive for creative talent and, in financial terms, increasingly disabled. They had become the dependent poor relation of television. They would soon have lost further at the hands of the private warrant holders once all seven private stations had become fully operational in the main cities. It was for public radio throughout this country a situation that no Government could have turned away from without endangering public broadcasting, particularly in view of the imminent and costly expansion of television services being planned.

The New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation (which had operated radio services almost as a monopoly since 1936 and the television services from 1960) and the New Zealand Broadcasting Authority (created in 1968 to adjudicate on applications for warrants to establish and operate broadcasting stations) had never been able to achieve an easy working relationship in the interests of broadcasting. There was an area of conflict between them that was implicit in the legislation. What was not resolved between the two relevant Acts could not be resolved between the two organisations. The authority devoted itself to the processing of applications for broadcasting warrants and the preparation of rules. The corporation found itself caught up in a round of judicial proceedings over warrants that distracted it from the immediate concerns of broadcasting. The pressures of commercial competition in both radio and television had eventually come to dominate its planning and its programming largely to the exclusion of other considerations. The policy of centralisation, that led to the establishment of the complex of facilities already being commissioned at Avalon, near Wellington, became in the end a concentration of overall control in the hands of those in the NZBC responsible for dealing with the NZBA and with the consequences of the various decisions the NZBA handed down against the NZBC.

The Minister of Broadcasting announced in January 1973 the outlines of the restructuring of broadcasting that the new Government proposed to undertake. The plan provided for the separation of the two television channels and radio into three independent public corporations and the creation of a new central body to provide common services for all three. The guiding principles in the proposed restructing were those of decentralisation, independence, and the introduction of competitive enterprise within publicly-owned broadcasting services. To advise the Government on the implementation of this plan the Minister, on 30 March 1973, appointed a committee, instructing it to draft by 31 July a report with associated legislation to establish both the principles and the formal means for introducing the new system as a replacement for the NZBA and the NZBC. The report of the committee became the basis for new legislation.

The Broadcasting Act 1973 established the Broadcasting Council of New Zealand and abolished the New Zealand Broadcasting Authority. To replace the NZBC it also established three publicly-owned corporations—Radio New Zealand (to operate the radio broadcasting services), Television Service One (to operate a television service from Wellington for the whole of New Zealand), and Television Service Two (to establish and operate by 1975 from Auckland and Christchurch a second television service for the whole of New Zealand). From their independent bases in policy, studios, staff, and revenues TV-1 and TV-2 will compete to produce two services of the best and most enterprising television they can put before the public.

The creation of the Broadcasting Council makes explicit two other general principles which have guided the thinking on reorganisation, responsibility and economy. New Zealand is too small a country, broadcasting revenues are too slim for all the needed developments, and the public interest in the efficient use of those revenues for extending the networks is too great, to permit any unnecessary duplication or waste of assets. Therefore all the services which can be rendered efficiently in common, and which would not in themselves affect the independent policy-setting and operations of the programme-producing corporations, will be rendered by a joint body, the Broadcasting Councils.

All the corporations and the council are responsible to the public through Parliament and, to effect this, all will annually make a report and present their accounts to the Postmaster-General for presentation to Parliament, whereupon an opportunity will occur to debate both policy and performance. Not only are the corporations and the council creations of Parliament and servants of the public, they are also employing public resources which Parliament makes available. It is easy to recognise this character in licence fees which Parliament sets. But the same is just as true ultimately of advertising revenues which are earned by selling broadcasting time over scarce frequencies obtained by licence from the Postmaster-General. Indeed, the frequencies are themselves the subject of international negotiation. The corporations and the council have a plain duty to exercise responsibility in making the optimum use of these public revenues in serving the public interest.

Because the common services are vital to all the corporations and connect with their policies and operations at many points, each of the corporations needs to be present at and be a part of the body which decides on the design, costing, and running of the common services. So the chairmen of all the corporations are ex-officio full members of the council. They also have with them their directors-general to put the operating viewpoints. The chairman and deputy chairman come from the three appointed members of the council of six persons.

The main functions of the Broadcasting Council are to encourage and promote the efficient carrying on and development by the operating corporations of broadcasting services; to transmit programmes received from corporation studios; to gather news and make it available to TV-1 and TV-2 and extend news sources in other countries; to ensure that as far as possible there is no overlapping of like programmes. New Zealand programmes, news bulletins, and current affairs programmes broadcast by TV-1 and TV-2; to publish the New Zealand Listener; to be the owner of all land used by the corporations and make the use of it available to them; to advise the Government as to the rates of licence fees, to receive the proceeds of the fees, and to distribute those proceeds among the council and the corporations; and to represent New Zealand's broadcasting interests at international broadcasting conferences.

The symphony orchestra is under the control of the council, which may delegate the management of it to Radio New Zealand as agent of the council.

The general powers of the council include the establishment, operation, and maintenance of transmitters and micro-wave links; the erection of buildings and structures for use in connection with broadcasting; the conduct or commissioning of technical and audience research surveys; the acquisition and disposal of land and buildings and personal property; the holding of shares in companies carrying on or intending to carry on broadcasting or the provision of programmes; the purchase of overseas programmes, and of rights to broadcast sporting events, on behalf of TV-1 and TV-2; and the promotion of policies and standards of training for broadcasting.

The results of surveys are to be made available to the corporations.

Federation of Independent Commercial Broadcasters—In 1970, holders of warrants for private commercial radio stations formed a federation which was subsequently approved by the Broadcasting Authority in August 1971. The general objects of the federation are to conserve the rights and interests of the members in broadcasting.

SITUATION IN 1973—The following commentary describes the situation prior to reorganisation and largely concerns the activities of the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation as at March 1973.

RADIO—The Broadcasting Corporation operates 51 medium-wave broadcasting stations and 2 short-wave transmitters of Radio New Zealand, the latter having 19 assigned frequencies. Of these, 31 stations broadcast advertising material. No advertising is broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday Stations 2YA, 1YA, 3YA, 4YA, and 4YW maintain a daily 24-hour service apart from shutdowns once a fortnight between the hours of 11.20 p.m. Sunday and 6 a.m. Monday (5 a.m. in the case of 2YA). The shutdowns are staggered so that at least two of these stations are always on the air.

Coverage of Short-wave Service—Radio New Zealand broadcasts to the Pacific islands a daily home-service programme from 5 a.m. to 5.45 p.m. on one frequency and a special evening programme from 6 p.m. to 8.45 p.m. on two frequencies. Its transmission to Australia comprises a daily home-service programme from. 8 a.m. to 5.45 p.m. on one frequency and a special evening programme from 9 p.m. to 11.45 p.m. on two frequencies. In addition to its large radio audience throughout the Pacific, Radio New Zealand has listeners as far distant as the United Kingdom, Sweden, France, the United States, and Japan. Radio New Zealand programmes illustrate many different aspects of life in this country.

Local Broadcasting—Whereas in many Commonwealth countries local broadcasting has only recently begun, in New Zealand it is in many ways the most important part of the national system. Local stations not only provide a wide range of entertainment programmes, but also play a valuable social role through new community services and participation in cultural activities. Decentralisation of administration enables local radio stations to be highly responsive to the communities they serve.

Broadcasts to Schools—Programmes are designed to aid teachers in meeting syllabus requirements particularly in the fields of science, social studies, music, and language. Twenty-three programmes a week are broadcast to children ranging from 4 to 13 years. The most popular programmes, dramatised stories for infants, are heard by more than 170,000 children. New developments to assist teachers in secondary schools include liberal studies programmes for sixth and seventh forms. Programmes are also broadcast by the Correspondence Schools.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Non-commercial)—One private non-commercial station operated by the Otago Radio Association Incorporated has been issued with a warrant and has been broadcasting since 1922. This station, located in Dunedin, operates from 1800 to 2230 hours on Wednesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays and, on Sundays, from 0900 to 1200 and from 1800 to 2230 hours.

Private Broadcasting Stations (Commercial)—The first warrants for private commercial broadcasting stations were issued on 30 June 1970 to Radio Hauraki and Radio i, both located in Auckland, and transmissions commenced on 26 September 1970 and 31 October 1970 respectively. Radio Waikato was issued with a warrant on 31 July 1970 and commenced transmission on 2 November 1970, followed by Radio Whakatane with a warrant dated 24 November 1970, commencing transmission on 30 June 1971 and Radio Otago with a warrant dated 8 June 1971, coming into operation on 20 November 1971. Later warrants enabled Radio Avon in Christchurch and Radio Windy in Wellington to commence operations late in 1973. Advertisements are not permitted to be broadcast on Sundays, Christmas Day, or Good Friday. If Anzac Day falls on other than a Sunday, advertisements are not permitted before 1300 hours.

TELEVISION—In August 1958 the Government decided that the 625-line system would be the standard for any television service in New Zealand.

In October 1958 approval was given to the then New Zealand Broadcasting Service to purchase equipment to enable technical investigations to be made. The Service began regular transmissions in Auckland in 1960, in Christchurch and Wellington in 1961, and in Dunedin in 1962. A programme service is now provided for 65 hours a week. Of this period, 34 hours provide for interspersed commercial advertising on 4 days of the week.

In October 1969 the Minister of Broadcasting directed the Broadcasting Authority to carry out an inquiry into the extension of television services. Following extensive hearings in 1970, the authority recommended that the existing TV services be converted to colour transmission (using the PAL system) by 31 October 1973 and that at an appropriate time, which the authority thought should be not later than 2 years after the start of colour transmission, applications should be received for a warrant to establish and operate a second channel in colour. (Parliamentary Paper F. 5, 1971.) The report of the authority was adopted in principle by Government. The recommendation to proceed with the change to colour on one channel has been implemented. The second television channel to be established under a separate corporation by the Broadcasting Act 1973 will telecast in colour about mid-1975.

Extension to Coverage—The corporation has been steadily extending TV coverage to all areas of New Zealand. At March 1973, it was operating six 100 kW transmitters, one 50 kW, nine of from 1 to 10 kW, and 106 installations of less than 1 kW. These transmitters provide coverage for 93 percent of the population.

Some 280 small units licensed to the corporation are operated by private individuals or societies, the latter receiving financial assistance from the corporation. These small transmitters cover approximately 5 percent of the population.

Because of the nature of the terrain and the dispersal of population, the establishment of television has posed engineering problems not often met by other countries, though the progress that has been made compares most favourably. The major areas which still require upgrading are Central Otago, North Taranaki, the King Country, Taupo, and Bay of Plenty.

By June 1973. 85.8 percent of homes in New Zealand were equipped with television sets.

Television Programmes—Film purchased overseas makes up about 70 percent of TV programmes. All stations are active in the presentation of New Zealand news. An analysis of TV programmes for the month of September 1971 showed that of the total hours telecast 26 percent were devoted to news, talks, and information programmes (including religion), 9 percent to variety, 22 percent to drama, 10 percent to comedy, 8 percent to adventure, mystery and westerns, 12 percent to children's programmes, 6 percent to cinema films, and 7 percent to sports. Four mobile outside telecast units have been in use since the beginning of 1963. Programmes have been televised in colour from some transmitters since October 1973.

ORCHESTRAS: Symphony Orchestra—Formed in 1946 as the National Orchestra, this is a full symphony orchestra widely known for the high standard of its public concerts as well as its performances over the air. Distinguished guest conductors and celebrity artists from other countries along with New Zealand choirs appear regularly with the orchestra. Free concerts for school children are an established part of its tour programme. The playing strength of the orchestra is approximately 85 players. This enables the Symphony Orchestra to undertake the complete symphonic repertoire.

During 1971–72, the orchestra presented a total of 70 concerts. A significant development has been the increase on the amount of time devoted to New Zealand music and musicians by the orchestra on YC programmes.

There is an orchestral training scheme, which gives full-time training to selected young New Zealanders, and a National Youth Orchestra which gives a series of concerts once a year.

NEW ZEALAND LISTENER—Programmes and advance information for national television channels and radio stations are published in the weekly journal, the New Zealand Listener, first issued on 30 June 1939. The circulation of the Listener is now about 129,000. As well as containing programme information the Listener occupies a special place in New Zealand journalism as a leading periodical dealing with the current scene. It publishes interviews, talks, and discussions as well as fiction, poetry, and criticisms. Through its editorial and correspondence columns, the Listener provides a forum for serious public discussion on important New Zealand and overseas questions.

FINANCIAL STATISTICS—The following tables show the financial results of the principal activities of the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73

*Deficit.

†Depreciation.

Commercial Activities$(thousand)
Income—
    Net revenue from advertising services and New Zealand Listener after deducting commission11,34013,32714,11915,24016,250
Expenditure—
    Purchase of programmes2,0682,1922,7993,3053,419
    Operating costs, including programming, engineering, administrative, publishing, general running, and selling expenses7,0088,39110,11111,16511,666
    Provision of technical facilities and services1,1961,0921,103996934
 10,27211,67614,01315,46616,019
    Surplus before taxation1,0681,651106-226*231
    Provision for taxation392711
    Surplus, commercial activities676940106-226*231
    Concert Activities—
    Net expenditure on orchestras and concert presentation628692771920822
Non-Commercial Activities     
Income—
    Gross licence fees9,63710,06310,76611,97414,198
        Less Post Office collection charges671720836916970
 8,9669,3439,93011,05813,228
    Interest on investments194290315200216
    Miscellaneous receipts735991517
 9,2339,69310,25411,27313,458
Expenditure—
    Purchase of programmes1,7641,7892,4113,4673,530
    Operating costs, including programming, engineering, administrative, and general running expenses3,9564,2785,0435,3655,880
    Depreciation provision2,2021,9421,9451,681643
 7,9228,0109,39910,51310,053
    Credit for provision of commercial, technical, and other facilities1,1961,0921,103996
 6,7266,9188,2969,51710,053
Net expenditure—Radio New Zealand126134199179175
    Surplus, non-commercial activities2,5072,4931,5041,5773,230
    Net surplus2,5552,7418394312,639

There are two principal sources of revenue: licence fees and radio and television advertising. While licence fee revenue is credited to the accounts of the non-commercial stations and sales revenue to those of the commercial stations, a common fund is in fact operated, all revenue being available for the general purpose of broadcasting.

The costs of Broadcasts to Schools and Overseas Programme Exchange are included under "Purchase of Programmes" and "Operating Costs" of non-commercial activities.

From 1972–73 depreciation on assets in use commercially on radio and television has been charged direct to the commercial activities. All other depreciation, except that charged direct to concert activities, Radio New Zealand, Broadcasts to Schools And Overseas Programme Exchange, is now included under the heading "Depreciation" in the non-commercial activities. In previous years depreciation on assets in use both commercially and non-commercially was charged to the noncommercial activities and depreciation charged to the commercial accounts was included under the heading "Provision of Technical Facilities and Services", and recovered by way of separate credit.

Gross revenue from licence fees and from advertising for the latest 5 financial years is shown in the following table.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
  $(thousand)   
Radio-licence fees1,9492,0632,1401,161
TV-licence fees7,6888,0008,62510,81214,196
Radio advertising5,2045,8626,4787,1077,716
TV advertising7,5419,2139,2989,90410,228
Totals22,38225,13826,54128,98432,142

LICENCES—As from 1 October 1971 the radio licence, which stood at $3 a year, was abolished and the television licence raised from $13 a year to $20.

The following table summarises licences for television receivers issued for districts. These districts correspond approximately to reception areas: Auckland includes Taupo; Wellington includes Taranaki, East Coast, Hawke's Bay, Nelson, and Marlborough; Christchurch includes West Coast and its southern boundary is the Waitaki River.

At 31 MarchAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedinTotal*Number of Sets Covered by Hirers' Licences

*Includes sets hired on ships, 40 in 1972.

†Included in preceding figures.

1968240,845186,19189,29459,563575,94774,062
1969252,841197,95494,10462,821607,81581,089
1970256,962209,00197,40264,160627,61791,697
1971272,474217,879105,62068,445664,44091,679
1972294,361224,785107,01069,996696,192100,442
1973311,747234,325113,25972,878732,250118,235

At the census of March 1971 85 percent of households had television sets.

12 C—NEWSPAPERS, LIBRARIES, AND 'CINEMAS

NEWSPAPERS—There are eight daily newspapers in the four main metropolitan areas with a total circulation of 746,000. In the smaller cities and provincial towns there are 33 daily newspapers with a total circulation of 317,000.

When circulation figures for daily newspapers are related to population figures, it is found that New Zealand has 376 copies per 1,000 inhabitants. The latest comparative figures for other countries include United Kingdom, 463; Australia, 321; Canada, 211; United States, 301; U.S.S.R., 347; Sweden, 534, Norway, 396; Denmark, 368; and France, 238. (Source: UN Statistical Yearbook.)

Statistics compiled from various sources disclose that from 1840 to 1940, altogether 468 newspapers (of all categories) were established in New Zealand. The acceleration of motor transport had a speedy and decisive effect on the small-town press. Many local papers which, by publishing once, twice, or three times a week, had been serving adequately the needs of a district and backblocks were unable to survive when city papers were able to reach remote settlements within a few hours of publication, offering to country dwellers such superior attractions as daily publication, full services of New Zealand and world news, sporting news, and attractive magazine features. Under the steady pressure of competition, mergers were effected in a number of provincial towns to reduce the quota of papers, generally to a single daily.

The circulation of all periodicals is not known, but for 147 periodicals (not including two national weeklies classified as newspapers) the circulation is 2,026,000. (These statistics are compiled from information gathered by the Association of New Zealand Advertisers.)

The total number of magazines, reviews, journals, and periodicals printed (but not necessarily all sold) in 1970–71 was 98,667,000 compared with 95,921,000 in 1969–70.

Advertising—The advertising revenue of newspapers and periodicals is shown in the following table, along with the selling value of the newspapers and periodicals at the factory door.

Type of PublicationAdvertising RevenueSelling Value
1969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–72
 $(000)
Newspapers, daily30,43133,74035,3279,4269,74711,692
Newspapers, other than daily2,4293,6574,4593,3724,2124,306
Magazines, journals, and periodicals1,8602,0882,3882,5032,6182,675

LIBRARIES—New Zealand is fairly well served with libraries and the book stocks and circulation figures compare favourably with those of other English-speaking nations. In most centres the local authority maintains a public library.

Under the auspices of the New Zealand Library Association, a comprehensive system of inter-library co-operation has been developed, particularly in the use of resources by means of inter-library loans.

National Library of New Zealand—By the National Library Act 1965, the Alexander Turnbull Library, the General Assembly Library, and the National Library Service were combined to form the National Library of New Zealand.

A comprehensive collection of New Zealand material within the requirements of the Act is maintained by the Alexander Turnbull Library which also compiles the National Bibliography.

The National Library is responsible for maintaining and developing a national reference and lending collection, and for making its resources available to other libraries. On 31 March 1973 this collection comprised approximately 336,000 titles together with 25,000 volumes of bound periodicals.

Other functions are concerned with the national system of inter-library lending and national bibliographical projects. The National Union Catalogue records the non-fiction holdings of the major New Zealand libraries and now contains over 1,000,000 entries. The Union List of Serials in New Zealand Libraries, available in published form, is a similar record covering periodicals and other serial publications. The Index to New Zealand Periodicals, published annually, indexes significant articles from a wide range of New Zealand periodicals.

The library also acts as purchasing agent for most Government department libraries operating within the Public Account and provides a cataloguing, reference, and library advisory service for departments.

General Assembly Library—The General Assembly Library was established in 1858 and provides library services for Parliament. The chief librarian is guided by a committee of members of Parliament headed by the Speaker.

Since 1903 the library has been the depository for books, periodicals, etc., published in New Zealand. It receives regularly copies of all New Zealand newspapers and about 1,700 New Zealand periodicals. Back files of both are very extensive. It also has one of the largest collections in the country of books or pamphlets relating to New Zealand. Several New Zealand newspapers are indexed daily.

The library has its strongest collections in subjects necessary to provide information for members of Parliament in their legislative duties. These include economics, politics, administration and law, biography and history. It has a good collection of Government documents, mainly from English-speaking countries—particularly parliamentary papers and debates—as well as publications of international organisations such as United Nations, UNESCO, and the International Labour Office.

In all, the library holds about 355,000 volumes.

During the parliamentary recess, the library is open to the public on the recommendation of a member of Parliament.

Alexander Turnbull Library—The Alexander Turnbull Library in Wellington is a State research and reference library, bequeathed to the nation in 1918 by Alexander Horsburgh Turnbull (1868–1918).

The original bequest has now been increased to approximately 154,598 books, together with many thousands of manuscripts, totalling 1,600 linear feet; 20,400 paintings, of which 8,351 are originals; 14,861 maps; and an extensive photograph collection. Acquisitions increase steadily in number, by purchase and gift. The Turnbull material has been augmented by many important donations and bequests, including some entire collections.

The fields covered by the library fall into two main divisions. The Pacific collections (inclusive of Antarctica) are strongest in material relating to history, early voyaging, ethnology, and literature, with particular emphasis upon New Zealand publications and the work of New Zealand authors; the trustees of the National Library have decided that these holdings should be regarded as the comprehensive national collection of New Zealand material. The general or non-Pacific collections are primarily concerned with English literature, rare books, and the development of the art of printing. The Milton collection, which was of special concern to Turnbull himself, is of particular importance. There are about 9,500 volumes in the rare book collection of first editions of works in English literature, early printed books, examples of fine printing, and important historical and scientific works.

The library's extensive holdings of manuscript material include private archives relating to most aspects of New Zealand history. The library's resources of early paintings of historical and topographical interest are outstanding, as is the collection of photographs and negatives which has been built to about 227,094 pieces during the past 20 years.

The Alexander Turnbull Library is responsible for the compilation of the recurrent and retrospective New Zealand National Bibliography.

Extension Division—This division has two parts:

  1. Country Library Service—The Country Library Service, founded in 1938 under the control of the Minister of Education, has been extended through regional offices in Hamilton, Palmerston North, and Christchurch for closer contact with participating libraries. Bulk loans of books are made free of charge to libraries controlled by local authorities, both borough and county, which operate a free library service locally and maintain it at a reasonable standard of efficiency. To towns where the population is less than 15,000, loans are made from book vans, special subject collections are sent, and thousands of books are supplied in response to requests for information and for individual titles. Libraries in towns with a greater population, excluding the main centres, also receive assistance. Their bulk loans are made direct from regional offices instead of, or in addition to, loans from book vans. Outside the boundaries of boroughs and town districts, groups of people may have books at the rate of $6 for 50 changed at regular intervals. Nine specially equipped vans, each carrying 1,600–2,000 books, travel over the whole territory.

    Libraries obtaining books from the Country Library Service on 31 March 1973 included the following: free libraries, 152; county libraries and groups, 795; Ministry of Works, Electricity Department, New Zealand Forest Service camps, and lighthouses, 93; psychiatric and general hospitals, and prisons and borstal institutions, 68. The number of books on loan to these libraries totalled 354,246 and 157,837 books were lent on request and in loan collections during the year.

  2. School Library Service—The School Library Service, established in 1941, is responsible for providing a wide and varied choice of books of high imaginative quality or technical excellence for children at all levels of ability and stages of development. The bookstock at 31 March 1973 totalled 2,385,684 books.

General exchanges of books for recreational reading are made by 13 district offices to State and private primary schools from Standard 1 upwards. An information and request service is available to teachers and pupils of primary and secondary schools. Public libraries which give free service to children and young people also receive circulating loans of books. Services to pre-school groups are given through local public libraries or direct from district offices.

For the year ended 31 March 1973, books exchanged totalled 984,125 and 832,966 books were on loan at 31 March. 1,113,101 books were provided through the information and request service.

Library School—Since 1946 the New Zealand Library School has offered to university graduates a full-time, 1-year course. It leads to a diploma and to library posts at the professional level. Some 610 students had successfully completed the course by the end of 1972 and in 1973 there were 38 New Zealand students. Students doing this course receive the same allowances as do students at teachers colleges. The school also conducts the block course for library assistants with University Entrance leading to the New Zealand Library Association Certificate and to library posts at the intermediate level. Students attend on a full-time basis, usually on leave with pay from their libraries, for three blocks of tuition spaced at intervals of about 9 months and each taking 4 weeks.

The school is discussed in the report of the Working Party on Education for Librarianship, published by the Government Printer in 1969.

CENSUS OF LIBRARIES 1969—The quinquennial census of libraries for the year ended 31 March 1969 covered a total of 445 libraries, namely, 266 public libraries (including 56 suburban branches), 34 tertiary education libraries, the National Library, and 144 libraries of a technical nature.

Tertiary education libraries comprised the libraries of the 6 universities, with 3 libraries closely associated with them; libraries of 9 teachers' training colleges; 1 agricultural college library; 10 libraries of theological colleges and 5 libraries of technical institutes. Libraries of secondary and primary schools were not covered in the census.

In the period 1964 to 1969 public library membership increased by 35 percent but circulation per member dropped at most libraries, both large and small. This could be due to the increased viewing of television. (Licensed television sets in the country increased from 144,000 at 31 December 1963 to 604,000 at 31 December 1968.) There was, on average, 26 issues per adult member and 16 issues per child member for the year 1968–69. There were in the public libraries 4.37 books to every member and on average these books circulated 5.12 times annually; thus members took out an average of 22.40 public library books a year. (This compares with 29.06 books for the year ended March 1964.) These circulation figures for public libraries were relatively high by international standards. Junior readers read four times as much fiction as non-fiction, while adults read three times as much.

The following are summarised tables of the results of the 1969 census. Full details containing the census data have been published in a separate report prepared by the Department of Statistics.

Class of LibraryNumber of LibrariesBook Stock at 31 March 1969Circulation During Year
Books*SerialsPamphletsTotalItems Lent Outside the LibraryItems Lent to Other LibrariesItems Borrowed From Other Libraries

*Microforms (films and cards), included in books.

†Periodicals included in serials.

‡Excludes armed forces and institutional (penal, etc.) libraries which are included under public libraries.

 (thousand)
National libraries13,484179113,6732,539124
Libraries in universities, etc.341,50531461,8251,1341321
Special libraries—
    Learned societies and commercial interests61167196193825444
    Government departments and associated organisations83607424701,1011691422
Totals, special libraries144774620891,4832241826
Grand totals1795,7631,1121056,9813,8974351
PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOK STOCK AT 31 MARCH 1969
Class of Public LibraryNumber of Library SystemsOwn StockTotalFor Reference Only (Included in own Stock)Country Library Service Stock
AdultJunior
RentalFree FictionFree Non-fictionFictionNon-fictionAdultJunior

*191 library systems covering 266 libraries.

†Includes Canterbury suburban pool stock, adult 19,722, junior 35,773.

In centres with an estimated population of—(thousand)
50,000 and over7316238830256981,7376121
20,000–49,99916991803331534881331257
10,000–19,99918347393621627832110
5,000–9,99929807185541430553114
3,000–4,9993571653933621322213
Under 3,0005810454272252131269
Sub-total1637036811,4085811863,55910212853
Armed forces and institutions2828547331159252
Grand totals191*7327351,4815841873,71810413255
PUBLIC LIBRARIES—BOOKS: CIRCULATION AND USE
Public LibraryNumber of LibrariesIssues from Own StockIssues from Country Library Service StockInter-library Loans
AdultJuniorTotalAdultJuniorLent to Other LibrariesBorrowed from Other Libraries
RentalFree FictionFree Non-fictionPeriodicals
*191 library systems covering 266 libraries.
In centres with an estimated population of—(thousand)
50,000 and over71,7551,7781,4484072,1147,502213
20,000–49,999161,1231,7397561571,7505,5266535116
10,000–19,99918498378426917142,1071015516
5,000–9,99929676320356515531,9551378219
3,000–4,99935413249150212661,0991024814
Under 3,00058340105785167696864510
Sub-total1634,8054,5683,2157325,56318,884492265387
Armed forces and institutions2864672624163728
Grand totals191*4,8694,6353,2417355,56819,047498267495

NOTE: Because of rounding, totals in the previous three tables may differ slightly from the sum of the individual items.

International Statistics on Libraries—The following tables compiled from published UNESCO and other statistics show New Zealand's position in relation to other English-speaking countries as regards library resources, borrowers, and book circulation.

NATIONAL, UNIVERSITY, AND SPECIAL LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation (Million)YearType of DataLibrary Category
NationalUniversitySpecial
*Federal Government only.
New Zealand2.81,969Libraries134144
   Volumes (000)3,6731,8241,483
Australia11.61,966Libraries115..
   Volumes (000)1,0004,241..
Canada20.81,968Libraries179580
   Volumes (000)40022,1065,613
United Kingdom53.71,963Libraries34781,177
   Volumes (000)11,00027,68814,850
United States194.61,965Libraries32,204354*
   Volumes (000)21,100263,50026,794*
PUBLIC LIBRARIES
CountryPopulation (Million)YearNumber of LibrariesBook Stock, Number of VolumesBorrowersCirculation, Number of Volumes
    (000)(000)(000)
New Zealand2.81,9692103,72885119,047
Australia11.61,9665529,5471,888..
Canada20.81,96885521,635....
United Kingdom53.71,96356277,200....
United States194.61,9651,113201,138....

CINEMAS—Statistics relating to cinemas are normally collected every alternate year. The survey of cinemas for the year ended 31 March 1971 covered 210 theatres, compared with 227 in 1969.

The extensive development of television since 1961 has influenced cinema patronage. Cinema attendances during the year 1970–71 were 1.2 million fewer than when the previous survey was made in 1968–69. The average annual number of admissions per head of mean population fell from 5.2 in 1968–69 to 4.6 in the latest survey.

The following table gives figures of cinema attendances and takings.

YearTheatresAdmissionsGross Admission TakingsAverage Admission Price*Admissions Per Head of Mean Population
*Including amusement tax up to and including 1964–65. This tax was abolished as from June 1965.
  (000)$(000)cNo.
1939–4057431,1714,02012.919.1
1944–4555135,4205,17614.621.3
1949–5060036,3535,58015.319.3
1956–5757837,5968,96623.817.1
1958–5954738,2089,70025.416.6
1960–6154540,63210,79226.617.0
1962–6349137,58410,13627.015.0
1964–6539726,0268,18031.410.0
1966–6731219,6067,78939.77.3
1968–6922714,3086,61446.25.2
1970–7121013,0877,82859.84.6

The following statistics for the last three collections cover the operations of all classes of cinemas—viz, (a) those operating 6 days per week; (b) those operating on odd days per week; (c) circuit, or itinerant operators. The average number of screenings per week in these categories in 1970–71 were 12.3, 2.8, and 2.0 respectively.

Item1966–671968–691970–71
Cinemas—
    Screenings 6 days per week..163130120
    Screening odd days per week..4339389
    Circuit..1641
 Totals312227210
Cinemas according to seating accommodation— 
    Other than circuits—..      
        Under 200..271710   
        200 and under 500..1036776   
        500 and under 1,000..140115103   
        1,000 and over..262420   
    Circuit cinemas..1641   
 Totals312227210   
Seating accommodation (all cinemas)No.178,722143,428129,434   
Average seating capacity per cinemaNo.573632616   
Persons engaged—   
    Full time—   
        MalesNo.439360261   
        FemalesNo.349333190   
    Part time—   
        MalesNo.566422425   
        FemalesNo.984697664   
Performances per yearNo.114,98794,08689,690   
Average attendance per performanceNo.171152146   

Statistics on the commercial operation of theatres are given in the following table. These statistics relate only to cinemas, and do not purport to show employees, revenue, and expenditure of the motion picture industry as a whole. In particular, the full revenue and expenditure in connection with screen advertising, and also head office expenses of controlling companies (including such items as interest on debentures and mortgage charges), unless recovered from exhibitors, are not recorded in the statistics. The item "Rent" under "Theatre expenditure" does not represent the rental value of all theatres, but only the rent paid where theatres were leased or rented.

Item1966–671968–691970–71
*Includes drawings of working proprietors.
Revenue—$(000)
    Admission receipts (including amusement tax)7,7896,6147,828
    Screen advertising251137337
    Other receipts484564502
Totals8,5247,3158,667
Expenditure—
    Salaries and wages*2,0191,7321,888
    Film hire2,8332,1882,640
    Advertising6115,5612,828
    Amusement tax
    Rent368339
    Repairs and maintenance307343
    Depreciation13991
    Other expenses1,4881,402
Totals7,7656,6507,356

Classification by Statistical Areas—In the following table, cinemas have been classified by statistical areas; further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information. The average attendance per performance in 1970–71 fell in all areas.

Statistical AreaPopulation 23 March 1971CinemasSeating AccommodationAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions Per Head of PopulationPerformances For YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Seating Capacity per Hall
 No.No.No. of seatscNo.No.No.No.
Northland96,191114,92546.73.32,995104448
Central Auckland698,4004127,37465.85.321,648171668
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty422,2994121,63250.44.112,855133528
East Coast47,34232,42754.54.41,877112809
Hawke's Bay133,25074,72352.44.14,385126675
Taranaki100,89595,49249.84.33,398127610
Wellington552,9863627,14361.65.118,902149754
Marlborough31,64231,46049.35.01,042153487
Nelson68,83874,07549.54.12,306123582
Westland22,86152,27145.53.7764110454
Canterbury398,8302615,84966.24.111,098148610
Otago182,749157,70162.14.15,491136513
Southland106,34864,36250.44.02,929147727
Totals2,862,631210129,43459.84.689,690146616

Classification by Urban Areas—Statistics for the four principal urban areas are as follows. Porirua Basin and the Hutt Valley urban areas have been included with Wellington in this table. Further information has been withheld in order to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

Urban AreaPopulation 23 March 1971CinemasSeating AccommodationAdmissions per SeatAverage Admission ChargeAdmissions per Head of PopulationPerformances per YearAverage Attendance per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
 (000)No.No. of seatsNo.cNo.No.No.No.percent
Auckland6503926,89413765.95.721,38817289919.1
Wellington3081815,75812066.76.111,29116799716.8
Christchurch2761310,19413170.14.88,30816182519.5
Dunedin11174,50513565.85.54,47113668519.9
Totals1,3447757,35113166.95.645,45816588918.6

Classification of Cinemas—The following table shows further statistics of cinemas classified by the number of screening days weekly. Data on the one circuit operator have had to be amalgamated to avoid disclosure of confidential information.

ScreeningCinemasSeating AccommodationPaid AdmissionsAverage Admission ChargeAdmission TakingsFilm HireFilm Hire as a Proportion of Admission Takings
 No.No. of(000)c$(000)$(000)percent
Six and 7 days per week120seats 93,81011,79461.77,2822,48634.1
Fewer than 6 days per week8935,6241,29342.354715528.3
Circuit1
Totals210129,43413,08759.87,8282,64033.7
ScreeningPersons EngagedPerformances for the YearAverage Number of paid Admissions per PerformanceAverage Number of Seats Available per PerformanceEstimated Proportion of Hall Capacity Filled per Performance
Full TimePart Time
MaleFemaleMaleFemale
 No.No.No.No.No.No.No.percent
Six and 7 days per week24518828653176,68315485318.1
Fewer than 6 days per week16213913313,0079947620.8
Circuit
Totals26119042566489,690146

Cinema Attendance in Principal Countries—The table below shows the number of admissions per head in the years quoted in a number of selected countries. These figures are taken from the United Nations Statistical Yearbook.

CountryYearNumber of Admissions
Total (Million)Per Head
Australia1,966383
Canada1,966995
Denmark1,967306
France1,9672164
Germany, West1,9681923
Israel1,9665822
Italy1,96756711
Japan1,9683133
New Zealand1968–69145
Norway1,966195
Russia (U.S.S.R.)1,9684,71520
Spain1,96835811
Sweden1,968305
Switzerland1,968356
United Kingdom1,9682374
United States1,9671,3017
Yugoslavia1,9681005

Chapter 15. Section 13; PATTERN OF DEVELOPMENT AND LAND USE

13 A—PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

GENERAL—Planning for economic development and growth covers a wide range of sectors, including agriculture, manufacturing, transport, forestry, building, mineral development, and energy production. Economic development in New Zealand is at present undergoing complex structural change with the rapidly growing manufacturing sector of increasing importance. This has strengthened the demand for land, both for industry and the associated urban development, a demand increasingly in conflict with agricultural use. Within the urban areas themselves competing demands for industrial, commercial, residential and recreational land have arisen as elements of each particular use have sought their most suitable available location. Left unchecked, these conflicts of interest could lead to unsatisfactory and uneconomic patterns of development. This has necessitated a planning framework within which competing demands can be resolved.

The desired rate of economic growth raised implications for planning the physical pattern of land use and development. Concern for the effect on the physical environment as a consequence economic growth was recognised at the Physical Environment Conference held in May 1970 at which wide-ranging issues were discussed.

LAND USE—With over 26 million hectares of land and a population of just over 3 million, New Zealand has not in the past been conscious of the problems of resource utilisation experienced in the more closely settled countries. An extensive coastline (approximately 15,000 km), great variety of landscape and responsive soils, and a generally favourable climate at lower altitudes are some of the assets which, because of the small population, have been utilised without any serious detrimental effects on the social and economic fabric. In retrospect, however, it is apparent that some of the land and other resources have been wastefully exploited. Maori settlement brought significant ecological changes, largely through fires and hunting. The impact of European settlement was much greater, measured by the large areas of indigenous forest cover destroyed, the extensive native grasslands burnt for sheep grazing and ploughed for crops and sown pasture, the wetlands drained and reclaimed, the unsightly tailings left after gold mining, the increase in soil erosion and the general loss of wildlife habitats.

The growth and changing distribution of the population have been strongly influenced by the distribution of the most productive soils. In the nineteenth century, when the population was small, the ultimate results of preferential settlement of the best agricultural land were not appreciated. Generally, the most productive areas became the most prosperous when the towns within them grew, and it was at the expense of the most productive soils. Later, manufacturing and tertiary industries tended to be located in these towns because of the labour, markets, and services they offered.

Between 1949 and 1964 urbanisation claimed about 15,800 hectares of good farming land, and expansion up to 1984 will require another 30,000 hectares of land. Considering that the total area of good farming land includes approximately 8,300,000 hectares of first-class pastoral land and 500,000 hectares of first-class cropping land and that agricultural production derives benefits from urbanisation, this is not considered a serious problem on a national scale. In certain localities, however, unrestricted urban expansion could have serious limiting effects on agricultural production in the future. The problem is most acute around Auckland, the population of which is now over 700,000, increasing at 3.5 percent a year, and therefore likely to double in 16 years. It is not possible to reverse the historical factors that have determined the present population distribution, but a national policy for the protection of the soils potentially most productive may be necessary. Economic growth was pursued with scant regard for its impact on the environment. Single and immediate use rather than balanced long-term use of resources tended to place the advocates of exploitation and protection in opposing camps.

The problem now is how to combine the economic and social pressures on soil, water, plant, and fauna resources with the maintenance of ecological and aesthetic qualities.

In New Zealand a traditional, and still largely current, attitude is to emphasise the desirability of preserving, at least in selected areas, the characteristic beauty of the landscape and providing access and facilities for recreation and enjoyment of such natural features. This emphasis has resulted in provision of extensive national parks and smaller reserves.

Development schemes causing modification of natural features can, in the planning stage, make provision for restraint, restoration, and even the addition of compensating amenities. The rate of development in New Zealand must make this an essential ingredient of planning But it must be stressed that there will be no more completely unmodified or true wilderness country. Once it is destroyed wilderness is gone forever. Wilderness is extremely fragile, and soil erosion, degradation of vegetation, and destruction of animal species can come about through any alteration of the environment, even the most innocent access road.

Scientific investigations and research have reinforced the validity of the beliefs based on sentiment and aesthetics that there are dangers in any disturbance of natural equilibrium of air, water, soil, plants, animals, and stabilised land-forms, or in the pollution of any of them. Changes in the balance of dominance of even obscure organisms or a slowly declining water-table can be factors in the deterioration of countryside. It is essential to retain reference areas from which the changes in soils, plants, and animals resulting from man's activities can be assessed. A whole catchment will usually be the desirable minimum effective area.

Conservation, however, means much more than the preservation of scenic and scientific values. It implies the maintenance without diminution of the basic land resources on which New Zealand's economy and way of life are so largely based. Of these resources the most important are soil, water, and vegetation, the last both natural and induced, and both forests and grasslands. The concept of conserving soil, water, forest, and grassland resources is dynamic rather than static, and is generally agreed to embody the principle of preservation through wise use.

The problems are capable of solution provided there is a sufficient understanding by administrators and by the public of the importance and often the inter-dependence of the different values involved and of the ecological implications of any decision affecting land use. Conflicts between different demands on the countryside are inevitable, but with adequate planning and management they are mostly capable of resolution. For example, an agriculturally productive landscape can provide such rich and satisfying contacts with the diversity of nature that in many ways the man-made landscape based on agriculture or forestry need be little less interesting and satisfying than the wild one. Likewise, soil conservation practices not only restore vitality and health to the soil but also create pleasing patterns in the landscape.

Conservation thus viewed becomes more than a matter of mere aesthetic preference, and demands a more complex approach than the isolation of a few areas. If this basis is accepted the principles and practice of conservation as management of the total environment must have high priority in any plans for national development.

The total area of New Zealand, excluding the island territories in the Pacific, but including the minor islands since these form parts of land districts, is 26,870,000 hectares.

The broad grouping of land use is shown in the following table.

Land UseAcres (million)Hectares (million)
Occupied farm land—
    Improved grassland20.58.30
    Tussock and other native grassland11.84.78
Total grassland32.313.08
    Land in field crops, gardens, and orchards1.10.45
    Plantations3.41.38
    Land in fern, scrub, and second growth3.41.38
    Standing bush2.71.09
    Barren and unproductive land1.90.77
Total occupied farm land42.917.35
Land in cities and boroughs0.60.24
National parks, reserves, and domains6.22.51
State forest land10.14.09
Exotic forest owned by companies0.60.24
Other land, including waste land such as mountains, bare rock, water surfaces, roads, etc.6.02.43
Total land66.426.87

Land can now no longer be considered an abundant resource in New Zealand. Because this is so, there is increasing acceptance that where other compatible uses are feasible, it is not necessarily sound policy to devote land to a single or restricted use. However, the need is also becoming recognised to identify the dominant purpose for which land is most suited, so that the pressure for comprehensive land use does not negate the principle that land should be used basically for its most suitable purpose, with other uses being encouraged only to the extent that they are compatible.

To meet this need, the Land Use Advisory Council was established in 1972 with the task of developing criteria on which sound land use decisions can be made; and its order of reference requires it to have regard to physical, ecological, economic, social, environmental, and other relevant factors, and to determine means by which these factors may be more precisely defined.

The council includes departmental, farming, economic, scientific, and geographic interests, and although its decisions are primarily intended to guide the use of lands of the Crown, it is hoped that the criteria it lays down will be of assistance to all who are required to make land use decisions.

Land Inventory—The Department of Lands and Survey is building up a land inventory. The object of the inventory is to identify land tenure, land use, and land cover and for other contributing agencies to produce more detailed data relating to other basic issues such as soils and geology as will enable a more realistic appraisal of the resources of an area to be achieved. The existence of this data should enable both local and national Government to plan with greater confidence.

Since the initiation of the survey, importance has been placed on expansion around the original counties to build up a regional picture. This is slowly being achieved. The existence of other surveys at much smaller scales generalise the overall situation and complement the larger scale data of the National Land Inventory.

With metrication, a new map scale of 1:100,000 has been adopted with enlargement to 1:50,000 in situations of dense holding patterns or intensive use. New mapping specifications are being adopted as well as new criteria for written material. The accent in these improvements will be on the visual display of information on maps rather than wordy texts. Classification of soils for various alternate uses will be a feature of this new format to widen the scope for research study and planning. The inclusion of statistical data already published is not considered material in this new concept and reference only to a source will be included. While a historical record of development may be of interest the present and future economic development of, environmental protection of, and conservation of these resources are of much greater concern. The National Land Inventory provides a vehicle for the study of these aspects without the need to prepare and gather basic data.

The regular coverage of aerial photography by the Department of Lands and Survey provides a useful monitoring tool for changes in land use. New Zealand is hoping to participate in the Earth Resources satellite programme both as a monitor and a means of upgrading mapping data on small scales. The 5-yearly 1:100,000 urban flying programme will also assist local authorities to keep abreast of developments.

FRAMEWORK FOR PLANNING—Legislation for maintaining a balance between economic growth and the pattern of land use is contained in a number of enactments administered by various agencies.

Planning Legislation—The Physical Environment Conference in May 1970 concluded that the town and country planning legislation affords greater opportunities of control over the pattern of land use and development. The Town and Country Planning Act 1953 provides for the making and enforcement of regional and district planning schemes, and the detailed procedure to be followed in each case is amplified by the Town and Country Planning Regulations 1960. The Government administers the Act through the Minister of Works and Development who may delegate his authority to the Commissioner of Works.

Regional Planning—Regional planning authorities may be established under the Act and consist of representatives of the several councils whose districts are wholly or partly within the region. These authorities are now operating in the four main centres and in Northland and Marlborough, but elsewhere they have not yet proved practicable.

Regional planning schemes must be preceded by a comprehensive survey of the natural resources of the areas concerned and of the present and potential uses and values of all lands in relation to public utilities or amenities. Regional schemes envisage the conservation and economic development of natural resources by classification of lands according to their best uses and by the co-ordination of all such public improvements, utilities, and amenities as are not limited to the territory of any one local authority. Every regional planning scheme is intended to be a guide to councils engaged in the preparation of district planning schemes and to public authorities and all persons in relation to conservation and development within the region. Regional schemes are required to be reviewed at intervals of not more than 10 years.

Under the Town and Country Planning Act 1953, provision was made for regional planning schemes to be a guide and to co-ordinate with: (a) communications and transport facilities including provision of railways, arterial and regional traffic routes, public passenger service routes, harbour and navigable waterways and airports; (b) land use, including allocation of areas to be used for urban and rural development; (c) public utilities; (d) amenities, including parks, reserves, and preservation of places of historic or scenic interest or natural beauty; (e) staging of development.

The Town and Country Planning Act Review Committee (1973) recognised that the provisions as outlined in the Act for regional planning had been inadequate and commented that: "Key planning issues at regional level such as structuring and programming of development into efficient yet satisfying patterns and forms of amenities and services have seldom been dealt with successfully or even recognised as objectives".

Moves towards adopting better regional planning studies are under way. Future planning policies, for example, involving urban growth strategies, land use and transportation, open space and recreation requirements are being developed by regional planning authorities.

Similar urban growth studies are being undertaken in other urban centres where there are at the moment no regional planning authorities. This work is being undertaken by both the local authorities concerned and the Ministry of Works and Development. The Local Government Bill introduced in 1973 provides for multi-functional authorities for all regions of the country to replace many of the existing ad hoc authorities. One of their mandatory functions will be regional planning.

District Planning—Every district scheme under the Act is required to have for its general purpose the development of the area to which it relates (including where necessary the replanning and reconstruction of an area already built on) in such a way as will most effectively tend to promote and safeguard the health, safety, and convenience, the economic and general welfare of its inhabitants, and the amenities of every part of the area. The council of every city, borough, county, and independent town district must provide and maintain a district scheme whether or not a regional planning scheme including its district has been prepared or become operative.

When a district scheme has been finally approved and made operative the council and all local authorities having jurisdiction in the district are bound to observe, and enforce observance of, the requirements of the scheme. The provisions of an operative regional planning scheme are also obligatory, but a constituent council has a right of appeal to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board where a provision of a proposed or operative district scheme conflicts with the regional scheme; the Minister has, incidentally, a similar right of appeal so far as the regional scheme conflicts with the public interest.

By 31 March 1972 there were 144 operative schemes with a further 85 schemes at the recommendation stage; although 23 councils had yet to submit schemes, more than 90 percent of the population are living in areas where councils have brought down recommended, proposed, or operative district schemes. However, in the light of the experience gained over the last 20 years, there has clearly emerged a gap between the ideals under the Act and the quality of the district planning schemes in practice.

This was recognised by the Physical Environment Conference (May 1970) when it was noted that few of the operative district planning schemes provided a positive planning strategy. District schemes often conformed to the suggested pattern as outlined in the regulations, assuming that the pattern of development and land use and the problems faced by each particular local authority were the same. There were few clear statements of policy for the creation of a physical environment designed to meet the needs of different urban growth rates, diverse age and sex structures and employment opportunities together with programmes for their implementation.

Following recommendations made at the Physical Environment Conference, the Town and Country Planning Act was amended in November 1971, and required that planning authorities prior to a review becoming due to "… prepare a statement setting out the planning objective of the council responsible for the scheme to be incorporated in the review of the scheme and the policy to be pursued to achieve those objectives".

As a consequence of this amendment there is now a greater likelihood to develop a more sophisticated planning approach by ensuring that informal discussions be held between the planning authority, Government and ad hoc agencies and the public. This gives an opportunity to integrate the different proposals by various authorities and have these included within the district scheme. Experience has shown that some of the best statements of policy have been those which have been open to public debate, though this is not mandatory.

Planning by objectives and policies is a technique orientated to identifying and solving problems. Its successful application will depend on the quality of professional and administrative personnel involved in the planning process, and its integration with planning in other fields. Planning at a local level can only be really effective if plans are integrated and set in the context of policies for regional and national objectives.

National Planning—National planning has only been attempted in any comprehensive way since the 1969 National Development Conference. The National Development Council (NDC) set up after the conference was responsible for giving the Government planning advice on a full range of economic, social, and cultural matters, through a number of sector councils comprising experts from Government, commerce, agriculture, and numerous other interest groups.

The Town and Country Planning Act Review Committee looked at the possibility of national planning through the statutory planning framework and identified three areas of national priority; protection of coastal lands from unnecessary development, protection of arable land from urban encroachment, and the prevention of sporadic urban subdivision and development. Other problems of the physical environment and development which are clearly of a national scale and which are receiving planning attention include recreational land (especially access to recreational areas) and pollution.

National planning for the preservation of the natural character of the coastal environment and of the margins of lakes and rivers and the protection of them from unnecessary subdivision and development involves the Department of Lands and Survey and the Ministry of Works and Development. Since 1966 the Department of Lands and Survey has been involved in coastal reserves acquisition which has increased with development of the coastal reserves surveys. These are carried out on a county basis and classify areas on the basis of their importance into areas of national, regional, or local significance. The Coastal Review Committee, which includes both departments, makes the final decision as to the selection and financial responsibility for particular reserves. In April 1972 the Government approved the terms of a national policy on coastal land as follows:

  1. Recognition that coastal land is a resource of national importance but of fixed quantity justifying firstly, central as well as local government interest in how it is used; secondly, central Government intervention when it is being misused; and thirdly, provision by central government of professional planning advice and funds for reserves;

  2. Provisions of as wide a variety of active and passive recreational opportunity and experience as the coast is able to offer now and in the future including a wide range of types of recreational reserves and holiday accommodation;

  3. Retention in sufficient quantity of the native coastal flora and fauna in its natural state as well as the unique and the typical in coastal scenery;

  4. Establishment of a pattern of future land use which clearly defines the land needed for urban development in the next two decades and the land that should never be used for urban purposes;

  5. Ensuring that any development of coastal land for urban and holiday purposes is in sympathy with the landscape and makes the most of each site's natural characteristics;

  6. Recognition that the stability of a large proportion of coastal land depends on the efficiency of sand dune fixation and that unstable dune areas should not be subjected to a high level of recreational use.

The second matter of national importance in town planning is the avoidance of encroachment of urban development on, and the protection of, land having a high actual or potential value for the production of food. It has been estimated that about 9 percent of New Zealand's total land area, 2.4 million hectares, is suitable for arable farming and of this, 800,000 hectares comprise of soils capable of sustaining a high production of a wide range of crops. In 1972 cities, boroughs, town districts, and county towns covered an area of approximately 288,000 hectares, of which 165,000 hectares were in actual urban use. As has been noted above, most of New Zealand's towns are in areas of productive soils. The strengthening of the Town and Country Planning Act will give stronger protection of good agricultural land.

The third matter is the prevention of sporadic urban subdivision and development in rural areas. This is indicative of pressures which are now leading to a need for a more sophisticated approach to rural planning. Appropriate changes will include different methods of farming operation, increasing importance of commercial forestry increases in tourism and recreation, mineral exploitation, and demand for some form of rural living.

RECREATIONAL LAND—Existing national parks and reserves are, for the most part, close to the centres of greatest and most rapidly growing population. Until recently little was done to secure in public ownership those areas where most New Zealanders take their holidays—by the water. Along the north and north-east coasts, where the climate is best and the population densest, many of the most desirable areas of coastline have already been subdivided, notably on the North Auckland, Bay of Plenty, and Coromandel coasts. Besides limiting public access, this can destroy scenic values. Similar considerations apply in respect of lakes, rocks, and offshore islands. In recent years the Crown has purchased a number of islands or parts of islands for reserve purposes. Some of these are grouped in the Hauraki Gulf and Marlborough Sounds Maritime Parks. Moves are being made to control subdivision in coastal and lakeshore areas.

Access along rivers 3 metres wide, lakes in excess of 8 hectares, and foreshores has usually been provided: on all alienations of Crown land since 1886, on private subdivision for towns near rivers or the sea coast since 1923, and on partitions of Maori land in counties since 1967.

Present legislation in regard to access to these areas is effective and although some alienations and partitions before the above dates did not provide for access, generally speaking this will be rectified in time as closer subdivision of the areas involved takes place.

The Land Act has provided since 1948 that around every lake with an area of 8 hectares or more there shall be laid off a strip not less than 1 chain in width. Some consideration should be given to reducing the present 8 hectares minimum area. It could be argued that even 4- or 2-hectare lakes or ponds have definite value for recreation or conservation. If the area were reduced to say 2 hectares, provision could be made to exempt those lakes or ponds which are obviously unsuitable for these purposes.

There has never been any requirement to provide access through private land to public land or to lakes or rivers, except by way of a road or railway. Yet, access along the banks of rivers, etc., is not sufficient. Access to the banks is also required but is often not enough. The same is true of back country which has been isolated by the disposal of front country. In some instances access has been available in the form of "paper" roads and greater care and foresight in the disposal of these and closed roads could result in accessways being retained in public ownership in future. Current legislation governing subdivision of land provides that legal access must be provided to each separate allotment but does not cater for access beyond this.

An inter-departmental committee convened by the Ministry of Works and Development has investigated aspects of access to water supply catchments from which, for health reasons, the public has generally been excluded. Committee representatives were from Health, Lands and Survey, and Internal Affairs Departments and the New Zealand Forest Service. While accepting that public health is a paramount consideration, the committee recognised that New Zealand has little enough land to warrant further single-purpose reservations. The desirable objective of multiple rather than single land use was discussed in the report. The report recognised that future water supplies should be treated, permitting compatible low-intensity recreation and public enjoyment of catchments which are used to supply domestic water.

For many years trampers, shooters, fishermen, and mountaineers have been permitted to walk, or even drive vehicles, over tracks and privately constructed roads on high country runs and thus gain access to the hinterland for sport and recreation. In general this privilege has been respected and instances of disturbance to management have been few. However, as the number of sportsman and trampers increases, so, proportionately, the occasions on which disturbance and damage to property through negligence and ignorance will also increase.

Recently there has been a noticeable but natural "tightening up" by property owners who are understandably loath to suffer preventable losses by inconsiderate users of accessways through their properties. Endeavours are being made to work out an arrangement which could be satisfactory to all concerned. The high country access problems have been aggravated by the growth of the venison industry.

New Zealand has some 24 percent of its land under forest. It is not an important fact, nor has it any particular relevance when compared with the corresponding figures for other countries. It is important that a forest cover should be maintained wherever it constitutes the most desirable form of land use. Forests meet a wide range of basic human needs—social, recreational, and spiritual, as well as economic.

New Zealand is fortunate in that a large area of native forests was set aside in the early days in reserves of various types (State forests, climatic reserves, scenery preservation reserves, reserves for the preservation of flora and fauna, and reserves for the growth and preservation of timber). As a result New Zealand is well endowed with forested wilderness and with other native forests having scenic, recreational, and wildlife values. Per head of population New Zealand probably has a larger area of forests of this type than any other developed country. We should be grateful to the early land administrators who had the foresight to make such generous reserves; they laid the basis for a national park, a forest park, and a protection forestry system which is widely envied.

Policy in regard to recreational use of State forests has entered a positive phase in recent years. There has arisen fuller recognition of the appeal of the wild lands, particularly for the dweller in urban surroundings.

Many indigenous State forests offer scope for leisure pursuits in surroundings of great natural beauty—for study of wildlife (plant and animal); for strenuous travel through difficult country; and for the sports of shooting and fishing enthusiasts. Most of the attractive forested hill country is managed primarily for soil and water conservation; recreational use can be allowed in almost all such protection forests without interfering with the main management objectives. In fact, private hunting can be of benefit through its contribution in destroying wild animal pests. The New Zealand Forest Service is developing State forest parks in which management planning incorporates provision for recreation. Such provision includes: improvement of access from main roads to forest boundaries; clearing and maintaining tracks; erecting bridges; making camp sites and picnic places; and (sometimes in co-operation with tramping and alpine clubs) building and maintaining shelter huts, assets also of use to Forest Service personnel. Entry is unrestricted except that, in the interests of safety, persons carrying firearms require permits from the Forest Service.

State forest park status does not preclude use of the resources of an area so designated. The Forest Service retains full control of disposal of timber, minerals, or other produce and remains responsible for any forestry operations needed for the well-being or improvement of the park, whether for production of timber or for recreation. Advisory committees representative of the recreational users are appointed to help with the planning of this aspect.

The older exotic forests also offer the attractions that only a sylvan setting can provide and have the advantage of accessibility. In many places walks and picnic spots have been prepared for use by the public, and selected areas will be preserved from felling for their scenic value. Because of the dangers which may be encountered in the working areas of what are essentially timber-production forests, granting of complete freedom of entry is not practicable.

Although there is adequate means of legally protecting (or controlling) individual species of fauna, there is no comparable machinery for protecting individual plant species, or more importantly, non-forest plant associations except where they occur in national parks or State forests. In the latter case they can be reserved either as sanctuaries or scientific or biological reserves. There is also a need to protect and conserve complete ecosytems in such areas as coastal zones where both plant and animal life are involved.

Several groups including the Forest Service, DSIR, universities, and museums contribute to our knowledge of parks and reserves.

A topic which is related to forestry, parks, and reserves, is the protection and conservation of bush and trees within urban areas. Such protection is considered desirable since the trees contribute to the scenic and amenity qualities of an urban area. They also provide habitats for bird and animal life, encourage the cycling of water and nutrients, and assist with the control of erosion. A working party under the direction of the Minister for the Environment recently exploring the problems concerned with the protection of bush and trees, suggested that it could be effected by good local planning and public concern. The matter has been drawn to the attention of local authorities and legislation adopted to strengthen their powers to preserve trees and bush in subdivisions.

PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF MAJOR PARKS AND RESERVES—Planning of and for natural areas is proceeding at a far greater pace than ever before. The New Zealand Forest Service produces working plans for all State forests including forest parks; national park boards are preparing management plans for individual parks and a number are being produced for other reserves; coastal areas and scenic and allied reserves are being reviewed by the Department of Lands and Survey; and local and regional planning authorities are producing district or regional schemes. The great need is for all this work to be co-ordinated and for gaps to be filled so that these individual efforts fit into an homogeneous whole as parts of a national plan for the establishment, development, and management of natural and recreational areas. Planning must not regard any particular public reserve area in isolation but in the context of a region and of a national system. It must have regard to the recreational use and the scientific and scenic values of other areas and it must find out what the public really wants in regard to outdoor recreation. An integrated system of parks, recreation, and conservation areas, including the development of alternative sites to take public pressure off those areas where access needs to be restricted for scientific or conservation reasons, should be the objective.

Recognition of these needs has prompted development of the concept of an outdoor recreation plan. This concept, which now has Government endorsement, involves the establishment of a system which will provide a full range of recreational opportunities and enable preservation to the necessary degree of natural, historic, scientific, and special features, objects, and areas throughout the country. The plan will provide integration of all preservation or recreation oriented activity and provide an appropriate degree of co-ordination at national, regional, and local levels. In other words, the objective is to bring together the work that is being done on recreation and allied functions, and provide a sense of direction in planning for the total recreational needs of the community.

In order to avoid the mistakes inherent in haphazard development, the National Parks Authority has for some years been encouraging national park boards to prepare management plans for their respective parks. These plans establish concepts and guidelines for the preservation and use of national parks, and afford the means by which park use and management can be reconciled with the preservation in perpetuity of the park's scenic beauty, and natural and historic features. The aim is to identify specific objectives and to formulate policies to achieve these goals, and the management plans guide or direct the preparation of more detailed action plans for the different facets of park management and development.

The preparation of management plans has progressed quite satisfactorily, so much so that the National Parks Authority anticipates being able to give initial consideration to plans for all parks by early in 1974. At the same time a number of special planning studies have been undertaken for critical areas within national parks.

The concept of management planning is not confined to national parks. The Department of Lands and Survey is also applying the concept to reserves, domains, and recreation areas of all types. Major management plans and planning reports have been completed for the Waitangi National Trust and for Mount Maunganui, while work of this type continues for the country's two maritime parks, the Far North Coastal Park at Te Paki, and major areas of public recreation such as Lake Taupo, the Wanganui River, Waitaki Lakes, Rotorua, etc.

ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES—It will already be clear that there is diversity of legislation for the protection of the physical environment and the prevention of its deterioration due to economic development. It has been estimated that more than 60 statutes, administered by more than a dozen Government departments (without counting statutory authorities) are concerned with the environment. A number of the more prominent of these bodies are discussed below.

Environmental Council—On the recommendation of the Physical Environment Conference 1970 the Environmental Council was established. It comprises persons who, because of their expertise in environmental matters and the responsibilities they carry, are able to exercise considerable influence. The council includes representatives of science, architecture, industry, and the farming sector, as well as of regional, county, and municipal authorities and appropriate Government departments.

The terms of reference of the council require it to review the objectives of preservation and development of the quality of the environment, the policies, measures, and resources necessary to their attainment, and the environmental effects of the programmes suggested by other sector councils. It will advise the Minister for the Environment to ensure consistency between developmental and environmental objectives. The Environmental Council has made studies of several major environmental projects, including the beech forest utilisation scheme. It has initiated studies of the environmental courses now being offered by tertiary educational institutions. The council meets monthly and is thus able to maintain a continuing programme of inquiry and research.

Environmental Portfolio—A ministerial portfolio for the environment and the Commission for the Environment were created in 1972. The Government is concerned that there should be no unnecessary disruption to the existing administrative structure for environmental matters, which has generally worked well. It is not the intention to transfer to the environment portfolio the environmental responsibilities of other Ministers. Rather it is the Government's view that the Minister for the Environment should exercise a co-ordinating role and be free to involve himself in any area of Government activity where he sees a need to intervene to ensure that matters of environmental importance are not overlooked. The Minister is also able to receive and investigate appeals made to him by non-Government bodies and individuals dissatisfied in some way with decisions bearing on environmental matters taken by the authorities directly responsible.

The primary function of the Commission for the Environment is to provide the necessary administrative support for the Minister. It is a small unit in the Public Service which undertakes studies on behalf of the Minister for the Environment and makes recommendations to him on policy matters. It will work closely with the Government departments with environmental responsibilities and will aim to co-ordinate their activities, avoid duplication of effort, help reconcile any conflicting policies or recommendations, and generally to seek action to protect environmental values wherever this appears to be necessary.

A major responsibility of the commission is the auditing of environmental impact reports. The Government has decided that all major Government capital works and management projects should be subject to an environmental impact report before decisions to proceed with them are taken. The procedures apply also to some other projects requiring Government funds or approvals. The recommendation of the Commissioner for the Environment on the project is submitted to Cabinet or to the appropriate approving authority along with those of the promoting department and on the basis of these recommendations the Government takes a final decision. The Government believes that the Commission for the Environment can fulfil a real need also by helping community groups interested in the environment to make known their views to the agencies concerned.

NATURE CONSERVATION COUNCIL—It is now clear that the effects on all resources, including natural and scenic, should be studied and evaluated before decisions to implement a particular development work are taken. The nearest approach to remedying this deficiency has been the setting up in 1962 of the Nature Conservation Council charged with co-ordinating information from all available sources and advising Government on nature conservation matters. Although its statutory powers are limited to investigation and advice they also include the right to publish its views and to offer co-ordinating services whenever they are desired or requested.

CONTROL OF MINERAL EXPLOITATION—Mining has in the past left small portions of the landscape so scarred that their visual impact today suggests that mining in general produces only perpetual devastation. In fact most areas where mining has ceased need show no sign that they were ever mined.

Mining will probably disturb less than 0.01 percent of the land surface, and even then it is a temporary use. Any mine must eventually be worked out, and most have a working life of less than 30 years. The important thing is to ensure that the land is left in a suitable condition for future use, as agricultural land, urban land, park, river bed, or regenerated bush. In addition, the whole impact the mining operation is likely to have on the adjacent land, drainage, and communities must be considered in order to establish what safeguards should be introduced.

To ensure that the land is maintained in a suitable condition, the Minister of Mines is empowered under the Mining Act 1971 to impose whatever conditions he thinks fit on a mining licence, and he may impose or vary these conditions at any time, even after the grant of the licence. Over public reserves and foreshore a condition may be attached in exchanging a prospecting licence for a mining licence that the licensee should provide a contribution towards a community asset.

Problems can occur where mineral exploitation takes place on freehold land. Local authorities have the necessary power to make regulations to control these activities, and they may use this power to maintain the long-term quality of the environment.

RE-AFFORESTATION MEASURES—In recent years the encouragement of afforestation on private land by loans and grants has begun to restore the balance of forests on induced grasslands. In addition the Forest Service has embarked on a large programme of revegetating eroded upland areas in important river catchments and also establishing dual-purpose forests where production of wood may be complementary to the protective nature of forests, for example in East Cape - Poverty Bay where 101,000 hectares will be planted over the next 40 years.

The New Zealand Forest Service prepares regional development plans for major timber supply regions throughout New Zealand, covering all forestry sectors. These plans set out the potential of the regions. For those forests under State control the Forest Service prepares regional management plans which describe and prescribe State forest activities in both indigenous and exotic production forests as well as protection forests in the mountains.

From the work of the national forest survey, the ecological survey now being carried out by the Forest Research Institute in the North Island, and the catchment condition and trend surveys carried out by the Protection Forestry Branch of the Forest Research Institute throughout New Zealand, the Forest Service has a good knowledge of the composition of State forests and of most major river catchments in all tenures.

BIOLOGICAL SURVEY—A significant recent development is the arrangement made for a botanist from DSIR to carry out a planned and systematic field biological survey of scenic and allied reserves throughout the country over the next 5 or 6 years. From data sheets and assessments for each reserve a register of protected species and community types can be compiled, with knowledge of their rarity and relative importance. The main requirement will be to document the kinds and quality of habitat in terms of plant cover. Good progress has been made with the preparation of a reference and index of literature relating to the natural history and geology of the country's parks and reserves. From this will be produced an annotated bibliography to accompany the data sheets resulting from the biological survey.

SCIENTIFIC STUDY—About one-fifth of the staff of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is engaged on research on physical environment matters including ecological studies of national parks, investigations into beech forest ecosystems, and identification of marine animals and plankton. The department has undertaken bathymetric studies of lakes and the ocean floor around New Zealand. Basic geological, soil, and botanic surveys provide information for the land use surveys which guide urban development.

PROTECTION OF WATER RESOURCES—New Zealand uses about 400,000,000 gallons of water a day but requires even more to cope with the increasing demands of population and industrial growth. Approximately 150,000 gallons are daily used for domestic purposes and the same amount of dirty water must be disposed of satisfactorily.

Industrial use far exceeds domestic use: about 1,400 gallons of water are required to make steel worth $1, and 200 gallons are needed to produce paper worth $1. In order to get the large quantities of water demanded by our present way of life water supplies may need to be reused. Wastes must be so treated and purified before discharge into a river that the diluted effluent conforms to the standard required by water users closer to the river mouth. Such treatment of toxic wastes may involve enormous sums which places a heavy burden on small industries or local authorities.

The deterioration of the natural quality and the disturbance of the natural pattern of flow of water could limit utilisation for some purposes. To ensure that the quality of natural waters is maintained as a source of supply for human and animal consumption and as wildlife habitats and recreational areas, it is necessary that sedimentation, pollution and eutrophication be minimised. These problems have been particularly noticeable in the Taupo area. Preservation of the quality of water is crucial to the Taupo fishery, and to recreational and scenic values of the lake surroundings. In recent years, large-scale land development and increased population in the Taupo basin have sharply accelerated the rate of eutrophication of the lake. In an effort to reduce the nutrient inflow to a minimum, large reservations of peripheral land in natural cover have been proposed and generally accepted. As a further means of countering erosion and the inflow of nutrients, studies are being undertaken to establish guidelines for farming, forestry, and other uses outside the reserve areas.

The National Water and Soil Conservation Authority is a central policy-making body and, with the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council and the Water Resources Council, comprises the National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation. The authority is responsible for formulating general policy guidelines concerning water and soil conservation and each council has certain functions delegated to it.

Representation on the authority and council includes counties and municipalities, catchment authorities, regional water boards, drainage and river boards, farming, manufacturing, and recreational interests, and appropriate Government departments.

Regional water boards and catchment authorities have been formed over much of the country. These local government bodies are responsible for putting the authority's policies into action. The allocation of water is the responsibility of the authority and the water boards. Broadly, the authority's functions involve developing and co-ordinating a national policy to ensure that the greatest local and national benefits are obtained from the use of the water.

The Water Resources Council, established in April 1972, is responsible for maintaining the quality of water at a satisfactory level. The council is classifying all rivers and coastal waters throughout New Zealand. These classifications are declarations of the minimum standards of quality at which the water is to be maintained. In order to promote the conservation and best use of the water in the public interest.

The high rainfall and run-off factors in New Zealand have created drainage problems in many areas, particularly in low-lying sections of valleys, where river gradients are flat, and coastal areas. Drainage works are often carried out in conjunction with river-control schemes, in which case they must be properly co-ordinated with the river works, and may include floodgates and pumping stations. In the North Island, particularly, there are large areas of peat swamps that pose a special problem in development because of the danger of excessive shrinkage with overdrainage.

The topography and soils over most of the country generally favour high run-off as shown by both total annual river flows and peak flood discharges. There are, however, some areas in the North Island where flood peaks are greatly reduced by porous pumice soils, while on some river systems natural lake storage in headwaters helps to control flooding.

With the passing of the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941 and the setting up of catchment authorities with their specialist staff, great progress has been made with river-control work throughout the country. Action was naturally focused first on the major river valleys where there has been a history of severe flood damage and where the property owners have been able to meet their share of the cost. Schemes are now in hand, or planned, for controlling the lower reaches of most of the major problem rivers.

There are still many rivers in New Zealand where major control schemes cannot be justified at the present time, but where a great many smaller, individual works are being carried out. Such works primarily serve to hold the river in check and prevent serious deterioration until such time as more comprehensive planning can be justified.

Most river-control works are carried out by catchment authorities or river boards, but some smaller works are also carried out by Ministry of Works and Development, counties, and drainage boards. The Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council seeks to develop complete catchment control schemes where possible, to integrate river control work with water and soil conservation practice on the land area on individual river catchments.

The effective use and control of water depends on the availability of accurate long-term data on water movement. A regional system for collecting comprehensive data was initiated in 1959. The country is divided into 91 regions, based on similarity of slope, rock type, and precipitation. The data is collected and published by the representative catchment and the information is then used when applications for water rights are being considered.

The problem is one of restoring an erosion-resistant and water-absorbant combination of soil and vegetation, while ensuring that maximum permanent production is maintained or achieved under various systems of land use.

CONTROL OF SOIL EROSION—The changes in vegetation consequent on land development have been reflected in disturbed soil conditions in many parts of New Zealand. The protective, stabilising, and water-controlling combination of vigorous native vegetation, litter, and spongy soil has given way to a shallow-rooted, less protective carpet of grass on a compacted, impervious, and often exhausted soil. Soil erosion now occurs on more than 8 million hectares of hill country and mountain land, about one-third of the total area of New Zealand.

Successful techniques that have been developed to control erosion include spelling, control of burning and animal pests, oversowing, topdressing, strict grazing control, soil conservation fencing, stock-water ponds, gully control, contour ploughing, terraces, grassed waterways, and open and close tree planting. Cost-sharing rates are available to farmers carrying out these control practices.

Land classification is extensively used in New Zealand. Initially this technique involves making an inventory of the physical factors of slope, soil type, climate, vegetation, and erosion types and severity existing, either over a whole catchment or over an individual farm. This basic information then allows soil conservators to recommend the best treatment (conservation practices) and use of particular areas of land so as to ensure maximum permanent production from any one area.

Water and soil conservation farm plans are a vital means of helping landowners make the best use of their land and water resources. These plans involve the integration of conventional farm practices with those recommended under the land classification system.

A plan is formulated by a soil conservator and then discussed with the landowner concerned. The plan may then be adjusted to suit the landowners' ability to carry it out over several years.

A valuable aid in promoting water and soil conservation practices on farms has been the setting up of reserves and demonstration areas throughout the country. These areas are used to show local farmers in particular just how their problems can be overcome by the use of correct practices. Many of these areas also serve as research centres.

POLLUTION—Public concern for the preservation of the environment and for the recycling and conservation of resources has grown noticeably during recent years. Along with this the awareness of pollutants which affect the enjoyment of both the urban and rural areas has also increased. The problems of water pollution are being tackled by the Water Resources Council and the regional water boards; those of air pollution are being met by the provisions of the Clean Air Act 1972, while many local authorities have introduced bylaws to control noise problems in their areas. Within the territorial sea and harbours the Marine Pollution Act 1974 controls the discharge or dumping of oil or any other substance declared a pollutant.

Pollution of our rivers and lakes can be caused by soil erosion, farm run-off, industrial waste, or municipal sewage. The Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967 provides for the control of waste discharges but other forms of pollution require different approaches such as through changing land use practice. Sewage and farm run-off add nutrients to the water which, in some lakes, slow rivers or sheltered estuaries, has caused the excessive growth of microscopic and larger plants to the detriment of the water quality.

Waste disposal from cities, forestry, and the meat industry are the major contributors to pollution of the land. Urban waste disposal is largely by the sanitary land fill technique and most major cities are establishing tip sites planned to last up to 50 or 100 years several miles from the closest housing areas. Until recently large amounts of wood were left in the forest during logging or dumped near sawmills. Now much of this waste wood is chipped for use in pulp mills either within the country or overseas. Some effort is made to transform the waste from the 35 million livestock slaughtered each year into fertiliser but considerable quantities of it are still buried.

Organic chemical pesticides and herbicides are widely accepted as essential for efficient agriculture. Some 80 different herbicides and fungicides and 40 insecticides are in common use in New Zealand. The use of DDT on pastures has been banned and in 1973 the restrictions on the use of 2, 4, 5-T tightened in areas where there could be a danger of exposing the public to it.

Several divisions of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research are concerned with monitoring pollution. The Chemistry Division conducts surveys of mercury contamination of fish and water, arising from geothermal outflows. Nitrate concentration in ground waters, and insecticides in water are measured, and checks are kept on heavy metals in foods. The Oceanographic Institute traced the biological effects of heated water discharges from thermal power stations. The Physics and Engineering laboratory participates in the Earth's Resources Technology Satellite programme. The department also assists such organisations as the Dairy Research Institute, the Meat Industry Research Institute, the Wool Research Organisation, and the Leather and Shoe Research Association, which are industrial research groups all supporting projects to reduce pollution and increase the use of by-products from their industrial processes which have in the past been wasted.

New Zealand's geographical shape and location is favourable to the dispersal of air pollutants, Some areas, such as Christchurch, do suffer from air pollution problems. The Clean Air Act 1972, the first part of which came into effect on 1 April 1973, establishes the principle of air pollution control on industry by the best practicable means. Provision is also made for the establishment of smokeless zones.

The Clean Air Council was established under the Clean Air Act 1972 to advise the Minister of Health on all aspects of air pollution. It advises local authorities on their work under the Act and co-ordinates the work of control authorities and voluntary organisations. It can publish reports from time to time, and is undertaking research work through four committees studying respectively clean air zones and domestic heating, motor vehicles and air pollution, rural pollution, and planning co-ordination.

13 B—CROWN LAND

GENERAL—There are 6 million hectares of Crown land which are held under lease or licence by individuals for farming or other purposes. Crown land permanently set aside for national parks, reserves, and domains comprises 2.6 million hectares. The Department of Lands and Survey is also developing 0.67 million hectares of land for subdivision and settlement as individual farms. Unoccupied Crown land can be broadly defined as land vested in the Crown which is not for the time being set aside for any public purpose, held by any person in fee simple or on lease or licence, or under development by the Department of Lands and Survey.

RESERVES AND NATIONAL PARKS: History—Land has been set aside for public purposes from the early years of colonial administration in New Zealand. The New Zealand Act 1840 (Imperial) authorised the disposal of land "to any persons, bodies, public or corporate, for the public uses of our subjects there resident or any of them". Royal Instructions in 1840 to Governor Hobson elaborated on this and provided that such lands were not to be granted, conveyed or demised, or occupied by any private person or for any private purpose. A subsequent Royal Instruction dated 1846 and the New Zealand Company's Colonisation Act 1847 (Imperial) authorised the vesting of reserves in trust for public purposes or uses.

Scenic and historic reserves are controlled by scenic and historic boards, by local authorities, or by the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district. A large number of honorary rangers help in the supervision of these reserves. The legislation governing these and all other reserves is the Reserves and Domains Act 1953. Once land has been reserved for a specific purpose, either by notice in the New Zealand Gazette or by deposit of a subdivisional plan, the purpose of the reservation can be changed or the reservation revoked only by the Minister of Lands.

Subdivision of land into residential sections is controlled by the local authority under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954 or the Counties Amendment Act 1961. Land is normally set aside as reserves, but the local authority may take a cash payment for reserve development. Local authorities are charged with ensuring that adequate provision is made on subdivision for reserves and with subsequent administration of reserves. The Crown is not bound by this legislation, but in practice refers its subdivisions to local bodies for approval and makes generous provision for reserves.

It was in 1887 that the three mountain peaks of Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro were given to the nation by Te Heuheu Tukino and associated chiefs as "a national park for the benefit of everybody". The gift area formed the nucleus of New Zealand's first national park—Tongariro—in 1894. The second national park—Egmont—was constituted by special legislation in 1900.

The first general legislation on national parks was enacted in 1928—this provided a uniform means of setting up and administering new parks. Under this legislation two new parks were established—Arthur's Pass in 1929 and Abel Tasman in 1942. Interest in national parks increased after the Second World War and a review of the administration led to the passing of the National Parks Act 1952. This made the Minister of Lands responsible to Parliament for national parks and laid the foundations for an integrated system of parks. Fiordland (part of which was first reserved in 1905) became a national park and five new parks were constituted—Mount Cook (1953), Urewera (1954), Nelson Lakes (1956), Westland (1960), and Mount Aspiring (1964).

The National Parks Act established the National Parks Authority consisting of the Director-General of Lands (chairman), the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Secretary for Internal Affairs, the Director-General of Forests, the General Manager of Department of Tourist and Publicity, three persons appointed by the Minister of Lands on the recommendation of the Royal Forest and Bird Protection Society, the Federated Mountain Clubs of New Zealand and the Royal Society of New Zealand respectively, and two persons appointed by the Minister of Lands to represent the national park boards. The National Parks Authority is serviced by the Department of Lands and Survey.

Each national park is under the control of a National Park Board of which the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the district is chairman. Each board comprises not more than eight persons appointed by the Minister of Lands but in the case of Egmont and Tongariro special provisions exist regarding the appointment of members to the boards. Salaried rangers in each park are responsible for development, protection, and interpretation, and their work is supplemented by the voluntary help of about 250 honorary rangers appointed from those whose interests bring them into the parks frequently or who live nearby. A voluntary body, "Friends of the Urewera National Park", has been formed to support the work of the Urewera National Park Board.

DESCRIPTION—Ten national parks have been constituted in New Zealand covering 2,143,054 hectares or one-thirteenth of the country's land area. They are set aside as the law says "for the purpose of preserving in perpetuity as national parks, for the benefit and enjoyment of the public, areas of New Zealand that contain scenery of such distinctive quality or natural features so beautiful or unique that their preservation is in the national interest". The National Parks Act requires that parks be administered and maintained so that they are preserved as far as possible in their natural state; that their value as soil, water, and forest conservation areas is maintained; that, as far as possible, native flora and fauna is preserved and introduced flora and fauna exterminated; and that, subject to restrictions necessary to preserve native flora and fauna or for the general welfare of the parks, the public has freedom of entry and access. There are four "special areas": one aside to protect the habitat of the takahe (notornis)—150,000 hectares of the 1,220,000 hectare Fiordland National Park; the Solander Islands, and Secretary Island also in Fiordland National Park; and an area set aside in the Mount Aspiring National Park to protect a large nephrite boulder and its surrounds. The only restricted areas are the "special areas".

Any form of development not provided for in the National Parks Act must be sanctioned by Act of Parliament. Permitted development includes the erection of houses for park rangers and huts for Government employees engaged in noxious animal destruction, the erection of huts by mountaineering, tramping, or other similar clubs, and the erection of ski tows and similar facilities. Appropriate commercial undertakings may operate in the parks under licence while boards controlling the parks may, with the consent of the Authority, establish camping grounds, huts, hostels, accommodation houses, or other buildings, and may help private enterprise in their establishment. "Wilderness areas" where development is restricted to access by foot-track are provided for in the Act and a number have been set aside. Virtually all the finance for parks is provided by the Government, but donations by private individuals or organisations are encouraged and earn $2 subsidy for $1 from the Government.

Three of the 10 national parks are in the North Island and seven in the South Island.

Urewera National Park (200,117 hectares), surrounds Lake Waikaremoana and contains the largest remaining forest area in the North Island. Kiwi, kaka, and most other native birds are found and the area is rich in Maori history.

Tongariro National Park (70,098 hectares), includes the three volcanoes—Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, and Tongariro—and is the ski-ing playground of the North Island.

Egmont National Park (33,527 hectares), contains one of the world's most symmetrical mountains and preserves forests within a 9-km radius. It varies from heavily-forested lower slopes to the bare scoria, rock, snow, and ice of the upper levels.

Abel Tasman National Park (19,171 hectares), contains coastal and elevated bush-clad country along the shores of Tasman Bay and includes off-shore islands and reefs. It has a broken coastline with many bays, coves, and beaches of golden sand.

Nelson Lakes National Park (57,256 hectares), is centred on the twin lakes of Rotoiti and Rotoroa and is surrounded by mountainous country with extensive beech forests on the lower slopes.

Arthur's Pass National Park (98,398 hectares), preserves an alpine and forested area straddling the Southern Alps.

Mount Cook and Westland National Parks (69,958 and 88,608 hectares), share a common boundary along the main divide of the Southern Alps. Westland includes forest and lake country and a small strip of sea coast as well as the Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers. Mount Cook contains most of New Zealand's highest mountains, including the highest—Mount Cook (3,764 m)—and includes the 29-km-long Tasman Glacier.

Mount Aspiring National Park (277,573 hectares), embraces the alpine region in north-west Otago and south Westland extending from the Haast Pass to the Routeburn area at the head of Lake Wakatipu and including Mount Aspiring (3,035 m).

Fiordland National Park (1,228,348 hectares), one of the world's largest national parks contains majestic scenery with fiords, mountains, forests, and lakes. It includes Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau while the road through the Homer Tunnel gives access to Milford Sound. The park is the only known habitat of the takahe (notornis) and the kakapo.

Scenic Reserves—Scenic reserves, of which there are 950 with a total area of 265,563 hectares, preserve native forest, and allow access by the public to other scenic features such as the sea coast, lakes, rivers, waterfalls, limestone caves, thermal areas, and scenic vantage points. Forest areas range from large tracts of remote forested land with considerable conservation value to small remnant areas in developed districts. Large scenic reserves have been set aside along main highways, but in general, barren mountainous regions not included in national parks remain Crown land.

There are 17 reserves in excess of 2,000 hectares as follows: Lewis Pass, Wanganui River, Buller Gorge, Rakeahua (Stewart Island), Lake Kaniere, Gouland Downs, South Cape (Stewart Island), Glenhope, Lake Brunner, Tennyson Inlet, Rahu (Reefton), Mangamuka Gorge, Tangarakau, Te Tapui (Cambridge), Pihanga, Waioeka Gorge, and John Coull Memorial Reserve (Wanganui River).

Among the best known reserves not in the preceding list are Trounson Kauri Park in North Auckland, Huka Falls, near Taupo, Hongi's Track, and various thermal areas near Rotorua, Waitomo Caves, Ball's Clearing in Hawke's Bay, Pelorus Bridge and Hundalee in Marlborough, the Summit Road Scenic Reserves and Peel Forest in Canterbury, Punakaiki and Lake Ianthe in Westland, and Forest Hill and Curio Bay in Southland.

In an endeavour to recreate the natural New Zealand scenery in an area where exotic trees, noxious weeds, and engineering development have intruded, the Department of Lands and Survey has established a plant nursery at Taupo where native trees and shrubs are being propagated for beautification of reserves in the Taupo basin.

There is provision in the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 for land to be declared private scenic reserves—this land remains in private ownership, but receives the protection of the Act. There are 2,124 hectares in 25 private scenic reserves and these include White Island, where grey faced and other petrels nest in large numbers, as well as about 3,000 pairs of gannets annually. The Pukeiti Rhododendron Trust area is a private scenic reserve near New Plymouth in native bush being planted with native trees as well as rhododendrons. One private reserve near Awaka provides, in an area of 550 hectares, shelter for native birds. Other large private scenic reserves are Moncrieff, near Nelson, and Makarora on the Haast Pass Road.

Historic Reserves—Seventy-three areas of historic interest totalling 1,456 hectares are set aside as historic reserves and the Department of Lands and Survey co-operates closely in the administration and investigation of historic sites with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust. Historic reserves mark the landfall and landing places of early voyagers such as Tasman and Cook, the site of missionary Samuel Marsden's first sermon on New Zealand soil, sites of early fortifications, of engagements during the Maori wars, and buildings of historic value. (The Treaty House area at Waitangi, administered by the Waitangi National Trust, is not a historic reserve, in the strict sense.) Sites of Maori rock drawings and places of significance in New Zealand's early constitutional history are also preserved.

There are also 259 hectares in 9 private historic reserves.

Bird Sanctuaries and Allied Reserves—Land is reserved for bird sanctuaries, for the preservation of flora and fauna, or some similar purpose in cases where the land provides a habitat for bird or plant life of such importance that some control on public access is desirable. Such areas are reserved under the Reserves and Domains Act 1953. In all there are 54 reserves in this category with a total area of 186,971 hectares. Some of them are maintained areas, but most are off shore, outlying, and subantarctic islands. Major areas of particular public interest include Little Barrier Island in Hauraki Gulf, the only known habitat of the stitch bird, and now part of the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park: Cape Kidnappers gannet colony in Hawke's Bay; Kapiti Island off Wellington's west coast; the white heron colony in South Westland; and the Taiaroa Head albatross colony near Dunedin.

All of New Zealand's subantarctic islands, except for a small area surrounding the meteorological station on Campbell Island, are reserved for the preservation of flora and fauna and provide a habitat for marine mammals and millions of sea birds. As well as Campbell Island, the reserves include the Auckland Islands, Bounty Islands, Antipodes Islands, and Snares Islands. To the north of New Zealand, most of the land in the Kermadec Islands is similarly reserved.

A committee convened by the Department of Lands and Survey has been set up as an advisory body for the administration of the outlying island reserves.

Generally, access to reserves of this type is by permit only, a policy followed solely in the interests of preservation of the plant and bird life to ensure an absolute minimum of human interference to anything living and growing naturally there.

Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park—This park was established under the Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act in 1967. The park may include reserves of any type on or off the east coast of the North Island from Whangamata Harbour to Home Point at the northern end of Bland Bay. It includes such well-known islands as Motuihe, Rangitoto, Browns, Motutapu, Motuora, Poor Knights, Little Barrier, and part of Kawau containing the historic Mansion House. The park is controlled by a board of 10 members.

Marlborough Sounds Maritime Park—This park was established under the provisions of the Reserves and Domains Act 1953 and is administered by a 13-member board. The park provides for co-ordinated management of existing scenic, historic, recreation, and other public reserves located within the coastal region stretching from Cape Soucis in the west to Rarangi in the south-east. Appropriate island reserves are also included.

Nature Conservation Council—The Nature Conservation Council Act 1962 provides for the establishment of a Nature Conservation Council. This council of independent members, expert in the field of conservation, has been set up to co-ordinate scientific and technical information on nature conservation, to inquire into the effect of proposed public works on any aspect of nature conservation and to act as an advisory body to Government on matters affecting nature conservation which is defined in the Act as "the preservation of the native flora and fauna and the natural features and natural beauty of New Zealand".

Wildlife Refuges and Sanctuaries—The Wildlife Act 1953 provides for the constitution of wildlife sanctuaries, these being areas devoted primarily as habitat areas for wildlife where the maximum degree of protection can be afforded. Restrictions are imposed on entry into the sanctuaries and certain prohibitions dealing with killing or disturbance of wildlife are imposed. The former game sanctuaries are now termed wildlife refuges. Occupiers of any land in wildlife refuges can be authorised to carry out certain operations necessary for the normal use of land.

Public Domains—Domains, of which there are 876 covering 24,836 hectares, provide districts with land for the recreational needs of the people as a whole. Many domains are designed primarily to provide for organised sport but there are a large number which preserve for public use attractive natural areas, particularly along the coastline, and provide facilities for camping. Some outstanding examples of coastal domains are Orewa, near Auckland, Ohope Beach, near Whakatane, Queen Elizabeth Park, near Wellington, Momorangi Bay in the Marlborough Sounds, Kaiteriteri and Pohara in the Nelson district, and Waikuku Beach in Canterbury. Universally known city domains are the Auckland Domain and Hagley Park, Christchurch. Native bush is protected on domain land.

Summary of Areas Reserved—The following table records the main classes of reservations at 31 March 1973.

Type of ReservationNo.Hectares
*Includes 17 scenic and historic reserves totalling 179 hectares and 1 historic and recreation reserve of 4 hectares.
National parks102,143,054
Scenic reserves (public)950265,563
Historic reserves (public)73*1,456
Bird sanctuaries and allied reserves54186,971
Public domains87624,836

ADMINISTRATION—Crown land is administered under the authority of the Land Act 1948. The Minister of Lands is charged with the administration of the Land Act, and his executive officer is the Director-General of Lands. New Zealand is divided into 12 land districts, the executive officer for each district being a Commissioner of Crown Lands.

The central authority under the Land Act is the Land Settlement Board consisting of the Minister of Lands (chairman), the Director-General of Lands (deputy chairman), the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, the Valuer-General, the Director of Rehabilitation, a representative of the State Advances Corporation, a representative of the Returned Services Association, the Assistant Director-General of Lands, the Fields Director of the Department of Lands and Survey, and not more than two other persons appointed by the Minister.

The Land Settlement Board is required to appoint one or more land settlement committees for each land district, and 20 of these committees have been set up. Each committee consists of three members with the Commissioner of Crown Lands for the land district as chairman and two private farmer members.

The Land Settlement Board, through the Department of Lands and Survey, disposes of Crown land for farming, residential, commercial, and industrial purposes. The demand for this land, particularly farm land, and for the other categories in and near to the main centres, is considerable. Disposals are offset to a certain extent by purchases of private land or the interests of lessees or licensees of Crown or Maori land.

DISPOSAL OF CROWN LAND—Crown land is normally offered to the public at valuation and if necessary a ballot is conducted to decide the successful applicant, although in certain circumstances preferential allotment can be made. Any land may, however, be offered for disposal by tender at a minimum price or rental value or by public auction at an upset price.

Crown land may be acquired on the following tenures:

  1. Farm land, urban land, commercial, or industrial land—(a) On renewable lease; (b) for cash; (c) on deferred payments. A renewable lease is for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term and, except where otherwise provided for, with a right of acquiring the fee simple. Annual rent is reviewed at 11-yearly intervals.

  2. Pastoral land—(a) On pastoral lease for a term of 33 years with a perpetual right of renewal for the same term, but with no right of acquiring the fee simple; (b) on pastoral occupation licence for a term not exceeding 21 years, with no right of renewal or of acquiring the fee simple.

  3. Short tenancies for grazing or other purposes for a term not exceeding 5 years.

Selections—The following table shows details of selections during the year 1972–73.

TenureNumber of SelectorsTotal Area SelectedPurchase Price or Annual Charges
*Licences on royalty basis only.
  acreshectares$(000)
Freehold4636,8332,765735
Renewable leases14221,7428,79830
Pastoral leases and licences361,50024,888
Deferred-payment licences1,077191,24977,396508
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)2832,45013,1321
Licences for removal of minerals*621,105852
Licences to occupy1,1259,0663,669172
Leases of endowment and other lands626,2382,52517
Totals 1972–732,843331,183134,0251,463
Totals 1971–723,068214,63986,8641,995

Leases and Licences—The following table shows the total number of leases and licences current as at 31 March 1973.

TenureLeases and LicencesAreaAnnual RentAnnual Instalment*
*Including improvement loading.
  acreshectares$$
  (000)(000)(000)(000)
Renewable leases10,5103,2731,3241,34320
Leases in perpetuity6,2611,2545073071
Pastoral leases and licences5557,8243,1672105
Special leases (s. 67, Land Act)642220892819
Deferred-payment licences13,0001,3645523,115
Misc. leases and licences1,6471044227
Licences to occupy4,991356144319
Leases of endowment and other lands2,9523771531684
Totals 1972–7340,55814,7725,9782,6573,154
Totals 1971–7241,26614,8836,0232,7362,829

Freeholdings—The following table shows the number of leases and licences freeholded, either for cash or on deferred payments.

Method of PaymentCrown LandsEndowment and Other LandsAreaPurchase Price
 No.No.hectaresacres$(000)
Cash35817,36642,912807
Deferred payments6612106,298262,6675,764
Totals 1972–731,0192123,664315,5796,571
Totals 1971–727711186,44575,4554,048

Further details on leases and licences may be obtained from the annual report of the Department of Lands and Survey, parliamentary paper C.1.

LAND DEVELOPMENT—The Land Settlement Board was constituted in 1948 to administer land policy and land development through the Department of Lands and Survey.

Development of land for settlement includes clearing, cultivation, grassing, fencing, erection of buildings, and installation of water supplies. To consolidate pastures and to control regrowth of scrub and weeds, the land is farmed as part of the development process.

The major development districts are Southland with 141,900 hectares under development, Rotorua 85,300 hectares, North Auckland 71,300 hectares, and Te Kuiti 50,500 hectares.

An estimated 1,422 farms could eventually be made available from the 663, 115 hectares on hand for development at 31 March 1973. Settlement of units was deferred in April 1971 pending the effects emerging from Britain's entry into the EEC and the ability of Crown farm units to remain viable. With improved market conditions, and more money available generally, the situation improved during 1972 to the extent that a limited settlement programme could be considered resulting in 5 sheep and 3 dairy units being offered in December 1972. Current Government policy is to intensify and expand the development of land by the Crown to enable a greater number of units to be offered in ensuing years.

MARGINAL LAND DEVELOPMENT—The Marginal Lands Act 1950 assists farmers to restore, maintain, and increase production on marginal lands, by providing finance where it is not available through normal lending channels. It also provides help in amalgamation of uneconomic units either by financing farmers into additional land, or by purchase of land and allocation to adjoining holdings.

For the year ended 31 March 1973, the board granted 69 loans totalling $3,378,586. In all, from the inception of the marginal lands scheme, 1,733 loans have been approved, amounting to $32,684,070.

As from 10 June 1971 the rates of interest payable on advances made on or after this date have been as follows.

Purpose of LoanCurrent AccountInstalment Mortgage
First MortgageSecond or Subsequent MortgageFirst MortgageSecond or Subsequent Mortgage
 percent
Development and amalgamation (including purchase of chattels)—
    (a) Up to $30,00065–5½6½-6
    (b) Over $30,000787½-78½-8
Refinance787½-78½-8
Stock66–5½6½-6

Loans approved prior to 10 June 1971 continue to bear interest at the rate ruling at the time the application was approved. However, on conversion to instalment mortgage, unless a commitment has been made by the board prior to 10 June 1971, the rates shown above will apply. With regard to advances for stock the lower rates of interest shown above do not normally apply to purchases of stock for amalgamated properties.

13 C—MAORI LANDS

USE OF MAORI LAND—The term Maori land is a technical one, denoting ancestral land that has always been owned by Maori people. All except an insignificant portion of it is owned by defined people in defined proportions. All sales and some leases of such land still require ratification by the Maori Land Court.

In 1965 it was established by a committee of inquiry that the area of land in New Zealand still designated Maori land comprised some 1,489,473 hectares in the North Island and some 89,000 hectares in the South Island. In the subsequent 5 years to 1970 a total area of Maori land comprising 54,600 hectares was sold with the consent of the Maori Land Court.

Of the area of Maori land remaining, some 109,000 hectares is controlled by the Board of Maori Affairs, mainly for farm development though some land is farmed by arrangement with the owners; some 200,000 hectares is farmed by Maori farmers themselves; approximately 400,000 hectares is leased to non-Maoris; 300,000 hectares is controlled by Maoris working through Maori incorporations operating on a shareholding basis with a management committee. The balance of the land comprising something more than 400,000 hectares is not in actual use; possibly half of this is suitable for farm development while a quarter would be useful for forestry, but the remainder would have no economic potential.

Many Maori people own their own homes in urban areas and others own farm land purchased from non-Maoris that is designated, for record purposes, as "European" land.

MAORI LAND DEVELOPMENT—Although Maori land owners have access to the usual lending institutions, it is not easy to borrow money for land development unless mortgage security can be given, and multiplicity of ownership often prevents this. Under the Maori Affairs Act 1953, the Board of Maori Affairs, through Maori and Island Affairs Department, may lend money for the development and settlement of Maori land. This procedure does not affect the legal ownership, but the rights of the owners are suspended and the board has the right to exclusive occupation of the land.

Policy is directed towards the settlement of Maori farmers on farms which will provide an adequate standard of living. Eight farmers were settled in the year ended 30 June 1972 and all told 2,391 Maori farmers have been settled with assistance from the Board of Maori Affairs.

At 30 June 1972 there were 105,200 hectares under development, of which 64,850 hectares were in grass. In addition, the Department of Lands and Survey was developing 36,000 hectares as agent of the Board of Maori Affairs. The total annual grassing programme is approximately 1,600 hectares.

There is a trend towards incorporation control of developed land; instead of the land being subdivided and settled, management is placed in the hands of an owners' committee and the land is farmed as one large station. The owners then receive an annual dividend payment according to the profitability of the undertaking.

Schemes for afforestation of Maori Land unsuitable for development are also being implemented.

BOARD OF MAORI AFFAIRS—The Board of Maori Affairs constituted under the Maori Affairs Act 1953 consists of the Minister of Maori Affairs, the Secretary for Maori and Island Affairs, the Director-General of Lands, the Valuer-General, the Director-General of Agriculture, the member of the Executive Council representing the Maori race or, if there is no such member, any member of the Executive Council appointed by the Governor-General to be a member of the Board, and four other Maori members appointed by the Governor-General, one of these being nominated by the New Zealand Maori Council.

The functions of the Board include, among other things, the following:

  1. The control of the development and settlement of Maori land or land owned or occupied by Maoris.

  2. The approval of investment and advances, and of certain expenditure from the Maori Trustee's funds.

  3. The control of negotiations for the acquisition of Maori lands by the Crown.

  4. The control of expenditure on housing operations under the Maori Housing Act 1935.

There are legislative proposals for the abolition of the Board of Maori Affairs and for its powers to be assumed by the Minister of Maori Affairs with assistance from Maori land advisory committees.

MAORI TRUSTEE—The Maori Trust Office was originally created to take over from the Public Trust Office the administration of certain Maori reserves and the administration of the estates of deceased Maoris and those under disability. The Maori Trust Office now forms part of the Department of Maori and Island Affairs and is headed by the Maori Trustee, comparable in status and functions with the Public Trustee. The control of most Maori Trustee activities has been decentralised by the delegation of wide powers to the District Officers of the Department of Maori and Island Affairs, who deal primarily with all Maori Trustee matters in their districts.

In addition to the administration of Maori reserves, situated mainly in Taranaki, and in Nelson, Greymouth, and other South Island localities, the Maori Trustee has the responsibility for the administration of large areas of Maori land elsewhere. Most of these lands are, like the Maori reserves, vested in the Maori Trustee, who is responsible for leasing them and distributing the proceeds to the owners.

The Maori Trustee has extensive lending powers used principally for the settlement and improvement of Maori land, for the establishment of Maoris in business, and for housing purposes. Most advances are made on the security of Maori land.

The following table is a summary of the assets and liabilities of the Maori Trustee as at 31 March in the latest three years.

ItemAs at 31 March
197119721973
Assets—$(000)
    Cash567265452
    Investments—
        Government securities6,6286,6786,579
        Local authority debentures576643654
        Mortgages, charges, and advances on overdraft3,8174,8164,505
    Land, buildings, and miscellaneous415402398
Totals12,00312,80412,588
Liabilities—
    Amounts held for beneficiaries and sundry depositors8,1317,8137,971
    Reserves and Appropriation Account3,8584,6664,261
    Sundry creditors, etc.14325356
Totals12,00312,80412,588

13 D—SURVEYS

GENERAL—The Lands and Survey Department is facing an increasing demand for engineering survey information on which to plan major construction works, and for topographical and cadastral information on which to plan the future development of the country. Mapping efforts are being concentrated on completing the topographical map coverage of the unmapped areas of the country as quickly as possible. Much work is being carried out on control surveys, especially in the investigation of electric power projects, and this is designed to fit into a system of national coverage of precise levelling.

Precise levelling is being extended continuously for the purpose of correlating the level data of irrigation and drainage and other engineering works.

Surveys of private lands for the purpose of the Land Transfer Act 1952 are carried out by registered private surveyors and are examined and approved by the Lands and Survey Department.

AERIAL SURVEY AND TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPPING—Extensive use is made of aerial photographs for other than purely mapping purposes. All types of land and engineering development investigations into geological resources, afforestation, and town and rural planning are now based on data extracted from the aerial photographs. The department is responsible for the maintenance of a complete library of aerial photographs, which are made available for all national purposes.

There is an increasing demand for topographical maps of all scales for land development, forestry, engineering, geological and soil survey, and other governmental purposes. New cartographic techniques have revolutionised the production of better and more varied scales and types of maps.

Mapping is also undertaken of islands and territory within the Ross Dependency, Antarctica. Information for these maps is based on aerial photography supplied by the United States, field work from New Zealand field parties, and maps prepared by other countries.

MAPS—Map sales agencies are maintained at each of the district offices except Wellington and at the Head Office of the Department of Lands and Survey. In addition 446 private selling agents have been appointed throughout the country and overseas. All maps for sale are listed in the Catalogue of Maps published by the department.

Chapter 16. Section 14; FARMING

14 A—GENERAL

SOILS AND SOIL MANAGEMENT—Soil is the product of its environment, which includes the kind of rocks that outcrop on the surface, the parent material of the soil, the climate in which the rock is transformed into soil, the relief or slope of the surface, the vegetation and the time during which the soil has been forming. In New Zealand large areas of soil are formed on uniform parent materials. The mantle of loess that covers large areas of downland, hill, and terrace of both islands, and the alluvium of large areas of plain and valley floor, are derived from the greywackes of the axial mountain chain that stretches from Otago almost to East Cape. Soils formed on such parent materials tend to have many properties in common. In Otago large areas of loess and alluvium are derived from the schist mountains, and in the central North Island there are extensive deposits of volcanic ash that include acid rhyolite ash poorly supplied with plant nutrients, and yielding soils of low productive value, as well as basic ash on which some of the most productive soils in the country are formed.

The conditions that control soil formation tend also to govern the kind of land use. Thus a close relationship between soils and land use arises in two ways—from characteristics inherent in the soils themselves and from environmental factors such as the climate and topography. Maps showing the pattern of soils and of land use are published in A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand (1959) and in An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand (1966).

The great majority of New Zealand soils are not naturally fertile. They are usually leached, acid, low in humus, and without deep reserves of fertility. Since the soils are characteristically immature, with great local variability, pockets of rich alluvium, fertile volcanic loams, lime-rich rendzinas, and deep black-earths are unfortunately small and widely scattered. The complicated rock, relief, climate, and vegetation patterns are responsible for a mosaic of soils, that does not fit readily into the broad soil zones of the world.

Zonal (Mature) Soils—Only a quarter of New Zealand's soils can be considered mature, i.e., where climate, and more especially vegetation conditions, have a greater influence on their development than the parent rock.

Nearly 4 million hectares of hu hill country and lowland have friable yellow-brown earths and podzols. In the north, these resemble subtropical red and yellow podzols, and further south they are something like the subalpine brown soils found in temperate lands overseas. The yellow-brown earths of the cool and mild districts like Southland and Wellington were formed under forest and have nutty subsoils. When sown to pasture with lime and superphosphate (in places molybdenised), they are used for dairying and fat lambs on the rolling land, and for wool production, store stock, and some fat lambs on the more hilly slopes. Cattle are also run to help control pasture growth and prevent its reversion to scrub and fern.

The yellow-grey earths are the seasonally dry soils of southern Otago, Canterbury, Wairarapa, Hawke's Bay, and Manawatu, where rainfall is inadequate for plant growth for a third to half of the year. They are moderately to weakly acid, and the older soils have a thick hard silt-pan in the subsoil. Fat-lamb farming is the principal use with mixed arable farming on the drier soils and some dairying on the moister soils. Stony soils related to the yellow-grey earths cover much of the Canterbury Plains; they are used for sheep farming, including fat lambs; with irrigation, they carry four ewes per acre and grow cereal and pasture seed crops.

Azonal (Recent) Soils—The azonal soils are youthful owing to recent renewal by sedimentation, volcanic eruptions, or erosion.

Steepland soils occupy about half the area of New Zealand, being most extensive on the axial ranges, and in north-west Nelson and east Taranaki. They are for the most part shallow and their subsoils vary widely in fertility according to the underlying rock. They are relatively unstable and are periodically renewed by erosion. When the plant cover is disturbed by man the erosion is accelerated and the results affect not only the hillsides but also the rivers and river flats. The podzolised steepland soils are largely in forest, and occur mainly in western Nelson, Westland, and western Southland, at altitudes from 1500 m in the north to 1,000 m in the south. Above these levels there are poor wet soils largely in subalpine scrub and tussock, and grading up to the alpine barrens at elevations where vegetation is sparse or absent and much bare rock and ice are present.

The yellow-brown pumice soils of central North Island are formed mostly of two volcanic ash showers that fell 800 and 1,700 years ago. Their topsoils are mostly sand or sandy loams, and the subsoil pumice sands and gravels. Because the cattle and sheep became "bush sick" these areas were difficult to farm for many years and large areas were planted in exotic forests. However, the ailment is now overcome by topdressing with cobaltised superphosphate and, except where droughty, the soils can be converted into good farm land. In addition to phosphate they need consolidation and, after continued use, potash topdressing. The yellow-brown loams are derived mostly from fine-textured ashes erupted by volcanoes in central North Island and by Mount Egmont and occur around the margin of the younger pumice soils. They are very friable loamy soils, respond well to superphosphate topdressing, and give slight to good responses to limes; potash responses are expected to increase with continued use. The soils are used mainly for dairying and fat-lamb production.

Approach to Soil Management—The rapid increase in knowledge of the soils of New Zealand has brought about a change in approach to soil management. Soils have been mapped and their properties and uses determined. This has stimulated the rapid conversion of large areas of "problem" land into good farms and has raised land use to a new pitch of efficiency, which reflects the modern changes to farming as an up-to-date science.

Farmers have exploited the use of certified strains of grasses and clovers, phosphatic fertilisers, lime, and trace elements. The use of aircraft for topdressing and oversowing of grass is resulting in considerable improvements to hill pasture, with a consequent increase in carrying capacity and production.

NATURE OF FARMING—Most of the dairy farms are in lowland areas of the North Island, where naturally fertile or improved soils make for good grass growth. Approximately 90 percent of the total dairy stock in the country are grazed on the flat and undulating land of Northland, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Taranaki, and Wellington. Pastures of high feeding value form the basis of the industry and carrying capacity may be as high as one cow per acre, and annual production as high as 400–450 kg of milkfat per hectare. The main winter supplementary feed is hay and silage made from the surplus spring and early summer growth of the pastures. In most of the dairying areas fat-lamb raising is also undertaken, particularly in the Waikato and the Bay of Plenty.

On the less steep country, particularly in the North Island where there is surface-sown grassland, both store sheep and cattle are raised.

Sheep fattening farms are generally located on land which is of high fertility, either naturally or produced by topdressing. Country of this type in usually flat to undulating in topography, and tends to be concentrated on the coastal plains and river valleys of both islands, e.g., the Waikato basin, the Poverty Bay flats, the Hawke's Bay, Manawatu, Canterbury, and Southland plains. In the North Island it is normal to rely on pasture as a sole diet, while in the drier areas of the South Island it is necessary to grow special crops, such as rape, for fattening lambs, and in colder areas to grow crops for supplementing the ewe flock feeding over the winter.

Fattening farms vary considerably in area and in the size of flock carried. A flock of 1,000–1,200 ewes is commonly regarded as a 1-man unit. The average range in carrying capacity is from three to six ewes wintered to the acre. Lambing percentages are variable but average from 100 to 120 lambs per 100 ewes mated. The aim of the farmer is to sell a high proportion of these lambs, fat off their mothers, at carcass weights around 12–16 kg for the United Kingdom market. In the North Island, cattle are normally purchased in the spring to control excess pasture growth and are fattened, if possible, by the autumn. On some properties, store wether lambs from the hill-breeding flocks may also be brought in for fattening. The amount of meat produced on fattening farms averages about 130–155 kg per hectare.

Hill country sheep farming covers extensive areas in both islands. The stock carried consists of a mixed-age flock of breeding ewes, ewe hoggets for replacements, and rams. Where part of the property is of poor quality wethers may also be carried. Products sold are wool (which usually represents 50 percent or more of the total farm income), some fat wether lambs, store lambs for fattening and, of most importance, breeding ewes which are purchased by fat-lamb farmers.

A large proportion of the beef cattle are also run on hill-country properties.

On the plains and downlands of Canterbury and in parts of Marlborough, Otago, and Southland, where the climate and soils are suitable, arable mixed farming is a feature. Approximately 92 percent of New Zealand's wheat, oats, and barley areas are in these districts. On the majority of the cereal-producing farms sheep and lambs are also fattened.

OCCUPIED LAND: Tenure—The tenure of occupied land at 30 June 1972 by size of holding is given in the following table.

Size of HoldingNo. of HoldingsFreeholdCrown Land, Leases and LicencesLand Leased fromOtherTotal Land Occupied
Private IndividualsTrustees, Companies, etc.
(ha.) (ha 000)(ha 000)(ha 000)(ha 000)(ha 000)(ha 000)
Under 5  2,73089
5-        92,7281711120
10-      141,8601812123
15-      191,4322112125
20-      293,1456356378
30-      393,4071008741120
40-      494,460162121261198
50-      593,502158161261193
60-      795,8803273624162406
80-      994,7033403426162418
100-    1497,2347059850343890
150-    1995,15667714039355896
200-    2996,1671,1092655859651,497
300-    3992,995744198424351,033
400-    5992,8921,0062585769111,401
600-    7991,32061420332517908
800-    99978246617025258693
1,000–1,199442322116182354484
1,200–1,9998777984293265221,347
2,000–3,9995446497172863351,491
4,000 and over5339145,7613692986,901
Total62,7899,2228,47051061621219,030

Farm Type—Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1972 by farm type is shown in the following table.

Farm TypeNo. of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneLand Prepared for Crops Fruit, or NurseryPlantation of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingOther Land on HoldingTotal Area of Holdings

*Seventy-five percent or more of gross income is derived from stated activity.

†From 51 to 74 percent of gross income is derived from first-named activity and between 20 and 40 percent from second activity.

||Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions.

§Two or more activities of roughly equal proportions, one of which is cropping.

‡More than 50 percent of gross income is derived from stated activity.

¶Because of rounding off, the total of individual items does not always add to total for group.

  (ha 000)(ha 000)(ha 000)(ha 000)(ha 000)(ha 000)
Dairy*16,7471,032.811.04.139.3124.01,211.2
Sheep*11,7701,937.090.211.02,200.2534.24,772.7
Beef*5,119448.24.03.9330.1300.41,086.6
Pig*3938.21.01.11.912.2
Cropping*1,10928.732.10.21.73.165.7
Dairy, with sheep50759.21.30.26.910.979.5
Dairy, with beef1,538140.41.20.99.134.0185.6
Dairy, with other50428.11.70.61.84.937.1
Sheep, with dairy17821.10.70.11.63.226.7
Sheep, with cropping1,451211.747.91.434.410.2305.5
Sheep, with other28039.12.80.122.916.281.1
Beef, with dairy22420.30.20.21.06.928.5
Beef, with sheep1,864484.94.92.9197.5171.2861.5
Beef, with other18010.81.40.12.01.415.8
Cropping, with sheep74166.437.10.45.13.5112.5
Cropping, with other1526.05.00.51.212.8
Stud farming45634.62.20.22.32.642.0
Mixed livestock||6,0571,560.817.57.7600.9478.32,665.2
General mixed farming§2,161268.571.22.045.228.6415.5
Market gardening1,27511.311.74.82.930.7
Orchard1,8816.913.00.56.63.530.6
Tobacco2976.22.00.41.95.816.4
Plantation3804.90.2476.29.5704.11,194.8
Other farming1,08232.23.422.78.11,460.61,527.0
Total62,7898,470.9405.8546.95,058.14,548.519,030.4

Land usage and occupation at 30 June 1972 by statistical area is given in the following table.

Statistical AreaNo. of HoldingsGrassland and LucerneCrops, Fruit, or NurseryPlantations of Exotic TreesTussock or Danthonia Used for GrazingTotal Area of Holdings*
Established Before 30/6/71Established During Year Ended 30/6/72Area Prior to 31/3/71Planted in 1972 Season
*Including "other".
  ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)
Northland5,283590.78.32.518.52.463.4992.1
Central Auckland4,622285.02.66.315.51.315.5408.0
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty14,4321,617.724.420.8290.310.377.62,837.6
East Coast1,431532.35.38.09.21.841.1696.7
Hawke's Bay3,941866.115.816.420.72.363.41,201.4
Taranaki4,435401.33.82.62.60.317.0541.3
Wellington7,2061,332.221.229.724.11.3188.91,956.8
    North Island41,3505,625.381.686.4380.719.6466.98,634.1
Marlborough1,192153.925.58.15.40.9481.1932.2
Nelson2,098125.64.77.748.02.789.7924.8
Westland62062.82.30.76.70.937.3844.8
Canterbury8,207874.7124.3195.639.51.61,597.33,163.2
Otago4,548691.739.758.426.91.51,984.53,159.3
Southland4,774631.427.249.011.41.0401.51,371.7
    South Island21,4392,540.1223.7319.4138.08.64,591.310,396.3
    New Zealand62,7898,165.5305.4405.8518.728.25,058.319,030.4

FARM EMPLOYMENT SURVEY—A survey of farm employment was made by the Department of Statistics for the last week in June 1970. The survey covered 55,395 holdings; it excluded 4,101 holdings where there were no working owners, etc., nor any employees. The total of 59,496 holdings represented a coverage of 91 percent of all farm holdings. There were 7,670 females in the total of 65,607 working owners, etc., and 4,860 females in the total of 33,639 employees. Also family assistance was listed as 6,108 unpaid males and 10,120 unpaid females.

Farm TypeHoldingsWorking OwnersWorking LeaseholdersSharemilkersEmployees
Owning HerdNot Owning HerdPermanentCasual

*First named predominant.

†Either predominant.

Principally dairy16,96216,9078453,6221,7555,677443
Principally sheep11,65911,737546655,3011,783
Principally beef2,2322,2561355440492
Dairy and sheep*9421,06259767052774
Dairy and beef*8511,01643854834528
Sheep and dairy*40145218231818747
Sheep and beef*8,4588,130404766,9491,165
Beef and dairy*2282382210105811
Beef and sheep*1,2311,24054802169
Mixed livestock1,9142,084866361984222
Sheep and cropping2,7102,8051321,221448
Principally cropping1,2601,2241271451196
General mixed farming1,8552,045916161,056312
Market farms and gardens1,3501,75093593277
Other3,3423,972126562,4241,393
Totals55,39556,9182,7813,9082,00026,9796,660

In June 1972 there were 67,191 working owners, leaseholders and sharemilkers; 33,501 permanent paid employees, 10,371 casual paid employees. Unpaid family members were recorded as 11,845 working permanently and 6,504 working casually on the farm.

CAPITAL EXPENDITURE ON FARMS—An annual survey of capital formation in the farming industry is made by the Department of Statistics. For the year ended 31 March 1972 capital expenditure was recorded for only two-thirds (41,811) out of the 62,789 farms and plantations surveyed.

Capital expenditure on farms during the year ended 31 March 1972, according to farm types and also by statistical areas, is set out in the following table.

Farm Type and Statistical AreaNumber of HoldingsCapital Expenditure
Building ConstructionMotor Vehicles and TrailersTractors and Farm MachineryImprovements and DevelopmentTotal Expenditure
 $(m)
Principally dairy13,65511.511.611.28.342.4
Principally sheep13,6827.89.29.613.638.4
Principally beef4,1823.22.92.03.611.6
Principally cropping1,1020.90.61.50.63.5
Principally pig2260.30.20.10.10.7
Principally stud2520.40.20.20.31.0
Mixed livestock4,4093.73.45.15.817.9
General mixed1,6520.91.12.41.15.5
Poultry2600.80.20.20.11.2
Market gardens6560.80.81.00.53.3
Orchard1,0041.30.70.90.53.3
Tobacco1840.20.10.20.10.5
Nursery680.10.10.10.10.4
Plantation1200.60.60.23.24.6
Others3590.40.30.40.51.5
Totals41,81132.832.232.838.2135.9
Northland3,6172.83.02.63.912.3
Central Auckland2,8402.92.22.01.89.0
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty9,8559.18.77.09.734.5
East Coast8830.80.50.61.63.5
Hawke's Bay2,7042.42.24.23.212.0
Taranaki3,0522.22.32.11.68.2
Wellington4,6092.73.72.83.813.0
Totals, North Island27,56023.122.621.225.692.4
Marlborough8050.60.50.60.82.5
Nelson1,2751.10.70.91.34.0
Westland3920.30.30.40.61.7
Canterbury5,4903.93.35.43.916.6
Otago2,9841.92.32.22.79.1
Southland3,3051.82.52.13.29.6
Totals, South Island14,2519.79.511.712.643.5
Totals, New Zealand41,81132.832.232.838.1135.9

GROSS FARMING INCOME AND VOLUME OF FARM PRODUCTION—Gross farming income is the value of the gross output of farming at the "farm gate" before any deduction is made for the expenses of farm operation. A description of this statistical series was given in the 1966 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

The following table shows the value of gross farming income. The second part of this table gives the percentage contributions of each group to total gross farming income. In compiling farm income, allowance is made for changes in the numbers of livestock from year to year valued at market prices.

YearGroupTotal
Grain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigs(Gross Farming Income)

*Provisional.

†Excludes $49.5 million paid to farmers under the stock retention incentive scheme during the years ended 31 March 1972 and 1973.

 $(million)
1938–399.412.618.524.413.156.74.8139.5
1955–5632.241.6143.0111.536.8176.912.4554.4
1960–6142.350.4158.3109.155.0184.514.3613.9
1962–6343.357.1180.5107.868.8180.516.0654.0
1963–6450.062.4230.1131.374.4198.317.1763.6
1964–6548.769.6172.9166.987.1229.417.5792.1
1965–6651.176.0193.6166.995.7251.817.4852.5
1966–6758.679.9162.7140.4103.9261.417.3824.2
1967–6866.979.9131.6155.8121.6242.519.6817.9
1968–6974.186.5155.8168.5141.8237.521.4885.6
1969–7060.087.2139.4188.3176.7217.324.9893.8
1970–7176.698.2132.9164.7195.7239.527.3934.9
1971–72x93.2113.6161.4175.1195.7358.528.21,125.7
1972–73*93.7126.7347.7325.6294.8315.329.81,533.6
Percentages of Total Gross Farming Income
1938–396.79.013.317.59.440.63.5100.0
1955–565.87.525.820.16.731.92.2100.0
1960–616.98.225.817.88.930.12.3100.0
1962–636.68.727.616.510.527.62.5100.0
1963–646.68.230.117.29.726.02.2100.0
1964–656.18.821.821.111.029.02.2100.0
1965–666.08.922.719.611.229.62.0100.0
1966–677.19.719.817.012.631.72.1100.0
1967–688.19.816.119.014.929.72.4100.0
1968–698.49.817.619.016.026.82.4100.0
1969–706.79.715.621.119.824.32.8100.0
1970–718.210.514.317.620.925.62.9100.0
1971–72x8.310.114.315.617.431.82.5100.0
1972–73*6.18.322.721.219.220.61.9100.0

The following diagram shows farming income for the farming groups.

INDEXES OF VALUE AND VOLUME OF FARM PRODUCTION—Index numbers have been compiled showing the movements in value of gross fanning income and volume of farm production, both in total and for component groups. The value of gross farming income is measured at prices current in each particular year. For the compilation of index numbers of volume of farm production, computations have been made for each year showing what the aggregate annual values would have been had the 1938–39 prices been constant throughout the period. From the resultant aggregates, index numbers have been compiled which measure the movements in the volume of production (for, since prices were assumed to be constant, volume is the only variable factor in the aggregates).

In the following table index numbers of value and volume on the base: 1938–39 (=100) are given, and these give a clearer idea of the extent of year-to-year change.

YearGrain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigsAll Farm Produce
*Provisional.
INDEX NUMBERS OF VALUE
1938–39100100100100100100100100
1955–56343330769457279313258397
1960–61449400851448417326296440
1962–63462452970442521319333468
1963–645324951,238538564350354547
1964–65517552929684661405365567
1965–665446031,046684731444363611
1966–67623634879575793461360591
1967–68718633709637926428405586
1968–697956868396891,080419443634
1969–706446917507701,346384514640
1970–71822778x7156741491x423x566x670
1971–72x1,0009008697161,490633585807
1972–73*1,0051,0041,8711,3322,2455576161,099
YearGrain and Field CropsHorticulture, Poultry, and BeesWoolMutton and LambBeefDairyingPigsAll Farm Produce
*Provisional.
INDEX NUMBERS OF VOLUME
1938–39100100100100100100100100
1955–5610816914315215013187139
1960–6117917618319917214392166
1962–63195225197211208144110178
1963–64215249194219195149111184
1964–65202260196221206158101189
1965–6621927922222820916791200
1966–6723128822224623516780207
1967–6827929122525625016590213
1968–6931529422725627216880218
1969–7025031922426430615292213
1970–71301349228253317149106217
1971–72x33137522027428816297228
1972–73*31437421126933815579224

Final figures for 1971–72 show that increases occurred in the value index for all but the beef group. These increases resulted in a substantial rise of 20.4 percent in the index for all farm produce. Although there were decreases in the volume index for three groups—wool, beef, and pigs—the index for all farm produce increased by 5.1 percent.

Provisional estimates of the value index for 1972–73 show that returns from all groups except dairying increased, resulting in an estimated rise of 36.2 percent in the index for all farm produce. In the volume index for 1972–73 the only group in which the index increased was the beef group. The volume index for all farm produce is estimated to have declined by 1.8 percent. This index has increased in every year since 1938–39, except the years 1969–70 and 1972–73. In both these years the decreases can be attributed to the severe droughts that occurred.

Over the 34-year period, the average annual compound rate of increase in the volume series has been 2.4 percent. For the latest 5 years the average annual compound rate of increase has been 1.0 percent.

The following table shows, in quinquennial periods, the proportions of gross farming income derived from exports of farm produce and from local consumption. A description of the methods of estimation was given in the 1967 and earlier issues of the Yearbook.

Gross Farming Income1941–42 to 1945–461946–47 to 1950–511951–52 to 1955–561956–57 to 1960–611961–62 to 1965–661966–67 to 1970–71
Derived—percent
    From exports677170686563
    From New Zealand consumption332930323537
Totals100100100100100100

DAIRY PRODUCTION—The next table shows the estimated production and utilisation of milkfat during each of the last five seasons. (Source: New Zealand Dairy Board.)

Utilisation of Milkfat1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73

*Includes small quantities of creamery fat used in whey buttermaking.

†Including residual fat in skim milk from home separation.

‡Provisional.

 tonnes (000)
Creamery buttermaking *204.1220.2194.3190.1203.0193.1
Cheesemaking44.338.139.843.041.439.8
Whole-milk products7.88.59.810.613.613.7
Total256.2266.8243.9243.7258.0246.6
Residual fat in skim-milk products2.42.92.52.52.82.3
Total processed by dairy factories258.6269.7246.4246.3260.8248.9
Consumed as milk, cream, or ice cream20.120.120.721.121.622.1
Fed to stock7.57.98.08.99.09.0
Wastage2.93.02.82.82.92.8
Total production “at pail”289.1300.7277.9279.1294.3282.8

Production by dairy factories during the last five seasons is set out in the following table.

Product1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
*Creamery and whey combined, production of the latter running at slightly more than 1 percent.
 tonnes (000)
Butter*271.3239.8232.8248.9242.0
Cheese97.6100.2107.9104.3100.8
Skim milk powder135.6112.3124.9197.0189.2
Casein, lactic65.158.848.135.639.0
Casein, rennet3.74.27.64.77.2
Buttermilk powder24.120.919.022.522.4
Condensed and powdered whole milk17.323.425.538.435.0
Lactose8.78.89.210.09.1
Totals623.4568.4575.0661.4644.7

The butter produced in New Zealand is of a salted type and, because the cows are fed almost entirely on grass, it has a high carotene content which makes it yellower than the butter from countries where cows are fed indoors for much of the year. Most of the cheese exported is a cheddar. Milk powders include those made from whole milk or from separated milk and buttermilk, by-products of buttermaking. Lactose is made from whey, a by-product of cheesemaking. At one time skim milk, buttermilk, and whey were almost entirely fed to pigs, but in recent years more has been dried to produce powder.

The following table gives estimates, derived by the New Zealand Dairy Board, of the average milkfat production per cow "at the pail".

YearDairy Cows in MilkAverage Production per Cow

*Provisional.

†Including an allowance for cows milked on small holdings not covered by the annual farm census.

 (000)kg
1962–631,997126
1963–642,001131
1964–652,032136
1965–662,088140
1966–672,131138
1967–682,232129
1968–692,304130
1969–702,321120
1970–712,239125
1971–722,200133
1972–73*2,190122

Herd sizes have increased as suppliers with small herds have ceased production and as dairy farms have been amalgamated. The number of suppliers to dairy factories and milkfat production per supplier is shown in the following table. (Source: N.Z. Dairy Board.)

SeasonSuppliers* at 31 DecemberAverage size of HerdMilk fat per Supplier

*Does not include town milk suppliers (about 1,800).

†Average area of dairy farms estimated at 63 hectares.

   kg
1962–6333,400658,000
1963–6431,700678,600
1964–6529,700709,700
1965–6627,9007610,400
1966–6726,3008010,800
1967–6825,7008610,700
1968–6925,0009211,500
1969–7023,7009711,000
1970–7121,90010011,700
1971–7220,80010213,000
1972–7320,00010512,700

Tanker collection of milk by the dairy factories began in 1951. By 1960 55 percent of the milkfat supplied to dairy factories was received as milk (instead of cream as previously); this increased to 79 percent by 1966 and now exceeds 90 percent. In 1971–72 there were 922 tankers and trailers; they travelled 26.4 million kilometres, collecting daily from 16,501 suppliers.

The following diagram shows the progress of the dairy industry over a long period of years.

The New Zealand Dairy Board of 13 members functions under the Dairy Board Act 1961. Apart from two Government representatives, all are producer members—three are appointed by the New Zealand Co-operative Dairy Company, eight are elected by other dairy companies, with voting proportionate to the quantity of milkfat received by those companies from their suppliers in six geographically-defined wards.

The Dairy Board's work is divided broadly into two sections; one concerned with the development of the dairy industry and the other with marketing of dairy produce. (This latter activity is described in Section 21A, Marketing of Farm Products.) It is a further function of the board to promote bobby calf and pig industries.

The Dairy Board has the broad function of linking manufacturing plans and growth with export market requirements. It is responsible by statute for the purchase and sale of export dairy products and for the development, in all respects, of the dairy industry.

Dairy companies have full power to make manufacturing decisions; they decide what they make from their milk. In this situation there must be a co-ordinating mechanism between manufacturing plans and marketing requirements, and this function of the Dairy Board has been developed over the years.

Reports on market trends, expected returns, product development, and a wide range of other relevant information are collected and rationalised by the board and conveyed in a steady flow to dairy companies. Since the board is the sole purchaser of produce for export, this purchasing power helps to link manufacturing plans with commercial reality.

From the trading funds of the several products, the board has been able to give financial stimulus, both to vary the quantities of dairy products and to widen their range. Day-to-day liaison with the Dairy Research Institute and the co-operative dairy companies promotes product research and development.

MEAT PRODUCTION—The following table shows in summary form production of meat. Figures are shown at bone-in weights.

Product1965–661966–671967–681968–691969–701970–71*1971–72*
*Estimated.
 tons(000)
Beef265.3271.4314.5344.2360.9365.0385.0
Veal22.025.624.926.325.621.020.0
Mutton149.9185.5212.7196.7196.8200.0190.0
Lamb312.0326.9344.7357.1356.9355.0370.0
Pig meat—
    Porker16.114.816.215.316.843.044.0
    Baconer21.319.218.819.320.1
    Chopper2.42.02.41.71.7
Edible offal40.845.551.843.356.056.057.0
Total829.9890.8986.01,014.11,034.81,040.01,066.0

Processing of Meat for Export—The 1971–72 season saw a substantial increase in the further processing of carcass meat as indicated by the export production statistics. After falling somewhat in the previous season, production of lamb cuts rose by about 46 percent during 1971–72 to 37,328 tons. Boneless lamb production also rose but remained relatively small. The proportion of cut or boned lamb amounted to about 11 percent of export production. Processing of sheepmeat also rose during 1971–72 amounting to about 7 percent of export production largely in the form of boneless ewe. Frozen ox and heifer cuts accounted for much of the growth in beef processing. Boneless beef for manufacturing purposes makes up about three-quarters of beef exports while the remainder consists almost entirely of cuts and quarter beef.

The following table shows meat production for export according to processing stages for seasons ended September.

Source: Meat Producers Board.
Product197019711972
*Largely goat and pigmeat.
 long tons, product weight basis
Lamb, carcass297,776299,959302,443
Lamb, cuts and boneless29,67926,26039,040
Totals, lamb327,455326,219341,483
Ewe, carcass100,54398,55490,911
Hogget and ewe carcass5,2717,3042,953
Mutton cuts5738501,485
Boneless mutton2,3853,6744,248
Totals, mutton108,772110,38199,597
Chilled beef630719690
Ox and heifer carcass10,58510,0217,305
Cow and bull carcass1,079806877
Ox and heifer cuts24,28823,83427,566
Cow cuts3,6024,5823,669
Ox, heifer and cow manufacturing107,253105,362101,693
Bull, manufacturing18,60124,41833,186
Vealer874997964
Bobby veal8,5946,3666,878
Totals, beef and veal175,505177,105182,828
Other meat*8711,2761,172
Edible offal39,77238,50239,526
Inedible meat and offal21,04117,65719,369
Totals, meat production for export673,416671,139683,975

There is considerable potential for expansion in lamb and mutton processing given adequate labour and plant and, in the case of lamb, some charge in market requirements: Cutting and boning add significantly to the value of meat otherwise exported in carcass form and, in addition, there is a substantial freight saving.

The total lamb kill in 1971–72 rose by 2.7 percent to a record 27,840,000, which is 66.7 percent of lambs tailed, a slightly lower proportion than the previous season. Of the total, 25,640,000 were killed for export. Generally favourable weather conditions were reflected in a recovery in the average carcass weight which, for the export kill, rose by nearly 1 lb. per head to 30.15 lbs.

The following table gives livestock slaughter statistics at meat export works and abattoirs.

Season ended September19681969197019711972

*Excludes lambs.

†Excludes calves.

 (000)
Lambs26,31626,75027,43427,11827,842
Ewes6,8706,4857,1057,0336,736
Other sheep2,5112,3411,9652,2371,876
Totals, sheep*9,3818,8269,0709,2708,612
Calves (up to 60 lbs)1,1241,2361,199985979
Vealers (61–350 lbs)1081181098978
Heifers154175212216201
Steers598624650663719
Cows651786828766619
Bulls7794132170234
Totals, cattle1,5881,7971,9301,9031,849
Pigs801770806901878

The reduced mutton kill was caused by retention of stock to build up flocks, initially due to the sheep retention incentive scheme and later to renewed confidence as lamb and wool prices improved. The sheep retention incentive scheme involved a cash grant to farmers, financed from public and meat industry funds, based on the number of sheep held on farms on 30 June 1972. Results of the most recent census indicate that sheep numbers at this date had risen by 3.3 percent to reach 60.9 million, exceeding the previous high point in June 1968 by approximately 400,000. From 1968 to 1971 sheep numbers had been fairly static contrasting with the steady growth during the previous decade.

The main features of the 1971–72 cattle kill were a marked reduction in cow slaughter (largely cull dairy cows), a strong growth in the steer kill and a further rise in production of bull beef, continuing a trend which has been evident for several years. Higher average carcass weights were recorded in all classes.

The declining calf kill indicates that more dairy-bred young stock are being reared for beef production.

Producer Control—The principle of producer control of the export meat industry was established in 1922. A system was created in which the processing and exporting companies—public, private, and co-operative—worked under the overall direction of the Meat Producers Board. This system over the years has given the producer a choice of the people he did business with and a choice of methods of selling his stock. That choice for the producer meant that he obtained full benefit from a competitive situation. The system has also given the producer, through his representatives on the Meat Producers Board, the chance to influence through sales promotion the sale of his meat right down to the retail shops half a world distant. The board has controlled shipping to place supplies and has advertised widely, especially in Britain; it controls its own system of grading export meat; and it is general spokesman for the industry. The activities of the Meat Producers Board were the subject of a special article in the 1973 issue of the Yearbook.

The Meat Producers Board and the Wool Board are in the position of having to make not only long-term decisions but also to meet day-to-day situations as they occur. This they do with the aid of their own technical staff and through an economic service which is in close and constant contact with the sheep farming industry throughout New Zealand.

Local Consumption—Meat consumed in New Zealand represents approximately one third of total production. The figures in the next table give actual consumption during the years ended 30 September, by classes of meat (bone-in weights).

ProductLocal ConsumptionConsumption per Head of Mean Population
1967–681968–691969–701967–681968–691969–70
 tons(000)lb
Beef121.2122.9120.998.899.396.4
Veal10.49.59.18.57.77.3
Mutton81.183.985.566.167.868.2
Lamb26.425.226.321.520.421.0
Pig meat—
    Porker15.415.316.412.612.413.1
    Baconer19.819.019.616.115.315.6
    Chopper2.22.31.91.81.91.5
Edible offal12.313.314.410.010.711.5
Totals288.8291.6294.2235.5235.5234.6

WOOL PRODUCTION—New Zealand holds third place in the world as a producer of wool, and second place as an exporter. Production is mainly of cross-bred wool.

The following table shows for the last 11 seasons the total wool production (greasy basis), the movement in the average price per kilogram of wool (greasy basis), and the estimated total value of wool production (obtained by valuing the production estimate at the overall price per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction).

Season Ended 30 JuneTotal Wool Production (Greasy Basis)Average Price Per Kilogram (Greasy Basis)Estimated Value of Total Wool Production
 tonnes (000)cents$(m)
196328178.70221.4
1964279101.17283.0
196528377.40218.8
196631576.46241.0
196732264.77208.4
196833050.42166.5
196933261.86205.3
197032856.48185.3
197133453.42178.4
197232266.46214.2
1973309143.96444.5

On account of lack of information on changes in stocks of wool on farms, the above figures of production should not be taken as precise measures of actual production in each season.

There is, at present, only a small annual consumption of wool by local mills. Figures for local consumption in recent years are as follows.

Year Ended 30 JuneQuantity Used (Greasy Basis)
 tonnes (000)
19638.2
19649.2
196510.1
196610.6
196710.2
196811.3
196914.6
197017.4
197121.9
197224.8
197329.7

The New Zealand Wool Board was set up under the Wool Industry Act 1944. There are eight members—six elected representatives of sheep farmers and two Government-appointed members. The Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries is an associate member. The board's functions are: to promote the use of New Zealand wool; to promote scientific or industrial research into all aspects of the industry; to undertake joint projects with the Meat and/or Dairy Boards which may benefit the wool production industry; and to advise Government on the affairs of the industry. The board may exercise further functions in production and marketing, through regulation. Income is derived from three sources, namely, from a levy on all wool, either exported or processed in New Zealand; from interest earnings on funds held by the Wool Board; and from the Government. For the 1974–75 season the levy is 3 per cent of sale value. The Government meets one-half of the costs of wool research in New Zealand.

Approximately four-fifths of the board's income is contributed to the work of the International Wool Secretariat. This organisation is a partnership of the wool boards of four grower countries—New Zealand, Australia, South Africa, and Uruguay. Its functions are the promotion of wool in consuming markets often in conjunction with manufacturers and retailers; technical service to manufacturers; quality control of manufacturers licensed to use the Woolmark trade mark; and research and product development. The International Wool Secretariat has its headquarters in London and branches in 25 consuming countries.

In New Zealand the board's staff are engaged in local promotion of wool, technical service and quality control to the local industry, and technical promotion overseas. It has a shearing instruction service and staff engaged in packaging, wool transport, wool handling, and economics and marketing research.

The Wool Research Organisation, established in 1960 at Lincoln, Christchurch, conducts fundamental research into wool chemistry, physics, and biosynthesis. It carries out applied research in scouring, new products processing and manufacturing performance, and fibre measurement. In November 1971, a pilot manufacturing plant was completed to aid in the applied research field, especially in the processing of crossbred wool.

The New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation was established from 1 December 1972 by the Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972 to develop the marketing of wool to best advantage.

FARM PRODUCTIVITY—Production has steadily increased without an increase in the farm labour force. A general improvement in management practices and a heavy rate of investment in land improvement have been the principal factors responsible for the expansion of output. Two-thirds of the 2.6 percent annual increase in output between 1920 and 1960 was attributed to increased farm inputs and one-third to improved efficiency in the use of resources. The pattern is one of more intensive farming, for the area used for farming has not expanded since early in the present century. This has meant more intensive use of public and social capital. Since, with more intensive farming, there is a greater demand for any given operation in a defined area, recent decades have witnessed a very substantial growth of contract services for farmers in harvesting and in farm maintenance and improvement. The trend towards this division of function in farming activities was, of course, largely influenced by the production and availability of highly specialised new farm machinery which it would have been uneconomic for individual farmers to own. The marked increase in labour productivity has reflected in part this increase in contracted off-farm labour services, though these are included in the measure of total farm inputs already mentioned.

AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT CONFERENCE—An Agricultural Development Conference was held in 1963 and 1964. It was called as a result of the feeling in both producer and official circles that agricultural expansion should proceed at a more rapid rate and that a thorough examination should be made of the economic factors impeding such expansion. Targets in livestock numbers were set by the conference, which also made a number of recommendations to the Government based on the conclusions of the eight working parties.

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT CONFERENCE—At the National Development Conference in 1969 the targets established by the Agricultural Development Conference were reviewed after working parties had examined commodity developments, capital requirements, and manpower requirements of farming. Further projections were made to 1972–73 and to 1978–79. In addition to pastoral production, agriculture was extended to include grains and seeds and horticulture. For the period ending 1978–79, the total agricultural contribution to national earnings was projected to increase by 5.1 percent annually. This would require an increase in livestock numbers at a rate of 2.6 percent a year, reaching 111 million ewe equivalents in 1972–73, and 130 million ewe equivalents in 1978–79.

The targets for all sectors were again reviewed towards the end of 1971 and accepted at a further National Development Conference in March 1972. In this exercise the emphasis was shifted from the physical output, expressed in ewe equivalents, to the earning capacity of the agricultural capacity of the agricultural industry, measured in money terms. At the same time the planning period was extended to 1981–82. The earnings from agriculture in current money value were projected to increase from $942 million in the base year 1969–70 to $1,949 million in 1981–82.

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION COUNCIL—This council was set up following a recommendation of the Agricultural Development Conference in 1964.

The council has the following standing committees: Executive, Manpower, Meat, Horticulture, Grains and Seeds, and Economics which have the following subgroups—finance, taxation, and farm costs. In addition, working parties were established from time to time to report on specific subjects.

The council also established 23 District Agricultural Advisory Committees which brought together at local level all the organisations which service agriculture in that region. These committees review the progress of agriculture in their district; identify factors limiting production and propose remedial measures; ensure that farmers and their advisers are fully aware of development incentives and concessions and the availability and terms of finance; and keep the council advised of local problems and circumstances.

MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE AND FISHERIES—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries was formed in 1972 by grafting the fisheries management and research divisions of the former Marine Department on to the Department of Agriculture. The principal functions of the ministry are: to promote and to encourage the development of all phases of the agricultural, pastoral, and horticultural industries in New Zealand, including the stock, poultry, fruit, vegetable, flax (Phormium tenax), tobacco, hops, and honey production industries, with a view to maintaining and improving the quality of the products derived from those industries and increasing the production of those products; and to promote, control and encourage the marketing and sale of those products.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries provides a service of which the main object is the advancement of the interests of agriculture and fisheries. Under a Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries there are Divisions of Animal Health, Meat, Dairy, Advisory Services, Agricultural Research, Fisheries Research, Fisheries Management, Economics, and Administration. Though the service is primarily advisory, the ministry administers a number of Acts and regulations.

Animal Health—The major objective of the Animal Health Division is to improve health through control measures and inspection services. The division's veterinarians examine animals and certify them as suitable for export; they maintain surveillance and quarantine procedures which reduce the risk of introducing foreign diseases with import of animals and animal products. The division operates quarantine stations for imported livestock. Five regional animal health laboratories are operated by the division and provide diagnostic support to practitioners and veterinarians of other divisions of the ministry.

The division is concerned with the control of noxious weeds through the agency of county councils and, with the Pest Destruction Council through district pest destruction boards, in the destruction of rabbits, hares, opossums, and wallabies.

Meat—The Meat Division is responsible for the ante-mortem and post-mortem inspection of all stock and meat produced in abattoirs and meat export works—and for the standard of hygiene in these establishments as well as in all meat export and domestic meat packing plants. It supervises the standard of hygiene in game packing houses and gives veterinary certificates covering the export of game and fish. It is also responsible for the grading of meat for consumption in New Zealand.

Dairy Produce—Instruction in the manufacture of all dairy products is given by the Dairy Division. Dairy produce is inspected and graded before shipment and on arrival in United Kingdom. The division is responsible also for the registration of town-supply farm dairies and provides technical advice on market milk treatment. Laboratories at Auckland, New Plymouth, Mount Maunganui, Wellington, and Hamilton provide comprehensive examination of dairy products as a background to quality control. All dairy farms are visited regularly by farm dairy instructors. Dairy advisory officers give specialist advice at farms and dairy factories. The division licenses and registers dairy factories and approves their design, general suitability and economic justification.

Advisory Services to Farmers—The Advisory Services Division provides advisory services to farmers and horticulturalists and undertakes the various activities such as plant diagnostic, quarantine, testing, and field inspection services needed to meet the ministry's responsibilities under the Plants Act 1970.

Graduate advisory officers, servicing districts containing about 700 farmers, are backed by specialists in the fields of agricultural engineering, animal husbandry, and farm economics. Extension work operates through individual farm visits, groups techniques, and the mass media. There are four commercial demonstration farms at Kaikohe, Wairoa, Hindon, and Te Anau, and co-operative demonstration projects are undertaken on selected farms.

Outside its extension work, this division is responsible for certification and testing of herbage and cereal seeds, and the Flock House Farm of Instruction at Bulls.

Poultry farmers also receive specialist advice.

The advisory service extends to commercial producers of pip, stone, citrus, and subtropical fruits, vegetables, berry fruits, cut flowers, nursery stock, grapes and wine, bees and honey, and to a limited extent, hops and tobacco. It covers all aspects of production—soil management, disease and pest control, and crop production and handling. Advisory officers demonstrate and adapt research results in districts for all horticultural crops and beekeeping. Experimental and demonstration areas are sited at Kerikeri and Manutuke (citrus). More emphasis is being given to commercial horticultural units to assist producers to improve the profitability of their holdings.

Horticultural inspectors inspect commercial plant nurseries, market gardens, and orchards for plant pests and diseases to restrict their spread. They advise producers on dates for picking, and give instruction in grading and packing fruit for export and local markets. They also inspect fruit, vegetables, and plant material for export from New Zealand. All pip fruit delivered to the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board for local and export markets is inspected by horticultural inspectors. An orange-quality testing service is provided for the Citrus Marketing Authority and a honey-grading service for the Honey Marketing Authority. All honey for export is inspected before certificates are issued.

Information is supplied for marketing organisations in the form of seasonal forecasts of production. Periodic surveys are made of orchards, market gardens, and nurseries.

Agricultural Research—All research stations of the ministry are under the control of the Director of Agricultural Research, with headquarters at Ruakura. Directors of Animal Research, Soil Research, and Field Research are all stationed at Ruakura. Irrigation research is done at Winchmore, and other research establishments are at Whatawhata (near Hamilton), which specialises in hill-country research, and at Invermay. Research work on animal diseases is centred largely at Wallaceville under a director. Horticultural research is centred at Levin and viticultural research at Te Kauwhata. Research activities are more fully discussed in Section 7B, Science and Scientific Services.

Economics—The Economics Division deals with international trade and trade negotiations in relation to agriculture, international quality standards, liaison with international agencies, the analysis of production and marketing policies, and the general economic position of farmers. Other functions include the economic appraisal of projects associated with agricultural development and resource use.

Port Agriculture Service—The Port Agriculture Service is a uniformed branch of the ministry under the control of a superintendent directly responsible to the Director-General. Its chief responsibility is to prevent the introduction into New Zealand of serious animal and plant diseases and pests. Officers of this service are located at ports and international airports, and deal with all items of concern to agriculture from overseas.

PASTURE GRASSES—Researches and experiments in regard to pasture grasses are regular features of the activities of both the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. These experiments, which extend right on to individual farms throughout New Zealand, and are conducted in co-operation with the farmers themselves, are wide in their application, and cover all the major phases of pasture management, dealing in particular with such items as pasture mixtures, suitability as to soil types, methods of establishment and management, the efficient use of fertilisers, etc. The results are made available per medium of the Journal of Agriculture and such allied publications, as well as by special pamphlets which are distributed without charge. The farmer can thus avail himself of, and profit by, highly specialised knowledge and experience. In addition, a constant endeavour is being made not only to improve existing strains by such measures as seed certification and the provision of pedigree seed, but also to evolve new strains.

The following table shows the areas under artificially sown grasses, and includes areas of tussock and other naturally established native grasses which have been permanently improved by oversowing with grasses and clovers.

YearArtificially Sown Pasture Grasses and Lucerne
Cut for Seed, Hay, or SilageNot Cut for Seed, Hay, or Silage
*Includes 74,411 hectares also sown with crops in 1963–64, 70,374 hectares in 1964–65, 74,157 hectares in 1965–66, 61,690 hectares in 1966–67, 63,434 hectares in 1967–68, and 64,139 hectares in 1968–69.
 hectares
1961–62469,4407,319,784
1962–63561,4207,336,635
1963–64540,5667,459,053*
1964–65541,2687,323,140*
1965–66599,1327,414,547*
1966–67597,0457,609,723
1967–68605,0177,563,834
1968–69664,7547,637,463*
1969–70621,4867,637,768

TOPDRESSING—Topdressing with artificial fertilisers has been an important factor in the intensification of grassland farming. Most New Zealand soils need fertilisers, especially phosphates. Superphosphate has been produced in New Zealand in increasing quantities since the 1880s, using rock phosphates from Nauru and Ocean Islands; Christmas Island is now an increasingly important source of supply. Over the years there has been a marked changeover from straight superphosphate as the principal fertiliser for grassland and crops—usual variants are serpentine superphosphate or aerial superphosphate, or a mixture of superphosphate with potash, additional sulphur or a trace element. Production of chemical fertilisers in 1971–72 totalled 2,032,000 tons, the superphosphate content of this output being 1,668,000 tons. Approximately half of the sown grassland receives fertiliser annually, with about half the fertilised area covered by aerial distribution; about one-third of the quantity is distributed by aeroplanes from 8,000 airstrips. Total expenditure on topdressing of farm land comes to about $50 million annually, including fertiliser transport and application costs. New Zealand occupies less than 0.3 percent of the world's land area, yet this country uses 2 percent of the world's fertiliser production.

Achievement of the increased rate of development recommended by the Agricultural Development Conference is estimated to require an annual increase of fertiliser usage of about 7 percent. The greater input will be needed because, as production develops, fertilisers will be used on more difficult country and on land on which production has already been intensified.

The use of lime to correct soil acidity and increase the availability of trace elements grew steadily from 1890 to a peak of 1.5 million tons in 1945. Since then the usage has dropped to less than 1 million tons annually; there is now a more judicious application of lime and a greater use of trace elements, such as molybdenum, according to proved soil needs.

The following table gives particulars of areas of grassland topdressed during the latest 6 years.

Year*Area TopdressedQuantity of Fertiliser and Lime Spread
Fertiliser OnlyLime OnlyFertiliser and Lime TogetherTotal Area TopdressedBy Ordinary MeansBy Aeroplanes
*Year ended 31 January to 1970 and 30 June thereafter.
 ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)ha (000)tons (000)tons (000)
19674,800.8140.7568.75,510.21,835.31,022.3
19684,345.1131.7472.34,949.11,656.0840.6
19694,508.0137.5477.35,122.81,727.6819.8
19704,853.8165.4632.95,652.11,972.2936.3
19714,758.3171.8695.75,625.82,183.9915.7
19724,758.7187.5741.75,688.02,155.01,004.1

Though topdressing in the past was practically confined to sown grasses on the flat and gently undulating country, the application of fertilisers to the surface-sown hill-country pastures in increasing quantities from aircraft has followed from the development of commercial aerial topdressing operations since 1949. Further information in this connection is contained in Section 11D.

Irrigation—Most New Zealand soils have a seasonal moisture deficiency and require irrigation to reach their maximum productivity. Many soils presently farmed under dry land conditions are capable of substantially increased production under irrigation.

In Central Otago the Ida Valley scheme serving an area of 5,000 hectares was completed in 1917. The Upper Waitaki serving an area of 1,375 hectares was completed in 1965 and construction of the Lower Waitaki scheme to serve 14,000 hectares is proceeding.

In Canterbury work is in progress on the Morven-Glenavy scheme north of the Waitaki River to serve an area of 9,700 hectares.

Major irrigation schemes are financed, constructed, and operated by the Government.

Charges for water supplied to farms are fixed so that over a period of 40 years the revenue should meet the costs of operation and maintenance or periodic renewal of items of capital works, and of interest on one-quarter of the capital cost of the scheme.

In addition to these large, Government-controlled schemes, irrigation is used on single farms or orchards in many parts of New Zealand, in particular, in Hawke's Bay, Nelson, and Marlborough. Water is generally drawn from underground sources, or pumped from rivers and drains, and applied by spraying.

The Ministry of Works and Development is extending its activities for the investigation, design, and construction of new irrigation schemes, including the co-ordination of other Government and local agencies. To qualify as an approved scheme an irrigation proposal must, in general, include a minimum of four farm businesses and an area to be irrigated of not less than 400 ha. and also meet agreed engineering and benefit/cost standards.

Approved irrigation schemes are financed on a basis of the Government's providing the full capital cost of all off-farm works and approved fixed on-farm works, and half of the cost of off-farm distribution works within the irrigable area to be recovered. The State Advances Corporation takes security for the full capital cost of approved fixed on-farm works. Two-thirds of the cost is recovered by way of mortgage and one-third is treated as a suspensory loan. The loan will be written off at the expiration of 7 years.

Approved irrigation development not qualifying as a scheme will qualify for State Advances Corporation loans of 100 percent with interest and capital repayments deferred, if necessary, during the initial 4 years of development.

Local irrigation committees have been set up to reappraise all existing schemes and, through the National Water and Soil Conservation Authority, to advise the Minister of Works and Development on upgrading, operation, and maintenance. There are also irrigation committees for each of the seven Ministry of Works districts. These district committees are convened and chaired by the district commissioner of works and include representatives of Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, State Advances Corporation and regional water boards. Other members may be co-opted if and when required.

The area and type of land irrigated during the year ended 30 June 1972 are analysed by statistical area in the following table.

Statistical AreaNo. of HoldingsGrasslandCommercial FruitCommercial VegetablesOther CropsOther LandTotal
  hahahahahaha
Northland1711,26633711220661,801
Central Auckland2301,031988883442,055
South Auckland—
Bay of Plenty1821,597834858271,813
East Coast5319178149256449
Hawke's Bay4161,3761,314763100473,600
Taranaki689452912968
Wellington2522,458946449823,296
North Island1,3728,8642,0062,61334715213,982
Marlborough1611,326243273792542,688
Nelson5121,2605765141,647154,012
Westland11212
Canterbury1,51344,1594521,67412,30248359,070
Otago97050,9081,4462201,20665854,438
Southland195714260673
South Island3,17698,2362,7172,72316,0071,210120,893
New Zealand4,548107,1004,7235,33616,3541,362134,875

SUBSIDIES, GRANTS, ETC.—For many years a number of grants and subsidies have been paid to the farming industry and allied organisations from public funds.

The following table shows the pattern of major payments in recent years.

Subsidy, Grant, etc.1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–731973–74
$(000)
Lime transport assistance9088128241456572
Fertiliser transport subsidy3,0755,5797,0508,94512,48011,649
Flood and drought relief3164773,541313192951
Weedicide and pesticide subsidy3,2594,0224,7015,4162,479
Eradication of bovine tuberculosis—
    Compensation for condemned animals, loss of production payments, hardship payments, and incidental costs1,0631,2721,3962,1323,6042,985
Subsidies to pest destruction boards1,5181,8992,1042,2692,5352,820
Grants to pest destruction boards337
Subsidies to nassella tussock boards174172190224740607
Subsidies to county councils under the Noxious Weeds Act153204304161
Agricultural Engineering Institute98125142190223276
Herd Improvement Council799797111120132
National Hydatids Council70105106120152201
Veterinary Services Council404248434457
Fertiliser price subsidy5,36613,13419,0928,814
Special Assistance Fund9,7861853
Dairy diversion scheme (beef)1,1342,049281
Stock drench subsidy3,5915,1523,097
Aerial application of fertiliser and lime subsidy4971,104432
Grant to New Zealand Wool Board3,8124,1634,400
Stock retention incentive11,87136
Grants to Dairy Products Development Centre75340

Animal Remedies Subsidy—A subsidy was introduced in June 1971 to reduce the cost to farmers of stock drenches. This subsidy applies to a range of anthelminites which have been fully licensed by the Animal Remedies Board.

Lime Subsidy—Since 30 November 1959 a subsidy on lime transport has been paid to farmers applying lime to newly developed land which is lime responsive, has not previously been limed, and which is cultivated and sown for the first time; or, if it cannot be cultivated, which receives its first dressing of lime. Farmers meet full transport costs and are entitled to claim a refund from the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. In June 1971 this rate was set at 6c per ton-mile for the first 60 miles and 2c per ton-mile thereafter.

Fertiliser Price Subsidy—A uniform subsidy of $5 per ton ex-works on all fertiliser was introduced on 6 July 1970. It was increased to $7.50 per ton in June 1971. From June 1973 it has applied to the first 30 tons only. This subsidy was replaced in July 1974 by a subsidy on phosphate rock, amounting to $19 a tonne at that time.

Fertiliser Transport Subsidy—From 1965 there has been a subsidy on the transport of fertiliser (excluding lime).

In June 1971 this subsidy was increased to 7c a ton-mile between 20 and 100 miles, and 4c a ton-mile over 100 miles, but was reduced in June 1973. The subsidy has been 7c a ton-mile for distances under 20 miles, 6c a ton-mile between 20 and 100 miles and 3c a ton-mile over 100 miles.

Aerial Topdressing Subsidy—In June 1971 a subsidy of $1 a ton was introduced on all fertiliser and on subsidisable lime, applied from the air. This subsidy was terminated in June 1973.

Weedicide and Pesticide Subsidy—Introduced in 1969, this subsidy is designed to assist farmers to meet the cost of the more expensive materials they are required to use in the face of restrictions on the use of substances such as DDT. This subsidy was terminated in June 1973.

Pest Destruction Boards—From 1 April 1968 rabbit boards have been reconstituted as pest destruction boards which may also undertake opossum and wallaby control. Rates are subsidised by the Government, which also makes grants to pest destruction boards.

Other Items—Most of the remaining items represent attempts to deal with specific problems, such as the eradication of bovine tuberculosis, which are of importance to the whole community but the handling of which would impose a serious burden on individuals or small groups, and the cost of the Government contribution towards running particular organisations, such as the Agricultural Engineering Institute.

FARM MACHINERY—The following table gives details of farm machinery for those items where comparison is available. The figures relate to holdings of 10 acres (4.05 hectares) and over.

Type of Machine19601965196919701971
Agricultural tractors78,41589,43195,42195,50296,666
Milking machines36,72132,88729,10827,93025,793
Shearing stands61,63765,91871,27171,05572,669
Pick-up-balers7,93210,24712,38012,61812,926
Side delivery rakes21,95324,17825,43925,37825,064
Harvesters—
    Forage1,2004,2805,3705,4035,451
    Header4,7465,2895,6925,7245,591
Electric fence units54,70763,97069,38770,14074,583
Field mowers....52,17552,00551,008
Ploughs....42,95142,10141,392
Disc harrows....33,76232,97932,499

The figures show a continuation of the trend towards more intensive mechanisation of farm work that has been in evidence over a considerable period.

Milking Machines—Information concerning milking machines on farms was first collected in 1919, in which year there were 7,577 plants recorded. Since that year the use of milking machines has expanded rapidly. Of the 1,905,534 cows in milk on 31 January 1952, 1,799,375, or 94 percent, were milked by machine. At the end of January 1971 there were 25,793 milking machine plants in use, with a total of 199,887 sets of cups, compared with 27,930 machines and 205,268 sets of cups at 31 January 1970.

Agricultural Tractors—The classes of tractors on farm holdings outside borough boundaries at 31 January 1971 are given in the following table.

Type19701971
Diesel oil—
    Crawler7,5977,607
    Wheel43,26046,313
Totals50,85753,920
Petrol or kerosene—
    Crawler5,9464,959
    Wheel38,69937,787
Totals44,64542,746

14 B-CROPS

GENERAL—Crops grown in New Zealand are in general sufficient to meet domestic needs for agricultural products, apart from tropical and subtropical products such as tea, sugar, cotton, etc.

Local requirements of all the important fruits and berries grown in temperate zones are met by New Zealand orchard production. Citrus fruits are grown in the subtropical northern portion of the North Island, and grapes are also cultivated in certain localities. There is a substantial export trade in apples and pears.

Potato and onion production is normally adequate.

Wheat production fluctuates in relation to price incentives and imports are sometimes necessary.

Animals can be grazed in open pasture for the full 12 months of the year, but the winter growth of grass, except in certain favoured localities, requires to be supplemented in order to keep stock in good condition during the colder months, and in some districts supplementary fodders are necessary in the drier summer months. Hay and silage crops are grown almost exclusively on the farms where they are consumed, though some districts specialise in the growing of certain other supplementary fodder crops. The bulk of the supplementary fodders other than grass and clover, hay, and silage, is grown in the South Island, since the colder climate necessitates more extensive supplementary feeding than in the North Island.

The renewal and extension of pastures require the annual supply of very considerable quantities of grass seed. There is an appreciable export trade in some species of grass seeds.

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION—Grain growing is localised to a considerable extent, the Canterbury statistical area, with its fertile plains, supplying more than half of New Zealand's wheat yield, about half of the oats threshed, and over half of the barley yield. In recent years, however, the North Island has grown higher proportions of wheat and barley crops.

Maize growing is largely confined to certain portions of the East Coast (notably Cook County) and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty areas. The growing of peas for threshing is carried out extensively in Canterbury, and to a lesser extent in Marlborough and Wellington, Canterbury alone producing nearly three-quarters of the total yield. About two-thirds of the area closed off for production of grass seed is in the Canterbury district.

The Canterbury statistical area also produces a large proportion of the commercial potato crop, followed by Wellington statistical area, while the growing of potatoes for the early market is of importance in a few relatively frost-free areas, particularly Pukekohe, near Auckland. The Pukekohe district also provides the Auckland area with a considerable portion of its vegetable requirements as well as being the main onion-growing area of the Island. Wellington City draws most of its vegetable supplies from the Otaki and Levin districts, while Ohakune, in the centre of the North Island, with climate and soils suitable for the production of cabbages and broccoli, supplies both Auckland and Wellington with these vegetables. Hastings has become a centre for the canning and processing of many vegetables.

In the South Island market gardening is carried on near the cities, and on the rich soils near Christchurch over 405 hectares are devoted to this purpose; also to the immediate south of Oamaru and on the Taieri Plains just south of Dunedin there are other areas aggregating more than 405 hectares. Nelson also produces considerable quantities of fresh and processed vegetables, most of which are marketed in Wellington.

Commercial orchards in New Zealand are largely confined to certain areas suited by climatic and soil conditions. The Nelson and Hawke's Bay districts are notable for their apple and pear orchards, a high percentage of the crops from these districts normally being exported. Central Otago is well suited to the growing of stone fruits, notably apricots. Hawke's Bay and Nelson are also noted for their peach production. In certain particularly warm areas of the North Island with suitable soils citrus fruits are grown, the principal areas being Kerikeri, in Northland; Tauranga, in the Bay of Plenty; and Gisborne.

Grape growing is of importance near Auckland and in Hawke's Bay, and to a lesser extent in South Auckland. Tobacco growing is confined to the Nelson district, hop growing also being concentrated in this area.

The area devoted to each of the principal crops in the 1970–71 season and the percentage distributions for each crop by statistical areas for the North and South Islands are given in the following table.

CropTotal AreaNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland-Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellingtonNorth Island
 hectaresPercentage of crop area
For threshing—
    Wheat97,5280.11.70.44.46.6
    Oats22,1400.40.10.62.43.5
    Barley81,3780.30.32.70.76.30.718.729.7
    Maize11,9821.61.638.239.912.60.62.396.8
    Peas (not canning)22,5330.1..0.42.26.89.5
Oats—
    For chaff, hay, or silage8,7300.70.32.90.11.31.26.112.6
    Fed off, cut green, abandoned17,1140.30.31.41.40.43.37.1
Root crops—
    Potatoes8,2870.617.62.80.87.30.826.055.9
    Swedes57,4500.212.00.50.91.16.020.7
    Turnips75,2910.60.65.80.62.71.06.017.3
Vegetable crops for processing9,6740.30.60.214.843.30.10.960.2
Vegetable crops for market5,2426.631.16.83.710.40.614.874.0
Green fodder—
    Rape20,1590.10.90.46.72.610.7
    Chou moellier, kale34,5620.50.97.10.413.82.020.545.2
    Other fodder crops17,9390.90.613.50.67.80.712.937.0
Grasses, clover and lucerne for seed92,7940.10.30.23.50.13.47.6
Grasses and clovers for hay or silage510,2676.86.635.30.64.59.59.873.1
Lucerne for hay or silage88,0490.30.29.20.43.70.62.416.8
Commercial orchards11,4515.212.215.83.023.90.11.261.4
Market gardens9,1984.031.25.32.713.60.614.872.2
CropTotal AreaMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandSouth Island
 hectaresPercentage of crop area
For threshing—
    Wheat97,5280.866.613.212.893.4
    Oats22,1401.20.459.517.018.496.5
    Barley81,3783.81.055.17.13.370.3
    Maize11,9821.61.63.2
    Peas (not canning)22,5334.30.182.63.20.390.5
Oats—        
    For chaff, hay, or silage8,7302.30.90.437.425.321.187.4
    Fed off, cut green, abandoned17,1146.92.10.363.816.73.192.9
Root crops—
    Potatoes8,2871.31.632.45.53.344.1
    Swedes57,4500.21.10.813.922.740.679.3
    Turnips75,2912.81.30.349.919.98.582.7
Vegetable crops for processing9,6743.85.330.50.239.8
Vegetable crops for market5,2422.23.0..11.18.90.826.0
Green fodder—
    Rape20,1594.20.659.121.93.589.3
    Chou moellier, kale34,5620.90.80.112.317.423.554.8
    Other fodder crops17,9391.91.30.435.617.56.363.0
Grasses, clover and lucerne for seed92,7944.00.772.86.48.592.4
Grasses and clovers for hay or silage510,2671.11.80.99.35.38.526.9
Lucerne for hay or silage88,0496.50.952.420.72.783.2
Commercial orchards11,4512.218.14.413.938.6
Market gardens9,1981.36.210.99.20.227.8

STATISTICS—Detailed statistics of crops are contained in the report Agricultural Statistics issued annually by the Department of Statistics. Unless otherwise stated, the statistics quoted in this subsection relate to holdings of 2 acres (approx. 1 hectare) for 1970–71 and to holdings of 10 acres (4.05 hectares) and over for earlier years situated outside borough boundaries or in rural areas of municipalities.

AREA UNDER CULTIVATION--A general summary of the areas under cultivation is given in the following table. The statistics quoted in this and other tables in this subsection until 1970–71 when they relate to areas of 2 acres (.81 hectares) and upwards relate to holdings of 10 acres (4.05 hectares) and upwards outside borough boundaries or in rural areas of municipalities.

YearPasture Land*Field CropsPlantationsOrchards, Market Gardens, and NurseriesLying FallowTotal Cultivated Land

*Excluding areas of grasses and clovers cut for seed, hay, or silage, and crops sown together with grasses, which have been included in field crops.

†Excludes domestic orchards.

‡Areas in residences, private grounds, gardens and domestic orchards are excluded.

§Includes land prepared for grassland but not sown at 31 January.

||Figures included in pasture land from 1969–70.

 hectares (000)
1964–657,2531,04941913518,785
1965–667,440§1,08942714298,999
1966–677,665§1,07643015259,210
1967–687,6041,13244616249,222
1968–697,6661,21546517169,379
1969–707,7621,16348018||9,423
1970–717,86497650724||9,371

In the following pages statistics of the principal crops are quoted with explanatory comment. In addition to summary tables, covering in each instance a range of related items, important individual crops are discussed under separate headings.

PRINCIPAL FIELD CROPS—The following table shows the areas under each of the principal field crops for the years stated.

Crop1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72

*Including turnips and rape mixed.

†Rape, kale, and chou moellier only.

‡Includes linseed, mangolds, and tobacco.

§Includes crops sown together with grasses, 64,139 hectares.

||Included in other crops.

 hectares
Wheat129,138132,121115,67898,563107,885
Oats24,34735,76649,51447,98534,374
Barley68,66668,50263,33686,987101,011
Maize7,9669,69011,36216,12217,928
Peas for threshing14,02820,29524,50022,53324,256
Potatoes9,51710,1329,9288,2878,338
Turnips and swedes*177,967166,922151,716132,741123,028
Onions7881,0208791,041968
Green fodder73,58477,08574,98554,72249,549
Grasses, clovers, and lucerne for seed61,19263,49052,71292,79449,191
Grasses and clovers for hay or silage449,533523,892491,716510,267456,191
Lucerne for hay or silage79,72377,37277,05888,049110,169

The figures quoted in the foregoing table in respect of wheat, oats, barley, maize, and peas relate to the total areas under these crops for grain or fodder. A considerable portion of the area under cereal crops, particularly oats, is cut for chaff, hay, or silage, or is fed off. In regard to peas it should be noted that additional areas of this crop for domestic consumption in the form of green peas are included under market gardens and crops for processing.

VEGETABLES—The production of the main vegetables for the fresh market is shown in the following table for the latest 5 years; production for processing is also shown for 1971.

Vegetable196719681969197019711971 (Processed)
*Outdoor plus glasshouse production.
 tons
Cabbage24,16823,95432,17330,40627,66333
Carrots22,33222,44728,61030,27022,5954,098
Cauliflower25,94326,44926,72425,87522,997147
Kumaras5,6246,3227,2598,0956,758
Lettuce14,09813,86615,93113,90512,806
Onions24,66425,64335,67830,96530,9671,738
Parsnips4,6094,8327,5166,6053,81931
Peas60955276057238430,485
Sweet corn26740763959299721,223
Tomatoes*19,48721,42420,01721,93021,74521,087

GRAIN AND SEED CROPS—Details of areas for threshing, total yields, and yields per hectare of the principal grain and seed crops during recent years are set out in the following table.

Bushel weights are as follows: wheat, 60 lb; oats, 40 lb; barley, 50 lb; maize, 56 lb; peas, 60 lb.

YearWheatOatsBarleyMaizePeas
 Areas for threshing (hectares)
1963–6482,54010,75438,0323,90512,129
1964–6574,46115,69035,2223,91911,024
1965–6680,74515,66333,9873,26511,649
1966–6793,3059,31137,2213,06111,057
1967–68126,65113,95562,7775,87314,028
1963–69129,97515,90663,5377,13823,927
1969–70108,39421,00856,0808,08924,500
1970–7197,52822,14181,37811,98222,533
1971–72106,59616,37496,26314,80622,454
 Total yields (bushels (000))    
1963–6410,0681,5485,7767441,100     
1964–659,1982,4944,670927878     
1965–6610,7212,3995,0307621,058     
1966–6712,7781,5535,9097281,183     
1967–6816,2532,4679,6741,4131,334     
1968–6916,7792,87410,2542,0142,080     
1969–7010,5533,1817,6922,3081,822     
1970–7111,9653,29311,4343,9831,905     
1971–7214,2992,72614,7924,5762,113     
 Yields per hectare (bushels)    
1963–64121.98143.95151.87190.5290.69     
1964–65123.53158.95132.59236.5479.64     
1965–66132.78153.16148.00233.3890.82     
1966–67136.95166.79158.75237.83106.99     
1967–68128.33176.78154.10240.5995.09     
1968–69129.09180.69161.39282.1586.93     
1969–7097.36151.42137.16285.3374.36     
1970–71122.68148.73140.50332.4284.54     
1971–72134.14166.47153.67309.0494.12     

WHEAT—As a result of the equitable price of wheat combined with sowing of increased acreages of higher yielding varieties, and also to other economic factors, by 1968–69 the total yield had moved up to record levels of twice those of 8 years earlier, but production was seriously affected by drought conditions in 1969–70 and near-drought conditions in 1970–71.

The following diagram shows the fluctuations that have occurred in the area sown in wheat, together with the total yield and the average yield per acre.

Wheat Board—Control of the importation of wheat and flour and of the distribution of both imported and locally produced wheat rests with the Wheat Board. The operations of this board, which consists of representatives of flourmillers, wheat growers, and bakers, with the Minister of Trade and Industry as chairman, and his nominee from the Department of Trade and Industry as deputy chairman, are governed by the Wheat Board Act 1965.

All New Zealand milling wheat is purchased from farmers by the Wheat Board through the agency of the grain merchants acting as brokers for the board. The board is responsible for the distribution of imported poultry wheat in the North Island; in the South Island poultry wheat is not controlled. Its functions also include arrangements for the processing of wheat and the sale of flour to merchants, bakers, pastrycooks, grocers, and others.

The annual consumption of wheat in New Zealand approximates 15 million bushels—some 11 million bushels being required for flour and cereal foods, and the balance for poultry food and seed. Research is assisted by a levy on wheat and flour on recommendation of the Wheat Research Committee.

POTATOES—The production of potatoes is usually adequate to meet the home market.

Under the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950 a Potato Board was established consisting of seven members, three of whom are representative of the growers on an elective basis, three nominated by the New Zealand Grain, Seed, and Produce Merchants' Federation (Incorporated), and one an officer of the Public Service acting in an advisory capacity.

The principal function of the board is to ensure that adequate supplies of main-crop potatoes are available for consumption in New Zealand, and for that purpose to enter into contracts with growers for the growing of main-crop potatoes. The Act provides that the board may impose a levy not exceeding $3 per ton on main-crop potatoes sold by growers, the proceeds of which are to be applied by the board in payment of charges, etc., for which it may become liable in the exercise of its functions.

The board undertakes to compensate contract growers for any declared unsold number one grade contract produce held by growers at the end of the season. For the 1971–72 season the rate was $18 per 2,000 lb in the South Island and $22 per 2,000 lb unit in the North Island.

Potato yields have risen to such an extent that a population of 3 million is now supplied from the same acreages as were 1¾ million people 20 years earlier. Most of this increased production has been achieved through new varieties and better farming practice based on research results.

Figures for area and yield of potatoes for the latest 6 years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonstons
1966–678,020184,39822.99
1967–689,517232,11024.39
1968–6910,132252,30124.90
1969–709,928249,20425.10
1970–718,287206,61124.93
1971–727,905216,49527.39

ONIONS—Areas in, and yields of, onions for the latest 6 years are as follows.

YearAreaTotal YieldYield per Hectare
 hectarestonstons
1966–6779023,91630.27
1967–6878823,76630.16
1968–691,02130,40929.78
1969–7087925,54829.06
1970–711,04129,14628.00
1971–7296825,20026.03

LINSEED—The area under this crop has fluctuated considerably over a long period. The highest level of 9,889 hectares was reached in 1951–52. In the processing of linseed, the linseed oil is extracted while the residue provides a valuable concentrate for stock food. A small quantity of unprocessed linseed is also used for this purpose.

SUPPLEMENTARY FODDER CROPS—The following table gives the areas of the supplementary fodder crops.

YearGrasses and Clovers, Including Lucerne for Hay or SilageCereal CropsRape, Kale, and Chou MoellierSwedes, Turnips, Turnips and RapeTotal Area of Fodder Crops*

*Excludes small areas of other minor fodder crops.

†From 1969 excludes turnips and rape (mixed).

 hectares
1965–66517,86128,86392,724191,598831,046
1966–67524,50327,14282,193182,362816,200
1967–68529,25630,86173,584177,967811,668
1968–69601,26429,53977,085166,922874,810
1969–70568,77446,32074,985151,716841,795
1970–71598,31736,62954,721132,741822,408

In 1970–71 grasses and clovers cut for hay or silage totalled 510,268 hectares and lucerne 88,049 hectares. Oats was the only cereal crop utilised in any quantity for this purpose. Oats also was the principal cereal crop fed off to stock. The area of oats cut for chaff, hay, or silage or fed off amounted to 25,844 hectares. The principal green-fodder crops apart from oats are rape (20,159 hectares) and chou moellier, including kale (34,562 hectares). Swedes and turnips are the principal root crops grown in New Zealand, the total area sown in these crops in 1970–71 being 132,741 hectares.

SEED CERTIFICATION—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates a seed certification scheme covering the more important herbage species, cereals, brassicas, and potatoes. Bred varieties of these species are produced by the Grasslands and the Crop Research Division of the DSIR. These are then reproduced under the control of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries which releases them as Breeder's seed which in turn produces Basic seed. The final stages in the multiplication of certified seed are known as 1st and 2nd Generation seeds. Basic and Certified seed, 1st and 2nd Generation, are sold through the usual commercial channels.

GRASS SEED—Of the total area of grasses, clovers, and lucerne cut for seed during 1970–71, 92 percent was in the South Island.

The areas of grass, clover, and lucerne crops harvested for seed, distinguishing the principal varieties, are given in the following table.

Crop1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–71

*Includes Ariki ryegrass.

†Ariki from 1968–69.

 hectares
Ryegrass—
    Perennial22,43220,312*18,15324,85148,433
    Italian3,0171,9442,868
    Short Rotation (H.1.)7,4036,8575,483
Red clover (including cowgrass)6,2524,8115,78715,31626,449
White clover18,84010,52713,082
Lucerne5,6124,7004,8073,6795,427
Cocksfoot3,7833,8883,9958,86612,484
Chewings fescue4071,195565
Crested dogstail1,5373,2123,802
Other grasses and clovers3,2583,7464,948
Totals72,54161,19263,49052,71292,793

Quantities (in dressed weights) of grass and clover seeds treated by machine dressing plants for the latest 3 years are given below. (Bushel equals 20 lb.)

Type of SeedUnit196919701971
Ryegrass—
    Perennialbush1,031,414883,3891,557,175
    Italian (including W. Wolths)bush169,473226,874494,928
    Short rotation (H1)bush368,154242,578353,997
    Arikibush181,091118,440337,513
Cocksfootlb2,549,9761,360,8453,233,867
Chewings fescuelb378,522120,935208,663
Crested dogstaillb2,780,6471,675,1862,974,351
Browntoplb209,085203,136259,074
Timothylb1,045,957930,132897,022
White cloverlb5,631,6272,719,4397,738,323
Suckling cloverlb109,47675,64672,434
Suckling white mixturelb320,232238,913242,861
Broad red clover (including cowgrass)lb1,370,9401,193,6821,496,987
Montgomery red cloverlb1,319,426990,431743,011
Lucernelb889,502509,9411,181,539
Other grass and cloverslb153,30476,174340,719

Large quantities of grass and clover seed have been exported during recent years, especially to the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States of America. Details of the volume and value of exports during recent years will be found in Section 22B of this issue.

MARKET GARDENS AND PLANTATIONS--The following table sets out the acreages for market gardens, plantations, etc. Forest Service plantations are included in these figures. Prior to 1970–71 statistics relate only to holdings of 10 acres (approximately 4.05 hectares) and over outside boroughs, in that year to holdings of 2 acres (0.81 hectares) and within boroughs.

YearMarket Gardens*NurseriesPrivate Gardens, etc.Plantations

*Excluding crops for processing.

†Year ended 30 June.

hectares
1965–665,23574849,637427,459
1966–676,06987047,216429,617
1967–686,68088846,291446,021
1968–697,79694046,645464,828
1969–707,1671,21552,038480,185
1970–719,1981,51655,209507,266

Vegetable Growers—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries estimates that approximately 2,700 vegetable growers were cultivating a total area of approximately 18,211 hectares in 1964. Included in this figure are approximately 7,689 hectares used exclusively for growing crops for processing.

Berryfruit Growers—Commercial berryfruit gardens are surveyed every 5 years. The Ministry of Agriculture's last survey was in 1969 when 569 hectares farmed by 571 growers were recorded. In 1969 the areas then being grown (in hectares) were: raspberries 231; strawberries 208; black currants 45; gooseberries 24; boysenberries 63; loganberries 8. The production of berryfruits in the 1968–69 season was estimated as follows: raspberries, 1,226 tons; strawberries, 4,034 tons; black currants, 223 tons; gooseberries, 91 tons; boysenberries, 328 tons; and loganberries, 63 tons. The greatest concentration of gardens is in Canterbury near Christchurch and Waimate with the combined total of 157 hectares. Raspberries account for 85 of the 119 hectares of berryfruit grown in the Nelson province. The 53 hectares in the Wairarapa are mainly of mixed berryfruit holdings. In the vicinity of Auckland 61 hectares of strawberries are grown. Other major centres of berryfruit growing are Central Otago, 25 hectares; Manawatu, 44 hectares; and Hawke's Bay, 51 hectares. Gooseberries are not grown commercially to any extent outside the Wairarapa (13 hectares). These estimates cover all gardens of over half an acre (approximately 0.2 hectare) and smaller gardens with more than a quarter of an acre (approximately 0.1 hectare) of strawberries, including those in boroughs. The only berryfruit for which there is an organised marketing scheme is the raspberry, for which local marketing committees have been established in Nelson (since 1940) and in Canterbury and Otago (since 1959), while a Central Council of Raspberry Growers was created by the Raspberry Marketing Regulations 1950 to co-ordinate marketing by the three district committees.

Nurseries—The number of nurseries registered, which excludes those producing seedlings, perennials and bulbs, and those operated by government and local authorities, at 31 December 1972, totalled 760 and covered 1,343 hectares.

Home Vegetable Production—At the 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings a question was asked on home vegetable production. As shown in the following table one-third of households grew potatoes and one-half grew other vegetables.

Statistical AreaTotal HouseholdsPotatoes Grown (All or Part)Other Vegetables Grown (All or Part)
      Northland25,0029,27713,721
      Central Auckland202,05930,81265,764
      South Auckland—Bay of Plenty109,42440,02560,745
      East Coast12,2094,7616,159
      Hawke's Bay37,14813,62119,899
      Taranaki27,93614,82819,539
      Wellington157,26839,29771,671
Totals, North Island571,046152,621257,498
      Marlborough8,7164,5506,240
      Nelson19,3329,10013,238
      Westland6,0852,6323,488
      Canterbury116,06858,82875,214
      Otago52,06426,92732,603
      Southland28,37520,60821,772
Totals, South Island230,640122,645152,555
New Zealand801,686275,266410,053
Percentages of total100.034.351.1

ORCHARDS AND THE FRUIT INDUSTRY—Apples and pears are the main fruits, the principal growing areas being Nelson and Hawke's Bay. Peach and plum orchards are distributed over Nelson, Hawke's Bay, Central Otago, and near Alexandra. Central Otago, with its hot summers and severe winters, produces the greater part of the English plums, apricots, and cherries. The coastal strip from North Auckland, through the Bay of Plenty, to Gisborne is sufficiently mild for the production of citrus and other subtropical fruits such as passionfruit, tamarilloes, and Chinese gooseberries.

The area in commercial holdings of 2 acres (approximately 1 hectare) and over returned as under fruit trees was given as 11,451 hectares at 30 June 1971.

During 1968 the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries made the fourth comprehensive field survey of fruit trees in commercial orchards. This survey covered all orchards with 100 or more deciduous fruit trees, over 50 citrus trees, subtropical fruits, and mixed orchards of half an acre and over. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries has supplied the following numbers of fruit trees of principal kinds in commercial orchards based on 1968 survey figures: apple, 1,465,359; pear, 192,946; quince, 1,777; peach, 407,862; nectarine, 41,173; apricot, 159,081; plum, 113,206; cherry, 23,407; lemon, 36,372; orange, 142,491; grapefruit, 45,087; mandarin, 68,656; tangelo, 47,468.

The 1968 survey showed that the total number of fruit trees had increased since the third survey of 1963. There were 252,000 more apple trees and 18,600 more pear trees. A total of 338,074 citrus trees occupying 721 hectares of commercial orchard area was recorded in the 1968 survey. This amounted to a doubling of the total number of citrus trees over the five years since the 1963 survey.

A survey by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries in 1970 of all vineyards containing at least half an acre (0.2 hectares) covered 320 vineyards. The total area in grapes was 1,468 hectares, yielding a crop of 13,223 tons. 96.5 percent was used for wine production, 2 percent was sold as table grapes, and 1.5 percent was used for making grape-juice beverage. Vineyards were mainly in Auckland (658 hectares), Hawke's Bay (327 hectares), Gisborne (278 hectares), Waikato (187 hectares), Northland (16 hectares), Manawatu-Wellington (0.81 hectares), South Island (2.8 hectares). In 1970 there were 158 licensed winemakers, who produced an estimated 3.9 million gallons of grape wine, 60,000 gallons of grape-juice beverage, 400,000 gallons of fruit wine and cider. The estimated area in glasshouse vineries in 1970 was 43,664 square metres. The main centres for indoor grape growing were; Auckland, 23,597 square metres; Waikato - Bay of Plenty, 5,853 square metres; Manawatu, 5,388 square metres; Canterbury, 4,738 square metres; Oamaru, 3,716 square metres; Nelson-Marlborough, 372 square metres. Approximately 22,473 square metres of glasshouse vineries have been adapted for early market and 21,265 square metres for late market. There were 168 tons of glasshouse grapes marketed for dessert purposes.

Apples and Pears—A summary of the activities of the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board appears in Section 21. Over 700 orchardists consistently sell apples and pears to the board. Over 75 percent of the total crop received comes from Nelson and Hawke's Bay.

Quantities of apples and pears marketed in New Zealand by the board in the last 6 seasons are given below. These figures exclude direct sales from fruitgrowers to factories and the public; these sales have been estimated to comprise approximately 20 percent of the annual apple and pear crop.

SeasonFresh ApplesApples for ProcessingFresh PearsPears for ProcessingTotal Fresh FruitTotal for ProcessingTotal Fruit
bushel equivalent
1967–681,502,072316,949429,36939,3411,931,441356,2902,287,731
1968–691,415,788295,902401,8687,9161,817,656303,8182,121,474
1969–701,548,310576,803409,25731,5601,957,567608,3632,565,930
1970–711,414,284460,854454,15037,8491,868,434498,7032,367,137
1971–721,667,801724,261433,76425,6542,101,565749,9152,851,480
1972–731,259,024489,019414,3513,5531,673,375492,5722,165,947

The figures for apples and pears for processing include the quantities processed and exported.

The following table shows the quantities of the main varieties of fresh apples and pears received by districts by the Apple and Pear Marketing Board during the 1972–73 season.

VarietyHawke's BayNelsonOther DistrictsTotal
Apples—bushel cases (000)
    Granny Smith9284993651,792
    Sturmer Pippin2096521931,054
    Golden Delicious182396101679
    Delicious102304157563
    Red Delicious2309366389
    Jonathan1131066387
    Dougherty1259832255
    Cox's Orange6524361369
    Richared692726122
    Gravenstein1010210122
    Others142126165433
Total apples2,0732,8501,2426,165
Pears—
    Williams Bon Chretien..7932111
    Winter Cole1207426220
    Winter Nelis791938136
    Packham's Triumph3154994
    Others533212107
Total pears283258117658
Exports of apples and pears in the 1972–73 season totalled 4,657,000 bushels.

Stone Fruits—The 1968 survey by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries revealed that nearly half of the total of 407,900 peach trees were in Hawke's Bay, and that, of the balance, some 74,000 peach trees were in the Auckland district.

Production and disposal of stone fruit for the year ended 30 June 1972 were estimated as follows.

FruitDisposalTotal Production
MarketProcessing
 (000 bushels)
Peaches7614731,234
Nectarines1002102
Apricots259139398
Plums—
    European20929
    Japanese18622208
Cherries2626

Citrus and Subtropical Fruits—Estimated quantities of citrus fruits marketed in New Zealand by the Citrus Marketing Authority, together with direct sales to the public by citrus growers are given in the following table.

YearGrapefruitLemons*Sweet OrangesMandarins and Other Citrus Fruits
*Figures for lemons relate to packed ¾ bushel cases.
 bushels
1964185,050121,62533,65014,100
1965184,200133,66031,05015,800
1966158,500112,40036,60022,000
1967154,000121,00037,00025,000
1968184,500171,50058,60043,100
1969147,400119,60062,00044,800
1970222,000164,00093,00034,000
1971211,000107,00094,00046,000

Reference to the Citrus Marketing Authority is to be found in Section 21.

Estimated production figures for other subtropical fruits for 1971 are: tamarilloes, 1,900 tons; passion fruit, 300 tons; Chinese gooseberries, 2,300 tons.

Production of citrus fruit and its sale as fresh fruit or for use in processing is shown in the following table.

YearGrapefruitLemonsSweet OrangeMandarins and Tangelos
FreshProcessedFreshProcessedFreshProcessedFreshProcessed
bushels (000)
196710054744733425
196894911007154443
19697572754454845
1970661568282849741
1971771348175895785
1972106144656810891136

HOPS—Practically the whole of the hop gardens are located in Waimea county. Production per hectare (approximately 2.47 acres) usually ranges between 1,300 kg and 1,700 kg. The total crop produced in the 1973 season was 348,391 kg (50,654 kg for export) compared with 413,640 kg (35,460 kg for export) in 1972. About 98 percent of the crop is now picked by machines.

A Hop Marketing Committee of six members (one Government and five producer) was established by the Hop Marketing Regulations 1939 to regulate and control the marketing either locally or overseas of all hops produced in New Zealand and to assist the industry generally.

TOBACCO—Tobacco is grown mainly in the Motueka district, Most of the tobacco produced is flue-cured, producing a yellow-leaf tobacco which is largely used for the manufacture of cigarettes, the balance, air-cured, being used mainly in the manufacture of smoking mixtures and pipe tobacco. Some 7,349,615 lb of raw tobacco leaf was imported for the year ended 30 June 1971 with a value of $6,751,730.

With the following particulars relating to tobacco production, it should be noted that the figures relate to the total commercial tobacco production and not merely to holdings of 10 acres (approximately 4.05 hectares) or over situated outside borough boundaries. (Source: New Zealand Tobacco Board.)

SeasonNumber of GrowersArea PlantedProduction*Estimated Value of Crop*
*Includes research and experimental crops.
  hectareslb(000)$(000)
1966–675291,9765,5162,984
1967–685262,0646,1543,562
1968–695232,0627,6044,917
1969–705062,0557,1624,641
1970–714642,0118,5726,071
1971–724111,9517,3345,619

The production figures represent the weight of the leaf purchased from growers before redrying. Flue-cured leaf accounted for 96.4 percent and air-dried leaf for 3.6 percent of the 1970–71 crop.

LINEN FLAX—There is a strong demand for all linen fibre produced in New Zealand from a local manufacturer of twine who uses this kind of fibre in the making of twine for closing bags and bales, for rolling meat, and for other purposes which require a twine made from a strong durable fibre.

Areas for the last five seasons are: 1966–67, 227 hectares; 1967–68, 182 hectares; 1968–69, 152 hectares; 1969–70, 190 hectares; and 1970–71, 202 hectares.

Production from the single factory still operated by the Linen Flax Corporation at Geraldine has been as follows.

Product19671968196919701971
 tons
Straw processed1,3131,4011,2601,1731,024
Scutched fibre15215215399101
Seed142145145129103
Tow4646314332
Linmeal8895959458

14 C - LIVESTOCK

GENERAL—Agriculture is a dynamic industry upon which much of New Zealand's prosperity depends. It has the capacity to expand provided the circumstances are favourable for development. The lines of development are influenced by overseas prices received for farm products in the form of meat, wool, butter, cheese, milk powder, casein, etc. Although there is a time-lag associated with livestock breeding, the livestock numbers are an indication of the response of farmers to financial incentives, although weather factors, such as drought, as also involved.

A feature of recent years has been the continued upward trend in beef cattle numbers, in contrast to fluctuations in numbers of other livestock.

New Zealand has more than 24 times as many animals as people: this ratio is probably not exceeded in any country in the world. Grasslands have been developed to the extent that the best dairy farms can carry one cow to the acre, and the best sheep farms can support up to 10 sheep to the acre throughout the year.

The first sheep stations in the 1840s were stocked with Merinos from Australia. During the 1850s and 1860s several English breeds of sheep were imported, notably Southdowns, Leicesters, Lincolns, and Romneys. In 1855 there were 761,700 sheep in the country; by 1870 there were 9,700,000. Until 1882, the year of the successful introduction of cargo refrigeration when mutton and lamb exports were sent to London, the Merino and its crosses were predominant, because the only sheep products of any importance for export were wool and a little tallow, obtained by boiling down carcasses. Then the Merino was superseded in the North Island by breeds more suited to the climate and conditions. Today the flock sheep of the North Island are nearly all predominantly of Romney blood. In the South Island, Merino blood in varying degree continued to play an important part in the flock structure but are now restricted to the foothills of the Southern Alps, while Corriedales are more profitable in the better hill country, and crossbreeds and long-woolled British breeds at lower levels.

In 1851 there were 193,000 cattle in New Zealand and by 1897 the number had reached 1,138,000. Cattle raising and fattening are usually associated with hill-country sheep farming and fat-lamb fanning respectively, and beef stock are grazed chiefly in the North Island. The most popular breed of beef cattle is now the Aberdeen Angus, (74.5 percent) with Herefords (16.3 percent) and Shorthorns (5.4 percent) next in number.

The growth of dairy herds was related to the availability of refrigeration for the export of butter from 1882, and the development of butter and cheese factories. There were 300,000 dairy cows by 1897, 185,000 of them in the North Island and 115,000 in the South Island. Now the North Island has more than 11 times as many dairy cows as the South Island. Estimates of breeds in 1970–71 are: Jersey, 74 percent; Friesian, 22 percent; Ayrshire, 3 percent; Shorthorn, 1 percent.

In the following table, sheep and lambs shorn and lambs tailed are for the season ending in the year stated, total sheep and breeding ewes are as at 30 June, all cattle and pigs are as at 31 January for 1968 to 1970 and as at 30 June for 1971 and 1972. Totals at 30 June are reduced by killing for export since the end of January. Coverage up to 1971 is of holdings 10 acres (approx. 4.05 hectares) and over situated outside borough boundaries; thereafter for holdings 2 acres (approx. 1 hectare) and over.

Livestock19681969197019711972

*Includes those in boroughs and on holdings under 1 acre.

†Sheep retention scheme in operation.

Cattle (including dairy cows)8,247,1638,604,8748,777,3327,994,5138,632,423
    Dairy cows in milk2,232,4822,304,2522,320,6362,361,5992,147,991
    Total dairy cattle3,698,0203,793,0833,729,2843,198,1673,288,627
    Beef cattle4,549,1434,811,7915,048,0484,796,3465,343,796
Sheep (including lambs)*60,473,59759,937,42560,276,11158,911,52560,882,719
    Breeding ewes*42,650,91643,384,69842,911,58143,016,71744,152,043
    Lambs tailed during season40,920,82540,415,68442,077,99839,960,58640,613,138
    Lambs shorn during season15,913,93216,119,42418,618,70016,477,96917,730,786
    Sheep shorn during season56,451,59155,761,54056,416,87856,257,29957,836,573
Pigs (total)614,177553,388577,925552,279476,989
    Breeding sows77,41269,22373,20478,83960,319

The 1964 Agricultural Development Conference set a target of an increase in livestock numbers of 3.5 percent a year and the National Development Conference in 1969 revised the rate to 2.6 percent a year.

In the latest year dairy cattle increased by 2.8 percent, beef cattle by 11.4 percent, sheep by 3.3 percent while pigs decreased by 13.6 percent. The beef cattle herd has been increasingly supplemented in recent years by dairy-bred cattle reared for beef production, as indicated by the declining calf kill.

The dairying and beef-production industries are both largely concentrated in the North Island, which has 83 percent of the total cattle and 92 percent of the dairy stock. Localising the dairying industry still further, it is found that 66 percent of the milking cows of New Zealand are in the northern half of the North Island. Taranaki and Wellington districts between them account for one-quarter of the total dairy cows in milk.

Beef cattle are fairly evenly spread over the North Island, except Taranaki and areas close to Auckland.

Taking the number of beef breeding cows 2 years old and over as a guide to beef production, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty and Wellington statistical areas easily lead with 36 percent of the New Zealand total between them. Hawke's Bay is next, followed by East Coast and Northland in that order. These five districts together depasture 69 percent of breeding cows.

Northland, Central Auckland, and South Auckland - Bay of Plenty statistical areas account for 42 percent of the pig population and Wellington and Taranaki for 26 percent. The number of pigs kept in the Nelson and Canterbury areas has increased considerably in recent years and 18 percent of the pig population is now in these areas. Tanker collection of whole milk from dairy farms has reduced the rearing of pigs as a sideline; major developments have taken place in the rearing of grain-fed pigs in large units.

Sheep farming is more evenly distributed between the North and South Islands. The statistical areas of major importance are Canterbury, Wellington, South Auckland - Bay of Plenty, Southland, Otago, and Hawke's Bay, in that order, these six districts accounting for 85 percent of the total sheep population in 1971.

The following table shows the distribution of livestock at 30 June 1972.

Statistical AreaDairy Cows and Heifers Two Years Old and Over (In Milk)Beef Breeding Cows Two Years Old and OverTotal CattleBreeding SowsTotal PigsSheep Shorn*Lambs Shorn*Lambs Tailed*
*Sheep and lambs shorn during 1971–72 and lambs tailed during year ended 31 January 1973.
Northland(000)2721829344251,6867991,053
 Percent12.669.5410.826.675.242.914.512.59
Central Auckland(000)185595216581,075403628
 Percent8.613.096.0310.0012.161.862.271.55
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty(000)9543812,626141168,3933,8845,411
 Percent44.4119.9730.4223.4224.3214.5121.9113.32
East Coast(000)7185429142,3611,1161,533
 Percent0.329.704.971.670.844.086.293.78
Hawke's Bay(000)422627762126,8082,7314,784
 Percent1.9513.698.993.332.5211.7715.4011.78
Taranaki(000)332457047641,455640950
 Percent15.452.368.1511.6713.422.523.612.34
Wellington(000)1983091,1759618,9973,7645,921
 Percent9.2116.2013.6115.0013.0015.5621.2314.58
North Island(000)1,9891,4227,1654334130,77513,33720,280
 Percent92.6074.5783.0071.6771.4953.2175.2249.93
Marlborough(000)15421272171,370212855
 Percent0.692.201.473.333.562.371.192.11
Nelson(000)3532140219697228420
 Percent1.631.671.623.333.981.201.291.03
Westland(000)182593117948122
 Percent0.841.311.080.210.310.270.30
Canterbury(000)461514549679,6541,2987,295
 Percent2.147.915.2615.0014.0516.697.3217.96
Otago(000)221353512167,2117635,192
 Percent1.027.074.073.333.3512.474.3012.78
Southland(000)231013032167,9501,8456,450
 Percent1.075.293.513.333.3513.7510.4115.88
South Island(000)1594851,4681713627,0614,39320,334
 Percent7.4025.4317.0028.3328.5146.7924.7850.07

Detailed statistics of livestock are contained in the annual report Agricultural Statistics. This publication also contains the summary tables from parliamentary paper C. 5A (formerly H. 23), which is a statistical analysis of the annual sheep returns.

SHEEP—The following table analyses categories of sheep and gives a broad classification of stud and other groups.

At 30 JuneRamsWethersBreeding EwesDry EwesHoggetsTotal
RamWetherEwe
thousands
Totals
19681,0042,40142,6514883312,49911,10060,474
19691,0082,03843,3853833121,97110,84059,937
19709921,76742,9114323292,59111,25360,276
19719851,73243,0174903092,03710,34258,912
19721,0291,58444,1524263432,40010,94960,883
19739371,22341,0173613132,24810,58556,684
Stud Sheep (Entered in Flock Book)
1957174416153168784
1962255087183196918
1967195296215215985
19721955752102251,016
Sheep of a Distinctive Breed but Not Entered in Flock Book
19577201,97024,699352722,3366,09636,245
19628342,01229,035450752,2897,28041,975
19679192,47937,184337922,53310,25453,798
19729121,44137,6223761051,9888,81851,262
Crossbred Sheep
1957332923,7607394507365,353
1962412694,4029394368466,096
1967422253,69536112879525,248
1972971435,97445284121,9058,604

The 1972 classification of breeds shows that of the 60,882,719 sheep in New Zealand, 40,019,022 (65.73 percent) were Romneys and 8,604,020 (14.13 percent) were crossbreeds. The remainder were composed principally of Corriedale 4,405,591, half-bred 2,537,007, Merino 1,132,905, and Southdown 1,061,539.

There has been a steady increase in the average flock size over the last 5 years. A classification of numbers of flocks by size of flock for the last 5 years is now given.

Size of Flocks19681969197019711972
*One and two years old heifers in calf included in cows in milk during season.
1-       995,3105,2015,0675,0274,629
100-      1992,4212,2402,1682,1451,920
200-      4994,7414,5674,3474,2023,617
500-      9996,2335,7815,4735,2455,254
1,000–1,4996,3396,1315,7455,4615,274
1,500–1,9995,7145,5675,3635,1505,059
2,000–2,4993,5503,5863,5953,5413,734
2,500–4,9995,1205,1185,3355,2735,775
5,000–9,9991,0871,1331,1881,1951,301
10,000 and over255262280276263
Total flocks40,77039,58638,56137,51536,826
Average flock size1,4721,5141,5631,5701,653

CATTLE—Numbers of cattle by categories are now given.

CategoryAt 31 JanuaryAt 30 June
1969197019711972
*One and two years old heifers in calf included in cows in milk during season.
Dairy stock—
    Cows and heifers, two years old and over—
        Cows in milk during season2,304,2522,320,6362,361,5992,147,991
        Heifers not yet in milk85,31995,68569,45857,680
        Cows not in milk during season, but intended to be used again for dairying25,83930,065
    Heifers—
        One and two years old627,338604,730285,086*487,765
        Under one year old646,070582,770395,477469,090
    Bulls and calves intended for dairy breeding104,26595,39886,54786,491
Totals, dairy stock3,793,0833,729,2843,198,1673,249,017
Beef stock—
    Breeding cows and heifers, two years old and over1,705,8711,755,3061,688,6691,907,208
        Cows, two years old and over, not used for breeding76,307110,703136,284205,855
Heifers—
        One and under two years old518,833532,244517,641560,931
        Under one year old598,538634,657641,692690,825
Steers and bulls of all ages1,912,2422,015,1381,812,0601,978,977
Totals, beef stock4,811,7915,048,0484,796,3465,343,796
Totals, cattle8,604,8748,777,3327,994,5138,592,813

A feature of dairy farming in recent years has been the move to the amalgamation of farms to provide more economic units. The State Advances Corporation provided the following annual amounts of capital for farm amalgamations: 1968–69, $6.1 million; 1969–70, $16.3 million, 1970–71, $20.4 million; 1971–72, $22.8 million. A consequence is larger herd sizes.

The following table shows the number of holdings with dairy cows in milk, grouped according to size of herd in milk.

As at 31 Jan.HoldingsTotal Holdings with 10 or more Cows in Milk
With 10–39 CowsWith 40–49 CowsWith 50–59 CowsWith 60–69 CowsWith 70–79 CowsWith 80–89 CowsWith 90–99 CowsWith 100–149 CowsWith 150–199 CowsWith 200 and Over
*Entries for 1972 are number of holdings for herd group sizes according to total dairy cattle on holding as at 30 June.
195214,4315,2454,4383,6652,5121,7261,1052,53235,654
195711,5894,8354,5894,3053,0712,0231,3513,09434,857
19609,0464,2154,1993,9862,9152,1481,2893,35331,151
19683,0351,5081,8902,4492,6412,6792,1278,48824,817
19692,7791,3651,6822,2832,4152,5852,2519,25324,613
19702,3891,2151,5261,9162,1862,3982,2279,96023,817
19712,3499321,1451,4591,6622,0361,93710,89522,415
1972*2,3506066448088771,0211,2486,8134,6764,30623,349

PIGS—The rearing of pigs dropped away until 1969 with the trend of farmers to supply whole milk to dairy factories instead of separating off the skim milk.

At 31 JanuaryBreeding Sows One Year Old and OverOther Pigs of All Ages (Including Boars)Total Pigs
*At 30 June.
196775,910526,785602,695
196877,412536,765614,177
196969,223484,165553,388
197073,204504,721577,925
1971*78,839473,440552,279
1972*60,319416,670476,989

Particulars as to pig breeds collected in 1950 showed that the principal distinctive breeds were Berkshire (6.6 percent) and Tamworth (5.5 percent), but over 80 percent of the pigs in New Zealand were classified as crossbreeds.

DOGS—The count of dogs registered during the year ended 31 March 1970 showed that there were 228,157 dogs registered in counties, 69,318 in cities and boroughs, 805 in town districts, and 218 in road districts. Unregistered dogs and those up to 6 months old are not included in these figures.

POULTRY--The following table shows poultry recorded at censuses.

CensusNumber of Units Keeping PoultryFowlsDucksGeeseTurkeysTotal Poultry
*Excluding flocks owned by Maoris.
April 1951180,7233,829,481260,65958,47450,9764,199,590
April 1956192,7364,160,424210,71860,93853,4914,485,571
April 1961163,4764,183,563202,24573,45766,1324,525,397
March 1966122,8444,946,838184,54082,05083,0645,296,492

In 1970–71 there were 2,823 registered poultry runs forming the basic commercial units of the industry. Of these, 1,524 flocks had fewer than 201 fowls, 218 ranged from 201 to 500 fowls, 158 from 501 to 1,000 fowls, 731 from 1,001 to 5,000 fowls and 192 flocks exceeded 5,000 fowls. There were 4,224,195 birds in these flocks.

The commercial groups sell their eggs through licensed egg floors and are therefore mainly responsible for supplying eggs to retail shops in the cities and larger towns. Egg production has been steadily increasing and sales through licensed distributors have been 37,212,000 dozen in 1968–69; 40,316,000 dozen in 1969–70; and 42,715,000 dozen in 1970–71. It is estimated that approximately 60 to 65 percent of the total egg production passes through these channels. There was substantial over-production of eggs in 1972.

Poultry farming is confined largely to egg production, but units are now established for the production of table poultry, and attention paid to the production of "broilers" or 3 to 3½ lb live weight chicken. At the Census of 1966 there were 1,167,000 broiler chickens.

Commercial poultry farms are distributed over both Islands, but there are concentrations around Auckland, Christchurch, and Oamaru. The poultry industry does not cater for overseas markets, though limited quantities of frozen egg pulp, surplus to local requirements, are exported.

Reference to the field covered by the Egg Marketing Authority is given in Section 21 of this Yearbook.

BEES—The rich pasture lands of New Zealand and some bush areas are favourable for apiculture and the production of high-grade honey, although more intensive farming methods and land development have eliminated many sources of nectar for the bees.

Average annual production of honey for the past 6 years is estimated at 5,283 tonnes. Production of commercial beeswax for 1972–73 season is estimated to be 83.4 tonnes. Most of the honey is consumed in New Zealand, which has one of the highest rates of consumption per head in the world.

Registrations under the Apiaries Act show that at 31 May 1967 there were 3,508 beekeepers with a total of 12,770 apiaries and 194,213 hives. There are only some 300 full-time beekeepers completely dependent on honey production. Following is a summary of these registrations showing beekeepers in groups according to the number of hives kept.

Group1–5 Hives6–50 Hives51–250 Hives251–500 Hives501–1000 Hives1,001 Hives and overTotal
Beekeepers2,3088591957274483,556
Apiaries2,7391,7831,8181,4473,5314,03615,354
Hives established5,96414,49825,67024,00256,04982,265208,448

Chapter 17. Section 15; FORESTRY

GENERAL—Trees are among New Zealand's valuable assets, with growth favoured by temperate climate and generally adequate rainfall and soil conditions. Until the early nineteenth century extensive evergreen forests covered some two-thirds of the land area of New Zealand, the remaining third being the low-rainfall zones in the east of the South Island (carrying only tussock grasses) and the rocky mountain tops above 3,500–4,500 ft. Because of the abundance, use of timber during the early days of European settlement was wasteful, and in clearing land for farms large areas of native forest were felled and burnt in the interests of land development. There was little regard for conservation, and clearing of the forests extended well beyond the limits now considered desirable. The kauri forests of the far north were almost destroyed by logging and subsequent burning, and the areas of rimu forest in both islands were heavily depleted. It was not until towards the end of the nineteenth century that the need to conserve forests of the high mountain watersheds was recognised, and by the early 1900s national parks and scenic and climatic reserves amounting to just under 1 million hectares had been set aside as permanent forest; the area has since grown to over 2 million hectares (see Section 13).

Today, apart from the national parks, about 4 million hectares of land, valuable either for timber production or for forest growth that is vital to soil and water conservation, has been constituted State forest. The country's timber resources have been built up by afforestation with introduced species, mainly conifers, which produce usable wood in 25–30 years, a much shorter time than the slow-growing indigenous species. State plantations now have an area of about 323,000 hectares, and planting by private interests has contributed an almost equal area. The output of timber from the exotic forests now greatly surpasses that from the indigenous forests, in which cutting is restricted. The exotic species are also the basis of a flourishing pulp and paper industry and an export trade in logs.

The following table shows the present area of forested land in relation to other categories of land.

Type of LandAreaPercentage of Total Area.
*1 hectare = 2.47 acres.
 (million hectares)*(million acres) 
Total forested land6.315.623.2
Pasture and arable land13.533.650.0
Other non-forested land6.616.325.5
Minor islands0.10.20.3
Lakes, rivers, etc.0.30.71.0
Total area26.866.4100.0

THE FORESTS TODAY—More than three-quarters of the forest area is classed as unmerchantable. This is mainly Crown-owned indigenous forest which, because it covers much of the remote and mountainous high-rainfall country, has as its primary function soil protection and water regulation. The limited production possibilities it offers must be subordinated to its protective role.

Of the 5.6 million hectares of indigenous forests that remain, only some 0.5 million hectares are merchantable by today's standards for sawmilling. Despite the greatly increased use of exotic timber the indigenous forests are being depleted at the rate of 5,000 hectares a year, primarily for sawn timber.

Merchantable forests also include almost all the planted (exotic) forests, about half of which were established and are owned privately or by local authorities. There are 607,000 hectares of productive exotic forest, over half of which is in the Bay of Plenty - Taupo region, where very large plantings were made from 1923 to 1936. The distribution of the planted forests was influenced mainly by availability of cheap undeveloped land at that time.

The exotic conifers, particularly radiata pine, have high growth rates, ease of establishment and ease of re-establishment on cut-over areas, and they produce wood that has many uses. Plantings of such trees are being extended and developed to provide for increasing domestic and export demand.

The distribution by area of the two classes of forest land is shown in the table below.

Class of Forested LandIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll ForestsIndigenous ForestsExotic ForestsAll Forests

*Merchantable indigenous forests include some reserves, previously logged areas, and areas of such low stocking that commercial exploitation is at present uneconomic. Commercially exploitable forest in the 1,040,000 hectares detailed above is estimated to be 500,000 hectares.

Note: Figures may not add because of rounding.

Merchantable forestsacres (thousand)hectares (thousand)
    State forest1,4557992,254589323912
    Other Crown land1681686868
    Freehold and leasehold land3897261,115157294451
    Maori land2332339494
    Reserve2002008080
Totals2,4401,5303,980990*6201,610
Unmerchantable forests
    State forest5,3005,3002,1402,140
    Other Crown land1,4001,400570570
    Freehold and leasehold land1,6001001,70065040690
    Maori land800800320320
    Reserve2,4002,400970970
Totals11,50010011,6004,650404,690
Totals, all forested land14,0001,60015,6005,6406606,300

BOTANICAL COMPOSITION OF FORESTS: Indigenous Forests—These can be broadly grouped into podocarp/broad-leaved forest (which includes kauri forest) and beech forest, but there are also many subgroups and transition zones.

Podocarp/broad-leaved forests are found at all latitudes in the three main islands, more particularly those of the north and of the warm wet lowlands and lower mountain slopes, and there is a general increase in luxuriance and in numbers of species from south to north. This type of forest has suffered severely by destruction in land clearing or from heavy logging. There are still some large areas on steep country, such as the Urewera, but these are essentially protection forests. Fairly extensive areas in the centre of the North Island and on the West Coast of the South Island contain most of the remaining indigenous softwood supplies. Otherwise, the remaining forest of this type consists of pockets, some of which may be worked out in a few decades.

The principal podocarp is rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) and important secondary ones are totara (Podocarpus totara), matai (P. spicatus), and miro (P. ferrugineus). Important species at higher elevations are Hall's totara (P. hallii) and kaikawaka (Libocedrus bidwillii). Kahikatea (Podocarpus dacrydioides), once common on low-lying swampy river silts now cleared for farming, is becoming scarce. The smaller podocarps of the silver-pine group (Dacrydium biforme, D. colensoi, and D. intermedium) are dominant in bog forests occupying limited areas in the central North Island and scattered widely over the South Island although concentrated largely on the West Coast, where they are largely cut over for posts and sleepers.

The main broad-leaved species associated with the podocarps are kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa), rata (Metrosideros umbellata and M. robusta), and tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa) in the North Island and western Nelson.

Kauri forests are found in Northland. In them, kauri (Agethis australis) either occurs frequently or is locally dominant—otherwise they are akin to the podocarp/broad-leaved forest, though with many additional hardwoods. They have been almost destroyed by logging and fire and only limited reservations and a few small pockets remain.

Beech forests, in which one or more of the southern-beech (Nothofagus) species are dominant, are the forests of the south, of the mountains, and of the dry lowlands; but the species are absent from some localities where their presence might be expected, e.g., Mt. Egmont, the region 100 miles south of the Taramakau River in Westland, and Stewart Island. In the main, these forests are protection forests, but there are large areas in accessible regions that have been cut over and are regenerating, and others that have not yet been logged and will be reserved for sustained-yield management or replaced by fast-growing exotics.

Scrub and second-growth broad-leaved species occupy much of the land now classified as forest. There were, before European settlement, limited transition areas carrying manuka (Leptospermum scoparium and L. ericoides) between tussock grassland and forest proper. With deliberate destruction by fire of much tussock and forest these manuka belts have extended, and manuka even occupies extensive areas of destroyed forest remote from its own original stands. In this respect it is important, for it is often a stage in succession back to forest proper.

Exotic Forests—Introduced species of pines form the bulk of the large and valuable exotic-forest estate, and among these radiata pine (Pinus radiata) is the supreme all-purpose tree. Radiata pine grows rapidly in New Zealand (reaching saw-log size in 25–30 years), produces a large volume of usable wood, and is remarkably adapted to a variety of sites. Other major species are Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Corsican pine (Pinus nigra (laricio)), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa). Of recent years the southern pines—loblolly (P. taeda) and slash (P. elliottii) pines—have found a place in more northerly forests. Species planted on a restricted scale are lodgepole (P. contorta), strobus (P. strobus), patula (P. patula), and muricata (P. muricata) pines, larch (Larix decidua and L. leptolepis), Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), Lawson cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa), and western red cedar (Thuja plicata). The limited amount of introduced broad-leaved species used in plantations is, for the most part, various species of eucalypt.

The largest exotic forests are in the centre of the North Island; medium and small plantations are distributed throughout most of the country. Radiata pine constitutes about half the area of State plantations and about 90 percent of private plantations.

FOREST TREES AND TIMBERS—Detailed information on forest trees and timbers is contained in publications of the New Zealand Forest Service, including Exotic Forest Trees in New Zealand (Weston); The National Forest Survey of New Zealand, 1955, Vol. I: The Indigenous Forest Resources of New Zealand (Masters, Holloway, and McKelvey); The Physical and Mechanical Properties of the Principal Indigenous Woods of New Zealand (Entrican, Ward, and Reid); New Zealand Building Timbers (Reid); and the annual reports of the Forest Service and Forest Research Institute.

FOREST POLICY—By the Forests Act 1949, the Forest Service has, under the direction of the Minister of Forests, complete responsibility in carrying out all matters of forest policy affecting State forest land and has exclusive control and management of:

  1. All State forest land, whether for the production of timber or other forest produce, or for the protection of the land with a view to water conservation or soil stabilisation, or for ensuring the balanced use of the land, or for scientific purposes, or for recreational or amenity purposes not prejudicial to forestry.

  2. The establishment, culture, and maintenance of forests on State forest land, and the harvesting, utilisation, transport, sale, or other disposal of forest produce from State forest land.

  3. The granting of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities under the Act.

  4. The enforcement of the conditions of licences, leases, permits, and other rights and authorities granted under the Act or any enactment repealed.

  5. The collection and recovery of all purchase moneys, rents, fees, royalties, charges, and revenues of the Service; and

  6. Generally the exercise of all powers, authorities, and duties conferred or imposed on the Minister or the Forest Service by the Act.

Regulations—The Forests Act 1949 authorises the appointment by regulation of committees to advise the Minister of Forests on specified matters. Regulations issued under this authority are the Timber Production Advisory Committee Regulations 1949, the Sirex Advisory Committee Regulations 1950, the Forest and Fire Publicity Committee Regulations 1952, the Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee Regulations 1952, the Indigenous Forest Timber Committee Regulations 1966, and the Timber Industry Training Centre Advisory Committee Regulations 1966.

Other regulations in force are the Sawmill Registration Regulations 1952, the Timber Regulations 1948, the Forest Service Fees and Charges Regulations 1953, the Forest Produce Import and Export Regulations 1966, the Forest Disease Control Regulations 1967, the State Forest Park Regulations 1969, and the Forestry Encouragement Grants Regulations 1970.

MANAGEMENT OF STATE FORESTS—The management activities of the Forest Service are directed towards: protecting, conserving, and, where possible, perpetuating the remaining indigenous forests of the country; creating an exotic forest estate large enough and sufficiently diverse to supply the future needs of New Zealand in timber and other forest produce and to provide for large exports.

Spreading awareness among the general public of the human and physical environment has brought the management of remaining indigenous forests under critical examination. To manage forest land on the basis of optimum use, dominant forest values (whether they are of protection, amenity, production or otherwise) must be identified and defined. Recognising forest zones is a basis for reconciling numerous objectives. Important non-production values are identified first in forest zoning, namely soil and water conservation, biological significance, scenic appeal, and potential for recreation. Wood production values are considered subsequently.

In relation to the approximately 4 million hectares of State forest administered by the New Zealand Forest Service, conservation embraces: the husbanding of indigenous forests yielding timber needed for special purposes, but which are difficult to perpetuate and must therefore be used as sparingly as possible; the management in selected areas of less silviculturally difficult forests, such as Westland terrace rimu and beech and kauri in North Auckland on a sustained yield basis; the creation and management of exotic forests on a sustained yield basis for the production of wood for a wide range of uses; the establishment or maintenance in a healthy state of protective vegetation on hill and mountain land to preserve soil and to control stream channel aggradation; the protection of exotic and indigenous forest against fire, disease, and noxious animals for the maintenance of: a supply of exotic and indigenous wood, a vegetative cover to preserve soil and water values, a habitat for wildlife, and scenic and other amenity values in perpetuity; the legal reservation of selected forest types as forest sanctuaries and scenic reserves; the use of exotic and indigenous forest for recreational and other purposes, including spiritual enjoyment, where this is not incompatible with essential timber production or soil and water conservation.

Indigenous Production Forests—Conservation measures in indigenous production forests involve restriction of the annual cut, rigid insistence on full utilisation, and block sales of carefully measured standing timber. Substantial long-term reserves have also been set aside to ensure the continued supply of high-quality indigenous timber and to safeguard resources against the unlikely event that a major catastrophe should befall the exotic forest estate.

Increasing interdependence between forests and a wider recognition of the social and economic benefits derived from indigenous and exotic forests in regional development emphasise the necessity for planning all forest operations on a regional basis. Management plans are the formal authorisation for all management activities in State forests and prescribe the amount of timber that may be cut annually and the silvicultural protection and development operations to be carried out.

Parallel to the policy of rationing the cut is that of making long-term log and timber sales. This has the effect of giving stability to sawmilling industries and to the communities dependent on them. Further stability is being sought by the practice of replanting logged areas with exotic species, combined where possible with the planting of adjacent areas of open country. By this means a sustained yield, part exotic and part indigenous, can be achieved, and the sawmilling industries and communities can look forward to a life in perpetuity.

The ecology of the natural forest associations and the silvicultural characteristics of the individual species are being studied. Past work has shown the importance of preserving a forest climate, which means that clear felling, or any condition that allows exposure and desiccation, must be avoided. Carefully conducted selection logging of terrace rimu forests in south Westland provides a favourable forest environment for the regeneration and growth of rimu. Management investigations are continuing so that sustained yields of high-quality wood can be assured.

In many districts, forests of mixed podocarps and tawa have been logged for rimu, leaving tawa behind. Recently, however, tawa has been found useful as a hardwood pulp and in the Bay of Plenty is being used for this purpose.

The kauri forests, now only remnants, are owned principally by the State. Management of them has the objective of perpetuating kauri as a species in the interests of science and public enjoyment, in natural stands and as managed forests. Large representative areas of mature and immature kauri have been set aside as sanctuaries, programmes of research and artificial establishment intensified, and the annual cut reduced to the lowest level consistent with economic, social, and legal constraints.

The prospects of improving and perpetuating the beech forests on a sustained-yield basis are good. Both the major species, red and silver beech, when given the right conditions, will regenerate freely; both grow sufficiently rapidly to produce saw logs in 100–130 years; and both show their best development on sites that are unsuitable for agriculture. Many large areas of beech forests are still intact and, in the case of red beech, there are extensive stands of pole forest which have originated after fire, wind throw, or mining activities. Against these favourable circumstances must be set the presence in many localities of red deer, the browsing of which may check or even prevent effective regeneration.

A survey has been undertaken into the extent and distribution of beech forests in Nelson, northern Westland, and western Southland that may be suitable for production of saw logs and hardwood pulp. Care is being given to the consideration of areas that must be reserved for soil and water conservation or for scenery and recreation, and any forests utilised will be managed on a sustained-yield basis or replaced in part by fast-growing exotics. Details of the proposed management and use of these beech forests are given in the publication Utilisation of South Island Beech Forests (parliamentary paper C.4, 1971). Permanent production is envisaged from some 324,000 hectares of lower altitude beech forest in Nelson, Westland, and Southland conservancies. (There are 3.5 million hectares of beech forest in the South Island.) The Forest Service is conscious of the need to preserve major environmental values in perpetuity.

In October 1973 the Government decided to call for proposals to use beech forests for major pulp industries, although any utilisation proposals are not likely to be effective until 1976. The Southland scheme would take in 50,000 hectares of beech of which 14,020 hectares would be regenerated in beech and 36,000 hectares in exotic species. On the West Coast, the proposal is that 230,000 hectares of beech and other native trees would be converted, of which 100,000 hectares would be replanted in beech.

Exotic Forests—State exotic forests date from 1896, when an Afforestation Branch of the Lands Department was formed and forest-tree nurseries were established at Tapanui and Eweburn in the South Island and at Rotorua in the North Island. Planting began in 1898 and proceeded slowly until 1922, by which time 19,000 hectares had been established. From 1923 to 1936 there was a boom in afforestation, with no less than 150,000 hectares planted by the State and 120,000 hectares by commercial companies. After the boom period planting continued on a more modest scale, but in 1961 State planting was increased and the Government provided for financial inducements to encourage planting by private landholders and local authorities—with the aim of doubling the exotic-forest estate by the end of the century. The annual rate of State planting has more than quadrupled since then (4,000 hectares in 1961, 17,000 hectares in 1973).

In the early years exotic forestry was necessarily experimental and, as could be expected, was not equally successful with all species and in all sites tried. Location and distribution of the plantations were largely decided by the availability of land rather than by suitability for tree growing or proximity to existing or future markets.

Now that the stage of large-scale utilisation has been reached, there are opportunities to increase productivity by correcting the deficiencies in the distribution of age classes, replacing unthrifty plantations, and improving the quality of the trees, and, at the same time, meeting the demand for forest products and ensuring continuity of supplies. The diversity of products now marketable permits utilisation of trees of a wide range of sizes and aids the operations needed in management practice. There is wide use of working plans to prescribe and co-ordinate forest operations.

Present policy is to concentrate new exotic forests in areas where there is scope for building up integrated wood-based industries to supply New Zealand markets and material for export. The planted forests (both State and private) already supply over 85 percent of the total wood production and in the future will supply much more.

Stabilisation of Sand Dunes—This aspect of the Forest Service's work has a twofold objective: the stabilisation of dunes for the protection of agricultural and pastoral land, and the establishment of production forests. The Forest Service plants marram grass, sows lupin, and later establishes trees on certain protective zones. Seven schemes are in operation—at Aupouri, Mangawhai, Woodhill, Waiuku, Tainui-Kawhia, Waitarere, and Santoft—embracing a total area of approximately 52,000 hectares. About 21,000 hectares of trees have been planted.

A most successful co-operative venture is under way in two Northland localities, where the Crown has leased large areas of coastal sand dunes (adjacent to Aupouri and Woodhill forests) for stabilisation and afforestation.

Protection Forests—The vegetation of the mountainous areas—forest, scrub, and subalpine grassland—is of the highest importance to the welfare of New Zealand, for many of the rivers that bring water to low-lying farmlands or provide the domestic water supply of cities and towns have their headwaters in the mountainous back country. The mountains receive frequent heavy falls of rain and are mostly formed of rocks that erode easily when exposed to heavy rain and other climatic effects. The blanket of montane vegetation absorbs much of the rainfall and, by protecting the soil and stabilising unconsolidated rocky slopes, prevents soil and rock from reaching streams and altering their flow characteristics. Settled flood plains can be protected by a combination of river-training works and maintenance of a good cover of vegetation on catchments to ensure the most stable stream flow possible.

Excluding forest parks, the Forest Service controls over 2 million hectares of protection-forest land, and its main function here is to maintain the protective vegetation in good condition. The greatest threat is from the large numbers of browsing animals that were introduced many years ago which, in the absence of natural enemies and limiting climate, have multiplied excessively. Consequently the first step in the effective management of these areas is control of these animals. Environmental forestry rangers are trained in field biology, in field geology, and in watershed and range management. They make careful observations of the effects of browsing animals on the vegetation to gauge if control operations have been intensive enough to allow adequate vegetation response.

The Environmental Forestry Division of the Forest Service works in close association with the Forest Research Institute's Protection Forestry Division and its associated Forest and Range Experiment Station, which investigate such features as the condition and trends of vegetation, alpine climate, rates of erosion, the possibility of introducing new forest and scrub species into badly depleted areas, and changes in animal populations and methods of control.

Recreation in State Forests—Nearly 1 million hectares of State forest are being developed as forest parks which, although primarily protection forests, will also provide recreation facilities. (Recreation in State forests is also discussed in Section 13, Land Use and Resources Development.)

Safeguarding Forests and Timber: Fire Prevention—Fire is the greatest single menace to forests; within a few hours it can destroy a valuable timber crop or undo the work of decades in building up a soil and vegetation balance. Indigenous forests are fairly fire resistant but can become flammable in drought conditions; and severely burnt indigenous forest usually means a destroyed forest because many of the species are difficult to regenerate. Without doubt, however, the major risk occurs in the plantations of exotic conifers.

The fire-protection organisation of the Forest Service operates over the entire country, covering State forests, forests on other Crown lands, scenic reserves, and national parks. A fire-fighting service is maintained wherever the department has fire-fighting responsibilities, and well equipped fire-fighting crews can be brought into action at short notice and controlled through a radio network. Aerial fire-detection patrols operate when and where required, and aerial fire fighting, in the form of helicopters fitted with special buckets, has been adapted to deal with fire outbreak in high country and like inaccessible areas.

Although the generally adequate and well distributed rainfall reduces the risk of fire, high winds and strong sunshine can quickly dry out vegetation on exposed situations. The provision of a fire-hazard prediction and warning service is an essential function of the Forest Service. There is a nationwide network of "fire weather" and radio stations, and the fire hazard in any part of the country is known at the head office in Wellington each day during the fire season (October to April) within an hour of weather observations being taken at the stations. This enables appropriate action to be taken, such as advice to fire authorities and broadcasting of warnings.

Although fire is a serious threat to the forests it is also a useful silvicultural tool. It has over the past few years been increasingly used as an efficient and economical means of clearing land. Without its aid the present annual land clearing programme of over 20,000 hectares would be impossible to achieve.

Legislative provisions for fire protection are the Forest and Rural Fires Act 1955 and the Fire Services Act 1949. The Forest Service is responsible for administering the former Act.

Noxious Animal Control—Under the Noxious Animals Act 1956 the Forest Service is responsible for the control of deer, goats, chamois, pigs, and other introduced wild animals on all lands where the damage they cause is detrimental to the welfare of the country. On State forest and unoccupied Crown land the Forest Service also deals with opossum and wallaby control; but on pastoral land control of these two animals comes under the Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

The widespread populations of many of these animals have a serious effect on the regeneration of forest trees and ground-cover vegetation, in production as well as in protection forests. The natural forest floor of ferns, mosses, and shrubs has been extensively damaged by such ground-browsing animals as deer and goats, while simultaneously the upper storey is adversely affected by the canopy-feeding opossum.

Damage by deer and opossums in commercial exotic forests has made it necessary to extend control measures into these forests.

Over 200,000 animals are killed each year by Forest Service and private hunters. Even with modern facilities, including air transport of supplies and use of helicopters for hunting, control of noxious animals is difficult and overall progress is slow. In some rugged country where hunting has proved impracticable, such as in parts of Westland, poisoning has been used successfully.

Control of Insects and Fungi—Sound silvicultural practices are the first line of defence, rendering trees less vulnerable to attack.

Biological control over insect pests is exerted by their natural enemies, insect or fungal parasites. Introduced species frequently come into the country without their natural enemies, and part of the work of the biologist is to breed and liberate the latter.

Chemical control is an alternative means of dealing with outbreaks. It includes spraying of affected forests from aeroplanes, chemical treatment of nursery soils, and the dipping of timber to prevent attack by bark beetles and fungi.

In conjunction with private enterprise the Forest Service has organised joint spraying operations for the control of the pine needle blight Dothistroma pini. Aerial spraying of a copper fungicide is an inexpensive and effective means of dealing with this disease. Increasing research is being directed towards the debilitating effect of Swiss needle cast (Phaeocryptopus gaeumannii) on the growth of Douglas fir.

Under the Forest Disease Control Regulations 1967, the Forest Service can take steps to eradicate or control forest diseases where they occur.

Pathologists and entomologists of the Forest Research Institute make a continuous study of diseases and insects harmful to forests and timber. Observers of the institute's forest biology survey maintain a constant watch on the forests and woodlots and shelter belts to detect incipient epidemics in time for effective control measures to be taken; and much information is accumulated which helps to elucidate the relationships between the organisms and the forests.

Timber Inspection and Quarantine—Forest Service timber inspection and quarantine cover all sawn, hewn, and natural round timber, wooden packing, and ship's dunnage entering or leaving the country. In 1966, to reduce the risk of introducing insects in packing timbers, a prohibition was placed on importation of any sawn timber with bark attached. Overseas exporters must now certify that any wooden packing they use is free of bark and insect attack when shipped. Since introduction of this requirement there has been a noticeable drop in the number of infested crates reaching the country. New Zealand exporters are required to give the same care: timber must be completely free from bark and infection and must meet the quarantine requirements of the importing country before export is permitted. Control over dunnage was extended in 1966 to include all material within New Zealand territorial waters.

With greater use of containers for export and import goods it is essential for rapid clearance that no cases, pallets, or dunnage affected by insects or carrying bark is used in any container, or fumigation may be ordered.

FINANCE OF STATE ACTIVITIES—At present more money is being spent on the establishment and tending of forests than is obtained in revenue. Expenditure by way of general administration of forestry has been met in full from taxation, as distinct from the development of State forests which is financed from national development loans.

Sources of finance are shown in the following table.

Source1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
 $(000)
Consolidated Revenue Account expenditure7,2538,1559,7724,1224,946
    Less receipts137168170143128
        Required from Consolidated Revenue Account7,1167,9879,6023,9794,818
Works and Trading Account expenditure19,72023,74825,91837,27843,829
    Less receipts17,12721,39723,67826,71730,007
        Loan moneys required2,5932,3512,24010,56113,822
    Net finance required from Government funds9,70910,33811,84214,54018,640

PRIVATE FORESTRY: Private Forest Estate—The National Exotic Forest Survey found that, in 1962, forest holdings other than State forests (New Zealand Forest Service) and those on other Crown lands amounted to 214,000 hectares. Since then about 53,000 hectares have been added, mainly by afforestation companies, and the estimated areas in the various ownerships at 31 March 1973 were: local authorities, 22,000 hectares; companies, 167,000 hectares; and private persons (mainly farmers), 98,000 hectares.

Extension Services—An increasing awareness among landowners of the value of forestry as a profitable form of land use, stimulated by the various direct and indirect incentives given by Government, and the activities of farm forestry associations established throughout the country have resulted in a marked increase in extension forestry work. Loans have been approved for 420 projects and grants for 750 schemes covering a gross area of over 40,000 hectares. A growing number of partnerships, syndicates, and small companies are being formed to acquire land and develop small forests with assistance from the scheme grants.

To provide a means of gaining general forestry knowledge, the Technical Correspondence Institute has begun a correspondence course in woodlot forestry.

The Farm Forestry Association has produced a 30 minute film called In the Company of Trees to publicise the advantages of woodlot forestry.

Forest Taxation—The value of standing trees does not increase any assessment for land tax and local body rates and, since 1949, concessions have been made in connection with income tax. Expenditure incurred in planting, protecting, and maintaining shelter belts and woodlots planted for shelter, shade, erosion control, or other agricultural purpose has since that year been allowed to be charged against income for tax purposes. At the same time income from the intermittent sale of farm trees could, on application to the Commissioner of Inland Revenue, be spread over 5 years to mitigate the effects of the higher graduation tax. In 1960 the timber value of trees growing on a deceased's estate was exempted from death duties. This exemption removes the fear of a crippling burden on the estate and the possibility of the forced sale of a perhaps immature plantation.

Forestry Encouragement Finance—Under the Forestry Encouragement Act 1962 the Government may grant loans to local authorities towards the cost of establishing and tending new plantations and the tending of those already in existence. For private landholders there has since 13 April 1970 been a scheme in the form of a grant equal to 50 percent of the qualifying costs of establishing and developing new approved forests; such grants are to be an alternative to the tax concession already available to income-earning forest companies and to be limited to individuals or companies whose total annual qualifying expenditure does not exceed $200,000 a year.

FOREST UTILISATION: Removals of Roundwood—By the 1930s the easy abundance of indigenous timber had gone, whereas some of the exotic forests had reached the stage where harvesting could begin. By 1939, of the 60 million cubic feet per annum of roundwood for industrial use, some 10 million cubic feet came from the exotic forests. By 1948 the total annual removals of roundwood had gone up to 81 million cubic feet with 29 million cubic feet from the exotic forests. The exotic forests are now by far the more important source of wood and in 1973 they supplied 259 million cubic feet, or 87 percent of the total supply from exotic and indigenous forests.

The table below shows the quantities of timber produced by the forests of New Zealand to supply the forest industries, which comprise 422 sawmills, eight plywood and veneer plants, two particle board mills, six pulp and paper mills, and a pulp and fibreboard mill. This roundwood production does not include firewood.

Year Ended 31 MarchIndigenous WoodExotic WoodTotal
Million Cubic Feet
1,95158.841.099.8
1,95655.768.0123.7
1,96155.0113.5168.5
1,96643.6163.4207.0
1,96936.1207.2243.3
1,97036.5239.5276.0
1,97135.8253.6289.4
1,97233.5247.8281.3
1,97331.4259.7291.1

Sawn-timber Production—Radiata pine and other pines account for about 90 percent of the total cut of exotics; Douglas fir provides most of the remainder. Less than a third of the country's timber requirement comes from the indigenous forests, and this proportion must inevitably fall as cutting is gradually reduced to the point where a small sustained yield of indigenous timber can be maintained.

The table below gives the production of rough-sawn timber for selected years.

Year Ended 31 MarchSoftwoodsHardwoodsGrand Total
IndigenousExoticTotalIndigenousExoticTotal
 board feet (million)
1,92129010300718308
1,926335734210111353
1,9312081322199230
1,936249342831010293
1,941277543311112343
1,9462269732319322345
1,95130119149232436528
1,95627530558043346626
1,96128739267932436713
1,96621950572431233757
1,96917653270823225733
1,97017556674122224765
1,97116959576419221784
1,97215556371820323740
1,97314459473817219757
NOTE—In some instances rounding off results in a total disagreeing slightly with the total individual items shown in the table.

The following table gives details of timber production by species for the past 5 years.

SpeciesYear Ended 31 March
19691970197119721973
 board feet (million)
Rimu and miro136138138128119
Matai15151178
Totara76544
Kahikatea1715131312
Tawa11107106
Beech1111111010
Other indigenous22232
Totals, indigenous199197188175161
Exotic pines476504536495523
Douglas fir5155536167
Eucalypts12112
Other exotic67684
Totals, exotic534568596565596
Totals (all species)733765784740757

Wood-chip Industry—Two wood-chip mills in the Nelson region (one beginning production in 1969, the other in 1971) produce wood chips solely for Japan. Their role is to utilise standing trees unsuitable for sawn-timber production in order to allow replanting with more productive species and to provide a market for forest and sawmill residues. At current production levels the two mills will earn over $2 million annually in overseas exchange for the next few years.

During 1972 the completion of port facilities at Mt. Maunganui permitted the introduction of a wood-chip trade from the Bay of Plenty to Japan. Planning is in progress for the early introduction of export wood-chip trading from Lyttelton and Port Chalmers.

Pulp and Paper Industry—The total value of output of the pulp and paper industry reached over $80 million in 1972–73. Over the last 13 years total production of pulp (the basic commodity) has risen at an average annual rate of over 7 percent. Production rose from 235,000 tons in 1958–59 to 591,000 tons in 1972–73. During the same period total wood consumption in the pulp and paper industry (which includes sawmills of integrated plants) increased from 39 million cubic feet to 80 million cubic feet. The industry is mainly concentrated near the big exotic forests on the volcanic plateau of the North Island. There are six pulp and paper plants in New Zealand, five of which are in the North Island. Of these five, four are integrated with sawmills to utilise fully the total input of wood. The six companies are:

Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.—This company was formed in 1952 to utilise timber from Kaingaroa State Forest. Practical assistance and financial backing were given by the Government, which is represented on the board of directors. The company's plant is at Kawerau, Bay of Plenty. The pulp and paper mill began operation late in 1955 and the sawmill early in 1956. The annual rated capacity of the sawmill is 37 million board feet of sawn timber on the basis of one shift a day, while the capacity of the pulp and paper plant is 215,000 tons of newsprint, 105,000 tons of chemical pulp, and 183,000 tons of mechanical pulp. Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd. in their expansion will increase the company's annual chemical-pulp sales by 105,000 tons, and in addition a third newsprint machine will increase annual newsprint production by 140,000 tons.

N.Z. Forest Products Ltd.—This public company utilises over 32,000,000 cubic feet of timber a year from its own pine forests and also small quantities of hardwood (tawa) from State forests. Plant capacity is 170,000 tons of kraft, printing, and writing paper, 238,000 tons of kraft pulp, 49,000 tons of defibrated pulp for fibreboard production, and 50,000,000 board feet of sawn timber a year—on a one-shift basis. The company is equipped to convert 10,000,000 board feet of timber into wooden cases and to produce 53,000,000 square feet of veneer, 12,000,000 square feet of fibreboard, and 38,000,000 multi-wall paper bags annually. The integrated pulp mill, paper mill, sawmill and veneer lathe is at Kinleith near Tokoroa; the fibreboard, multi-wall paper bag, and wooden case mills and plants are in Auckland. The company is also a joint owner, with Australian Paper Mills Ltd. of Australia, in Fibre Products N.Z. Ltd., a firm which makes over 13 million moulded fruit trays a year. N.Z. Forest Products Ltd. plan to increase chemical-pulp production by 200,000 tons a year and to instal an additional paper machine for the production of 100,000 tons of industrial papers.

Whakatane Board Mills Ltd., a subsidiary of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., operates two paper-board machines with an annual production capacity of 69,000 tons. The company manufactures its own mechanical and semi-chemical pulp, and is self-sufficient for more than 90 percent of its raw materials; it also uses considerable quantities of waste paper. The company owns its own radiata pine forest at Matahina and hauls the logs 26 miles to the mill by road. An associated company, Whakatane Timber Mills Ltd., has its modern sawmill located near the board mill to take the larger logs from the forest.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. makes tissue and various lightweight papers adjacent to the Tasman Pulp and Paper Co.'s plant at Kawerau. The mill has a capacity of 30 thousand tons annually.

New Zealand Paper Mills Ltd., at Mataura, has been in operation for more than 80 years. Its three machines produce a wide range of papers from fine tissues to heavy krafts, as well as paper felt, pressings, and manilas for special trade requirements. The mills are being modernised to enable production to be diversified and substantially increased. The company produces a small amount of mechanical pulp, which supplements purchased supplies of New Zealand - made sulphate pulp, imported sulphite pulp, and waste paper. Annual production capacity is 15,000 tons of kraft and other papers.

The two major pulp and paper companies have announced expansion plans which will become operational over the next 3 years.

In 1969 the Government invited tenders for the processing of 320 million cubic feet of wood from Kaingaroa State Forest. After examining the proposals received, the Government awarded the sale of roughly two-thirds of the volume to Carter Consolidated Ltd. This led to the formation of a new company (Carter Oil Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd.), which has built an integrated sawmill and refiner ground-wood mill at Whirinaki in the Napier district. This project, which is geared to the Japanese market, began producing wood pulp in March 1973. Initially production is expected to be about 120,000 long tons of refiner groundwood pulp and 30 million bd ft of sawn timber annually.

The basic products of the pulp and paper industry are mechanical and chemical pulp, which are converted into such products as newsprint, kraft, and other paper, paperboard, and fibreboard.

The following table gives the production of pulp in New Zealand.

Year Ended 31 MarchWood Pulp
Chemical*Mechanical

Chemical pulp includes semi-chemical pulp.

†Mechanical pulp includes ground-wood pulp and defibrated pulp.

 tons
1,940217
1,94515,434
1,95021,438
1,95543,20429,568
1,960140,057102,715
1,965193,029203,372
1,968252,442221,159
1,969255,000230,975
1,970311,882241,110
1,971312,065254,858
1,972312,975258,478
1,973334,139256,427

Almost all mechanical pulp is used in the manufacture of paper, paperboard, and fibreboard, but there is a deliberate surplus of chemical pulp for export. (See table on trade in pulp and paper.)

Production figures for paper in New Zealand are as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchNewsprintOther Printing and Writing PaperOther Paper and PaperboardTotal Paper and Paperboard
 tons
1,940..12,87312,873
1,945..20,61920,619
1,950..21,78721,787
1,955..40,27340,273
1,96076,100..85,585161,685
1,965184,31711,869114,940311,126
1,968195,54621,359154,572371,477
1,969199,53021,140168,854389,524
1,970204,13720,691214,125438,953
1,971210,53829,218214,830454,586
1,972214,57722,715224,090461,382
1,973209,86323,257213,174446,294

The rise of production of pulp and pulp products is clearly shown in the following graphs.

Wood-based Panel Products industries: Plywood—Eight factories manufacture plywood, and the total output for the year ended 31 March 1972, when reduced to a uniform basis of 3/16; in. thickness, was 65.9 million square feet. Total production of veneer in the industry in 1971–72 was 266 million square feet (1/16; in. basis).

Radiata pine has become increasingly important as a species for peeler log supply because of the demand for industrial plywood and now constitutes about 60 percent of total peeler log production. Now that the indigenous forests have become depleted, the production of peeler logs for veneer and plywood manufacture is regarded by the Forest Service as having a first claim on the State forests; hence, in its own logging activities the Forest Service aims at producing the maximum amount of peeler logs, and has recently also adopted a policy of requiring sawmillers logging State indigenous forests to reserve logs suitable for peeling and divert them to the veneer factories.

Fibreboard— Although fibreboard is manufactured from wood pulp, it is by end use a panel product. Production started in 1943 and has increased steadily since. A new mill is planned for Canterbury and should be in production in 1975.

Particle Board—Particle board is manufactured from roundwood and sawmill residues. There is a rapidly expanding domestic market for this product for interior panelling and flooring as well as furniture manufacture.

Production of plywood, veneer, fibreboard, and particle board is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchVeneer (1/16 in. basis)Plywood (3/16 in. basis)Particle Board (¾ in. basis)Fibreboard
 million square feettons
1,95024.613,526
1,960169.243.10.824,830
1,961176.248.01.125,533
1,962189.349.31.131,561
1,963188.851.42.027,250
1,964185.952.92.529,229
1,965183.054.24.231,736
1,966222.656.65.133,771
1967221.157.68.232,878
1,968170.543.48.533,075
1,969208.850.513.638,228
1,970224.854.721.539,553
1,971243.958.129.643,653
1,972265.865.931.144,807
1,973......44,023

Production of Round and Split Produce—Considerable quantities of native timbers have been used in the past to meet the needs for mining, fencing timbers, and firewood, and for a proportion of sleeper, pole, and bridge-timber requirements. A 1968 survey showed that a total of 7 million fence posts of all types was used: 4½ million of these were wooden, almost all being thinnings or small-diameter logs from exotic plantations.

Wood Preservation—In the year ended 31 March 1972, 38 percent of all sawn timber produced was preservative treated; by world standards the proportion treated is very high, partly because of the relative ease with which otherwise non-durable exotic softwoods such as radiata pine can be treated.

Features of the preservation industry are: the very wide use in house building of timber treated by diffusion or vacuum-pressure methods with water-borne preservative at low retentions to prevent insect borer attack; the wide dispersal of small treating plants specialising in such treatment; and the quality-control function exercised by the Timber Preservation Authority (set up by the Government in 1955). Plant inspection and sampling associated with quality control are done on behalf of the Authority by Forest Service staff.

Timber Preservation Authority specifications prescribe the preservative treatments for different service conditions. For treatment of exterior timbers against decay multi-salt preservatives (essentially solutions of copper, chromium, and arsenic compounds) at high loadings are widely used, but oil-type preservatives (e.g., creosote) are also acceptable. The usual method of application of multi-salt preservatives is by vacuum pressure, but such variations as the oscillating-pressure method (OPM), the Lowry process, and the alternating-pressure method (APM) have been introduced. Oil-based preservatives are applied by pressure, hot and cold bath, and cold soak and are used for poles, posts, and sleepers. For timber out of contact with the ground and protected from the weather lighter treatment with water-soluble preservatives is acceptable.

Collection of statistics on wood preservation was introduced in 1955 and the following table shows the quantities of sawn timber treated in the country.

YearOpen TankDiffusion Impregnation*Pressure ImpregnationTotal
*Mainly boron.
 board feet (thousand)
1954–55536,98461,48468,520
1959–603070,889105,837176,756
1964–65140132,991142,373275,504
1965–664149,621153,878303,503
1966–679148,505154,542303,056
1967–6812108,063156,755264,830
1968–6926125,825152,550278,401
1969–70189130,254171,502301,945
1970–718139,425164,353303,786
1971–7250119,469161,424280,944

In addition, 9,652,000 cubic feet of other timber, such as sleepers, poles and fence posts, was treated by one of the preservation methods in 1971–72.

OVERSEAS TRADE—Forest products are growing in importance as earners of overseas funds and their more diversified development in New Zealand is also contributing to reduction of imports. For the year ended June 1972 exports of forest products were valued at about $82 million; Japan was the largest customer, taking 34.8 percent, mainly in the form of pulp and paper, and Australia was the next largest, taking 33.6 percent, mainly logs. For the same period, imports of forest products into New Zealand were valued at $19 million.

Timber Exports—There is an established market in Australia for radiata pine and Douglas fir sawn timber. Japan is taking mainly logs, but the market there for our sawn radiata pine is expanding. Exports of sawn timber to the Pacific Islands are increasing. Only special categories of indigenous timbers are permitted for export, and these are strictly regulated.

Timber Imports—Durable Australian hardwoods are still imported for use as railway sleepers, large poles, cross-arms, wharf, bridge, and constructional timbers, etc., but greater use is being made of preservative-treated New Zealand-grown softwood timber for these and other uses subject to severe service conditions. The demand for Douglas fir, redwood, and western red cedar from North America for structural uses, exterior joinery, and weatherboards continues. Other imports are normally limited to tropical hardwoods and sapele for the furniture trade and specialty purposes.

Pulp and Paper Exports—A steadily increasing export market for both pulp and paper is developing, mainly to Australia. Chemical sulphate pulp is the only type exported in quantity. Newsprint comprises 88 percent of all paper exports.

Pulp and Paper Imports—Short-fibred pulp and special papers still need to be imported. These two items constitute about two-thirds of the value of our total forest products imports.

VALUE OF EXTERNAL TRADE IN FOREST PRODUCTS
Year Ended 30 JuneWood ProductsPulpPaper and Paper ProductsAll Forest Products
 Imports ($000, c.d.v.)
1,9676,2101,9197,01515,144
1,9684,2191,3417,59113,151
1,9695,0061,1789,85116,035
1,9707,2941,61011,34620,250
1,9716,2282,37612,51421,118
1,9725,6581,68411,41818,760
 Exports ($000, f.o.b.)
1,9677,4125,92811,04724,387
1,96816,8956,19518,20141,291
1,96929,1457,48420,77157,400
1,97036,8347,28622,21466,334
1,97142,7959,39420,49472,683
1,97246,09711,26824,62181,986

The following tables give New Zealand's imports and exports of timber for the last 6 years.

TIMBER IMPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneSawn TimberSleepersLogs and Poles
HardwoodsNorth American Softwoods*OakOtherTotal
*Douglas fir, redwood, and cedar.
 board feet (million)cu ft (million)
1,9677.119.97.134.12.10.7
1,9684.88.40.15.118.40.10.4
1,9694.48.04.617.00.3
1,9704.313.20.24.922.60.4
1,9714.26.50.15.616.40.5
1,9724.05.53.913.40.3

NOTE—Figures have been adjusted to include items not given in board feet in published statistics.

TIMBER EXPORTS BY CATEGORIES
Year Ended 30 JuneIndigenous TimberRadiata PineDouglas FirOther ExoticsTotal ExoticsTotal, All Sawn TimberLogs and Poles
SawnCases
 board feet (million)cu ft (million)
1,9670.125.91.13.00.330.330.419.9
1,9682.449.22.710.40.262.564.943.2
1,9694.770.13.224.30.498.0102.753.5
1,9703.878.62.326.40.7108.0111.863.6
1,9715.383.51.324.45.3114.5119.864.4
1,9723.076.527.95.4109.8112.866.1
NOTE—Small quantities of roundwood are included in the exports.

The following table gives New Zealand's external trade in pulp and paper for the last 6 years.

Year Ended 30 JuneWood PulpFibreboard*Paper and Paperboard
NewsprintOther Paper and PaperboardTotal

*In 1,000 square feet.

†Excludes manufactures of paper and paperboard; values include minor items for which no quantities are given. Basis for valuation: exports—free on board at port of shipment; imports—c.d.v. in country of origin.

Imports (tons)
1,96621,6731933,00426,59529,599
1,96721,6971171,73122,08823,819
1,96814,8163339322,29722,690
1,96911,21216497621,23222,199
1,97013,1323254223,25523,797
1,97117,25412449424,30924,803
1,97212,7164235426,93127,285
Exports (tons)
1,96670,3323,291117,0601,674118,734
1,96772,3263,44494,5062,297,057
1,96874,3426,223125,18911,548136,737
1,96987,73021,127121,34918,163139,512
1,97080,82115,323119,60630,808150,414
1,97194,62617,429109,68119,432129,113
1,972112,45724,107128,86823,243152,111

RESEARCH—Since 1947 all forestry and forest-products research administered by the Forest Service has been undertaken or co-ordinated by its Forest Research Institute, Rotorua. In addition, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, the universities, and private industrial organisations undertake research into certain aspects.

The Forest Research Institute programme has a wide range and includes studies of the fundamental physiological process of tree growth; the ecology of indigenous and exotic forests; silvicultural practices for all stages of exotic forestry; growth rates, productivity, and grades of timber under various silvicultural treatments and their effect on the economics of the operations; forest soils, particularly nutrient deficiencies and their correction; selection, breeding, and introduction of improved strains of trees; the impact of fungous diseases and insect pests and factors affecting the health of trees. The institute has made country-wide inventories of indigenous and exotic forest resources. The Protection Forestry Division of the Institute (the Forest and Range Experiment Station), which is based at Rangiora, surveys the condition of protection forests and associated mountain scrub and grassland. It carries out research on climatology, hydrology, soils, the revegetation of eroded areas, and the effects of wild animals and their control.

Linked with the research into wood formation are studies of the products of forests. The physical and mechanical properties of timbers are investigated generally and with special reference to the effects of tree selection based on visual qualities and of silvicultural treatment. The suitability of species for production of wood pulp and the characteristics of the pulp from species not yet used are also studied. Research is also carried out in timber engineering, timber seasoning, and preservative treatment of timbers; in all these fields the institute works closely with the timber industry.

TRAINING IN FORESTRY—The Forest Service recruits school leavers up to the age of 20 years for training as forest rangers. It also recruits school leavers and undergraduates as foresters. Ranger trainees work for 1 year in the forests and then attend Rotorua Ranger School for 1 year, where they study the subjects basic to forestry. Another 2 years are then spent on forests to consolidate knowledge and to learn supervision and gain experience in planning, control, and leadership. Those selected as forester trainees attend university on a full-time study bursary to complete a 4-year degree course in forestry. A limited number of full-time study bursaries are also awarded to enable trainees to complete degree courses in science and engineering. The Forest Research Institute recruits young people of both sexes for training as research technicians.

To build up a permanent and efficient skilled-labour force, the Forest Service now recruits each year about 80 youths 16 to 18 year of age. These junior woodsmen receive a 2-year course of basic training in the practical skills of forestry at one of the woodsman schools at Kaingaroa, Golden Downs, or Southland, followed by a third year of advanced training given in small groups in selected forests.

Through the Forestry Training Centre at Rotorua courses are regularly offered in timber grading, seasoning and treatment of timber, and other forestry operations. A continuous series of courses is also provided for Forest Service staff in all phases of Forest Service activity. The Timber Industry Training Centre at Rotorua provides courses for the industry in saw doctoring, sawmilling, and timber machining. Short grading courses for local industry representatives are also held in other centres.

Trade apprenticeships are offered in such trades as auto-diesel fitter, fitter and turner, electrician, and motor mechanic to provide skilled repair and maintenance staff for the Forest Service's wide variety of modern plant and machinery.

After a lapse of some 35 years, professional education for forestry in New Zealand recommenced at the University of Canterbury in 1970. The basic course leading to the degree B.For.Sc. (with or without honours) extends over 4 years, comprising two intermediate years of pure science followed by 2 years of professional classes. Post-graduate studies began in 1972, with programmes leading to masters and doctoral degrees.

EMPLOYMENT—In 1970 the total number of persons employed in the forestry sector comprised 4.1 percent of the total labour force, and the forest industries employed 10 percent of the industrial labour force. Because the major manufacturing units are logically located near their raw material supplies, there is a concentration of employment near the largest forest areas. This is seen in the central North Island, where over half the country's exotic forests are located and where one-quarter of the regional labour force is engaged in forest industries. In fact the forest industries have had a very marked effect on regional development. The current prosperity and the fast growth of population in the Rotorua - Bay of Plenty area is due in no small measure to the expansion of the forest industries. Apart from the expansion of the established towns such as Rotorua, the industrial development of N.Z. Forest Products Ltd., Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., and Caxton Paper Mills Ltd. has led to the establishment of a completely new town—Kawerau—and the rapid growth of another—Tokoroa. The development of these industrial complexes has also stimulated other industries, especially transport, vehicle repair, and building and construction. Similarly the expansion of exports of forest products was partly responsible for the increased tonnages that have passed through the ports of Tauranga and Napier over the last decade.

The following table shows the number of employees and working proprietors in the forest industries at 15 April 1972 and 1973. The industry classification has been revised. Total employment reached 26,531 in 1960, 30,835 in 1965, and 34,930 in 1973. (Source: Department of Labour.)

At 15 AprilForestry*LoggingSawmillingTimber MerchantingPulp, Paper, and PaperboardOther§Total

*Includes silviculture, nurseries, etc.

†Includes felling, cutting, and haulage.

‡Includes planing mills and plywood and veneer mills.

§Includes other wood industries, manufacture of furniture and fittings, wooden and cane containers, and wood and cork products.

1,9723,2802,7287,3623,3934,16717,52638,456
1,9733,4792,8667,6473,6704,31918,47540,456

THE OUTLOOK—The State owns 80 percent of the remaining indigenous timber and about half of the 0.6 million hectares of exotic forest. It makes sales, usually of standing timber but in some cases of logs, from both types of forest to the timber industry. Owing to the poor prospects of sustained yield from most of the indigenous forests, the policy is to ration the cut to spread the resources over as long a period as practicable. Their contribution to timber supply will inevitably diminish but it is hoped that it will remain a source of special purpose timbers for several decades. The exotic forests are renewable and are managed for sustained yield. Their full possibilities have not yet been reached but owing to the irregularity of past planting programmes their composition is far from ideal and there are problems over maintaining a steady rate of expansion of output.

The large area of exotic forest in private ownership has arisen for the most part from speculative planting in the 1920s and 1930s. Most of the forests then established have since come under the control of industrial companies, which are utilising them and managing them, in several cases, to ensure regular and permanent supplies for their major wood-using factories. The other privately-owned indigenous forests are subject to uncontrolled exploitation and are expected to be exhausted at no distant date.

Long-term industrial expansion will require a continuing increase in the area of the nation's exotic forests (the Forestry Development Conference has recommended a minimum annual new planting programme of 28,300 hectares which, if maintained for the next 18 years, should give the country a total exotic forest area of 1.1 million hectares by 1990). Increased production up to the end of the century would be based for the most part on existing forest resources and would be sustained thereafter by the additional planting proposed.

New Zealand's forest industries are favourably placed in regard to the basic requirement for expansion—wood supplies from exotic forests, which will increase over the next 30 years. Efficient processing is well established, providing a good basis for further expansion; projections indicate that demand for forest products will grow both at home and abroad, particularly for paper. In many countries wood supplies are inadequate for their needs, hence they must import.

Planning must encompass management and utilisation of the forests and any necessary extension of them; requirements in manpower with the necessary skills; requirements in finance; analyses of market development; and requirements in research to develop new products and more efficient techniques.

The Forestry Development Council set up in 1969 is working towards co-operation in national planning to rationalise the forestry sector's future development; its membership includes representatives from Government and industry.

A special article in the 1969 Yearbook (pp. 1107–15) surveyed the economics of the forest industries and future development prospects.

Chapter 18. Section 16; FISHERIES

GENERAL—The fishing industry in New Zealand is based mainly on the bottom-dwelling or demersal species of fish caught by trawling, Danish seining, lines, and nets, and on rock lobsters (crayfish) taken in pots. For "wet fish", trawling is by far the most important method, producing approximately 69 percent of the total catch, followed by Danish seining 12 percent, lining and netting and other methods 18 percent in 1970. The motor trawler ranging in size between 50 ft and 60 ft with a crew of two or three men has come to be the type of vessel mainly used by the industry. In recent years there has been a trend to larger stern-ramp trawlers with improved gear and equipment. Two Government stern-ramp trawlers are used for technological and research work associated with fishing.

In New Zealand the fishing industry is widely dispersed around a number of smaller ports as well as the main ports. The industry is built around the handling and selling of fresh fish in the main, as opposed to processing fish. Rock lobsters, long the leading fish export, are now being challenged in value by increasing sales of "wet fish" while exports of paua, eels, and rock oysters are making growing contributions to export revenue.

Fisheries management continues to be directed towards supervision and optimum development of New Zealand's commercial and freshwater fisheries. Scientific staff are engaged in a wide programme of studies, e.g., surveys of the density of the toheroa populations and dredge oysters in Foveaux Strait; experimental work on settlement and growth rates of mussels in Northland and Auckland; management of rock lobster populations in Otago, Southland, Fiordland; studies of the elephant fish in Canterbury-Timaru area; tuna fishing and its commercial potential; mesh experiments for trawl cod-ends using the technology vessel W. J. Scott together with associated experiments in improved fishing gear, catching and handling techniques; and the effects of hydro-electric schemes on trout and salmon fisheries.

The rock-oyster development programme in Northland is aimed at the establishment of an industry with valuable local and overseas market potential. Four experimental farms continue to be under the supervision of an Australian expert in the Bay of Islands (2), the Kaipara Harbour, and Coromandel; also a spat-catching depot, and various spat-catching and growing experimental plots. The Government mortgage guarantee and State loan scheme for fishermen includes provision for assistance for rock oyster farmers.

Expenditure levels for fisheries research includes provision for full programmes for the research vessels, James Cook and Ikatere. Research work will continue on the important commercial fish species, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, flounder, albacore, and trevally. Information on snapper and tarakihi has reached a stage where, in the first instance it is possible to forecast trends in yields for the north-east coast, and in the second, to illustrate that the stock in the East Cape - Gisborne area is probably being exploited at, or near, its sustainable yield level.

In the past, sea fisheries development has resulted from the initiative and energy of individual fishermen and fishing companies who have demonstrated their ability to catch fish, process and market it. Some fish farming development has also come from existing industry operators. As the more easily exploited resources have become more heavily fished, the development of other resources tends to require a greater investment in biological research, experimental fishing, food technology, and marketing research. The methods of the past are less applicable where the development of certain fish resources requires specialised vessel types and specialised processing and marketing. Examples of the resources which require more specialised development are the tuna, squid, and prawn fisheries, together with the development of fisheries in pelagic and semi-pelagic species such as mackerel, kahawai, barracouta, etc. In order to make these fish more commercially acceptable, their preparation must be different from that required for the normal type of marketing which has formerly been used for the more popular wet fish species.

Development in the past has in the main been influenced by a traditionally small and highly selective domestic market which has not encouraged diversification in processing methods for fish which did not meet the normal domestic demand for a white fleshed, bland, non-oily, relatively bone-free type of fish.

Generally, fisheries development involves two important factors. First, where a demand develops for a particular type of fish and this stimulates a search for this fish. The demand may be in export fields (e.g., squid) or it may be for local supply (e.g., prawns). The second factor is new treatment and packaging of a resource which has not previously found favour in the traditional fresh fish market in New Zealand (e.g., mackerel).

The governing legislation for the fishing industry is the Fisheries Act 1908, which is administered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. The Territorial Sea and Fishing Zone Act 1965 redefined the 3-mile territorial seas and introduced a 9-mile fishing zone beyond the territorial limit.

The principal regulations dealing with fisheries are the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950, the Freshwater Fisheries Regulations 1951, and the Commercial Fishing Regulations 1963. Under the Freshwater Fisheries Regulations are issued a number of modification notices which deal with particular aspects—e.g., permissible length of different classes of fish to be taken—while the various acclimatisation societies' rules are issued under the authority of these regulations. The Oyster Fishing Regulations 1946 and the Whitebait Fishing Regulations 1964 are directly relevant to the fishing industry. Other regulations include the Seal Fisheries Regulations 1946, Rock Oyster Farming Regulations 1966, the Quinnat Salmon Regulations 1964, the Fish-pass Regulations 1947, and the Toheroa Regulations 1955. Amendments to all regulations are made from time to time.

Fishing Industry Board—In 1963 there was passed a Fishing Industry Board Act, providing for the establishment of a seven-member board with the principal function of promoting the expansion and development of the fishing industry, marketing and standards of hygiene and packaging, continuity of supply, co-ordination within the industry, and promoting means of financing development.

The Government made an initial grant of $100,000 towards the cost of establishing the board and annual grants are made to assist the board in meeting operating costs. A levy of approximately 1 percent of the landed value of fish came into force on 1 January 1965, and provides finance for the board's activities. The board through its committees investigates local supply and marketing, export development, technical education, tuna development, and fishing demonstrations.

Objectives of the board include the provision of adequate supplies of high-quality fish for the local market at reasonable prices, and an increase in overseas earnings from selling more fish overseas. It is recognised that fishermen must be encouraged to modernise their trawling fleet and that shore establishments of the industry must be improved to fulfil these objectives.

Fishing Industry Finance Committee—In 1965 the Government arranged to guarantee mortgages and make loans through the State Advances Corporation to purchase new, fully-equipped fishing vessels. In October 1970 loans and guarantees became available for development of rock oyster farms, and also loans for cool stores for fish. Up to 31 March 1972, 85 loans totalling $2,275,100 had been approved for 81 new or used fishing vessels, 2 rock oyster farms, and 2 flake ice plants.

Fisheries Development Council—The Fisheries Development Council, a sector council of the National Development Council, was set up in June 1970. Targets for fisheries exports to 1981 have been set. The development of pelagic fishery resources are a key factor in meeting the industry's targets.

The fishing industry export targets are shown in the following table.

Category1971 ActualTargets
1973197519781981

*Based on farming.

†If investigations prove this resource.

‡Targets are speculative as utilisation of resource has yet to be commenced.

Note: Target figures embody an assumption that export prices will rise annually by 3.5 percent.

 $(million)
Fin fish (demersal)3.663.695.288.0613.02
Fin fish (pelagic)0.311.483.9611.7319.52
Rock lobster13.4710.4711.2913.9316.27
Dredge oysters*0.290.82
Rock oysters0.100.120.390.731.30
Mussels0.010.120.260.441.14
Paua1.480.620.660.731.14
Other shellfish0.22
Eels1.030.871.322.204.06
Trout0.590.97
Seaweed0.120.260.440.82
Totals20.2817.4923.4139.1459.06

SPECIES OF FISH—Of the many kinds of excellent edible fish, the most important is the snapper (Chrysophrys auratus), which is the principal species in the catch (mainly by trawl) in the north-western part of the South Island, the west coast of the North Island, and the east coast of the North Island to just south of East Cape; next in importance is tarakihi (Cheilodactylus macropterus), which is taken mainly by trawlers working off the east coast of the North Island and in smaller quantities off the coasts of the South Island. The groper or hapuku (Polyprion oxygeneios) is caught on lines in the deeper water from North Cape to Stewart Island, but principally in Cook Strait and on the rocky parts of the east coast of the South Island, while the blue cod (Parapercis colias) is the staple line-caught product of the southern line fisheries, particularly about Foveaux Strait, Stewart Island, and at Chatham Islands. The flounder and sole (Pleuronectidae) occur in the more shallow and sheltered waters. Rock lobster (crayfish) are fished mainly at the Chatham Islands and around the south-west of the South Island.

The most productive grounds are in relatively shallow waters, and most of the fishing is carried on at depths of less than 80 fathoms. Depths of over 100 fathoms occur at a comparatively short distance from the coast. The principal methods of fishing are long-lining for groper (hapuku), ling, kingfish, and snapper; hand-lining for blue cod; trawling and Danish seining, by which flounders, snapper, tarakihi, gurnard, John Dory, and a variety of other fish are taken. In bays and estuaries set-nets and drag nets are used for flounders, snapper, and mullet.

Various species of pelagic, or surface-dwelling fish, occur in quantity in waters adjacent to New Zealand. At present, landings of pelagic fish in New Zealand are insignificant. Catching techniques for the smaller species (e.g., pilchards), the medium-sized species (e.g., kahawai), and the larger species (e.g., tuna) are all different. The catching and processing of pelagic fish must be undertaken on a large scale if it is to be profitable and the viability of a fishery based on pelagic fish is currently being examined by the Fisheries Development Council.

FISHERIES PRODUCTION—Fisheries production in landed weight and value is shown in the following table

Item1969197019711972
cwt (000)$(000)cwt (000)$(000)cwt (000)$(000)cwt (000)$(000)
*Excluding fishmeal and oil and whitebait.
Wet fish—
    Snapper2251,4952521,8012772,1572592,174
    Trevally6520183301117468118477
    Tarakihi7150810373910379285699
    Gurnard56255733606432143230
    Eels954171162821341360
    Barracouta1329153122462876
    Hapuku22380304652650822457
    Elephant fish18331223882745820344
    Pioke14175182492233220322
    Moki1473191071710316100
    Flounder21447224931740615437
    Kingfish1080107712941288
    Mackerel61451012251224
    Sole19330234041935210229
    Other8264610888410387889802
Total wet fish6455,0188006,4258667,1537906,819
Rock lobster1758,8611278,0521129,432908,145
Oysters (dredge and rock)109841821,4371851,7761641,628
Mussels20712074237948148
Paua981121192937014197
Other shellfish14133151543932740368
Other (including whale oil)*13141514
Grand total97315,0611,15716,2651,25519,1421,14717,309

The value of fisheries products is shown in the following diagram.

The decline in landings of both wet fish and rock lobster during 1972 is causing concern to the Fishing Industry Board and to the industry because this decline has occurred during a period when there has been considerable increased fishing effort both in regard to the number and capacity of fishing units. While weather is being blamed for a large portion of the decline, experienced fishermen believe there are other pointers indicating that in some areas resources are being placed under heavy fishing pressure.

The economics and profitability of the industry are causing concern. A fall in landings in itself reduces profits for all sections of the industry but when this is accompanied by substantial increases in operating costs and the effects of currency devaluations, overall profitability is seriously affected. However, in 1973 there was an improvement in export realisations for wet fish brought about by reducing catches in most parts of the world and increased prices for meat and other alternative protein foods. It is unfortunate for New Zealand producers that when international prices moved in their favour they have been unable to catch sufficient quantities of fish to offset their increased costs with increased earnings.

Cost increase as far as the fishing industry is concerned are affected by both external and domestic influences. In the main the major cost in a fishing vessel is made up of plant and equipment imported from overseas and therefore the capital cost of vessels is influenced by the rise in external costs as well as the rise in internal costs. The result of this is that the capital cost of fishing vessels has increased greatly in the last few years. For example, in 1969 a 67-ft steel vessel cost $90,000, a vessel of similar size but with a smaller engine from the same builder in 1972 cost $165,000. New and more expensive gear is now also required. Relatively little is known about the fishing resources that are available for utilisation and it is becoming increasingly important, on account of the high cost of capital investment in the fishing industry, to know more positively the extent and nature of our resources in order that future planning and development will be rational and economic.

Landing at Ports—The quantities of wet fish landings at principal ports are shown in the following table.

Port1969197019711972
cwtcwtcwtcwt
*Including Paremata and Makara.
Auckland and Manukau221,792227,608256,969235,602
Gisborne64,87773,22490,08291,566
Tauranga46,97463,96274,84068,313
Nelson31,30362,17459,25158,282
Timaru34,35543,35650,94040,403
Napier55,51060,26654,06840,402
Wellington*31,72439,40934,40328,948
Lyttelton and Akaroa20,37730,61735,34324,439
Raglan5,1717,11212,28023,478
Port Chalmers16,19618,18121,05316,633
New Plymouth5,68412,96817,29416,213
Wanganui6,3337,3219,61013,870
Totals for 12 ports540,296646,198716,133658,149
Other ports104,716153,692149,595132,074
Totals645,012799,890865,728790,223

The value of fish and shellfish landings at principal ports are shown in the following table.

Port1969197019711972

*Including Paremata and Makara.

†Includes other fisheries products which could not be allocated to individual ports prior to 1971.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Bluff, Stewart Island, and Riverton2,5444,5075,3754,017
Auckland and Manukau1,5151,6311,9811,989
Chatham Islands2,9601,3411,3881,227
Gisborne636649694739
Milford Sound245277608648
Greymouth459401668620
Nelson316483609599
Wellington*572613682567
Tauranga332436491542
Napier831732595538
Timaru449548646526
Kaikoura246190333479
Totals for 12 ports11,10511,80813,97112,493
Other ports3,9564,4575,1724,815
Totals15,06116,26519,14217,309

FOREIGN FISHING ACTIVITY—New Zealand has a relatively narrow continental shelf and it would appear that those of our fish species (and this would apply to the common varieties) which are relatively slow in reaching legal size, could be easily susceptible to overfishing. In the absence of any assessment of our resources, it has been thought wise for New Zealand to err on the safe side, and manage the fisheries with caution. The types of fishing being practised by foreigners are, as far as the Fishing Industry Board is aware:

  1. Long lining for tuna, mainly by Japanese vessels, but quite possibly by other nations such as Korea.

  2. Trawling by large vessels, mainly Japanese and Russian.

  3. Squid fishing which commenced last year by Japanese vessels.

There do not appear to be any reliable statistics available on the quantity of tuna, swordfish, and other fish caught by long-line vessels in the vicinity of New Zealand. On the other hand, the Japanese have supplied the Board with details of the operations of trawlers fishing on the New Zealand shelf. The table below gives catches by Japanese trawlers. Source: Japanese Industry and Japanese Fisheries Agency.

Fish Species196919701971
 metric tons
Barracouta13,61516,18914,421
Mackerel7,2818,12913,301
Snapper1,567963522
Tarakihi475439470
Red cod1,1729962,140
Gurnard107396463
Others1,7874,69012,895
Total26,00431,80244,212

EXPORTS—A table showing quantities and values of the principal classes of fishery products exported during each of the latest 3 years is set out below. Rock lobsters, or crayfish, are exported mainly to the United States; for other fish the main markets are Australia and Japan. New Zealand's exports of fish and fish products now go to over 25 countries.

CommodityQuantityValue (f.o.b.)
196919701971196919701971
 cwt$(000)
Rock lobster (crayfish) and tails58,13153,46945,72214,23512,43213,468
Fish, fresh or frozen74,034144,171163,6061,8994,2434,899
Fish meal48502,80225
Other, including smoked and canned6,76910,91924,8082163901,911
Totals138,982208,609236,93816,35117,06520,303

CONSUMPTION—The following table shows the annual per head consumption of fish products and the permissible mercury levels in selected countries.

Country and PeriodPer Head Consumption (Edible Weight)Permissible Mercury Level
*This is one-tenth of the lowest level likely to cause ill-effects.
 lbppm
Japan (1969)67.61.0
Denmark (1966–68)45.91.0
Sweden (1969–70)45.91.0
Norway (1968–69)45.11.2
United Kingdom (1968–69)20.9..
New Zealand (1969)15.30.5*
Australia (1968–69)14.50.5
Italy (1968–69)12.90.7
Netherlands (1968–69)12.11.0
United States (1971)11.20.5

PELAGIC FISH—Although surface schools of pelagic fish are frequently seen in New Zealand coastal waters, there are few data on which to base estimates of abundance. The pelagic fish which could be commercially exploited are listed in the following table. During 1971 the Japanese catch of barracouta and horse-mackerel greatly exceeded the yield estimated by the National Development Conference.

SpeciesDistributionAreas of Greatest AbundanceN.D.C. Estimated Annual Yield1971 Landings
   tonstons
TrevallyNorth Island, north of South IslandBay of Plenty and north10,5505,850
BarracoutaAll areasCanterbury Bight, Tasman Bay5,4501,050
Horse mackerelNorth Island, north of South IslandTaranaki Bight, Tasman Bay, East Coast of North Island4,950600
English mackerelNorth IslandEast Coast, Bay of Plenty
Southern bluefinWest of South Island, east of both IslandsSeasonal Fiordland8,000250
AlbacoreNorth Island, west coast of South IslandSummer West coasts2,000
SkipjackAll areasSummer Hawke's Bay and north750
YellowfinNorth of North IslandSummer Bay of Plenty
KingfishNorth Island, north of South IslandBay of Plenty and north1,850600
KahawaiAll areasCook Strait and north5,450550
SalmonEast coast of South IslandCanterbury Bight
Mao MaoNorth IslandBay of Plenty and north50
KoheruNorth of North IslandEast Coast North Island
PilchardNorth Island, northern part of South IslandTasman Bay, Marlborough Sounds, Bay of Plenty, Fiordland6,0001
SpratSouth IslandEast coast of South Island
AnchovyWidespreadTasman Bay, Marlborough Sounds, Bay of Plenty, west coast of South Island
Yellow-eyed mulletInshore areas both islands?7,50015
SquidAll areas?West coast of South Island

In recent years a small tuna fishery has developed and there is an established market for this fish, but the bulk of any other pelagic fish caught will need to be reduced to fish meal and oil. Therefore, the cost of catching, handling and processing the fish must be kept low. The Fishing Industry Board has imported two squid-fishing machines for trials and a Nelson-based company has carried out experimental fishing.

OYSTER BEDS—The principal oyster beds around the coast of New Zealand are those situated in Foveaux Strait, between South and Stewart Islands, and the rock-oyster beds on the east and west coasts of the Auckland peninsula. During the 1972 season 115,090 sacks of oysters were dredged from Foveaux Strait, compared with 100,039 sacks in 1970.

In addition to the four Government experimental rock-oyster farms, a further 70 farms are in production in Northland and the Hauraki Gulf and an additional 70 leases for farms have been granted. This new industry is in the process of changing from tray to stick cultivation assisted by a large-scale Government spat-stick catching programme.

Rock oysters sold in 1972 totalled 12,746 bags, and included 9,218 bags from private farms.

ROCK LOBSTERS—Rock lobster, or marine crayfish, occur off many parts of the New Zealand coast. Part of the catch of rock lobster is sold in local markets for domestic consumption and part is exported as frozen rock lobster tails and whole crays.

With the development of the export of frozen rock lobster tails to the United States of America and the productive fishing in the Chatham Islands, the catch of rock lobster increased until 1968. The boom period, however, has now passed and the aim of all concerned is to ensure that this valuable fishery stabilises to provide regular supplies for overseas and local markets.

YearProduction (Whole)Exports
QuantityValueQuantityValue
 cwt$(000)cwt$(000)
1,966128,9813,84435,4084,619
1,967159,0124,32049,1426,363
1,968214,7527,43362,75912,729
1,969175,1098,86158,13114,235
1,970127,2588,05253,46912,432
1,971111,7539,43245,72213,468
1,97290,0258,144....

BIG-GAME FISHING—Swordfish (striped and black marlin, and occasionally broadbill), mako shark, and other big-game fish occur principally off the east coast of the Auckland Provincial District, and attract both New Zealand and visiting big-game fishermen. The principal centres for this sport are Whangaroa, Russell (Bay of Islands), Whitianga (Mercury Bay), Whakatane and Tauranga, where specially designed and equipped launches in charge of experienced men may be hired. The season lasts from December to May, the best months usually being February and March. The record black marlin swordfish (976 lb) was caught off the Bay of Islands.

To preserve this very important fishery the Fisheries (General) Regulations 1950 prohibit the taking of swordfish by other than rod and line, and stipulate that the line be not heavier than No. 39 linen thread line. In addition, a limit bag of not more than four fish per boat per day has been imposed.

In the 1971 season (from November 1970 to June 1971), big-game fish caught included 2 black marlin, 95 striped marlin, 2 blue marlin, 463 mako shark, and 1,153 other species.

PAUA—Relatively few years ago paua was, strictly speaking, a non-commercial shellfish. Maoris have traditionally taken paua as a regular item of diet, but it was largely unutilised for food by the pakeha until very recent years. Even now it is only a small item in the retail sales of fish in New Zealand. The recent change in the demand for paua has come about in the context of the ban on the export of unprocessed meat, which would have been processed overseas, since some New Zealand canners have solved the problems of bleaching and canning the meat to produce an article acceptable at substantial prices in, primarily, South-east Asian markets. In the year ended 31 December 1971 exports of paua totalled 1,862,000 lb and the value was $1,480,242.

Permits for taking paua at 31 December 1971 totalled 618, consisting of 331 shore fishing permits and 287 boat fishing permits.

A close season for paua from 1 February to 31 May each year was introduced in 1972. Further information is available in the Report of the Fishing Industry Committee 1970–72, parliamentary paper I.14, 1972.

WHITEBAIT—This fishing is based on Galaxias species which, so far as is known, is not taken on a commercial scale in the other countries where it occurs. Whitebait fishery is carried on in the tidal reaches of many rivers, from August to November in the North Island and from September to November in the South Island. The most productive fishing grounds are near the mouths of the rivers of the West Coast of the South Island and in the lower reaches of the Waikato River. Normally the whitebait fishery gives employment to over 300 regular fishermen, and a greater number of part-time fishers. With improved transport from the more remote rivers, in which aeroplanes have played an important part, a substantial whitebait industry has been developed, particularly on the West Coast of the South Island. The 1971 season for the West Coast of the South Island showed a total of 781 cwt, compared with 1,673 cwt in 1970.

FRESHWATER FISHERIES: Acclimatised Species—These include quinnat salmon, brown and rainbow trout, and perch. The local administration and management of these species is delegated to acclimatisation societies and to the Department of Internal Affairs for the Rotorua and Taupo fishing districts and for the Southern Lakes Acclimatisation District, where it acts as an acclimatisation society. The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries assists with management investigations, and provides technical advice. It also conducts research, on behalf of acclimatisation societies.

A fishing licence is required for the taking of acclimatised fish. The estimated revenue from angling licences in a season is $300,000.

Indigenous Species—The taking of eels, principally for export, continues to increase. Eels are the only species of which a significant commercial harvest is taken from New Zealand's freshwaters. The value of eels exported increased from $79,737 in 1967 to $469,469 in 1970.

Research—The research programme includes provision for continued limnological studies of the Rotorua lakes. Sources of nutrients, the principal causes of eutrophication, are still under study as is the bottom fauna. Studies of the correlation between trophic status of lakes and the population density and condition of sport fish is being undertaken. Work on whitebait fisheries and stream faunas is continuing in order to determine productivity levels and fish behaviour.

Studies on adult quinnat salmon are to be published and work on fry and smolts is being initiated. In addition work on trout and their inter-relationship to salmon in South Island rivers is being commenced.

Additional work is to be done on the occurrence of trace elements, particularly mercury, lead, zinc, cadmium, and copper, in shellfish from a variety of sea areas, in order to determine the naturally-occurring levels of these elements. New work is planned on parasites and diseases of freshwater fish.

Chapter 19. Section 17; MINERALS

GENERAL—New Zealand had a significant and valuable mineral industry based on gold last century. It opened up large areas of the country, and earned as much as 75 percent of all export earnings in the record year of 1873. Since then, gold mining has almost disappeared, and has given place to the less glamorous mineral enterprises centred around coal, aggregate for roads, sand, limestone, and clay.

With developments of the last decade the mineral industry is about to contribute substantially to New Zealand's overseas funds by the replacement of essential imports. In addition, mineral exploration is at a high level but exploration and development are extremely costly, and the ultimate results and returns are uncertain. Nevertheless, overseas mining and oil companies are investing large sums of high risk capital in New Zealand. They are being supported by local partners, and by larger New Zealand companies acting alone. There are assured and major returns from exploration and processing in such fields as iron and steel, natural gas condensate, and lead-zinc concentrates; and there are good probabilities for china clay, sulphur, and scheelite. There is a strong probability of further major developments, perhaps in oil, base metals, ilmenite sands, silver, or phosphate.

The "5-year plan" approved by the Government in 1964 stressed the necessity for increased basic scientific work in geology, geophysics, geochemistry, and mineral processing. The additional staff engaged by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research speeded the production of geological and geophysical maps and increased the potential for analysis and laboratory-scale processing tests. This stimulated additional activity in the private sector.

New Zealand looked hopefully towards smelting her extensive ironsand deposits for more than a century. Some of the richest deposits were found at Waikato Heads in an old raised beach deposit, 135 ft. above present sea level, that extended well inland under the Waiuku State Forest. These sands are bound together by clay and are brown rather than black at the ground surface. They contain up to 70 percent concentrate.

Mineral engineers and metallurgists in the 1950s and 1960s investigated the best methods of concentrating the titanomagnetic ore from the raw sand, and of recovering the minerals ilmenite and zircon that may prove useful by-products in the future. Research showed that the titanomagnetic sand could be bound together with New Zealand bentonite into walnut-sized pellets for feeding into the kilns. Smelting tests in overseas furnace types, using New Zealand coal, were carefully observed, and the quality of the resulting steel was found by metallurgists to be particularly high. The sand is now the basic raw material fed to the steel mill at Glenbrook.

Ilmenite, which is a source of titanium metal used in the aircraft and paint industries, occurs extensively in the form of beach sands containing about 5 percent of that mineral, as well as other useful minerals such as monazite, gold, zircon, and rutile. The sands occur principally around Westport, but they extend along much of the west coast beaches. A reconnaissance survey by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research indicated the presence of over 50 million tons and subsequent drilling by New Zealand and Australian companies proved the presence of sufficient reserves of ilmenite and other minerals for establishing an industry. The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research has been undertaking extensive laboratory tests aimed at achieving an "upgrading" of New Zealand ilmenites. The results have proved very encouraging, and both the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research and the companies involved are now attempting to see whether this laboratory success can be advanced to an economically feasible industry.

During the Second World War the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research conducted exploration for sources of high-melting point waxes at the request of the British Government, and successfully located promising sources in Chatham Island peat deposits. As a result of renewed commercial interest in such waxes, possibilities now exist for production of commercial waxes from these peats.

The Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is now carrying out research in processing methods that might produce saleable products from these minerals. Laboratory-scale work has investigated a range of solvent systems, and different extraction techniques. Larger-scale work is also being done on the production of bulk samples of wax for further analysis and evaluation. Thus successful commercial development will involve co-operation between industry and the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

Many recent non-metallic mineral developments are proving viable. The successful establishment of a chinaware industry, based on New Zealand china clays, has been followed by the establishment of a pilot plant that could lead to an export industry of those clays as industrial fillers.

Following preliminary scientific investigations of the geology and chemistry of a bentonite deposit in Canterbury, a New Zealand company developed this clay for binding ironsands into pellets in the new steel industry and is looking to possible exports.

Silica sands are now used for fibreglass and window glass manufacture, as well as for glassware.

Coal is still required in large quantity for the steel industry and for power generation, and the production of high-quality limestone, aggregate, sand, and brick clay has doubled in the last decade.

The Mineral Resources Council, established as the sector council on minerals for the National Development Council, keeps under review all aspects of mineral development.

MINERAL PRODUCTION—In New Zealand non-metallic minerals such as coal, clay, limestone, and dolomite are both economically and industrially as important as metallic ores. Over 90 percent of the value of the present mineral production is represented by coal and limestone, together with sand, rock, and gravel for roads, ballast, building, and construction. The value of aggregate and sand production now exceeds that of coal, and has therefore become the highest of any mineral in New Zealand. The quarrying industry, which produces about 27 million tons of aggregate and sand and 3 million tons of limestone annually is of prime importance. Substantial increases in mineral exports have taken place since 1972 with the shipment to Japan of ironsand concentrates from Waverley and Taharoa on the west coast of the North Island.

The following table shows the production of metals and minerals from mines and quarries. The values are assessed at pit mouth or quarry.

Mineral19711972
QuantityValueQuantityValue

*Includes stockpiles at Waipipi and Taharoa.

Note—One bbl is taken as 34.97 imperial gallons.

Fuels $(000) $(000)
Coal..2,090,691 tons13,0672,146,903 tons14,062
Petroleum crudeKapuni802,458 bbls1,9751,117,666 bbls2,820
Moturoa1,809 bbls5918 bbls3
Natural gasKapuni10,625.87 mil. cu ft1,00412,484.22 mil. cu. ft.1,541
Moturoa1.42 mil. cu ft1
Metals    
Gold..9,418 oz37813,511 oz732
Silver..66,398 oz7831,290 oz46
Cadmium..14 tons3014 tons23
Copper..84 tons58121 tons85
Iron ore..92 tons1139 tons2
IronsandsPrimary (Export)458,131 tons*1,8781,219,491 tons*4,463
Secondary (Local)108,654 tons403139,033 tons674
Tungsten ore..7 tons13 tons29
Zinc..1,938 tons4441,627 tons280
Lead..1,226 tons2961,137 tons223
Non-metallicstons tons 
Bentonite..11,5755261014
Clay for bricks, tiles, etc...279,984433203,234269
Clay for pottery, etc...19,9231599,339117
Diatomite..6,2381964,917182
Dimension stone..30,72913923,037163
Dolomite..8,18013111,687211
Greenstone..48512
Limestone for agriculture..1,261,1262,8501,516,1843,301
Limestone for industry..113,919318121,253357
Limestone and marl, for cement..1,511,5406641,443,928941
Magnesite..1,0302094519
Perlite..2,00032,5004
Pumice..12,80464127,56472
Rock for harbour work..2,162,678623615,478428
Salt..42,58039358,500385
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for building aggregate..5,386,6908,8236,362,73910,767
Sand, rock, gravel, etc., for roads and ballast..20,082,93919,29420,911,17621,043
Sand for industry..236,520249103,213166
Serpentine..71,79819294,660241
Silica sand..122,553377108,336327
 Totals54,60654,001

The following summary figures are the mineral industry export targets in constant 1969–70 prices unprocessed as set by the Mineral Resources Council.

Item1969–701972–731975–761978–791981–82
All minerals and metal ores—$(million)
    “Assured”0.45.612.612.612.6
    “Probable”3.36.513.0

The 1972–73 exports figure comprises ironsands, lead-zinc ores, scheelite, and pumice. The 1978–79 figure is based on confirmed ironsand contracts, and the prospects of coal, clay, and ilmenite.

The corresponding additional figures for import savings (i.e., for selected minerals which would otherwise need to be imported) and for total production (i.e., Mines Statement totals plus geothermal stream including exports and domestic production of aggregate, limestone, coal, etc.) are as follows.

Item1969–701972–731975–761978–791981–82
Import saving—$(million)
    Assured1.75.07.010.511.9
    Probable15.0
Round total571027
Total mineral production52.6647988115

LEGISLATION—Legislative control of mineral production is contained in the Atomic Energy Act 1945, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959, the Mining Act 1971, the Quarries Act 1944, the Petroleum Act 1937, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. The administrative agency is the Mines Department.

COAL—Coal in New Zealand has for many years been mined in certain well defined areas, outside which no coal is known to exist in any significant quantities. The major coalfields, with the class of coal found in each, are—

Bituminous Coal (Coking): Greymouth, Westport (Buller Coalfields), Reefton (Garvey Creek).

Sub-bituminous Coal (Non-coking): Waikato (including North Taranaki), Otago (Kaitangata), Southland (Ohai), Reefton.

Lignite (Non-coking Low Grade): Southland (Mataura).

Coal Utilisation and Research—Coal utilisation and research is being fostered by the New Zealand Coal Research Association. Finance for the Association's activities is raised by a levy of 7.5 cents a ton made by coal wholesalers, including State coal mines, and a Government grant.

Fuel Technology Service—The Mines Department and the Coal Research Association have established a fuel technology service in Auckland, Palmerston North. Christchurch and Dunedin to advise industrial and domestic consumers on the efficient use of coal.

Survey of Coal Resources—Investigation of coal resources is now being carried out in three phases: (i) mainly geological and chemical activities; (ii) detailed topographical surveys and shallow prospecting by means of cuts, pits, and hand drilling; (iii) investigations by deep-core drilling. For detailed information concerning geology, coal type, rank, and extent of the coalfields, those interested are referred to Geological Survey Bulletins Nos. 17, 45, 51, 56, and 59, and for an overall picture to Economic Geology of New Zealand, Volume 4, Eighth Commonwealth Mining and Metallurgical Congress, procurable from the Government Printer, Wellington.

A fresh estimate of the coal resources of New Zealand was prepared in 1969 based on information obtained by the Mines Department and the Geological Survey. The classification accepted—"measured", "indicated", and "inferred"—is that used by the United States Bureau of Mines and also accepted in the Commonwealth Mineral Resources Survey issued by the British Commonwealth of Nations Scientific Liaison Offices, London. These terms are simply defined as follows.

  1. “Measured coal" is coal for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurements are so closely spaced and the geologic character is defined so well that the size, shape, and content are well established.

  2. “Indicated coal" is coal for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific measurements, samples, or production data and partly from projection for a reasonable distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately spaced to outline the coal completely or to establish its grade throughout.

  3. “Inferred coal" is coal for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad knowledge of the geological character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any, samples or measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits of similar type. Bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific geologic evidence of their presence.

The categories of coal resources refer only to the probability of their existence and may be applied either to coal in the ground or to recoverable coal.

The following table sets out the estimated recoverable reserves, which total 2,072 million tons.

LocalityMeasured RecoverableIndicated RecoverableInferred Recoverable
 Bituminoustons (000) 
Buller35,0005,00012,000
Murchison166501,380
Garvey Creek9002,6005,000
Greymouth2,40010,40033,000
Pike River15,000
Shag Point1050
 38,31618,66066,430
Sub-bituminous
Northland755003,000
Waikato (includes Maramarua Huntly, Rotowaro, Glen Massey)122,00084,000105,000
Reefton (includes Inangahua, Buller Gorge, Fletcher Creek)1,0003,20019,000
Kawhia394505,750
Taranaki (includes Tatu-Ohura, Waitewhena, Mokau)3,5002,00083,000
Collingwood581301,000
Heaphy River1,000
Charleston1,7503,3605,090
Punakaiki2,000
Kaitangata1,672500500
Ohai5,8008,50090,000
Orepuki1,000
 135,894102,640316,340
Lignites
Canterbury1422,000
North Otago2402,000
Central Otago24415,000
South Otago (includes Wangaloa II, Green Island, Benhar)11,00019,00041,000
Pomahaka60,000
Southland (including Mataura Valley)25,00037,0001,181,700
 36,62656,0001,301,700
Totals210,836177,3001,684,470

One of the biggest potential uses for coal could be for electricity generation.

There is likely to be a smaller number of larger, mechanised underground mines. Coal mining will become less labour-intensive.

There are three coal areas of major future significance—Waikato, Buller and Southland.

Waikato has measured and indicated resources of low/moderate-ash low-sulphur sub-bituminous coal exceeding 200 million tons—one-fifth of it opencast. Inferred resources, which are at present being drilled, exceed an additional 100 million tons. Production costs range from $4½ to $7 per ton. Sufficient reserves are known to supply a 1,000 MW power station, plus the steel industry's projected requirements. Further work to increase measured and indicated reserves is currently being undertaken for proposed additional thermal station capacity. The Waikato coalfield is well placed to serve Auckland industrial development, and coal is railed to the Bay of Plenty for the pulp and paper industry, New Zealand Steel's development programme anticipated an increased demand of 500,000 tons a year by 1983.

Main markets for Waikato coal are electric power generation, dairy factories, paper mills, freezing works, carbonisation, central heating, brick and tile manufacturing, cement and lime works, general industries, and domestic heating.

Buller has measured and indicated resources of low/moderate-ash, low/high-sulphur bituminous coal amounting to 40 million tons, three-quarters of it opencast, but only 7 million tons of it low-ash and low-sulphur. Inferred reserves amount to 12 million tons. The significant fact is the high proportion (about 30 million tons) of opencast, and therefore low-cost ($5 per ton) coal.

Southland essentially comprises the Ohai and Mataura Valley coalfields. Ohai contains over 100 million tons of Waikato-type coal, mostly inferred, but has little significance because the principally domestic market is likely to decrease. Mataura is important because of its proximity or ready access to the Bluff industrial area, and because the reserves of moderate-ash, low-sulphur coal are large, and potentially cheap ($2 per ton) and open-castable. Because the flat-lying seams seldom outcrop, and there are relatively few drillholes, coal estimates range from little more than 120 million tons to over 1,200 million tons, mostly inferred. Future potential uses possibly include power generation.

Coal Consumption—Coal has always been important in New Zealand's mineral industry, and had a higher production value than any other mineral between the First and Second World Wars, but usage has slumped in recent years.

The approximate distribution of coal consumption during each of the latest 6 years is shown in the following table. The total quantity is based on actual production in each year plus imports and minus exports.

User196619671968196919701971
*Sales by private mines to domestic consumers included in 'other consumers'.
 tons(000)
Railways1209949131
Gasworks241248227169152107
Electricity generation491228253603507432
Households344*301*291*279*254*215*
Factory industries—
    Meatworks121128123127109102
    Dairy factories299287313276253295
    Pulp and paper mills12511199949077
    Cement works233190197205209200
    Other factories174154152161235236
Other consumers455488405348460417
Total consumption2,7772,6222,6032,2342,2702,081

Summary of Operations—The following table summarises coal-mining operations.

YearOutputPersons Ordinarily Employed
UndergroundOpencastTotalUnderground MinesOpencast MinesTotal
SurfaceUnderground
 tons(000)No.
Prior to 1968....168,242........
1,9681,3478782,2247351,9443663,045
1,9691,2351,0912,3266711,5943312,596
1,9701,1591,1892,3436191,3533252,297
1,9719311,1592,0915091,0933341,936
1,9727761,3712,1474708833111,664
Totals179,378

In 1972 the State operated 13 of the 49 underground mines in operation and these produced 609,267 tons of coal; 9 of the 35 opencast mines were operated by the State and they produced 742,895 tons of coal. The loss on operations of State coal mines in 1972 was $1,741,437, without charging interest on loan capital.

Derived Products—Low-temperature carbonisation works, using the Lurgi process, at Rotowaro, 70 miles south of Auckland produced, during 1972, 12,328 tons of carbonettes, 382,941 gallons of tar and oil, and 12,793 tons of char from 41,209 tons of slack coal, which was part of the output of a group of local State mines.

The Sockburn plant, near Christchurch, produced 28,920 gallons of tar and 4,353 tons of coke during 1972.

Mercer Power Station—This station, of 180,000 kW capacity, if working at full capacity, can burn up to 700,000 tons of coal a year. Two-thirds of the coal is provided from the Kopuku opencast coalfield about 7 miles distant from the station, and the remainder from the Huntly coalfield.

Huntly Power Station—Following delays in coming to an agreement on the price of natural gas, it has been decided to build a 1,000 mW coal-fired station at Huntly, the first unit (250 mW) of which is scheduled to be commissioned in April 1978. Investigations have confirmed the existence of a large underground coalfield sufficient to provide fuel for the station.

PETROLEUM AND NATURAL GAS—Prospecting and mining for petroleum in New Zealand is governed by the Petroleum Act 1937, the Petroleum Regulations 1939, and the Continental Shelf Act 1964. These give the Minister of Mines the jurisdiction to grant petroleum prospecting and mining licences on (a) land and in marine areas including territorial waters, and (b) the continental shelf; for the former there are 317 current prospecting licences covering 135,615 square kilometres and for the latter 33 licences covering 997,129 square kilometres.

Activity in the search for petroleum is being maintained. Geological and geophysical work (including seismic surveys) is being conducted by several licence holders in various areas throughout New Zealand.

Gas from the Kapuni field is treated for the removal of carbon dioxide and piped between Auckland and Wellington. It is used mainly as a premium household fuel although some will be used for the generation of electricity and for industry. Gas reserves are estimated to be sufficient for 25 years. Condensate from Kapuni provides some of the feedstock for the Whangarei refinery.

The Natural Gas Corporation Act 1967 established a corporation to purchase, transport, and market natural gas. Construction of the 377 miles of 8⅝ in. trunk pipeline was completed and natural gas came into use in 1970 in nine North Island centres—Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Hawera, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Levin, Hutt Valley, and Wellington. (See Section 20c.)

In 1969 the Maui gas field was discovered off the Taranaki coast 33 miles from Opunake. It was subsequently found to extend over an area of 765 square kilometres (295 square miles) placing it among the 20 largest gas fields in the world. The recoverable economic reserves of the field are estimated to amount to about five million cubic feet of high quality methane gas. In addition, oil condensate from the field is likely to supply from 10 to 15 percent of the feedstock requirements for refining in New Zealand.

In April 1973 the Government and the Shell-BP-Todd consortium reached an agreement for the joint development of the main gas field. A gas contract, for 30 years, has been signed providing for the sale to the Crown of the gas which will be used for electric power generation. The first commercial deliveries of the gas are scheduled for October 1978 and it will be used to fuel the New Plymouth power station and stations in Huntly and Auckland. The Ministry of Works and Development will design and build the pipe lines to carry the natural gas to New Plymouth and Auckland.

DEVELOPMENT OF MAUI FIELD—Construction of the Maui field off-shore and associated on-shore facilities will take place in two distinct stages. It is planned that construction of the first stage will be completed in 1978 at a total cost, estimated in terms of 1972 values, of $92.5 million. This stage of construction involves the installation of a single, three-deck platform structure at the Maui 3 location, with a potential gas delivery capacity of 600 million cu ft a day, as well as the laying off-shore of a 24-in. diameter gas pipeline and a 10-in. diameter condensate pipeline.

The second and final stage of construction is currently planned to take place during the period 1979–83 at an estimated cost (in terms of 1972 values) of $78.5 million. This stage could consist of installing a single platform structure with a gas delivery capacity of 300 million cu ft a day at the Maui 1 location and the installation off-shore of a 20-in. diameter gas pipeline and a 10-in. diameter condensate/crude pipeline. The condensate/crude pipeline may be connected with the then existing Maui 3 platform condensate pipeline.

Both cost estimates provide for expenditure to be incurred in constructing on-shore processing facilities as well as the necessary condensate/crude stabilisation plant and pipeline to New Plymouth.

The total length of the main on-shore pipeline will be approximately 245 miles. The diameter of the pipeline will be 34 in. as far as New Plymouth where it will reduce to 30 in. The diameter will be further reduced to 24 in. at the first Auckland power station lateral joint.

Pipeline consultants employed by the Government have estimated the on-shore gas transmission system would cost approximately $92.6 million in 1972 values. This investment would be spread over the period 1975 to 1988. The costs to be incurred during the 1980s largely consists of expenditure on the construction of the compressor stations.

A broad breakdown of the total costs involved in the development of the Maui field as currently estimated, is as follows:

ItemCost
Off-shore:$ (m)
    (a) Platforms, submarine pipeline, and development drilling133.0
    (b) Off-shore production facilities and on-shore production facilities38.0
    (c) Land pipeline and base facilities
    (d) Other expenditure (including insurance, administration and contingency fees)
On-shore: 
    (e) Pipeline gas transmission system92.6
Total263.6

IRON RESOURCES—New Zealand's largest resources of potential iron ore are contained in the black sands of the western beaches—from Westport southwards in the South Island and from Wanganui to Muriwai in the North Island. Titanomagnetite sands make up most of the black sands in the North Island, but from Waikato Heads northwards the beach deposits also contain ilmenite in varying proportions. In the South Island beach sands, ilmenite is the chief iron-bearing material. These beach sands have been estimated to contain some 800 million tons of titanomagnetite, with a further 8.6 million tons of ilmenite in the North Island and 43 million tons in the South Island.

A process has been developed whereby the titanomagnetite sands can be smelted on a large scale economically to produce a good grade of steel. A steelworks has been constructed at Glenbrook, 36 miles south of Auckland, by New Zealand Steel Ltd., and the plant began production late in 1969 using ironsand deposits from the North Head of the Waikato River, 12 miles away. Production of steel billets from ironsand commenced in November 1969.

There has been a small annual production of iron ore from the Onekaka deposits and certain small deposits in the North Auckland district, for use in gas purification, the preparation of stock licks, and in the brickmaking industry.

Near Waverley, 20 miles north of Wanganui, an ironsands mining unit produces titanomagnetite concentrates for direct export to Japan through off-shore bulk-loading facilities and in 1972 some 868,000 tons were exported. N.Z. Steel Ltd. has developed a similar undertaking at Taharoa, near Kawhia, and shipments of concentrate to Japan began in October 1972, and 136,000 tons had been exported by December 1972.

URANIUM—in 1955 uranium-bearing minerals were discovered in the Buller Gorge. These deposits occur in steep, broken country which is heavily covered with bush, the area is subject to heavy rainfall and access is difficult. Prospecting work, however, has been disappointing and, so far, ore has not been found rich and extensive enough to be worked economically at present price levels. Prospecting work in the Buller area of the West Coast is continuing.

The Atomic Energy Amendment Act 1957 amended the Atomic Energy Act 1945 by adding several new provisions designed to encourage the search for and production of uranium or other substances which may be used for the production of atomic energy.

GOLD—The gold-mining industry, which in its early stages contributed greatly to the progress and settlement of New Zealand, declined in importance with the exhaustion of the more accessible alluvial-gold deposits and of ore from the zones of enrichment. Annual production is now almost confined to one dredge at Taramakau on the west coast of the South Island.

SILVER—Formerly most of the locally produced silver exported from New Zealand was obtained from the refinement of bullion from the quartz mines of the Hauraki goldfields, where gold and silver were found alloyed. Recent production in the area is contained in the lead sulphite concentrates exported to Japan. A small quantity of silver is won by the West Coast gold dredges.

TUNGSTEN—The principal ore of tungsten in New Zealand is scheelite, though a little wolfram is found in Otago and Stewart Island, but not in economic quantities.

The scheelite-bearing quartz-veins are generally small and broken, while the scheelite is most erratically distributed in the veins, with the greatest concentration of scheelite situated close to the surface or at shallow depth. Access and transport present difficulties, and production costs are relatively high. Although the price of tungsten ores has improved, scheelite mining is on a small scale. Mining is confined to the Glenorchy and Macrae's Flats fields in Otago. There has been renewed interest in prospecting both these fields and a complete re-assessment of their potential is being made.

COPPER—A deposit of copper ore near Parakao contains azurite and malachite, forms of carbonates of copper, as well as tentorite, an oxide of copper. It has been used as an additive to fertilisers. Another deposit of copper ore was worked at Pupuke. Production of 121 tons in 1972 was from the Tui mine, near Te Aroha, but this mine was closed in 1973.

Prospecting has been carried out for copper ore at Moke Creek near Queenstown, and Coppermine Island near Whangarei, as well as a number of other localities, by mining companies currently engaged in the renewed study of the country's mineral resources without uncovering significant deposits.

MANGANESE—Manganese ores are found in many localities, chiefly in the older sedimentary rocks. Prior to 1960 there was some production from deposits at Bombay, Moumoukai, and Otau, all in the Auckland district. Deposits are, however, generally small and shallow and capable of producing only limited tonnages of ore.

MERCURY—Cinnabar, the principal ore of mercury, is widely distributed in New Zealand, but only in a few localities is it found in quantities of economic importance. The most promising deposits of mercury ore in New Zealand are those of the Puhipuhi district and further investigation work has been carried out in this area.

LEAD AND ZINC—An ore-bearing reef of lead and zinc was mined near Te Aroha, producing lead-copper sulphide and zinc sulphide concentrates for export to Japan, but the mine closed in 1973.

TIN—Cassiterite in the form of "stream tin" occurs in small deposits near Port Pegasus, Stewart Island, and these have been worked to some extent.

PLATINUM—Platinum occurs in several places, associated generally with gold in gravel, but quantities produced have been insignificant.

SILICA—At Parengarenga, in northern Northland, there are large deposits of pure quartz (silica) sand. Over 70,000 tons from here and 10,000 tons from Mt. Somers in Canterbury, are used each year, mainly for glass manufacture.

There are lump silica deposits in Southland of a high quality suitable for the production of ferro-silicon and probably silicon metal.

DIATOMITE—Diatomite is a light powdery material used as a source of silica and as a filtering agent. It is worked in the Rotorua-Taupo volcanic zone and at Middlemarch, Otago.

BENTONITE—Deposits of bentonite occur at Porangahau in the Hawke's Bay District, and at Mangatu, near Gisborne. There are deposits of non-swelling bentonite at Coalgate in Canterbury which are, however, modified to produce swelling bentonite suitable for pelletising ironsands, and use in drilling and as a filler.

HALLOYSITE—Halloysite is a clay used in ceramics, and as a filler in the paper industry. It has been mined in Northland since the Second World War and used in the expanding china-ware industry of Auckland and investigations into an expanding use of this clay as a high-grade filler are proceeding.

SULPHUR—Prospecting proved a 6-million-ton deposit of sulphur at Rotokaua in the Taupo area in 1968. The deposit is mixed with pumice and experiments are continuing to develop a separation process capable of commercial exploitation.

PERLITE—Perlite is a volcanic glass expanded by heating; it is used as an insulator and in light-weight concrete. There are deposits in the Rotorua-Taupo area.

ASBESTOS—Chrysotile asbestos occurs at several points in the massive serpentines of Nelson and Otago but the only deposits of importance so far located are those of Upper Takaka in the Nelson district. In 1955 production of asbestos was resumed after a temporary cessation but was discontinued in 1963. Current work is aimed at finding a market for the high proportion of very short fibre found in the ore. Deposits found in Fiordland are of commercial value but development is limited by difficulty of access.

PHOSPHATE—The occurrence of phosphate has been reported from many localities in New Zealand but so far the deposits of Clarendon and Milburn have proved to be the only ones of economic importance and the more favourable sections of the deposits have been exhausted.

SERPENTINE—Serpentine is a magnesium-rich rock used as a fertiliser additive. Deposits are being mined at Piopio, near Te Kuiti, and North Cape, in the North Island, and Lee Valley, Collins Valley and Mossburn, in the South Island. To the end of 1972, 2,721,749 tons of serpentine had been mined.

GREENSTONE—The mineral nephrite, the "pounamu" of the Maori, a deep-green semi-transparent mineral with dark opaque patches, more popularly known as one of the varieties of "greenstone", occurs as rounded aggregations in the talc or talc-serpentine rocks of the Griffin Range of north Westland. The principal supply was obtained from the gravels of the Arahura and Taramakau Rivers, and from gold-sluicing claims of the Kumara district. At the present time the main source of supply is from a deposit of greenstone boulders in Olderog Creek, a tributary of the Arahura River. The boulders are reduced in size by a portable diamond trepan saw and airlifted by helicopter. Some of this has been cut and polished in New Zealand for personal and other small ornaments; the remainder has been exported. With the decline in sluicing operations this mineral has been in short supply.

KAURI GUM—Production of kauri gum has been at a comparatively low level in recent years. The quantity exported annually is now less than 100 tons.

PEAT WAX—There are an estimated 10,000 acres of moorland peat on the Chatham Islands with an average thickness of 14 feet. This peat contains peat wax derived from a particular plant which grew in the area. The peat wax is being investigated for commercial application in carbon paper, polishes, varnishes, cosmetics, and explosives. Similar investigations are taking place with deposits in Central Otago.

SALT—At Lake Grassmere, in Marlborough, salt is being produced by the solar evaporation of sea water. The low rainfall, long hours of sunlight, and the wind conditions make this locality the most suitable one in New Zealand for this purpose. Salt was first harvested in 1952.

Production of salt in the latest 6 years is shown in the following table.

YearSalt ProducedValue
 tons$(000)
1,96755,2001,214
1,96855,0001,155
1,96948,518464
1,97051,959364
1,97142,580393
1,97258,500385

STATE AID TO MINING—State aid to mining in New Zealand is given in several forms—viz (a) geological survey and bulletins; (b) detailed investigation of the occurrence and development of economic minerals; (c) schools of mines; (d) financial aid to prospecting and for access roads to mining fields; (e) research by Chemistry Division of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.

Geological Survey—Imperative to long-term assessment of New Zealand's mineral resources is an understanding of the country's geology. In New Zealand almost all Government geological work is carried out by the New Zealand Geological Survey, a scientific institution founded in 1865, which since 1926 has been a branch of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Mines, Works, and other Government departments consult the Geological Survey on geological problems, and do not themselves maintain a geological staff.

The survey's principal work is to prepare geological maps of New Zealand and to determine the country's geological structure and geological history. Along with this, the survey studies and helps to assess the country's mineral deposits, geothermal steam, and underground water resources, and gives advice on geological problems encountered in State and private civil engineering projects, such as the construction of hydro-electric dams, bridges, tunnels, roads, and building foundations.

The Geological Survey has issued regional geological maps on a scale of 1 mile to the inch, covering about one-third of the country. Maps (scale 1:250,000), informally known as the "Four mile" series, are available for the whole country. One-mile maps and bulletins will continue to be issued at intervals for areas of special economic or scientific importance. The first sheets of a new detailed series of maps, at 1:25,000 scale, have been issued. They cover Hamilton City and parts of Auckland. Surveys are currently in progress to produce similar maps for Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Geological mapping has also been carried out in New Zealand's island territories and in the Ross Dependency. In 1972 a new 1:1,000,000 map was published of each of the North and South Islands.

Mineral Resources Surveys Generally—The Economic Geology Section of Geological Survey is responsible for the investigation of potentially valuable deposits, coupled with closer study of the changing overseas economic emphasis. The work is largely concerned with the implementation of the Mineral Resources Council's recommended programme. A new inventory of New Zealand's minerals is now available, and a publication Industrial Minerals and Rocks, containing articles of interest to engineers, mining companies, and local bodies, is produced annually. Field studies are made by the geologists, and laboratory examination of ores by the petrology specialists. Chemical analysis is usually done by the Chemistry Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. The Petrology Section makes free identification of rocks and minerals forwarded by Mines Department, prospectors, and others.

Metallic Minerals—In earlier years, when gold was of major importance, the survey reported on all major goldfields. Deposits of ores of iron, copper, tungsten, manganese, chrome, uranium, aluminium, and other metals have also been investigated over the years, and the survey took complete responsibility for the raw material geological investigations for the new steel industry. Geological Survey has recently completed detailed surveys of the ilmenite-zircon-gold sand deposits near Westport, of the important mineralisation areas in north-west Nelson, of a disseminated low-grade copper deposit at Coppermine Island off Whangarei, and of scheelite lodes at Glenorchy in Otago.

Coal—Coal is still New Zealand's most important mineral, apart from constructional materials, and mapping the coalfields in detail has been one of the survey's major undertakings in economic geology. Work has proceeded in co-operation with Mines Department and with the Coal Research Association. Detailed maps and bulletins on Greymouth, Reefton, Kaitangata, and Ohai coalfields have been published, while those for the Waikato field will be the next to be issued. Although the mapping of the coalfields is largely complete, survey geologists continue to help with the large number of day-to-day problems in the coalfields and undertake constant revision. A major revision, involving presentation in map form, of coal estimates is currently being made.

Oil—The Government does not undertake oil exploration. Oil companies, however, draw on survey maps and bulletins for basic information about the country's stratigraphy and geological structure which enables them to narrow down areas deserving more detailed examination. Close and mutually beneficial co-operation has usually developed between survey geologists and paleontologists and those of oil companies. Copies of oil company reports and maps continue to be deposited with the Government in terms of the Petroleum Act 1937. The Geological Survey is the national repository of collections of rocks, fossils, and drill cores collected by the oil companies, and has appointed a petroleum geologist to the staff who advises company geologists on all oil regions.

Paleontological and stratigraphic information by the survey helped the search for oil in Taranaki, which was rewarded by the discovery and development of large reservoirs of natural gas at Kapuni and more recently off shore in the Maui field. The collections of fossils and drill cores held from earlier Taranaki oil-exploration bores greatly helped prediction of the type, age, and thickness of strata the drills would penetrate. Geological Survey micro-paleontologists are assisting oil companies in interpreting the stratigraphic progress of off-shore oil wells and provided a complete service for many recent drill-holes, both on shore and off shore.

Constructional Materials and Other Non-metallic Minerals—As far as is possible with the staff available, the survey advises Ministry of Works and local authority engineers, contractors, and other users on where rock materials for road metal, aggregate, building stone, sand, etc., can be obtained. Marl, limestone, and pozzolana for cement manufacture, perlite, bentonite, clays, talc, mica, and magnesite are other non-metallic minerals in the utilisation of which the survey has played a part. Current aid to industry given by the survey, includes detailed projects on north-west Nelson deposits of wollastonite, asbestos, dolomite, and talc magnesite; the limestone resources of Auckland and Otago have been assessed recently; North Auckland sands and halloysite clays have been the subject of recent New Zealand Geological Survey publications.

CENSUS OF MINING AND QUARRYING—A census of mining and quarrying was taken for the production year 1968–69. Statistics for that year are shown in the following table.

ItemType of Mining or QuarryingTotal, incl. Part-Time Operating
Sand, Gravel, Rock, etc.LimestoneCoalOther, Including Clay
*One owner may operate several mines, e.g., the Government operates many coal mines.
Type of organisation*
    Registered company197592632392
    Individual or partnership or co-operative58163412168
    Government or local authority101122140
Totals356766246700
Nature of business—
    Underground mines operated641176
    Surface mines or quarries operated9178737641,332
    Productive bores33
Totals91787101781,411
Employment—
    Average number of persons engaged (excludes working proprietors)1,8642762,7422395,283
    Salaries and wages paid (includes bonuses, overtime, etc.) persons engaged $(000)4,9236697,63569614,011
    Overtime hours worked h(000)489343553615
    Number of working proprietors69159615244
Production (values as at quarry floor or mine head)—
    Sand, gravel, rock, clay, etc. $(000)19,958586520,373
    Limestone $(000)282,428152,527
    Coal $(000)6412,87412,943
    Other $(000)15483,0743,245
Totals, values $(000)20,0522,54012,8823,15439,086
Production volumes—
    Sand, gravel, rock, clay, etc. cu yd(000)18,412405019,088
    Limestone tons(000)201,56081,643
    Coal tons(000)242,2872,312

Chapter 20. Section 18; MANUFACTURING

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—The function of the early manufacturing industries in New Zealand was to supply locally the immediate needs of the small scattered communities for food, clothing, building materials, and home furnishings and to provide shipping with ropes, spars, and repairs. These handicraft activities grew into factories as the settlements expanded and as there developed more opportunities for the organisation and specialisation of labour, and for the more complex processing of domestic or imported raw materials. Flour mills, flax mills, ropewalks, and sawmills appeared in the early eighteen forties followed by breweries, brick kilns, cooperages in the mid forties and, later in that decade, lime kilns, ship and boat yards, soap and candle works, and tanneries.

By 1867, the first year in which statistics of factory production were collected in conjunction with the population census, manufacturing establishments included grain mills, breweries, biscuit factories, a bone-manure works, brick and tile yards and potteries, candle and soap works, coachbuilding workshops, fellmongeries, tanneries, wool-scouring works, flax works, aerated water and cordial factories, iron and brass foundries, lime kilns, malt kilns, engineering workshops, a patent slip, a petroleum works, rope and cordage works, sawmills, sash and door factories, ship and boat yards, and a woollen mill. The factories of this period were still primarily concerned with the satisfaction of the needs of the limited local markets.

The development boom of the eighteen seventies, the rapid rise in population, and the better communications between internal markets encouraged further factory expansion. There was to some extent a natural protection from overseas competition in the high freight rates on imports. Other factors which assisted in this expansion were the admission of certain raw materials free of duty, the imposition of a tariff on some finished goods, and the granting of bounties for new factories by central and provincial governments. These were followed by protection by way of tariff in 1888 when the home market was shrinking and capital and labour were beginning to leave the colony. Footwear and clothing factories, machinery, and metal industries were protected by this tariff. A wider protective Customs tariff was imposed in 1895. During the depressed years of the eighteen eighties low wage costs enabled some New Zealand manufacturers to export their products, but this was partly attributable also to the special suitability of some New Zealand products, such as farm implements, to the needs of other developing communities overseas.

The first shipment of refrigerated meat in 1882 opened the way for the establishment and growth of the meat-freezing and butter and cheese industries. Ten years after this first shipment, 21 meat-freezing works and 104 butter and cheese factories had been established.

The recovery from the long depression, the resumption of large-scale immigration at the beginning of the present century, the spectacular development of meat-freezing and dairy factories, and the breaking in of new land, especially in the North Island, all contributed to the revival of a strong internal demand which stimulated manufacturing growth.

Auckland early established itself as the predominant manufacturing province in New Zealand, but in the general prosperity following the gold boom of the sixties, there was a spectacular increase in manufacturing activity in Otago, which led Auckland until the nineties. Canterbury was the next most important manufacturing province. Today, however, Auckland has clearly re-established its predominance and is followed by Wellington and Canterbury.

With the rising population and increased export income during the first decade of this century, manufacturing continued to expand at a steady rate. The growth continued to be concentrated on industries processing farm products for export and those supplying the more simple goods, housing materials and equipment, repairs, and supplies for farmers. In this period the electrical, wire-work, sheet-metal, and motor-vehicle industries had their beginnings.

Developments in the nineteen twenties included the expansion of the vehicle industry (particularly motor and cycle assembly), sawmilling, and the metalworking, furnishings, and apparel industries. These developments carried forward the tendency for industries processing farm products to be less dominating in value of production and employment compared with other types of industry.

During the depression of the nineteen thirties the total volume of factory output declined with the contraction of New Zealand's export income and the drop in internal demand. While prices fell the output of factories processing farm products rose, but not sufficiently to offset the loss in volume from other manufacturing industries. The rapid fall in purchasing power caused the farmer to produce more, but the impact of the depression on the factories processing "non-farm" materials meant a heavy reduction in the output of consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural and dairy machinery and implements. By 1934–35, however, the volume of factory production had been restored to the 1929–30 level.

Apart from metalworking and vehicle factories, which had improved their position significantly, industry emerged from the depression in much the same pattern as before.

The recovery of manufacturing after the depression was primarily the result of better export prices, more public development, and an expansionist monetary policy, all of which resulted in the re-engagement of most of the unemployed.

There had been little time for any protective effect of exchange control and import selection to stimulate industrial expansion between the date these measures were introduced (December 1938) and the outbreak of war in September 1939. It was the war and its shortages which changed the manufacturing pattern and gave great encouragement to industrial development. The engineering and apparel industries, which contributed so much to war needs, made the greatest progress.

Production expanded in response to the need to replace imports that the United Kingdom and other countries could no longer supply and to provide uniforms, weapons, equipment, and provisions for New Zealand and allied armed forces.

One protective effect of the war and post-war periods and their restricted supply of imports was that domestic industry was often enabled to attain its optimum (New Zealand) output quickly without a difficult competitive struggle with imports.

Post-war Development—The pattern of New Zealand industry changed again from 1949–50 with the exemption from import control of many items. Factory expansion was sustained by a high level of internal demand, by a widening of the range of products, and to some extent by the restriction of imports for a short period of exchange control. In this period the volume of production in the food, footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods groups increased slowly in response to population growth, while leather industry production fell as a result of competition from imports and synthetics. Spectacular increases in production came from new developments in the pulp and paper and the rubber industries. However, as in past years it was the engineering factories that contributed most to the growth of manufacturing after 1949–50. The expansion in this field was stimulated especially by increasing mechanisation on farms, the high level of investment in New Zealand, the rising demand for consumer durables, and the increased imports of motor vehicle components.

The growth in production has been assisted by increases in manpower engaged and capital investment in new buildings and machinery.

Successive annual increases in the volume of production took place in the following years: 1961–62, 5.3 percent; 1962–63, 4.5 percent; 1963–64, 10.8 percent; 1964–65, 12.8 percent; 1965–66, 7.0 percent; 1966–67, 5.5 percent. However in 1967–68 there was a decrease of 1.3 percent. Later annual increases have been: 1968–69, 3.1 percent; 1969–70, 12.3 percent; 1970–71, 5.1 percent; 1971–72, 4.3 percent.

The greater use of machinery in manufacturing during the last 20 years is illustrated also by the continuing rise in the average horsepower employed for each person engaged in manufacturing. In 1950–51 the average was 3.48 horsepower; in 1960–61, 4.85 horsepower; and in 1970–71, 6.33 horsepower. This expansion has been facilitated by developments in electric power generation and industrial techniques.

The value of factory production in recent years has been: 1969–70, $2,995 million; 1970–71, $3,407 million; 1971–72, $3,873 million. Value added in manufacture has been 1969–70, $867 million: 1970–71, $996 million; 1971–72, $1,129 million.

About 26 percent of males and 22 percent of females in the labour force are directly engaged in manufacturing.

Small factories continue to be typical of manufacturing in New Zealand. Some 60 percent of the factories employ 10 or fewer people, a reflection of the fact that, partly as a result of the geographical configuration of the country, many factories supply small local markets. At the other end of the scale, only 1.6 percent of factories had staff in excess of 200. The majority of the smallest manufacturing units are involved in the production of transport equipment, machinery, and wood products, while the largest plants are engaged in the manufacture of food and paper. The trend is towards larger manufacturing units.

Some of the major industries are mentioned later in this section. Others include wire drawing and galvanising; the production of copper tube, wire rope, aluminium cable, and telephone and underground power cable; the manufacture of TV tubes, 11 kV switchgear, electric hoists, electric motor starters, and fractional horsepower electric motors, as well as electronic controls for a variety of equipment. The manufacture of transport equipment and machinery has expanded to cover turbo-prop top-dressing aircraft, utility farm vehicles, bicycles, pneumatic and steel-tyred road rollers, self-propelled hydraulically operated excavators, post-hole diggers, and hydraulic equipment and attachments. Further items now made in New Zealand include oil-fired kilns, control valves, thermostats, press brakes, disc brake pads, high-speed twist drills and numerous others. In the chemical and allied industries, New Zealand factories produce PVC compounds and dry blends, besides such PVC products as sheeting, flooring, roofing, and rainwater goods; a range of formaldehyde resins used in the manufacture of adhesives and related products; acrylic emulsions and compounds; many industrial and domestic chemical materials including synthetic detergents; and various weed killers and insecticides. The packaging industry makes moulded pulp products as well as several types of plastic film, the most recent projects involving cast polypropylene and the manufacture of irradiated polyethylene (‘shrink film’). Textured synthetic yarns, warp-knitted and foam-backed fabrics have been added to the products of the textile industry in recent years. An oil refinery and sheet glassworks have been in operation for some years. Gin and whisky distilleries have been established and brandy has been produced experimentally.

RECENT MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS—The following paragraphs summarise certain of the major industrial developments which have recently taken place.

Pulp and Paper—New Zealand Forest Products Ltd. opened a new kraft pulp mill at Kinleith early in February 1973. The new mill, operating 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, will double pulp output from 210,000 tons to 420,000 tons. The company's No. 6 paper machine began operating about the end of the first quarter of 1973. The major increases in pulp and paper production are part of a 5-year expansion project which is the largest undertaken by an individual company in New Zealand's industrial history.

The expansion programme undertaken by Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd., Kawerau, is also well advanced. The kraft pulp mill expansion has raised output from 105,000 tons a year to 230,000 tons, of which 100,000 tons will be exported. The company's third newsprint machine, expected to be in production early in 1975, will increase total newsprint production to 345,000 tons a year.

Caxton Paper Mills Ltd., Kawerau, has recently extended its pulp-making plant and has installed a third machine for the production of tissue grades for domestic and overseas markets.

The new mill constructed by Carter Oji Kokusaku Pan Pacific Ltd., at Whirinaki, near Napier, commenced production in March 1973. The mill's entire output, consisting of sawn timber and refiner groundwood pulp, is being exported to the two Japanese companies which hold 40 percent of the equity in the Whirinaki mill, the remaining 60 percent being held by Carter Holt Holdings Ltd. The refiner groundwood pulp mill has an initial annual capacity of 120,000 tons.

Particle Board—New Zealand Particle Board Ltd. commenced production in October 1972. With an annual output of 30 million square feet on a ¾ inch basis, the establishment of the Kumeu plant means a doubling of the country's output. A new complex is being built at Kopu, near Thames.

Steel—New Zealand Steel Ltd. was formed in July 1965 and began production at Glenbrook. south of Auckland, of a range of galvanised coil and sheet from imported black coil in November 1968. The company is meeting the full domestic demand for these galvanised products and production is increasing annually.

Commercial operation of the iron-making plant commenced in March 1970, using indigenous ironsands. Considerable problems of equipment and operation have been met and full production has not yet been achieved. The designed capacity of the plant is 150,000 tons annually.

Production of black and galvanised steel pipe and tube from the $4 million mill has been increasing since the plant was commissioned in 1971. Production capacity of the mill is 40,000 tons a year.

The plant is currently producing steel ingots, billets, flat and corrugated galvanised sheet, black pipe and rectangular hollow sections, and galvanised pipe.

Aluminium—New Zealand Aluminium Smelters Ltd. was formed following the signing of an agreement by the New Zealand Government, Comalco Industries Pty. Ltd., of Australia, Showa Denko KK, and Sumitomo Chemical Co. Ltd., of Japan. Construction of the primary aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point, near Bluff, was completed early in 1971. The first furnace was commissioned in April 1971. The smelter is now producing at the rate of 110,000 tons a year, and at this level represents an investment of approximately $100 million. Adjacent to the Bluff smelter is a special mill which early in 1972 commenced production of aluminium electrical conductor redraw rod.

An aluminium semi-fabricating industry is well established, making a wide range of extrusions, rolling mill products and fabricated items.

Aircraft Manufacture—In March 1973 rationalisation of the aviation manufacturing industry took effect with the amalgamation of separate industry units into a single company; Aerospace Industries Ltd. Substantial financial and technical participation by the National Airways Corporation and Air New Zealand is intended.

During the restructuring of the industry, major orders have been placed by the Australian and Thai Governments for New Zealand-produced training aircraft.

Electronics Manufacture—The New Zealand electronics industry now numbers some 60 individual companies with a total estimated output for 1972 of more than $17 million. There is a marked tendency to move away from the production of consumer goods to that of more sophisticated industrial medical and testing instruments, often of New Zealand origin and design.

Colour Television—Colour transmission from existing television stations commenced on 31 October 1973. Initial demand for colour receivers exceeded the limited immediate supply from the four productive units but productive capacity is being stepped up.

Motor Vehicles—During 1973, two new vehicle assembly plants were commissioned in the Auckland area by the Ford Motor Co. (N.Z.) Ltd and Nissan Motor Distributors Ltd. Construction continued on Todd Motors Ltd's new plant at Porirua, currently the largest single vehicle assembly plant in New Zealand.

The new transmission and chassis component plant of the Ford Motor Co. (N.Z.) Ltd at Wiri was officially opened in November 1973. Assisted by provisions of the New Zealand-Australia Free Trade Agreement, this facility is intended to supply total New Zealand and Australian needs for several components used in Ford's production of light and medium passenger cars.

Specialist production of sports cars and racing cars has commenced on a limited scale for export.

TRENDS IN INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT: Rationalisation of Production—This trend has resulted partly from an attempt to gain improved economies of scale. Some rationalisation has followed mergers and takeovers within New Zealand when, for example, two or more factories each making a wide range of goods have been able to concentrate on narrower complementary ranges, maintaining reasonable consumer choice while increasing the throughput of individual products.

Overseas Investment—The major objectives in supervising overseas investment are to ensure that New Zealand's natural and human resources are developed to the benefit of New Zealand and also that overseas investment contributes to the maintenance of a satisfactory rate of economic growth in New Zealand. Investment of overseas capital is usually accompanied by specialised skills and technical advances and these are strongly associated with New Zealand's industrial expansion and rationalisation.

Indigenous Resources—The trend towards the development and expansion of resource-based industries previously mentioned is of considerable significance. Traditionally, the only substantial resource-based New Zealand industries have been those engaged in processing farm products, meat, milk, and wool. Apart from these industries, in the period of almost 20 years following the end of the Second World War, the growth of manufacturing industry was, in the main, dependent on imported materials and components. The radio and television industry is a good example of growth of this type, and others are to be found in the domestic appliance, petroleum products, and engineering industries.

The turning point in the use of indigenous resources came with the developments in the forest industry where expansion has reached almost boom proportions during recent years. The industry is now a major earner of overseas exchange, the principal exports being pulp, paperboard, newsprint, and other papers. Logs, sawn timber, chips, and processed building boards are also sold overseas in substantial quantities.

New industries based on New Zealand's mineral resources are being established. A steel manufacturing plant is now smelting indigenous ironsands. Future prospects include the establishment of industries based on ilmenite beachsands occurring on the west coast of the South Island, Southland silica deposits, and a mineral wax industry based on Chatham Islands peat and Otago lignite deposits. The Kapuni natural gas field is in commercial production, and in the second quarter of 1973 negotiations were concluded between the oil companies and the Government for the development of the Maui offshore field, which is even larger than the Kapuni reserves. Developments based on farm produce continue to take place, one example being the manufacture of dried lucerne pellets for export.

EXPORT EARNINGS—Goods manufactured in New Zealand are finding more outlets in overseas markets. Export receipts for all manufactured goods (excluding forestry and dairy products) in 1972 totalled $114.1 million compared with $91.2 million in 1971. Part of the increase can be attributed to the growth in sales of aluminium ingot.

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT—Increasing attention has been paid in recent years to the regional aspects of the development of New Zealand and especially to the differing rates of growth of population, employment, and industry between regions.

Recognising this, the Government has now given regional development an important place in its planning. Initially, emphasis is to be given to the development of industry in a number of priority regions in order to provide employment opportunities and restrain the outflow of population from these regions. Regional development councils are being established in such areas to recommend to the Government on the types of regional assistance required in particular cases. Such assistance to industry may include loans, bank guarantees, freight subsidies, and assistance with housing and labour training. (See Section 25E).

AIDS TO DEVELOPMENT—Described very briefly below are some of the bodies which provide assistance of various types to manufacturing industry.

Development Finance Corporation—Established as an independent body in 1964, the Corporation provides a source of financial assistance for new or expanding industries. Borrowers would normally be engaged in the production and related fields, such as manufacturing or serving of basic industry. Extractive industries, such as fishing, forestry, and mining, are also eligible for assistance. The corporation is now a wholly Government owned development bank.

Industrial Research and Development Grants Scheme—This scheme was established in 1969 to encourage increased industrial research and development. Grant payments for the 1970–71 year were $202,117, for 1971–72 $749,175, and for 1972–73 $1,156,506.

Productivity Centre—A Productivity Centre was established within the Department of Trade and Industry in January 1973. The work programme of the centre will be guided broadly by the Productivity Advisory Council, made up of representatives of both the Government and private sectors. The objects of the centre are to stimulate interest in improving productivity, to disseminate and develop productivity measurements and techniques, to encourage a better use of resources, to cooperate with other agencies working in this field, and to act as an extension service to industry. Once productivity problems are identified on a company and on an industry basis, the centre is able to channel to firms, Through its extension service, advice and assistance from among the wide range of financial, technological, technical, scientific, managerial, and other advisory facilities available throughout New Zealand in the public and private sectors.

New Zealand Export/Import Corporation—Established early in 1974, the corporation has a responsibility for co-ordinating and expanding overseas trading opportunities. By providing assistance to small companies which lack the resources or skills to go into the export field, the corporation enables New Zealand to compete in many lines of goods which formerly could not be marketed economically.

Other Bodies—Also providing assistance to industry are the Industrial Design Council and Inventions Development Authority. A number of liaison committees have been established to promote development in particular fields of industry: these include the Advisory Committee on the Heavy Engineering Industry, and the Electronics Advisory Committee. Several bodies exist principally to promote exports: the Engineering Export Association of New Zealand Inc. continues to be prominent in this field, while the Export Guarantee Office facilitates the export of manufactured goods by removing some of the financial uncertainties involved in export trade.

There are also several bodies providing technical and advisory services for industry. Further details of these organisations are to be found under Section 7, Education and Science.

SCOPE OF STATISTICS—The statistics of industrial production collected annually by the Department of Statistics cover registered factories employing at least two persons (including the working proprietor) engaged in the manufacture, assembly, repair, or treatment of articles.

Bread bakeries and ready-mixed concrete establishments were surveyed as separate industries for the first time for 1962–63, but they have been excluded from group and national totals to maintain comparability with previous years. Milk processing plants have been surveyed as a separate industry since 1968–69 and have also been excluded from group and national totals for the same reason.

Commencing with the 1968–69 production year, paper bag and paper sack manufacturers as well as plastic manufacturers were surveyed as separate industries.

Industrial activities not covered by the survey of the Department of Statistics set out in this section are: cake and pastry kitchens; boot repairers; bespoke tailors; dressmakers; milliners; abattoirs; railway workshops; naval dockyard; all one-man factories.

In addition, commencing with the 1971–72 census, the motor vehicle repair industry has been excluded from manufacturing activities and is now being covered in the Census of Distribution. Consequently, all manufacturing "time-series" statistics have been adjusted to exclude the statistics of that industry.

The year covered by these statistics is generally the year ending 31 March, but factories are permitted to furnish returns covering their financial year most closely corresponding to this period. In the case of the important semi-primary industries—butter, cheese, and other milk products, and meat freezing and preserving—the years correspond with the production seasons ending in May and September respectively.

GENERAL SUMMARY—The factory production table in the Statistical Summary section of this volume gives a long time-series of leading statistics.

Following an increase of 5.1 percent in volume in 1970–71 there was an increase of 4.3 percent in 1971–72. The total value of production was $3,873 million in 1971–72 or 13.7 percent more than the 1970–71 total of $3,407 million. Net output increased by 13.4 percent from $996 million in 1970–71 to $1,129 million in the latest year and manufacturers' surplus increased by 7 percent (from $294 million to $314 million). The number of persons engaged, including working proprietors, was 232,424 an increase of 3,320 or 1.4 percent on the total of 229,104 in 1970–71. Total salaries and wages paid (including drawings of working proprietors) during 1971–72 amounted to $780.3 million compared with $676.0 million in the previous year. This was an increase of 15.4 percent.

Factory statistics by local authority administrative areas showing the number of establishments and accompanying main statistics are published in New Zealand Industrial Production available in Government bookshops.

The following table gives the main statistics by statistical areas for the year 1971–72.

Statistical AreaEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)
 No.No.$(000)
Northland1854,05214,546126,188165,89925,296
Central Auckland2,49679,991264,994661,6311,191,783378,091
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty87423,17882,074334,354528,395120,023
East Coast792,3177,31820,43934,39010,482
Hawke's Bay2749,58433,666121,671188,47049,510
Taranaki2336,6.1723,889123,624168,18530,996
Wellington1,46244,123146,051425,213720,150220,079
Marlborough821,3544,4159,57216,8305,228
Nelson1803,33210,49631,53654,55114,302
Westland591,0103,1788,71115,2724,424
Canterbury1,21036,413119,710251,228470,793164,082
Otago40413,26641,56089,335170,08559,766
Southland2457,18728,41185,076148,11347,029
Totals7,783232,424780,3082,288,5783,872,9171,129,307

Information as to the character of organisation of the establishments engaged in factory production during 1971–72 is given in the following table. Co-operation is characteristic of certain industries engaged in the processing of farm products, mainly butter and cheese manufacturing.

Character of OrganisationEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials Used or Operated UponValue of Manufactures or ProductsNet Output
TotalPer Establishment
 NoNo.$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)($)
Private registered company5,916145,9194671,1752,084669113,130
Public registered company88273,9932707221,311408462,781
Individual4591,9915615714,636
Partnership2822,0016919828,762
Co-operative association1915,5732136641926134,267
Local authority and State532,94711102511214,754
Totals7,783232,4247802,2893,8731,129145,099

In the next table the statistics for the year 1971–72 are reclassified by employment districts.

Employment DistrictFactoriesPersons EngagedSalaries and WagesCost of MaterialsValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added) TotalNet Output (Net Value Added)
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
*These areas are no longer official factory districts but have been retained in these statistics at the request of users.
 No.No.No.$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)Percent
Whangarei1853,53451813,4841,062126,188165,89925,2962.2
Auckland2,49653,66926,322213,62951,365661,6311,191,783378,09133.5
Hamilton4899,5292,40133,7374,365212,510289,16451,7004.6
Tauranga1671,9476796,8141,14938,84255,38911,2411.0
Rotorua2177,5221,09733,8992,10882,983183,82457,0765.1
Gisborne781,7345776,1441,15520,40734,31610,4630.9
Napier1132,3248639,4581,68942,90068,64818,3751.6
Hastings1374,9741,13819,5782,19173,034112,69930,2772.7
New Plymouth2304,8611,10619,3452,025113,617154,28628,1302.5
Wanganui1652,9471,06210,7211,73137,29062,00419,0231.7
Palmerston North3416,5042,71923,5544,720105,507161,36841,9393.7
Masterton911,9297997,2341,38229,58445,57511,4151.0
Lower Hutt36411,8104,69047,89910,200201,852324,56690,5988.0
Wellington5308,2504,35732,9618,93666,776147,75160,8525.4
Totals, North Island5,603121,53448,328478,45894,0811,813,1202,997,271834,47673.9
Blenheim821,0423123,8225939,57216,8305,2280.5
Nelson1532,4155678,2841,08329,42948,62812,5711.1
Greymouth861,1132473,80450310,81821,1966,1550.5
Christchurch1,02022,3099,32985,04217,460209,186399,003142,64212.6
Ashburton*491,1703274,7706019,74619,6996,5950.6
Timaru1352,64458410,5941,09132,10651,66514,6511.3
Oamaru*401,2892824,31759510,93419,0645,8910.5
Dunedin3708,3903,35530,5926,20678,591151,44754,0704.8
Invercargill2456,64054727,2431,16885,076148,11347,0294.2
Totals, South Island2,18047,01215,550178,47029,300475,458875,645294,83226.1
Totals, New Zealand7,783168,54663,878656,927123,3812,288,5783,872,9171,129,307100.0

A further summary of the operations of factories is given below for the three latest years.

Statistics for the motor vehicle repairs industry are now excluded from the figures in this and subsequent time series tables.

Item1969–70x1970–71x1971–72
Number of establishments..7,6867,6007,783
Persons engaged..220,108229,104232,424
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)559,604676,017780,308
    Materials$(000)1,791,4042,014,5552,288,578
    Other expenses$(000)357,831423,195489,841
Total costs$(000)2,708,8383,113,7673,558,728
Value of production$(000)2,994,7913,407,4193,872,917
Manufacturers' surplus$(000)285,953293,652314,189
Net output (net value added)$(000)867,076995,7241,129,307
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)37,17938,04337,547
Volume index for industry: Base 1956–51(=1000)2,2922,4102,513
Premises and plant—
    Value at end of year—
        Land and buildings$(000)713,075773,972871,594
        Plant, machinery, and equipment$(000)417,346465,304565,353
        Transport equipment$(000)31,81736,02640,174
    Capital expenditure during year—
        Land and buildings$(000)64,51249,46465,203
        Plant, machinery, and equipment$(000)118,724104,593167,297
        Transport equipment$(000)13,74317,60319,734
Coal consumption as fueltons(000)863851868

The following table gives a summary of some of the principal production statistics for the year 1971–72 classified by individual industries. Totals for the industrial groups to which these industries belong are also shown.

IndustryEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)
Food Manufacturing IndustriesNo.No. $(000) 
Meat freezing and preserving4726,703115,644575,117155,290
Ham and bacon curing401,3194,26127,9217,100
Sausage casings82589033,4001,216
Ice cream185741,64312,4303,936
Butter and cheese1614,37316,691384,37017,920
Milk products other than butter and cheese82339759,4371,424
Fruit and vegetable preserving242,9348,51541,24610,918
Fish preserving365571,56512,2012,990
Grain milling358722,62331,4475,404
Biscuits71,3493,47217,0105,287
Cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery462,3476,00028,6469,596
Feeds for animals and fowls495611,94626,3354,071
Food preparations, n.e.i.622,2736,54963,97311,698
Totals54144,353170,7891,233,534236,849
Beverage Industries     
Winemaking694961,44711,5923,310
Distilling, rectifying, and blending of spirits51435153,1181,007
Brewing of ale and stout, and malting151,5516,87747,90319,110
Aerated waters and cordials489622,69913,7725,653
Totals1373,15211,53876,38629,080
Tobacco Manufactures     
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes51,2003,69728,4997,421
Manufacture of Textiles     
Woolscouring261,0384,25083,9046,006
Woollen milling234,42513,11639,85815,089
Other spinning and weaving mills263,14510,95342,03815,500
Hosiery and other knitting mills865,60414,54955,45519,693
Phormium flax556135448131
Linen flax128749144
Textiles, n.e.i.301,2324,69731,7267,719
Totals19715,52847,774253,52064,184
Manufacture of Footwear, Other Wearing Apparel, and Made-up Textiles     
Leather gloves and apparel101793761,259505
Men's and boys' outerwear1033,7807,99822,3609,237
Women's and girls' outerwear2705,71911,04034,61514,435
Underclothing401,6343,07210,2783,534
Hats, caps, and millinery354368762,206985
Neckties41673901,815639
Corsetry281,6492,9588,4103,964
Shins and pyjamas482,2104,33512,5655,098
Wearing apparel, n.e.i.1405,55811,08435,65013,180
Fur coats and necklets221563901,022487
Footwear (other than rubber)1005,29413,97339,68017,249
Canvas goods434431,0274,0061,716
Made-up textiles (other than wearing apparel)821,3452,96012,0463,948
Totals92528,57060,480185,91374,976
Manufacture of Wood and Cork (Except Manufacture of Furniture)     
Sawmills3125,54119,09474,91026,352
Planing mills and timber preservation1552,0986,85642,90010,815
Joinery3884,43615,28652,38419,897
Wooden containers293611,2784,9811,426
Plywood and veneer131,0713,84115,0725,920
Wood products, n.e.i.857822,5158,1293,407
Totals98214,28948,871198,37667,818
Manufacture of Furniture and Fixtures     
Furniture3724,88815,46048,36820,274
Mattresses185261,4806,7832,186
Venetian blinds172256423,2351,093
Totals4075,63917,58258,38623,553
Manufacture of Paper and Paper Products     
Pulp, paper, and paperboard64,02820,86699,71533,995
Cardboard boxes, cartons, and containers442,4337,84144,92213,164
Paper bags and paper sacks177792,56016,3864,396
Paper products, n.e.i.471,9345,78033,6368,879
Totals1149,17437,047194,65960,434
Printing, Publishing, and Allied Industries     
Printing and publishing957,74628,04572,57240,967
Job and general printing3577,04722,35663,58729,210
Service industries for printing trade608102,9526,0013,612
Totals51215,60353,353142,15973,789
Manufacture of Leather and Leather Products (Except Footwear)     
Tanning181,0293,33514,7555,558
Fellmongery7933292,071416
Leather goods901,3523,0248,7473,632
Totals1152,4746,68925,5729,606
Manufacture of Rubber Products     
Motor vehicle tyres and tubes31,1455,31621,4228,814
Rubber goods (other than motor vehicle tyres and tubes)322,1107,54720,8979,040
Vulcanising and tyre retreading746122,05710,5934,419
Totals1093,86715,41952,91222,273
Manufacture of Chemicals and Chemical Products     
Chemical fertilisers151,1845,17058,17310,971
Vegetable and animal oils and fats254041,5009,2082,904
Ink103371,1434,6182,088
Soap115451,70911,2043,674
Paint and varnish369513,29423,4485,885
Pharmaceuticals, toilet goods, and cosmetics371,5573,95126,5468,389
Chemical products, n.e.i.902,3657,49249,84216,347
Totals2247,34324,258183,04050,257
Manufacture of Products of Petroleum and Coal     
Petroleum and coal products183921,77883,0329,217
Bituminous paving and roofing materials342871,0467,6761,991
Totals526792,82490,70911,208
Manufacture of Non-metallic Mineral Products (Except Products of Petroleum and Coal)     
Structural clay products359833,3038,6574,199
Pottery, china, and earthenware109662,7266,7684,014
Cement46642,67516,4057,190
Glass and glass products472,2698,58423,81111,396
Concrete products2162,4127,84932,41813,972
Lime802838724,7991,672
Fibrous plaster452367862,098892
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.208283,19716,4645,139
Totals4578,64129,991111,41948,473
Basic Metal Industries     
Basic metal industries1103,87815,78796,26022,718
Manufacture of Metal Products (Except Machinery and Transport Equipment)     
Sheet-metal working2386,82023,99092,82235,527
Wire working598752,99814,2894,569
Nail making61645383,909722
Electroplating and metal polishing859793,3948,3544,467
Metal products, n.e.i.5359,51733,632121,27349,248
Totals92318,35564,554240,64694,534
Manufacture, Assembly, and Repair of Machinery (Except Electrical Machinery)     
Agricultural and pastoral machinery1881,5024,93629,6817,183
Machinery, n.e.i.64714,39353,331171,13370,540
Totals83515,89558,267200,81477,723
Manufacture of Electrical Machinery, Apparatus, Appliances, and Supplies     
Range making61,1003,44311,8114,104
Radio and television assembly and manufacture212,0035,61723,0446,934
Electrical machinery, appliances, n.e.i. and repairs3166,89421,99988,31130,762
Totals3439,99731,058123,16641,800
Manufacture of Transport Equipment     
Boat building and ship repairing1101,8637,17720,1088,257
Motor vehicle assembly155,48819,215177,26529,825
Motor body building811,7255,52917,4536,727
Aircraft manufacture, maintenance and repair452,46010,76020,38311,289
Perambulators81614161,382641
Transport equipment, n.e.i.461,5514,94118,1727,665
Totals30513,24848,038254,76264,404
Miscellaneous Manufacturing Industries     
Optical, surgical, and dental, etc., equipment323451,1423,3171,601
Jewellery1039362,8718,4573,763
Brushes and brooms104581,1434,6161,924
Toys and sports goods431,0282,6047,9823,119
Plastics1955,95719,61877,48429,262
Manufacturing industries, n.e.i.1071,8154,91320,3288,539
Totals49010,53932,291122,18548,208
Grand totals7,783232,424780,3083,872,9171,129,307

ESTABLISHMENTS AND EMPLOYEES—In recent years the shortage of labour in the principal centres has resulted in branch factories and workrooms being opened in secondary towns to tap the labour resources in those areas. The 1971–72 survey covered 7,783 factories, the largest number included in any year.

The following table shows the number of factories in each statistical area.

Statistical AreaNumber of Factories
1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
Northland178180176179185
Central Auckland2,3842,3802,4172,4352,496
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty845847849840874
East Coast7978757479
Hawke's Bay282283280263274
Taranaki256244244240233
Wellington1,5521,5141,4951,4641,462
Marlborough7672737582
Nelson194186193183180
Westland6967595659
Canterbury1,1861,1451,1701,1601,210
Otago423415407396404
Southland264256248235245
Totals7,7887,6677,6867,6007,783

An analysis of the 1971–72 totals by industrial groups in the various statistical areas is given in the next table.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Number of Factories 1971–72
Food13102767204782
Beverages45812415512
Tobacco manufactures111
Textiles72627150
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods104216551812200
Wood and cork products (except furniture)41160195144546131
Furniture and fixtures5155371161168
Paper and paper products41632132
Printing, publishing, etc.8148474179153
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)148416214
Rubber products2251534524
Chemicals and chemical products2951416651
Petroleum and coal products11131219
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.3682577251367
Basic metal manufactures48712221
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)123829163015160
Machinery (except electrical)3020414082733154
Electrical machinery and appliances7114415141066
Transport equipment89635512547
Miscellaneous products523323268110
Totals1852,496874792742331,462
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.
 Number of Factories 1971–72
Food14146853738541
Beverages27297137
Tobacco manufactures25
Textiles334184197
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods462144335925
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2153321555138982
Furniture and fixtures37176216407
Paper and paper products11364114
Printing, publishing, etc.484673211512
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)12558115
Rubber products1212142109
Chemicals and chemical products1428133224
Petroleum and coal products10552
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.4194752939457
Basic metal manufactures12224110
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)31821424022923
Machinery (except electrical)121531264637835
Electrical machinery and appliances550256343
Transport equipment1011491512305
Miscellaneous products24274156490
Totals82180591,2104042457,783

The number of factories and persons engaged are shown together in the following table, classified by industrial groups. Persons engaged include proprietors actively participating in their own businesses but exclude all persons engaged in selling and distribution. Figures for persons engaged refer to the average number over the whole year.

Industry GroupNumber of FactoriesNumber of Persons Engaged
1969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–72
Food55354554141,58542,97344,353
Beverages1261291372,8242,9923,152
Tobacco manufactures5551,1471,1691,200
Textiles18919919715,203x15,63915,528
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods91893592527,44628,89628,570
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,04698198214,70314,68714,289
Furniture and fixtures4404154075,4845,4545,639
Paper and paper products1161131148,8439,2209,174
Printing, publishing, etc.51250951215,27315,73715,603
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1071121152,2882,3852,474
Rubber products1221161094,1223,9603,867
Chemicals and chemical products2292222246,8297,0417,343
Petroleum and coal products505352663687679
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.5074694578,6728,7018,641
Basic metal manufactures871101102,7613,3203,878
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)73184892315,24017,77018,355
Machinery (except electrical)93479083517,61816,43215,895
Electrical machinery and appliances3243133439,21810,0189,997
Transport equipment260x283x30511,148x12,391x13,248
Miscellaneous products4304534909,0419,63210,539
Totals7,686x7,600x7,783220,108x229,104x232,424

Persons engaged are shown in the table below for the year 1971–72 classified into working proprietors, managerial and clerical, professional, and technical staff, and wage earners.

Industry GroupWorking Proprietors, Managers, Clerical, Professional, TechnicalWage-earning EmployeesAll Persons Engaged
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotal
Food4,7331,37832,8045,43837,5376,81644,353
Beverages5362551,9444172,4806723,152
Tobacco manufactures107704245995316691,200
Textiles1,1206297,4526,3278,5726,95615,528
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,5481,2363,90921,8775,45723,11328,570
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,97240211,67723813,64964014,289
Furniture and fixtures6932733,9577164,6509895,639
Paper and paper products1,1063756,0001,6937,1062,0689,174
Printing, publishing, etc.2,0391,5159,3052,74411,3444,25915,603
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)2481011,1151,0101,3631,1112,474
Rubber products5561442,5995683,1557123,867
Chemicals and chemical products1,4797343,4211,7094,9002,4437,343
Petroleum and coal products191284223861366679
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.1,3343876,3665547,7009418,641
Basic metal manufactures8271842,7601073,5872913,878
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)2,82989212,9811,65315,8102,54518,355
Machinery (except electrical)2,74775211,95743914,7041,19115,895
Electrical machinery and appliances1,5005745,4322,4916,9323,0659,997
Transport equipment1,8394179,9531,03911,7921,45613,248
Miscellaneous products1,5276865,1373,1896,6643,87510,539
Totals28,93111,032139,61552,846168,54663,878232,424

Further information is given in the following table on persons engaged in 1971–72. Totals in each industrial group are shown by statistical areas.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
Food1,4868,5434,1511,5194,6312,7836,205
Beverages311,3103034327373451
Tobacco manufactures101642377
Textiles5,02378157629143,139
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods29812,0582,461984647435,526
Wood and cork products (except furniture)3982,5284,999833984051,307
Furniture and fixtures242,921300420864588
Paper and paper products3,2093,400328041,368
Printing, publishing, etc.2095,1849661566093314,491
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)39993684349411
Rubber products11957115162426893
Chemicals and chemical products312,96135461972492,134
Petroleum and coal products1771405446228
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.7023,4605982917785878
Basic metal manufactures2,01450312455359
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)929,4711,014264172523,395
Machinery (except electrical)2905,6931,933784236853,086
Electrical machinery and appliances283,672641192253012,083
Transport equipment1893,7751,1423554514,885
Miscellaneous products335,972583574412,319
Totals4,05279,99123,1782,3179,5846,61744,123
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal. N.Z.
Food444854626,0493,6833,94344,353
Beverages1445663422013,152
Tobacco manufactures801,200
Textiles333,9892,28717915,528
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods2221461185,4609146228,570
Wood and cork products (except furniture)845335781,83955358414,289
Furniture and fixtures87141,137270405,639
Paper and paper products185541763339,174
Printing, publishing, etc.99181561,9631,06329515,603
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)256629661,474
Rubber products4581,7871743,867
Chemicals and chemical products14847244221177,343
Petroleum and coal products5614679
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.57378291,5464582448,641
Basic metal manufactures3314725963,878
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1521782,43580620718,355
Machinery (except electrical)148102642,32071735615,895
Electrical machinery and appliances172,164799489,997
Transport equipment1795451,9563459213,248
Miscellaneous products6420171,2121732610,539
Totals1,3543,3321,01036,41313,2667,187232,424

The sex distribution among the persons engaged shows a considerable preponderance of males—in 1971–72 for every female engaged, there were three males. In the smaller districts there are few industries employing female labour to any great extent. The male preponderance is considerably smaller in the four main districts, where female labour is in great demand mainly on account of the importance of the clothing and textile industries. In 2 industrial groups the number of females exceeded the number of males—viz., the tobacco group where there were 126 females to every 100 males, and the footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textiles group where there were 424 females per 100 males. Individual industries in the other groups with more females than males were—biscuits; cocoa, chocolate, and sugar confectionery; hosiery and other knitting mills; leather goods; and pharmaceuticals, toilet goods, and cosmetics. The table on the previous page shows the average number of males and females engaged according to industry groups for the year 1971–72.

Further information is available in the table below on the extent to which females were engaged in factories in New Zealand for 1971–72. This table gives by statistical areas the number of males per 100 females engaged, and the total persons engaged per 1,000 of population.

Statistical AreaMalesFemalesTotalNumber of Males per 100 FemalesTotal Population at 1 April 1972Total Persons Engaged per 1,000 of Population
Northland3,5345184,05268296,50042
Central Auckland53,66926,32279,991204719,128111
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty18,9984,18023,178454431,30054
East Coast1,7405772,31730147,60048
Hawke's Bay7,4642,1209,584352135,50070
Taranaki5,5011,1166,617493101,20066
Wellington30,62813,49544,123227558,80079
Marlborough1,0423121,35433432,20042
Nelson2,6896433,33241869,40048
Westland8391711,01049122,60044
Canterbury26,15210,26136,413255405,98890
Otago9,6503,61613,266267182,20073
Southland6,6405477,1871,213107,50067
All areas168,54663,878232,4242642,909,91680

A classification of the establishments, according to the number of persons engaged, is now given.

YearFactories With Persons Engaged Numbering—Total
10 or Under11–2021–5051–100Over 100
 Number of Factories
1959–603,7701,3681,0112942666,709
1964–654,1901,4881,1593883297,554
1969–704,0851,4991,2404903727,686
1970–713,9271,4951,2874894027,600
1971–724,1091,4511,3234924087,783
 Number of Persons Engaged
1959–6019,49020,13531,22620,51765,410156,778
1964–6520,83421,68536,39126,65386,432191,995
1969–7020,72222,08939,03134,762103,504220,108
1970–7120,02822,18440,64334,685111,564229,104
1971–7221,17121,37341,66934,717113,494232,424

The classification according to the number of persons engaged shows clearly that, judged by the standards of highly industrialised communities, the average size of the industrial unit in New Zealand is small. Factories employing 10 persons or under accounted for 53 percent of the total number of factories in 1971–72.

SALARIES AND WAGES—The figures relating to the amounts paid as salaries and wages include amounts paid as bonuses and for overtime, also amounts drawn in lieu of salary by working proprietors. The amounts received by male and female employees (inclusive of all groups—executive, clerical, professional and technical, and wage earning), and the average amount received per employee of each sex, are set out below.

YearMalesFemalesBoth Sexes
TotalAverageTotalAverageTotalAverage
 $(000)$$(000)$$(000)$
1963–64284,6982,15453,9441,095338,6421,867
1964–65318,8812,27859,9111,151378,7921,973
1965–66352,2792,39766,5021,183418,7812,061
1966–67380,4292,53171,3041,236451,7332,172
1967–68382,9362,57471,2391,278454,1752,221
1968–69409,4932,70073,9661,320483,4592,328
1969–70473,1402,95786,4641,439559,6042,542
1970–71570,1243,444105,8931,667676,0172,951
1971–72656,9273,898123,3811,932780,3083,357

The averages shown relate to all persons engaged, irrespective of age, industry, status, and personal occupation, and year-to-year comparisons may also be affected by changes in any of these factors. The figures do, however, give an indication of the increased earnings of factory workers in recent years.

The amount of salaries and wages paid in each industrial group and in all industries during the latest three years is given hereunder.

Industry GroupSalaries and Wages Paid
1969–701970–711971–72
 $(000)
Food120,559150,337170,789
Beverages7,7419,66711,538
Tobacco manufactures2,5043,0423,697
Textiles34,13642,12547,774
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods45,53253,40560,480
Wood and cork products (except furniture)38,31644,536x48,871
Furniture and fixtures12,70515,03417,582
Paper and paper products26,15232,27037,047
Printing, publishing, etc.40,02246,28253,353
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)5,0195,8886,689
Rubber products12,15213,28815,419
Chemicals and chemical products17,63920,59124,258
Petroleum and coal products2,1222,4582,824
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.23,12426,44029,991
Basic metal manufactures8,91712,49715,787
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)40,56154,88664,554
Machinery (except electrical)48,33551,94958,267
Electrical machinery and appliances21,44626,81131,058
Transport equipment30,605x38,355x48,038
Miscellaneous products22,01426,15532,291
Totals559,604x676,017x780,308

In the following table an analysis is made of the 1971–72 totals of salaries and wages paid according to statistical areas in which the industries were carried on.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington

*To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for miscellaneous products.

†Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

‡Including amounts drawn by working proprietors.

 Salaries and Wages Paid 1971–72
 $(000)
Food5,95132,94815,210(*)17,34911,52423,761
Beverages(*)4,6831,194116986(*)1,674
Tobacco manufactures(*)(*)(*)
Textiles15,944(*)(*)2,426(*)9,554
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods61926,3624,3981808161,49311,994
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,1138,95917,5332611,3401,3354,421
Furniture and fixtures619,569901(*)6491831,792
Paper and paper products10,92117,797(*)(*)(*)4,366
Printing, publishing, etc.67718,3513,028(*)1,9291,15215,257
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)(*)2,68079(*)(*)(*)1,047
Rubber products(*)3,69536845103824,084
Chemicals and chemical products(*)9,2391,493(*)(*)(*)6,781
Petroleum and coal products(*)524(*)(*)(*)826
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2,41312,5361,917975852743,229
Basic metal manufactures8,712184(*)(*)(*)1,287
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)33134,3413,396871,44473911,456
Machinery (except electrical)94522,2557,0632341,2802,61311,047
Electrical machinery and appliances8811,0881,82260750(*)6,896
Transport equipment(*)13,7303,560109186(*)18,076
Miscellaneous products2,34918,4582,1316,1293,8214,4948,491
Totals14,546264,99482,0747,31833,66623,889146,051
Food1,6952,650(*)25,17012,45016,900170,789
Beverages(*)121(*)(*)78611,538
Tobacco manufactures(*)3,697
Textiles(*)12,0036,370(*)47,774
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods487294(*)11,7691,714(*)60,480
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2511,6936,4701,7321,8501,85048,871
Furniture and fixtures24189(*)3,36271611517,582
Paper and paper products(*)1,662469(*)37,047
Printing, publishing, etc.(*)(*)(*)6,7343,6301,03953,353
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)(*)1,544(*)1846,689
Rubber products(*)(*)(*)6,871(*)(*)15,419
Chemicals and chemical products2,2861,369(*)24,258
Petroleum and coal products(*)(*)188592,824
Non-metallic minerals products, n.e.i.(*)(*)(*)4,8281,52576929,991
Basic meal manufactures(*)1,179(*)(*)15,787
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)(*)669(*)8,5392,70578464,554
Machinery (except electrical)4923401808,0112,5171,29258,267
Electrical machinery and appliances566,584(*)14831,058
Transport equipment672(*)7,5121,23433548,038
Miscellaneous products7944,4851,0854,9974,2834,97632,291
Totals4,41510,4963,178119,71041,56028,411780,308

A further analysis of salaries and wages paid is given in the table below for 1971–72, and shows the amounts paid to working proprietors, managers, clerical, professional and technical staff, and those paid to other employees, i.e., wage earners. As mentioned earlier, drawings in lieu of salaries are included for proprietors actively engaged in the business. Males and females are distinguished throughout.

The following statement shows the average earnings of males and females for the past 10 years.

YearProprietors Actively EngagedManagers, OverseersAccountants, ClerksProfessional, TechnicalWage-earning EmployeesTotals
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
 Average Salary or Wage
 $$$$$$$$$$$$
1962–632,3311,3493,1531,7642,1311,1702,4831,3911,9491,0002,0661,034
1963–642,3691,4503,2901,8632,2131,2202,5661,3812,0301,0632,1541,095
1964–652,5131,4673,4841,9722,3341,2932,6961,4372,1461,1152,2781,151
1965–662,7091,6513,6532,0312,4341,3442,7991,5142,2601,1422,3971,183
1966–672,7431,6303,8562,0702,5881,4042,8961,5512,3861,1922,5311,236
1967–682,5701,5473,8732,0602,6991,4453,0211,6212,4231,2332,5741,278
1968–692,8171,6264,0652,0602,7671,5253,2441,7442,5401,2652,7001,320
1969–703,1391,7244,4082,2703,1041,6623,5531,8782,7891,3802,9571,439
1970–713,4202,0065,0742,5803,4501,9664,0052,1193,2641,5953,4441,667
1971–723,9772,1615,6833,1094,0062,2294,5002,4583,6921,8533,8981,932
Industry GroupWorking Proprietors, Managers, Clerical, Professional, TechnicalWage-earning EmployeesAll Persons Engaged
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemalesTotal
 Salaries and Wages Paid 1971–72
 $(000)
Food22,6803,151134,59610,362157,27613,513170,789
Beverages2,5216097,56784010,0891,44911,538
Tobacco manufactures6041801,6501,2632,2541,4433,697
Textiles5,7111,41628,21612,43133,92713,84847,774
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods7,7103,02812,45037,29120,16040,32060,480
Wood and cork products (except furniture)9,04087738,51444047,5541,31748,871
Furniture and fixtures3,44661112,1711,35415,6171,96517,582
Paper and paper products6,66396626,1113,30732,7744,27337,047
Printing, publishing, etc.9,9923,26434,2715,82644,2639,09053,353
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1,2032343,4691,7824,6722,0166,689
Rubber products2,58432611,2691,24113,8531,56715,419
Chemicals and chemical products7,0641,75112,4832,96019,5464,71224,258
Petroleum and coal products1,055741,608862,6641602,824
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.5,97791121,9651,13727,9432,04829,991
Basic metal manufactures4,13239511,02423715,15663215,787
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)14,3682,00344,7973,38759,1655,38964,554
Machinery (except electrical)13,0151,64142,63997255,6542,61358,267
Electrical machinery and appliances6,9851,29818,2754,50025,2605,79831,058
Transport equipment9,1031,04935,0962,79044,1993,83948,038
Miscellaneous products7,5501,64917,3525,74024,9027,38932,291
Totals141,40525,433515,52397,948656,927123,381780,308

MOTIVE POWER—A supply of cheap motive power is a material element in industrial development. New Zealand industries were formerly handicapped in this respect, long railway hauls and, in some instances, sea carriage being involved in the transport of coal from the mines to the factories. The development of the country's electric power resources (as described in Section 20A) has been a major factor in industrial growth, especially as the rates compare very favourably with those in more highly industrialised countries.

The following table shows the number and aggregate horsepower of each class of engine used in factories.

Class of Engine1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
ElectricNo.240,101247,447256,629264,523274,616
 hp1,276,1171,362,7831,461,3361,521,3491,587,346
SteamNo.205196175178167
 hp12,56312,46211,82011,59610,592
Petrol and light oilNo.874838869822842
 hp18,18218,85421,58420,39221,123
Heavy oilNo.205168160148158
 hp15,20712,92910,97110,40510,853
OtherNo.445480215196
 hp1,9702,3731,6183,1742,766
TotalsNo.241,429248,703257,913265,886275,979
 hp1,324,0391,409,4011,507,3291,566,9161,632,680

The figures relating to horsepower represent the rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use for driving factory plant. Steam boilers and engines for generating electric power in own works are excluded.

The following table shows the types and rated horsepower of engines ordinarily in use in the various industries during 1971–72.

Industry GroupRated Horsepower of Engines in Use
ElectricSteamPetrol and Light OilHeavy OilOtherTotal
Food353,3721,6861,6551,92220358,655
Beverages22,01114678922,241
Tobacco manufactures3,7813,786
Textiles63,085215663,304
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods19,99114111420,021
Wood and cork products (except furniture)179,8181,2966,0375,240210192,601
Furniture and fixtures19,151419,155
Paper and paper products307,76346517416051308,613
Printing, publishing, etc.31,85310071032,663
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)10,0141523010,061
Rubber products37,166299437,469
Chemicals and chemical products82,1711192766933982,974
Petroleum and coal products21,5425,9521,03512028,649
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.119,4012753,0741,475165124,390
Basic metal manufactures75,529465775,605
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)77,388321,49663379,549
Machinery (except electrical)61,411483,9712029665,728
Electrical machinery and appliances23,102212723,150
Transport equipment32,84682,678404135,937
Miscellaneous products45,951144501,71448,129
Totals1,587,34610,59221,12310,8532,7661,632,680

CONSUMPTION OF COAL—During the year 1971–72, 911,000 tons of New Zealand coal were used in industries covered by the statistics of factory production. Comparable figures for the 2 previous years were: 1969–70, 907,000 tons and 1970–71, 894,000 tons. It is important to note that the factory production statistics exclude the activities of the gas-making industry and electrical generation and supply stations. These two industries used 107,000 and 525,000 tons of coal respectively in 1971–72.

The following table shows for the year 1971–72 the consumption of coal by industrial groups

Industry GroupTons of Coal Used
Food409,517
Beverages11,131
Tobacco manufactures
Textiles35,125
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods951
Wood and cork products (except furniture)8,879
Furniture and fixtures22
Paper and paper products77,304
Printing, publishing, etc.104
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)4,481
Rubber products14,892
Chemicals and chemical products12,344
Petroleum find coal products42,475
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.235,300
Basic metal manufactures54,952
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)850
Machinery (except electrical)221
Electrical machinery and appliances
Transport equipment52
Miscellaneous products2,023
Total910,623

Approximately 80 percent of the amount of coal used is accounted for in three groups: food, paper and paper products, and non-metallic mineral products. Individual industries using more than 10,000 tons of coal in 1971–72 were as follows.

IndustryCoal Used
 tons
Milk products295,000
Cement200,000
Meat freezing and preserving102,000
Pulp, paper and paperboard77,000
Basic metal industries55,000
Petroleum and coal products42,000
Structural clay products22,000
Woollen milling17,000
Brewing ale and stout11,000
Wool scouring11,000
Motor tyres and tubes11,000

MATERIALS—The value of materials used does not afford a very satisfactory basis of comparison as between one industry or industrial group and another, for the reason that the changes wrought during the process of manufacture vary considerably in degree. An example of the wide differences which may occur in the ratio of cost of materials to value of goods produced will be seen in the food group and the wood and cork products (except furniture) group. The values shown for materials used include the cost of containers and packing but exclude fuel costs.

Totals for the latest year show that the cost of materials used in food manufacture was $895 million, and the goods produced were valued at $1,234 million, while the materials used in the manufacture of wood and cork products cost $102 million and finished goods produced were valued at $198 million.

The cost of materials used in each industrial group and in all industries for each of the latest 3 years was as follows.

Industry GroupCost of Material Used
1969–701970–711971–72
 $(000)
Food698,818741,702895,593
Beverages24,87530,65435,134
Tobacco manufactures15,83117,79818,648
Textiles125,022x141,107162,111
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods78,09790,10193,747
Wood and cork products (except furniture)88,10598,133x101,829
Furniture and fixtures22,47826,88129,232
Paper and paper products78,79785,96792,027
Printing, publishing, etc.36,63440,91842,815
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)14,26212,44813,114
Rubber products22,30123,14322,673
Chemicals and chemical products96,914100,920111,047
Petroleum and coal products61,36656,92873,919
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.29,27931,47835,794
Basic metal manufactures35,56453,01156,669
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)79,317104,488115,132
Machinery (except electrical)83,33889,68998,368
Electrical machinery and appliances52,65165,63266,701
Transport equipment107,704x146,212x170,223
Miscellaneous products40,04847,34553,802
Totals1,791,404x2,014,555x2,288,578

A large proportion of the total cost of materials is accounted for by the food group, which includes the primary produce processing industries dealing with meat freezing and preserving and the manufacture of butter, cheese, and other milk products. In the latest year, for example, the cost of materials used by this group, $896 million, represented 39 percent of the total cost of materials used by all industries, $2,289 million. For this reason, variations in the prices received for primary produce have a very marked effect on this total.

PRODUCTS—The value of products is based upon the valuation of goods at the factory door. It is the selling value at the factory to customers of all goods made or processed during the year after deducting all costs of selling and distribution.

In making use of the gross value of products it must be borne in mind that the figures include the value of raw materials operated upon, which value in recent years constitutes approximately three-fifths of the value of products. Where the products of one industry—for example, sawmilling—are treated again in other industries, such as furniture making, joinery, etc., part of the value of the timber shown as products of the former industry appears again as the materials of the latter industry and enters into the value of furniture and joinery made. Duplication of this kind is found in many industries.

The following table shows the gross value of production for each industrial group and for all industries.

Industry GroupValue of Production
1969–701970–711971–72
 $(000)
Food937,2731,015,6641,233,534
Beverages55,03968,31076,386
Tobacco manufactures23,93526,48928,499
Textiles192,803223,938253,520
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods150,439172,745185,913
Wood and cork products (except furniture)166,848188,073x198,376
Furniture and fixtures43,41851,34558,386
Paper and paper products166,720186,494194,659
Printing, publishing, etc.116,148132,235142,159
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)23,82223,55125,572
Rubber products49,38650,99352,912
Chemicals and chemical products154,391167,773183,040
Petroleum and coal products76,46484,49690,709
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.91,995101,904111,419
Basic metal manufactures56,73981,39596,260
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)162,827213,779240,646
Machinery (except electrical)171,450182,486200,814
Electrical machinery and appliances94,170117,088123,166
Transport equipment171,286x215,250x254,762
Miscellaneous products89,638103,413122,185
Totals2,994,791x3,407,419x3,872,917

A similar analysis by statistical areas, but limited to the year 1971–72, is now given.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Value of Production 1971–72
 $(000)
Food65,086232,126234,624(*)92,139115,419157,499
Beverages(*)33,6486,6189636,686(*)9,469
Tobacco manufactures(*)(*)(*)
Textiles88,505(*)(*)21,216(*)57,609
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,62682,48813,7744112,9264,17736,416
Wood and cork products (except furniture)4,36138,67875,5051,0825,5944,46818,517
Furniture and fixtures17932,5782,858(*)1,6374145,844
Paper and paper products57,20091,880(*)(*)(*)22,972
Printing, publishing, etc.1,38253,5617,797(*)4,6192,23639,451
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)(*)9,242200(*)(*)(*)3,627
Rubber products(*)12,3961,98818141439314,002
Chemicals and chemical products(*)62,65815,890(*)(*)(*)51,028
Petroleum and coal products(*)5,714(*)(*)(*)13,680
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.11,67243,3419,1324402,63890211,779
Basic metal manufactures63,263497(*)(*)(*)5,104
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)1,557125,81813,7573378,8262,82143,341
Machinery (except electrical)2,45377,92518,8256895,8687,46836,647
Electrical machinery and appliances22144,5645,7711432,364(*)26,699
Transport equipment(*)55,95719,558359641(*)131,383
Miscellaneous products77,36372,1219,72029,78532,90229,88735,083
Totals165,8991,191,783528,39534,390188,470168,185720,150
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotals

*To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for miscellaneous products.

†Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Value of Production 1971–72
 $(000)
Food9,20515,581(*)122,09470,04089,5221,233,534
Beverages(*)581(*)(*)5,02876,386
Tobacco manufactures(*)28,499
Textiles(*)46,71020,246(*)253,520
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,489958(*)35,9204,540(*)185,913
Wood and cork products (except furniture)8407,3517,92022,0535,9966,011198,376
Furniture and fixtures70546(*)11,4102,47633058,386
Paper and paper products(*)10,8362,052(*)194,659
Printing, publishing, etc.(*)(*)(*)17,23910,4942,330142,159
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)(*)6,470(*)1,42225,572
Rubber products(*)(*)(*)22,533(*)(*)52,912
Chemicals and chemical products(*)(*)12,8888,027(*)183,040
Petroleum and coal products1,63555290,709
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.(*)(*)(*)14,0324,8382,990111,419
Basic metal manufactures(*)3,850(*)(*)96,260
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)(*)2,233(*)29,0929,4433,162240,646
Machinery (except electrical)1,4321,28151034,5858,9994,133200,814
Electrical machinery and appliances17629,647(*)393123,166
Transport equipment1,618(*)24,8893,092809254,762
Miscellaneous products2,17525,8466,84224,90914,26037,011122,185
Totals16,83054,55115,272470,793170,085148,1133,872,917

NET OUTPUT (NET VALUE ADDED)—This consists of the rewards to the factors of production, i.e., salaries and wages, interest on borrowed capital, and manufacturers' surplus. These three items are the components of national income or its companion aggregates net national and net domestic output. Net output (net value added) replaces the former added value which consisted of the difference between the value of production and the cost of materials.

The following table covering the manufacturing industry demonstrates how each concept is arrived at.

Components1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
 $(million)
Value of production2,404.92,645.82,994.83,407.43,872.9
    Less Costs of materials1,427.11,591.01,791.42,014.62,288.6
Added value977.81,054.81,203.41,392.81,584.8
    Less Other expenses203.9224.5255.1306.6354.4
    Less Depreciation charges69.973.281.290.5100.6
Net output (Net value added)704.0757.1867.1995.71,129.3
 percent
Contribution of manufacturing industry to net domestic output (income)18.418.719.319.419.1

The next table on net output for 1971–72 classifies factories into several net output groupings, giving a general picture of size distribution.

GroupEstablishmentsPersons EngagedSalaries and Wages PaidCost of Materials UsedValue of ProductionNet Output
TotalPer Person Engaged
Net OutputNo.No.$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$
$       
Under 5,0002567091,6502,8354,7908171,152
5,000–9,9996201,8944,9208,67716,1154,7752,521
10,000–19,9991,3035,88316,43527,82055,23619,1373,253
20,000–29,9999906,91120,11238,29771,70924,4703,541
30,000–39,9997076,86920,60039,58873,53224,6163,584
40,000–99,9991,93631,09492,562247,457417,016122,6623,945
100,000–199,99992731,04192,292298,722478,764129,5584,174
200,000–499,99962341,979132,191440,685708,083192,8164,593
500,000–999,99920327,15988,808291,717490,082141,8575,223
1,000,000–1,999,99910027,28094,483244,650444,976138,6105,081
2,000,000–4,999,9995428,822116,530279,145519,078173,0556,004
5,000,000 and over6422,78399,727368,986593,535156,9356,888
..7,783232,424780,3082,288,5783,872,9171,129,3074,859

The analysis of net output (net value added) for 1971–72 by statistical areas now follows.

Industry GroupNorthlandCentral AucklandSouth Auckland - Bay of PlentyEast CoastHawke's BayTaranakiWellington
 Net Output 1971–72
 $(000)
Food6,83043,08017,820(*)22,32214,15134,156
Beverages(*)11,5023,0422741,905(*)4,258
Tobacco manufactures(*)(*)(*)
Textiles23,583(*)(*)3,489(*)15,152
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods67933,6575,3841871,2661,76314,800
Wood and cork products (except furniture)1,37611,84926,3763901,7881,6676,417
Furniture and fixtures8013,1941,188(*)7611792,266
Paper and paper products16,75530,605(*)(*)(*)7,168
Printing, publishing, etc.82326,6724,325(*)2,3841,44420,951
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)(*)3,55961(*)(*)(*)1,467
Rubber products(*)5,103724781921306,146
Chemicals and chemical products(*)18,7253,354(*)(*)(*)15,562
Petroleum and coal products(*)1,148(*)(*)(*)2,524
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.4,83219,9263,6862581,1994354,809
Basic metal manufactures10,414241(*)(*)(*)1,716
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)49748,8075,2981272,6831,16717,226
Machinery (except electrical)1,21130,5888,6502922,2983,27713,910
Electrical machinery and appliances11814,9412,42458868(*)9,319
Transport equipment(*)16,3683,988194190(*)29,640
Miscellaneous products8,85128,2192,8568,6248,1666,78112,593
Totals25,296378,091120,02310,48249,51030,996220,079
Industry GroupMarlboroughNelsonWestlandCanterburyOtagoSouthlandTotal, N.Z.

*To avoid disclosure of details of individual establishments, figures have been included in those for miscellaneous products.

†Net total without figures from other groups to avoid disclosure of details.

 Net Output 1971–72
 $(000)
Food1,9402,853(*)35,82922,25628,480236,849
Beverages(*)116(*)(*)1,99229,080
Tobacco manufactures(*)7,421
Textiles(*)13,4936,219(*)64,184
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods540318(*)14,0681,908(*)74,976
Wood and cork products (except furniture)3011,9682,6688,6562,0872,27567,818
Furniture and fixtures31272(*)4,4201,00713023,553
Paper and paper products(*)2,598637(*)60,434
Printing, publishing, etc.(*)(*)(*)9,1764,8711,39473,789
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)(*)2,854(*)2439,606
Rubber products(*)(*)(*)9,532(*)(*)22,373
Chemicals and chemical products(*)(*)3,6041,940(*)50,257
Petroleum and coal products45913711,208
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.(*)(*)(*)5,7682,4111,02048,473
Basic metal manufactures(*)1,619(*)(*)22,718
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)(*)940(*)11,9514,3521,38994,334
Machinery (except electrical)67242027411,4763,0601,59577,723
Electrical machinery and appliances719,684(*)17541,300
Transport equipment800(*)8,6071,37742264,404
Miscellaneous products9447,3451,48110,2885,5139,90648,808
Totals5,22814,3024,424164,08259,76647,0291,129,307

The development of factory production in New Zealand is clearly portrayed in the following diagram, which also shows the relationship between cost of materials, net output, and value of production.

EXPENSES OF OPERATION—Total operating costs of factories for the year 1971–72 amounted to $3,559 million, of which salaries and wages accounted for $780 million, cost of materials for $2,289 million, and other expenses for $490 million, while value of production totalled $3,873 million.

The table below shows the principal items comprised in the figure for expenses of operation, other than salaries and wages and costs of materials, by industry groups for the year 1971–72.

Industry GroupCoalElectricityCoke. Gas, Oils, etc.InsuranceInterest on Loans, etc.DepreciationRentRepairs and MaintenanceOtherTotal
 $(000)
Food4,3578,3075,5194,7096,28727,1793,34020,14127,539107,379
Beverages1085374585121,1703,0663631,6755,45313,342
Tobacco manufactures12332128164781613299762,594
Textiles4511,9359461,1662,1796,4041,7064,25010,36629,403
Footwear other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods128101158281,1532,5663,2181,7027,93918,343
Wood and cork products (except furniture)602,1164432,2801,8374,7221,4785,97211,65730,565
Furniture and fixtures317414894038321,0425892,2916,004
Paper and paper products8395,4962,9821,8462,3528,9721,0606,81614,18744,550
Printing, publishing, etc.19051559291,1425,4442,0172,09614,00926,698
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)441801071812035092884551,0903,056
Rubber products1417914384212251,6953531,0813,0458,191
Chemicals and chemical products1451,2735091,0921,3435,6096824,0158,40923,078
Petroleum and coal products456156262601,2671631,3411,9385,642
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.3,1792,2462,1339241,2735,6475005,5926,93228,425
Basic metal manufactures4992,0441,3258557,8505,2032942,7703,88224,723
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)111,7947552,0332,2075,8873,3133,56913,61933,188
Machinery (except electrical)51,1774361,8131,9714,2741,9272,38612,70426,694
Electrical machinery and appliances9903357779322,7389691,3867,47115,597
Transport equipment11,0024771,0528393,4419702,17811,01420,974
Miscellaneous products181,3313249521,2194,3622,2202,3158,65221,394
Totals9,87333,82917,68823,25134,810100,59725,96270,658173,178489,841

CAPITAL ASSETS—Fixed capital employed in manufacturing industry is obtained from figures of manufacturers' fixed assets. In those cases where the factory premises, or in some cases even the plant, is not owned by the manufacturer, but is rented, an estimate of the value of the rented asset has been obtained by capitalising the annual rental shown. Approximations in the figures for fixed assets are also made where one building houses two or more factories carrying on different industries, necessitating an apportionment as between the industries. In most instances, too, fixed assets are stated at their book value, and this may be an overstatement due to insufficient allowance having been made for depreciation, obsolescence, etc., or an understatement owing to appreciated site value, excessive allowance for depreciation, or currency depreciation resulting in the assets being understated in terms of their present earning capacity or replacement cost. It is necessary to bear in mind these limitations to the accuracy of the figures of fixed assets appearing in the following table which shows the values of these assets for each of the last 3 years together with an analysis by principal industries for 1970–71. For the year 1970–71 information is also shown by industry groups of the amounts expended during the year by way of capital additions and alterations, together with totals for all industries for the 2 previous years. These latter amounts cannot be taken as the total capital expended by New Zealand manufacturers during the year, as they do not include capital expenditure of firms not yet in production.

Industry GroupCapital Additions and Alterations During the YearValue at End of Year (Including Estimated Value of Rented Assets)
Land and BuildingsPlant, Machinery and EquipmentTotalLand and BuildingsPlant, Machinery and EquipmentTotal
Totals—$(000)
    1969–7064,512118,724183,236713,075417,3461,130,421
    1970–7149,464164,593154,057773,972465,3041,239,276
    1971–72—
    Food13,31829,07542,393200,177134,413334,590
    Beverages3,6707,09910,76925,81716,45142,268
    Tobacco manufactures8729051,7773,4753,8807,355
    Textiles1,2718,1629,43342,55132,35174,902
    Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,2252,4813,70646,59715,89462,491
    Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,4183,6556,07345,04722,73567,782
    Furniture and fixtures3817071,08818,8203,42822,248
    Paper and paper products1,33716,91418,25152,40863,389115,797
    Printing, publishing, etc.1,4466,0847,53049,18731,40180,588
    Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)4185991,0176,1542,1748,328
    Rubber products7021,9702,67211,9879,72321,710
    Chemicals and chemical products2,4094,4066,81545,53622,01967,555
    Petroleum and coal products1627208826,3407,53613,876
    Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.1,8095,6647,47333,25126,16959,420
    Basic metal manufactures23,75055,99979,74951,79985,890137,689
    Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)2,5227,77410,29671,84927,86099,709
    Machinery (except electrical)2,9945,3268,32050,25118,09168,342
    Electrical machinery and appliances1,1972,0193,21628,8819,75538,636
    Transport equipment1,2882,3323,62038,80610,86449,670
    Miscellaneous products2,0135,4097,42242,65821,32863,986
Totals, 1970–7165,203167,297232,500871,594565,3531,436,947

MANUFACTURERS' STOCKS—A quarterly survey of manufacturers' stocks is conducted by the Department of Statistics. The survey is based on a sample of 1,200 factories selected from the 1964–65 Census of Manufacturing and allowance is made in the sampling procedures for the opening of new factories and the closing of established factories since the 1964–65 census. The combined stocks of manufacturers in the sample represent over 75 percent of the total manufacturers' stocks at the 1964–65 census, and appropriate estimation methods are used to derive statistics for all factories.

The following table compares in summary form the results of the quarterly surveys. In presenting the results, the chief seasonal industries—meat processing and dairy products manufacture—have been segregated to assist in the interpretation of movements in stock holdings. The heading "Materials" includes work in progress, fuel, and miscellaneous supplies.

As at 31 MarchTotal StocksPercentage Change in Stocks at Annual IntervalsStocks Seasonally AdjustedPercentage Change in Stocks Seasonally Adjusted at Quarterly Intervals
MaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsMaterialsFinished Goods
  $(m)  percent $(m)percent
 Including Primary Produce Processing Industries
1,966262.0174.7436.7+15.3+17.3+16.2
1,967284.5196.9481.4+8.6+12.7+10.2
1,968283.3243.8527.1-0.4+23.9+9.5
1,969314.2252.7566.9+10.9+3.6+7.5
1,970347.7274.9622.6+10.7+8.8+9.8
1,971408.3316.7724.9+17.4+15.2+16.4
1,972462.0340.3802.3+13.2+7.5+10.7
1,973466.1387.3853.4+0.9+13.8+6.4
 Excluding Primary Produce Processing Industries
1,966251.697.5349.1+16.3+9.1+14.2249.999.3+3.7+0.3
1,967273.3112.9386.2+8.6+15.8+10.6271.4115.0+2.4+1.5
1,968272.4134.3406.7-0.3+19.0+5.3270.5136.8+0.6+2.9
1,969302.5145.0447.5+11.0+8.0+10.0300.4147.8+6.0+1.8
1,970334.6166.2500.8+10.6+14.6+11.9330.6170.3+1.7+6.2
1971.394.4180.5574.8+17.9+8.6+14.8391.6181.2+1.7+3.7
1,972444.1210.3654.4+12.6+16.5+13.9443.3212.0+3.5+3.7
1,973450.5209.7660.3+1.5-0.3+0.9447.9211.7+2.9+1.4

More detailed information on stocks is given in the next table showing by industry groups comparative stock figures at the end of March.

Industry GroupStocks at 31 MarchPercentage Change in Stocks 31 March 1972 to 31 March 1973
19721973
MaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotalMaterialsFinished GoodsTotal
   $(million)   percent  
Primary Produce Processing Industries
Meat freezing, ham, bacon and casings14.1396.85110.9811.70139.01150.71-17.2+43.5+35.8
Dairy3.7833.1536.923.8738.5942.46+2.4+16.4+15.0
Totals17.91130.00147.9115.58177.59193.17-13.0+36.6+30.6
Other food34.4033.7468.1438.1438.1676.30+10.9+13.1+12.0
Beverages7.977.7615.739.8811.9421.82+24.0+53.9+38.7
Tobacco manufactures20.5920.5917.5517.55-14.8-14.8
Textiles31.4912.7244.2136.8613.1950.05+17.1+3.7+13.2
Clothing19.8010.5330.3322.4310.2332.65+13.3-2.8+7.6
Footwear7.382.329.707.101.708.80-3.8-26.7-9.3
Wood manufactures18.0716.3434.4215.4712.7128.18-14.4-22.2-18.1
Furniture and fixtures8.911.6710.589.932.1612.10+11.4+29.3+14.4
Paper and products27.0415.2042.2427.6514.81.42.47+2.3-2.6+0.5
Printing, publishing15.682.9618.6415.813.2819.10+0.8+10.8+2.5
Leather and products7.482.269.7410.123.1113.23+35.2+37.6+35.8
Rubber products7.616.9514.567.046.9213.95-7.5-0.4-4.2
Chemicals and products27.8124.5952.4028.3823.6051.98+2.0-4.0-0.8
Petroleum, coal products2.561.974.532.941.994.93+14.8+1.0+8.8
Non-metallic mineral products10.8414.7625.5910.0614.1924.24-7.2-3.9-5.3
Basic metal products15.222.8618.0817.253.4720.73+13.3+21.3+14.7
Metal products36.0115.8651.8634.3014.1548.45-4.7-10.8-6.6
Machinery47.186.9154.0938.536.8945.42-18.3-0.3-16.0
Electrical products31.5813.4044.9732.438.8741.30+2.7-33.8-8.2
Transport equipment51.887.3659.2453.925.4559.37+3.9-26.0+0.2
Miscellaneous14.6210.1324.7414.7512.8927.65+0.9+27.2+11.8
Totals444.10210.29654.39450.55209.71660.26+1.5-0.3+0.9
Grand totals, all manufacturing industries462.00340.29802.30466.12387.31853.43+0.9+13.8+6.4

VALUE AND VOLUME INDICES—The next table gives index numbers of net output, value of production, and volume of production.

Production YearNet Output (Net Value Added)Value of ProductionVolume of Production
 Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)
1956–571,0001,0001,000
1957–581,0961,0711,070
1958–591,1641,0921,131
1959–601,2921,1681,175
1960–611,3921,2521,290
1961–621,5441,3301,359
1962–631,6391,3861,420
1963–641,8581,5901,574
1964–652,0451,8071,776
1965–662,3351,9621,901
1966–672,4692,0442,006
1967–682,5352,0881,980
1968–692,7342,2972,041
1969–703,1192,6002,292
1970–713,6102,9582,410
1971–724,1073,3622,513

The table which follows sets out, by industry groups, index numbers of value of production, net output, and volume of production. It is not possible to arrive at volume of production index numbers for all the groups, for technical reasons, and consequently some have been omitted, but the total index number for the year is calculated in such a way as to include the groups which cannot be assessed separately. The index is based on 1956–57 (= 1000).

Industry GroupValue of ProductionNet OutputVolume of Production
1970–711971–721970–711971–721970–711971–72
(*) Indices not available for the groups, but allowed for in compiling total index.
Food2,1512,6123,1223,9751,7571,835
Beverages3,2953,6844,2294,4141,8632,005
Tobacco manufactures2,1812,3462,6222,9681,9551,988
Textiles3,7034,1924,9185,2204,0364,233
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods2,1882,3552,3362,6031,5901,614
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,5772,7182,6162,7641,5011,569
Furniture and fixtures2,4752,8152,3202,796(*)(*)
Paper and paper products4,1774,3605,6105,5653,5763,616
Printing, publishing, etc.3,1683,4053,3573,6142,3662,365
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)2,8793,1263,6614,0261,7751,738
Rubber products2,4132,5042,7023,1182,5682,686
Chemicals and chemical products3,1043,3863,5203,7482,3522,503
Petroleum and coal products17509187961283611186(*)(*)
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.2,7503,0073,2133,3382,0862,087
Basic metal manufactures12041142408,00411269(*)(*)
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)5,1175,7605,0655,852(*)(*)
Machinery (except electrical)3,4963,8474,0034,358(*)(*)
Electrical machinery and appliances5,4755,7595,3666,0064,2594,236
Transport equipment3,1623,7421,3161,594(*)(*)
Miscellaneous products8,725103098,728105913,1203,350
    All Groups2,9583,3623,3153,7592,4102,513

OVERTIME—Details of overtime worked in factories by wage-earning employees are summarised in the tables given, which show, by industry groups, the hours worked during the latest 3 years.

Industry GroupTotal Overtime Hours Worked by Wage Earners (Both Male and Female)
1969–701970–711971–72
 (000)
Food10,7599,8909,297
Beverages624688706
Tobacco manufactures253309290
Textiles2,6342,8642,705
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods1,1291,085998
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,3191,9792,267
Furniture and fixtures646675866
Paper and paper products2,1212,0762,022
Printing, publishing, etc.1,4732,1561,591
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)237249253
Rubber products739733581
Chemicals and chemical products9401,0981,048
Petroleum and coal products1099692
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.1,8031,8921,781
Basic metal manufactures635747847
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)3,0053,2373,393
Machinery (except electrical)2,9483,1102,889
Electrical machinery and appliances1,1711,3651,223
Transport equipment2,028x2,362x2,557
Miscellaneous products1,6041,4322,140
Totals37,179x38,043x37,547

The next table shows, by industry groups, the hours of overtime worked during 1971–72 by males and females separately. The averages given are calculated on the basis of the total number of wage earners engaged irrespective of the number who actually worked overtime.

Industry GroupTotal Overtime Hours Worked by Wage EarnersAverage Overtime Hours Worked by All Wage Earners
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
 (000)(000)  
Food8,665632264116
Beverages6812535060
Tobacco manufactures161129381215
Textiles2,30739831063
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods40359510327
Wood and cork products (except furniture)2,24127192112
Furniture and fixtures8254120957
Paper and paper products1,822200304118
Printing, publishing, etc.1,39319815072
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)1945917458
Rubber products5473421160
Chemicals and chemical products9499927758
Petroleum and coal products89321284
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.1,68794265169
Basic metal manufactures843430541
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)3,23016324998
Machinery (except electrical)2,82367236152
Electrical machinery and appliances1,07914419958
Transport equipment2,330227234218
Miscellaneous products1,86827236485
All groups34,1393,40824564

SUMMARY OF OPERATIONS—The following table, by assembling data from previous pages, affords an analysis of production costs in 1971–72, together with the value of production for each industry group and for all industries. In addition, by virtue of the complete details collected annually of the cost structure of goods produced in manufacturing industries, it is possible to give information on the surplus available to manufacturers prior to payment of dividends, taxation, and other appropriations. The only exception occurs in the case of co-operative dairy companies, which do not purchase milk and cream in the way that other manufacturers purchase raw materials. They collect the milk and cream from their shareholders, process it, and pay out to these shareholders the whole of the profits of the sales of the products, less amounts paid to reserves. Manufacturing surplus shown by these companies is therefore confined to the amount of these transfers to reserves and any undistributed profits.

In quite a number of cases, articles produced are transferred at cost to separate selling departments and warehouses, or to retail stores run by the same company or establishment. Where this is apparent, the company concerned is asked to substitute a commercial value for its production. The same procedure holds where a company controls more than one factory, and transfers the products of one to the other for further processing. It must be recognised that estimated values have to be accepted in many transactions of this type.

Industry GroupProduction CostsValue of ProductionManufacturing Surplus
Salaries and WagesCost of All Materials UsedOther Expenses of OperationTotal
 $(000)
Food170,789895,593107,3791,173,7611,233,53459,773
Beverages11,53835,13413,34260,01476,38616,371
Tobacco manufactures3,69718,6482,59424,93928,4993,560
Textiles47,774162,11129,402239,289253,52014,231
Footwear, other wearing apparel, and made-up textile goods60,48093,74718,343172,570185,91313,343
Wood and cork products (except furniture)48,871101,82930,565181,265198,37617,111
Furniture and fixtures17,58229,2326,00452,81858,3865,568
Paper and paper products37,04792,02744,550173,625194,65921,034
Printing, publishing, etc.53,35342,81526,698122,866142,15919,294
Leather and leather products (except footwear and apparel)6,68913,1143,05622,85925,5722,714
Rubber products15,41922,6738,19146,28452,9126,628
Chemicals and chemical products24,258111,04723,078158,384183,04024,656
Petroleum and coal products2,82473,9195,64282,38590,7098,324
Non-metallic mineral products, n.e.i.29,99135,79428,42594,210111,41917,209
Basic metal manufactures15,78756,66924,72397,17996,260-919
Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)64,554115,13233,188212,874240,64627,772
Machinery (except electrical)58,26798,36826,694183,329200,81417,485
Electrical machinery and appliances31,05866,70115,597113,356123,1669,810
Transport equipment48,038170,22320,974239,235254,76215,527
Miscellaneous products32,29153,80221,394107,486122,18514,698
Totals780,3082,288,578489,8413,558,7283,872,917314,189

LIST OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES PRODUCED IN RECENT YEARS—The following is a list of certain commodities produced in New Zealand during the latest 4 years.

Commodity1968–691969–701970–711971–72
*Includes mattress bases.
ToastersNo.74,10177,28394,78770,555
IronsNo.73,20564,90281,82498,693
Radiators, electricNo.171,863222,679293,838230,288
Vacuum cleanersNo.53,21762,92878,978..
Washing machines (clothes)No.44,04947,37455,49162,543
Refrigerators (home, commercial, and freezers)No.100,922106,818117,076120,912
Electric rangesNo.51,48955,70955,19560,449
Electric rangettesNo.3,4732,6883,034
Radios, including radiograms, etc.No.76,128112,039117,443140,461
Television setsNo.45,16244,95648,89338,852
Blankets, woollenPairs228,000205,000253,000269,000
Floor coverings (textile top coverings)sq yd(000)7,1757,7438,6109,615
Mattresses—
    Innerspring—
        SingleNo.87,23796,920*218,853139,348
        DoubleNo.36,53840,132
    Soft filled—
        SingleNo.38,25635,27445,99846,574
        DoubleNo.11,1529,8137,229
        InfantsNo.10,44113,15214,113
Venetian blindsNo.65,91862,59160,34855,061
Roller (Holland) blindsNo.171,337174,937255,840219,074
Newspapers produced—
    Dailiesthousand335,982332,945341,855341,417
    Other than dailiesthousand57,19157,89377,80778,584
Hot-water bottlesNo.244,000277,000326,615269,000
Soap—
    Toiletton4,3934,88020,99420,184
    Barton4,2223,672
    Powder and flaketon12,92712,815
Household and industrial cleaners—
    Synthetic detergents—
    Powders and pastescwt93,948100,567155,033142,755
    Liquidgal(000)2,9272,7943,3563,529
    Other cleaners, etc.—
        Powders and pastescwt29,68632,30132,33350,621
        Liquidgal(000)603561453576
Paints and enamelsgal(000)3,5123,7643,7313,863
Lacquersgal(000)366379407413
Dentifricescwt20,00422,21322,73823,344
Furniture and floor polishcwt24,55124,30122,65320,618
Shoe polishes and cleanerscwt4,9375,3815,2453,818
Water heaters—
    Under 10 gallonsNo.14,05710,4959,9374,333
    10 gallons and overNo.37,79237,43937,10740,661
Sinks: stainless steelNo.30,88431,20449,12948,950
Sink tops: stainless steelNo.19,70018,42726,89827,688
WheelbarrowsNo.28,00524,73834,76831,329
Lawnmowers (mostly motor)No.58,86378,21760,94859,366
Prams, pushchairs, strollers—
    Cane (inc. dolls)No.1,1301,3132,1331,419
    Other than cane (inc. dolls)No.25,66730,28536,41640,552
ToothbrushesNo.(000)3,8854,3942,883..

DETAILS OF CERTAIN PRINCIPAL INDUSTRIES—The principal statistics regarding leading factory industries for the last 3 years available are set out in the following pages. Fuller details are given in the annual Statistics of Industrial Production.

Item1969–701970–711971–72

*In addition 1,398,000 bundles were produced in the sausage casings industry in 1969–70, 1,501,000 bundles in 1970–71, and 1,456,000 bundles in 1971–72.

†Includes products of establishments classified in other industries.

*Includes products of establishments classified in other industries.

*Includes chocolate sold for further manufacturing purposes.

†Includes products of establishments classified in other industries.

*Includes production by establishments classified in other industries.

*Includes two factories responsible for drying and shredding of green tobacco leaf.

*Includes production by establishments classified in other industries.

*Includes production by establishments classified in other industries

*Other principal products withheld to avoid disclosure of figures for individual establishments.

*Combined in order to prevent disclosure of confidential information.

*Principal products shown for this industry include the production of establishments classified in other industries.

*Includes production of establishments classified in other industries.

†Effective running footage.

*Includes production of establishments in other industries.

*Principal products shown for these industries include the production of establishments classified in other industries.

†Combined in order to prevent disclosure of confidential information.

*Includes production of establishments classified in other industries.

Meat Freezing and Preserving
Number of establishments..434647
Persons engagedNo.25,28324,97526,703
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)81,597104,160115,644
    Materials$(000)365,821360,029373,458
    Other expenses$(000)36,91643,54649,322
Totals$(000)484,334507,736538,425
Value of production$(000)502,094519,156575,117
Net output (net value added)$(000)100,973118,122155,290
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)7,0017,0266,212
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000)..1,6711,6461,691
Principal products—
    Meat—
        Lamb carcassesNo.(000)25,06124,95424,886
 cwt(000)6,4756,3766,642
        Mutton carcassesNo.(000)6,5576,4415,928
 cwt(000)2,5772,6012,325
        Boned muttoncwt(000)123160132
        Mutton and lamb piecescwt(000)399325579
        Beef quarters, bone incwt(000)827675669
        Beef cutscwt(000)1,5591,2031,338
        Boneless beefcwt(000)1,6081,9471,941
        Bobby vealcwt(000)179151143
        Other vealcwt(000)583740
        Porkcwt(000)305314282
        Edible offalscwt(000)1,1151,0111,008
    By-products—
        Runners (not processed)No.(000)5,2505,196..
        Casings*bundles(000)6,6296,2996,793
        Woolly sheepskinsNo.(000)354552541
        PeltsNo.(000)34,21634,21934,734
        Cow hidesNo.(000)900854697
        Ox and bull hidesNo.(000)633651752
        Bobby calf hidesNo.(000)1,2351,075973
        Other calf hidesNo.(000)534633
        Woollb(000)81,13883,24681,013
    Boiling-down products—
    Tallowcwt(000)1,6601,9131,599
    Neatsfoot oilgal(000)169150128
    Manures and stock meals
    Meatmealcwt(000)549477219
    Meat and bone mealcwt(000)9181,1181,137
    Other mealscwt(000)30416440
    Bonedustcwt(000)6666153
    Blood manurecwt(000)110107
    Blood and bonecwt(000)422358339
    Other manurecwt(000)236
    Canned and other preserved meats, pastes, extracts, and miscellaneous canningscwt(000)117169..
Ham and Bacon Curing
Number of establishments..363540
Persons engagedNo.1,2531,2731,319
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)3,2083,5034,261
    Materials$(000)16,88617,37918,375
    Other expenses$(000)1,7872,0232,513
Totals$(000)21,88022,90525,149
Value of production$(000)24,88425,50727,921
Net output (net value added)$(000)6,2596,1557,100
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)314285307
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000)..1,0359881,023
Pigs dealt with—
    CarcassesNo.(000)303287273
    Cost$(000)10,52010,36610,851
Principal products—
    Ham and baconcwt273,603246,422242,429
    Porkcwt6,8993,9905,403
    Smallgoodscwt324,657314,890363,567
    Lard (edible)cwt4,7975,9006,157
    Lard (inedible)cwt1,084
Butter, Cheese, and Other Milk Products
Number of establishments—
    Butter and cheese..146141161
    Other milk products..68648
Persons engagedNo.4,2504,6754,606
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)11,56714,98217,667
    Materials$(000)194,134226,664348,758
    Other expenses$(000)18,53321,17126,525
Totals$(000)224,235262,817392,950
Value of production$(000)225,043263,360393,807
Net output (net value added)$(000)13,14716,37819,343
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,446565544
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000)..1,2961,3181,403
Milkfat used—
    For creamery butterlb(000)425,594419,411445,666
    For cheesemakinglb(000)86,97893,61393,622
    For whey buttermaking—
        Recoveries from own wheylb(000)1,8873,0561,729
        Whey fat purchasedlb(000)3,8023,9214,151
        Second grade creamery milkfatlb(000)1,043195135
Total for whey butterlb(000)6,7327,1726,015
Principal products—
    Creamery butterton231,855226,989240,510
    Whey butterton3,0123,2383,058
    Cheeseton98,760104,754103,950
    Condensed and evaporated milk, and whole and blended milk powderton24,06227,33339,474
    Skim-milk powderton110,411133,605200,252
    Buttermilk powderton23,80020,79624,158
    Caseinton61,26854,08739,164
Ice Cream
Number of establishments..161818
Persons engagedNo.513530574
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)1,2251,4021,643
    Materials$(000)7,5016,0986,712
    Other expenses$(000)1,8581,8001,929
Totals$(000)10,5849,30010,285
Value of production$(000)11,11110,48012,430
Net output (net value added)$(000)1,7642,6013,936
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)4284106
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..2,8282,4732,518
Main materials used—
    Milkgal(000)311335..
    Creamgal(000)329
    Ice-cream mixturecwt8,22749,19153,242
    Buttercwt78,254
    Skim-milk powdercwt53,40032,92225,630
    Sugarcwt128,956100,796100,938
Principal products—
    Bulk ice creamgal(000)5,5743,1763,337
    Ice cream, cartoned, wrapped, chocolate-coated, etc.gal(000)5,8936,2306,423
    Frozen confections, ice lollies, etc.gal(000)1,6041,6131,636
Grain Milling
Number of establishments..383535
Persons engagedNo.941875872
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,2272,4102,623
    Materials$(000)23,30123,39323,657
    Other expenses$(000)2,2732,3272,595
Totals$(000)27,80228,13128,875
Value of production$(000)30,19530,56531,447
Net output (net value added)$(000)4,7814,9965,404
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)134124123
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,5201,5361,521
Main materials used—
    Wheatbushel(000)10,48110,20310,098
    Oatsbushel(000)467467..
Principal products—
    Flourshort ton(000)228221210
    Wholemeal, wheatmeal*short ton(000)775
    Bran and pollardshort ton(000)646263
Breakfast cereals—
    Oatmeal, rolled oatsshort ton(000)555
    Other (including cereals in biscuit, flake and puff form)*short ton(000)141212
Biscuits
Number of establishments..887
Persons engagedNo.1,3181,3631,349
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,5892,9903,472
    Materials$(000)7,7428,5999,420
    Other expenses$(000)1,8912,1072,392
Totals$(000)12,22213,69615,283
Value of production$(000)14,67815,32817,010
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,1684,7505,287
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)273297319
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,4551,5001,566
Main materials used—
    Flourshort ton14,00614,906..
    Sugarton4,7095,2055,697
    Chocolatecwt29,28327,92226,278
    Margarine, lard, confectionery fatcwt69,46872,18977,650
Biscuits manufacturedton22,67123,29224,417
Cocoa, Chocolate, and Sugar Confectionery
Number of establishments..454446
Persons engagedNo.2,2922,3302,347
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)4,3395,0086,000
    Materials$(000)12,47414,18616,023
    Other expenses$(000)2,6363,0483,121
Totals$(000)19,44922,24225,144
Value of production$(000)22,73024,38328,646
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,7317,2849,596
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)353382380
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,7701,6611,852
Main materials used—
    Sugarton13,60413,32713,844
    Cocoa beanscwt70,196....
    Cocoa buttercwt12,07412,35010,480
    Glucosecwt79,29186,71588,736
    Nutscwt36,79941,38947,076
Confectionery manufactured—
    Chocolate and chocolate-coated*ton12,38711,08511,834
    Sugarton8,7349,14610,437
Potato crisps and stickscwt30,30728,80241,287
Fruit and Vegetable Preserving
Number of establishments..282724
Persons engagedNo.2,7692,9032,934
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)6,4987,4588,515
    Materials$(000)19,93122,45023,379
    Other expenses$(000)6,1118,0698,159
Totals$(000)32,54037,97840,054
Value of production$(000)34,05039,25841,246
Net output (net value added)$(000)9,0269,81510,918
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)793688810
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..3,4453,5473,530
Main materials used—
    Fruit (fresh)ton36,66644,60331,343
    Vegetables and tomatoeston99,85784,06490,228
    Sugarton7,4078,7727,660
Principal products—
    Fruit (canned, bottled)cwt425,222463,336334,875
    Vegetables (canned)cwt403,759391,497337,859
    Vegetables (dehydrated, freeze dry, quick frozen)cwt640,709627,377722,244
    Pickles and sauces*gal1,141,1521,294,6821,239,547
    Jams, jellies, and conservescwt95,82388,02184,301
Brewing of Ale and Stout, and Malting
Number of establishments..171515
Persons engagedNo.1,4951,4831,551
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)4,6735,8396,877
    Materials$(000)15,61318,27520,868
    Other expenses$(000)5,8326,7448,395
Totals$(000)26,11730,85836,141
Value of production$(000)36,87943,84847,903
Net output (net value added)$(000)15,84419,22019,110
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)496567578
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,4571,5571,624
Main materials used—
    Maltbushel(000)1,7481,7721,828
    Hopscwt7,2547,3247,189
    Sugarcwt176,007220,430223,838
Beer produced for salegal(000)70,40674,10576,329
Stout produced for salegal(000)422369400
Wine Making (Wineries with annual production of 5,000 gallons or more)
Number of establishments..556169
Persons engagedNo.393455496
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)9511,2321,447
    Materials$(000)4,1835,7546,688
    Other expenses$(000)9561,4472,041
Totals$(000)6,0908,43310,176
Value of production$(000)7,2019,93011,592
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,2213,0283,310
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)583656
Main materials used—
    Fresh grapeston16,47817,42320,057
    Sugarton7,5429,44210,087
    Fortifying spiritsgal(000)143211215
Sales—
    Table winesgal(000)9121,2141,685
    Dessert winesgal(000)2,2652,7442,784
Spirits (Distilling, Rectifying and Blending)
Number of establishments..445
Persons engagedNo.117118143
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)314351515
    Materials$(000)1,0471,2081,574
    Other expenses$(000)348445557
Totals$(000)1,7102,0052,645
Value of production$(000)1,8822,4183,118
Net output (net value added)$(000)4927831,007
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)11108
Products—
    Gingal(000)435551621
    Vodkagal(000)117134148
    Genevagal(000)161720
Aerated Waters and Cordials
Number of establishments..504948
Persons engagedNo.819936962
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)1,8042,2462,699
    Materials$(000)4,0325,4176,004
    Other expenses$(000)1,4192,0362,350
Totals$(000)7,2559,69911,053
Value of production$(000)9,07712,11313,772
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,8054,8295,653
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)597563
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,9802,2442,426
Main materials used—
    Sugarton9,22410,99010,846
    Fruit extracts and juicesgal(000)106107132
Aerated waters madegal(000)14,17516,08317,594
Cordials madegal(000)788782789
Tobacco, Cigars, and Cigarettes
Number of establishments..5*5*5*
Persons engagedNo.1,1471,1691,200
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,5043,0423,697
    Materials$(000)15,83117,79818,648
    Other expenses$(000)2,0752,2032,594
Totals$(000)20,41023,04324,939
Value of production$(000)23,93526,48928,499
Net output (net value added)$(000)6,1446,5547,421
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)253309290
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,8851,9551,988
Tobacco leaf used in manufacturelb(000)13,76513,77013,768
Cigarettes mademillion5,0825,2525,367
Tobacco madelb(000)2,5472,3942,243
Woollen Milling
Number of establishments..192123
Persons engagedNo.4,3854,4854,425
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)9,33411,11813,116
    Materials$(000)13,80415,53817,389
    Other expenses$(000)4,0035,7568,015
Totals$(000)27,14232,41238,520
Value of production$(000)29,82935,22039,858
Net output (net value added)$(000)12,46314,46015,089
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)855893770
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..2,8673,1613,391
Main materials used—
    Wool fibres—
        Greasy and slipe woollb(000)18,24622,24621,989
        Scoured woollb(000)1,998x2,2512,730
        Tops, noilslb(000)1,3321,017x2,598
        Woollen and worsted yarnlb(000)724900
    Non-wool fibreslb(000)1,9352,2132,533
Principal products—
    Woollen clothyd(54 in. 000)1,8532,0991,497
    Worsted clothyd(54 in. 000)1,3431,3011,101
    Flannelyd(54 in. 000)17310491
    Blanketspairs(000)205253269
    RugsNo.(000)869696
    Yarn produced for sale or transfer—
        Fingeringlb(000)2,0752,3152,339
        Machine knittinglb(000)3,7973,2955,057
Hosiery and Other Knitting Mills
Number of establishments..818486
Persons engagedNo.5,5925,5725,604
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)10,51713,17814,549
    Materials$(000)24,10426,96428,766
    Other expenses$(000)5,4156,5717,882
Totals$(000)40,03546,71451,197
Value of production$(000)44,13751,06055,455
Net output (net value added)$(000)15,05418,17019,693
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)561485480
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000)..3,5323,6383,854
Clothing
Number of establishments..659680668
Persons engagedNo.20,16421,35721,153
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)31,33137,26441,753
    Materials$(000)56,06365,05366,019
    Other expenses$(000)8,91210,50911,608
Totals$(000)96,306112,826119,380
Value of production$(000)105,090121,129127,898
Net output (net value added)$(000)40,69846,29651,072
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)532518439
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000)..1,3651,4801,511
Footwear
Number of establishments..108101100
Persons engagedNo.5,3375,3685,294
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)10,88112,06913,973
    Materials$(000)15,04616,67317,668
    Other expenses$(000)3,9324,4845,018
Totals$(000)29,85833,22736,659
Value of production$(000)32,65736,23139,680
Net output (net value added)$(000)13,90615,29717,249
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)521489382
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000)..1,7681,8781,848
Main materials used—
    Upper leathersq ft(000)10,39711,15010,314
    Sole leatherlb(000)1,8741,7701,215
    Synthetic soling materiallb(000)2,1252,1292,039
    Ready-made soles—leather, rubber, and otherpair(000)3,0543,8233,509
    Ready-made heels—leather, rubber, wood, and otherpair(000)2,3262,4901,984
    Feltsq ft (000)1018668
    Crepe rubberlb(000)494320410
Sawmills
Number of establishments..350327312
Persons engagedNo.5,8865,7435,541
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)15,55817,74419,094
    Materials$(000)29,46231,20234,030
    Other expenses$(000)12,53614,10015,241
Totals$(000)57,55663,04768,365
Value of production$(000)62,93270,62374,910
Net output (net value added)$(000)21,58525,06226,352
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)905716666
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000)..1,2771,3201,279
Rough-sawn timber producedft bm(000)746,449771,855740,475
Planing Mills and Timber Preservation
Number of establishments..172162155
Persons engagedNo.2,3692,3812,098
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)5,7976,8866,856
    Materials$(000)23,19529,35127,593
    Other expenses$(000)4,0534,7974,812
Totals$(000)33,04541,03439,261
Value of production$(000)37,77344,40742,900
Net output (net value added)$(000)10,88410,63310,815
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)306322332
Rough-sawn timber used in manufactureft bm(000)162,951230,982194,734
Dressed timber produced—
    Floorboardsft bm(000)27,31628,48113,110
    Weatherboardsft bm(000)19,23716,20911,755
    Otherft bm(000)89,470127,623119,407
Joinery work done$(000)2,5382,8232,564
Joinery
Number of establishments..394367388
Persons engagedNo.4,3744,2494,436
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)11,27812,77015,286
    Materials3 (000)24,53425,80127,429
    Other expenses$(000)4,2024,5495,570
Totals$(000)40,01443,12048,286
Value of production$(000)43,30046,42952,384
Net output (net value added)$(000)14,95216,46319,897
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)719439695
Timber used in manufactureft bm(000)119,145102,449102,213
Dressed timber produced—
    Floorboardsft bm(000)8,8313,4181,966
    Weatherboardsft bm(000)2,9355,9074,444
    Otherft bm(000)13,01512,0199,600
Flush panel doors*No.442,001477,043452,953
Joinery and other woodwork$(000)42,60949,06054,148
Furniture
Number of establishments..403380372
Persons engagedNo.4,8294,7274,888
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)11,26013,19715,460
    Materials$(000)18,05321,64923,413
    Other expenses$(000)3,9704,3365,043
Totals$(000)33,28339,18143,916
Value of production$(000)36,05342,32348,368
Net output (net value added)$(000)14,31816,63420,274
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)550572775
Pulp, Paper, and Paperboard
Number of establishments..666
Persons engagedNo.3,6823,9434,028
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)13,86417,64920,866
    Materials$(000)30,09832,76333,602
    Other expenses$(000)29,58431,36733,342
Totals$(000)73,54681,77987,809
Value of production$(000)86,79097,68999,715
Net output (net value added)$(000)28,10534,39333,995
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,032932985
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000)..3,3163,5373,477
Principal products—
    Newsprintton204,137210,536214,557
    Other paperton167,761171,961164,068
    Paperboardton70,60170,94169,738
    Fibreboardsq yd(000)12,41413,41813,839
    Wood pulp for saleton117,742129,110130,161
Cardboard Boxes, Cartons, and Paper Bags
Number of establishments..595961
Persons engagedNo.3,2883,3293,212
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)8,1659,63910,401
    Materials$(000)32,86335,76937,853
    Other expenses$(000)5,4116,1866,810
Totals$(000)46,43951,59455,065
Value of production$(000)52,44466,17761,308
Net output (net value added)$(000)14,89717,35617,560
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)837824747
Paper used in manufactureton57,16357,18763,756
Cardboardton29,53137,43041,541
Corrugated and laminated paperboardton25,93925,09221,179
Cardboard boxes, cartons, made*$(000)36,01739,97743,124
Paper bags and paper sacks, made*$(000)7,9029,0409,987
Printing and Publishing
Number of establishments..828595
Persons engagedNo.7,4367,7737,746
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)19,94323,71528,045
    Materials$(000)13,94515,51216,421
    Other expenses$(000)12,17314,01915,598
Totals$(000)46,06153,24660,064
Value of production$(000)57,70366,07572,572
Net output (net value added)$(000)31,86636,90440,967
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)642614662
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (=1000)..1,6921,8661,884
Newsprint usedton76,00983,53385,286
Other paper usedton4,8805,7425,226
Job and General Printing
Number of establishments..370364357
Persons engagedNo.6,9677,1767,047
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)17,66620,01322,356
    Materials$(000)21,54324,23425,180
    Other expenses$(000)7,4728,7249,884
Totals$(000)46,68252,97157,420
Value of production$(000)53,19860,63863,587
Net output (net value added)$(000)24,70528,29329,210
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)7511,466849
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..2,9213,0603,029
Newsprint usedton5,9155,4595,904
Other paper usedton28,80230,22530,148
Cardboard usedton6,8527,6106,875
Corrugated and laminated paperboard usedton9611,059..
Cellulose film usedton141128..
Tanning
Number of establishments..131418
Persons engagedNo.8779591,029
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,3622,9283,335
    Materials$(000)6,5097,0427,495
    Other expenses$(000)1,1051,4591,818
Totals$(000)9,97611,42812,648
Value of production$(000)11,26412,92014,755
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,7294,5125,558
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)153158153
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,5271,7241,762
Principal products*
    Leather—
        Hide-
            Bendslb(000)1,4801,4861,537
            Shoulderslb(000)509550546
            Bellieslb(000)471464440
            Chrome and other sidessq ft(000)8,6089,2739,867
            Tanned woolly skinssq ft(000)4,174....
Rubberware
Number of establishments..373435
Persons engagedNo.3,2103,1513,255
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)9,92310,93513,363
    Materials$(000)17,83718,92918,317
    Other expenses$(000)5,6536,3726,331
Totals$(000)33,41336,23638,011
Value of production$(000)38,58340,27142,319
Net output (net value added)$(000)15,25215,13117,854
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)544592457
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..2,3892,4142,573
Main materials used—
    Natural rubberlb(000)14,78413,95715,127
    Synthetic rubberlb(000)24,66823,25822,692
    Latex$(000)837787589
Principal products—
    Pneumatic tyres (all types)No.(000)1,6881,6601,785
    Tubes (all types)No.(000)1,1981,1001,224
    Processed rubberlb(000)14,26912,42611,719
    Milking rubberware$(000)1,7782,1062,167
    Ready-made soles and heels
    Mats and floor coverings
    Hot water bottles
Chemical Fertilisers
Number of establishments..151515
Persons engagedNo.1,1591,1731,184
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)3,8924,6035,710
    Materials$(000)37,62435,72340,885
    Other expenses$(000)6,1286,0126,550
Totals$(000)47,64446,33852,605
Value of production$(000)50,96351,20158,173
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,5669,76210,971
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)359376399
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,9181,8842,080
Main materials used—
    Rock phosphateton1,012,061960,4561,023,042
    Serpentine rockton63,64762,99967,282
    Sulphurton204,282199,940233,755
    Carbonate of limeton81,142101,397116,227
    Sulphate of ammoniaton14,72416,96816,570
    Potashton162,587156,440175,671
Principal products—
    Serpentine superphosphate and mixtureston165,969152,284151,645
    Basic and reverted superphosphate and mixtureston38,66640,70241,099
    Straight superphosphate and mixtureston1,598,7841,566,3161,719,801
    Aerial superphosphate and mixtureston112,27294,997119,699
    Other (including ground rock)
    Superphosphate content of aboveton1,660,8921,598,2071,667,899
Soap Manufacture
Number of establishments..151311
Persons engagedNo.536523545
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)1,3681,5161,709
    Materials$(000)4,5015,9496,169
    Other expenses$(000)1,5491,5691,723
Totals$(000)7,4179,0359,601
Value of production$(000)8,67210,82311,204
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,9043,6093,674
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)8710292
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,5021,6341,606
Main materials used—
    Tallowton11,95012,49212,445
    Other oils and fatston1,135
    Caustic sodaton2,2202,318..
    Soda ashton2,5862,3572,395
    Perfumes$(000)369436498
Principal products—
    Soap—
        Barton3,67220,99420,184
        Toiletton4,880
        Powder and flaketon12,815*
        Softton15
        Otherton532
    Sandsoapton160
    Candleston170155170
Paint and Varnish
Number of establishments..343336
Persons engagedNo.895908951
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,4062,7303,294
    Materials$(000)12,57513,93215,298
    Other expenses$(000)1,8792,1132,358
Totals$(000)16,86018,77520,949
Value of production$(000)19,92221,95123,448
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,5335,9815,885
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)6788113
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,5621,5901,628
Main materials used—
    White leadcwt9,730....
    Titanium dioxide (in terms of 100%TiO2)cwt87,44990,491110,618
    Other pigments and extenderscwt143,454164,234197,970
    Linseed oilgal(000)316305327
    Solventsgal(000)2,2082,3832,574
    Resinscwt129,167124,951131,238
Principal products—
    Paints and enamelsgal(000)3,7343,7313,863
    Lacquersgal(000)379407413
    Varnishesgal(000)292301353
Pharmaceuticals, Toilet Goods, and Cosmetics*
Number of establishments..403937
Persons engagedNo.1,3581,5091,557
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,6703,3063,951
    Materials$(000)13,23614,21215,740
    Other expenses$(000)2,1332,2552,532
Totals$(000)18,03919,77422,223
Value of production$(000)22,55425,43326,546
Net output (net value added)$(000)7,2799,0768,389
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)567498
Principal products—
    Pharmaceutical products$(000)6,9878,1149,752
    Toilet preparations and cosmetics-
        Dentifrices$(000)1,6051,7551,804
        Cosmetic creams and lotions$(000)1,1291,2121,253
        Hair dressing$(000)3,7474,6504,711
        Powder, face and talcum$(000)7931,0911,125
        Lipstick$(000)439584598
Structural Clay Products
Number of establishments..363435
Persons engagedNo.9651,070983
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,7583,3293,303
    Materials$(000)1,0401,3011,532
    Other expenses$(000)2,5962,9683,090
Totals$(000)6,3947,5987,925
Value of production$(000)7,0888,6198,657
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,5874,5244,199
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)274273243
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,2091,1451,122
Clay used—
    Purchasedton55,30760,19867,507
    From own quarryton157,627232,845214,411
Principal products—
    Firebricks*No.(000)2,8634,011..
    Building bricks including hollow blocksNo.(000)36,24030,222..
Glazed pipes and fittings—
    4 in. and belowft(000)6,9866,0246,269
    Over 4 in. but not exceeding 6 in.ft(000)734607631
    Above 6 in.ft(000)19..
Field tiles and fittings—
    4 in. and belowft(000)7,2508,0037,539
    Over 4 in. but not exceeding 6 in.ft(000)1,1241,3751,503
    Above 6 in.ft(000)10711491
Pottery, China, and Earthenware
Number of establishments..111010
Persons engagedNo.997966966
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,3432,5252,726
    Materials$(000)1,0461,1991,356
    Other expenses$(000)7319541,714
Totals$(000)4,1214,6795,796
Value of production$(000)5,6286,4976,768
Net output (net value added)$(000)3,8894,4224,014
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)166240201
Principal products—
    Insulators and refractory insulator elements$(000)747....
    Crockery, artware and novelties, stoneware$(000)3,5193,976..
    Other earthenware including sanitary-ware$(000)1,2321,435..
Cement
Number of establishments..554
Persons engagedNo.742683664
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,2822,4482,675
    Materials$(000)2,1222,1272,365
    Other expenses$(000)6,6506,5627,063
Totals$(000)11,05511,13712,103
Value of production$(000)15,36515,78416,405
Net output (net value added)$(000)6,7577,2897,190
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)248273265
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,6971,7071,760
Principal materials—
    Limestoneton(000)693684762
    Clay, marl, cement rockton(000)792765647
    Gypsumton(000)333231
Cement madeton(000)792808825
Concrete Products
Number of establishments..239215216
Persons engagedNo.2,5162,4252,412
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)6,4596,9507,849
    Materials$(000)11,01411,61712,989
    Other expenses$(000)4,1864,9825,784
Totals$(000)21,65823,54926,622
Value of production$(000)27,25328,64332,418
Net output (net value added)$(000)12,31112,30113,972
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)485487485
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,8671,8291,909
Materials used—
    Portland cementton144,182147,715158,402
    Sand, shingleyd784,645787,169815,971
    Reinforcington16,37214,70213,122
    Marble chipston14,32511,84410,239
    Pumiceyd36,29057,39582,816
Principal products*
    Roofing tiles and ridgesNo.(000)6,198....
    Fencing postsNo.(000)1,243972821
    Telegraph and power polesNo.(000)272627
    Housing bricks and blocksNo.(000)28,70426,98931,796
    Pipeston162,122160,575150,009
    Prestressed concrete beamsNo.10,449..9,230
Plywood and Veneer
Number of establishments..151613
Persons engagedNo.9441,1971,071
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,8193,8343,841
    Materials$(000)4,9586,2576,158
    Other expenses$(000)2,0802,8183,165
Totals$(000)9,85712,90913,164
Value of production$(000)11,96815,42915,072
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,0566,6315,920
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)198327394
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..2,4293,0173,080
Species of logs used—
    Rimuft(000) (H. Dahl)9,3954,7556,413
    Radiata pineft(000) (H. Dahl)30,15740,15348,740
    Otherft(000) (R Dahl)4,33612,0672,919
Veneer produced (1/16;in. basis)sq ft(000)203,463211,920227,548
Plywood made (3/16;in. basis)sq ft(000)55,13651,86958,679
Particle boardsq ft(000)21,99229,64433,484
Range Making*
Number of establishments..566
Persons engagedNo.9551,0821,100
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)2,1792,8313,443
    Materials$(000)3,9715,2296,091
    Other expenses$(000)1,2011,7601,680
Totals$(000)7,3529,82011,214
Value of production$(000)7,85410,55911,811
Net output (net value added)$(000)2,7243,6054,104
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)136206188
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,6152,0582,084
Principal products—
    Domestic electric rangesNo.55,70958,22960,449
Domestic electric rangettesNo.2,688
Radio and Television Assembly and Manufacture*
Number of establishments..272021
Persons engagedNo.2,0122,1642,003
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)4,4325,2305,617
    Materials$(000)11,07712,27213,707
    Other expenses$(000)1,7892,5002,624
Totals$(000)17,29820,00321,948
Value of production$(000)18,53721,33523,044
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,7286,7086,934
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)146127110
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..3,9714,5444,572
Principal products—
    Radios—
        Car and portableNo.92,199101,396119,592
        TableNo.2,209
    RadiogramsNo.17,63116,21120,869
    Television setsNo.44,95643,89338,852
Motor-vehicle Assembly
Number of establishments..181615
Persons engagedNo.3,9784,9615,488
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)10,38614,38519,215
    Materials$(000)84,279119,245137,941
    Other expenses$(000)4,8957,0829,669
Totals$(000)99,560140,712166,824
Value of production$(000)109,956150,235177,265
Net output (net value added)$(000)20,86324,06529,825
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)9071,1831,299
Volume index. Ease: 1956–57 (= 1000)..1,5931,7891,889
Vehicles assembled—
    Cars and station wagonsNo.52,79156,55659,590
    Vans and busesNo.4,9599,39112,996
    Trucks and tractorsNo.8,2198,2618,040
Motor-body Building
Number of establishments..767880
Persons engagedNo.1,7451,7161,725
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)4,1724,6525,529
    Materials$(000)7,6018,4558,907
    Other expenses$(000)1,4171,7022,061
Totals$(000)13,18914,80916,496
Value of production$(000)14,41815,65717,453
Net output (net value added)$(000)5,6005,6816,727
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)193180153
Main materials—
    Timberft bm(000)1,4931,9411,678
    Plywoodsq ft(000)1,1601,2241,189
    Paints and oilsgal(000)423737
    Iron and steelton(000)687
    Trimmings$(000)362387381
    Hardware$(000)9131,1041,138
    Glassware$(000)168190195
Motor bodies built—
    BusesNo.179137146
    VansNo.321383485
    Trucks—
        CabsNo.100116118
        TraysNo.587779698
    CaravansNo.2,6952,8873,123
Sheet-metal Working
Number of establishments..214234238
Persons engagedNo.6,4267,0676,820
Production costs-
    Salaries, wages$(000)17,33021,33723,990
    Materials$(000)35,26442,00744,791
    Other expenses$(000)9,19311,86713,419
Totals$(000)61,78775,21182,200
Value of production$(000)70,69084,86492,822
Net output (net value added)$(000)26,79131,74735,527
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,4311,2181,368
Volume index. Base: 1956–57 (= 1000)..3,1563,8354,262
Metal Products, n.e.i.
Number of establishments..372473535
Persons engagedNo.6,8778,7919,517
Production costs—
    Salaries and wages$(000)18,33127,74233,632
    Materials$(000)33,45649,95457,294
    Other expenses$(000)9,23214,08915,809
Totals$(000)61,01991,785106,735
Value of production$(000)71,021104,423121,273
Net output (net value added)$(000)28,89141,18649,248
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,2251,6311,630
Agricultural and Pastoral Machinery
Number of establishments..113171188
Persons engagedNo.1,2751,4071,502
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)3,0194,0204,936
    Materials$(000)15,12016,44120,414
    Other expenses$(000)1,4991,8492,325
Totals$(000)19,63822,31027,675
Value of production$(000)22,71725,11729,681
Net output (net value added)$(000)6,2257,0207,183
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)144150147
Plastics
Number of establishments..154168195
Persons engagedNo.4,8185,1925,957
Production costs—
    Salaries, wages$(000)12,90315,39119,618
    Materials$(000)24,23429,72734,576
    Other expenses$(000)2,56611,41314,426
Totals$(000)39,70456,53168,620
Value of production$(000)54,53763,87477,484
Net output (net value added)$(000)22,10923,18529,262
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)1,3071,0951,778
Machinery, n.e.i.
Number of establishments..821619647
Persons engagedNo.16,34315,02514,393
Production costs—
    Salaries wages$(000)45,31647,92953,331
    Materials$(000)68,21873,24877,954
    Other expenses$(000)20,15221,38924,369
Totals$(000)133,686142,566155,654
Value of production$(000)148,733157,370171,133
Net output (net value added)$(000)62,00364,38070,540
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)2,8042,9602,742
Principal products*
    Washing machinesNo.47,37455,49162,543
    Refrigerators (home, commercial, and freezers)No.106,818117,076120,912
Industrial machinery—
        Mining, quarrying$(000)1,7341,9182,758
        Road construction$(000)1,8884,7604,822
        Logging, sawmilling, woodworking$(000)4,3634,2885,483
        Refrigeration$(000)4,4055,9157,255
        Heating, air-conditioning$(000)5,7057,8128,186
        Dairy factory$(000)2,6743,2263,585
        Pumping$(000)2,1442,5932,545
        Other$(000)15,84721,23727,310
    Lawnmowers—hand and powerNo.78,36760,94859,366
    Repairs to machinery$(000)17,47729,55531,229
Petroleum and Coal Products
EstablishmentsNo.181818
Persons engagedNo.400394392
Production costs—
    Salaries and wages$(000)1,3911,5161,778
    Materials$(000)57,44462,65869,558
    Other expenses$(000)3,8273,4924,263
Totals$(000)62,66267,66675,599
Value of production$(000)69,44476,57083,032
Net output (net value added)$(000)8,17810,4259,217
Overtime worked by wage earnersh(000)574647
Principal products—
    Premium gasolinegal(000)238,721270,965267,203
    Regular gasolinegal(000)91,43891,19884,219
    Automotive gasoilgal(000)131,546145,425135,395
    Marine diesel oilgal(000)19,65522,82919,641
    Light fuel oilgal(000)50,07854,46761,219
    Heavy fuel oilgal(000)87,37397,266118,265
    Export fuel oilgal(000)25,14812,9904,955
    Bunker fuelgal(000)16,09117,2391,996
    Bitumengal(000)22,87325,51722,756
    Power station fuelgal(000)22,04830,42623,394
 

NOTE—More detailed information on individual industries is given in the annual Statistics of Industrial Production obtainable from Government bookshops, or alternatively available for reference at major public libraries.

Details of individual industries for the year later than in the preceding tables are given in supplements to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Also in the same publication up-to-date monthly or quarterly production totals are given in the tables.

Chapter 21. Section 19; BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND HOUSING

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY—The industry makes a fairly large contribution to total national output. It supplies between 62 and 67 percent of all fixed capital formation. About two-thirds of this (i.e., from 40 to 42 percent of total fixed capital formation) is in buildings, and a percentage analysis of building permits by sectors of ownership and types of building is as follows for 1972–73.

Type of BuildingCentral GovernmentPublic CorporationsLocal GovernmentPrivate SectorTotal
   percent  
Houses and flats1.51.053.255.7
Hotels and motels0.30.32.63.1
Hospitals0.31.90.72.8
Factories0.26.66.8
Commercial buildings3.10.411.014.5
Education buildings8.20.58.7
Miscellaneous1.30.11.55.38.3
Total14.80.15.279.8100.0

While the overall investment pattern emphasises the key part played by residential buildings (houses and flats) in annual building programmes, and the level of this investment has increased steadily in line with increasing population, the proportion of total capital investment in residential building declined steadily in the 1960s. Residential building accounted for 63 percent of building investment in 1955–56. Although residential building is likely to remain a dominant building group, the trends reflect the development of a more complex and sophisticated economy. This is emphasised by the growth in factories, commercial buildings, office blocks, motels, hotels, technical institutes, universities, etc.

Within the residential field a trend has developed away from houses to flats. Whereas new flat units comprised 5.5 percent of all residential units built in 1960–61, the percentage rose to 39.2 for 1972–73. The greatest demand for flats has been in the main urban centres, Auckland and Wellington.

The industry employs 7 to 8 percent of the total labour force on "on-site" works, and its position as a large market for goods from other sectors also strongly influences employment in these sectors. For example, the concrete and other non-metallic mineral products industry in the manufacturing sector employs up to 6,000 workers and the metal products industry approximately 39,000 workers. In the forestry sector, builders' woodwork has over 5,000 workers, and sawmilling and plywood 12,000. In varying degrees these industries and others rely on the building and construction industry to absorb their output. The off-site supply services provide about 65 percent of the value of the work put in place.

The characteristic of the industry with its relatively high proportion of short-term construction (mainly dwellings) is reflected in the structure of firms. Over 80 percent of on-site building firms employ fewer than six persons, are usually under-capitalised, and tend to rely on extended credit from suppliers. Hence effective planning of the housing sector on a longer-term basis is important to the stability of the industry.

In June 1966 the Government introduced a building programme under the Economic Stabilisation Act in terms of which the issue of building permits for works of an estimated value of more than $60,000 could be deferred for periods of up to 3 years. These building controls were removed on 8 March 1968. Regulations came into force on 7 October 1968 requiring construction work costing more than $20,000 to be registered with the Building Projects Registration Authority at the working drawing stage.

Building programming was reintroduced on 27 April 1970 and intensified in October 1970 as one of several measures to deal with growing pressure on the economy. It operates as an extension of the registration scheme by preventing local authorities from issuing permits for buildings costing more than $60,000 without the consent of the Minister of Works and Development.

BUILDING INDUSTRY ADVISORY COUNCIL—Evolving from a committee formed in 1965, as a sector committee of the National Development Council, there is a Building Industry Advisory Council. Its functions have become: (a) advice to Government through the Minister of Works and Development on matters affecting the building and construction industry; (b) maintenance of an overall and continuing review of the industry and advice to the industry on the likely effects of building trends. In December 1973 it produced a comprehensive report entitled Stability in the Building and Construction Industry.

The membership of the council consists of six representatives from sectors of the industry, namely contractors, architects, professional engineers, workers, and suppliers, plus one representative each from Treasury and Ministry of Works and Development. Members have been appointed by the Minister of Works and Development on the recommendation of organisations within the building industry.

HOUSING COMMISSION—A Commission of Inquiry into Housing met in 1970 to reappraise and establish future long-term requirements of housing. It reported in May 1971 (parliamentary paper H.51). It recommended that planning should be on the basis that about 300,000 new dwellings will be needed in the decade to December 1980 and stated that an increased demand for high-rise flats could be expected in Auckland and Wellington when strata title legislation was enacted. More town houses and terraced houses in central urban areas were advocated.

A National Housing Commission has been appointed to follow up recommendations of the commission of inquiry.

HOUSING CORPORATION—It is proposed to create a Housing Corporation combining the activities of the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works and Development and the urban lending division of the State Advances Corporation.

TRENDS IN AVERAGE COSTS—The following table illustrates trends in the cost of building activity over a period. (Source: Ministry of Works and Development.)

Type of BuildingCost at End of Year
1950195519601965197019721973
 $$$$$$$
State rental house (976 sq ft)4,3445,1645,5286,1647,4509,88412,195
Buildings (reinforced concrete) of similar size and type50,20057,60064,20073,40096,000108,900136,000

CENSUS OF BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION—The latest census of the activities of the building and construction industry shows that the total value of work done in the production year 1968–69 was $814 million compared with $704 million 5 years earlier. If subcontracts and other identifiable intra-industry transactions are deducted, the value of work done became $697 million for 1968–69 and $612 million for 1963–64. The recession in the building and construction industry and the economy generally during 1968 was reflected in the census results for 1968–69.

The reduced activity in the industry in 1968–69 was also reflected in the capital expenditure of the industry. In 1963–64 expenditure by the industry on capital goods for its own use, such as plant and machinery, motor vehicles, and land and buildings, was $40 million; in 1968–69, despite higher prices, it was only $36 million.

Of the total production for 1968–69 of $814 million, $537 million or 66 percent was represented by work on buildings (involving construction, alteration, repair, maintenance, or demolition); $138 million was for work on roads, railways, bridges, tunnels, dams, drains, wharves, and jetties; $27 million was land drainage, sewerage, river protection, irrigation works, water supply, and well drilling; $24 million was for earthmoving, reclamation, site development, aerodromes, and airstrips; $2 million was for the removal of overburden from mines and quarries; and of the remaining $86 million, the most important components were power development, and work on transmission and telecommunication lines.

One of the main purposes of this 5-yearly Census of Building and Construction was to examine the structure of the industry. Of the total gross output of $814 million in 1968–69, private firms were responsible for output to the value of $637 million both as main and subcontractors. Government departments used their own staff for a value output of $101 million, while local authorities did work to the value of $61 million on their own behalf. Private owner-builders not normally engaged in building and construction undertook $15 million of their own building work.

Of the total output of private firms, $192 million in 1968–69 was done on behalf of the Government and local authorities compared with $141 million in 1963–64.

PRIVATE CONTRACTORS—The business of private contractors in building and construction in 1968–69 is summarised in the following table. Further information is given in Building and Construction 1968–69, report of the Department of Statistics (available at Government bookshops).

Nature of BusinessUnitsPersons EngagedSalaries and WagesWorking ProprietorsMaterialsValue of Work Done
As Main ContractorAs Sub-ContractorTotal
 No.No.$(m)No.$(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)
Building contractor4,57923,98759.33,452133.2338.015.5353.9
Civil engineering contractor3987,89027.211830.792.99.7102.6
Shop and office fitter301480.4111.21.40.92.3
Electrical contractor8763,5718.739517.516.916.733.6
Plumber and drainlayer1,2553,9299.483324.122.321.944.1
Painter1,1713,0557.31,0745.511.68.119.7
Plasterer2991,1052.82392.22.05.37.4
Roofing contractor646201.5185.61.17.78.8
Bricklayer3339502.42794.12.26.78.9
Glazier926881.6164.52.74.97.7
Flooring contractor1123690.9562.51.92.84.7
Earth mover2111,0612.91121.09.71.811.5
Road sealer354071.192.34.41.05.4
Other2912,6217.211010.314.612.126.7
Totals9,74650,401132.86,722244.5521.8115.2637.0

HOUSING—In national development planning it was projected that 4.88 percent of the gross national product in 1978–79 (instead of 4.3 percent as in 1966–69) should be represented by the building of new houses and flats.

Over 400,000 of the present 850,000 dwellings (that is, nearly half of the total housing stock) have been built since the National Housing Conference in 1953. The standard house is about 1,030 sq ft in area, is single-storeyed, and normally built of timber; fittings are of a reasonably high standard, especially in the kitchen. It now costs over $10,000 to build, and stands on a section costing more than $3,000 on average.

Approximately 90 percent of the dwellings completed annually are built for private home ownership, with most of the balance being erected by Government agencies for rental purposes. Since the war there has been no significant housing built for private rental, but some rental flats are created by conversion of existing dwellings.

Since 1937 the State, using the services of private contractors, has been building rental dwellings. At March 1973, 75,118 of these houses and flats had been built and since 1950, 23,540 of them had been sold to the occupiers. Rental dwellings are let to applicants in difficult housing circumstances. Some 376 houses were also built by the State in 1972–73 for the accommodation of Government employees.

Under the Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act 1945 local authorities can take action to rebuild decadent central city areas. Urban renewal schemes are in progress at Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch, assisted with Government finance. On a limited basis, loans are available to private houseowners to renovate old houses in defined areas of the four main centres.

The Unit Titles Act 1972 made provision for a new type of ownership of units in a multi-unit development. Individual owners are entitled to a legal estate in their respective units and can sell or transfer a unit without requiring the consent of other owners as is the case where a block of shares in a flat-owning company provides the right to a flat.

GOVERNMENT CAPITAL ASSISTANCE ON NEW HOUSING—The following table gives the Government's total capital assistance on new housing in the latest 3 years and includes both direct expenditure by Government departments and money advanced by way of mortgages and loans by the State Advances Corporation and the Department of Maori and Island Affairs, and amounts advanced in capitalisation of family benefits payable under social security. Expenditure on new housing by hospital boards, education boards, etc., is not included.

Expenditure1970–711971–721972–73
  $(000) 
Land purchase and development, State house construction, etc.13,30210,98412,925
Expenditure by Housing Division for other departments3,8992,9644,256
Department of Maori and Island Affairs5,1935,1586,827
Department of Lands and Survey521251312
State Advances and rehabilitation loans paid out for new urban houses45,86445,77977,772
State Advances and rehabilitation loans paid out for new rural houses2,0592,2041,615
State Advances loans paid to local authorities for rural housing, pensioners' housing, etc.3,8675,3517,739
Department of Health subsidies paid to local authorities for housing of elderly9841,1031,326
Advances under capitalisation of family benefits9,8406,6536,881
Totals85,53080,446119,652

HOUSES AND FLATS COMPLETED—Statistics of completions are given in the following table; they include flats created by conversion of existing dwellings. The statistics are dependent on the supply of information by local authorities and indications are that they have been under-stated. Figures for recent years have been revised.

Year Ended 31 MarchHouses and Flats Completed
1,95316,100
1,95416,600
1,95518,500
1,95619,200
1,95719,200
1,95818,600
1,95919,600
1,96021,600
1,96123,500
1,96224,300
1,96322,100
1,96421,100
1,96523,500
1,96626,000
1,96724,700
1,96823,300
1,96922,200
1,97022,800
1,97122,900
1,97223,100
1,97328,000
1,97432,500

The following table gives details of the number of houses and flats completed during the last seven years, with the nature of the responsible agency indicated.

Year Ended 31 MarchGovernmentPrivate and Local AuthorityTotal New Houses and FlatsFlats Created by ConversionTotal Housing Unite
State RentalGovt. Tenancies*

*Includes Education and Hospital Boards.

† City, borough and county councils, etc., comprising pensioner units, staff housing, etc.

‡ Additional dwelling units created by conversion of existing buildings, e.g., one house converted into two flats.

1,9681,48960920,44122,50072023,300
1,9691,53432819,14021,00076021,800
1,9701,24148720,400x22,100x67022,800x
1,9711,19462320,400x22,240x72022,900x
1,97266135721,400x22,400x68023,100x
1,97376540926,30027,40056028,000x
1,97465043630,70031,90065032,500

DEMOLITIONS—According to notifications received, the totals of dwellings demolished in recent years have been: 1968–69, 1,654; 1969–70, 2,188; 1970–71, 2,474; 1971–72, 2,279; 1972–73, 2,525; 1973–74, 2,900.

PROJECTIONS OF PERMANENT PRIVATE DWELLINGS—Projections of permanent private dwellings for each year up to 1980 were published by the Department of Statistics as a supplement to the October 1969 Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

A projection is an objective calculation of the effects of the continuance of certain carefully defined trends. It is not a forecast or a target, but provides background information for anyone who wishes to make forecasts or set targets.

The following table shows projections of permanent private dwellings up to 1980, assuming 31 December 1968 head-of-household rates increase by 0.837 percent* a year from 1968 onwards.

Year Ended 31 MarchProjected
Permanent Private Dwellings at End of YearIncrease During YearLosses Through Demolitions, Conversions, Fires, etc.Total New Dwellings Needed
 (000)(000)(000)(000)
1969 (base)841.9......
Assuming Net Immigration of Zero Each Year
1,971882.520.75.526.2
1,972903.921.45.727.1
1,973926.122.25.828.0
1,974949.022.96.028.9
1,975972.823.86.129.9
1,976997.424.66.330.9
1,9771,022.925.56.431.9
1,9781,049.226.36.632.9
1,9791,076.527.36.734.0
1,9801,104.628.16.935.0
Assuming Net Immigration of 5,000 Each Year
1,971886.922.85.628.4
1,972910.423.55.729.2
1,973934.724.35.930.2
1,974959.825.16.031.1
1,975985.725.96.232.1
1,9761,012.526.86.333.1
1,9771,040.227.76.534.2
1,9781,068.828.66.735.3
1,9791,098.429.66.936.5
1,9801,128.930.57.137.6

*This was the average annual increase in occupancy rates for all head-of-household categories combined between the 1961 Census and 31 December 1968. Another available projection (not given here) assumes that 31 December 1968 head-of-household rates continue unchanged and gives a lower annual pattern of increase.
    A lower population increase than projected and a lesser variation in occupancy rates have had a combined effect of reducing the projected number of dwellings required by 4,500 in 1971, 5,200 in 1974, and 6,000 in 1979.

BUILDING PERMITS—The prime source of these statistics is building permits issued by local authorities. To enable a complete picture of building activity to be shown, construction commenced by Government departments, hospitals, education and harbour boards are included, even though permits may not actually be taken out.

The value shown represents in the majority of instances the total contract price or estimated cost of the building. A permit for a large building may involve work spread over several years whereas in the permit statistics the value is shown entirely for the year or month in which the permit is issued. This qualification applies more particularly to large buildings.

The value placed on a building for the purposes of the permit is usually less than the actual cost. This applies particularly to large new buildings which take a considerable time to complete. In these cases the final cost, owing to wage increases, rising costs of materials, etc., may be greater than originally estimated. These rises are not apparent in building permit figures.

The values of building permits for the latest 6 years are analysed by types of building in the following table. Permits cover alterations and additions as well as new buildings.

Type of BuildingYear Ended 31 March
196819691970197119721973

*Includes ancillary buildings.

†Includes alterations and additions.

Dwellings$(million)
New houses137.0147.6156.0168.7182.1259.6
New flats24.627.436.647.464.3106.1
Houses and flats (alteration and additions)25.727.128.635.340.249.4
Other Buildings      
Hotels and boardinghouses9.517.322.920.517.023.4
Hospitals*7.313.211.726.225.021.2
Factories28.230.241.546.154.151.1
Commercial buildings48.256.262.067.962.9108.5
Schools*16.736.632.733.035.164.9
Miscellaneous (including churches, sports, and entertainment buildings)33.139.956.168.557.961.6
Totals330.3395.4448.0513.6538.8745.9

In the following table the numbers of permits for new houses and flats over a period of 11 years are shown along with permit values.

Year Ended 31 MarchPermits for New Houses and FlatsValue of New HousesValue of New FlatsValue of Other New Buildings*Total Value All Buildings (Including Alterations and Additions)
HousesFlats
*Permits issued for new buildings erected on sites where there were already one or more existing buildings were previously classified as "alterations and additions"; now they are included in the classification of new buildings.
   $(million)$(million)$(million)$(million)
1,96418,3883,375123.716.1..294.6
1,96519,8955,462138.826.5..357.7
1,96620,2575,675149.127.3124.9381.7
1,96718,7775,269147.828.3138.2391.5
1,96816,7794,586137.024.6103.5330.3
1,96917,4214,896147.627.4149.2395.4
1,97016,9906,094156.036.6182.0448.0
1,97116,2307,449168.747.4186.2513.6
1,97215,5778,756182.164.3193.3538.8
1,97319,91612,857259.6106.1254.0745.9
1,97423,58216,152378.6166.1294.7999.3

The average permit value for houses and flats in 1972–73 was $11,160, compared with $10,126 in 1971–72, $9,123 in 1970–71, and $8,343 in 1969–70.

The preceding table includes flats on an individual basis.

The following diagram illustrates building-permit figures for new houses and flats.

Sector of Ownership—Permit values for the main groupings of building activity are analysed below according to sector of ownership.

Sector of OwnershipHouses and FlatsSchools and HospitalsFactories
1970–711971–721972–731970–711971–721972–731970–711971–721972–73
 $(million)
Central Government10.810.311.231.134.763.30.21.01.4
Public corporations1.0
Local government3.63.87.423.122.414.10.30.60.4
Private enterprise29.631.934.70.90.21.145.751.549.0
Households*207.2240.6361.94.03.07.6
Sector of OwnershipCommercial BuildingsMiscellaneousAll Buildings
1970–711971–721972–731970–711971–721972–731970–711971–721972–73
*Including non-profit organisations.
 $(million)
Central Government13.69.423.216.49.111.672.164.5110.7
Public corporations0.20.50.41.02.80.61.24.31.1
Local government3.33.03.39.813.013.640.142.839.0
Private enterprise50.349.481.251.036.244.6177.5169.1210.5
Households*0.40.70.510.913.814.5222.5258.1384.6

GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION—The following table shows for selected areas the building permit values for the March year 1972–73. (The areas do not conform with urban areas.)

AreaNew Houses and FlatsTotal (All Permits) Value
NumberValue
  $(000)$(000)
Auckland City1,14712,75949,673
Takapuna3004,74111,414
Birkenhead3614,2896,087
East Coast Bays5868,1419,573
Mount Albert4913,4665,101
Mount Eden1177801,821
Mount Roskill3323,7796,805
One Tree Hill787804,482
Mount Wellington2231,5113,784
Onehunga2772,3024,703
Howick2152,7814,149
Papakura3934,5255,484
Papatoetoe3702,9653,742
Manukau2,34628,49943,701
Waitemata County2,48528,01639,336
Auckland, Combined10,694117,213215,681
Wellington City1,22815,55449,814
Porirua2383,09313,031
Tawa1212,0263,153
Upper Hutt2032,0776,214
Lower Hutt6257,40816,647
Petone241931,805
Hutt County1,31917,72524,386
Wellington-Hutt Combined3,79348,761116,205
Christchurch City1,90016,11443,431
Paparua County3403,7378,377
Waimairi County6648,64719,394
Christchurch Combined3,19931,78976,013
Dunedin Combined6537,72922,204
Whangarei4034,46710,540
Hamilton1,62315,40427,367
Tauranga7548,06814,710
Rotorua6296,61511,673
Gisborne1811,9853,594
Napier5876,44611,594
Hastings4835,2239,058
New Plymouth3283,8946,965
Wanganui1721,9225,906
Palmerston North6707,04610,481
Masterton1321,5602,780
Nelson3974,12312,379
Blenheim2172,3473,323
Timaru1802,3635,241
Invercargill4114,2938,151

WORK PUT IN PLACE—The Department of Statistics makes a survey of building work put in place. In contrast to the statistics based on building permits, these figures show the gross value of actual work done. It should be noted that there are varying time lags between the issue of the building permit and the commencement of building. The actual work for which a permit is issued can be extended over a number of time periods. Also, the total value of this work may differ considerably from the value estimated on the building permit.

Year Ended 31 MarchDwellings
New Houses and FlatsAlterations and AdditionsTotal
GovernmentOtherTotal
$(million)
Value of Work Put in Place§
1,96814.6149.2163.726.7190.4
1,96912.4155.3167.728.2195.8
1,97014.9174.9189.830.4220.2
1,97112.9202.0214.934.5249.3
1,9729.0228.6237.639.8277.4
1,97311.4311.8323.248.3371.5
Year Ended 31 MarchOther Buildings*Grand Total
Hotels, Boarding-housesHospitalsFactoriesCommercial BuildingsSchoolsMiscellaneousTotal

*Includes alterations and additions.

†And ancillary buildings.

‡Includes churches, sports, and entertainment buildings.

§Value of work actually put in place.

$(million)
Value of Work Put in Place§
1,96814.813.437.054.019.932.8171.7362.1
1,96913.515.032.547.821.134.3164.2360.1
1,97019.712.334.459.325.349.5200.5420.7
1,97123.115.153.166.732.267.8258.1507.4
1,97221.219.451.371.139.155.7257.8535.2
1,97321.526.852.581.044.862.7289.3660.8

EMPLOYMENT—The level of employment in the building and construction industrial group as shown in the Department of Labour's half-yearly survey has varied considerably during the last 10 years. The labour force rose from 56,000 in 1963 to 64,000 in 1966. There was a sharp decline in 1968 when the labour force fell to approximately 59,300, but a rise was experienced in 1969 and 1970. The total at April 1971 was 69,500 and at April 1973 it was 71,400. Employment in the building of houses and flats fell from 15,600 in 1961 to 13,100 in 1970 and to 11,500 in 1971 but rose again to 13,000 by April 1973. Part of the decline in the "on site" labour force was believed to be due to "off site" supply industries providing a greater proportion of work done through prefabrication and process working. The average "working life" in the industry has been estimated by the Building Industry Advisory Council at about 10 years. The labour force in building has become a constraint in output.

BUILDING MATERIALS—The following table shows the production of principal building materials for the latest 11 years.

Production YearRough-sawn Timber*Dressed Timber (from Rough-sawn)Building SheetPlywoodWall-boardPaints, etc.
Paints and EnamelsVarnishesLacquers

*Source: New Zealand Forest Service, for years ended 31 March.

† Asbestos cement and cement sheet.

‡Includes fibrous plasterboard.

 ft bm (million)sq ft (million)gal(thousand)
1961–62692.6157.031.349.3188.43,016130270
1962–63643.4160.228.351.4170.33,096126294
1963–64666.0154.030.152.9168.73,321136346
1964–65736.2176.831.254.2192.93,636138370
1965–66756.9185.034.656.6197.53,617157345
1966–67747.6176.033.657.1181.03,643166365
1967–68674.9165.732.640.5190.53,635192320
1968–69732.6172.535.151.3202.03,731236366
1969–70765.0161.436.155.1218.53,935292379
1970–71784.3194.241.651.9226.74,022301407
1971–72740.5161.134.158.7239.04,354353413
Production YearConcrete Roofing TilesBricks and BlocksDrainpipes, Salt Glazed, 6 in. and BelowCement
Building Bricks, ClayConcrete
BricksBlocks
* In millions of effective running feet.
   No. (million)  tons(000)
1961–6211.260.50.512.43.09647.9
1962–639.446.81.412.23.06653.2
1963–649.850.20.816.05.82*754.1
1964–658.851.70.819.56.95*786.5
1965–665.952.40.425.56.89*841.1
1966–675.250.80.624.27.33*859.0
1967–684.842.50.123.56.93*772.5
1968–697.140.30.122.26.86*774.3
1969–706.236.10.228.57.72*792.2
1970–717.029.6..26.56.63*808.3
1971–728.826.6..31.86.88*824.6

HOUSING FINANCE—The chief agency providing finance for housing in New Zealand is the State Advances Corporation, a wholly Government-owned institution described in detail in Section 30B. For the year ended 31 March 1973 the State Advances Corporation authorised loans valued at $102.6 million for new urban dwellings. Of the 13,379 housing loans authorised, 466 were authorised for the purchase of existing houses. Other important sources of housing finance are building societies, life assurance offices, and trustee savings banks.

The Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 provides for payment in a lump sum of the social security family benefit, the capitalised benefit to be applied towards the provision of a family home, for essential alterations, or for repayment of encumbrances on a family home. The scheme became operative on 1 April 1959. Benefits in respect of any number of children may be capitalised provided the aggregate advance does not exceed $2,000. Family benefit advances totalling $117.9 million were authorised up to 31 March 1973 by the State Advances Corporation to applicants holding eligibility certificates issued by the Social Security Commission.

The State Advances Corporation operates two Housing Mortgage Guarantee Schemes in respect of housing loans on first mortgage granted by approved lenders, including trustee lenders, where the amount advanced does not exceed 90 percent of value. Under the first scheme, which is confined to approved institutional lenders, the corporation guarantees the amount lent above the institution's normal lending limit (usually two-thirds of value). The second scheme, for which any lender may qualify, provides for the guarantee of the full amount of the loan advanced. Fees are charged according to the amount guaranteed and the degree of risk. The loans must be for the purpose of building, buying, altering, or refinancing a house or flat.

Home lay-by accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank and trustee and private savings banks qualify for subsidy, and home ownership accounts qualify for subsidy and preferential loan finance (see section 29).

COST OF HOUSES AND SECTIONS—The following table indicates the spread of building costs and section prices of new houses financed by the Corporation during the last 2 years.

Section Cost1971–721972–73House cost (Excluding Section)1971-721972-73
 percent   
Up to $1,50013.5511.17 percent
$1,501 to $2,00030.9623.20Up to $8,0005.280.14
$2,001 to $2,50029.8228.11$8,001 to $9,00022.463.07
$2,501 to $3,00010.5612.91$9,001 to $10,00028.3017.70
$3,001 to $3,5007.429.91$10,001 to $11,00019.3624.95
$3,501 to $4,0004.037.01$11,000 to $12,00024.6019.26
Over $4,0003.667.89Over $12,00034.88
Totals100.00100.00Totals100.00100.00

Statistics compiled by the Valuation Department from sales in the major urban areas for the 1972 year gave the average sale price of sections as $3,835, the average sale price of houses as $13,230, and the average sale price of owner-occupier flats as $13,952. (Source: parliamentary paper G.26, 1973.)

URBAN HOUSE PROPERTY PRICE INDEX—This index is designed to measure changes in the average level of prices paid for house properties transferred during each half-year. Variations in the average age of properties transferred, as an indicator of the average quality of such properties, are eliminated in the index methodology in order to arrive at a valid index of price level changes.

It is a combined series for all 25 centres in which prices are collected for the Consumers' Price Index. (Base: Average for year ended June 1965 (= 1000).)

Six Months EndedIndex
1963—Jun907
Dec934
1964—Jun948
Dec979
1965—Jun1,021
Dec1,043
1966—Jun1,069
Dec1,104
1967—Jun1,120
Dec1,124
1968—Jun1,132
Dec1,153
1969—Jun1,186
Dec1,213
1970—Jun1,259
Dec1,323
1971—Jun1,405
Dec1,467
1972—Jun1,583
Dec1,703
1973—Jun1,938
Dec2,286

HOUSE MORTGAGES—Most of the housing advances made by institutions are in the form of table mortgages, being made initially for terms of usually over 20 years at the State Advances Corporation, about 15 years at building societies and about 10 years at the private savings banks. The general experience of these institutions is that most house mortgages are redeemed in 7 to 12 years, seldom running the full term. Interest rates and the methods of calculating them vary from one institution to another. Some institutions prefer to lend on new houses, others cater for the purchase of older dwellings.

The value of house mortgages outstanding to major lending institutions is shown in the following table prepared by the Monetary and Economic Council.

Lending InstitutionsAt 31 March 1965At 31 March 1972

*Average for previous calendar year.

†Estimated.

 $(m)$(m)
State Advances Corporation426581
Building societies126*228*
Trustee banks57134
Life insurance companies126202
Private savings banks19
Trading banks2221
Total7571,185

There are no accurate statistics available for the value of the stock of housing mortgages outstanding from non-institutional sources. Undoubtedly the value is considerable, and it may well exceed the total of mortgages outstanding from the savings banks and building societies.

ROLE OF LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The housing policy of the Government includes the provision of loans to local authorities through the State Advances Corporation for pensioner, rural, and community housing, including urban renewal.

Housing of the Elderly—Since 1951 Government has encouraged local authorities to meet the housing needs of elderly persons rather than provide such accommodation itself. To this end a scheme of subsidies was introduced, the balance of the cost being found by way of a loan to the local body with interest at 3½ percent and a term up to 40 years on a table basis. The combination of subsidy and low interest rate is directed at keeping rents within reasonable levels—the current maxima are $5 and $6 for single and double units respectively.

The policy is administered by the Health Department, which establishes the need for pensioner accommodation in a particular locality and administers the subsidy. The State Advances Corporation provides technical services and administers the loan. The subsidy offered is up to 100 percent of the total cost of the units, including land and land development, less the amount of loan which remains at a maximum of $3,500 per unit.

The amount of subsidy approved in 1972–73 was $2,783, 800 to provide housing for 638 persons. Since the inception of the policy in 1951, subsidy assistance has totalled $14,653,290 for the accommodation of 8,026 persons.

Rural Housing—The Rural Housing Act 1939 has as its object the provision of more houses on farm properties. Loans are made to county councils (and other local bodies within whose boundaries farmlands are situated) for readvancing to farmers for the erection of, or additions or alterations to, dwellings. The State Advances Corporation is responsible for the supervision and general administration of the Act. Persons receiving loans (about 300 a year) are principally owners of economic farms.

Community Housing—The State Advances Corporation has authority to grant loans for general housing purposes, i.e., for the benefit of the community in general. Proposals must involve a definite scheme for the erection of not less than three houses. The substantial proportion of assistance provided has been in the metropolitan areas (e.g., in Wellington the city council's building programme has been largely financed from this source). The emphasis is on moderate-cost accommodation.

Urban renewal is also financed under the community housing scheme. The area concerned must first be declared a reclamation area; any loss on land purchase and demolition is eligible for a Government subsidy (administered by the Ministry of Works and Development). The Freeman's Bay scheme in Auckland and the Nairn Street project in Wellington are examples.

Since 1960 over $17.8 million has been authorised for community housing schemes.

Provision has been made by the Government for an annual amount of $7 million for local authority urban renewal projects and residential land purchase and development. This recognises the need to curb urban sprawl and to bring more people into inner city areas, close to employment, health services, and other amenities.

Borough councils are authorised under the Municipal Corporations Act to provide loans for housing purposes, to subdivide for such purposes any land vested in a council and not held by it in trust for any particular purpose other than housing; and to sell or lease allotments for housing purposes. Local authorities may also apply to the Local Authorities Loans Board for blanket authorities for the purchase of land for subdivision for housing purposes. Local authorities are encouraged to play a prominent part in the housing of their citizens.

MAORI HOUSING—In addition to the facilities of the State Advances Corporation, financial assistance towards the building of houses, including the purchase of building sites, additions, repairs to existing dwellings, and for the purchase of houses, is available to Maoris and other Polynesians under the Maori Housing Act 1935, the lending authority being the Board of Maori Affairs.

The Maori and Island Affairs Department also arranges for the construction of the houses in many cases and provides a free plan service. Finance through the department up to set loan limits, rebated interest rate, and capitalisation of family benefits, is similar to loans granted by the State Advances Corporation. Where the applicant does not qualify for the special interest concession the finance is made available at an interest rate of 5⅝ percent.

All applications for State tenancies are dealt with by the State Advances Corporation, although assistance with applications is often given by the department's staff.

From the inception of the scheme to 31 March 1973, the department has provided finance to enable 16,150 families to build new houses, 786 to purchase existing houses, and 7,228 to make additions to or repair their houses. A further 10,493 Maori families have obtained houses or rental flats from the State Advances Corporation and the Maori Trustee. A Maori household averages 5.5 persons so that the combined figure, including additions or repairs, of 34,657 houses, means a total of some 190,613 Maori people have been provided with better housing in a space of 34 years.

The Government has also provided accommodation for single young Maori people in urban areas. It has built rental flats for girls in Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, and Whangarei. It has provided hostels for boys at Auckland and Christchurch and by the provision of subsidy has encouraged church organisations to establish hostels in a number of cities. Through the agency of the Maori Trustee, hostel and flat accommodation for both boys and girls has been provided in many of the main centres. In these ways the accommodation needs of over 1,000 young Maori people are now being met, many of whom are enrolled on the department's vocational training courses operated in conjunction with the technical institutes.

Flats for elderly Maoris have been provided in Kaikohe, Paihia, Tauranga, and Te Kao.

WELFARE ORGANISATIONS: Hostels for Young People—Since 1951, religious and welfare organisations have been assisted to establish hostels for young people by subsidies of establishment costs. As from May 1971, the subsidy has been 80 percent, with a limit of $2,880 per young person accommodated. The purpose is to assist young men and women who are living away from their homes in order to study or undertake employment and find it difficult to obtain suitable living accommodation. Subsidies of 50 percent may also be granted for authorised improvements to existing hostels, and 75 percent for fire protection work as required by the local authority.

Since the policy commenced, subsidies totalling $1,760,890 had been approved up to 31 March 1973, to assist in providing hostel accommodation for 1,414 young people, and for upgrading purposes.

Government also helps with substantial subsidies for university halls of residence established by religious and welfare agencies. Administration is handled by the University Grants Committee.

STATE HOUSE CONSTRUCTION—State rental houses and flats have been built since March 1937. These are allocated to tenants on the basis of income and need. Since 1950 there has been an income limit on applicants for tenancies for these dwellings. In 1973 the income limit was removed and a points system of priorities substituted.

The Housing Division of the Ministry of Works and Development acquires and develops land to provide sites for houses and flats and arranges contracts for their construction. These activities are covered by the Housing Act 1955.

The totals of State rental units completed and handed over for occupation in the latest 11 years are shown in the following table. Up to 31 March 1973 there were 75,118 units completed.

YearNumber of Units
1962–631,948
1963–641,562
1964–651,622
1965–661,334
1966–671,469
1967–681,489
1968–691,534
1969–701,241
1970–711,194
1971–72661
1972–73765

Planning of New Urban Areas—Such has been the demand for State development in Auckland and Wellington that it has been necessary to acquire large areas of land in these metropolitan areas, which, when developed over a number of years, has resulted in the creation of new towns. These have been comprehensively planned, and developed sites have been made available for central commercial, industrial, and administrative areas as well as civic and neighbourhood amenities. At present the three existing instances of development at this scale are Porirua City, near Wellington, and Otara and Mangere townships within Manukau City, south of Auckland.

In accordance with continuing Government policy, the planning of these towns and State development generally has recognised the need to conserve land and gain as much return from the installation of municipal services as possible. For these reasons, particular attention has been paid to subdivisional pattern and, where appropriate, medium-density housing to an acceptable level has been introduced. In addition, a measure of building of medium and high-density residential accommodation has been undertaken in inner city areas in Auckland and Wellington.

Further substantial areas of land have been acquired in the Albany Basin in Auckland for future development. A planning exercise, aimed at achieving the integration of State with private housing in the Albany area and the creation of a high standard of urban environment is currently being undertaken by local authority and departmental officers. Commencement of land development is timed for late 1974 or 1975. A large-scale development is also planned for Rolleston, south of Christchurch.

Recognising the need for social diversification in State developed areas it is now policy to make 50 percent of the sections available for sale to the public for private housing.

State Services Housing—State Services houses are houses for Government departments and the armed forces. The total number of such houses erected by the Housing Division to 31 March 1973 was 13,565. This includes houses built at the sites of major construction jobs, such as electric power schemes.

Finance—The cost of the State housing programme, including the acquisition and development of land, is financed from the Housing Construction vote in the Works and Trading Account, i.e., out of national development loan moneys.

The following table shows the annual expenditure from the Housing Construction vote.

Year Ended 31 MarchState HousingState ServicesLand Purchase and DevelopmentAdministration and GeneralTotal
 $(000)
1,96310,354644,0942,14016,652
1,96410,764723,9601,84016,636
1,96510,1021223,3521,88615,462
1,9669,3941363,2921,86414,686
1,96711,2341242,7841,89816,040
1,96810,8651232,7691,92215,680
1,9699,849893,2921,89015,120
1,97010,2761343,2642,03615,710
1,9718,8032,3952,10413,302
1,9726,5512,4351,99810,984
1,9737,9032,5272,49512,925

The next table shows the annual total expenditure by the Housing Division in the latest 6 years.

YearVote, “Housing Construction”On Behalf of Other Departments (Charged Direct)Total
Construction Land Purchase and Development, AdministrationOn Behalf Of Other Departments*Total
*Expenditure on behalf of other departments charged meantime to vote, "Housing Construction".
 $(000)
1967–6815,55712315,6803,33319,013
1968–6915,0318915,1201,80716,928
1969–7015,57613415,7103,59219,302
1970–7113,30213,3023,89917,201
1971–7210,98410,9842,96413,948
1972–7312,92512,9254,25617,181

Room Content of Units (State Houses and State Services Housing)—The types of units according to number of bedrooms in units built during the 2 latest years, also the totals from 1937 to date, are shown in the following table.

Number of Bedrooms1971–721972–73Totals to Date
Number of UnitsPercentage of TotalNumber of UnitsPercentage of TotalNumber of UnitsPercentage of Total
One bedroom or bed-sitting room161.7433.84,8905.5
Two bedrooms737.91039.025,53328.8
Three bedrooms69675.378468.750,99657.5
Four or more bedrooms14015.121118.57,2648.2
Totals925100.01,141100.088,683100.0

Sheathing Materials Used (State Houses and State Services Housing)—The sheathing materials used in the number of units built in the 2 latest years, also the totals from 1937 to date, are shown in the following table.

Materials1971–721972–73Totals to Date
Weatherboards33827249,656
Brick veneer17621215,260
Concrete block veneer1672776,447
Other sheathing including asbestos cement products24438017,320
Totals9251,14188,683

Land Acquisition and Development—During 1972–73 a total of 171 developed unit sites were purchased as a charge against the Housing Construction vote, also 185 acres of undeveloped land estimated ultimately to yield 656 unit sites. In the same period 1,298 fully-serviced house unit sites were developed on land already held. Land acquisition was stepped up in 1973 and 1974.

State Rental Housing Tender Prices—The following table shows typical tender prices being accepted in the four main centres at the end of the last 11 financial years for similar types of three-bedroom State rental houses of equivalent floor space. In each case the house is a typical single unit on a flat section, built in weatherboards with a tiled roof. The price includes drainage, fencing, paths, toolshed, revolving clothes line, and letterbox. The cost of the section is not included. The figures in parentheses represent the cost per square foot.

YearAucklandWellingtonChristchurchDunedin
 $$$$$$$$
1962–636,298(6.00)6,316(6.02)5,452(5.20)6,182(5.88)
1963–646,306(6.01)6,330(6.03)5,686(5.42)6,234(5.94)
1964–656,726(6.41)6,888(6.56)6,104(5.81)6,632(6.32)
1965–666,942(6.61)7,178(6.83)6,434(6.12)6,758(6.42)
1966–676,894(6.58)7,372(7.03)6,488(6.19)6,990(6.67)
1967–686,366(6.06)6,830(6.50)6,273(5.97)6,586(6.27)
1968–696,753(6.43)7,264(6.92)6,669(6.35)7,124(6.78)
1969–707,184(6.84)7,675(7.30)6,759(6.43)7,661(7.29)
1970–718,304(7.90)8,603(8.19)7,566(7.20)8,836(8.41)
1971–7210,021(9.54)10,613(10.11)8,698(8.28)10,236(9.74)
1972–7311,185(10.65)12,000(11.42)10,530(10.03)11,825(11.26)

JOINT FAMILY HOMES—The Joint Family Homes Act 1964 makes provision for a form of ownership by which a family home will belong not to the husband and wife separately but to both of them so that it may pass to the survivor on the death of one of them. It is possible to settle flats as family homes. There are substantial benefits resulting from settlement under the Act. In the event of claims by creditors or an assignee in bankruptcy, the property is protected up to a sum of $8,000. Further, on the death of one of the spouses there is an exemption of $12,000 from estate duty. Settlements under the Act are exempt from gift and stamp duty.

Under the Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964 there is a condition attaching to capitalisation of the benefits that the home, if not in the sole name of the wife, be settled as a joint family home.

Joint family homes under the Joint Family Homes Act registered for the last 11 years are shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchHomes Settled
1,96314,627
1,96413,056
1,96513,224
1,96614,149
1,96712,738
1,96813,278
1,96914,040
1,97014,545
1,97116,118
1,97215,232
1,97316,925

CENSUS INFORMATION: Nature of Dwelling—The following table shows the nature of dwellings at he censuses at 1966 and 1971.

Nature of DwellingNumbersPercentage of Total Inhabited Dwellings
1966197119661971
*Estimate only.
Inhabited dwellings—
    Permanent private dwellings—
        Private house626,580682,00386.584.3
        Private house, partly sublet1,1625,2340.20.6
        Flat74,999105,45910.413.0
        Dwellings combined with shop, rooms attached to offices, etc.5,8204,7360.80.6
        Bach7,4844,1731.00.5
        Other5981  
Totals716,104801,68698.999.0
    Mobile and temporary dwellings—
        Mobile residence (including caravans)1,0359940.10.1
        Other (including tents)13475
Totals1,1691,0690.10.1
    Non-private dwellings—
        Hotel, boardinghouse, apartment house, hostel5,3173,9760.70.5
        Public or private hospital5337400.10.1
        Educational institution..384..0.1
        Other1,3211,9820.20.2
Totals7,1717,0821.00.9
Grand totals, inhabited dwellings724,444809,834100.0100.0
Uninhabited dwellings—
    Occupants temporarily away14,97918,116
    Untenanted dwelling26,27226,184
    Holiday residence29,53432,446
Totals70,78576,746
Building—
    Dwellings in course of erection10,6679,182

In 1971 the average number of occupants per permanent private dwelling was 3.38, compared with 3.52, 5 years earlier.

Unoccupied dwellings are restricted to buildings intended for human habitation, e.g., houses, flats, cottages, etc., and the category omits unoccupied caravans, tents, etc.; it also excludes unoccupied dwellings which are both deserted and dilapidated.

Rents—In the following table the average weekly rent for unfurnished five-roomed dwellings is given for selected cities with the largest numbers of rental dwellings in 1971. State rental houses are included in the figures and would have a moderating effect on the rents. The average weekly rent for the 47,305 unfurnished five-roomed dwellings in New Zealand was $8.43.

CityNumber of Five-roomed Dwellings LetAverage Weekly Rent
  $
Auckland2,21710.77
Manukau1,5489.01
Hamilton1,3589.23
Gisborne4958.42
Napier6728.79
Hastings5448.56
New Plymouth6019.06
Wanganui7218.01
Palmerston North1,0589.14
Lower Hutt1,5239.65
Porirua1,9298.50
Wellington1,25613.41
Christchurch2,4579.73
Timaru5058.68
Dunedin1,2548.49
Invercargill73710.03

The numbers and average weekly rents according to the number of rooms in all rented dwellings and also in flats separately are shown in the following table. (These are also from the 1971 Census.)

Nature of DwellingNumber of RoomsTotal, Including Other
123456
*Including not specified furnishing.
All Dwellings (including flats)Number
Furnished1,0555,4908,2597,5385,7752,23832,328
Unfurnished2,97810,39923,89038,80947,30512,742143,078
Partly furnished7423,6136,0255,5604,2891,79123,443
All rented dwellings*4,97620,22239,47553,88559,56917,361206,465
 Weekly Rent
 $$$$$$$
Furnished10.1212.3913.6714.2114.0117.5614.03
Unfurnished5.038.6210.709.548.439.369.22
Partly furnished8.6311.5112.4313.1312.9814.3612.71
All rented dwellings6.6710.1511.5410.539.2910.9310.35
Nature of DwellingNumber of RoomsTotal, Including Other
123456
*Including not specified furnishing.
FlatsNumber
Furnished8374,8496,3914,1121,45858618,870
Unfurnished2,7738,63316,38313,2283,39261646,033
Partly furnished5823,0904,6582,92577323712,592
All rented flats*4,36617,11828,08320,6915,7241,46879,521
 Weekly Rent
 $$$$$$$
Furnished10.9012.7914.6516.7719.2122.0815.21
Unfurnished5.008.9612.0212.4911.2912.8511.09
Partly furnished9.0611.9413.0314.4015.4517.3613.15
All rented flats*6.7010.5712.7713.6013.8917.3312.37

Rents per week in 1971 for unfurnished dwellings are shown in the following table. State rental houses are included; the pattern of their rents is indicated by the statistics for Porirua Basin.

AreaUnder $10$10 and Under $12.50$12.50 and Under $15$15 and Under $17.50$17.50 and Under $20$20 and OverTotal Not Including Specified Rent
Urban Area
Whangarei797394290958141,611
Northern Auckland1,5716445078912222884,151
Western Auckland1,08036742546367672,487
Central Auckland9,5382,8152,6934,1231,0091,35921,705
Southern Auckland3,6537571,0831,3001972377,284
Hamilton2,22861078847368824,300
Tauranga68738232226148491,763
Rotorua78732642228236261,894
Gisborne1,659291112648121,563
Napier1,44039722017721262,290
Hastings1,32351730311512182,317
New Plymouth1,14437614217365481,956
Wanganui1,48737968433122,001
Palmerston North2,20960339432455573,678
Upper Hutt Valley45214821547294761,473
Lower Hutt Valley3,6689363394612143716,033
Porirua Basin3,413682194126591074,600
Wellington2,3841,1488221,1886341,1937,407
Masterton6392337558591,028
Nelson687413171556131,358
Christchurch7,6042,8171,7531,23431928714,088
Timaru1,052350773412331,565
Dunedin3,77885136127361755,425
Invercargill97249620918274551,996
    Totals of 24 Urban Areas53,65216,93211,96512,8673,2974,514103,973
    Percentages of total51.616.311.512.43.24.3100.0
New Zealand totals84,21522,16913,25413,5803,4334,727142,721
    Percentages of total59.015.59.39.52.43.3100.0

Tenure of Dwelling—The following table classifies the inhabited permanent private dwellings according to tenure.

Tenure19661971
Permanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total SpecifiedPermanent Private DwellingsPercent of Total Specified
Renting or leasing177,42924.9206,46525.9
Free dwelling provided with job35,3875.034,6834.4
Loaned without payment7,9191.113,1711.6
Owned with table mortgage213,80730.0247,58231.1
Owned with flat mortgage80,88511.382,15110.3
Unspecified mortgage226
Owned without mortgage197,08527.7212,37426.7
Not specified3,366..5,260...
Totals716,104100.0801.686100.0

In the following table the tenure of inhabited permanent private dwellings in 1971 is related to the occupational status of the head of the household.

Occupational Status of Head of HouseholdTenureTotal Dwellings
Renting or LeasingRent Free*Owned
With MortgageWithout Mortgage

*Includes free dwelling with job, and dwellings loaned without payment.

†Includes dwellings where tenure unspecified.

Employer5,0743,22932,41715,44856,686
Worker on own account6,3854,69930,09515,54957,231
Wage or salary earner154,71632,246236,53575,348501,009
Unemployed1,5041699036793,291
Assisting relative713131548
Not specified3023913873648
        Totals, actively engaged167,98840,395300,101107,112618,913
Retired11,9543,18012,31460,76889,169
Full-time student3,0751303471583,731
Housewife21,9793,91815,94242,71185,477
Other1,4692311,0291,6254,396
        Totals, not lively engaged38,4777,45929,632105,262182,773
        Total heads206,46547,854329,733212,374801,686

In the following table the tenure of the preceding dwellings in 1971 is related to the income level of the head of the household.

Income Group of Head of HouseholdTotal HouseholdsTenure
Renting or LeasingRent Free*Owned
With MortgageWithout Mortgage

*Includes free dwelling with job, and dwellings loaned without payment.

†lncludes cases where income of head of household was not specified.

$ Percentage of Households
Under 600127,50925.54.517.452.6
    600–1,39946,86326.56.521.345.7
1,400–2,19975,63531.99.827.430.9
2,200–2,999161,76632.87.938.820.5
3,000–3,999179,88326.65.152.415.9
4,000–7,999170,61818.84.859.317.1
8,000 and over30,2048.04.459.028.6
Totals801,68625.96.041.426.7

Amenities of Dwellings—The following tables present the various amenities, as at the 1971 Census, which were used solely by the occupants of permanent private dwellings.

AmenityHouseholdsPercentage
1966197119661971
Flush toilet667,578776,23093.596.8
Television set452,033678,40464.084.6
Telephone584,735684,60182.285.4
Washing machine620,187725,61887.390.5
Refrigerator651,760769,52191.496.0
Deep freezer..345,930..43.2
Motor mower..518,151..64.6
Clothes dryer..215,123..26.8
Means of CookingHouseholdsPercentagePrincipal Means of HeatingHouseholdsPercentage
Electric694,06886.6Electricity338,14242.2
Gas, including rock gas66,6628.3Oil44,5485.6
Wood, coke, coal38,6244.8Wood, coke, coal401,06550.0
Other (including combination)1,1220.2Gas, including rock gas11,4211.4
No means253..Other7810.1
Not specified9570.1Not specified5,7290.7
Totals801,686100.0Totals801,686100.0
Type of Hot Water ServiceHouseholdsPercentageType of Water ServiceHouseholdsPercentage
Electric717,20289.5......
Gas21,7022.7Piped public or private supply742,96192.7
Other55,8557.0Rainwater tanks58,2387.3
No hot water service3,9980.5No water laid on416
Not specified2,9290.3Not specified71
Totals801,686100.0Totals801,686100.0

New questions asked at the 1971 Census revealed that 79 percent of households (634,235) had motor cars available for use (24 percent (192,776) with two or more cars), while nearly 10 percent (77,529) owned pleasure boats, and 4 percent (35,581) owned or had an interest in a holiday residence.

In the following table the: possession of selected household amenities is related to the income of the head of the household in 1971.

Income of Head of HouseholdTotal HouseholdsAmenities Not Shared with Other Households
RefrigeratorClothes DryerTelephoneWashing MachineDeep FreezeTelevisionMotor Mower
*Including cases where income of the head of the household was not specified.
$Percentages
Under 600127,50991.611.578.478.022.376.350.2
    600–1,39946,86394.115.783.384.130.376.154.6
1,400–2,19975,63594.719.580.887.236.478.858.5
2,200–2,999161,76696.323.981.391.441.583.963.7
3,000–3,999179,88398.030.587.395.048.688.269.4
4,000–7,999170,61898.939.293.996.856.991.574.9
8,000-and over30,20499.454.298.597.870.293.981.6
Totals*801,68696.326.885.590.543.184.664.7

Materials of Outer Walls—The following table gives an analysis showing the materials of which the outer walls of inhabited permanent private dwellings were constructed. Flats are included individually and not as blocks. Therefore part of the increase, for instance in brick and concrete construction, is accounted for by a lesser number of buildings than indicated by the increase in number of dwelling units.

Material of Outer WallsNumber of Dwellings
1956196119661971
Wood411,370431,318455,213454,266
Stone1,1212,4568,9101,540
Concrete, including concrete blocks17,86922,51028,34732,832
Concrete and wood1,0872,0393,0937,621
Brick, including hollow brick47,42065,17194,100123,766
Brick and wood3,3326,1578,81815,438
Brick and other material3,4017,0356,26316,670
Wood and iron3,7213,3142,5076,651
Iron3,8623,0832,5542,711
Proprietary wallboards of asbestos type30,63057,47451,23147,976
Roughcast27,94425,55537,04566,784
Other materials3,9226,81716,23824,553
Not specified7,3737781,785878
Totals563,052633,707633,104801,686

Houses and flats with outer walls constructed of concrete, brick, and roughcast increased both in number and as a percentage of the total between 1966 and 1971, thus continuing the post-was trend.

Materials for Roofs—Most dwellings (70.8 percent) in 1971 were roofed with sheet or corrugated iron with tiles the next popular choice (23.0 percent).

Numbers of Rooms and Occupants—The following table classifies inhabited permanent private dwellings in 1971 according to the number of rooms and the number of occupants.

Number of RoomsNumber of Occupants
12345678 and OverTotal DwellingsAverage Per Dwelling
15,08075617980288826,1411.26
213,4479,0442,141922331147614926,1421.72
320,41025,06810,1125,9232,8701,58086199167,8152.41
431,29456,64627,23620,48510,2824,8202,2232,519155,5052.75
525,94772,66254,50368,44248,14123,8379,2527,256310,0403.62
69,82129,80323,68828,73923,14314,0937,0286,686143,0013.95
72,5208,4047,6199,6358,7425,6472,7472,45347,7674.18
87792,8172,6233,4563,2552,2511,0991,03517,3154.32
92729279651,1751,1537914744156,1724.42
101364333954754353581951862,6134.39
11 and over963162923003072281361401,8154.40
Not specified3,4874,6782,5152,3241,7671,09264685117,3603.30
Totals113,289211,554132,268141,956100,45454,85224,73022,583801,6863.38

Of the total number of dwellings (where number of rooms was specified) 608,546, or 77.6 percent had either 4, 5 or 6 rooms and of these 382,204 were occupied by either 2, 3 or 4 persons.

The number of dwellings with only 1 occupant increased from 89,384 in 1966 to 113,289 in 1971 a rise of 26.7 percent; those living alone in dwellings of 3 rooms rose from 14, 828 to 20,410; those in 4 rooms from 24,996 to 31,294; and those in 5 rooms from 21,399 to 25,947.

TENANCY—The Tenancy Act 1955 administered by the Department of Labour governs rents and conditions of possession of certain private tenancies in existence before 18 November 1961. All private tenancies entered into since that date and all business premises without exception are no longer governed by the Act. Where the Act applies, a landlord or tenant may apply to a rents officer or the Magistrate's Court to fix a fair rent, effect certain repairs, prevent oppressive conduct, or have the tenancy freed from controls under the Act. It is estimated that 8,800 tenancies are protected by the Tenancy Act 1955. The Rent Appeal Act 1973 provides for the appointment of rent appeal boards empowered to determine equitable rents for dwellinghouses.

Chapter 22. Section 20; ENERGY

20 A—ENERGY DEMAND AND SUPPLY

SOURCES OF ENERGY—The main source of the energy we now use is the sun. Radiation energy (sunlight) falling on the earth is absorbed by it and mostly re-radiated out into space. The fraction of this energy retained is absorbed by vegetation and converted by photosynthesis into chemical energy which is essential for the life process. Most of the residues from the life process are oxidised by the atmosphere and lose their accessible chemical energy storage ability but some, by movement of the earth's crust causing the exclusion of oxygen and the passage of millions of years, resulted in the formation of the hydrocarbon fuels of coal, oil and natural gas. Such chemical fuels are clearly finite in extent and the marginal cost of finding and extracting them increases as the supplies are less readily available. The existence of the hydrocarbon fuels has been known to man for thousands of years but it is only in the last hundred years or so that the technology has become available to extract and use the energy usefully and cheaply, particularly in the internal combustion engine, thus stimulating the demand for energy.

The second source we identify as originating in the "mechanics" of the world—tide, wind, and water power. Each of these sources requires a rather restrictive set of physical conditions for extracting useful amounts of energy and is highly capital intensive, so that although operating costs are low, the resource requirements for construction are high and the physical limitations of siting, etc., limit the amount of energy we can expect from this source.

The third source originates from the internal heat of the earth—a residue of its formation. In theory, this source of geothermal power is available all over the world but in practice exploitation has been limited to a few natural sites where the earth's crust is particularly thin thus reducing the capital cost of extraction very significantly.

The fourth source arises from the structure of matter itself. The "cement" of the atomic nucleus is energy and the rebuilding of the nucleus can be made to provide a surplus of energy. The nucleus of the heavy element uranium can readily be restructured in this way by the fission process. Restructuring the other way by building heavier elements is possible using deuterium in the fusion process. Supplies of deuterium in the world are found in sea water and are therefore virtually boundless in extent; however, large amounts of energy are required to release energy in fusion and the technology is not yet available to do it, even on a laboratory scale.

Of our main present-day primary fuels only hydro-electricity and geothermal power are renewed year by year; their use will continue to expand but they cannot alone be expected to meet the increasing demand of home and industry.

Nobody can say with any certainty what is the total quantity of any of the fossil fuels in the ground; further discoveries are being made all the time and further information becomes available about deposits already known to exist. But there is now a belief that oil and natural gas reserves may not last very long if demand continues to grow as it has been doing. Until 3 or 4 years ago most experts believed (or acted as though they believed) that oil supplies would last for as far ahead as it was necessary to worry about, and prices were low relative to the potential value of the product. But now there has been a great swing of opinion. An increasing number of producing countries are adopting conservationist policies and most countries are tending to raise their prices.*

RISING ENERGY DEMAND—The supply of energy in one form or another is basic to our way of life. Economics and availability help determine the nature of the satisfaction of the energy demand, but it is also conditioned by community thinking in social and environmental terms. Growth of energy demand on the scale we have come to expect is not essential for our survival or physical (or mental) well-being, but mainly for the continued pursuit of that rather elusive concept "a higher standard of living". If energy prices move up to a much higher level relative to prices generally, consumers have the choice of either making do with less energy and less goods and services that use up a lot of energy or doing without other commodities. And the more they use energy in spite of its rising price, the higher is the price likely to rise.

*Hutber and Forster in Resources and Population, Academic Press. 1973.

The annual consumption of energy over the next 10 years will be unprecedented in New Zealand's history. The demand for electricity alone can be taken as an example. In the 1972 report of the Committee to Review Power Requirements it is estimated that electricity generation will have to grow from about 15,000 GW hours in 1971–72 to over 32,000 GW hours by 1981–82—more than double. Peak power demand over the same period will also more than double, from just under 3,000 MW to nearly 6,500 MW.

The estimated capital expenditure on the generation plant necessary to achieve this output totals $1,089 million spent over the next 10 years. This estimate was made in the 1972 report of the Planning Committee on Electrical Power Development. To the figures for electrical energy must be added the requirements for other forms of energy and the cost of producing them. There are estimates for the next 10 years, which is a relatively short period. A continual review is being made so that a rolling plan can be formulated. Already planners are looking in detail at subsequent years, and giving general consideration to the demand and supply of energy to the end of the century. An immense increase in the demand for energy of all types is being experienced in all developed countries and is causing everyone to reconsider the question of available resources and how they can best be used to meet the demand. Advanced technology is enabling mankind to utilise energy that was unobtainable as recently as 10 years ago.

There are two reasons for reviewing energy resources on a continuous basis. First, our traditional source of energy is limited, but we are discovering new sources, and so the supply scene is changing. Secondly, the cost of producing and supplying energy from various sources changes, as do consumer preferences. The second point can be best illustrated by looking at our own experience in New Zealand over the last 30 or 40 years. Prior to the Second World War coal provided most of the energy required for domestic and industrial use. Oil was mainly used in the transportation field or for lubrication, the major role of electricity was for lighting, and manufactured gas was largely used as a cheap form of energy for heating and cooking. What has happened in recent years is that the fuels with a high labour content in the cost of supply have moved up in price, whereas those with a low labour content have moved down, and this has steadily improved their competitive position. As a consequence, coal has lost its dominant position. In 1950 coal still held 50 percent of the New Zealand market, but by 1970 its share had dropped to 18 percent. Oil has increased from 38 percent to 58 percent in the same period and electricity has more than doubled its share from 10 percent to 23 percent. In 1971 the total of manufactured and natural gases accounted for about 1 percent of the market.

Looking ahead to about 1981, the ratios for consumer energy in New Zealand are expected to be: coal, about 12 percent; oil 52 percent; electricity, 29 percent; and natural gas, 6 percent, with manufactured gas still about 1 percent. It is interesting to note that although gas supplies only about 7 percent of the market, this represents very nearly a threefold increase on present consumption. But more than the ratios will change; our demand for energy will also increase rapidly. Countries such as ours are relatively large users of energy, and the experience of the United Kingdom, the United States, and other developed countries indicates that as gross national product increases so does the per capita consumption of energy. The estimated annual increase in consumption, averaged over the next 10 years, is about 6 percent for oil and an even higher rate for electricity. In practical terms, by 1973 the annual increase in demand for electricity had reached about 250 MW to 300 MW. By 1983, just 10 years later, it could be round about 500 MW, which is almost equal to an additional Benmore power station each year. To meet this sort of demand in the best way possible for New Zealand we must ensure that indigenous resources are used as effectively and efficiently as possible. We must ensure that they are not wasted either through inefficient use or by making use of them simply because they happen to be there.

Fossil fuels will need to be used to a greater extent for electricity generation in the future. Our hydro resources in the North Island are almost fully exploited apart from the station on the Motu River and some potential on some other rivers, although this is not very great. In the South Island there is still potential in the Clutha River, but this, apart from the Upper Waitaki, which is now being developed, is about the only hydro power available as an economic alternative to thermal power.

We have developed or are proceeding to develop almost all the remaining economic hydro potential that is available to us, and so it is now necessary to plan and build large thermal generating stations. Large reserves of natural gas have been discovered at Kapuni and are presently being distributed to nine North Island gas undertakings as a premium fuel. Another gas field, more than 20 times the size of the Kapuni field, has been discovered off the coast, and an oil refinery has been built at Marsden that is now on the verge of an expansion designed to ensure that it will meet our requirements in the field of petroleum and other products. Changes in social attitudes and a heightened interest in protecting our environment have far-reaching implications in the production, supply, and use of energy.

It is against this increasingly complex background that the need for a co-ordinating body in the energy sector emerged.

MINISTRY OF ENERGY RESOURCES—A Ministry of Energy Resources was provided for by legislation in 1972. It is the function of the ministry to advise the Government on policies that will ensure the effective and efficient production, supply, and use of all forms of energy in New Zealand, bearing in mind the need to conserve resources. The Ministry of Energy Resources will advise the Government on an overall energy policy and will also provide an independent view on proposals concerning the production, supply, and use of energy in all its forms in both the public and the private sectors.

One of the difficulties in policy-making in the energy sector has been the lack of information relating to it. The Fuel and Power Committee of the National Development Conference pointed out, for example, that there was a lack of information on consumer preference and on consumer demand characteristics, and so the ministry is charged with developing and maintaining a coordinated information service on the production, supply, distribution, and use of energy. The Energy Resources Commission, which was set up as an interim body prior to the establishment of the ministry, began work on the development of a matrix on energy supply and use in New Zealand. The gaps in statistics have been pinpointed and work is going ahead to fill in these gaps. The administration of the Gas Council has been transferred from the New Zealand Electricity Department to the Ministry.

The role of the Ministry of Energy Resources, lies in its advisory capacity to the Government. While the ministry does not have the power to decide what shall be conserved and what used, it does have the role of analysing all courses of action available and presenting the costs, economic, social, and environmental of each alternative. Conservation does not mean just conservation of the environment of physical resources such as coal or gas, but includes technical and monetary resources. It is well recognised that, in order to make a sound decision on which of several alternatives to follow, an assessment is necessary of the cost of each of these. Only then is it practical to weigh up the relative merit of various proposals.

While the community demands increasing amounts of energy it is not always happy about the various adverse effects, whether in the end use of the fuel or in the production of it—for example coal fires for domestic use or the construction of thermal power stations near cities. The growth of the energy industry is inextricably tied up with the desire for higher standards of living.

Any material benefits cause natural disturbances to some degree or other and it is necessary to strike a balance between the benefits and any adverse consequences. Hydro sites are now limited and the best involve quite drastic changes in the areas nearby. Supplies of fossil fuels are not everlasting and concern is expressed in some quarters at the nuclear alternative. Concern about the wasteful use of resources in the face of increasing demand for comfort and convenience by affluent societies has led to various proposals for encouraging conservation of energy rather than accept its unlimited and unrestricted use.

ASSESSING DEMAND—The continuance of a reliable supply of energy at a reasonable cost is essential to both the economic growth of this country and the enjoyment of a higher standard of living. If the supply were to fall short of the demand, even for brief periods, the disruptions caused to both domestic and non-domestic users would be strongly resented. In the non-domestic field these would involve considerable economic waste.

Developed countries seem to need about a 0.8 to 0.9 percent growth in energy for each 1 percent increase in gross national product—the rate which New Zealand has maintained since the Second World War with short-term variations.

It seems that the demand for energy tends to be unresponsive to price changes; that substitution between the various forms of energy is limited largely to heating and is further limited by the cost of equipment required by the user; that waste of energy where it exists, would be difficult to eliminate except possibly by the insulation of houses; that the scope for reducing or "ironing out" peak loads at particular times of the day or particular seasons is limited, but could probably be further exploited (e.g., with more special tariff agreements for electricity consumers, perhaps on a sliding scale but reflecting real costs to the economy).

It is possible to develop energy resources specifically for particular industries. (The establishment of an aluminium smelter at Bluff is an example of this.) It may well be that other opportunities in mineral refinement or in chemical manufacture could be exploited if supplies of energy were available. It is clear that very large supplies could not come from the limited hydro-electric or coal resources, particularly of the North Island, but smaller users might be met on terms attractive to the manufacturer and rewarding to the power industries if tariffs were tailored more to particular load characteristics and marginal costing for different groups of users.

The following table prepared by the Fuel and Power Committee for the National Development Conference gives forecast usage in primary energy terms (BTU .. x1012) on the basis of actual usage in 1967, with provision for the aluminium smelter.

1967*19681969197019711972197319741975197619771978
*Tentative actual.
Oil120.2127.8135.5143.6152.3161.0168.4176.2184.5193.4202.7212.6
Coal54.153.462.750.948.555.161.371.875.080.275.083.1
Primary electricity37.739.840.745.151.858.061.862.466.171.381.586.7
Natural gas......7.67.98.18.38.58.78.78.78.7
    Total212.0221.0238.9247.2260.5282.2299.8318.9334.3353.6367.9391.1
    Less Comalco........3.27.09.09.09.011.814.514.5
    Total less Comalco212.0221.0238.9247.2257.3275.2290.8309.9325.3341.6353.4376.6

ENERGY SOURCES AND USES—The following table gives a summary of energy sources and uses of oil. (Usage of electricity coal and gas is discussed in the respective subject matter sections.)

Sources of Energy Uses of oil 
 Percent Percent
Oil59.55Transportation (road and rail) and heating64.8
Electricity21.23Shipping7.1
Coal17.40Aircraft (jet and piston)5.1
Natural and manufactured gas1.76Industrial boiler fuel17.1
  Oil power stations12.1
  Others1.1

About 50 percent of all electricity generated in New Zealand is used domestically, which is a reflection of the country's high standard of living combined with a low industrialisation. As recently as 1950 oil and electricity combined contributed less than half of New Zealand's energy requirements while today they hold well over three-quarters of the market between them. They appear likely to continue to increase their share although probably at a lower rate as coal becomes confined to certain large users who are equipped to use it efficiently and economically. Thus coal, although maintaining fairly constant sales, will probably take a declining share of an expanding consumer energy market. Nevertheless, its use as primary energy for electricity generation is likely to increase coal consumption very substantially.

At present the installed hydro system totals about 3,490 mW, and another 1,500 mW is expected to be installed in the next 10 years. The amount possibly available beyond this has been variously estimated at between 4,500 and 10,000 MW but a large proportion would be expensive and, indeed, uneconomical by present-day standards and also much would only be available in small stations. While there is some potential in geothermal fields, lack of size makes them unattractive for electrical generation.

The market shares of the various energy resources for 1974–75 is estimated as follows by the Ministry of Energy Resources.

SourceIndustry and CommerceTransportHouseholdsThermal Electricity Generation
 Percent
Oil33.5100.09.558.0
Coal28.015.036.0
Natural gas4.01.56.0
Manufactured gas1.01.0
Electricity33.573.0
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

The proportion of thermal electricity based on oil will fall after 1974–75 as both coal and natural gas are used more extensively. By 1982 these inputs are planned to provide over 80 percent of thermal electricity generation.

A report of May 1974 by the Monetary and Economic Council includes a survey of energy supplies and of energy pricing.

Substantial increases in oil prices took place in early 1974. Electricity prices had been stabilised for some years up to mid-1974.

Coal prices have had only a slow upward trend but use has been falling.

Reappraisal and new investigations of the coal reserves in areas in the Waikato, West Coast and Southland are continuing. Nuclear power must be considered as a possible source of energy in the future, although the decision to develop the Maui field has pushed this prospect outside any immediate planning horizon.

EXPENDITURE PATTERN—Expenditure on various forms of energy in New Zealand is about $450 million annually which represents about 7 percent of the gross national product. Of the total expenditure about 36 percent is spent on electricity, about 58 percent on oil products, 4 percent on coal and 2 percent on gas. Over the whole energy sector about $130 million is spent in new capital formation each year, about 75 percent for electricity. While the figures show expenditure on electricity is high, the volumes of energy are quite different. While the percentages of fixed capital formation and gross domestic expenditure are not large, the rate of increase of energy use, particularly electricity, is well above the annual increase in gross national product. This will mean that, if present trends continue, an increasing demand will be made on resources of money, manpower, and materials to satisfy the market for electricity.

Petroleum products—Petrol accounts for about half of New Zealand's total consumption of petroleum products. In the year ended December 1973, New Zealand used a total of 1,206 million gallons of petroleum products. The following table shows the proportions of this total by the various products and the total in millions of gallons in each case.

ProductGallons (million)Percentage
Aviation gasoline9.20.8
Aviation turbine fuel50.14.2
Motor gasoline (petrol)498.341.3
Gasifier distillate3.50.3
Kerosene7.10.6
Automotive gas oil259.621.5
Marine diesel fuel19.91.6
Fuel oils306.525.4
Lubricants14.41.2
Bitumen27.22.3
Chemical and other petroleum products10.51.0
Totals1,206.3100.0

From every 44 gallons of crude oil passed through the Marsden Point refinery is normally produced 18.04 gallons of petrol. 9.24 gallons of diesel, 15.40 gallons of fuel oil and 1.32 gallons of bitumen. The Marsden Point refinery supplies about 69 percent of the country's oil needs. About 41 percent of its annual output is petrol, 21 percent is diesel, 35 percent light and heavy fuel oils and 3 percent is bitumen.

The remaining 31 percent of the refined oil products are imported. Most of the aviation fuel comes from Australia, and other lubricants, kerosene, chemicals, and detergents are imported from the Middle East, Australia, and Singapore.

Electricity and gas supply are discussed in succeeding sub-sections, while coal and natural gas are dealt with in Section 17—Minerals. The oil refinery statistics covered in Section 18—Manufacturing and statistics of imports of oil and petrol are given in Section 22c.

20 B—ELECTRIC POWER

GENERAL—New Zealand's natural resources of lakes and fast-flowing rivers have been systematically harnessed for hydro-electric development, providing a relatively cheap source of energy which is continually replenished by nature. New Zealand's dependence on hydro-electric generation is similar to that of Canada, but Norway and Sweden generate proportionately more of their electricity from water sources. Hydro energy provides over 80 percent of the national electricity supply with 8 percent coming from geothermal energy and the balance from fossil fuels—coal, oil, and natural gas.

An important factor governing future plans for electric power development is that the remaining hydro potential is mainly in the lower half of the South Island and the preponderance of population in the North Island. In 1965 the inter-island transmission link began transmitting electricity from Benmore to Haywards, but this link is limited in capacity and in any case by the end of the century the South Island consumers are likely to require all the output from hydro generation in the South Island.

At Wairakei, in New Zealand's thermal region, natural steam is being used to drive the turbines. Coal is being used at Meremere steam station south of Auckland. A large station has been built at New Plymouth to use as fuel either natural gas or oil, and a large coal-fired station is to be built at Huntly.

An oil-fired steam station has operated since 1967 at Marsden, near Whangarei, and gas turbines have been generating at Otahuhu since mid-1968. Until the use of nuclear power about 1990, most future North Island stations will be steam stations using natural gas, oil, and coal. Because of the effect on the environment by way of air pollution and the transfer of heat to natural waters used to cool the condensers, environmental impact reports are required for projected schemes.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—Electricity supply in New Zealand was pioneered by local bodies and private enterprise. Reefton had hydro-electric supply as early as 1888, and Wellington in the following year opened a water-powered plant, using water from the city mains, but later switched to steam generation. Auckland and Christchurch, using steam-generating stations, and Dunedin, using hydro plant, all had supplies extensively developed before the advent of Government supply. Many smaller communities also had local supply, mostly produced from local steam stations, although in some cases hydro plant was installed to take advantage of local water resources.

The first Government station was opened at Lake Coleridge in 1914, and its capacity was increased in four stages up to 1930. In the North Island the Government purchased the Waihi Goldmining Company's station at Horahora on the Waikato River. This station was enlarged and by 1927 was supplying power as far north as Henderson and Takapuna. Mangahao station near Shannon was completed in 1925; one of the Waikaremoana stations (Tuai) and Arapuni both began operating in 1927. Between 1920 and 1930 the capacity of the State generating system grew by 135,590 kW and the number of consumers in New Zealand increased from 58,449 to 284,235. In the early 1920s steam stations were still producing up to 60 percent of the total electricity but by the 1930s they produced as little as 1 percent in some years, as they were gradually relegated to standby stations.

In the 1930s the Waitaki hydro station was commissioned and the Government acquired two small hydro stations—Arnold from the Grey Electric Power Board and Monowai from the Southland Power Board. With the latter the Government also took over the responsibility for distribution in Southland.

In spite of the difficulties, capacity was increased during the war years. Some existing stations extended, and new ones opened at Piripaua (the second Waikaremoana station), at Cobb in north-west Nelson and, towards the end of the war, at Highbank in Canterbury. Gates were built in 1941 to control the outflow from Lake Taupo.

After the war plans were pushed ahead for the development of the potential of the principal power source in the North Island, the Waikato River. Work had proceeded on Karapiro, the second Waikato station, during the war and its first power was produced in 1947 (the old Horahora station was submerged in the lake formed behind the dam). In 1952 Maraetai, the largest station on the Waikato, began producing electricity, and in 1956 Whakamaru was completed, followed by Atiamuri in 1958. Both Ohakuri and Waipapa stations began operating in 1961 and Aratiatia station in 1964.

Development in other areas included the commissioning of Kaitawa, the third Waikaremoana station, in 1948, and the installation of further machines at Waitaki. Control works were built at Lakes Pukaki and Tekapo to ensure an adequate water supply to the Waitaki station in the winter. Incorporated in the control works at Lake Tekapo is a single machine power station which was commissioned in 1951. The largest station built up to that time in New Zealand began operating at Roxburgh on the Clutha River in 1956. Meanwhile work proceeded on the Benmore station which was completed in 1966. Another station on the Waitaki, at Aviemore, located between the Waitaki and Benmore stations, began operating in July 1968.

Matahina on the Rangitaiki River in the Bay of Plenty produced its first electricity in January 1967.

The Manapouri scheme uses the waters of Lakes Manapouri and Te Anau, taking advantage of the 600-ft head between Manapouri and the sea. Intakes at the West Arm of Manapouri lead the water into vertical penstocks to the turbines 700 ft underground and it is discharged into Deep Cove at Doubtful Sound through a 6-mile tunnel.

A large proportion of Manapouri's output supplies the Bluff aluminium smelter and the remainder is fed into the national grid. Four generators began operating in 1969 and the remaining three in 1971 to give a total installed capacity of 700MW.

The Manapouri scheme was the subject of an agreement between the Government and Comalco in 1960 but subsequent agreements were negotiated in 1963, 1966, and 1969. As the land concerned lies within Fiordland National Park the agreement required statutory authority which was conferred in the Te Anau - Manapouri Development Act 1963. Under the 1969 agreement the Government built the power station and is building the Te Anau control works and the Mararoa Dam at Manapouri. This work is scheduled to be finished in 1975.

The actual formula devised for Comalco to pay for the electricity has varied between agreements and remains complicated; Comalco pays for the capacity to supply electricity, not for the electricity itself, plus the operating costs of that capacity; the price is based on capital charges. A sinking fund for the civil engineering works covers 80 years while the fund for equipment allows for a depreciation period of 40 years.

The 1966 agreement provided that Lake Manapouri be raised from its natural level of 583 ft above sea level to an operating level of 610–620 ft while the minimum lake level was set at 575.5 ft. Consequent on a campaign by conservationists opposed to the raising of the lake level the Government appointed a commission in 1970 to inquire into the proposal. The dam at Mararoa to control Lake Manapouri is now being built on a narrow base to control the lake within a normal range of levels. Lake Te Anau which feeds Lake Manapouri through the Upper Waiau River is to be controlled at natural levels between 653.6 and 663 ft by a dam near its outlet.

The purpose, planning, and the development of the Manapouri project are fully described in parliamentary paper D.7, 1967, as well as the Report of the Commission to Inquire into the Proposal to Raise the Level of Lake Manapouri for the Purpose of Generating Electricity (parliamentary paper D.8, 1970) and a report by the Institute of Economic Research on the Manapouri-Bluff Project commissioned by Comalco and published in October 1971.

The installed capacity of Maraetai power station on the Waikato River was doubled by the building of a second powerhouse for five additional machines which were commissioned in 1970–71. The yearly output from Maraetai has not been increased although useful peak-time capacity has been added.

Thermal Generation—The first thermal station built by the New Zealand Electricity Department came into operation in 1958 at Meremere beside the Waikato River, 40 miles south of Auckland. This station burns coal which is transported from the Maramarua opencast mines by aerial cableway, and from the Huntly mines by road and rail.

At Wairakei, a few miles north of Taupo, geothermal steam has been harnessed for the generation of electricity. The first machine began producing electricity in 1958 and the last machine (the thirteenth) was installed in 1963. Bores which are 4, 6, and 8 in. in diameter have been drilled to depths varying between 570 ft and 4,000 ft.

Marsden power station was commissioned in 1967 using oil from the nearby refinery, and at Otahuhu gas turbines went into service in 1968.

The 600 MW thermal station at New Plymouth produced its first electricity in 1974 and is scheduled to attain its full capacity later in 1974. Until the Maui natural gas wells off the coast of Taranaki begin production, the energy source will be 750,000 tons of imported bunker oil a year. A chimney 650 ft high has been built to disperse the hot gas.

Construction Projects: Hydro—A catchment area of more than 1,000 square miles in the central volcanic uplands of the North Island is being tapped for hydro-electric power development. Known as the Tongariro scheme, this complex development involves drawing upon the headwaters of certain rivers and tributaries, and diverting part of their flow from one watershed to another. In February 1971, southerly flowing waters of the Wanganui catchment were diverted to flow north to feed into Lake Taupo. A 20,000-ft tunnel connects Lake Rotoaira with the power house at Tokaanu. When the whole project is completed by 1975 it will increase the capacity of the eight existing power stations on the Waikato River by about 18 percent. Also included in the scheme is a 200 MW power station being built at Tokaanu. The total output from the development will be equivalent to one-third of the present output from the Waikato stations.

Late in 1973 approval was given for the construction of the 100 MW Rangipo power station to develop the head in the Tongariro River between the Moawhango Tunnel outfall and the Poutu intake; this extension of the Tongariro scheme provides continuity for the work force built up at Turangi.

In July 1968 Government approved in principle the total development of the Upper Waitaki Valley for hydro-electric use. The scheme involves controlling the outflows of Lakes Tekapo and Pukaki and to a limited extent Lake Ohau, and directing the stored waters through canals to four power stations named Tekapo B, Ohau A, Ohau B, and Ohau C; the diverted waters will eventually reach the Waitaki River at Lake Benmore. The total capacity of the new stations will be about 850 megawatts; also the extra storage provided by the scheme will allow the output from existing Waitaki stations to be increased. Work began with the construction of a township at Twizel, and on the Tekapo B project, which should be completed by late 1976.

Thermal—Agreement was reached late in 1973 between the oil consortium and the Government on the development of the Maui off-shore natural gas field. The first stage to be completed in 1978 involves the installation of a platform structure at the Maui 3 location and the laying off-shore of a 24-inch diameter gas pipeline and a 10-inch diameter condensate pipeline. Part of the natural gas delivery of 600 million cubic feet a day will be used to feed four thermal power stations, one of them being the New Plymouth station.

One natural-gas-fired power station of 1,400 MW is proposed in the Auckland area and a second of 1,050 MW south of Auckland. A 1,000 MW station is being built at Huntly, the first unit (250 MW) of which is scheduled to be commissioned in April 1978. Investigations by the Mines Department over the years have confirmed the existence of a large underground coal-field sufficient to provide fuel for such a station, but natural gas from the Maui field is to be used for one or more of the generating units. Preparations are being made for a 220 MW gas turbine station at Stratford and another of 200 MW at Whirinaki, near Napier; both are to be operational by 1976.

The guaranteed market for gas for electricity generation has made the development of the Maui field, with the recovery of the associated valuable condensate, an economically viable proposition. This guaranteed gas demand involves a progressive increase in annual consumption until a maximum level is reached in the mid 1980s. At this level, about 17,600 GWh of electricity could be produced annually from gas-fired power station plant of 3,300 MW capacity. Some idea of the magnitude of this output can be gauged from the fact that these figures are roughly equivalent to electrical energy consumption and peak demand for the whole of New Zealand for the 1972–73 year.

The conclusion of this long-term fuel contract of 30 years' duration will fix the pattern of major base-load thermal power station development for some years and could mean that New Zealand can defer the introduction of nuclear power stations until at least the late 1980s.

Upper Clutha Hydro-electric Development—The Government has approved in principle the proposals of the Clutha Development Commission for the building of six dams over a period of 15 years on the Upper Clutha and Kawarau Rivers to produce 1,490 megawatts, or in total twice the generating capacity of Manapouri. Two dams will be built on the Kawarau River, which drains Lake Wakatipu and joins the Clutha River at Cromwell. Two further dams will be built on the Upper Clutha River above Cromwell. The final two dams will be built in the Cromwell Gorge.

INTER-ISLAND TRANSMISSION—In 1965, at the same time as Benmore power station was commissioned, the transmission systems of the North and South Islands were linked by a high-voltage direct-current transmission line and undersea cables. It was considered more economical to transmit electricity from the lower half of the South Island which has abundant hydro resources, rather than develop less attractive North Island schemes or build extra thermal stations.

This scheme not only involved the laying of submarine cables for 25 miles in Cook Strait, but also the construction of a 354 mile, 500 kV direct-current transmission line from Benmore to Fighting Bay on the southern side of Cook Strait, and from Oteranga Bay on the northern side to Haywards substation; complex converting equipment had also to be installed at each end of the system. Considerable world-wide interest has been shown in this scheme, which was the largest of its type outside the USSR. The World Bank made a loan of $23.2 million to meet the overseas costs of this project.

PLANNING FOR ELECTRIC POWER—Forward planning is continually under review by a series of specialised committees. The Committee to Review Power Requirements considers estimates for 5 years ahead from the Electrical Supply Authorities Association and projects demand for a further 5 years. Peak power forecasts are also derived from the basic energy forecasts.

The personnel of this committee, representing the generating and distributing portions of the electrical industry, together with the Department of Statistics, Treasury, and this year the Ministry of Energy Resources, apply a wider judgment on long-run considerations to frame forecasts for the 10-year period. The independent forecast prepared by the Department of Statistics provides a valuable comparison with the work done in the industry.

Forecasting electricity demand would be one of the longest-term planning processes in New Zealand. It is of critical importance to the electrical industry and the economy of the country. The long sequences of events in providing generating plants spanning about 7 years is today lengthening by a more critical appraisal of their environmental impact. If demand estimates are low, or plant is not ready on time, a difficult supply situation results. On the other hand, if estimates are high, a premature commitment of resources and capital can materially affect what is available for other national development and social programmes.

A Planning Committee on Electrical Power Development in New Zealand, which consists of members of the New Zealand Electricity Department, Ministry of Works, Ministry of Energy Resources, Treasury, and supply authority representatives, considers the findings of the Review Committee in relation to the construction of stations to meet power requirements.

The Planning Committee recommends what projects it considers should be proceeded with, and when, in order to meet the estimated needs. The review and planning reports are submitted to the Minister of Electricity who tables them in the House of Representatives.

Estimates made in 1973 by the Power Planning Committee of progressive generation were as follows (in million kWh): 1973–74, 19,257; 1974–75, 21,022; 1975–76, 22,969; 1976–77, 24,330; 1977–78, 26,476; 1978–79, 28,118; 1979–80, 29,873; 1980–81, 32,412; 1981–82, 34,426; 1982–83, 36,859.

There has been a great upsurge in the consumption of electric power. Power generated to meet the demand doubled between 1962 and 1972 to reach 15,194 million kilowatt hours a year. In the same period generating capacity of power plants has more than doubled to reach 4.21 million kilowatts. Projected power requirements are expected to more than double again by 1982 to reach 30,599 million kilowatt hours. The projected average annual growth rate is about 7 percent. To meet the estimated power needs the generating capacity must be increased to 7.5 million kilowatts by 1982.

An important aspect of long-term trends is the steadily increasing share of electricity consumption by commerce and industry. For the first time in New Zealand, household consumption, at 49 percent in 1972–73, was less than half of the electricity consumption. By 1980 the household consumption is forecast to be down to 45 percent of the total. As the increasing proportion of electricity consumption provides the motive power in commerce and industry, the consumption of electricity becomes more closely related to industrial and commercial output of goods and services. The pulp and paper industry is contributing to major industrial loads.

In addition, electricity provides for many public services such as transport, communications, water supply, and sewerage that make urban life possible. The Committee to Review Power Requirements, is concerned when making forecasts that adequate provision is included for the unimpeded growth of these productive and service activities in the future.

It is recognised that there is scope for reducing the rate of national electricity consumption if the majority of houses were thermally insulated, even in the roof only.

FINANCE FOR ELECTRICITY—Up to 1962 some $654 million had been expended in generation, transmission, and distribution, of which the Government share was $470 million. By 1972 the capital invested by the Government had risen to $1,111 million, and with the further expenditure by the electrical supply authorities on distribution, the total capital outlay had increased to $11,493 million. By 1982 the provision of barely sufficient generating capacity to meet the expected power needs could call for a further expenditure by Government of some $2,000 million. To this must be added the capital needs of the electrical supply authorities who must also increase the capacity of their distribution systems in step with the increasing power demand. In all probability the capital investment in 1982 in all branches of the electrical supply system will be over $2,300 million. Since 1962 a direct contribution has Seen made from revenue towards capital requirements.

LEGISLATION—Under the Electricity Act 1968 the New Zealand Electricity Department is responsible for preparing plans to meet the expected demand for electric power and for controlling the State generating and transmission systems. In general, hydraulic, investigation and civil engineering are carried out by the Ministry of Works to the requirements of the New Zealand Electricity Department. The New Zealand Electricity Department is responsible for the overall functional design of each station, detailed design and installation of all turbines, generators, and associated electrical and mechanical equipment, for the design and installation of equipment at substations, for the survey, design, and construction of transmission lines, and for the operation and maintenance of the networks which supply electricity in bulk to the distributing authorities.

ELECTRIC POWER BOARDS AND SUPPLY AUTHORITIES—Under the Electric Power Boards Act 1925, boards control constituted electric power districts. Of the 39 electric power boards actively functioning at 31 March 1973, 15 had generating stations of a total rated generation capacity of 37,371 kW. There were also 22 municipal electric supply authorities, 6 of them having generating stations of a total rated generating capacity of 78,483 kW. Two Government departments, New Zealand Electricity and Tourist and Publicity, act as distributing authorities for Southland and Rotorua respectively. The licensed areas under the control of the boards and other authorities cover almost all the inhabited parts of the country. More than 99 percent of New Zealand's population enjoy the benefits of electricity in the home; only a few thousand people in more isolated and less accessible parts of the country lack this amenity.

The supply of electricity to remote areas presents difficulties because of the high cost of reticulation in relation to the revenue from power sold. A Rural Reticulation Council can make a levy of up to ½ percent of the gross revenue of all supply authorities and Government-owned electrical undertakings to subsidise the annual cost of supply in remote areas. The Rural Reticulation Council was set up under the Electricity Act 1945, and up to 31 March 1973 had approved subsidies on 9,789 route miles of line to supply some 15,308 consumers. At this date 9,581 miles of line were completed and 15,165 consumers connected. The total capital expenditure was estimated at $16,888,164 and the subsidy paid for the year amounted to $354,778.

PUBLIC SUPPLY STATIONS—The following table covers all stations whose output is fully or partially available to the public supply system as at 31 March 1973, their installed capacity, static head where applicable, and annual energy generation. Stations are State-owned unless otherwise indicated.

Name of StationInstalled capacity at 31 March 1973Static HeadAnnual Energy Generation Year Ended 31 March 1973Annual Load Factor
Number of UnitsMW

*Owned by Dunedin City Council.

†Owned by other supply authorities and industries.

‡Comalco's entitlement is 480 MW of continuous power.

§Excludes capacity of generating plant owned and operated by industries.

   metresmillionpercent
  Hydro kWh 
Arapuni8157.853743.753.84
Karapiro390.030500.558.06
Maraetai10360.061751.326.80
Whakamaru4100.038456.649.04
Atiamuri484.025253.736.25
Waipapa351.016232.347.43
Ohakuri4112.035340.133.99
Aratiatia390.034266.435.62
Matahina272.061267.241.67
Mangahao519.22393.851.72
Waikaremoana—
    Kaitawa232.0132107.4139.32
    Tuai352.0206218.2
    Piripaua240.0113138.7
Cobb632.0594175.458.01
Arnold23.11325.490.15
Coleridge934.5149107.732.57
Highbank125.210176.533.34
Waitaki7105.021485.250.35
Aviemore4220.037909.443.29
Benmore6540.0922,248.345.51
Manapouri7700.01773,684.178.95
Tekapo125.230116.652.19
Roxburgh8320.0461,484.751.48
Monowai36.04733.663.90
Waipori*1165.2172.4
Auxiliary5339.6219.2
    Sub-totals..3,375.8..14,109.4..
Thermal
 7210.0 925.453.38
 13192.4 1,174.890.80
 2240.0 798.341.65
 4180.0 221.620.60
 1211.0 23.9
  833.4 3,144.1 
  4,209.2 17,253.0..

The next table summarises general statistics of all supply authorities.

Item1970–711971–721972–73

*Excluding stocks and materials.

†Calculated on revenue from retail sales only.

Establishments..949391
Kilowatts of prime moverskW(000)4,0004,3674,434
Materials used
    Coaltons506,418405,281607,119
    Light oilgals. (000)6,4913,8791,790
    Heavy oilgals. (000)24,46724,32755,492
    Natural gasBTU's (m)85,436452,0802,910,728
Persons engaged
    MalesNo.11,42911,32211,858
    FemalesNo.1,1771,2771,230
Salaries and wages    
    (charged to operations and management)$(000)35,00442,10644,918
    (charged to capital)$(000)7,9629,24912,653
Capital Expenditure
    During year (net outlay)$(m)93.1107.0144.7
    To date$(m)1,350.81,457.71,596.4
Generation and Sales
    Generation per head of mean populationkWh4,8415,2825,983
    Retail sales per head of mean populationkWh4,1484,5585,226
    Retail sales per customer (domestic)kWh7,1277,3757,821
    Revenue per unit sold (retail sales)cents1.2871.2431.183

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Financial operations of all supply authorities are summarised.

Item1970–711971–721972–73

*These figures represent transfers within the electrical supply industry and therefore do not represent additional revenue or expenditure to the industry.

Revenue$(000)
    Gross revenue (including bulk sales and standby charges, excluding rates)246,000262,037287,040
    Revenue from bulk sales to supply authorities91,55195,551105,540
    Net revenue (excluding rates, bulk sales, and standby charges)154,448166,177181,500
Expenditure
    Operating (including cost of energy purchased in bulk)126,277135,490153,564
    Cost of energy purchased in bulk*91,55195,860105,540
    Operating (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)34,72639,63048,024
    Management, etc.19,98124,47727,648
    Capital charges81,10585,63590,836
    Total annual expenditure (excluding cost of energy purchased in bulk)135,813149,742166,308
Surplus18,63616,43515,191

GENERATION—Means of generation of electrical energy for public supply is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated by Means of—
HydroSteamOil and GasTotal
 million kWh
1968–6910,360.81,818.95.412,185.1
1969–7010,189.72,709.126.812,925.6
1970–7111,265.72,365.574.513,705.7
1971–7212,969.72,135.089.015,193.7
1972–7314,109.42,922.1222.017,253.5

The following table sets out generation by supply authorities and disposal. The excess generation of certain local factories, which is bought in for public supply, is given in the column "other sources".

Year Ended 31 MarchGenerated for Public SupplySold RetailNon-productive
N.Z. Electricity DepartmentSupply AuthoritiesOther SourcesTotal
 million kWh
196911,8313292512,18510,4541,732
197012,6033012112,92611,0691,856
197113,3603291713,70611,7451,960
197214,8303461715,19413,1122,082
197316,8383922317,25315,0302,223

SALES—The following table gives a classification of power retailed according to the various purposes for which it was sold. In this table "domestic" includes domestic water-heating units.

Year Ended 31 MarchDomesticIndustrialCommercialFarmingStreet LightingRail and Bus TractionTotalNumber of Consumers
 million kWh    
19695,992..4,312..934810,4541,080,749
19706,187..4,740..974511,0691,086,703
19716,4542,9111,9053311004411,7451,109,577
19726,8113,7392,0653501034413,1121,129,375
19737,3894,8412,2603741064215,0301,155,979

The following diagram portrays the growth in the use of electric power, and shows also the principal purposes for which the power was employed.

The distribution of the expenditure per unit sold retail is given hereunder.

Expenditure1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
 centscentscentscentscents
Operating expenses0.2420.2770.2950.3020.320
Miscellaneous expenses0.1350.1440.1700.1870.183
Capital charges0.6920.6980.6900.6530.604
Totals1.0701.1191.1561.1421.107

The revenue per unit sold in 1972–73 was, by categories: Domestic 1.103 cents; commercial 2.054 cents; industrial 0.84 cents; farming 1.868 cents; public lighting 1.569 cents; railway traction 1.343 cents.

Consumer Research—A survey of household electricity consumption was carried out in 1972 by the Department of Statistics on behalf of the New Zealand Electricity Department and the Electrical Supply Authorities of New Zealand. Results showed that 79 percent of all households used only electricity for cooking purposes; 73 percent used only electricity for water heating; and 30 percent used only electricity for home heating. (This was a small sample survey.)

Most electrical energy in households is consumed in water heating, space heating, and cooking in that order. Other appliances add considerably to the material quality of life, but consume little energy by comparison.

20 C—GAS

GENERAL—Gas was produced from coal as an early source of light and heating in New Zealand and by 1916 there were 56 establishments engaged in the marketing of gas to the public. From that date the numbers of gas undertakings steadily declined because of the growth of electricity usage. In recent years there has been an increased demand from the industrial sector but the loss of domestic consumers was viewed with concern in relation to satisfaction of the energy demand, and a Gas Council was established in 1958 to arrest the decline. Since 1970 the gas industry has been rejuvenated by the reticulation of natural gas.

The oil consortium, Shell B.P. and Todd Oil Services Ltd., discovered natural gas at Kapuni in 1959 and the development of this find has followed the formation of the Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand. This corporation was set up by the Government in 1967 and is operating the gas purification equipment and the pipeline to supply and sell gas along the pipeline routes to undertakings previously producing coal gas, namely, Auckland, Hamilton, New Plymouth, Hawera, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Levin, Hutt Valley, and Wellington. Natural gas supply to these centres took place in 1970 and 1971. The gas treatment plant at Kapuni cost over $5 million and the pipelines and compressors over $16 million. Gross trading profits of the Natural Gas Corporation were $62,144 in 1971–72 and $719,966 in 1972–73 but interest and depreciation charges resulted in net losses of $2.8 million and $2.2 million in the respective years.

Those gasworks not receiving a piped supply of natural gas continue to receive financial incentives which are provided by the Gas Council; in 1972–73 subsidies on coal prices and gas sales totalled $818,879 compared with $1,125,731 in 1971–72.

GENERATION AND DISPOSAL—The following table shows details of the total generation, purchase, and disposal of gas for the latest 3 years by gasworks and undertakings.

Item1970–711971–721972–73
*Manufactured gas 9,820,000 therms and natural gas 27,946,000 therms, with sales to domestic consumers 10,648,000 therms and to commercial users 27,118,000 therms. Sales by the Natural Gas Corporation brought up total sales to 71,594,000 therms, of which 10,648,000 therms were sales to domestic consumers and 60,946,000 therms to industrial and commercial users, including electricity generation.
 Therms(000)
Gas generated by gas companies—
    Coal gas12,9179,1848,517
    Oil gas10,3783,0493,112
    Water gas8171,099395
        Total generation24,11213,33212,025
Natural gas purchased14,06033,11243,989
        Total available for disposal38,17246,44456,014
Gas disposal—
    Used for internal consumption227274832
    Distribution losses12,51816,90417,416
    Retail sales25,42729,17737,766*
            Total disposal38,17246,44456,014

The next table summarises the main statistics of the industry for the last 3 years. Because of the introduction of natural gas nine establishments are now only distributors. The natural gas production plant at Kapuni is not included in these statistics.

Item ManufacturersDistributors
 1971–721972–731971–721972–73
Establishments (including distributors)No.151599
Persons engaged—
    MalesNo.417401533522
    FemalesNo.43405676
Operating expenditure
    Salaries and wages$(000)1,6351,6952,2592,247
    Costs of purchased natural gas$(000)1,4951,980
    Costs of materials used, etc.$(000)2,0032,268508143
    Other expenditure, including interest and depreciation$(000)7959311,4571,734
        Total operating expenditure$(000)4,4334,8945,7196,104
Revenue
    Products sales$(000)3,4713,7524,9786,275
    Subsidies$(000)7731,13364
    Other revenue (net)$(000)136178271
    Total revenue$(000)4,3815,0635,3136,275

Consumers and Prices—The following table shows the number of retail consumers and the prices per therm of gas, of all manufactured and natural gas distributed by gasworks, gas undertakings (distributors) and the Natural Gas Corporation. The table excludes the bulk sales of natural gas for the generation of electricity.

Item 1970–711971–721972–73
Consumers—
    North IslandNo.77,36973,64073,252
    South IslandNo.37,44435,95433,856
        Total New ZealandNo.114,813109,594107,108
Retail gas sales—
    North Islandtherms(000)17,09725,51934,076
 $(000)4,8445,6476,655
    South Islandtherms(000)8,3308,1328,499
 $(000)2,3082,4392,697
        Totals New Zealandtherms(000)25,42733,65142,575
 $(000)7,1518,0869,352
Average price of gas to consumer per therm    
    Domestic$0.280.330.33
    Industrial and commercial$0.200.18
Average consumption of gas per consumertherms221.5266.2397.5

Chapter 23. Section 21; MARKETING

21 A—MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

DEPENDENCE ON AGRICULTURAL AND PASTORAL EXPORTS—Products of animal origin average annually over 80 percent of the total value of New Zealand exports, and agricultural exports of grass seed and fruit can be added to raise even higher the value of exports of farm produce. New Zealand is the largest exporter in the world of butter and (in some years) of meat, and is also one of the leading exporters of wool and cheese. The maintenance and expansion of overseas markets for pastoral products must remain a fundamental objective, for if the moderate rate of expansion set as a goal by the National Development Conference is to be achieved, export receipts must rise by between 5 and 7½ percent a year, and over half of the increase must come from the pastoral sector.

The following table of exports by value indicates the relative importance of farm products.

Year Ended 30 JuneDairy ProduceMeatWoolHides, Pelts, and SkinsTotal Exports*
ButterCheeseMilk Powder, etc.CaseinTotal (including Other)

*Of New Zealand produce.

†Provisional.

 $(million)
1967109.445.129.818.6205.3205.0174.133.6717.6
1968112.247.430.318.1210.3260.7158.239.1804.6
1969114.842.623.121.7204.7309.4212.455.4968.9
1970109.744.331.125.8213.8368.9204.248.71,064.5
1971113.948.034.130.2228.9390.8187.850.61,108.1
1972181.265.976.425.4352.2339.3229.362.31,341.8
1973158.879.487.022.0349.8539.8424.296.41,777.4

The countries of destination for some of the main exports for 1971–72 are shown in the following table on a percentage basis.

Country of DestinationButterCheeseLambBeef and VealMuttonWool
United Kingdom73.972.880.26.45.519.5
United States0.17.13.262.40.29.4
Japan1.06.41.71.966.67.6
Canada1.514.30.70.7
France0.50.10.68.9
Belgium0.30.20.410.5
West Germany0.11.10.47.6
Italy0.50.13.7
Other24.913.611.114.725.532.2
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

GENERAL MARKETING SITUATION: Meat—Most meat produced in the world is supplied to domestic markets, and only about 8 percent of world output enters into international trade. Among the few countries with significant levels of exports are Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, the Netherlands, Denmark, and the Irish Republic. The chief flows of trade are to Western Europe, in particular the United Kingdom (which accounts for over one-quarter of world trade) and, more recently, the United States and Japan. The United Kingdom continues to be by far the largest market for lamb; New Zealand's lamb exports are heavily dependent on this market. Although the Common Market countries are substantial importers of beef and veal, the pattern of trade has been greatly affected by the beef and veal regulations of the common agricultural policy.

For some years New Zealand has made a drive for supplementary markets for its increased production and now lists over 100 countries as buyers of its meat. Of these three may be regarded as major markets. They are the United Kingdom which is currently taking about 75 percent of New Zealand's lamb; Japan, which is taking about 80 percent of New Zealand's export mutton production; North America (United States and Canada) which is taking about 80 percent of the beef and veal exports. In the late 1950s a strong demand developed in the United States for manufacturing grades of beef. This was a result of changes in the composition of the American beef herd which in the main is grain-fed and carries more fat than the consumer requires. The trimmings need to be supplemented with the lean-type beef that New Zealand (and Australia among others) can provide. From 1968 to 1972 New Zealand producers and exporters had to contend with what is termed a "voluntary quota agreement" which applied to all United States imports of fresh, chilled, or frozen meat except lamb. Under this system New Zealand, along with other suppliers, agreed to restrict the tonnage of quota meats shipped for arrival in the United States during the calendar year to a pre-set quota figure. If any country exceeded its quota a trigger point could be reached forcing the United States administration to introduce a global quota. Because of the shortage of beef in the United States and rising prices, restrictions on imports were suspended in July 1972.

Imports into the United States of some classes of fresh, chilled, or frozen meat are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of ExportBeef and VealMutton and Lamb
19691970197119721969197019711972
 tonnes (000)
New Zealand101110109121341069
Australia22223922630511272633
Canada19353526
Republic of Ireland30312914
Mexico30363637
Other countries65626487
Total imports46751349959045373242
United States production9,7989,99910,07610,269245245247241

Canada now ranks as New Zealand's second biggest customer for beef and veal. Shipments in the year ended September 1973 totalled 21,800 tonnes compared with 20,500 tonnes in the preceding year.

In Japan there is a demand for mutton which is used mainly for processing into sausage-type foods. Shipments in the year ended September 1973 totalled 64,500 tonnes compared with 63,500 tonnes in the preceding year.

It has been the policy of the Meat Board to diversify exports of lamb. This has been associated partly with he likelihood of Britain joining the EEC (which has been now realised and brings with it the possibility of a protective system of tariff and levies on imports of lamb), but also because of the need to cushion continued dependence on only one market.

In 1960 there was established the Meat Export Development Company, an organisation charged with the responsibility of the orderly development of New Zealand lamb marketing in the United States and Canada. All New Zealand lamb sales to these countries are controlled by this company whose directorate is composed of nominees of the New Zealand Meat Producers Board and representatives of the freezing companies. The head office of the company (known as Devco or Medco) is in Wellington while the North American operations are controlled from Toronto.

There is a Market Development Committee which consists of representatives of the Meat Board and the meat export trade. Each year the committee sets a percentage of lamb exports to be sold in markets other than the United Kingdom and it levies exporters 3c a kilogram on the shortfall below the target figure. The diversion target was set at 10 percent in the first season of the scheme, 12 percent the second season, 13½ percent in 1968–69, 15 percent for the 1969–70 season, 15¼ percent for the 1970–71 season, and 22 percent for the 1971–72 and the 1972–73 seasons. In March 1973 the scheme was suspended for the remainder of the season when it became apparent that there would be a marked drop in lamb supplies to the United Kingdom. The 1973–74 season target has been set at 23 percent. In 1971–72 an incentive bonus of 0.55c per kilogram was paid for amounts diversified above the set target.

Several promising markets are developing for lamb, despite tariff and other restrictions in many countries. Shipments to Europe in 1972–73 included 24,700 tonnes to Greece, 6,600 tonnes to West Germany, 4,000 tonnes to the Netherlands, 3,800 tonnes to Italy, and 1,400 tonnes to Switzerland. From a peak of 5,900 tonnes in 1969–70 shipments to Japan declined to less than 3,100 tonnes in 1970–71, but rose again to a new high of 8,200 tonnes in 1972–73.

Wool—New Zealand is one of the largest exporters of wool in the world. Most of the wool is auctioned in New Zealand and buyers come from all the main importing countries to make their purchases of wool. A small percentage of wool produced is shipped to England for sale. Prices fluctuate according to the demand for wool. The threat of competition from synthetic materials is such that the International Wool Secretariat is actively promoting advertising, merchandising, and research. World wool production and wool utilisation were approximately in balance until 1966 when consumption fell behind production.

World wool production increased steadily until 1968–69, particularly in Australia, New Zealand, and the Soviet Union. This growth reflected improvements both in carrying capacity per acre (number of sheep) and in wool production per sheep. Of the increase, probably over two-thirds stemmed from the upward trend in sheep population and the remainder from improved output per head of sheep. Since the 1968–69 record level, world production has shown a downward trend although New Zealand production reached its highest level to date in the 1970–71 season. Since the Second World War there has been no significant change in the broad geographical distribution of production which remains concentrated in Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, South Africa, and Uruguay—all of which export on a large scale—and in the United States and the Soviet Union, neither of whose clips enters the international market to any significant extent. These countries account for 77 percent of world production; of the world total Australia alone produces 33 percent, and with New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa some 52 percent.

The distribution of wool production does not, of course, coincide exactly with the distribution of the sheep population, since the production of wool or yield per sheep varies considerably. While there is undoubtedly scope for improvement in a number of the lower yielding countries, the yields, are determined by the type of pasture, breed of sheep, average age of flock, and age of sheep at slaughter. Variations in yield between countries, therefore, do not necessarily reflect variations in efficiency, but rather differences in pastoral conditions and objectives in farming.

Sheep numbers and wool production for selected countries are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

CountryWoolled SheepWool Production
197019711972*1970–711971–721972–73*

*Provisional.

†Revised series; previously included some non-woolled sheep.

 (million)(thousand metric tons greasy)
Australia180.1178.3163.9889870770
New Zealand60.358.959.2334322309
Argentina44.342.739.0200189194
South Africa32.530.329.1123113107
Uruguay19.916.018.0785460
United States20.319.618.7858277
United Kingdom26.126.026.9474847
U.S.S.R130.7138.0139.9419429419
Whole world952.0951.0932.02,7562,6812,566

The major importing countries for raw wool are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of Import1969197019711972
 million kg
Belgium96.895.375.669.3
France161.3158.5171.1164.6
Italy135.8126.9104.3120.8
Japan315.8320.5307.8348.1
Spain21.221.217.117.3
United Kingdom234.3205.6160.5207.1
United States113.291.572.855.7
West Germany109.598.4111.3115.7

Dairy Produce—New Zealand now relies on the United Kingdom for less than half the value of its dairy export exchange earnings, although the United Kingdom remains the principal market for butter and cheese.

Diversification of markets by New Zealand have been impeded by the severe and pervasive restrictions imposed by governments on access, especially on the entry of dairy products into all the main industrial countries. These restrictions have been designed to keep prices high in order to support the incomes of domestic farmers. The high prices, by restricting consumption and stimulating production, have created surpluses of some commodities. Disposal of these surpluses at cut rates, with Government support, in such free markets as have existed, has further limited the opportunities for profitable diversification.

New Zealand has had minimal success in GATT or in other international organisations in its attempts to negotiate improved conditions of access for agricultural products in markets outside Britain. It is essential for New Zealand to maintain strong and consistent pressure in international councils to achieve a stable balance between supply and demand in international trade, particularly in agricultural products. A significant step was made in 1971 when the EEC undertook in the Luxembourg Agreement "to make every effort to promote the conclusion of an international agreement on dairy produce; and to pursue a trade policy which will not frustrate New Zealand's efforts to diversify". In 1970, the GATT minimum international selling price for skim-milk powders of $180 a ton was established, and in 1971 negotiations for the establishment of minimum prices for butter and anhydrous milkfat continued until in 1973, agreement was reached to establish a minimum price for anhydrous milkfat of US $680 per metric ton.

In 1970 total world production of butter by 26 of the main producing countries of the world amounted to 4.3 million tons. In the same year world exports by 16 of the leading exporters amounted to about 739,000 tons, that is, only about 17.2 percent of world production entered into international trade. However, since trade between the member states of the EEC does not enter international trade as such this percentage is in effect considerably lower. Of this quantity 388,400 tons came onto the United Kingdom market. Total international trade in butter outside Europe is relatively small in relation to total world production and relatively small surpluses in large producing countries when exported via subsidies can have a disproportionate effect on the world trade in dairy products.

The following tables compare production and exports of butter, cheese, and skim-milk powder by selected countries. (Sources: Commonwealth Secretariat; United States Department of Agriculture.)

PRODUCTION
CountryButter (Factory Output)CheeseSkim-milk. Powder
197019711972197019711972197019711972

*Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

†Twelve months ended 31 May of following year.

 tons (000)
Australia*2001931827678929094104
Canada146128131748586161134151
Denmark129122135109118130313251
Finland868483404346395245
France440435506780812812632592677
Netherlands1191251622672943139386124
New Zealand23124523810610399123194186
United Kingdom63659312815418192107166
United States5075135029841,0631,166650638572
West Germany486454482218227245339332425
EXPORTS
CountryButterCheeseSkim-milk Powder
197019711972197019711972197019711972

*Twelve months ended 30 June of following year.

†Including donations shipped overseas.

 tons(000)
Australia*693574383329494648
Canada21815..13310751
Denmark867684666973465866
Finland2920..2120..6
France96582697127140264222170
Netherlands101918417117715325108
New Zealand*175154146918690124152161
United Kingdom23334223151
United States391933186160126
West Germany307119515763141206188

The amounts guaranteed for New Zealand on the United Kingdom market by the Luxembourg Agreement in each year of the transition period are as follows.

YearButterCheeseMilk Equivalent
 percenttonspercenttonspercent
197396165,8009068,60095
197492158,9008061,00090
197588152,0006045,70083
197684145,1004030,50077
197780138,2002015,20071

In the United Kingdom market for butter and cheese entered under Protocol 18 from 1 February 1973 New Zealand has been guaranteed a c.i.f. price of £361 a ton for butter and £312 c.i.f. a ton for cheese. There will be an annual review of New Zealand's special arrangement in which account may be taken of rising costs and inflation. In 1973 monetary compensatory amounts became available and these went some way towards compensating New Zealand for the decline in the sterling value of the c.i.f. price. Monetary compensation amounts are of uncertain duration and do not provide a satisfactory solution to the problem which arises with the depreciated value of sterling expressed protocol prices; moreover, they take no account of the depreciation of sterling before they became effective in January 1973.

Skim-milk Powder—The world production of skim-milk powder has expanded over recent years. The skim-milk powder output of 11 West European countries and Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States, rose from 2.1 million tons in 1966 to 2.7 million tons in 1968, but eased to 2.5 million tons in 1970. There was a further easing in 1971 to 2.3 million metric tons and a recovery in 1972 to 2.5 million metric tons.

The international market for skim-milk powder like that for butter, experienced a sharp recovery during 1971. The change began late in 1970 when the effects of a massive reduction in EEC surplus stocks began to influence supplies. This firming trend in prices carried on through 1971 and the first half of 1972. From mid 1972, international prices declined until mid 1973, when shortages of other protein feed-stuffs occurred and skim-milk powder prices rose. In 1973 world demand was buoyant stimulated by a growing number of milk recombining plants in Asia, South America, Africa, and the Caribbean. The general improvement in prices is reflected in quotations for spot sales of skim-milk powder, which having been as low as US$162 per ton when EEC surplus stocks were at their highest point in mid 1969, rose from US$203 in mid 1970 to US$480 by July 1971, to reach US$645 in December 1971 and by mid 1973 were in excess of US$800. (It should be noted that these spot prices provide a guide to the general trend but much of the world trade in skim-milk powder is covered by pricing arrangements set well in advance of delivery).

New Zealand's exports of milk powders have been further diversified to a wide range of markets in the past 2 years, particularly in the less-developed areas. Much of New Zealand's production is now sold to milk recombining plants under contract with powders manufactured to meet the precise specifications laid down by each buyer.

In recent years, New Zealand's exports to South-east Asia and Central and South America have increased heavily with the growth in trade to milk recombining plants. New Zealand's share in the growth, especially in South-east Asia, has been due to three main advantages over other suppliers—nearness to the market, regularity as a supplier, and ability to supply the specialised range of skim-milk powders required to produce reconstituted milk.

Casein—Lactic casein, which is produced from skim milk is being put to an increasing range of uses. It is used as high-grade protein in sausage and other food fillings, as the bulk material for various types of pharmaceutical drugs, and in the manufacture of coatings for high quality paper. New Zealand is the largest exporter of casein, with much of the production going to the United States, Japan, and EEC countries.

The chief countries exporting and importing casein are shown in the following table. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of Export1969197019711972
*Years ended 30 June of following year.
 tons(000)
New Zealand*61.069.240.429.0
Australia*29.826.529.3..
France16.011.214.816.3
Argentina11.97.06.88.6
Poland8.24.87.3..
United States49.156.043.243.4
Japan24.125.324.220.5
West Germany18.416.316.812.1
United Kingdom8.88.07.54.1
Italy10.511.28.97.8

Since 1970 there has been a world decline in the availability of liquid skim milk for casein manufacture, due to the higher return available from the alternative manufacture of skim-milk powder. New Zealand has attempted to maintain supplies of casein, but fluctuations in prices and availability of casein have caused some industrial users to shift to substitutes.

On the other hand there has been an increase in demand for casein and casein derivatives for edible uses.

Diversification of Markets—New Zealand's dairy exports to markets outside the United Kingdom have steadily increased. In 1955, only 13 percent of the value of New Zealand's total dairy exports went to countries outside the United Kingdom. By 1970 this had risen to 27 percent, but in 1972 54 percent of the exchange earned from dairy exports came from markets outside the United Kingdom. The greatest increases have been in anhydrous milkfat and skim-milk powder to South-east Asia and Central and South America, in cheese to Japan and the Caribbean, and in casein to the United States and Europe. It is expected that the future long-term growth in markets for New Zealand produce will be predominantly outside the United Kingdom, although New Zealand will remain heavily dependent on the United Kingdom as a bulk outlet for her milkfat products.

The following table shows the changing direction of New Zealand's dairy exports over the last 5-year period for June years.

Product1968–691970–711972–73Percentage to United Kingdom
United KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll MarketsUnited KingdomAll Markets1968–691970–711972–73
 metric tons(000)Percent
Butter, milkfat186.9206.4160.0191.4127.1174.890.683.672.7
Cheese70.387.767.892.559.991.280.273.365.7
Milk powder19.9131.97.6157.62.2200.815.14.81.1
Casein5.250.75.970.32.429.510.38.48.1
All products282.3476.7241.3511.8191.6496.359.247.238.6

TRADE RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED KINGDOM—The United Kingdom has always been New Zealand's main export market for farm products. The British consumer has had virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand supplies of butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of the mutually advantageous trading arrangements made between Britain and New Zealand over a long period, which reflect close political and economic connections between their people and governments. The arrangements, renewed and extended in 1959 and 1966, provided a basis for the encouragement of New Zealand producers to specialise in the output, especially for the British market, of pastoral products which skills, climate, and resources have enabled New Zealand to produce with unmatched economic efficiency.

In return for providing an assured market for this New Zealand produce, Britain obtained an assured source of reasonably priced food in war and peace, valuable preferences in the sale of manufactured goods in the New Zealand market, and considerable earnings from the provision of shipping, insurance, and other services related to the two-way trade between the two countries.

In 1971 the United Kingdom imposed levies on all imports of beef and veal and, more importantly for New Zealand, lamb and mutton. The purpose of the levies was ostensibly to bring about an overall increase in the price of meat in Britain and thereby reduce the burden of deficiency payments imposed upon the British Treasury. The first stage of the lamb levy, namely £9.33 a ton, was introduced on 1 July 1971, and this was increased to £18.67 a ton on 1 January 1972. The proposed third and final stage of the levy was abandoned in November 1972 following representations by New Zealand. The duty on mutton is half that on lamb. On 1 January 1974 Britain began phasing in the EEC Common Customs Tariff rate of 20 percent on sheep-meat.

Between January 1974 and July 1977 the current import levy of 0.83 new pence per lb will be phased out and the EEC Common External Tariff of 20 percent phased in. How this will be done is set out below.

DatePresent Import LevyCommon External Tariff
 U.K.p%
19730.83
Jan. 19740.508
Jan. 19750.3312
Jan. 19760.1716
July 197720

In return for concessions to guarantee a market for farm products in 1966 New Zealand guaranteed duty-free entry for certain British goods with margins of preference for some other goods. It has been estimated that, in 1969–70, 84 percent of Britain's exports to New Zealand ($234 million out of $278 million) enjoyed a preference. The average margin of preference was 21 percent and the value of preferences was $59 million.

The 1959 and 1966 trade agreements were terminated by the United Kingdom on 31 January 1973 because the terms of the agreements were incompatible with the obligations assumed by the United Kingdom when it began to apply the EEC's common agricultural policy on 1 February 1973.

EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY—The Rome Treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) came into force on 1 January 1958. The member countries were Belgium, France, West Germany, Luxembourg, Italy, and the Netherlands. These countries entered into negotiations which resulted in the abolition of customs duties within the Common Market on 1 July 1968. On the same date the separate customs tariff of the six countries gave way to a single tariff—the common customs tariff of the Community. By that date also much of the common agricultural policy was in operation, although some final negotiations had still to take place.

In 1970 because of changed political circumstances in Europe, Britain again was able to engage the Six in serious discussions about the "enlargement" of the Community.

The danger facing New Zealand was that should Britain, in joining the EEC, accept the common agricultural policy without special arrangements to protect the major items of New Zealand's agricultural trade with Britain, the pastoral industries in particular and the economy in general would be severely damaged.

In response to a request by the Government, the Monetary and Economic Council produced in June 1970 an independent assessment of the possible effect on New Zealand. The council pointed out that if the EEC's common agricultural policy for dairy products was applied to the British market without even a transitional arrangement for New Zealand, an almost immediate loss of $150 million a year in export earnings from butter and cheese would have occurred. It also predicted that further large losses would be inevitable as the production of other commodities for sale in markets outside Britain would have been rendered uneconomic for the New Zealand dairy industry.

The sudden loss of this amount of export income would have provoked a balance-of-payments crisis and the rate of importation of the materials required to sustain other sectors of the nation's economy could not have been achieved. Unemployment and a rapid increase in emigration were seen by the council as an inevitable sequel. When, after a considerable period of time and the expenditure of large amounts of capital in restructuring, the economy had been adjusted to the loss of the United Kingdom dairy market, the prospect was that New Zealand would have suffered a net loss in population and living standards.

The council went on to examine the consequences of a complete phasing out of New Zealand's dairy exports to the United Kingdom over a transitional period. It concluded that while the results of a phased exclusion would be less severe, the economy would still suffer serious damage; even if an estimated $266 million were invested in restructuring there would be a substantial loss in real income and a strong tendency towards emigration. The council emphasised that the consequences outlined for dairy products would be seriously compounded were the EEC to adopt a restrictive regime for sheepmeats.

It was to avoid these harsh effects that the Government formulated a detailed political and economic case for special arrangements. The Government sought, as the basis of a special arrangement, the provision for continuing access at remunerative prices for our exports of butter, cheese, and lamb. Before the formal negotiations between Britain and the EEC commenced, the New Zealand Government engaged in discussions with the British Government and listed the requirements which were regarded as necessary to safeguard New Zealand's vital interests. These requirements were as follows:

  1. That New Zealand should be able to continue to sell at remunerative prices the quantities of butter and cheese for which it currently received assured access to the British market.

  2. That guarantees of access should not terminate with the transitional period, but that there should be a continuing arrangement subject to periodic review.

  3. That, in the event of the Community adopting a common regulation for sheepmeats, New Zealand should continue to have access for lamb sales on a satisfactory basis.

When the formal negotiations opened in June 1970, the British Government accepted this "statement of claim" for dairy products as the basis for their submission to the Community. In respect of lamb, no negotiations with the EEC were scheduled because of the absence of a common Community regulation. The New Zealand Government accordingly sought from the United Kingdom an understanding that they would not agree to the introduction of a sheepmeats policy which would damage New Zealand's interests.

Negotiations between Britain and the Community formally opened on 21 July 1970. However it was not until a decisive negotiating session held in Luxembourg from 21–23 June 1971 that Britain succeeded in negotiating a special arrangement for New Zealand butter and cheese.

The special arrangement was subsequently incorporated in Protocol 18 to the Treaty of Accession of the applicant countries to the EEC.

Article 1

  1. The United Kingdom is authorised, as a transitional arrangement, to import from New Zealand certain quantities of butter and cheese on the following terms.

  2. The quantities referred to in paragraph 1 shall be:

    1. in respect of butter, for the first five years:

      1973, 165,811 metric tons

      1974, 158,902 metric tons

      1975, 151,994 metric tons

      1976, 145,085 metric tons

      1977, 138,176 metric tons

    2. in respect of cheese:

      1973, 68,580 metric tons

      1974, 60,960 metric tons

      1975, 45,720 metric tons

      1976, 30,480 metric tons

      1977, 15,240 metric tons

    The Council, acting by a qualified majority on a proposal from the Commission, may make adjustments between those quantities of butter and cheese, provided that the tonnage expressed as milk equivalent corresponding to the total quantities laid down for those two products for the year in question remains unaltered.

  3. The quantities of butter and cheese specified in paragraph 2 shall be imported into the United Kingdom at a price, the observance of which must be guaranteed at the c.i.f. stage by New Zealand. That price shall be fixed at a level which enables New Zealand to realise a price representing the average price obtained by that country on the United Kingdom market during 1969, 1970, 1971, and 1972.

  4. The products imported into the United Kingdom in accordance with the provisions of this Protocol may not become the subject of intra-Community trade or of re-exportation to third countries.

Article 2

  1. Special levies shall be applied to imports into the United Kingdom of the quantities of butter and cheese specified in Article 1. Article 55 (1) (b) of the Act of Accession shall not be applicable.

  2. The special levies shall be fixed on the basis of the c.i.f. price referred to in Article 1 (3) and of the market price of the products in question within the United Kingdom, at a level such as to allow the quantities of butter and cheese to be effectively marketed without prejudicing the marketing of Community butter and cheese.

Article 3

The Council, acting by a qualified majority on a proposal from the Commission, shall adopt the measures necessary for implementing Articles 1 and 2.

Article 4

The Community shall continue its efforts to promote the conclusion of an international agreement on milk products so that as soon as possible conditions on the world market may be improved.

Article 5

  1. The Council shall, during 1975, review the situation as regards butter in the light of prevailing conditions and of supply and demand developments in the major producing and consuming countries of the world, particularly in the Community and in New Zealand. During that review, among the considerations to be taken into account shall be the following:

    1. progress towards an effective world agreement on milk products to which the Community and other important producing and consuming countries would be parties;

    2. the extent of New Zealand's progress towards diversification of its economy and exports, it being understood that the Community will strive to pursue a commercial policy which does not run counter to this progress.

  2. Appropriate measures to ensure the maintenance after 31 December 1977 of exceptional arrangements in respect of imports of butter from New Zealand, including the details of such arrangements, shall be determined by the Council acting unanimously on a proposal from the Commission in the light of that review.

  3. After 31 December 1977, the exceptional arrangements laid down for imports of cheese may no longer be retained.

The pricing arrangements under the Protocol (Article 1:3) are not regarded as satisfactory by New Zealand.

The special arrangement for New Zealand was only one of the major issues negotiated at the Luxembourg meeting. Sufficient progress was made on the question of Commonwealth sugar, Community finance, the reserve role of sterling, transitional measures for industry and agriculture, to ensure the subsequent success of the negotiations. Negotiations by Norway, Denmark, and Ireland proceeded in parallel to those of the United Kingdom but Norway in a referendum in September 1972 decided against joining the EEC.

The Common Agricultural Policy, with its high internal prices supported at the Community frontier by variable levies, and its export subsidies, has encouraged the production of surpluses, most notably of dairy products, while reducing consumption. In 1968–69 Community butter stocks reached the order of 500,000 tons and while they declined in 1971 they again rose rapidly in 1972. There is growing support within the Community, strengthened by British entry, for the view that a major reorientation of the Common Agricultural Policy will be needed if the recurring surpluses, and the financial burden they impose on the Community, are to be overcome.

The EEC has not yet implemented a common agricultural policy for sheepmeats. This reflects the low consumption in most member countries. The comparative importance of Britain's sheepmeat consumption suggests that Britain should play an important part in developing sheepmeat policy in the enlarged community. It would be severely detrimental to New Zealand if the effect of any such policy were to restrict access and reduce overall net returns from the sale of lamb to an enlarged EEC. It can be expected that Britain will wish to ensure that imports from these countries, in particular New Zealand on which it is heavily dependent, will not be curtailed.

UNITED KINGDOM MARKET: Dairy Produce—New Zealand's important position in the supply of butter, cheese, and milk powder to the United Kingdom market is illustrated in the following table, showing imports into the United Kingdom, by country of export. Domestic production of butter in the United Kingdom is relatively small in comparison with total supplies. Domestic cheese supplies, on the other hand, are comparatively large, as is also the domestic output of milk powder. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of ExportButterCheeseMilk Powder
19381971197219731938197119721973197019711972
 tons(000)
New Zealand130144116130827063472076
Australia90322813127313
Denmark1186970731101114
Ireland, Republic of..303537..252336121917
Netherlands3617176010171920125
Other countries10275731441363017181112
Total imports476367339327146165149135543940
United Kingdom production2065939543154180178125148206

The following table shows the comparative figures for consumption of butter and margarine in the United Kingdom. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Product193819661967196819691970197119721973
 lb per head
Butter24.120.020.519.319.218.717.515.516.8
Margarine10.012.011.711.311.811.812.914.412.7

Meat—The following table shows the imports of meat into the United Kingdom from the principal countries, by country of export. (Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.)

Country of ExportMutton and LambBeef and VealAll Meats*
19381971197219731938197119721973197119721973
*Including pig-meal, offal, bacon and ham.
 tons(000)
New Zealand18430528923552141314347328276
Australia9532312311531668584121133
Argentina45354386358386358
Denmark11288260259
Ireland, Republic6931..104794717014379
Other countries1623268615262161174161
Totals3463483262615892492742661,0881,089966
United Kingdom production2112262162326049388958621,9542,1622,103

THE ORGANISATION OF MARKETING—In a country such as New Zealand which is very dependent upon overseas trade, the efficient organisation of marketing of primary produce takes on a special importance.

Marketing Authorities—Since about 1950 the principle has been accepted that producers should be predominantly responsible for the marketing of their products. The major statutes under which specific marketing authorities operate are the Dairy Board Act 1961, the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 and the Amendment Acts 1956 and 1971 (for the Meat Producers Board), and the Meat Export Prices Act 1955, the Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972, the Milk Act 1967, the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948, and the Primary Products Marketing Act 1953 (safeguards citrus fruit, honey, and eggs).

Dairy Produce—The New Zealand Dairy Board acquires and markets all New Zealand butter, cheese, milk powder, and casein intended for export, and regulates the marketing of butter and cheese in New Zealand. The New Zealand Dairy Board is a statutory authority operating under the Dairy Board Act 1961 and acts as the administrative body for the industry and as its export marketing agency. Of the board's members, 11 are elected by the co-operative companies and 2 are appointed by the Government. The board acquires all export dairy products from the manufacturing companies, sells the goods overseas, and returns the proceeds, less marketing costs, to the companies.

The board sells its products throughout the world, and is currently exporting to over 90 countries. Sales are made in the United Kingdom through the board's own sales organisation. In other markets, the board sells through local agents, or in the case of some buyers it sells direct, on a contract basis. Increasingly the board is posting its own personnel overseas in key markets as liaison representatives and where warranted, subsidiary trading companies have been established.

Meat—The New Zealand Meat Producers Board was constituted in 1922 under the provisions of the Meat Export Control Act 1921–22 to protect the national and producers' interests. The board obtains funds by the imposition of a levy on all meat exported (except canned meats and offals), the levy being 0.165c per kilogram until October 1973 when it was raised to 0.77c per kilogram. The amount from the levy totalled $1 million in the year ended September 1973, and the board drew $3.6 million from the industry reserve account to finance its activities.

The board's main responsibilities are:

  1. Meat export licensing;

  2. The grading, storage, and shipment of meat;

  3. Market research;

  4. The promotion of New Zealand meat;

  5. Improvement in the quality of New Zealand meat.

The board has engaged in most activities in the export trade in the interests of the producer. It is the mechanism through which policy in the interests of the trade is formulated.

Prior to 1971 the board's power to participate in the purchase and sale of meat in any country outside New Zealand was limited under the terms of the Act to the establishment of markets in those countries where no substantial market for New Zealand meat previously existed and to the expansion and maintenance of those markets. An amendment to the Act passed in October 1971 extended the board's power to enable it to buy any meat derived from sheep and sell in or export to any country. There is provision for this to be extended by Order in Council to cover meat derived from any other stock; the board's previous powers with regard to the sale of these meats in developing markets has been maintained. A sizeable proportion of lambs were purchased by the board in the 1971–72 season.

The board has had a major influence on meat marketing policy through the regulation of shipments, control over quality, and the development of markets through promotion in which it is investing some $3 million a year.

In its market support activities the board is the only organisation in the world promoting the sale of meat on a genuinely international scale. To this end it has established in its major markets a network of market consultants assisting the board through its overseas offices which are in London, New York, Tokyo and Brussels. The board established an office in Brussels in October 1972, partly for developing the European market and partly for purposes of safeguarding the position of New Zealand meat with Britain joining the EEC.

While the trade has retained the role of direct marketing, the administrative and promotional work of the board has served to ensure that the long-term interests of the industry are not ignored. This function embraces all activities in moving meat from producer to consumer in the quickest and most efficient manner with due regard to the stability of prices and markets.

Wool—The Wool Marketing Corporation was established from 1 December 1972 by the Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972. The corporation is a grower-controlled authority which has as its object to obtain, in the interest of growers, the best possible long-term returns for New Zealand wool. It will do this by developing a marketing system suited to the requirements of the world's textile industry, by marketing New Zealand wool to the best advantage in competition with other textile fibres, and by bringing about efficiencies in the handling and distribution of wool. It is empowered to acquire the whole of the wool clip, but an Order in Council is necessary before this part of the Act can be brought into force.

Apples and Pears—Apples and pears are purchased from growers by the New Zealand Apple and Pear Marketing Board. This board was set up in 1948, in terms of the Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1948, to acquire and market the apple and pear crop. Under the Apple and Pear Marketing Amendment Act 1967 there has been set up an Apple and Pear Prices Authority whose function it is to determine each season the average price to be paid for apples and pears. This price is a New Zealand average, and within it prices to growers vary for the different varieties, grades, and sizes. Most apples and pears of standard grade are purchased by the board with private sales by growers limited by regulations. Growers may sell direct to consumers in lots of not more than two cases, or with permission of the board, to retailers in specified localities. Manufacturers may be licensed by the board to purchase their requirements direct from growers (although in some cases the board itself purchases fruit and resells it to the factory). Growers may also be permitted by the board to sell at municipal markets established under the Municipal Corporations Act 1954.

The board decides what proportion of the fruit is to remain in New Zealand and what proportion is to be exported, and arranges for the storage and release of varieties according to their condition and keeping capacity, in order to make fruit available for as long a period as possible during the year. The board determines the wholesale prices at which fruit is sold in New Zealand by authorised wholesalers to retailers. If in any season the total receipts from sales of fruit by the board exceed the amount which the board is required to pay to growers in accordance with the declared average price, the surplus, after deduction of costs and expenses incurred by the board is apportioned between a reserve fund and the growers. The board may distribute up to 50 percent of the surplus among growers, or such greater proportions as the Minister approves. The balance is added to the reserve fund. If sales in any season realise less than the amount the board is required to pay, the deficiency is met from the reserve fund. The reserve fund, which has been built up from profits derived almost solely from exports, has been invested in a chain of modern cool stores and mechanical equipment designed for the improved handling of fruit.

Financial results for recent seasons are shown in the following table.

SeasonProfit or LossBoard's ShareGrowers' ShareReserve Fund at End of Season
*Retained by board to offset previous seasons' losses.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1962–63-139-1392,489
1963–64-1,248-1,2481,241
1964–65439439*1,680
1965–66-1,823-1,823-143
1966–671,3651,3651,222
1967–685013941071,616
1968–699617532082,369
1969–70-1,410-1,410959
1970–712931691241,128
1971–72-2,631-2,631-1,503
1972–732,6522,410242906

Potatoes—The Potato Board, with equal representation of growers and merchants and an officer of the Public Service as an advisory member, was established by the Potato Growing Industry Act 1950. Its principal function is to ensure that an adequate supply of main-crop potatoes shall be available for consumption. Its powers include the making of contracts between growers and the board for main-crop potatoes, and the appointment of wholesalers authorised to purchase from growers and to sell potatoes in respect of which contracts have been made with the board. In June 1956 the Government announced that it would guarantee the overdraft of the Potato Board to enable the board to guarantee a certain schedule of minimum prices to contract growers for any potatoes unsold at the end of the season. The purpose is to encourage the growing of an adequate supply of potatoes.

Milk—The New Zealand Milk Board was set up in 1953. It operates the national milk scheme and engages in other activities for the purpose of ensuring an adequate supply and efficient distribution of milk. The legislation is contained in the Milk Act 1967.

The board may make a levy on milk to finance its operations but while a subsidy on milk is payable from the Consolidated Revenue Account the rate of levy requires the approval of the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries.

Retail prices are fixed by Order in Council. The price for the milk to the producer is fixed by the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries after consultation with the Milk Board. Intermediate margins, such as those for pasteurising and bottling milk and to vendors for its delivery, are fixed by the Milk Prices Authority. The total cost at the present time exceeds the amount paid by the consumers, the balance being met by subsidy. It is the function of the Milk Board to administer the whole town milk scheme on behalf of the Government which, however, retains a direct interest by virtue of the substantial sum paid in subsidy.

Eggs—The Egg Marketing Authority, which was established in 1953, consists of eight members—five producer members of the New Zealand Poultry Board and three Government representatives. The principal function of the authority is to regulate and control the marketing and distribution of eggs and egg pulp in New Zealand and elsewhere in accordance with the regulations, to ensure as far as possible sufficient supplies of eggs and their equitable distribution in the general interests of producers and consumers.

The New Zealand Egg Marketing Authority operates principally through licensed distributors in the various districts who, on commission, receive and resell eggs or, as directed by the authority, manufacture egg pulp for the use of bakers and pastrycooks. Eggs are subject to price control. A subsidy, at present at the rate of 3.33c per dozen, is paid by the Government in respect of eggs received at authorised egg floors (as the licensed distributors are known). This is to offset floor charges and distribution costs which would otherwise be passed on to the consumers.

Imported Citrus Fruits and Bananas—The importation and marketing of imported citrus fruits, bananas, pineapples and grapes are the responsibility of a registered company, Fruit Distributors Ltd., representing trade interests. The operations of the company are defined and restricted by an agreement between it and the Government. There are two Government members on the company's board of directors.

New Zealand Lemons and Oranges—The Citrus Marketing Authority was established in 1953 to market fresh lemons, either directly or through agents, throughout New Zealand and to process unmarketable but otherwise sound fruit into by-products, such as fruit juice and lemon peel. The authority has a membership of six, five of whom are nominees of the New Zealand Citrus Council and represent the producers, and one appointed by the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries as the Government member who also protects the interests of consumers.

The Citrus Marketing Authority controls the assembly and distribution of New Zealand lemons, and also New Zealand grown sweet oranges. The entire output of fruit, which comes under the jurisdiction of the authority, is sold at agreed prices to Fruit Distributors Ltd. The authority operates processing and packing facilities at Kerikeri, and Tauranga.

Honey—The Honey Marketing Authority, set up in 1953, undertakes the task of packing and marketing honey within New Zealand and for export. A levy is made at the rate of 0.833c per pound on honey sold locally and the funds paid into the Honey Industry Account, which is administered by the authority for the benefit of the industry in general.

The authority comprises four members elected by beekeepers, and one member appointed as Government representative. One of the functions of the Government representative is to watch the interests of the consumer.

Prices and sales of honey are set out in the following table.

Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72
Payment to producerscents per lb13.0511.3311.2613.1817.17
Average selling price—
    New Zealandcents per lb21.3222.6022.6924.9627.96
    Overseascents per lb19.8720.6817.4916.4423.32
Sales—
    New Zealandtons3921,013934833715
    Overseastons2912275089961,361

TRANSPORT AND OVERSEAS MARKETS—Farm products form the bulk of New Zealand's exports and it comes to hand for shipment in seasonal cycles. These are most pronounced for lamb, and apples and pears, but apply also to a marked extent to mutton, beef, wool, and related produce. Butter, cheese, and other dairy produce become available throughout the year but production is considerably higher in the 6 months October to March than in the remainder of the year. The peak season for all the animal products is much the same, being roughly November to May, while there is a shorter concentrated season for fruit in March and April.

This seasonality presents shipping problems in the marketing process. In addition, the bulk of the commodities are perishable and require continuous refrigeration throughout the period of at least 2 to 3 months between production and consumption. The demand for shipping space lags a little behind the season, generally building up in January and declining in June. A realisation of the demands that increased production was making on transport, storage, handling, and shipping services led in 1964 to the setting up of an Exports and Shipping Council, an independent body whose main purpose is to improve the efficiency and economy of New Zealand export trade as it relates to transport services. Shipping received special attention as shipping costs absorb a substantial portion of market realisations.

The council is representative of producer boards, freezing companies, transport interests, harbour boards, the Associated Chambers of Commerce, the Federation of Labour, and the Manufacturers' Federation. It was successful in bringing into effect many of the recommendations of the streamlining report on ports, shipping, transport, and other services, produced as a result of consultations between the producer boards and the main shipping lines.

PRICES FOR FARM PRODUCTS: Wool—under the Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972, the Wool Marketing Corporation prepares a table of minimum prices for the various classes of wool, which becomes effective by agreement with the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries. Where any wool is sold at an approved auction sale at a price less than its minimum price, the corporation, out of its funds, supplements the sale price to the extent necessary to bridge the gap. (The Wool Commission from 1951 to 1972 paid out to farmers in supplementation of market prices an amount of $10 million, of which $8.7 million was paid out in the 1967–68 season.)

The following table shows weight, sale value and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction. The last column shows the average minimum price to growers set by the Wool Marketing Corporation, or its predecessor, the Wool Commission.

SeasonGreasy Wool Sold at AuctionTotal Sale ValueSale Value per KilogramAverage Minimum Price per Kilogram
* See latest statistical information.
 Metric Tons (000)$ (million)cc
1958–59184.29122.166.2760.63
1959–60185.61132.282.0360.63
1960–61190.92141.674.1260.63
1961–62192.05138.271.9860.63
1962–63201.44158.578.7060.63
1963–64196.81199.1101.1760.63
1964–65201.03155.677.4064.31
1965–66230.97176.676.4664.31
1966–67242.13156.964.7766.14
1967–68244.85123.450.4255.12
1968–69234.28144.961.8149.05
1969–70224.12126.656.4849.05
1970–71218.22116.653.4246.30
1971–72209.02139.066.4646.00
1972–73196.21282.5143.9650.00
1973–74***70.00

In the next table details of a wool price index on base: average over all sales 1963–64 season (= 1000) are given. This index has been compiled in an attempt to eliminate all but the price factor in movements of average wool values. A description of the make-up of this index is given in a supplement to the December 1964 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

SeasonIndex Numbers* Base: 1963–64 (= 1000)
*Based on price on floor, clean.
1949–50689
1950–511,584
1951–52749
1952–53840
1953–54903
1954–55886
1955–56832
1956–57985
1957–58750
1958–59663
1959–60812
1960–61745
1961–62731
1962–63788
1963–641,000
1964–65780
1965–66775
1966–67683
1967–68533
1968–69650
1969–70603
1970–72560
1971–72693
1972–731,464

Dairy Produce—Basic prices (then known as guaranteed prices) were introduced in 1936 for butter and cheese. The present legislative authority for the fixing of purchase prices for all dairy produce which the Dairy Board acquires for export is the Dairy Board Act 1961, as amended by the Dairy Board Amendment Act 1972. Under the Act, the Dairy Products Prices Authority fixes the prices to be paid by the board for butter. This price for butter sets the basic price for milk fat. The prices paid for other dairy produce acquired by the board are set by the board, after consultation with the authority.

The price paid for cheese is based broadly on three components. The first component is the value of the fat, which is based on the basic price of butter.

The second component is the value of the solids-not-fat component of cheese, which is worked out under the new s.n.f. (solids-not-fat) formula. Adjustments are also made for by-products.

The third component is manufacturing costs.

The objective of the cheese price is to ensure that suppliers of whole milk for manufacture into cheese will, on average, receive a return closely related to the average return they would have received had the milk been manufactured into butter, buttermilk powder, and skim-milk powder or casein. A similar objective exists for suppliers of whole milk for manufacture into whole-milk powder, and other product mixes.

The main purposes of the 1972 amendment was to introduce the new s.n.f. formula for payment for solids-not-fat products, including the s.n.f. portion of cheese. What the formula does is to limit the difference between the returns for the solids-not-fat products to 6.61c per kilogram of milk fat in the original whole milk (i.e., 3c per pound milk fat) at the factory stage.

Overseas realisations determine purchase prices. The price for butter may not vary by more than 5 percent from the price fixed for the previous season. This, in turn, also limits the movement in the price paid for the fat component of cheese, and for other products containing fat, such as frozen cream, anhydrous milk fat (a.m.f.), and whole-milk powder.

The main Dairy Industry Trading Account at the Reserve Bank, which receives the proceeds from the fat products, may be in surplus or deficit if the overseas realisations are different from the guaranteed price for milk fat set by the butter price.

When this account is in surplus, the Dairy Board may authorise the distribution of up to 50 percent of any surplus achieved in a trading year; part or all of the balance may also be distributed if the Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries agrees. The large surplus of over $70 million for 1971–72 enabled a surplus payment to companies of 13.23c per kilogram milk fat, but for stabilisation reasons companies were limited to paying suppliers only 110.23c per kilogram milk fat at farm gate. For 1972–73 there was a small surplus payment of 3.307c per kilogram milk fat. When the trading account is in deficit, this deficit is charged against the Dairy Industry Reserve Account.

Realisations from other products such as milk powders with less than 14 percent fat and casein are put into pool accounts. All of these proceeds, after payment of selling and administrative expenses, are paid out to dairy companies, after the application of the s.n.f. formula. There is a partial linkage between the pools accounts and the Dairy Industry Trading Account through the cheese price.

The following table gives the prices in cents per kilogram of product paid by the Dairy Board to companies for the main products acquired for export. These are f.o.b. realisations to companies, except for casein, which is a factory door realisation.

Season Ended 31 MayCreamery Butter (Finest Grade 93–93½ pt)Cheese (First Grade 92–92½ pt)Spray Skim-milk Powder (Finest)Acid Casein (Industrial)

*These extra amounts are surplus payments expressed on a product basis.

†Interim final prices.

cents per kilogram
1963–6454.4033.22  
2.26*1.11*  
1964–6557.0936.00  
1.51*0.74*  
1965–6657.1039.29  
1966–6757.0639.37  
1967–6854.2137.57  
1968–6954.3937.08  
1969–7054.5038.6515.6338.89
1970–7157.4344.8022.2242.73
2.17*1.08*
1971–7260.3056.8841.5165.10
10.85*5.40*
1972–7363.3257.8330.2767.84
27.5*1.36
1973–7463.32   

The prices quoted in the preceding table for butter and cheese were designed to enable dairy companies to pay to suppliers the following amounts in cents per kilogram of milkfat used for butter or cheese manufacture (columns 1 and 2). Also given is the actual net revenue per kilogram of milk fat supplied achieved by companies for the main products. The figures for spray skim-milk powder and acid casein are for milkfat in the original wholemilk from which the liquid skim milk was derived.

Season Ended 31 MayBasic PriceFinal PriceActual Average Net Revenue
Butter MakingCheese MakingButter MakingCheese MakingSpray Skim-milk PowderAcid Casein
*Estimate only.
 cents per kilogram of milk fat
1963–6458.7967.9863.5272.88  
1964–6562.2875.1466.0279.76  
1965–6662.2882.8864.1184.25  
1966–6762.2882.9563.7984.10 18.82
1967–6858.6277.2759.9177.7016.1620.64
1968–6958.6271.9160.2274.1110.3317.92
1969–7058.6274.1060.0875.1213.4017.17
1970–7161.4083.6465.8089.4325.3219.08
1971–7264.04110.6979.26124.8758.6932.32
19/2–7371.17111.7371.87*115.04*40.83*34.22*
1973–7470.90     

NOTES—

  1. The basic price for butter making is on a farm gate fat in cream basis up to and including 1971–72. All other figures are on a factory stage basis (i.e., milk and cream collection costs must be paid out from these amounts).

  2. Columns (1) and (2) do not include surplus payments. These are price structure calculations.

  3. Columns (3) and (4) do include the surplus payments shown below:

     Cents per kilogram milk fat
    1963–642.76
    1964–651.84
    1970–712.65
    1971–7213.23
    1972–733.31
  4. The 1972–73, 1973–74 buttermaking basic prices include revenue items.

Most milk fat is now collected by tankers. Only 17 percent of suppliers supplied cream in the 1971–72 season, and they made up an even smaller proportion of total milk fat supply, i.e., 7 percent.

The main product mixes obtained from whole milk are:

CheeseButterWhole milk powderAnhydrous milk fat
Whey butterButtermilk powderButterButtermilk powder
Separated wheySkim-milk powder or casein (acid or rennet) Skim-milk powder or casein

Production of dairy factories is shown in Section 14A—Farming.

Town Milk Supply—The objects of the New Zealand Milk Board are the provision of an adequate supply of milk of good quality for human consumption and the organisation of the town milk industry on an economic basis. The board arranges supply contracts with milk producer companies for all districts, reports to Government on the adequacy of the town milk producer price, makes recommendations to Government or reports to the Milk Prices Authority, as the case may be, as to national margins for pasteurising, bottling, distribution, and other aspects of price fixation, fixes local allowances for cartage and such special distribution allowances as may be necessary, makes financial adjustments with all those in the industry to see that they get the prices or allowances to which they are entitled, and in doing so pàys out subsidy on behalf of Government.

The following table shows production and sales of town milk under the control of the New Zealand Milk Board.

Year Ended 31 AugustProductionQuantity on Which Town Milk Price PaidVolume of Town SalesPrice per Gallon Paid to ProducersGovernment Subsidy Gallon
  gallons(m)c.c.
1,962106.681.867.424.00014.0417
1,963110.785.069.523.50013.6825
1,964120.187.671.624.25014.6767
1,965126.689.673.925.95017.1467
1,966131.392.876.027.55519.2450
1,967138.195.576.027.58019.931
1,968138.095.975.926.03818.215
1,969139.695.977.624.58016.754
1,970139.497.180.325.17419.676
1,971136.0100.882.728.69526.825
1,972144.5103.884.138.93440.543

The town milk industry has converted to the metric system and bottles of 600 ml, 300 ml, and 150 mi have been progressively introduced.

Meat—The Imported Meat Trade Association in the United Kingdom compiles weekly London wholesale meat prices, the basis of quotation being "ex-hooks to retailers at Smithfield market". The next table gives prices for New Zealand lamb at the end of the last week in March. Approximately 40 percent of the value of all New Zealand exports of frozen and chilled meat is generally accounted for by lamb, and the 8–12.5 kg and 13–16 kg prime grades quoted in the table usually account for approximately 20 percent and 35 to 40 percent respectively of all lamb carcasses exported.

End of Last Week in MarchPrimeY
8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg16.5 to 19 kg8 to 12.5 kg13 to 16 kg
 cents per kilogram equivalent
1,96954.9–56.954.0–56.052.954.0–54.954.0–54.9
1,97058.9–60.858.9–60.856.058.9–59.858.9–59.8
1,97170.566.158.064.258.4
1,97276.771.067.071.767.0
1,97394.6–96.694.6–96.692.893.7–94.695.5–96.1
1,974107.7106.697.299.099.0

Schedule Prices—A schedule of buying prices is issued each week by the meat operators in New Zealand. The producers have a choice on how to sell their export meat. They can sell on schedule, on owner's account, on a pool account system, on the basis of prices received from a nominated ship, on the hoof, or they can sell through a producer co-operative.

At the beginning of the 1971–72 season the New Zealand Meat Producers Board considered that the opening price schedules for lamb announced by the meat operators were not high enough in relation to expected market returns. Accordingly the board, after obtaining an amendment to the Meat Export Control Act to permit it to purchase and market lamb, issued its own schedule of prices. The board purchased 12.5 million Iambs, about half the total export lamb kill, mainly in the first half of the season. As the season progressed overseas prices picked up, exporters were able to exceed the board's schedule (many had done so right through), and the board ceased purchasing. The board made a profit of $8 million.

The opening schedules for the last four seasons are given below. The prices quoted are for dressed weights "on the hooks" at freezing works. The prices for lambs, wethers, and ewes are for bare meat only with an additional payment being made for both wool and pelt.

Class of Meat1969–701970–711971–721972–731973–74

*Includes special 9.9c premium.

†Under 500 lb.

‡New Zealand Meat Producers Board schedule prices.

Lamb—cents per kilogram
    N.I. Prime (13.0–16.0 kg)48.1*46.127.347.069.7
    S.I. Prime (13.0–16.0 kg)48.146.127.344.869.7
    Wethers—Prime (22.5–26.0 kg)18.219.016.522.0NQ
    Ewes—Prime (22.5–26.0 kg)13.211.013.216,541.9
Beef (N.I.)—     
    G.A.O. Steer (221–270 kg)47.449.652.963.968.0
    G.A.Q. Heifer (221–270 kg)45.247.445.261.768.0
    G.A.Q. Cow (over 140 kg)43.045.248.558.472.0
    Manufacturing cow, steer, and heifer (over 140 kg)40.844.145.251.863.0
    Manufacturing bull (over 260 kg)52.952.956.261.784.0

Minimum Prices for Export Meat—The institution of a system of minimum prices for meat exported from New Zealand was provided for by the Meat Export Prices Act 1955. A Meat Export Prices Committee was established, and consists of two members of the Meat Board, the Secretary to the Treasury, the Director-General of Agriculture and Fisheries, and a chairman nominated by agreement between the Government and the producers. A schedule of minimum prices is fixed at the beginning of the season. Regard must be paid by the committee to the average level of the prices received for each class of meat during the preceding three seasons, the ruling level of minimum prices, and the committee may have regard to the market trend and future prospects for the sale of meat, prices ruling for other farm products, and the general level of costs, prices, and wages in New Zealand.

The following table gives the minimum prices for years ended 30 September for the North Island.

Class of MeatBasic Grade of Meat1971–721972–731973–74
  cents per kg
LambPrime 13–16 kg30.935.335.3
Wether muttonPrime 22.5–26 kg16.517.617.6
Ewe muttonPrime 22.5–26 kg12.113.213.2
Chilled beefG.A.Q. 221–270 kg37.541.941.9
Steer and heifer quarterbeefG.A.Q. 221–270 kg37,541.941.9
Quarter cow beefG.A.Q. 140 kg and over30.935.335.3
Manufacturing cow, ox, and heifer140 kg and overboned out value44.148.548.5
Manufacturing bull200 kg and over44.148.548.5
Veal (sides or quarters)Under 127 kg30.935.335.3
PorkersPrime 27–45 kg35.337.537.5
BaconersPrime 50–64 kg35.337.537.5

Deficiency Payments—Payments are made from the Meat Industry Reserve Account when the f.o.b. equivalents of the prices paid to farmers fall below the minimum price determined for any class of meat in the week to which the schedule relates. No deficiency payments have been made since the 1961–62 season.

FARM INDUSTRY RESERVES—Farm industry reserves were built up during the Second World War when, in furtherance of the Government's stabilisation policy, farmers agreed that increases in overseas realisations for meat and dairy produce be paid into special funds for later use for the benefit of the industry concerned. The wool reserve account arose in the main from the profits derived from the sale of wartime surplus stocks, and in part from a levy on all wool sold at auctions; much of it was used to buy in wool in 1966–67 but this was all resold by 1972. These operations were described in detail in the 1973 issue of the Yearbook. About half of the meat industry reserve was used to purchase lambs in 1971–72 to provide a higher price schedule, but was recovered from the ensuing marketing of the meat.

The following table shows the balances in the various farm industry reserve accounts at given dates.

YearDairy Account at 31 MayMeat Industry Reserve Account at 30 SepWool Corporation Account at 30 June

*Most of this was invested in wool stocks.

†About three-fifths was represented by wool stocks.

‡About two-fifths was represented by wool stocks.

§$15 million was contributed to the sheep retention scheme in 1972.

 $(000)
1,963-8,42888,08870,312
1,964-7,13089,48271,897
1,965-37390,94072,800
1,966-57893,49773,709
1,967-11,19195,29670,700*
196-12,84497,33759,630*
1,969-16,00198,19255,835*
1,970-20,123100,78652,200
1,971-20,123102,66648,197
1,972+13,83487,327§52,353
1,973+18,40088,59254,745

21 B—DOMESTIC TRADE

GENERAL—Domestic trade embraces retail and wholesale trade and part of the services field. The trend of retail trade is one of the most perceptive barometers of economic activity as it constitutes a large proportion of personal expenditures on consumer goods and services. The Department of Statistics has conducted Censuses of Distribution in 1953, 1958, 1963, and 1968. These censuses have covered retail trade, wholesale trade, and some service establishments. Quarterly and monthly sample surveys of retail and wholesale trade have been based on the Census of Distribution; these provide valuable economic indicators on the value of sales by the various types of stores and the value of stocks held. A further Census of Distribution was taken for the year ended 31 March 1973; some results may be available for inclusion in latest statistical information.

The Census of Distribution for 1967–68 revealed retail trade sales of $2,100 million or an average turnover of $71,587 for each of the 29,331 stores. At 31 March 1968 there was one retail shop for every 94 persons, nearly one-half of them selling food and drink. A large proportion of the goods sold had earlier passed through wholesale stores, there being 3,778 such stores covered in the census with a total turnover of $1,591 million. The 3,653 service establishments covered in a limited survey at the census had total receipts of $83 million at an average of $22,661 per establishment. Notable exclusions from the census were petrol and oil sales, newspaper sales other than in shops, and sales by bread bakers, dealers in timber, bricks and roofing tiles, and milk vendors. A full report of the census is given in the publication Census of Distribution 1968.

In the following table the main results of the censuses of 1963 and 1968 for retail trade are set out.

Item19631968Percentage Increase
Number of stores27,68829,3315.9
 $(000)$(000) 
Sales1,515,8902,099,70738.5
Purchases1,160,6761,609,20238.6
Opening stocks233,178329,72041.4
Closing stocks235,972340,21144.2

Some other features of retail trade shown by the 1968 census together with comparative figures for 1963 are shown in the following table.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresAverage Turnover per StoreAverage Labour Force per StoreTurnover per Unit of Labour ForceTurnover per Head of PopulationAverage Population per Store
*Includes cars and accessories, but not petrol and oil sales nor garage work, servicing, and maintenance.
   $ $$ 
Food and drink1,96813,99249,8553.813,136253.2197
196313,41036,8283.610,242195.4188
Apparel1,9684,11940,8103.411,84361.0669
19633,99238.2183.810,01260.4633
Furniture1,9681,57874,7774.815,42942.81,746
19681,45167,2565.113,29438.61,742
Automotive*1,9681,344217,4755.638,530106.12,050
19631,157173,4944.736,73079.42,184
Hardware1,9681,008118,4456.518,17843.32,733
196385585,0505.415,61228.82,956
Chemists, etc.1,9681,16750,1013.912,81121.22,361
19631,04937,9083.810,01015.82,409
Miscellaneous—
    General, department and variety1,968832283,85722.512,63785.73,311
1963764221,36621.910,10267.03,308
Other1,9685,29177,4384.716,455148.7521
19635,01057,7924.313,430114.6504
All retail stores1,96829,33171,5874.715,298762.194
196327,68854,7484.512.304599.891

CENSUS OF DISTRIBUTION 1968: Retail Establishments—Of the 29,331 retail stores covered by the census, 20,624, or 70.3 percent, were situated in the North Island, and 8,707, or 29.7 percent, in the South Island.

The following table shows details by statistical areas. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Statistical AreasPopulation at 31 March 1968Number of StoresPurchases During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68Stocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
 (000) $(000)$(000)$(000)
Northland94.71,06258,00574,03211,225
 (3.4)(3.6)(3.6)(3.5)(3.3)
Central Auckland644.16,771361,525476,49473,894
 (23.4)(23.1)(22.5)(22.7)(21.7)
South Auckland-Bay of Plenty403.94,326239,282309,17749,885
 (14.7)(14.8)(14.9)(14.7)(14.7)
East Coast47.142124,90431,8755,534
 (1.7)(1.4)(1.6)(1.5)(1.6)
Hawke's Bay128.31,36667,05688,07615,508
 (4.6)(4.7)(4.2)(4.2)(4.6)
Taranaki101.21,09357,46273,66211,791
 (3.7)(3.7)(3.6)(3.5)(3.5)
Wellington537.15,585326,850431,66069,632
 (19.5)(19.0)(20.3)(20.6)(20.5)
Marlborough30.234218,13022,7053,883
 (1.1)(1.2)(1.1)(1.1)(1.1)
Nelson68.379331,07341,0977,496
 (2.5)(2.7)(1.9)(2.0)(2.2)
Westland24.133010,32213,5992,157
 (0.9)(1.1)(0.6)(0.6)(0.6)
Canterbury386.04,015238,173307,83049,517
 (14.0)(13.7)(14.8)(14.7)(14.6)
Otago183.22,065100,302131,35122,529
 (6.6)(7.0)(6.2)(6.2)(6.6)
Southland106.91,16276,11798,15017,161
 (3.9)(4.0)(4.7)(4.7)(5.0)
Totals2,755.129,3311,609,2022,099,707340,211
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

In 1968 the principal centres of population (urban areas) included 63.2 percent of New Zealand's people, but contained 65.8 percent of all retail stores, with 71.1 percent of total sales or turnover.

The following table shows details by urban and rural areas. The figures in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Location GroupPopulation at 31 March 1968Number of StoresTurnover During 1967–68Stocks at Close of Year (March 1968)

*Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin.

†Whangarei, Hamilton, Tauranga, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Nelson, Timaru, Invercargill.

‡Boroughs outside urban areas with population over 4,000.

 (000) $(000)$(000)
Main urban areas* (including Hutt urban area)1,235.013,068987,735158,014
 (44.8)(44.5)(47.1)(46.5)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt urban area)505.86,240503,96785,448
 (18.4)(21.3)(24.0)(25.1)
Smaller centres244.23,876292,62848,926
 (8.9)(13.2)(13.9)(14.4)
Other urban141.32,891167,59927,665
 (5.1)(9.9)(8.0)(8.1)
Rural628.83,256147,77820,158
 (22.8)(11.1)(7.0)(5.9)
Totals2,755.129,3312,099,707340,211
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

Leading results of the census relating to principal urban areas are shown in the following table.

Urban AreaPopulation March 1968Percentage of N.Z. Total PopulationNumber of StoresPercentage of N.Z. Total StoresTurnover During YearPercentage of N.Z. Total SalesStocks at Close of YearPercentage of N.Z. Total Stocks
     $(000) $(000) 
Auckland577,30021.06,18421.1439,14020.968,97020.3
Wellington173,2006.31,8666.4173,7778.327,7248.1
Hutt118,4004.31,0533.677,1583.711,9753.5
Christchurch256,3009.32,7369.3213,19010.234,78710.2
Dunedin109,8004.01,2294.284,4704.014,5594.3
Whangarei31,6001.14131.436,9551.85,4791.6
Hamilton68,0002.58082.882,1013.913,1723.9
Tauranga33,5001.25161.829,0111.44,9501.5
Rotorua35,3001.34181.436,8321.85,7461.7
Gisborne28,5001.03171.127,1921.34,7521.4
Napier39,9001.44511.526,6181.34,7481.4
Hastings39,2001.44491.533,1711.65,8631.7
New Plymouth35,8001.34541.533,1881.65,7361.7
Wanganui38,5001.44941.733,3591.65,6781.7
Palmerston North50,9001.86222.153,0222.59,0132.6
Nelson28,4001.03571.221,9061.04,1581.2
Timaru28,4001.03321.131,0241.55,3261.6
Invercargill47,8001.76092.159,5882.810,8283.2

The next table gives the number of stores and value of sales or turnover for boroughs with over 1,000 population not included in the 18 main urban areas of the preceding table.

BoroughNumber of StoresTurnover During 1967–68
  $(000)
Kaitaia856,343
Kaikohe705,294
Dargaville958,106
Helensville301,848
Pukekohe12913,069
Waiuku492,961
Tuakau322,196
Thames1236,582
Paeroa743,589
Waihi642,764
Te Aroha875,935
Huntly814,735
Morrinsville1106,901
Ngaruawahia431,760
Te Puke806,578
Matamata1056,325
Cambridge1048,071
Whakatane15010,945
Opotiki643,878
Te Awamutu15511,913
Putaruru896,905
Kawerau513,638
Murupara191,346
Otorohanga634,359
Te Kuiti916,085
Taupo1317,572
Taumarunui11310,178
Wairoa1007,993
Waipawa402,075
Waipukurau686,222
Dannevirke1116,919
Woodville331,105
Waitara663,834
Inglewood453,010
Stratford1047,906
Eltham432,186
Hawera14912,047
Patea361,532
Ohakune251,259
Raetihi321,769
Taihape594,155
Marton805,400
Feilding14012,051
Pahiatua673,810
Foxton492,048
Levin17911,263
Otaki693,009
Masterton24320,072
Carterton623,540
Greytown231,241
Featherston371,923
Martinborough261,569
Picton451,360
Blenheim20817,657
Motueka744,144
Richmond633,573
Westport904,280
Rangiora786,342
Kaiapoi642,941
Runanga14503
Greymouth1557,460
Hokitika662,972
Ashburton18618,911
Geraldine353,736
Temuka602,867
Waimate724,629
Cromwell301,172
Queenstown481,902
Oamaru17713,376
Alexandra554,463
Milton432,013
Balclutha707,033
Kaitangata9377
Gore15117,238
Winton472,920
Mataura271,248
Riverton281,173
Bluff421,820

Just under half the total number of retail stores were in the food and drink group—grocers, butchers, dairies, etc. This group accounted for 33 percent of the sales, the average turnover per store being $49,855. As against this, the automotive group, which accounts for only 4.6 percent of all retail stores, handled 14 percent of the sales, with an average turnover of $217,475 per store.

The following table shows details by store-type groups.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1968Total Labour Force on 9 April 1968Average Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68Average Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
MalesFemalesTotal
       $(m)$(m)$$(m)
Food and drink13,99217,67115,79033,46153,1023.853.9697.613,13639.9
Apparel4,1192,8677,37210,23914,1943.416.1168.111,84355.5
Furniture1,5784,4621,8656,3277,6484.813.0118.015,42927.6
Automotive1,3445,3541,0306,3847,5865.613.7292.338,53042.3
Hardware1,0084,2971,3675,6646,5686.511.7119.418,17828.9
Chemist, etc.1,1671,1822,3533,5354,5643.96.458.412,81110.4
Department, variety, and general stores8326,16011,80617,96618,68922.528.5236.212,63746.4
Miscellaneous5,29112,7766,90219,67824,9004.737.8409.716,45589.2
Totals, all retail stores29,33154,76948,485103,254137,2514.7181.12,099.715,298340.2

The following table shows details by turnover size groups.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1968Total Labour Force on 9 April 1968Salaries and Wages Paid During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68Stocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
MalesFemalesTotal
$     ($m)$(m)$(m)
Under 10,0003,0434361,1001,5365,3011.618.94.1
10,000–19,9995,1961,5493,5065,05511,6616.477.613.9
20,000–29,9994,8012,3624,3706,73212,7549.5118.720.1
30,000–99,99912,56415,67417,09732,77148,05954.5658.797.3
100,000–199,9991,9628,7545,09513,84915,38626.2267.443.5
200,000–499,9991,21411,6206,39618,01618,64234.6369.061.4
500,000–1,999,99950611,0106,66717,67717,82434.1443.275.3
2,000,000-and over453,3644,2547,6187,62414.3146.224.6
Totals, all retail stores29,33154,76948,485103,254137,251181.12099.7340.2

Of the 29,331 retail stores, 14,496 (49 percent) were operated by private registered companies, 8,234 (28 percent) were under individual ownership, 4,331 (15 percent) were run by partnerships, and 1,562 (5 percent) were run by public registered companies.

The following table shows details by type of organisation. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

Type of OrganisationNumber of StoresTurnover During 1967–68Stocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
  $(000)$(000)
Private registered companies14,4961,166,588197,380
 (49.4)(55.6)(58.0)
Public registered companies1,562497,86192,641
 (5.3)(23.7)(27.2)
Individual ownership8,234200,69423,167
 (28.1)(9.6)(6.8)
Partnership4,331148,13714,741
 (14.8)(7.0)(4.4)
Other70886,42812,281
 (2.4)(4.1)(3.6)
Totals29,3312,099,707340,211
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The number of multiple stores engaged in retail trade represented only 13 percent of the total stores, but accounted for 37 percent of the total turnover. A multiple store is defined as one of a group of four or more under common ownership.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresTurnover During 1967–68Stocks at
Start of Year (April 1967)Close of Year (March 1968)
Multiple Stores
  $(000)$(000)$(000)
Food and drink1,190136,2756,5637,344
Apparel61239,89711,91812,884
Furniture32036,1578,1777,892
Automotive14091,56415,64414,482
Hardware20264,64615,06614,860
Chemists, etc.282,835356347
Miscellaneous1,268402,03582,35383,958
Totals3,760773,409140,078141,767
Other Stores
Food and drink12,802561,29930,63332,525
Apparel3,507128,19840,43342,615
Furniture1,25881,84219,79619,721
Automotive1,204200,72327,01927,779
Hardware80654,74713,59514,085
Chemists, etc.1,13955,6329,51410,054
Miscellaneous4,855243,85748,65151,666
Totals25,5711,326,298189,642198,445

The following table shows the disposition of the different methods of selling by store-type group and by location group. The figures quoted in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

GroupTurnover (1967–68) in the Form of—Total Turnover (1967–68)
CashCharge AccountHire Purchase Not Assigned to Finance CompaniesHire Purchase Assigned to Finance CompaniesInstalment and LaybyBudget Store Credit, etc.Other
$(000)
Store-type Groups
Food and drink617,93078,79072144560626697,574
 (48.8)(11.6)(0.1)(0.2)(-)(6.0)(0.7)(33.2)
Apparel138,27621,2972712344,8192,974223168,095
 (10.9)(3.2)(0.4)(0.4)(44.7)(29.6)(5.8)(8.0)
Furniture33,11655,11619,0477,9918535101,365117,998
 (2.6)(8.2)(28.4)(12.4)(7.9)(5.1)(35.7)(5.6)
Automotive143,17984,16819,57044,936726356292,287
 (11.3)(12.4)(29.1)(69.9)(0.7)(0.1)(9.3)(13.9)
Hardware25,82491,4245111,4301262553119,393
 (2.1)(13.5)(0.8)(2.2)(1.2)(0.2)(1.4)(5.7)
Chemists, etc.53,4464,962448958,468
 (4.2)(0.7)(-)(-)(-)(0.5)(0.2)(2.8)
Department, variety, and general stores136,32076,79014,9122483,7793,736384236,169
 (10.8)(11.3)(22.2)(0.4)(35.1)(37.1)(10.1)(11.3)
Miscellaneous118,369264,56612,8019,3001,1252,1531,408409,723
 (9.3)(39.1)(19.0)(14.5)(10.4)(21.4)(36.8)(19.5)
Totals, all retail stores1,266,460677,11367,18564,28310,78410,0593,8232,099,707
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)
Location Groups
Main urban areas (including Hutt urban area)659,229244,87738,79829,4468,0604,7342,590987,735
 (52.0)(36.2)(57.7)(45.8)(74.8)(47.1)(67.7)(47.1)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt urban area)285,265177,59816,45319,2211,8442,765821503,967
 (22.5)(26.2)(24.5)(29.9)(17.1)(27.5)(21.5)(24.0)
Smaller centres153,353118,5137,74310,2875851,896251292,628
 (12.1)(17.5)(11.5)(16.0)(5.4)(18.8)(6.6)(13.9)
Other urban86,88273,1112,9454,007227308119167,599
 (6.9)(10.8)(4.4)(6.2)(2.1)(3.1)(3.1)(8.0)
Rural81,73163,0131,2461,3236735642147,778
 (6.5)(9.3)(1.9)(2.1)(0.6)(3.5)(1.1)(7.0)
Totals, all retail stores1,266,460677,11367,18564,28310,78410,0593,8232,099,707
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The following table shows, by the store-type group, average turnover and average labour force per establishment, turnover per unit of labour force and per head of population, and the approximate number of times stock was turned over each year.

Store-type GroupAverage Turnover per EstablishmentAverage Labour Force per EstablishmentAverage Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceTurnover per Head of PopulationNumber of Times Stock Turned Over per Annum
 $ $$ 
Food and drink49,8553.813,136253.1918.8
Apparel40,8103.411,84361.013.2
Furniture74,7774.815,42942.834.2
Automotive217,4755.638,530106.096.9
Hardware118,4456.518,17843.344.2
Chemists, etc.50,1013.912,81121.225.9
Miscellaneous105,4867.114,818234.444.9
All retail stores71,5874.715,298762.126.4

Self-service Grocery Stores—As might be expected, self-service stores are most common among the larger establishments. A total of 88 percent of grocery stores with turnovers of $100,000 or more have self-service units, and 64 percent of those in the $60,000-$99,999 group. The percentages decline steadily with size of turnover to 15 percent of stores in the $10,000-$19,999 group and only 11 percent of those in the under $10,000 group.

Turnover SizeWith Self-service UnitsWithout Self-service UnitsPercentage of Self-service Units to Total Stores
Number of StoresTurnover During 1967–68Value of StocksNumber of StoresTurnover During 1967–68Value of Stocks
Start of YearClose of YearStart of YearClose of Year
$ $(000)$(000)$(000) $(000)$(000)$(000) 
Under 10,00014100162311473110612310.9
10,000–19,99947789911012614,03944947015.3
20,000–39,99941313,1321,1801,26293328,2212,5672,68630.7
40,000–59,99956127,8312,3262,43367933,0112,5522,67145.2
60,000–99,99965750,0574,0394,13037527,0232,0372,17163.7
100,000–199,99928237,0742,5772,951536,21547851484.2
200,000 and over15559,8063,4843,70945,09022519097.5
Totals2,129188,78913,71414,6102,419104,3318,4148,82546.8

Wholesale Establishments—The total of 3,778 wholesale stores included in the tables accounted for a turnover of $1,590.6 million or an average turnover of $421,019 per store. Among businesses excluded from the census were oil companies and dealers in timber, bricks, and roofing tiles.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 89.3 percent of wholesale stores with 95.0 percent of total turnover. Auckland and Wellington (including Hutt) urban areas together accounted for 47.3 percent of stores and 57.1 percent of turnover.

The following table shows the distribution of wholesale trade by statistical areas and by main location groups. The figures in parentheses are in each case the percentage of total.

AreaPopulation at 31 March 1968Number of StoresPurchases During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68Stocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
 (000) $(000)$(000)$(000)
Statistical Areas
Northland94.76816,67620,0482,111
 (3.4)(1.8)(1.4)(1.3)(0.9)
Central Auckland644.11,079401,086517,61280,716
 (23.4)(28.6)(32.9)(32.6)(33.7)
South Auckland - Bay of Plenty403.929677,531102,26312,010
 (14.7)(7.8)(6.3)(6.4)(5.0)
East Coast47.1468,44110,7061,194
 (1.7)(1.2)(0.7)(0.7)(0.5)
Hawke's Bay128.314328,20235,6184,676
 (4.6)(3.8)(2.3)(2.2)(1.9)
Taranaki101.29021,85427,7003,938
 (3.7)(2.4)(1.8)(1.7)(1.6)
Wellington537.1999365,111487,96174,611
 (19.5)(26.4)(29.9)(30.7)(31.1)
Marlborough30.2344,7196,579946
 (1.1)(0.9)(0.4)(0.4)(0.4)
Nelson68.36714,15617,5242,344
 (2.5)(1.8)(1.2)(1.1)(1.0)
Westland24.1194,4845,675640
 (0.9)(0.5)(0.4)(0.4)(0.3)
Canterbury386.0573180,553235,39636,849
 (14.0)(15.2)(14.8)(14.8)(15.4)
Otago183.225668,92588,35915,122
 (6.6)(6.8)(5.6)(5.5)(6.3)
Southland106.910827,70435,1684,556
 (3.9)(2.8)(2.3)(2.2)(1.9)
Totals, all wholesale stores2,755.13,7781,219,4411,590,608239,713
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)
Location Groups
Main urban areas (including Hutt urban area)1,235.02,494914,8121,201,317190,544
 (44.8)(66.0)(75.0)(75.5)(79.5)
Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt urban area)505.8880244,396310,74040,676
 (18.4)(23.3)(20.1)(19.5)(17.0)
Smaller centres, other urban and rural1,014.340460,23478,5508,493
 (36.8)(10.7)(4.9)(5.0)(3.5)
Totals, all wholesale stores2,755.13,7781,219,4411,590,608239,713
 (100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)(100.0)

The following tables show details of wholesale establishments by store-type groups.

Store-type GroupNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1968Total Labour Force on 9 April 1968
MalesFemalesTotal
Food and drink8677,7742,59910,37310,894
Apparel3691,5649302,4942,759
Furniture2711,3315041,8352,004
Automotive3583,5279224,4494,543
Hardware4814,5409675,5075,713
Chemicals1611,7146682,3822,412
Miscellaneous1,27110,2433,43713,68014,355
Totals, all wholesale stores3,77830,69310,02740,72042,680
Store-type GroupAverage Labour Force per StoreSalaries and Wages Paid During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68Average Turnover per Unit of Labour ForceStocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
  $(000)$(000)$$(000)
Food and drink12.622,266462,93742,49536,168
Apparel7.55,858106,25838,51319,813
Furniture7.34,25581,75840,79713,762
Automotive12.79,743207,09745,58633,389
Hardware11.812,585171,40430,00234,496
Chemicals15.05,56093,61138,11816,535
Miscellaneous11.330,881467,54432,57085,550
Totals, all wholesale stores11.391,1471,590,60837,268239,713

A classification by size of turnover shows that stores with under $40,000 turnover numbered 704 (18.6 percent), but accounted for only $13,980,000, or 0.9 percent of turnover. At the other end of the scale a total turnover of $882,865,000 (55.5 percent) was accounted for by only 376 stores (10.0 percent), which had a turnover of $1,000,000 or more.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of StoresNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1968Total Labour Force on 9 April 1968Salaries and Wages Paid During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68Stocks at Close of Year (March 1968)
MalesFemalesTotal
$     $(000)$(000)$(000)
Under 10,000      1496452116309156838218
    10,000–19,9992011881823705985782,896471
    20,000–39,9993545963359311,2651,70810,2461,911
    40,000–99,9997632,3988893,2873,7736,75451,6609,666
  100,000–199,9996272,8819683,8494,1348,32789,10917,254
  200,000–499,9998907,1992,0899,2889,57721,669269,90949,441
  500,000–599,9991221,4013781,7791,8094,11763,77211,365
  600,000–799,9991832,5448203,3643,4017,818122,79321,901
  800,000–999,9991131,7784272,2052,2255,16196,52113,824
1,000,000 and over37611,6443,88715,53115,58934,859882,865113,664
Totals, all wholesale stores3,77830,69310,02740,72042,68091,1471,590,608239,713

The following table shows a commodity analysis of wholesale trade.

Commodity GroupTurnover During 1967–68
AmountPercent of Total
 $(000) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)206,37713.0
Meat (uncooked)37,5832.4
Fish (uncooked)9,9350.6
Fruit and vegetables57,3263.6
Other foods (bread, cakes, pastry, etc.)40,3802.5
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.46,8702.9
Beer, wine, and spirits65,9714.1
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries63,3044.0
Medical and pharmaceutical goods45,6092.9
Toiletries and cosmetics17,6341.1
Men's and boys' wear30,1541.9
Women's, girls', and infants' wear39,9142.5
Drapery, dress-piece goods, millinery, haberdashery, etc.43,5612.7
Footwear18,6531.2
Furniture, beddings, soft furnishings, and household textiles29,6451.9
Floor coverings28,3231.8
Television sets and parts7,6810.5
Radios, radiograms, record players, and tape recorders4,4330.3
Musical instruments (including records)1,9940.1
Other household appliances and electrical goods40,5952.5
Domestic hardware, cutlery, china, glassware31,2262.0
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)63,7404.0
Books, stationery, newspapers, etc.27,1911.7
Motor vehicles118,9117.5
Motor-vehicle parts and accessories (excluding petrol and oil)89,3525.6
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)9,6010.6
Coal, coke, and firewood16,3201.0
Sports goods (including toys and games)13,8270.9
Fertilisers and manures23,3351.5
Grain, bulk seed, and fodder29,0591.8
Florists goods, seeds, plants, and garden supplies5,8360.4
Industrial machinery (heavy and electrical)54,5513.4
Agricultural machinery15,6301.0
Office machinery and equipment4,2850.3
Other machinery, machine tools, and hand tools, etc.43,0882.7
Leather, luggage, and harness9,1390.6
Paint, glass, and wallpaper29,1631.8
Photographic supplies and equipment7,1730.4
Plumbing equipment and piping33,4822.1
Printers' supplies, paper and inks11,0000.7
Rubber goods (excluding tyres and tubes)10,6180.7
Professional and scientific equipment7,2130.5
Other100,9236.3
Totals, wholesale commodities1,590,608100.0

Service Establishments—Only a selected group of services was included in the Census of Distribution 1968. These were grouped in three broad divisions; personal, business and community, and other services.

Of the total number of service establishments, 81 percent provided services only, and in the remainder some secondary form of trading was also carried on.

Services covered by the census totalled 3,653 establishments of which 2,629, or 72 percent, were in the North Island and 1,024, or 28 percent, in the South Island.

The principal centres of population (urban areas) contained 74 percent of service establishments with 88 percent of the total turnover of such establishments.

The following table gives details of numbers and location of those services covered by the census.

ItemPersonal ServicesBusiness and Community ServicesOther ServicesTotal
Number of establishmentsNo.2,6962646933,653
Sales or turnover during 1967–68$(000)44,26527,04611,47182,782
Location of establishments—
    Main urban areas (including Hutt urban area)No.1,2301793251,734
    Secondary urban areas (excluding Hutt urban area)No.72350179952
    Smaller centresNo.3582387468
    Other urbanNo.284756347
    RuralNo.101546152
Paid employees on 9 April 1968—
    MalesNo.4,3438518796,073
    FemalesNo.9,81644017810,434
    TotalsNo.14,1591,2911,05716,507
Total labour force on 9 April 1968No.17,0461,5601,82320,429
Salaries and wages paid during 1967–68$(000)16,5453,5062,07722,128

Service establishments are further analysed in the following table.

Amount of Total TurnoverNumber of EstablishmentsNumber of Paid Employees on 9 April 1968Total Labour Force 9 April 1968Salaries and Wages Paid During 1967–68Turnover During 1967–68
MalesFemalesTotal
$     $(000)$(000)
Under 2,0002673414432429350
2,000–3,999652453263711,0463311,943
4,000–5,999649616256861,3596363,216
6,000–9,9997442109691,1792,0151,2235,702
10,000–19,9996667481,2181,9662,7362,4349,189
20,000–39,9993591,0911,1872,2782,6983,03610,021
40,000–99,9991991,2601,5062,7662,9514,06812,017
100,000–199,999547861,3912,1772,2182,7377,481
200,000 and over631,8693,1715,0405,0827,63332,863
Totals3,6536,07310,43416,50720,42922,12882,782

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF RETAIL TRADE—A quarterly sample survey of retail trade was made by the Department of Statistics until the December quarter 1969, but was replaced by a monthly sample survey in January 1969 and the results of this sample are aggregated to obtain quarterly figures.

The present sample survey excludes certain types of retail stores which were included in the Census of Distribution 1968; these store types are hotels, chartered clubs, wine and spirit merchants, and the complete automotive group. Besides the above exclusions, for purposes of the sample survey some changes in the grouping of store types apply. It is important to note the exclusion of motor vehicle sales, which have become fairly volatile as import control has been eased.

The following table shows details of retail trade by commodity groups. In some cases commodity detail was not available; this explains the slight discrepancy from total turnover in other tables.

Commodity GroupTurnover During 1967–68
AmountPercent of Total
 $(000) 
Groceries and small goods (including butter, bacon, etc.)275,37913.2
Meat (uncooked)104,5325.0
Fish (uncooked)7,7090.4
Fruit and vegetables53,9182.6
Other foods (baked and cooked foods, meals, etc.)65,7323.2
Milk, ice cream, confectionery, soft drinks, etc.63,2763.0
Beer, wine, and spirits139,1906.7
Tobacco, cigarettes, and tobacconists' sundries57,8112.8
Medical and pharmaceutical goods (including dispensing)37,6721.8
Toiletries and cosmetics24,7061.2
Men's and boys' wear68,0293.3
Women's, girls', and infants' wear97,6754.7
Drapery, dress-piece goods, millinery, haberdashery, etc.53,1792.6
Footwear39,9921.9
Furniture37,2931.8
Floor coverings29,2111.4
Soft furnishings, bedding, and household textiles24,5911.2
Television sets and parts (excluding TV rental)15,2180.7
Radios, radiograms, record players, and tape recorders11,3170.5
Musical instruments (including records)7,5270.4
Other household appliances and electrical goods50,4082.4
Domestic hardware, cutlery, china, and glassware36,7701.8
Builders' hardware and materials (excluding timber, bricks, and roofing tiles)63,9073.1
Books, stationery, and newspapers, etc.48,7002.3
Motor vehicles240,83711.5
Motor-vehicle parts and accessories (excluding petrol and oil)57,0282.7
Jewellery (including watches, clocks, and precious stones)14,0650.7
Coal, coke, and firewood5,5620.3
Bicycles, parts and accessories3,2970.2
Sports goods (including toys and games)19,7280.9
Fertilisers and manures42,6902.0
Grain, bulk seed, and fodder46,3912.2
Seeds, plants, and garden supplies10,1630.5
Florists' goods3,9530.2
Industrial machinery (heavy and electrical)16,3330.8
Agricultural machinery27,8951.3
Office machinery and equipment27,4911.3
Sewing machines and accessories2,8860.1
Other machinery, machine tools, hand tools23,7841.1
Souvenirs and novelties5,1750.2
Leather, luggage, and harness4,3830.2
Paint, glass, and wallpaper26,8681.3
Photographic supplies; and equipment5,1860.2
Plumbing equipment and piping8,5660.4
Professional and scientific equipment1,8990.1
Rubber goods (excluding tyres and tubes)1,3390.1
Other goods76,9133.7
Totals, retail commodities2,086,175100.0

The types of retail stores in 1968 are set out in greater detail in the following table.

Retail Store TypeNumber of Stores
Food and drink—
    Baker, pastry-cook, etc.658
    Butcher1,957
    Delicatessen and poulterer122
    Confectioner129
    Dairy1,012
    Milk bar726
    Fish and chip shop495
    Fish shop209
    Fruiterer, greengrocer1,064
    Grocer4,548
    Hotel, chartered club (sales of beverages, etc.)1,530
    Restaurant, cafeteria, tearoom1,518
    Other food and drink24
Total13,992
Apparel—
    Footwear673
    Draper919
    Frocks and coats1,108
    Hosiery, lingerie, children's clothing, wool, corsets millinery and haberdashery627
    Men's and boys' clothier692
    Other apparel100
Total4,119
Furniture—
    Furniture428
    Floor coverings and soft furnishings291
    Household appliances627
    Radio and/or television dealer232
Total1,578
Automotive—
    Cars, accessories, etc.1,121
    Other automotive223
Total1,344
Hardware—
    Hardware store214
    Builders' hardware248
    Paint and varnish240
    Crockery, glass, and china168
    Plumbers' supplies27
    Other hardware111
Total1,008
Chemicals—
    Chemist1,139
    Other chemicals28
Total1,167
Miscellaneous—
    General store482
    Department and variety store350
    Bookseller, newsagent, and stationer1,142
    Coal and wood merchant127
    Electrical goods38
    Florist227
    Jeweller487
    Pawnbroker and secondhand dealer301
    Seedsman and nurseryman221
    Tobacconist687
    Toys, novelties, etc.218
    Agricultural machinery and farm equipment153
    Leather goods and harness dealer127
    Music store118
    Office supply store126
    Sports goods dealer226
    Photographic dealer108
    Other miscellaneous985
Total6,123
Grand total29,331

The nature of the service establishments covered in the Census of Distribution 1968 is shown in the following table. It should be recognised that there are many other types of services.

Nature of ServiceNumber of Stores or Agencies
Personal services—
    Cleaner (office, window, shop)237
    Funeral director and undertaker105
    Hairdresser and beauty salon1,715
    Laundry, drycleaner, carpet cleaner, dyer374
    Photographer (portrait and commercial)265
Total2,696
Community and business services—
    Advertising agency85
    Chiropodist28
    Commercial artist93
    Private rental library and book club58
Total264
Other services—
    Bicycle repairer13
    Blacksmith85
    Footwear repairer191
    Carpet fitter and sewer54
    Electrical repair shop173
    Gunsmith and locksmith14
    Tool repairer and sharpener50
    Watch and clock repairer113
Total693
Grand total3,653

Turnover figures for the major service establishments covered were as follows: advertising agencies, $24.8 million; laundries and drycleaners, $16.1 million; hairdressers and beauty salons, $12.0 million; office cleaners, etc., $8.4 million; photographers, $4.3 million; funeral directors, $3.4 million; electrical repairers, $4.6 million; commercial artists, $2.0 million; carpet fitters, $1.9 million; blacksmiths, $1.8 million; footwear repairers, $1.5 million; watch repairers, $0.8 million; tool repairers, $0.6 million.

The following table shows details of total services provided by retail and service establishments for the above groupings.

Type of ServiceNumber of Establishments Handling Service SpecifiedTurnover During 1967–68
Personal service provided by establishments classified as— $(000)
    Service establishments2,69643,237
    Retail stores7163,160
Totals, personal services3,41246,398
Community and business services provided by establishments classified as—  
    Service establishments26427,004
    Retail stores38272
Totals, community and business services35227,276
Other services provided by establishments classified as—  
    Service establishments6939,533
    Retail stores1,89213,107
Totals, other services2,58522,640
Grand totals, all services6,34996,314

Retail Sales—The following table gives quarterly sales and also stocks at 31 March for store-type groups.

Quarter EndedButcher, Poulterer, etc.GrocerOther Food and DrinkFootwearOther ApparelFurniture and Soft FurnishingsHousehold Appliances, Electrical Goods, Radios, etc.Hardware, Builders' Hardware, Paints, etc.ChemistGeneral, Department, and VarietyOtherAll Groups
$(million)
1968—Retail Sales
    Mar23.277.251.07.032.715.116.829.611.852.189.4405.9
    Jun24.880.249.49.240.417.016.328.911.659.183.0420.0
    Sep24.983.051.27.035.417.816.029.612.155.882.1414.9
    Dec26.290.557.19.843.721.818.633.515.074.6102.8493.5
1969—
    Mar24.384.554.17.234.516.816.530.412.654.493.7428.8
    Jun25.986.851.79.842.819.017.229.512.766.193.3454.8
    Sep26.988.554.07.839.320.617.830.913.861.593.6454.8
    Dec28.798.559.110.048.123.921.235.516.980.7113.8536.3
1970—
    Mar27.091.556.17.637.719.018.531.414.355.7108.9467.6
    Jun29.894.555.510.449.024.422.334.215.068.8111.9515.9
    Sep29.898.656.18.744.023.521.835.317.163.8113.4512.1
    Dec31.0111.964.112.055.627.824.441.620.988.3127.8605.3
1971—
    Mar27.7102.760.49.041.723.119.534.916.662.1112.7510.3
    Jun30.2106.060.012.853.525.021.036.316.976.3114.8553.0
    Sep31.6111.461.79.848.627.821.038.118.970.9119.5559.1
    Dec32.3123.570.213.260.030.022.643.823.394.4138.8652.2
1972—
    Mar30.2115.066.79.747.526.120.439.519.669.2123.6567.5
    Jun32.0116.065.313.459.232.023.441.220.786.1126.4615.6
    Sep33.3123.768.110.255.435.523.743.022.183.3132.9631.3
    Dec35.7138.276.513.668.339.027.949.227.5106.7166.8749.4
1973—
    Mar35.0131.174.810.954.935.024.446.424.579.6158.1674.6
    Jun38.7133.075.414.469.540.028.847.624.196.3161.6729.5
    Sep40.9136.079.412.167.547.431.251.225.795.5162.0749.9
    Dec43.8154.991.216.481.356.738.362.233.3130.5205.3913.9
Retail Stocks at 31 March
19681.224.25.713.354.415.717.727.19.945.981.9296.9
19691.325.86.013.352.916.219.129.010.646.185.6305.9
19701.428.76.414.557.718.219.230.512.055.692.8337.1
19711.630.07.015.762.520.818.333.013.363.098.0363.0
19721.230.77.217.470.023.319.836.014.768.1106.3394.6
19731.433.57.817.172.425.521.437.216.669.1106.4408.5

Retail Trade Statistics Adjusted for Seasonal Fluctuations and for Price and Population Changes—To facilitate direct comparisons between quarterly figures, seasonally adjusted values of retail trade turnover ave been prepared. To do this, seasonal adjustment factors were calculated representing, for each quarter, an average over several years of the ratio of sales in this quarter to the trend value for the quarter (the trend values being calculated as appropriately centred moving averages).

A special price index has been prepared for the purpose of deflating the retail sales figures to give a series in dollars of constant purchasing power—i.e., the adjusted series shows the changes in the real volume of retail sales. The principal source of the prices used for this index are the commodity prices used in the Consumers' Price Index. The prices have been appropriately weighted and the whole index expressed on the base: year ended 31 March 1958 (= 1000), so that application of the index to the original figures, both before and after seasonal correction, gives series in constant 1957–58 dollars.

The results of these calculations and adjustments are shown in the following table for all store types.

Quarter EndedIn Current $sIn Constant 1957–58 $s
As RecordedSeasonally AdjustedBefore Seasonal AdjustmentSeasonally Adjusted
ValueIndex Number*ValueIndex Number*
*Base: Average quarterly values during the year ended March 1958 = 1000.
 Total Sales
 $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) 
1969—Mar428.8450.71,843321.2337.71,381
    Jun454.8461.71,888336.7341.81,397
    Sep454.8474.51,940332.0346.51,417
    Dec536.3485.41,984390.5353.41,445
1970—Mar467.6491.22,008334.4351.21,436
    Jun515.9523.82,141363.2368.71,507
    Sep512.1534.32,184352.4367.61,503
    Dec605.3545.22,228401.7361.81,479
1971—Mar510.3541.22,212334.5354.71,450
    Jun553.0559.22,286350.5354.01,447
    Sep559.2581.12,376350.2364.01,488
    Dec652.2586.82,399400.0359.91,471
1972—Mar567.5604.42,741341.8364.01,489
    Jun615.6621.02,539369.4372.81,524
    Sep631.3652.12,666375.1387.51,584
    Dec746.6673.52,754440.4397.11,624
1973—Mar667.7711.72,910382.7407.91,668
    Jun718.1729.72,983403.3409.91,676
    Sep749.9773.33,161408.7421.31,722
    Dec913.9821.43,358493.6443.91,815
 Sales per Head of Population
 $$ $$ 
1969—Mar154.51162.391,491115.73121.691,117
    Jun163.88166.381,528121.33123.181,131
    Sep163.75170.861,569119.53124.771,146
    Dec192.03173.801,596139.81126.521,162
1970—Mar166.42174.811,605118.99124.991,148
    Jun183.36186.181,710129.10131.071,204
    Sep181.79189.661,742125.07130.491,198
    Dec213.28192.101,764141.54127.511,171
1971—Mar178.64189.481,740117.09124.171,140
    Jun193.54195.711,797122.67123.911,138
    Sep195.47203.141,865122.42127.261,169
    Dec226.19203.491,869138.72124.751,146
1972—Mar195.01207.701,907117.47125.101,149
    Jun211.75213.581,961127.02128.221,177
    Sep216.65223.832,055128.74133.001,221
    Dec253.77228.922,102149.69134.981,239
1973—Mar225.00239.802,202128.93137.451,262
    Jun241.83245.762,257135.84138.051,268
    Sep252.14260.012,388137.42141.671,301
    Dec330.97273.222,509164.18147,641,356

Information on quarterly sales is presented graphically in the following diagrams.

QUARTERLY SURVEY OF WHOLESALE TRADE—In this survey stores are classified by store-type group according to the predominant type of commodity sold. The store-type figures therefore do not cover only sales of goods normally associated with the type of store listed, as there are many wholesale stores which handle a wide variety of commodities.

It should be noted that this survey has altered coverage of wholesale store types as compared with the coverage of the Censuses of Distribution. For this reason, and because of the lack of uniformity in the trading year for which firms supplied census returns, care should be exercised when comparing the survey statistics with the censuses.

Certain stores (about a third of the food and drink group) which by nature of their business have a low ratio of stock to total turnover, have been omitted to facilitate collection and compilation of data.

The following table shows, by store-type group, the values of sales during the quarter.

QuarterFood and DrinkApparelFurnitureAutomotiveHardwareChemicalsGeneral MerchantsMachinery (Agricultural, Heavy Electrical and Industrial)
 $(million)
1969—Mar112.032.822.270.157.030.923.529.1
    Jun107.339.724.379.561.132.926.629.5
    Sep113.143.028.589.363.732.827.335.7
    Dec130.244.627.092.361.736.931.137.6
1970—Mar120.041.024.489.660.534.525.535.4
    Jun118.946.330.5111.367.935.628.439.2
    Sep127.447.135.0111.270.636.134.242.6
    Dec149.451.136.4104.372.140.837.640.8
1971—Mar137.947.227.697.466.637.129.040.1
    Jun141.750.031.5106.767.140.930.139.6
    Sep142.754.833.2111.568.936.534.343.4
    Dec163.149.733.2130.271.442.135.947.1
1972—Mar145.349.528.4118.672.140.528.140.5
    Jun144.250.634.6143.875.438.131.342.2
    Sep149.955.733.9138.281.044.337.945.1
    Dec171.555.043.0152.489.045.540.753.5
1973—Mar162.653.636.8150.890.043.936.052.3
    Jun165.663.944.3155.594.946.542.450.4
    Sep172.570.852.7167.6103.550.444.661.6
    Dec194.273.055.0184.9109.057.948.562.7
QuarterElectrical SuppliesPaper and StationeryGrain and SeedsRubber, Leather, and Canvas GoodsOffice. Printers' and Photographic SuppliesOtherAll Groups
 $(million)
1969—Mar12.615.47.45.86.631.0456.3
Jun15.115.37.86.46.133.3484.8
Sep16.317.48.66.97.135.7525.4
Dec15.316.87.77.18.942.8560.1
1970—Mar15.017.67.76.27.234.3518.9
Jun17.617.78.47.67.536.0572.8
Sep18.018.79.47.98.337.5604.0
Dec20.419.47.98.011.144.6643.8
1971—Mar18.919.17.67.39.535.5580.7
Jun24.117.68.78.110.346.4622.6
Sep23.620.010.38.711.542.7642.0
Dec24.920.88.18.611.558.9705.4
1972—Mar16.320.98.67.510.147.7634.0
Jun21.820.58.38.99.851.2680.8
Sep25.522.29.710.010.555.7719.6
Dec23.322.28.810.212.967.0794.9
1973—Mar24.724.010.510.212.457.0764.9
Jun28.724.311.011.112.865.2816.8
Sep42.527.0105.6898.8
Dec34.227.3127.6974.3

For firms excluded from the continuing survey, the value of sales recorded in the Census of Distribution 1968 was $218.6 million, or 13.7 percent of total wholesale turnover.

INSTALMENT CREDIT TRADING—Instalment credit trading in New Zealand has been growing steadily in recent years in common with other developed countries. This growth generally is explained by common causes, including an increasing social acceptance and the development of borrowing facilities. There is an increasing tendency for consumer durables to be purchased on credit. Instalment credit allows high-priced goods to be acquired as opportunity or desire dictates, with less reference to the immediate cash position. Some people welcome the discipline of monthly credit repayments as a means of saving. Consumer credit is provided either by retailers or finance companies. A major activity of the finance companies is the financing of motor vehicles on hire-purchase; the Reserve Bank collects statistics in this field. A report by the Tariff and Development Board on instalment credit trading, published as parliamentary paper H.49, 1968, is a useful reference.

Though international comparative statistics are usually open to qualification in this field, instalment credit outstanding per head at 31 December 1965 (in NZ$) was: United States, 250; Canada, 206; Australia, 102; United Kingdom, 50; New Zealand, 40; West Germany, 26; France, 22. (The term instalment credit covers hire-purchase agreements, credit sales agreements, and budget accounts.) Source—parliamentary paper H.49, 1968.

The Hire Purchase Act 1971 is the governing legislation.

Regulations to curb hire-purchase trade have existed in New Zealand since 22 July 1955. Restrictions in recent years are now set out.

CommodityDate EffectiveMinimum Deposit (Percent)Maximum Repayment Period (Months)
*Reduced by 3 months from 6 December 1968, except television sets.
New motorcars and light trucks17 Apr 196166⅔12
 7 Sep 19725024
Secondhand cars and light trucks17 Apr 19615018
 1 Sep 19655012
 11 Feb 196766⅔12
 17 May 19685018*
 7 Sep 19725024
Motor cycles11 Feb 19675012
 17 May 196833⅓18*
 7 Sep 197233⅓24
Furniture and furnishings3 May 1962524
 11 Feb 19671518
 22 Mar 19681024*
 19 Sep 19691024
 28 Mar 19721030
Other consumer goods3 May 1962524
 24 Apr 19642410
 11 Feb 19671518*
 19 Sep 19691024
 28 Oct 19701524
 28 Mar 19721030

A limited quarterly survey is made by the Department of Statistics of hire-purchase trade. It includes selected merchandising firms and finance corporations and for the 1967–68 March year surveyed business was estimated at 72 percent of hire-purchase sales recorded in the 1968 Census of Distribution. The following table shows the value of goods sold on hire-purchase as recorded by the businesses in the survey.

QuarterMotor VehiclesPlans and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal Sold on H.P.Total Owing Under H.P. Agreements*Percentage of Payment Overdue*
Sold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. FinancedSold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. FinancedSold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. FinancedSold on H.P.Cash PaymentH.P. Financed
*As at end of quarter.
1970—$(m)%
    Mar22.111.011.03.60.92.70.50.10.47.41.16.433.588.44.0
    Jun25.112.912.23.00.72.30.60.10.59.91.38.538.694.63.8
    Sep29.615.014.64.41.23.20.60.10.510.32.18.244.997.33.5
    Dec37.418.918.66.01.74.30.50.10.412.32.010.356.2108.53.6
1971—
    Mar32.216.615.65.81.34.50.40.10.38.41.66.846.7112.83.1
    Jun29.414.814.67.31.75.60.50.10.0.61.48.246.8115.43.0
    Sep37.919.818.17.72.75.00.40.10.39.71.58.155.7122.93.1
    Dec41.621.620.010.03.46.60.40.10.312.11.910.264.1131.03.3
1972—
    Mar36.218.317.99.32.96.40.40.10.39.21.37.955.1129.93.5
    Jun40.521.319.28.32.75.60.50.10.412.21.810.461.6143.83.3
    Sep43.222.320.98.42.36.10.50.10.49.91.48.561.9140.33.2
    Dec51.726.425.310.32.77.60.40.10.314.22.112.176.6153.43.1
1973—
    Mar49.225.224.110.42.77.70.40.10.310.51.59.070.4158.72.9
    Jun46.423.223.18.92.06.90.40.10.412.21.710.567.9157.72.7
    Sep51.825.826.113.53.210.30.60.10.512.81.811.078.8177.92.4
    Dec61.629.931.814.03.011.11.20.20.917.12.814.394.0192.92.6

The average amount covered by hire-purchase agreements in the quarter ended 31 December 1973 was: motor vehicles, $1,402; machinery, $10,170 television sets, $332; other household and personal goods, $68.

Chapter 24. Section 22; EXTERNAL TRADE

22 A—GENERAL

GENERAL—New Zealand has always been heavily dependent on overseas trade for its development and progress. Today the value of New Zealand's overseas trade as a proportion of gross national product is among the highest in the world. In the early days of colonisation the infant farming industry found a ready market in Australia for basic foodstuffs such as potatoes, grain, butter, and cheese. Timber and gold temporarily constituted a sizeable proportion of exports, but the most consistent export was wool, which made up 22 percent of the value of exports in 1853, when statistics were first compiled. In the 1870s it accounted for over half the value; from 1880 to 1898 its share was from 40 percent to 50 percent. From 1899 to 1964 wool consistently earned one-third of New Zealand's export receipts; since then the proportion has progressively declined, and in 1972 wool made up only 19 percent of exports by value, although the proportion rose sharply to 24.6 percent in the year ended June 1973, reflecting higher prices for wool.

Real and lasting diversification of the exports of farm products was made possible by the introduction of refrigerated ships in 1882. This accentuated the development of New Zealand's economy as a complement to the United Kingdom economy, to the benefit of both. The proportion of New Zealand's total exports going to the United Kingdom grew from 70 percent in 1860 to 77 percent in 1900, and reached 88 percent in 1940. At first, exports of frozen meat increased more rapidly than those of butter and cheese; the early emphasis was on frozen mutton and lamb, with beef and veal becoming more significant later. The great expansion of exports of dairy produce occurred after 1900, and was encouraged by the centralised factory production of butter. From 1913 onwards pastoral products have continued to account for over 80 percent of total exports of New Zealand goods. The proportion in the year ended December 1973 was 82 percent.

New Zealand's heavy dependence on the United Kingdom market continued into the post-Second World War era. From about the beginning of the 1960s the increasing emphasis on diversification away from this dependence has been reflected in the growth of beef exports to the United States, of mutton and forest products exports to Japan, of lamb exports to Greece, the United States and, Canada; the establishment of a rapidly growing trade in meat and dairy produce with the developing countries of South-east Asia and Latin America; the expansion of trade with Australia under NAFTA and with other South Pacific countries; and the growth of secondary industry within New Zealand to supplement agriculture as a source of export earnings as well as to supply the domestic market.

Continuing product diversification of exports is envisaged in the revised development targets adopted in March 1972 (export targets are set out in Section 25E). The targets project a drop in the proportion of pastoral products in the total export earnings (including goods and services such as transport and tourism) from 71.5 percent in the base year 1969–70 year to 52.4 percent in 1981–82. The share of manufacturing is projected to rise over the same period from 5.3 percent to 14.6 percent, and that of forestry (including processed forest products) from 5 percent to 7.9 percent.

The prospect of Britain entering the European Economic Community has in recent years lent special importance to New Zealand's efforts in the field of economic diplomacy. Although the terms of the special arrangement concerning the importation of New Zealand butter and cheese into Britain were decided at Luxembourg in June 1971, this was preceded by an intensive programme of official contacts and representations both in Britain and in the countries of the Common Market. New Zealand's diplomatic and trade posts in Europe were strengthened to handle this work and, over the years, a programme of visits to New Zealand was organised for Ministers, senior officials, and journalists directly concerned with developments in the Common Market. The agreement relating to New Zealand dairy products negotiated in Luxembourg in 1971 has provided a respite, but continued efforts are required to ensure that New Zealand's position is understood during future reviews of the arrangement. The question of the conditions governing trade in New Zealand sheep meats with an enlarged EEC will also need close attention.

Access into the North American market is vitally important. New Zealand's trade with the United States has been circumscribed in the past by various quantitative restrictions imposed on beef, mutton, veal, and dairy products. The quantitative restrictions on beef, veal, and mutton have been lifted for the whole of 1973, although the situation is reviewed every quarter, as provided by law. New Zealand's experts of dairy products are, however, still subject to a formidable array of quota controls. There is, however, room for some guarded optimism in the willingness of the United States Administration to contemplate increased imports as a means of stabilising prices.

New Zealand's economic and trade relations with Japan have become steadily closer. The volume of bilateral trade has increased and consultations between the two Governments at the Ministerial and the official level on international trade and economic matters have been extended considerably. New Zealand participation in EXPO 1970 involved a major publicity and trade promotion campaign which proved most successful. Continued efforts have been made to improve access for New Zealand agricultural exports and, although little progress has been made, it is hoped that the growing demands of the Japanese consumer can be reconciled with the need to support the domestic agricultural sector. In this connection, New Zealand has recently benefited from the significant increases which have occurred in our sales of beef and butter as a result of rapidly increasing consumer demands for Western-style foodstuffs.

The newly-independent nations of the Pacific have attracted particular attention since the formation in 1971 of the South Pacific Forum. There is now much more awareness of the scope for closer trade relations with and between the Islands, and New Zealand has taken several initiatives in this direction.

At the same time our diplomatic and trading links across the Pacific, with the countries of Latin America, have been extended and a significant volume of trade has developed. Now that New Zealand has established embassies in Peru and Chile, a thorough examination is being made of ways to increase trade with the area. Credits have been extended to both Peru and Chile and these have undoubtedly helped build up our trade.

Activity in the trade field has included other countries of the Pacific Basin. From April 1570 New Zealand has extended annual trade credits of $500,000 to Indonesia. In April 1973 the Minister of Overseas Trade visited China, Korea and Japan for talks covering a range of subjects.

New Zealand's trade relations with Australia have always been close but recent years have witnessed unprecedented growth in two-way trade. This applies in particular to manufactured goods. The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement, which commenced operation in 1966, has been an important factor in this expansion. A number of projects for combined industrial development, including two motor vehicle rationalisation plans, have been negotiated and there has been increased co-operation in implementing the Memorandum of Understanding on Defence Supply signed in 1970.

Britain's prospective entry into the EEC caused an increase in New Zealand's efforts to develop new markets for its exports and broaden the range of its export commodities. There has already been a marked expansion of New Zealand's overseas markets, notably in the United States, and countries bordering on the Pacific. For example, exports made to Japan have shown a marked increase from $6.2 million in 1953 to $103 million in the June year 1971. About 66 percent of the exports to Japan in the year ended June 1971 were meat (mainly mutton), timber and wool; other principal commodities were dairy products, and casein.

The value of New Zealand's overseas trade in relation to national income is among the highest in a ranking of countries of the world.

Except for the growth of trade in pulp and paper products, the composition of New Zealand's exports today does not vary greatly from that of pre-war years. Of recent years from 70–80 percent of the total value of exports is still derived from wool, meat, and dairy produce. Exports of manufactured goods (including those based on agriculture, forestry, and fishing) have risen sharply in recent years; but the steady growth of trade in meat, dairy produce, and wool has meant that the proportions as compared with total New Zealand exports today have remained constant over several decades.

The following table shows the changing pattern of external trade by countries of destination and origin. The percentages are based on value data only, exports f.o.b. and imports c.d.v.

YearUnited KingdomAustraliaUnited StatesOther Countries
*Provisional.
Exports*
percent
186070273
187052462
1880752122
1890751564
1900771463
191084934
1920745165
1930803512
194088345
19506631021
19605341330
June
Year
19674451635
19684371733
19693981736
19703681540
19713491740
1972*3181545
1860564211
1870583615
1880563149
18906717610
190061171012
19106214816
192048171817
19304781827
194047161225
19506012721
196043181029
June
Year
196737191331
196830211138
196930201237
197030211336
197129211238
1972*28231038

TRADE RELATIONS WITH THE UNITED KINGDOM—The preceding table shows that the United Kingdom has remained the predominant market for New Zealand's exports and the biggest supplier of her imported goods. The British consumer for a long time enjoyed virtually unrestricted availability of New Zealand butter, cheese, and lamb as a result of trading arrangements reflecting traditional economic, political, and cultural bonds between the people and governments of the two countries.

Under the terms of the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade Agreements of 1932, 1959, and 1966, New Zealand received duty free and unrestricted access to the United Kingdom market for most of its agricultural exports. New Zealand's agricultural industry was thus encouraged to specialise in the production, especially for the British market, of pastoral products which the country's climate, resources, and skills have enabled it to produce with unmatched economic efficiency.

In return for providing an assured market for this New Zealand produce, Britain obtained an assured source of reasonably priced food in war and peace, valuable preferences in the sale of manufactured goods in the New Zealand market, and considerable earnings from the provision of shipping, insurance, and other services related to the two-way trade between the countries.

In recent years the United Kingdom's share of New Zealand's export trade has gradually declined. This decline was given impetus by New Zealand's increased efforts to diversify her export products and markets in view of British moves towards joining the EEC. Thus in 1950 the United Kingdom took 66 percent of New Zealand's exports, but by the year ended June 1972 its share had fallen to 31 percent. However, the United Kingdom is still New Zealand's main export market, taking the bulk of our lamb, butter, and cheese exports (72 percent, 73 percent, and 66 percent, respectively, in the 1972–73 year), and about one-fifth of our wool.

Entry into the EEC, involving assumption of obligations under the community's common agricultural policy, required Britain to terminate the 1959 and 1966 trade agreements with New Zealand on 31 January 1973, and to begin to phase in the common customs tariff and other EEC policies affecting the import of goods from those countries. In consequence, New Zealand is to phase out by 1 July 1977 the tariff preferences currently given to imports from Britain.

DIVERSIFICATION—Britain's prospective entry into the EEC also caused an intensification of New Zealand's efforts to develop new markets for its exports and to broaden the range of its export commodities. Progress in diversification by the dairy industry is reflected in the fact that dairy export receipts from markets outside Britain rose to 54 percent of the total in 1972, compared with 35 percent the previous year. An important factor in the diversification effort is the greater exchange of views and co-operation between the principal dairy exporters, in particular New Zealand, and the EEC, which in 1973 has generally operated the EEC dairy export policy in a constructive way.

Reference has been made earlier to the important structural changes taking place in New Zealand's export trade and, in particular, the growing importance of manufactured exports and of new markets, especially in the Pacific basin region.

North America—The United States is New Zealand's second largest market after Britain, and the major market for beef and veal, taking 67.9 percent of our total exports of these commodities in the year ended 30 September 1973. Trade has been circumscribed in the past by various quantitative restrictions on beef, veal, mutton, and dairy products. The quantitative restrictions on beef, veal, and mutton were lifted for the whole of 1973 and 1974, although the situation is reviewed every quarter as provided by law. New Zealand's exports of dairy products are still subject to a formidable array of quota controls, but New Zealand has been able to take advantage of emergency import quotas for cheese, milk powder, and butter, and the declining trend in United States dairy production suggests improved prospects for trade in the future.

New Zealand's exports to Canada have increased steadily from $10.4 million in the year ended June 1967 to $43 million in the year ended June 1973. Beef is our main export to Canada, followed by sausage casings, lamb, wool, sheepskins, milk powder, apples, carpets, and tableware. New Zealand's main objective in the trade policy field is to obtain permanent access for dairy products. In July 1973 New Zealand and Canada agreed in an exchange of letters to continue tariff preferences on the same general basis as those derived from their trade agreements with Britain prior to the termination of these agreements on 1 February 1973 because of Britain's entry into the European Economic Community. The July 1973 agreement included undertakings against increasing duties against each other, and for maintenance of margins of preference.

Japan—New Zealand's economic and trade relations with Japan have become steadily closer since the New Zealand - Japan Agreement was signed in 1958. The volume of trade has increased and consultations between the two governments at the ministerial and official level on international trade and economic matters have been extended considerably. New Zealand's participation in Expo 70 involved a major publicity and trade promotion campaign which proved most successful. Exports to Japan have shown a marked increase from $6.2 million in 1953 to $217 million in the year ended June 1973. About 61 percent of the exports in the year ending June 1973 were meat (mainly mutton), timber, and wool; other principal commodities were casein, cheese, aluminium, and ironsands. Continued efforts are being made to improve access for New Zealand's agricultural exports. Although trade barriers remain in the important meat and dairy sectors, New Zealand has recently benefited from significant import openings which have occurred for beef and butter as a result of rapidly increasing consumer demands for Western-style foodstuffs.

South Pacific—The newly independent nations of the Pacific have attracted particular attention in recent years and in 1971 New Zealand and Australia, with the Cook Islands, Fiji, Nauru, Tonga, and Western Samoa, formed the South Pacific Forum. There is now much more awareness of the scope for closer trade relations with and between the Islands, and New Zealand has taken several initiatives in this direction, including the establishment of a Pacific Islands handicraft scheme in September 1973. This scheme provides for duty free entry for specified quantities of handicrafts from Fiji, Western Samoa, Nauru, Tonga, and Papua - New Guinea, the latter having observer status in the South Pacific Forum.

Latin America—Our diplomatic and trading links with the countries of Latin America have been extended and a substantial and increasing volume of trade has developed in the last 3 years. New Zealand has established embassies in Peru and Chile, and trade credits have been extended to these countries which have helped build up trade especially in mutton and dairy products. Other new markets in this region include Mexico, Cuba, and Brazil.

Asia—Activity in trade diversification has included other countries of the Pacific Basin. Since April 1970 New Zealand has extended four annual trade credits totalling $2.5 million to Indonesia. In April 1973 the Minister of Overseas Trade visited China, Korea, and Japan for official talks. Following New Zealand's recognition of the People's Republic of China in December 1972, and the establishment of a New Zealand Embassy in Peking, a trade agreement was signed in October 1973. The agreement included provision for a joint trade committee to discuss and promote the expansion of mutual trade.

Eastern Europe—Attention has also been given by Government and businessmen to increasing and diversifying trade with the socialist countries of Europe. Of these the U.S.S.R. was, in the year ended June 1972, New Zealand's ninth largest market, chiefly for wool. The Minister of Overseas Trade visited Moscow in September 1973 (returning a visit earlier in the year by the U.S.S.R. Foreign Trade Minister). While in Moscow he signed a protocol to the 1963 New Zealand - U.S.S.R. Trade Agreement establishing a joint trade committee to promote the growth of mutual trade. The setting-up of New Zealand embassies and trade posts in Moscow and Vienna will assist our trade development in the region.

Australia—New Zealand's trade relations with Australia have always been close, but recent years have witnessed unprecedented growth in two-way trade, particularly in manufactured goods. The 1965 New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) has been an important factor in this expansion. A number of projects for co-operation in industrial development, including the motor vehicle industry, have been developed and there has been increased co-operation in implementing the Memorandum of Understanding on Defence Supply signed in 1970.

NAFTA—The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement was signed on 31 August 1965 and came into effect on 1 January 1966. The main aim of the agreement, which runs for an initial period of 10 years, is "to further the development of the area and the use of the resources of the area by promoting a sustained and mutually beneficial expansion of trade".

The central element of the agreement is its list of goods (Schedule A) on which duties are progressively reduced and bound at free in the tariffs of both countries. The agreement also contains general provisions governing the conduct of trade between Australia and New Zealand covering such matters as dumping, the maintenance of import restrictions, the encouragement of industrial rationalisation between the two countries, and the holding of consultations on a regular basis and for specific purposes.

The original Schedule A contained some 990 items. Since then a further 755 items have been added to give a total of 1,745 at 1 July 1973. On inclusion in Schedule A, goods free of duty are bound at free; goods with duties not exceeding 5 percent become free; duties of between 5 and 10 percent are halved and eliminated 2 years later; and duties of more than 10 percent are reduced by one-fifth on inclusion and by a further fifth every 2 years. There is provision for either quicker or slower reduction of duties where agreed to by both countries.

There has been some reluctance on the part of manufacturers in both countries to accept inclusion of their products in Schedule A because of the resulting exposure to unrestricted competition. Accordingly, in November 1973 it was agreed to establish a series of new arrangements (Schedules B, C, and D), which provide for partial participation in the free trade provisions of the agreement, for example, by way of duty free quotas or partial elimination of duties. A number of joint panels have been set up by New Zealand and Australian industries to study the possibility of using the new partial free trade arrangements as a basis for developing industries on a complementary basis through reciprocal trade.

Complementary development of trade has been encouraged since 1967 by reciprocal concessions under trading arrangements between firms in New Zealand and Australia under Article 3:7 of NAFTA. Approvals for such inter-firm arrangements totalled $31 million in the second half of 1973, and new trade since 1967 under this type of arrangement has a value of about $90 million. The new partial free trade arrangements, while not replacing the old arrangements, will offer wider opportunities, will not be limited to specific firms, and should encourage co-operation on an industry wide basis as well as co-operation between individual firms. The advantages of co-operation accompanied by the complementary development of industries are obvious; they include specialisation and longer production runs to supply the whole NAFTA area as one market. The reciprocal advantages available under the new schedules will encourage such complementary developments; in addition, in agreed circumstances, the two governments have decided to protect each other's production against competition from other sources

Continued development of the concept of reducing tariffs within the NAFTA area as a preferential free trade area was the aim of an interim agreement on tariff rates and preferences concluded by a ministerial exchange of letters on 7 May 1973. This agreement preserves to the fullest possible extent for each country the benefits of the British preferential tariff system which formerly derived from the trade agreements both countries had with the United Kingdom prior to British entry into the EEC on 1 February 1973. The basic features are undertakings not to increase tariffs against each other, while maintaining agreed minimum margins of tariff preference over imports from non-preferential countries. In addition, the agreement makes clear the intention of both Australia and New Zealand to set tariffs against each other on manufactured goods at the lowest possible level consistent with protection of domestic production, while permitting reasonable competition from the NAFTA partner. The new agreement is intended to last until 30 September 1974 unless it is earlier agreed that it should be extended or modified. By that time both New Zealand and Australia should be in a position to conclude a longer term agreement taking account of progress in the GATT multilateral trade negotiations this year; the effects of British entry into the EEC; and the operation of this new interim agreement. It is also intended that the terms of the interim agreement should be taken into consideration in formulating any future long-term agreement between the two countries.

A number of special industry bodies have been established within the NAFTA framework to promote trade in particular products. Among these is the Joint Consultative Council on Forest Industries set up in 1967. The council produced a report on the forest resources, consumption, production, imports, and exports up to the year 2010 in 1970, which is regularly updated. Other industry bodies deal with trade in peas and beans and sawmill products, while a Joint Committee on Dairy Products has met in 1972 and 1973. The committee's terms of reference are, inter alia, to review trends in production, consumption, and exports in the two countries; to consider production and marketing policies with particular reference to exports to third countries; to study marketing opportunities in respect of new products and new markets; and to explore ways of furthering cooperation between the industries of the two countries.

Trans-Tasman trade statistics are given in the following table.

June YearAustraliaNew Zealand
Exports to N.Z.Imports from New ZealandExports to AustraliaImports from Australia
Value $A(m)% of Total ExportsValue $A(m)% of Total Imports% in Schedule AValue $NZ(m)% of Total ExportsValue $NZ(m)% of Total Imports% in Schedule A
*The New Zealand dollar was devalued by 19.45% in November 1967.
1964–651586.0471.6..354.712819.3..
1965–661716.3471.683.5364.713517.746.0
1967–68*1565.1621.974.1587.113321.344.4
1970–712335.3952.359.2968.522621.048.1
1971–722775.71122.8 1128.326722.4† 
1972–733225.41313.2 1307.432125.1 

TRADE BY CURRENCY AREAS—The distribution of New Zealand's overseas trade by broad groupings is given in the following table (excluding gold and current coin).

Year Ended JuneSterling AreaDollar AreaEuropean Economic CommunityEuropean Free Trade Association (Excluding United Kingdom)Other CountriesSterling AreaDollar AreaEuropean Economic CommunityEuropean Free Trade Association (Excluding United Kingdom)Other Countries
*Provisional.
 Percentage of Total Export Trade (f.o.b.)Percentage of Import Trade (c.d.v.)
196355.9919.3217.570.706.4368.8613.526.602.348.68
196455.6316.8818.601.117.7767.8613.946.563.538.11
196560.3014.9416.191.177.4065.0315.806.393.149.64
196654.9316.2915.741.0711.9865.6415.876.612.519.37
196754.1518.4711.651.0414.6964.0417.287.382.708.60
196855.8919.5610.530.9113.1261.9516.207.082.9911.79
196952.2920.4012.280.8614.1860.8916.448.032.9511.69
197050.2421.1811.111.0216.4460.4517.697.452.3912.02
1971*50.6721.7610.750.8016.0258.8716.658.882.4813.12
1972*47.8620.1110.830.1720.5060.8713.728.213.0514.15

The direction of external trade is shown graphically in the following diagram.

TRADE PER HEAD—Trade per head of population is affected, not only by the volume of trade but also by the value, i.e., the prices received for exports and the cost of imports.

The following table shows the value, per head of population, of New Zealand's trade over the last 11 years.

Year Ended JuneExports (f.o.b.)Imports (c.i.f.)Total Trade
*Provisional
 $$$
1962237.07232.76469.82
1963249.42229.18478.60
1964286.72269.91556.63
1965282.95276.20559.16
1966288.54298.13586.67
1967268.57300.32568.89
1968299.04245.91544.95
1969357.56308.32665.88
1970388.31359.92748.23
1971398.19406.57804.76
1972*474.16427.80901.96

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RELATIVE VALUE OF TRADE—For New Zealand exports of goods are of greater importance to the national economy than is the case for most other countries. (Many other countries have a greater proportional income from the exports of services such as travel, investment, insurance, and shipping activities.)

In the following table the values of the exports of goods (excluding services) for some of the main trading countries are given as a percentage of the gross national product, and also the value of total external trade in goods in 1970 per head of population, using c.i.f. valuations for imports. (Source: United Nations Statistical Office.)

CountryExport of Goods as Percentage of Gross National ProductValue of External Trade per Head
196019671971

* Exports include a large volume of goods originating in inland Europe passing through ports.

†Fiscal year beginning 1 April.

‡Exports of goods and non-factor services.

§Fiscal year beginning 1 July.

 percent(NZ)$
Netherlands34*32*1,480
Belgium and Luxembourg2936*1,742
South Africa2315189
Switzerland22221,391
Norway21211,155
Israel2013609
New Zealand2018647
Sweden19191,222
Canada18181,042
Austria1717671
West Germany1718814
France1510552
United Kingdom1413567
Italy1313392
Australia13§13§517
Japan109282
Argentina810104
United States44292

VISIBLE BALANCE OF TRADE—In the following table the c.i.f. valuation of imports has been used to establish the visible balance of trade. Gold and specie totals are excluded.

June YearVisible Excess of Exports
*Provisional.
 $(000)
1963–6443,234
1964–6517,711
1965–66-25,489
1966–67-85,984
1967–68145,782
1968–69136,210
1969–7079,463
1970–71-23,809
1971–72*133,940

Visible trade is not the only factor to be taken into account in considering the balance of payments between countries (see Section 25B). A statement of New Zealand's overseas exchange transactions is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency.

TRADE STATISTICS—Provisional trade data are published in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics fairly soon after the period to which they relate. A publication entitled External Trade of New Zealand (Country Analyses) is published quarterly.

Annual volumes are also published by the Department of Statistics, the latest available issues being Exports July-December 1971 and Imports July-December 1971. Part A Commodity by Country and Part B Country by Commodity.

New Zealand has used the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) as from 1 July 1962, for classifying external trade for statistical purposes; from the same date this classification was put into effect for recording the external trade of the Cook Islands and Niue. The SITC order was also adopted on 1 July 1962 as the Customs Tariff classification, but a move to the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature was made on 1 July 1967.

Provisional values of imports and exports are set out in the following table.

Period1970–711971–721972–73
Exports (including Reexports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Reexports) f.o.b.ImportsExports (including Reexports) f.o.b.Imports
c.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Valuec.d. Valuec.i.f. Value
 $(million)
Month of July91.093.598.9114.9107.2115.8111.894.2101.1
2 months ended August176.4182.7195.1237.5203.4219.1219.1199.3213.6
3 months ended September248.7274.2294.1312.8303.1326.5345.5284.2306.0
4 months ended October325.7368.3394.8402.0390.6419.3447.7389.4419.6
5 months ended November401.2464.3497.5478.1490.0525.1558.4511.1548.0
6 months ended December515.9552.8592.4584.5579.6621.4707.4615.6659.4
7 months ended January590.8629.4676.6707.5665.4715.3844.6726.7778.3
8 months ended February722.8711.9765.3853.2756.6813.11,034.2827.5886.3
9 months ended March807.2811.8873.5967.2860.5925.21,254.9941.41,009.0
10 months ended April927.3901.0968.11,110.1950.51,622.61,412.51,033.01,106.7
11 months ended May1,038.4986.01,059.31,240.41,056.21,135.81,595.51,153.21,234.0
12 months ended June1,131.11,075.11,157.11,376.61,150.31,235.91,787.01,276.21,366.3

Valuation of Exports—It has always been the practice to record exports at free-on-board (f.o.b.) values, except during the Second World War when wool exports were valued at appraisal prices. Most meat and dairy produce exports are consigned for sale on overseas markets, and necessarily valued, on export, at the f.o.b. equivalent of the prices ruling at that time in the markets to which they are consigned. Price changes may occur in these markets before the actual sale of the produce.

The exports recorded relate to goods on vessels which have cleared their final port of call in New Zealand during the period.

Valuation of Imports—From July 1962, with the introduction of the Standard International Trade Classification, Revised, statistics on the c.i.f. basis (cost including freight and insurance) are available at item level.

The proportional difference between the two figures of valuation now made available—viz, c.d.v. and c.i.f.—will vary from period to period depending on: (1) the make-up of imports in the different periods, (2) differential changes in import prices and in freight rates; (3) differences between domestic and export prices in the exporting countries, and (4) price fluctuations between dates of purchases and of shipping. In all the tables imports are now shown at c.d.v., unless otherwise specified in respect of particular tables.

The trade figures for imports are compiled from the imports entries passed by the Customs Department. Generally the imports entries are not passed until the goods are available for discharge from the wharf.

Annual Statistics—For trade statistics a June year has been adopted since 1 July 1962 and this accords fairly well with the farm production year.

The statistics of external trade given in this section (comprising the three subsections) do not include the trade of the Cook Islands, Niue, and the Tokelau Islands; statistics for these territories are given in Section 36 of this Yearbook.

The following table gives the values of the export and import trade for years ended June and December. The movement of specie is not included in these figures and gold is excluded.

YearExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.ImportsYearExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b.Imports
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
*Provisional.
 Year ended June$(million)Year ended December 
1963627.5523.7576.61,963664.3595.7650.7
1964737.3637.4694.01,964773.7644.0701.7
1965742.2662.7724.51,965729.2703.8766.7
1966767.3729.4792.81,966780.0722.4787.0
1967727.2752.2813.21,967727.1672.4725.6
1968820.5622.9674.71,968920.9749.0805.3
1969989.1799.2852.91,9691,082.5843.0898.9
19701,086.7944.31,007.21,9701,093.71,038.31,111.8
19711,131.71,070.61,155.51,9711,200.41,097.41,184.5
1972*1,369.81,496.61,235.91972*1,510.41,186.31,273.9

The following table shows for the June year 1972 the values of merchandise exports to, and imports from, each of the countries trading with New Zealand.

TRADE BY COUNTRIES, YEAR ENDED JUNE 1972
CountryExports f.o.b.Imports c.d.v.
New Zealand ProduceTotalBy Country of Origin

*Provisional.

† See separate entry for Taiwan.

Sterling Area Countries($000)
    Associated States in Eastern Caribbean9889881
    Australia102,291112,139266,691
    Bahamas82682730
    Bahrain31315,829
    Barbados3,0543,0547
    Bermuda2,1082,108
    British Honduras1112
    British Solomon Islands45648046
    British Virgin Islands3535
    Brunei16163,300
    Cayman Islands11
    Cyprus2,3952,3959
    Falkland Islands2829
    Fiji12,45014,5252,759
    Gambia22
    Ghana8678671,684
    Gibraltar1010
    Gilbert and Ellice Islands2482594,414
    Guyana575856
    Hong Kong8,7688,89619,294
    India5,9725,98012,356
    Ireland, Republic of3,1813,183621
    Jamaica11,13111,132464
    Jordan320320
    Kenya1,0841,088446
    Kuwait36436420,823
    Libya88
    Malawi12812857
    Malaysia15,39115,4405,116
    Malta, including Gozo323231
    Mauritius and Dependencies910935124
    Montserrat3939
    Namibia (South West Africa)
    Nauru3853885,295
    New Hebrides Con1,0181,04764
    New Zealand Re-imports1,756
    Nigeria39039381
    Norfolk Island5055242
    Pakistan1,2641,2643,064
    Papua and New Guinea2,4472,562586
    People's Democratic Republic of Yemen22179
    Pitcairn Island2728
    Qatar and Trucial Sheikdoms195195
    Seychelles1010
    Sierra Leone22
    Singapore12,71313,2994,218
    South Africa14,18314,3233,179
    Sri Lanka (Ceylon)3,7593,7594,354
    Swaziland23239
    Tanzania (incl. Zanzibar and Pemba)3183191,236
    Tonga1,9802,186515
    Trinidad and Tobago7,6567,66152
    Uganda1161161,226
    United Kingdom417,027418,438329,013
    Western Samoa4,2624,7121,274
    Zambia322323
Totals, Sterling Area641,796656,947700,274
EFTA Countries (Excluding United Kingdom)—   
    Austria2482501,925
    Denmark1,6381,6504,111
    Iceland
    Norway1,4901,4922,720
    Portugal1,7901,7901,022
    Sweden2,4442,64813,703
    Switzerland and Liechtenstein1,7841,81411,503
Totals, EFTA9,3949,64334,984
EEC Countries   
    Belgium and Luxembourg31,62131,6406,398
    France and Monaco41,78441,82111,292
    Germany, Federal Republic of (West)33,54434,09249,308
    Italy and San Marino18,04718,08415,442
    Netherlands20,30620,40611,696
Totals, EEC145,302146,04294,136
Dollar Area   
    American Samoa2,6102,78211
    Antarctic Territory (U.S.)38
    Bolivia11
    Canada39,84540,02236,489
    Colombia15151,267
    Costa Rica1119
    Dominican Republic4074071,719
    Ecuador221,508
    El Salvador88
    Guam2,7442,750
    Guatemala11
    Haiti
    Honduras
    Liberia1212
    Mexico2,1192,1191,084
    Nicaragua
    Panama Canal Zone597597
    Panama Republic7171
    Philippines13,90813,949419
    Puerto Rico7327328
    Ryukyu Islands etc1,7251,725
    U.S. Trust Terrs. in Pacific130133
    United States204,622207,496116,650
    Venezuela399399
Totals, Dollar Area269,953273,229159,175
Other Countries   
    Afghanistan223
    Algeria20202
    Andorra
    Angola incl. Cabinda22217
    Antarctic (Foreign)2
    Argentina657037
    Bhutan
    Brazil1081082,610
    Bulgaria54054025
    Burma31632112
    Burundi
    Central African Republic41
    Chile12,84412,876147
    China1,6881,6965,312
    China (Taiwan)3,5373,5371,337
    Comoro Islands
    Congo People's Republic (Brazzaville)
    Cuba2,6402,6401
    Czechoslovakia1,8291,8311,418
    Ethiopia and Eritrea202010
    Finland629649797
    French Guiana142142
    French Polynesia4,8174,86227
    French Somaliland2
    Gabon
    Germany, East2,1342,135318
    Greece20,45120,45270
    Greenland
    Guadeloupe240240
    Guinea11
    Hungary283284138
    Indonesia2,3672,5111,108
    Iran2,0482,04810,576
    Iraq162162266
    Israel3435259
    Ivory Coast3312
    Japan130,226130,553128,668
    Khmer Republic (Cambodia)4545
    Korea, Republic of2,3342,334864
    Laos99
    Lebanon1911916
    Macao117
    Malagasy Republic48448419
    Martinique225225
    Mongolian People's Republic7
    Morocco15215214
    Mozambique1,7041,704201
    Muscat and Oman9191
    Nepal8888
    Netherlands Antilles1,2621,26226
    New Caledonia4,5554,625
    Peru20,62220,62234
    Paraguay
    Poland6,0456,045407
    Portuguese Guinea
    Reunion1
    Rhodesia (Southern)111
    Romania189190106
    Saudi Arabia2102103,699
    Somalia
    South Vietnam3336
    Spain3,0383,0401,757
    St. Pierre and Miquelon
    Sudan646426
    Surinam1616
    Syria40140114
    Thailand7,6387,7631,080
    Tunisia1281281
    Turkey512522197
    U.S.S.R.25,39725,3971,099
    United Arab Republic (Egypt)2412411
    Uruguay2323
    Wallis and Futuna Is.211216
    Yemen33663
    Yugoslavia2,9082,908405
    Zaire Republic (Congo Kinshasa)1126
Totals, Other Countries265,969266,777163,571
Totals, All Countries1,332,4141,352,6371,152,140
    Passengers' purchases at duty-free stores2074,462
    Ships' stores7,56511,117
    Destination Optional1,6211,621
Grand totals1,341,8071,369,8371,152,140

The next table shows the values of New Zealand's trade with several groupings of countries.

Year Ended JuneExports (including Re-exports) f.o.b. (Excluding Ships' Stores)Imports c.d.v.Exports (including Re-exports) f.o.b. (Excluding Ships' Stores)Imports c.d.v.
According to Country of OriginAccording to Country of PurchaseAccording to Country of OriginAccording to Country of Purchase

*Provisional.

† Belgium, Luxembourg, France and Monaco, West Germany, Italy, and Netherlands.

‡Austria Denmark, Iceland, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, and Switzerland.

 $(million)
 Sterling AreaDollar Area
1965444.8430.9443.8110.2104.7106.6
1966418.3478.8495.5124.0115.7104.9
1967390.0482.3495.0133.0130.2132.8
1968454.2385.9399.8158.9100.9106.3
1969511.1486.6507.7199.3131.4132.6
1970540.2570.8597.5227.7167.1165.4
1971566.3631.5664.0243.5175.9171.9
1972*656.9700.3000.0273.2159.2 
 EEC CountriesEFTA Countries
1965119.442.339.78.620.819.9
1966119.848.245.48.118.316.1
196783.955.652.67.519.317.7
196885.644.141.67.418.616.1
1969120.064.261.28.423.620.6
1970119.570.367.311.022.618.9
1971x119.795.590.48.926.622.4
1972*146.094.1 9.635.0 

VOLUME INDEX OF EXTERNAL TRADE—For the index of the volume of external trade, both the import and the export series are linked chain series with changing (price) weighting patterns, each year being calculated on base previous year and then linked on. This revised series is described in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics May 1972.

Exports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)

June YearButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll Groups
*Provisional
19638621,020777771852....712
1964949970843775836....737
19659801,038901753785....733
19661,0031,067916711907....760
19671,0531,137991745750....756
19681,0541,088977856886....860
19691,0659519699241,025....946
19701,0199771,0179911,014....997
19711,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
1972*9629581,0101,0341,0751,0491,0411,047

Imports—Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)

June YearPetroleum and ProductsTextile Yarn, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery Other than ElectricElectric Machinery ApparatusTransport EquipmentAll Groups
1963870787807602654676701
1964992901927742963945833
19651,0629159637669901,006865
19668259861,1141,0048821,085940
19679929811,0369681,0921,286964
1968845831798669703647725
1969929898956710752830824
19701,0099669918618181,096934
19711,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
1972*9871,0588201,0059921,3911,031

IMPORT AND EXPORT CONTROL AND EXCHANGE ALLOCATION—To ensure that overseas debt services would be met and sufficient funds be available for essential imports, there have been import control and export licences regulations since December 1938.

The Import Control Regulations 1938 prohibited the import of goods except under a licence or an exemption. The Export Licences Regulations 1938 provided (with minor exceptions) that an export licence had to be obtained before goods could be exported. In addition, the requirement of an export permit was introduced by the Export Prohibition Emergency Regulations 1939, which have since been replaced by the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953. The Import Control Regulations 1973 require that, except for exempted goods (which comprise over two-thirds of private imports), a written licence, or a written permit granted by the Minister of Trade and Industry is necessary for all imports.

Export Control—Three classes of export licences are provided for, viz, particular, general, and purchaser's. The particular licence applies to an occasional shipment, the general licence is issued to exporters who make regular or frequent shipments, while the purchasers licence applies to those cases where goods have been purchased in New Zealand for export and credits have been established from overseas funds (e.g., wool purchases). A condition of the issue of any export licence is that the overseas exchange earned must be sold to a New Zealand bank for New Zealand currency.

Whereas the purpose of the Export Licences Regulations 1966 is to ensure that all foreign exchange earned is sold to the New Zealand banking system, the Export Prohibition Regulations 1953 control the export of essential goods in short supply, of goods on which subsidies have been granted, and of goods shipped to strategic destinations.

The Export Incentive Scheme introduced in 1962 enabled import licences to be made available to all manufacturers who manufacture for export or who undertake to do so. Import licences issued under the scheme are either replacement, assistance, or bonus licences. A manufacturer already holding a licence, or entitlement to a licence for raw materials or components may obtain a replacement licence to the value of the licensed imported content of the goods exported, produced for export, or in the course of manufacture against confirmed overseas orders. Assistance licences will be granted either in the case of confirmed overseas orders where production has not been commenced, or when a manufacturer not holding overseas orders makes a declaration of intention to export and shows that active steps to open up an export market have been taken. Bonus licences are available to manufacturers who have actually exported; they may obtain licences for raw materials or components either of the same kind and value as those used in the manufacturer of the exported goods, or of a different kind provided that the latter have a basic allocation and that the grant is not likely to affect adversely the efficient operation of an existing New Zealand industry. Bonus licences are in addition to licences issued as replacement or assistance licences. Once a bonus licence has been granted the materials or components may be used to manufacture goods for sale either overseas or in New Zealand as the manufacturer decides.

Import Selection—Before 1973 administration of import licensing policy was the joint responsibility of the Customs Department and the Department of Trade and Industry. On 2 April 1973 the Department of Trade and Industry assumed sole responsibility for licensing administration in terms of the Trade and Industry Amendment Act 1973.

Import provisions are published in an annual Import Licensing Schedule. Summaries of changes in the schedules and import policies in general up to the period 1972–73 are contained in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

In most cases, the 1973–74 Import Licensing Schedule provided for a level of licensed imports at 110 percent of the previous year's allocation. A lower allocation was provided in some instances where it was felt that domestic capital and labour resources had been under-utilised because of imports.

Although the token licence scheme was continued the allocation of certain token licences was reviewed to ensure that they had been used for the purpose of giving a variety of imports and had not been concentrated on a few items. As a result of this review steps were taken to ensure that token licences are used for a wide range of goods both in price and type. No additional provision was made for licences to be issued under the new importers scheme.

The Budget in June 1973 announced that with certain exceptions, basic and token licences issued on an ad valorem basis with an allocation of 100 or 110 percent would be increased by 5 percent.

In September 1973 a list of goods was published for which an additional $70 million import provision had been made to ease supplies and safeguard against shortages. Licences issued were to be on a "once only" basis and on the condition that the goods must be shipped prior to 31 March 1974. Provision was also made for new importers to apply over a range of selected items.

Import licence allocations were increased by one-fifth in value for the year from 1 July 1974. It was recognised that overseas inflation had greatly affected the price of imports. About 30 percent of New Zealand's imports by value are under import licence control; these include most consumer goods and cars. Uncontrolled imports comprise mostly raw materials, semi-processed goods, and capital equipment. Some items were added to the exempt list in the latest schedule, but it has also been used to protect local industry in the case of some other items, notably some textiles.

TARIFF AND DEVELOPMENT BOARD—The Tariff and Development Board was established under the Tariff and Development Board Act 1961. The Board was constituted on 1 June 1962 and since then has comprised between four and eight members. The Board has the functions, when so requested by the Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry, or the Minister of Overseas Trade, to inquire into and report on revisions of the Customs Tariff, having regard to the trade and commerce, and the farming, manufacturing, and distributing industries of New Zealand and also the interests of consumers.

In 1973 the Board conducted 58 inquiries to consider the levels of protection on a wide range of goods. The main products involved were certain rubber products; fresh, chilled, or preserved fruit and vegetables; certain plastic products; paper and paper board containers; certain packaging products and containers; agricultural chemicals, veterinary medicaments and disinfectants; wines; and a variety of machinery and mechanical appliances as well as some unprepared and prepared foodstuffs and consumer products.

At the request of the Minister of Overseas Trade, the Board in 1973 inquired into and reported on the question of whether certain goods should be added to Schedule A of the New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement. The goods on which public inquiries were held were: spring letter clips; ginger in bulk packs; steam and other vapour generating boilers; worm gear reduction boxes; wooden tool handles; electrical wall, standard and table lamps of base metal; candles, tapers night lights and the like.

The Board scheduled 12 inquiries to be held in the first half of 1974 arising from references made to it in terms of the current Tariff review programme.

Emergency Protection Authorities—The Tariff and Development Amendment Act 1967 made provision for the appointment of Emergency Protection Authorities. The Minister of Customs, the Minister of Trade and Industry, or the Minister of Overseas Trade may, where it appears to the Minister that urgent action may be necessary to protect a New Zealand industry in relation to imports of goods, request an Authority to undertake an inquiry in relation to the importation of such goods and to report to the Minister on the following matters:

  1. Whether urgent action is necessary to protect that industry in relation to the importation of such goods; and

  2. If such action is considered necessary, the nature of the protection that is considered by the Authority to be appropriate in all circumstances, and the extent and duration of such protection.

An Authority which undertakes an inquiry is required to report back to the appropriate Minister not later than 30 days after the date on which he received the request for the inquiry. If the Authority considers that urgent action should be taken to protect the industry, it may recommend to the Minister that protection be effected by either or both of the following measures:

  1. The imposition of a temporary Customs duty.

  2. The temporary restriction of the importation of such goods.

When the Authority so recommends, action may be taken within the terms of the Customs Act 1966, to impose a temporary protective Customs duty or within the terms of the Trade and Industry Act 1956 to impose a restriction on importation. However the matter must have first been referred to the Tariff and Development Board for its consideration before any temporary protection is imposed. There are limits placed on the duration of temporary protection which is regarded as "holding action" pending the completion of the Tariff and Development Board's inquiries.

The Emergency Protection Authority was established in 1968 and by 31 December 1973 had undertaken 167 inquiries. Most of these inquiries arose following the receipt of objections to proposals to exempt goods from import licensing. After considering the Authority's reports the Government imposed temporary duties in 37 cases, and retained import licensing in a further 38 cases. In twelve cases temporary protection was reimposed and 2 were cases awaiting decision. Temporary protection was not granted in the 78 remaining instances.

TRADE COMMISSIONER SERVICE—Facilities for the promotion of overseas trade are provided by the Department of Trade and Industry through the service of 29 Trade Commissioner posts—Athens, Bangkok, Bonn, Brisbane, Brussels, Canberra, Djakarta, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Melbourne, Montreal, New Delhi, New York, Noumea, Paris, Perth, Rome, San Francisco, Santiago, Singapore, Suva, Sydney, Tokyo, Trinidad, Vancouver, and Washington. While this representation is modest in comparison with other countries, it reflects the country's interest in the desirability of diversifying export markets. In addition, some Air New Zealand overseas managers act as trade correspondents of the Department of Trade and Industry. At present there are Air New Zealand correspondents in Tahiti, American Samoa, and Honolulu. Most Trade Commissioners have appropriate diplomatic or consular status in the countries to which they are accredited.

While the selling of goods in overseas markets is basically the responsibility of New Zealand exporters, the Trade Commissioner can be of considerable help in conducting market surveys and supplying information on import and exchange restrictions, Customs duty, sales tax, normal sources of supply (local production and imported), marketing methods, freight rates, statutory or customary requirements for packing, labelling, etc., and reliable importers in his territory. He may also assist New Zealand importers to locate new sources of supply of essential commodities. New Zealand businessmen travelling overseas may be saved much time and trouble by enlisting in advance the services of the Trade Commissioner, whose knowledge of local conditions and whose connections with businessmen and Government officials in his territory enable him to give valuable advice. His task is made easier if he is given adequate notice of the visit.

The Trade Commissioner keeps a careful watch on the pattern of New Zealand trade with his territory and reports on significant changes. Where imports from New Zealand are affected, for example, by a new interpretation of an agricultural inspection regulation, or by the imposition of import restrictions, the Trade Commissioner is often called upon to make representations at the official level.

Trade Commissioners are also engaged in numerous other activities, some of which are representing New Zealand at international conferences, reporting on economic and industrial developments in their territories, acting on behalf of Government departments in the procurement of stores, payment of accounts, etc., and maintaining liaison where they are stationed with business and Government circles.

Businessmen may write for information direct to the New Zealand Trade Commissioner in the country concerned but, where convenient, it is preferred that requests be made through the Department of Trade and Industry in New Zealand, which is often able to give preliminary advice and assistance.

The addresses of overseas representatives are listed in Section 39, Official.

TRADE PROMOTION—A Trade Promotion Council was set up in March 1962 as a co-ordinating and advisory agency in a concerted continuous New Zealand trade drive and in September 1969, it accepted an invitation to act as a sector council of the National Development Council. The council advises in the exploration of new or potential markets including trade surveys and missions; the coordination of promotional schemes, trade fairs, and publicity; and the improvement of facilities, both within New Zealand and overseas, which may assist exporters. Export seminars for businessmen have been conducted by the Department of Trade and Industry in major cities. To date seven annual series have been held covering both the advantages of exporting and the techniques required for success. Contacts with exporters and prospective exporters have been continued by the work of export liaison officers, who travel widely in New Zealand, explaining the facilities and incentives that are available to exporters.

The Export Guarantee Office operates under the Export Guarantee Act 1964. As an offshoot of the State Insurance Office it insures exports, including contracts insured under the national interest provisions of the Act. In 1972 it insured exports valued at $127 million compared with $81 million in 1971. Since its inception the office has insured exports to the value of approximately $400 million. Claims payments since 1965 have totalled approximately $980,000, which represents less than 0.25 percent of the total insured imports.

Export-Import Corporation—A corporation has been established under the New Zealand Export-Import Corporation Act 1973 to engage in overseas trade and act on behalf of any manufacturers, producers, exporters, and importers who request it to do so, including the Government. It also undertakes trade promotion. Capital to the amount of $2 million has been made available from the National Development Loans Account.

22 B—EXPORTS

GENERAL—The growth and diversification of the New Zealand economy are heavily dependent on increasing exports to pay for rising imports of goods needed by industry and a growing population, as well as to provide for large payments for "invisibles" in the form of services. Overseas trade is the lifeblood of the economy. (See Section 25E, National Development Council for projections of exports to meet growth requirements.)

In New Zealand copies of export entries are forwarded to the Department of Statistics for processing and analysis and the regular publication of export statistics. Exports are valued in New Zealand currency "free on board at the port of shipment", except re-exports ex bonded warehouse or under drawback of duty, which are recorded at the original import values. Where goods are not sold till arrival at their destination, values are assessed at current prices at time of shipment. Meat and dairy-produce exports are valued like other commodities, on the basis of overseas realisation, not on the basis of the prices payable to producers under the internal purchasing procedures.

The ultimate destination of the goods is distinguished as far as practicable, but it is impossible to discover what proportion of the exports is intended for home consumption in the country of destination. A distinction is made between exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports of imported goods.

Since 1 July 1962, the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised) has been used in classifying export trade.

MAIN EXPORTS—The following table gives total exports of New Zealand produce and re-exports (excluding gold and current coin) for the latest 9 June years and the main commodity groups.

Year Ended JuneMeat and Meat PreparationsDairy ProductsHides, Skins, and PeltsWool
ButterCheeseCaseinTotal*
f.o.b. value $(million)
1964183.2109.635.111.3168.430.4271.4
1965212.5119.640.716.8197.731.7208.6
1966196.7109.641.720.0195.440.0231.9
1967205.0109.445.118.6205.433.6174.1
1968260.7112.247.418.1210.339.8158.2
1969309.4114.842.621.7204.755.4212.4
1970368.9109.744.325.8213.948.7204.2
1971390.8113.948.030.2228.950.6187.8
1972399.3181.265.925.4352.262.3229.3
Year Ended JuneSausage CasingsTallowFruit and VegetablesPulp, Paper, and Paper-boardTotal*Re-exportsTotal Exports

*Including commodities not listed.

† Provisional.

 f.o.b. value $(million)
196412.07.19.617.3728.48.8737.3
196511.17.010.717.0733.78.5742.2
196610.96.512.318.3756.810.5767.3
196712.06.810.716.6717.69.6727.2
19689.96.913.823.9804.615.8820.5
198910.96.516.627.0968.920.2989.1
197014.09.021.628.31,064.522.21,086.7
197114.110.121.328.21,108.123.61,131.7
197215.18.922.733.71,341.828.01,369.8

The commodity groups shown above normally account for more than 90 percent of their total value of merchandise exports.

The relative importance of dairy produce, meat, and wool as the main individual constituents of New Zealand's export trade have varied considerably, as is seen from the figures in the preceding table. In the preceding subsection is set out a table of volume index numbers for these commodities. A table showing the export price index numbers and terms of trade is given in Section 23, Prices.

Over 80 percent of exports are pastoral products. Of exports other than pastoral the principal ones of economic significance in the period ended June 1972 were: logs of radiata pine ($28.4 m), fish and fish products ($21.9 m), newsprint ($16.5 m), sawn timber ($10.6 m), wood pulp ($11.2 m), apples ($10.2 m), grass and clover seeds ($4.4 m).

Quantity figures of exports of the principal items of New Zealand produce are next given for the 3 latest years, while the Statistical Summary, towards the end of the book, shows the figures for some of the more important commodities for the last 50 years.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)June Year 1970June Year 1971June Year 1972*
*Provisional.
Mining products—
    Pumice(cwt)17,17413,47511,044
    Cement(cwt)16,3018,22813,956
Fishery products—
    Fish, fresh and frozen(cwt)99,798153,149221,680
    Crayfish(cwt)49,40644,76039,176
    Fish oils and fish-liver oils(gal)6,4195,6265,732
Forest products—
    Kauri gum(ton)211912
Timber—
    Logs, radiata pine(000 cu ft)....62,570
    Sawn(000 sup ft)106,139115,418112,972
    For cases in shooks(000 sup ft)2,3081,2541,435
Wood pulp(ton)30,91295,232111,245
Newsprint(ton)119,605109,682128,870
Building board(000 sq ft)....24,093
Plywood(000 sq ft)4,9304,8617,002
Pastoral products—
    Butter(ton)194,892191,392182,550
    Casein(ton)61,01068,43641,447
    Cheese(ton)89,151x91,21787,073
    Milk, dried and condensed(ton)181,439157,917188,887
    Sugar of milk(ton)7,9457,4207,987
    Eggs—
        In shell(doz)69,613154,067184,820
        Not in shell(000 lb)9316,4406,610
    Honey(ton)6441,7651,712
    Meat, frozen and chilled(ton)648,389637,811665,153
    Meat, canned(ton)3,3883,0782,519
    Meat extract(lb)209,396489,833525,553
    Other preserved meat(ton)1,8411,7641,675
    Sausage casings(000 hanks)7,6467,2598,175
    Liver meal(cwt)11,0788,13510,767
    Cattlehides(000)1,4821,5881,617
    HorsehidesNo.3,0361,4233,849
    Calfskins(000)1,1691,125877
    Deerskins(000)8212896
    Opossum skins(000)1,605346517
    Sheepskins and pelts(000)34,01536,27837,994
    Horsehair and other coarse animal hair(lb)60,45359,93539,999
    Wool(metric ton)303,051293,494313,573
    Lard(cwt)1149560
    Edible tallow(ton)4,0692,0242,923
    Edible stearine(ton)640345278
    Inedible tallow(ton)67,19362,45867,374
    Neatsfoot oil(ton)671572436
    Live cattleNo.1,8422,3253,765
    Live sheepNo.11119208
    Live horsesNo.1,1361,3251,520
Agricultural products—
    Barley(cental)633239,692
    Apples(000 lb)120,371114,968129,033
    Pears(000 lb)6,9327,6125,669
    Hops(lb)60,989183,353123,944
    Potatoes(ton)9,37010,5234,339
    Onions(ton)9,6158,16010,296
    Canned vegetables(000 lb)7,8066,9935,716
    Frozen vegetables(cwt)215,537162,429194,713
    Peas, food(cental)363,061511,609403,628
    Peas, seed(cental)255,813197,501266,261
    Seeds, grass and clover(cental)175,027214,262292,098
    Seeds, other(cental)10,8689,52717,266
Miscellaneous—
    Biscuits(cwt)47,51757,45265,629
    Ale, beer, stout(gal)596,313803,157753,540
    Sugar(cwt)3,9621,91518,255
    Drinking chocolate(000 lb)7,23211,7598,845
    Cigarettes(lb)146,100191,470279,113
    Cut tobacco(lb)124,528170,205137,422
    Textile waste(000 lb)2,3301,8021,865
    Soaps(000 lb)2,7012,8792,122
    Chamois leather(sq ft)470,609526,887496,187

The values of the principal exports are given in the following table.

Commodity (New Zealand Produce)June Year 1970June Year 1971June Year 1972*
*Provisional.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Mining products—
    Pumice342220
    Cement221217
    Other10411188
Totals160145125
Fishery products—
    Fish, fresh and frozen2,8584,6006,215
    Fish, other9161,4832,664
    Crayfish11,35812,17112,969
    Fish oils fish-liver oils442762
Totals15,17618,28221,910
Forest products—
    Kauri gum151210
    Timber—
        Logs, radiata pine23,45925,10328,442
        Sawn9,72410,64910,566
        For cases in shooks278188226
    Wood pulp7,2379,37611,172
    Newsprint15,84514,02816,503
    Other paper and paperboard4,5803,9154,751
    Building board5877501,190
    Plywood419431593
    Other6151,1631,583
Totals62,75965,61675,036
Pastoral products—
    Butter109,747113,926181,242
    Casein25,75530,20225,404
    Cheese44,34248,05065,942
    Milk, dried and condensed31,09234,05276,431
    Sugar of milk2,1682,0352,130
    Other dairy produce2,8712,6823,145
    Eggs—
        In shell306481
        Not in shell140978855
    Honey262593800
    Meat, frozen and chilled364,409385,905393,830
    Meat, canned3,2183,3543,684
    Meat extract280584630
    Other preserved meat9959941,194
    Sausage casings13,97214,10215,103
    Liver meal10284118
    Cattlehides10,3259,75612,535
    Calfskins2,8891,8711,660
    Deerskins202382354
    Opossum skins2,052262595
    Sheepskins and pelts32,94638,11146,908
    Wool204,222187,850229,272
    Inedible offals (including dried blood)6,6744,7926,048
    Edible tallow632389516
    Edible stearine865449
    Inedible tallow8,3819,7478,395
    Neatsfoot oil13313093
    Live cattle7529901,377
    Live sheep30632
    Live horses3,8174,5746,416
    Other2,8513,0003,504
Totals875,375899,5191,088,343
Agricultural products—
    Barley462
    Apples8,8648,59610,213
    Pears509571442
    Hops3211479
    Potatoes491687424
    Onions819847933
    Canned vegetables1,1001,093887
    Frozen vegetables2,8952,2322,586
    Peas, food1,7192,4412,233
    Peas, seed1,4581,1461,601
    Seeds, grass and clover3,5764,8964,447
    Other seeds474854669
    Other5,9014,1783,720
Totals27,83727,65428,697
Miscellaneous—
    Biscuits1,6722,1722,439
    Ale, beer, stout486665650
    Sugar2516182
    Soups152270169
    Drinking chocolate1,1812,0832,514
    Infant and invalid food (cereal)799111
    Cigarettes311403563
    Cut tobacco190266206
    Textile waste257180177
    Soaps317455369
    Scrap metal2,1441,464957
    Dairy machinery1,2331,0811,410
    Chamois leather175200184
    Vitamins and concentrates162829
    Other74,92287,501117,838
Totals83,15996,875127,696
Totals, New Zealand produce (excluding gold)1,064,4661,108,0911,341,807
        Gold (excluded from above)29310

In the following table exports (excluding re-exports) for the years ended June 1971 and 1972 are summarised according to the Sections and Divisions of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised).

Exports, New Zealand Produce—Section and DivisionJune Year 1971June Year 1972*
*Provisional.
Section0. Food and Live Animals$(000)$(000)
    Div. 00 Live animals5,6317,905
    Div. 01 Meat and meat preparations390,836399,337
    Div. 02 Dairy products and eggs199,752327,696
    Div. 03 Fish and fish preparations18,17321,838
    Div. 04 Cereals and cereal preparations2,5613,195
    Div. 05 Fruit and vegetables21,33522,716
    Div. 06 Sugar and sugar preparations2,9423,366
    Div. 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof4,6945,373
    Div. 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)4,3474,444
    Div. 09 Miscellaneous food preparations1,5341,271
Totals, Section 0651,805797,141
Section1. Beverages and Tobacco  
    Div. 11 Beverages745782
    Div. 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures758796
Totals, Section 1,5031,578
Section2. Crude Materials, Inedible, Except Fuels  
    Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed50,56462,297
    Div. 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and kernels88
    Div. 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed
    Div. 24 Wood and cork36,91640,598
    Div. 25 Pulp and waste paper9,49911,269
    Div. 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and waste188,539230,057
    Div. 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum, and precious stones218142
    Div. 28 Metaliferous ores and metal scrap2,4864,216
    Div. 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.s.26,77228,798
Totals, Section 2315,003377,385
Section3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants and Related Materials  
    Div. 32 Coal, coke, and briquettes35180
    Div. 33 Petroleum and petroleum products7,2217,972
    Div. 34 Gas1
Totals, Section 37,2578,153
Section4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats  
    Div. 41 Animal oils and fats10,5609,432
    Div. 42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed13
    Div. 43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed406369
Totals, Section 410,9679,804
Section5. Chemicals  
    Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds1,7251,804
    Div. 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas1
    Div. 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials413676
    Div. 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products1,4851,831
    Div. 55 Essential oils and perfume materials, toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations1,9431,372
    Div. 56 Fertilisers, manufactured1627
    Div. 57 Explosives and pyrotechnic products3028
    Div. 58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins538663
    Div. 59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products34,13327,771
Totals, Section 540,28534,171
Section6. Manufactured Goods Classified by Material  
    Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.i., and dressed furs1,3602,186
    Div. 62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.s.1,1671,228
    Div. 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)4,4345,386
    Div. 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof20,43424,614
    Div. 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles, and related products13,59816,415
    Div. 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.s.2,8993,321
    Div. 67 Iron and steel3,1484,546
    Div. 68 Non-ferrous metals2,71114,659
    Div. 69 Manufactures of metal4,5065,539
Totals, Section 654,25977,894
Section7. Machinery and Transport Equipment  
    Div. 71 Machinery other than electric7,5259,237
    Div. 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances6,83210,648
    Div. 73 Transport equipment2,3123,364
Totals, Section 716,66923,249
Section8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles  
    Div. 81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating and lighting fixtures, and fittings459551
    Div. 82 Furniture and fixtures9961,403
    Div. 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles486753
    Div. 84 Clothing1,8512,248
    Div. 85 Footwear261258
    Div. 86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments; photo- and optical goods, watches and clocks794831
    Div. 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.s.5,4356,322
Totals, Section 810,28112,367
Section9. Commodities and Transactions not Classified According to Kind  
    Goods under $20 in value2422
    Other3844
Totals, Section 96266
    Total New Zealand produce exports1,108,0911,341,807
    Re-exports23,62828,030
    Grand total, merchandise exports1,131,7191,369,837
        Exports of gold (excluded from above)3 

DESTINATION OF NEW ZEALAND EXPORTS—The United Kingdom has been New Zealand's principal trading partner for over 100 years. The proportion of our exports (including re-exports) going to the United Kingdom market in the years prior to the Second World War was between 70 and 80 percent of the total value of all exports. With the growing diversification of our markets in recent years the proportion of New Zealand's export going to this market has fallen and by the June year 1972 represented only 31 percent of the total value of exports to all countries, compared with 34 percent for June year 1971.

In recent years trade has been recorded with over 100 countries each year.

TOTAL EXPORTS TO INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES—The following table gives exports (including re-exports but excluding gold, current coin, passengers' purchases, and ships' stores) to each country for the 3 latest June years.

CountryJune Year 1970June Year 1971June Year 1972*

*Provisional.

† Iceland included in EFTA from 1970.

‡From 1971 French West Indies shown under Guadeloupe and Martinique.

§See separate entry for Taiwan.

Sterling Area$(000)$(000)$(000)
Associated States in Eastern Caribbean563596988
Australia87,31196,133112,139
Bahamas367469827
Bahrain292031
Barbados1,7502,0793,054
Bermuda1,4121,8422,108
British Solomon Islands314443480
Brunei101116
Cyprus1,0071,1712,395
Fiji8,84812,44914,525
Ghana140228867
Gilbert and Ellice Islands244257259
Guyana564058
Hong Kong4,5976,7478,896
India1,3572,1805,980
Ireland, Republic of1,9872,7233,183
Jamaica4,4367,60211,132
Jordan1018320
Kenya1,2264361,088
Kuwait213146364
Malawi63142128
Malaysia7,2697,95915,440
Malta425032
Mauritius and Dependencies550713935
Montserrat303039
Nauru359286388
New Hebrides4769231,047
Nigeria38159393
Norfolk Island469583524
Pakistan1,8324351,264
Papua, etc.2,7903,4202,562
Pitcairn Island161428
Qatar and Trucial Sheikdoms7687195
Seychelles2210
Sierra Leone21112
Singapore8,7259,45513,299
South Africa3,1978,95314,323
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)2,0491,7413,759
Tanzania490178319
Tonga1,5861,6592,186
Trinidad and Tobago4,4365,4947,661
Uganda6436116
United Kingdom386,017384,660418,438
Western Samoa3,4313,4254,712
Zambia295241323
Others1024115
Totals, sterling countries540,212566,272656,947
EFTA(Excluding U.K.)   
Austria779316250
Denmark2,4541,9751,650
Iceland28
Norway1,1981,1801,492
Portugal1,7981,8321,790
Sweden2,5922,1082,648
Switzerland and Liechtenstein2,1501,4591,814
Totals, EFTA countries10,9718,8989,643
EEC   
Belgium and Luxembourg21,29225,52931,640
France and Monaco28,68227,64841,821
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)29,68230,29734,092
Italy and San Marino23,72419,22818,084
Netherlands16,11317,01420,406
Totals, EEC countries119,492119,717146,042
Dollar Area   
American Samoa2,3332,4862,782
Canada45,34332,18640,022
Colombia461015
Costa Rica1531
Dominican Republic141407
El Salvador299218
Guam1,3061,4342,750
Guatemala181
Liberia141612
Mexico1,2551,9202,119
Panama Canal Zone206385597
Panama Republic72021971
Philippines6,5189,11613,949
Puerto Rico, etc.1,0361,120732
Ryukyu Islands, etc.9717501,725
U.S. Trust Territories in Pacific582544133
United States of America166,493192,754207,496
Venezuela430341399
Others122111
Totals, dollar area227,735243,464273,229
Argentina469270
Brazil33738108
Bulgaria264797540
Burma4955321
Chile3901,22312,876
China4,0841,6551,696
China, (Taiwan)3,0732,4863,537
Czechoslovakia2,7761,6361,831
Finland1,003873649
French Guiana10559142
French Polynesia3,8854,3324,862
French West Indies110
Germany, East6671,5732,135
Greece8,46812,29020,452
Guadeloupe55240
Hungary859150284
Indonesia7761,2332,511
Iran1,3187782,048
Iraq29327162
Israel4446935
Japan105,557102,684130,553
Korea, Republic of1,6081,7032,334
Laos74169
Lebanon189462191
Martinique138225
Morocco184154152
Mozambique6107771,704
Muscat and Oman344291
Nepal19888
Netherlands5386901,262
New Caledonia3,1714,0794,625
Peru4,1276,94620,622
Poland3,1293,2746,045
Romania3188190
Saudi Arabia108128210
South Vietnam13246236
Spain4,4751,9623,040
Sudan10714764
Syria187201401
Thailand3,1714,4537,763
Tunisia125160128
Turkey5348522
United Arab Republic (Egypt)53117241
U.S.S.R.16,93417,92525,397
Uruguay9223
Wallis and Futuna Islands142204216
Yugoslavia3,7202,1402,908
Others561303,241
    Totals, other countries176,801179,362266,777
    Totals, all countries1,075,2121,117,7131,352,637
Ships' stores8,61410,41211,117
Passengers2,8353,5934,462
Destination optional1,621
Grand totals1,086,6611,131,7191,369,837

The table which follows shows for each of the last 7 June years, the percentage of total exports (excluding gold, current coin, passengers' purchases, and ships' stores) taken by each of the principal countries trading with New Zealand.

CountryJune Year 1966June Year 1967June Year 1968June Year 1969June Year 1970June Year 1971June Year 1972*

*Provisional.

† Iceland included in EFTA from 1970.

STERLING AREA    percent  
    Australia4.784.897.117.708.128.608.29
    Fiji0.510.520.710.780.821.111.07
    Hong Kong0.210.290.310.380.430.600.66
    Jamaica0.490.490.640.400.410.680.82
    Malaysia0.610.770.830.650.680.711.14
    Singapore0.430.550.730.860.810.850.98
    Trinidad and Tobago0.480.440.440.390.410.490.57
    United Kingdom44.5143.7043.3139.1635.9034.4130.94
    Other2.902.501.811.972.633.174.10
Totals, sterling countries54.9354.1555.8952.2950.2450.6648.57
EFTA (excluding U.K) 
    Austria0.010.020.070.030.02      
    Denmark0.250.340.210.190.230.180.12      
    Norway0.070.120.100.140.110.110.11      
    Portugal0.250.200.230.150.170.160.13      
    Sweden0.420.260.240.260.240.190.20      
    Switzerland0.070.120.130.110.200.130.13      
    Other       
Totals, EFTA countries1.071.040.910.861.020.800.71      
EEC 
    Belgium and Luxembourg2.941.621.411.971.982.282.34      
    France5.303.453.263.762.672.473.09      
    Germany, Federal Republic3.442.852.592.942.762.712.52      
    Italy2.632.081.912.212.211.721.34      
    Netherlands1.421.661.351.391.501.521.51      
    Totals, EEC countries15.7411.6510.5312.2811.1110.7110.80      
CountryJune Year 1965June Year 1966June Year 1967June Year 1968June Year 1969June Year 1970June Year 1971xJune Year 1972*
*Provisional.
DOLLAR AREApercent
    Canada1.431.261.471.301.684.222.882.96
    Philippines0.500.550.710.740.720.610.821.03
    U.S.A.12.6614.1215.8617.0117.3715.4817.2515.34
    Other0.350.360.430.510.630.870.830.87
Totals, dollar countries14.9416.2918.4719.5620.4021.1821.7820.20
OTHER 
    China, People's Republic of0.430.821.140.700.380.380.150.13     
    Greece0.370.480.450.480.630.791.101.51     
    Japan4.347.478.858.399.009.829.199.65     
    Peru0.290.240.670.490.240.380.621.52     
    Spain0.240.450.210.310.460.420.180.22     
    U.S.S.R.0.400.771.280.721.191.571.601.88     
    Others1.331.742.082.022.273.043.164.81     
Totals, other countries7.4011.9814.6913.1214.1816.4416.0519.72     
Totals, all countries100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00     

The principal destinations of New Zealand's exports of merchandise (including re-exports) are given in the table below.

June YearUnited KingdomCanadaAustraliaFrance and MonacoGermany Fed. Rep. of (West)United StatesOther Countries*Total Merchandise Exports

*including ships' stores, passengers' duty free stores, and destination optional.

† Provisional.

 $(million)
1963296.49.027.541.122.4107.8123.4627.6
1964347.88.834.046.928.3110.7160.7737.2
1965374.810.634.633.929.893.6165.2742.2
1966339.09.636.440.426.2107.5208.2767.3
1967314.810.635.224.820.5114.2207.1727.2
1968352.010.557.826.521.0138.2214.4820.5
1969382.716.475.336.828.7169.8279.4989.1
1970386.045.387.328.729.7166.5343.11,086.7
1971384.732.296.127.630.3192.8368.01,131.7
1972418.440.0112.141.834.1207.5515.81,369.8

The statistics quoted in the foregoing table indicate the destination of New Zealand exports as recorded on the Customs documents. In some instances the ultimate destination of exports is not known at the time of export, such goods being entered as exported to the country to which they are being shipped. This applies more particularly to wool, considerable quantities of which are shipped to the United Kingdom, and in normal times subsequently re-exported to the Continent. It should be observed, however, that in all instances where the final destination is known at the time of export, the exports are credited to that destination in the New Zealand trade statistics.

A further point of some importance is the fact that an appreciable quantity of wool is exported on an "optional" basis—United Kingdom, option Continent. In these cases, however, subsequent information is received as to the actual destination of the goods, and the entries are amended.

It will be realised, therefore, that the actual final destinations of New Zealand exports may vary appreciably from the classification shown in the table. For these reasons it is probable that exports to Continental countries are normally somewhat higher than the figures indicate; conversely, exports to the United Kingdom for retention in that country are lower than the totals quoted in the table.

In the following table figures are given for the value of New Zealand's export trade to European countries. This table shows the importance of wool as the chief commodity in New Zealand's trade with Europe.

CountryJune Year
196719681969197019711972*
*Provisional
  $(000)
Austria3938179779316250
Belgium and Luxembourg11,63611,46219,30421,29225,52931,640
Bulgaria63859650264797540
Czechoslovakia1,3319461,0142,7761,6361,831
Denmark2,4421,6841,8252,4541,9751,650
Finland6487727841,003873649
France and Monaco24,82526,51036,78128,68227,64841,821
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)20,51721,03328,73429,68230,29734,092
Germany, East1,6321,0351,0936671,5732,135
Greece3,2683,9166,1918,46812,29020,452
Hungary359261194859150284
Italy15,00815,54821,59123,72419,22818,084
Netherlands11,95311,00613,61116,11317,01420,406
Norway8408121,3261,1981,1801,492
Poland1,6461,3462,1033,1293,2746,045
Portugal1,4611,8981,4991,7981,8321,790
Spain1,5292,5434,5384,4751,9623,040
Sweden1,8801,9532,4932,5922,1082,648
Switzerland8471,0251,0352,1501,4591,814
Turkey2034255348522
U.S.S.R.9,1845,83911,66916,93417,92525,397
Yugoslavia1,1901,0471,6793,7202,1402,908
Totals112,895111,303157,717172,812171,255219,488
  percent
Percentage of total New Zealand exports taken by European countries15.5213.6616.1416.0715.3216.23
  $(000)
Value of wool exported to European countries76,43075,847106,928102,05699,515127,923
  percent
Percentage of wool exports to total exports to European countries (value basis)67.7068.2967.8059.0658.1158.28
Percentage of total New Zealand wool exports taken by European countries (value basis)43.9047.9450.3549.9752.9855.80

DESTINATION OF MAIN EXPORTS—The table which follows shows quantities and values of the principal exports of New Zealand produce sent to various destinations during the latest June years.

Country to Which ExportedJune Year 1969June Year 1970June Year 1971
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
Wool (Greasy, Slipe, and Scoured)
 metric tons$(000)metric tons$(000)metric tons$(000)
Australia4,2393,2704,5813,7487,0035,296
Bulgaria4492631,351757
Belgium and Luxembourg24,18114,05030,01217,21433,66519,173
Canada2,5521,9652,5021,9701,6751,341
China, People's Republic of2,8312,3783,8922,4141,279768
Czechoslovakia1,6671,0014,8102,6763,1161,600
Denmark1,3671,1271,8541,6371,257990
Finland344296465399541435
France and Monaco45,66729,01630,13518,12626,39915,376
Germany, East1,7131,0921,0656672,4941,573
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)22,96917,32620,55215,44120,78915,181
Greece3,3582,9324,6244,1477,9626,889
Ireland, Republic of1,9511,2961,9051,3222,6261,835
Italy19,23213,90018,45213,03212,6388,233
Japan28,40422,62031,56224,34627,24619,351
Mexico655368496297903531
Netherlands9,6045,7937,3434,49113,0027,280
Norway623552865809805669
Poland2,5561,8584,3232,7775,1103,241
Portugal2,2611,3972,8511,7163,0251,723
South Africa8957771,1259851,163963
Spain3,0362,0182,2031,4131,015585
Sweden1,4781,2771,2561,102884737
U.S.S.R.14,67611,66819,45412,83720,74713,317
United Kingdom68,60545,81762,76941,14056,40434,027
United States39,31925,34135,26922,91632,93120,621
Yugoslavia1,4891,4404,0042,9572,3671,635
Other countries2,2461,8054,2333,3805,0963,722
Totals307,917212,381303,050204,222293,494187,850
Frozen and Chilled Beef and Veal
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
American Samoa156143281242298293
Bahamas272045376653
Barbados1,1567191,4269021,381950
Belgium and Luxembourg41243723674599
Bermuda5115858728891,0191,162
Canada7,2995,65146,04035,37927,40722,647
Cyprus772554375289482466
Fiji295437725091
France and Monaco46315865154186
French Polynesia1,3801,6001,3851,7031,4971,949
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)452623172831
Greece383743265539
Guam9749241,1911,1161,1541,168
Hong Kong6136886778121,0241,322
Israel
Italy21128770
Jamaica1,2228461,4899971,9491,393
Japan1,9071,3123,3352,5363,2962,603
Korea255195831601446315
Malaysia181179376388173211
Netherlands646492302302801892
Netherlands Antilles433353320276303308
New Caledonia40328622123175
Philippines648585313375504654
Puerto Rico5625288137629751,026
Ryukyu Islands, etc.302420609765564690
Singapore1,9141,7482,3602,2672,0342,309
Sweden13020410919085163
Switzerland6485871,1771,302760834
Tonga362247233418
Trinidad and Tobago1,5811,2222,0641,6162,2901,923
United Kingdom10,5997,99514,00410,23716,87215,569
United States95,79480,29687,90385,721106,853106,987
Other countries7527856,1344,0844,6803,488
Totals131,121109,121174,898154,244178,001170,414
Frozen Lamb
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia5301961336632
Barbados320123375159417205
Belgium and Luxembourg449175633298544278
Bermuda197134331235366289
Canada8,2003,1741,5761,0032,2761,384
Cyprus1,2574311,136513810364
Fiji1,037301862309885327
France and Monaco18310413210312787
French Polynesia238151290208290221
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)6872631,7858533,0231,404
Greece7,0572,4368,9003,80710,2974,608
Hong Kong383153456203515249
Italy1,6358128394981,262714
Jamaica186116171111249193
Japan3,5221,4735,6122,7313,7662,022
Malaysia39314248521222892
Netherlands1,3455001,1645332,002968
Singapore1,054434870379742351
Switzerland526228608308416228
Tonga641112699121825154
Trinidad and Tobago295145377200294167
United Kingdom291,865132,594271,076132,753282,818139,853
United States8,4244,76011,4316,8398,3105,444
Western Samoa7171257981401,003174
Zambia42214734213717173
Other countries2,0398743,2331,5612,7241,332
Totals333,604150,106314,313154,280324,361161,182
Frozen Mutton
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia8613
Barbados89201062212932
Belgium and Luxembourg183441624422277
Canada1,0284186602931,480877
Cyprus29910620465449170
Fiji4479746712934398
France and Monaco140321674415043
French Polynesia56312417137
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)1,205224439103675161
Greece2,47245118438921195
Jamaica1,0491931,7514632,024604
Japan90,48418,09082,07519,62150,70913,924
Netherlands2174533788499138
Papua and New Guinea238503639718049
Peru857160
Singapore14332188458620
Tonga145239618418
Trinidad and Tobago1964822363396136
United Kingdom31,8655,00519,6374,63822,4805,589
United States32014420124231
Western Samoa791283166614
Other countries60913710,9062,77613,3273,117
Totals132,20725,375118,09228,59394,23325,291
Frozen Pork
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Belgium and Luxembourg19173243912
Fiji443126227357
France and Monaco135130105137216272
French Polynesia735954535153
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)262148155103155117
Guam3721
Japan2171251501261817
Nauru281675
Netherlands1912962117
New Caledonia1106454452218
Singapore1377518111410
United Kingdom311372
Other countries714261475744
Totals1,182752672598641619
Other Frozen Meat
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia2334630232814
Canada277216438258357245
Cyprus1185670445034
France and Monaco2,6911,3222,8702,3092,5582,020
French Polynesia229141253214173139
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)2,1321,9492,2372,9082,5433,194
Greece39110214026519178
Hong Kong1394126786354128
Italy2428016598291195
Jamaica1,0283651,180508945468
Japan3501509205591,062680
Netherlands392335425552520618
Netherlands Antilles2239318986225125
Philippines386752263713121
Singapore25110625812818596
Sweden330296304429356435
Trinidad and Tobago29411130514615484
United Kingdom26,12412,73128,18316,77828,27818,057
United States526529506536556639
Other countries7833921,1948141,032858
Totals37,13519,13640,15826,54040,31828,228
Canned and Other Preserved Meats
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
American Samoa36632648851984131
Fiji259246284262284282
French Polynesia188230187218321400
Gilbert and Ellice Islands9510510110596109
Italy217363396828463
Jamaica25017118012313497
Japan13642164453416
Nauru95107116130118146
Papua and New Guinea1361151261027355
Philippines12121281211049
Tonga193171196168182176
United Kingdom1,9231,9751,3681,1891,3031,483
Other countries5173179045391,056612
Totals4,4973,8614,4813,4814,0803,619
Butter
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
American Samoa81541046810670
Bahamas281165249146360215
Barbados231134251143254154
Bermuda18382284131308159
Canada1,2006131711
Cyprus1136635207949
Fiji633362941551744506
French Polynesia236159206139205138
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)355210335190282176
Ghana2012311853
Guyana209177126
Hong Kong319183394208384213
India1861241046911
Jamaica2,1121,2332,0691,3003,2312,132
Japan19395432311158
Malaysia1,432702261121666462
Mexico7453111,8958202,4181,111
Netherlands Antilles11775174105230142
Nigeria163
Panama Canal Zone12098150121120103
Panama Republic784639811670179140
Peru2,2891,0875,0652,2568,0713,644
Philippines1,4397521,3326851,355665
Singapore1,1656661,8367571,8571,002
South Africa7,7504,876
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)737379354175450218
Thailand1,1075671,150557716421
Tonga121791308612281
Trinidad and Tobago1,2347191,2937401,225765
United Kingdom183,973104,333173,59298,662157,50394,711
United States1,263594782389834645
Western Samoa1348814796182121
Other countries2961708524911,615929
Totals203,118114,760194,893109,747191,392113,926
Cheese
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Ass. States in Eastern Caribbean14187176109211131
Australia8986311,1358051,138868
Barbados504221556248722343
Belgium and Luxembourg253124220108
Bermuda62261124814967
Cyprus6732753711256
Fiji643052256732
French Polynesia91661057110272
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)648317626295341172
Guyana42
Hong Kong633251268343
Italy
Jamaica1,5265711,4265213,3471,297
Japan4,9542,1396,9163,0076,7082,870
Malaysia47222412147
Netherlands3615361712559
Philippines2941325416697332
Singapore26712224811318489
South Africa95431,8471,046
Trinidad and Tobago1,4345172,1187602,150807
United Kingdom69,17333,64968,00733,00566,88534,782
United States5,5693,7586,8784,9146,0494,804
Other countries173106331202289172
Totals86,27642,60389,15144,34291,21748,050
Milk {Dried, Condensed, etc.}
Barbados2644249175540103
Canada9542301,052277941242
China, (Taiwan)3,1395034,2626693,651798
Denmark1752286940072
Fiji757225953286957321
French Polynesia300852296921073
Hong Kong2604446875677142
India7,5541,1065,8967538,6511,643
Indonesia151391,4002352,583629
Israel492631,968446
Italy507
Jamaica1,7072571,8752806,3681,173
Japan30,7224,17333,7354,35017,3533,287
Kuwait3405873115031077
Malaysia18,9763,50425,3774,63822,3124,924
Mauritius6621651,2763001,168343
Mozambique7371281,1181771,089228
Pakistan1,0141668,2411,1951,373258
Peru6,4891,03011,8241,85416,6473,233
Philippines17,5412,73119,1112,93222,5544,590
Ryukyu Islands, etc.1,1291291,45916312515
Singapore5,9781,0229,1891,5517,6491,482
South Africa305504104
South Vietnam213386461161
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)2,6757054,6011,4443,9031,274
Thailand6,7471,14210,8941,76314,8862,976
Trinidad and Tobago1,9249081,9336554,8131,458
United Kingdom19,6204,13029,4846,1497,3891,938
Western Samoa232722498226091
Venezuela78412599914929851
Other countries1,0212773,8316908,3382,081
Totals132,60523,129181,43931,092157,91734,052
Casein
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Canada8032490193679300
France and Monaco1,6397433,4531,5293,4691,614
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)8,0773,6979,6894,33911,0254,860
India15784
Italy1,1875443,9511,7783,4201,598
Japan14,0025,90112,5895,11316,4397,122
Netherlands1,0995022,6211,1612,8861,316
Spain2851281,0774731,042467
Sweden880368886372999452
United Kingdom5,1402,2485,4902,3215,6992,624
United States16,4047,34518,9217,66419,8748,560
Other countries4271941,8448092,8991,285
Totals49,23621,70861,01025,75568,43630,202
Edible Tallow
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia15018
Burma30035759
China, People's Republic of3038616
Fiji115152153
Hong Kong126161211913927
India5476412716
Japan889905286931
Malaysia807994426814027
Singapore87710973912639977
Tanzania715825017326649
United Kingdom6037364810133569
Other countries28739961159566112
Totals5,4466424,0696322,024389
Inedible Tallow
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia9121106539249294
Burma2,942329506
China, People's Republic of5,1514699221392,648442
Fiji77683785130836151
France and Monaco1,8241735,9477358,1061,269
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)82273105112614
India6817642157
Japan9,82798712,1671,59417,3202,720
Kenya1,3201323,46647251180
Malaysia3,0423051,3871852,264368
Mauritius1,6991331,5431521,774241
Mozambique3,6892942,6813002,640419
Netherlands8,7977138,5019655,120695
Philippines2,563224840932,190343
Singapore999103735991,237203
South Africa4,7373962,4872561,123162
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)1,8471321,11713838867
Trinidad and Tobago1,4691311,27614525544
United Kingdom7,82968014,6051,86010,2901,603
Other countries3,3153177,5559575,088827
Totals64,2415,85967,1938,38162,4589,747
Cattle and Horse Hides
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Australia1,70523428548647103
China, People's Republic of53573
Denmark1,8212534977348174
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)4,8446204,7727632,669368
Greece1,2121881,7733331,783297
Italy26,0983,75827,4664,52134,8665,412
Japan6,8721,01912,0252,20910,4541,768
Netherlands4,8176993,9046852,009310
Norway8121121,1781801,322188
Poland1,49324213133
Spain1,7172441,4272142,889371
United Kingdom2,4723231,891314929134
Yugoslavia1,0101274,2526152,945417
Other countries2,0693052,2673981,791296
Totals57,4768,19761,73710,35262,9149,769
Calf and Kip Skins
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Australia40211112433356
France and Monaco20511365426323287
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)32218139718222072
Italy1,0185721,5467373,7391,148
Japan1,5165661,321488560162
Netherlands43624438916235691
Spain8533721,86274810719
United Kingdom1,27374916566351115
United States434236673231
Other countries11531721178942169
Totals6,5743,1757,2472,8896,5941,871
 Sheepskins (With Wool)     
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
France and Monaco3,6656353,0945473,775575
Italy54011385818624444
Netherlands102123307720
Portugal143
Spain2,406441668147704104
United Kingdom338741,477293991219
Other countries40113509218448
Totals7,0141,2796,5701,2945,9741,011
Sheepskins (Without Wool)
 doz(000)$(000)doz(000)$(000)doz(000)$(000)
Australia2836418797
Belgium and Luxembourg2573,9441322,1502193,133
Canada1415886921233
Finland252094135136210
France and Monaco2583,1213763,5624434,902
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)373475546624178
Italy801,3461301,83881977
Netherlands1772,8043215,3482253,133
Spain1041,1891021,12519183
United Kingdom6158,7077268,6266928,524
United States1,40618,2728077,6821,16115,255
Other countries8915042824274
Totals3,00940,5522,75131,6522,95237,101
Sausage Casings
 hanks (000)$(000)hanks (000)$(000)hanks (000)$(000)
Australia559646971225
Canada1,8432,5562,4903,8051,8702,899
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)4859094799705041,200
Japan124190193413237572
United Kingdom3,6815,0273,1105,8293,0966,037
United States1,1441,9391,1402,4191,3512,973
Yugoslavia6810740932256
Other countries72106147346166341
Totals7,47210,9297,64613,9727,25914,102
Apples (Fresh Whole Fruit)
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Belgium and Luxembourg7,7904847,81858611,980901
Canada4,9993127,1935204,841363
Fiji574366754569752
Finland2,4681541,5281151,08281
French Polynesia578376514559845
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)7,65848010,24976911,004825
Hong Kong2,5761612,3901673,221242
Ireland, Republic of2,4871553,3672533,000225
New Caledonia686436904766850
Norway1,343841,5001131,670125
Philippines1,468913602718014
Singapore1,295812,02313698074
Sweden2,3801491,88014160045
United Kingdom48,9873,06469,9685,17865,0774,849
United States3,1401965,7044214,805360
Venezuela2,3981502,4881702,210166
Other countries958641,8821332,342179
Totals91,7865,741120,3678,863114,9568,595
Seeds (Grass and Clover)
 cental$(000)cental$(000)cental$(000)
Australia52,50684452,27393929,141653
Chile14,44224514,78926112,158257
France and Monaco24,72347529,90951334,134711
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)1,968676,23614111,226357
Ireland, Republic of11,5451815,74512512,742228
Italy1,141181,879391,85137
Japan2,939823,5731073,205118
Netherlands1,289423,155784,201131
South Africa4,344535,765668229
United Kingdom59,9261,29545,0621,13595,6712,099
United States1,564491,4724785268
Uruguay1,47641
Other countries2,454635,1691258,259230
Totals180,3173,453175,0273,576214,2624,896
Peas (Food), Including Frozen
 lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)lb(000)$(000)
Australia9,3001,4174,5196904,333843
Belgium and Luxembourg2,252773,2021015,391158
Fiji1,08364936521,44880
Hong Kong46543724651,401111
Japan7,97225810,59358915,961804
Netherlands1,306461,268432,969101
Singapore806691,023831,800132
South Africa824304,8342059,145464
United Kingdom23,5091,34419,6341,2299,789340
United States583211,4085185029
Other countries1,308875,2594488,903438
Totals49,4093,45853,4013,55661,9903,499
Peas (Seed)
 cental$(000)cental$(000)cental$(000)
Australia122,82667995,91054068,949404
France and Monaco6,133343,675203,05916
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)24,72814520,0941175,89432
Japan6,3303011,6655530
Netherlands6,4723910,050585,74131
South Africa3,6702112,078621,3118
United Kingdom90,53549190,676547105,231616
Other countries9,1994511,665597,28640
Totals269,8931,484255,131,458197,5011,146
Wood Pulp and Waste Paper
 tons$(000)tons$(000)tons$(000)
Australia64,7175,59472,0286,26881,5337,788
Japan7,0895619691062,772291
Philippines8,6296765,1265676,348781
Other countries8,3476524,2463547,002640
Totals88,7827,48482,3697,29497,6559,499
Timber (Sawn Conifer)
 sup ft (000)$(000)sup ft (000)$(000)sup ft (000)$(000)
Australia53,6614,75252,5835,15643,7254,360
Japan37,7692,23834,8191,99837,5542,368
New Caledonia1,7701835,4607715,915982
Tonga97212748660842142
United Kingdom697523,58643914,135934
Western Samoa9251101,2281701,247175
Other countries2,1992615,8917377,9481,048
Totals97,9937,724104,0539,331111,36610,010
Sawlogs and Veneer (Logs, Conifer)
 cu ft (000)$(000)cu ft (000)$(000)cu ft (000)$(000)
Australia3021183114
Japan49,83618,69861,48923,23361,98125,296
Korea, Republic of2,9161,1041,7846711,784705
Other countries871515
Totals53,06319,92763,31923,93363,76526,001
Fish (Other than Canned)
 cwt$(000)cwt$(000)cwt$(000)
Australia58,2781,94561,8612,18086,4913,064
France and Monaco3,2176281,5302402,22980
Japan3,6595918,88646122,911602
Netherlands4,3021212,932938,209228
United States59,21314,15645,52710,40343,86211,204
Western Samoa3,010271,915222,27631
Other countries13,00531221,3631,03534,9751,709
Totals144,68417,248154,01414,433200,95416,919
Newsprint
 cwt (000)$(000)cwt (000)$(000)cwt (000)$(000)
Australia2,34415,8362,31215,5092,11013,597
Philippines36125291081870
Singapore145023831763
Thailand1861
Other countries16762814548299
Totals2,42716,1492,39215,8452,19414,028

EXPORTS BY PORTS—The following table shows for the latest June years the value of total exports, including re-exports, according to the ports at which goods were loaded for export.

PortYear Ended June
196719681969197019711972
† Figure amended.
 $(million)
Whangarei22.532.334.836.938.0 
Auckland233.2249.2277.8318.0309.6 
Hamilton 
Tauranga29.746.972.189.7116.8 
Gisborne7.17.19.410.712.3 
Napier72.183.2105.6113.8130.6 
Taranaki67.573.779.884.691.5 
Wanganui0.1 
Palmerston North0.1 
Wellington85.999.9115.5124.3116.8 
Picton2.53.84.33.54.2 
Nelson5.88.312.913.614.2 
Greymouth0.1 
Lyttelton60.664.180.285.181.5 
Timaru34.747.71.561.667.5 
Oamaru 
Otago40.029.438.140.341.8 
Bluff65.574.696.8104.3106.7 
Totals727.2820.5989.11,086.71,131.7 

Auckland occupies a commanding position in the export trade of New Zealand, usually about one-third of all exports being dispatched from that port. Wellington occupies second place, with approximately one-eighth of the trade. As will be seen from the above table, the order of the other ports varies from year to year. The general rise in the value of exports through Tauranga is attributed to the pulp, paper, and timber industries of the district.

RE-EXPORTS—Until recent years the forwarding trade of New Zealand has never been of great significance. In latest years, passengers duty-free purchases, ships' and international aircraft stores, make up between one-fifth and one-third of the total re-exports. The balance is made up principally of miscellaneous stores sent to the Pacific Islands and goods returned or re-sold to the United Kingdom and Australia.

Particulars of re-exports are contained in the next table. Specie is not included in the figures.

 $(000)
Year 
19564,767
19574,528
19584,377
19595,321
19605,400
19617,183
Jan-June 
19623,335
June Year 
19637,563
19648,844
19658,512
196610,454
19679,601
196815,838
196920,219
197022,195
197123,628x
197228,030
*Provisional.

The destinations of this re-export trade for the latest June years are shown in the following table.

CountryJune Year
1969197019711972*
*Provisional.
 $(thousand)
Australia5,3906,4148,2519,848
Fiji1,5691,1751,9632,075
Hong Kong9380167128
Malaysia46307349
Papua and New Guinea6114833116
Singapore198174293586
South Africa1047465141
Tonga1019998206
United Kingdom1,7792,6211,2021,412
Western Samoa207717339451
Germany, Federal Republic of (West)235319393547
Netherlands551125206100
Canada17711392177
Philippines2104322340
United States1,6151,7462,0522,874
Brazil186
Indonesia629444143
Japan187636223327
Other countries1,3169721,3401,005
Ships' stores3,5913,1413,3113,552
Passengers goods2,7832,6983,4594,255
    Totals (excluding gold and current coin)20,21922,19523,62828,030

GOODS SHIPPED TO COOK, NIUE, AND TOKELAU ISLANDS—Trade with the Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands is not regarded as external to New Zealand, but merely as interchange between different parts of the country, and it is therefore not included in the account of the external trade. The trade of these islands with other countries is also omitted from New Zealand trade statistics. Separate returns are made of the transactions between New Zealand and these islands and the values of goods shipped to the islands are summarised below.

YearExports
*Provisional
 $(000)
19571,313
19581,501
19591,298
19601,490
19612,081
19621,888
19632,001
19642,397
June Year$(000)
19653,020
19662,846
19672,796
19683,461
19693,590
19705,024
19716,995
1972*5,911

Further particulars regarding the trade of the islands will be found in Section 38.

22 C—IMPORTS

GENERAL—Statistics of imports are compiled from entries passed to the Customs and are usually quoted on the valuation basis c.d.v. (current domestic value in the country of export at the time of shipment). However, in certain tables the value c.i.f. (cost including insurance and freight) is also given. Import values are expressed in terms of New Zealand currency, and import totals do not include gold and current coin, except where expressly stated.

Reference should be made to Section 22A for details of the systems of valuation of imports as now used in these tables. Section 22A also gives a summary of import totals for recent years and index numbers of the volume of import trade.

IMPORT CONTROL—Reference to import control is made in Section 22A.

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS—The following table classifies imports by Sections of the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised). It illustrates the great variety of imports which New Zealand receives in exchange for its relatively limited range of exports.

Year Ended JuneImports (c.d.v.)
Food and Live AnimalsBeverages and TobaccoCrude Materials, Inedible, Except FuelsMineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related MaterialsAnimal and Vegetable Oils and FatsChemicals
*Provisional
 $(thousand) 
196230,8325,62523,46745,93389344,741
196335,2537,51922,60644,33595047,707
196448,6277,00327,53047,8191,10555,450
196535,4697,74531,02851,6911,08865,379
196637,1178,14634,95439,9451,27380,238
196731,3848,40736,68044,8631,14377,674
196831,9618,64931,81148,0421,35176,766
196934,31710,55443,68956,2481,415102,861
197045,2128,66651,39659,0941,709116,345
197155,31212,23747,35460,6252,586134,804
1972*56,25812,86845,17166,5912,744142,782
Imports (c.d.v.)
Year Ended JuneManufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by MaterialMachinery and TransportMiscellaneous Manufactured ArticlesCommodities and Transactions not Classified According to KindTotal Merchandise Imports
*Provisional.
 $(thousand)
1963167,333159,45435,4463,137523,741
1964187,870217,96041,4812,523637,368
1965195,223230,98342,2261,833662,667
1966216,289263,40346,8251,236729,426
1967210,863290,90846,3573,926752,206
1968182,032196,38243,6332,280622,908
1969233,280254,90559,5572,371799,197
1970271,612319,71366,5524,027944,324
1971296,296370,81177,22813,3141,070,567
1972*285,961443,21684,0999,8821,149,572

The next table gives fuller details of imports according to sections and divisions for the latest June years.

Section and Division S.I.T.C., RevisedJune Year 1971June Year 1972*
c.d.v.c.i.f.c.d.v.c.i.f.
*Provisional.
Section 0. Food and Live Animals$ (thousand)
    Div. 00 Live animals3,5943,8112,3792,678
        " 01 Meat and meat preparations606686405461
        " 02 Dairy products and eggs285277231253
        " 03 Fish and fish preparations5,9956,4313,4313,755
        " 04 Cereals and cereal preparations6,3187,7364,1145,008
        " 05 Fruits and vegetables13,36116,31415,35618,758
        " 06 Sugar and sugar preparations12,20016,57417,19119,006
        " 07 Coffee, tea, cocoa, spices, and manufactures thereof12,22614,91512,35515,209
        " 08 Feeding stuff for animals (not including unmilled cereals)287375200269
        " 09 Miscellaneous food preparations438470597621
Totals, Section 055,31267,58956,25866,019
Section 1. Beverages and Tobacco
    Div. 11 Beverages5,7946,5097,2958,246
        " 12 Tobacco and tobacco manufactures6,4427,1355,5735,946
Totals, Section 112,23713,64412,86814,192
Section 2. Crude Materials, Inedibles, Except Fuels
    Div. 21 Hides, skins, and fur skins, undressed529570625701
        " 22 Oil seeds, oil nuts, and oil kernels1,8932,0612,1502,425
        " 23 Crude rubber, including synthetic and reclaimed7,0857,6366,6787,250
        " 24 Wood and cork3,7415,3873,1664,539
        " 25 Pulp and waste paper2,3762,9751,6842,061
        " 26 Textile fibres (not manufactured into yarn, thread, or fabrics) and waste7,3008,2356,1006,986
        " 27 Crude fertilisers and crude minerals, excluding coal, petroleum and precious stones17,66128,49119,52833,384
        " 28 Metaliferous ores and metal scrap1,9282,139225259
        " 29 Animal and vegetable crude materials, n.e.i.4,8415,1715,0155,276
Totals, Section 247,35462,66645,17162,880
Section 3. Mineral Fuels, Lubricants, and Related Materials
    Div. 32 Coal, coke, and briquettes214299189281
        " 33 Petroleum and petroleum products60,25283,22066,25186,733
        " 34 Gas159175151179
Totals, Section 360,62583,69366,59187,193
Section 4. Animal and Vegetable Oils and Fats
    Div. 41 Animal oils and fats67826173
        " 42 Vegetable oils and fats, unprocessed2,2522,6002,4242,855
        " 43 Animal and vegetable oils and fats, processed, and waxes of animal or vegetable origin267310259314
Totals, Section 42,5862,9912,7443,242
Section 5. Chemicals
    Div. 51 Chemical elements and compounds37,56740,51945,37849,426
        " 52 Mineral tar and crude chemicals from coal, petroleum, and natural gas371478503651
        " 53 Dyeing, tanning, and colouring materials9,0329,0498,8308,732
        " 54 Medicinal and pharmaceutical products27,86624,87628,95725,448
        " 55 Essential oils and perfume materials; toilet, polishing, and cleansing preparations4,4004,4074,5324,706
        " 56 Fertilisers, manufactured7,33110,0257,88710,079
        " 57 Explosives2,1192,0831,6391,704
        " 58 Plastic materials, regenerated cellulose, artificial resins30,39029,49928,60528,037
        " 59 Miscellaneous chemical materials and products15,72817,19916,45117,953
Totals, Section 5134,804138,135142,782146,736
Section 6. Manufactured Goods Classified Chiefly by Material
    Div. 61 Leather, leather manufactures, n.e.i., and dressed furs1,3081,3681,5341,633
        " 62 Rubber manufactures, n.e.i.8,0187,9068,9988,862
        " 63 Wood and cork manufactures (excluding furniture)2,4872,8512,4952,884
        " 64 Paper, paperboard, and manufactures thereof12,05113,28012,65913,755
        " 65 Textile yarn, fabrics, made-up articles and related products94,68899,642104,345111,112
        " 66 Non-metallic mineral manufactures, n.e.i.15,30017,41414,65316,310
        " 67 Iron and steel81,99991,53168,40873,846
        " 68 Non-ferrous metals42,22541,50234,91533,630
        " 69 Manufacture of metals38,21938,98737,95339,024
Totals, Section 6296,296314,481285,961301,056
Section 7. Machinery and Transport Equipment
    Div. 71 Machinery other than electric162,853166,082177,056183,709
        " 72 Electric machinery, apparatus, and appliances69,53069,93071,40972,060
        " 73 Transport equipment138,428145,122194,752202,889
Totals, Section 7370,811381,133443,216458,657
Section 8. Miscellaneous Manufactured Articles
    Div. 81 Sanitary, plumbing, heating, lighting fittings, and fixtures1,1141,2371,1051,213
        " 82 Furniture and fixtures322355362400
        " 83 Travel goods, handbags, and similar articles149161185200
        " 84 Clothing3,0203,1623,2453,489
        " 85 Footwear1,5741,6821,9632,183
        " 86 Professional, scientific and controlling instruments: photographic and optical goods, watches, and clucks31,21029,30131,26129,610
        " 89 Miscellaneous manufactured articles, n.e.i.39,83941,73945,97948,509
Totals, Section 877,22877,63884,09985,603
Section 9. Commodities and Transactions Not Classified According to Kind13,31413,5589,88210,319
Grand totals, merchandise imports1,070,5671,155,5281,149,5721,235,897

DIRECTION OF IMPORT TRADE—The United Kingdom has been the chief supplier of New Zealand imports since the eighties of last century. Prior to that the main supply was from Australia. In the years following the Second World War, the proportion of the import trade received from the United Kingdom rose from 47.8 percent in 1946 to a maximum of 60.1 percent in 1950. Since 1950 there has been an overall decline, and for the June year 1972 only 28.6 percent of imports came from that source. The trade with Australia from 1950 to 1956 was between 10 and 15 percent of the total. In 1957 and 1958, however, it rose to 17 percent, and in 1959 and 1960 to 18 percent. In the year ended June 1972, 23.1 percent of imports came from Australia. Japan is becoming an important trading partner; in the latest year 11.2 percent of imports came from that source.

The principal changes in the direction of the import trade are illustrated in the table in Section 22A giving the percentages received from the various currency areas.

The table which follows shows imports (valuation c.d.v.) during the latest 11 years from the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States.

Year Ended JuneCountry Where PurchasedCountry of OriginTotal Merchandise Imports
United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.United KingdomAustraliaU.S.A.
*Provisional.
 $(million)
196322997462199748524
19642591325724713359637
19652621327824212875663
19662891437527813584729
196729115010127514397752
19682081417518813368623
1969267172102243158100799
1970300220123279198123944
19713292521273102251301,071
1972*......3292671171,152

The next table gives imports on a c.d.v. basis by countries of origin for the latest June years.

CountryJune Year 1971xJune Year 1972
*Provisional.
Sterling Area$(000)$(000)
Australia225,467266,691
Bahamas1430
Bahrain4,4625,829
British Solomon Islands5646
Brunei4,0693,300
Fiji3,0722,759
Ghana2,0661,684
Gilbert and Ellice Islands2,1654,414
Guyana12856
Hong Kong18,65519,294
India6,80112,356
Ireland, Republic of533621
Jamaica288464
Kenya600446
Kuwait20,46420,823
Malawi8157
Malaysia5,5355,116
Malta, including Gozo5031
Mauritius and Dependencies62124
Nauru5,5395,295
New Hebrides Cond.5764
New Zealand Re-imports1,8171,756
Nigeria12281
Pakistan3,5873,064
Papua and New Guinea526586
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen1,445179
Singapore1,6784,218
South Africa3,2873,179
Sri Lanka (Ceylon)3,6344,354
Tanzania (incl. Pemba)1,2961,236
Tonga388515
Trinidad and Tobago10952
Uganda1,9301,226
United Kingdom309,946329,013
Western Samoa1,5151,274
Other4641
Totals631,490700,274
E.F.T.A. (excluding U.K.)  
Austria1,6151,925
Denmark2,7824,111
Iceland1
Norway2,1552,720
Portugal6541,022
Sweden8,50413,703
Switzerland and Liechtenstein10,87511,503
Totals26,58634,984
E.E.C.—  
Belgium and Luxembourg6,7676,398
France and Monaco11,00111,292
Germany, Federal Republic of, (West)49,18449,308
Italy and San Marino14,36115,442
Netherlands14,17911,696
Totals95,49294,136
Dollar Area$(000)$(000)
Canada38,37836,489
Colombia1,2451,267
Costa Rica2619
Dominican Republic4,2401,719
Ecuador1,2871,508
Mexico5221,084
Philippines330419
United States129,857116,650
Other2919
Totals175,914159,175
Other Countries  
Angola incl. Cabinda66217
Argentina1637
Brazil1,9862,106
Bulgaria2225
Central African Republic2941
Chile97147
China4,4485,312
China (Taiwan)7251,337
Congo People's Republic (Brazzaville)21
Czechoslovakia1,8351,418
Finland517797
French Polynesia2227
Germany, East415318
Greece9170
Hungary155138
Indonesia9041,108
Iran8,98410,576
Iraq103266
Israel234259
Ivory Coast14412
Japan110,272128,668
Korea, Republic of805864
Morocco1814
Mozambique153201
Netherlands Antilles3126
New Caledonia100
Peru3734
Poland452407
Romania53106
Saudi Arabia4,4773,699
Spain1,2501,757
Sudan8226
Syria1314
Thailand7331,080
Turkey152197
U.S.S.R.1,2021,099
Yemen261663
Yugoslavia115405
Zaire Republic (Congo Kinshasa)3126
Other3472
Totals141,086163,571
Grand totals1,070,5671,152,140

On a country of origin basis the following table shows for the latest 7 June years the percentage of the value (c.d.v.) of total New Zealand imports.

CountryJune Year 1966June Year 1967June Year 1968June Year 1969June Year 1970June Year 1971xJune Year 1972*

*Provisional.

† Iceland included in EFTA from 1970.

Sterling Areapercent
    Australia18.5219.0021.3319.8120.9521.0623.15
    Bahrain0.030.120.060.210.390.420.51
    Fiji0.170.160.110.310.100.290.24
    Ghana0.270.160.330.130.290.190.15
    Hong Kong1.281.262.091.721.891.741.67
    India1.500.940.941.110.900.641.07
    Malaysia0.840.780.750.830.680.520.44
    Nauru0.400.520.660.770.670.520.46
    Singapore0.170.400.290.380.320.160.37
    South Africa0.340.320.380.490.420.310.28
    Sri Lanka (Ceylon)0.650.590.710.620.470.340.38
    United Kingdom38.1336.5930.1630.4729.5528.9528.56
    Western Samoa0.140.110.220.160.150.140.11
    Other3.223.173.923.893.673.733.40
Totals65.6464.1261.9560.8960.4558.9960.78
E.F.T.A. (excluding U.K.)
    Austria0.130.110.120.110.150.170.17
    Denmark0.250.250.300.230.260.260.36
    Iceland
    Norway0.160.290.170.190.140.200.24
    Portugal0.060.660.080.080.070.060.09
    Sweden0.920.971.301.170.770.791.19
    Switzerland0.990.891.201.160.991.021.00
Totals2.512.572.992.952.392.483.04
E.E.C.—
    Belgium and Luxembourg0.460.470.440.520.470.630.56
    France and Monaco0.720.800.830.830.831.030.98
    Germany, Fed. Rep. of (West)3.063.573.384.233.894.594.28
    Italy1.051.411.341.391.261.341.34
    Netherlands1.321.151.071.051.021.321.02
Totals6.617.397.088.037.458.928.17
Dollar Area
    Canada4.063.924.743.813.973.583.17
    U.S.A.11.4912.8310.9712.4713.0412.1310.12
    Other0.320.550.490.160.680.720.52
Totals15.8717.3016.2016.4417.6916.4313.82
Other Countries
    China0.380.410.460.620.460.420.46
    Czechoslovakia0.160.210.210.190.190.170.12
    Indonesia0.290.240.110.130.170.080.10
    Iran0.910.761.571.271.210.840.92
    Japan6.165.848.258.088.2710.3011.17
    Netherlands, Antilles0.020.020.01
    Saudi Arabia0.360.510.580.620.530.420.32
    Other1.110.620.590.761.190.931.11
Totals9.378.6111.7911.6912.0213.1814.20
Grand totals100.00100.00100.00100.000100.00100.00100.00

ORIGIN OF PRINCIPAL IMPORTS—The table which follows shows details of principal commodity imports by country of origin for years ended June 1970 and 1971. C.d.v. basis of valuation is used.

Commodity and Countries of OriginValue of Imports
1969–701970–71
 $(000)
Oranges
    Australia1,4401,499
    All countries1,8681,965
Sugar (not refined) —  
    Australia4,4412,934
    Fiji6412,796
    All countries10,12311,206
Bananas  
    Costa Rica59
    Ecuador8251,284
    Tonga15575
    Western Samoa178127
    All countries1,2791,534
Dried Fruits  
    Australia3,7843,490
    U.S.A.1,0051,256
    All countries5,4295,248
Whisky  
    United Kingdom1,7172,312
    All countries1,8972,600
Tobacco
    (Unmanufactured)—
    South Africa332335
    U.S.A.3,4354,942
    All countries3,9906,075
Rubber (Crude and Synthetic)—  
    Canada601366
    France and Monaco141196
    Malaysia3,9383,008
    United Kingdom409276
    U.S.A.1,1061,191
    All countries7,5137,085
Wood (Shaped or Simply Worked)  
    Australia750720
    Canada880414
    Ghana444661
    U.S.A.1,790814
    All countries4,3623,136
Pulp and Waste Paper
    Canada402413
    Finland559177
    Germany, Fed. Rep.23
    Sweden99
    All countries1,6112,376
Wool and Other Animal Hair
    Australia2,1111,545
    United Kingdom1,0531,101
    All countries3,1712,676
Natural Phosphates
    Australia2,6842,651
    Gilbert and Ellice Islands1,8032,165
    Nauru6,3175,539
    U.S.A.433
    All countries11,23710,357
Raw Coffee
    Brazil1,0151,770
    Papua/New Guinea387470
    Tanzania811605
    Uganda1,1461,903
    All countries3,7245,301
Cocoa
    Ghana2,2521,399
    Netherlands1,270635
    All countries4,3972,306
Tea
    India198269
    Sri Lanka (Ceylon)4,1933,407
    All countries4,6234,182
Petroleum Spirit
    Australia1,7632,686
    Iran4,0842,982
    Malaysia13016
    People's Democratic Republic of Yemen1,356467
    Singapore671386
    Venezuela
    All countries9,4818,227
Kerosene
    Australia2,6563,691
    Iran1,191840
    People's Democratic Republic of Yemen1,010816
    Singapore308
    All countries6,1316,138
    Lubricating Oils and Greases
    Australia1,7643,484
    United Kingdom586406
    U.S.A.911405
    All countries3,3784,419
Organic Chemicals
    Australia4,4795,386
    Germany, Fed. Rep.1,2892,054
    Japan2,3653,277
    United Kingdom4,5154,723
    U.S.A.5,2496,665
    All countries21,12524,917
Inorganic Chemicals
    Australia2,8312,997
    Germany, Fed. Rep.868981
    Japan8431,916
    United Kingdom2,3102,320
    U.S.A.1,7392,129
    All countries10,31812,501
Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Products
    Australia6,0458,012
    Germany, Fed. Rep.2,0582,251
    Switzerland2,0752,913
    United Kingdom8,6839,895
    U.S.A.2,6922,527
    All countries23,12327,866
Sulphur (Other Than Sublimed, etc.)
    Canada5,7042,390
    U.S.A.2,1561,240
    All countries7,9073,684
Plastic Materials, Regenerated Cellulose, and Artificial Resins
    Australia4,9576,304
    Germany, Fed. Rep.2,0373,311
    Japan4,1415,319
    United Kingdom8,0757,339
    U.S.A.3,4234,832
    All countries26,31530,390
Rubber Tyres and Tubes
    United Kingdom840825
    U.S.A.916725
    All countries2,5832,428
Paper and Paperboard
    Australia1,3161,628
    Japan1,4591,673
    United Kingdom3,8473,875
    U.S.A.1,0661,264
    All countries9,268x10,083
Textile Yarn and Thread
    Australia2,8813,272
    Hong Kong2,2573,117
    Japan1,1201,549
    United Kingdom4,2084,064
    All countries13,05814,475
Cotton Fabrics Suitable for Manufacture of Apparel
    Australia1,017682
    China1,154922
    Hong Kong3,7934,375
    Japan3,4023,056
    United Kingdom707571
    U.S.A.410548
    All countries12,16311,936
Cotton Furnishing and Household Fabrics
    Hong Kong2,2822,956
    India622811
    United Kingdom1,4191,308
    All countries6,3397,719
Manufactured Fertilisers
    Canada1,4982,032
    Germany, Fed. Rep.880905
    U.S.A.2,2882,839
    All countries5,9217,331
Woven Fabrics of Synthetic Fibres
    Australia1,1541,372
    Japan8,2609,873
    United Kingdom1,1011,188
    U.S.A.817743
    All countries13,45715,836
Woven Fabrics of Regenerated Artificial Fibres
    Japan1,9321,582
    United Kingdom2,7382,555
    U.S.A.485458
    All countries7,6077,068
    Knitted or Crocheted Fabrics
    Australia556720
    Hong Kong2,0682,212
    United Kingdom1,3301,364
    U.S.A.250223
    All countries4,8015,321
Household Linens
    China216219
    Hong Kong600726
    India136167
    Japan511475
    United Kingdom427394
    U.S.A.111126
    All countries2,3232,544
Glass
    Netherlands305486
    United Kingdom2,2112,319
    U.S.A.304635
    All countries3,5314,567
Bars and Rods of Iron or Steel
    Australia3,1883,315
    Canada327995
    United Kingdom1,2541,300
    All countries5,6787,459
Woven Woollen Fabrics
    Australia780850
    United Kingdom3,4372,867
    All countries4,7954,349
Woven Jute Fabrics
    India2,5292,103
    United Kingdom82166
    All countries2,7772,788
    Universals, Plates, and Sheets of Iron or Steel
    Australia11,2388,223
    Japan16,62218,967
    United Kingdom5,5764,215
    All countries35,07133,299
Hoop and Strip of Iron or Steel
    Australia866939
    Japan642750
    United Kingdom1,2891,227
    All countries3,1753,350
Iron and Steel Wire
    Australia2,0342,354
    United Kingdom1,9902,094
    All countries4,6905,627
Tubes, Pipes, and Fittings of Iron or Steel
    Australia5,5156,588
    United Kingdom3,6013,768
    All countries11,27512,218
Copper and Copper Alloys
    Australia15,24812,906
    Canada1,6071,950
    United Kingdom2,8112,834
    All countries19,84517,894
Aluminium and Aluminium Alloys
    Australia3,2424,378
    Canada7,1747,373
    United Kingdom535620
    U.S.A.1,093962
    All countries13,11115,098
Nails, Screws, Nuts, Bolts, etc., of Iron, Steel, Copper
    Australia462880
    United Kingdom1,3981,422
    All countries2,7963,394
Angles, Shapes and Sections of Iron or Steel
    Australia4,1873,499
    Japan1,2553,656
    United Kingdom1,1431,865
    All countries6,84810,267
Aircraft Engines
    United Kingdom529739
    U.S.A.4,6153,114
    All countries5,1823,893
Internal Combustion Engines, Not Aircraft
    Australia727785
    Canada9791,873
    United Kingdom3,7864,558
    U.S.A.3,0464,419
    All countries9,30313,546
    Agricultural Machinery and Appliances
    Germany, Fed. Rep.528427
    United Kingdom1,5741,612
    U.S.A.661498
    All countries3,6953,557
Tractors
    Italy1,1471,051
    Japan8321,042
    United Kingdom9,6478,000
    U.S.A.3,3233,383
    All countries16,39514,569
Office Machines
    Germany, Fed. Rep.994626
    Japan2,0421,599
    United Kingdom2,1732,981
    U.S.A.3,4222,517
    All countries10,4879,924
Metalworking Machinery
    Australia488562
    Germany, Fed. Rep.7341,007
    Japan313627
    United Kingdom2,9712,971
    U.S.A.222672
    All countries5,8787,114
Textile Machinery
    Germany, Fed. Rep.1,0472,318
    United Kingdom3,6114,239
    U.S.A.482431
    All countries6,8379,765
Cutlery
    Australia780942
    Japan327464
    United Kingdom9581,128
    All countries2,6503,242
Excavating, Levelling, Boring, etc., Machinery
    United Kingdom1,4572,113
    U.S.A.7,2424,063
    All countries4,5557,647
Pumps and Centrifuges
    Australia2,1942,849
    United Kingdom4,1384,336
    U.S.A.1,7782,072
    All countries10,76412,385
Mechanical Handling Equipment
    United Kingdom2,3994,551
    U.S.A.1,2382,290
    All countries5,05212,110
Ball, Roller, and Needle Roller Bearings
    Sweden365429
    United Kingdom1,7222,094
    U.S.A.526619
    All countries3,7044,548
Taps, Cocks, Valves
    Australia8971,149
    United Kingdom1,9272,081
    U.S.A.607794
    All countries4,0804,833
Transmission Shafts and Cranks
    Australia813911
    United Kingdom2,3852,526
    U.S.A.9591,171
    All countries4,7215,355
Electrical Power Machinery and Switchgear
    Australia2,6403,480
    Germany, Fed. Rep.1,3721,367
    Italy513259
    Japan5783,330
    Sweden876956
    Switzerland482463
    United Kingdom9,18611,027
    U.S.A.9351,456
    All countries17,73024,010
Printing and Bookbinding Machinery
    Germany, Fed. Rep.1,5501,029
    United Kingdom1,5632,032
    U.S.A.1,4651,510
    All countries5,6945,866
Electrical Measuring and Controlling Apparatus
    United Kingdom2,1312,416
    U.S.A.1,5561,031
    All countries4,7244,813
Telecommunications Equipment
    United Kingdom6,7898,088
    U.S.A.1,606528
    All countries11,13112,881
Railway Vehicles
    Australia939260
    Canada14
    Japan117192
    United Kingdom299364
    All countries5,3251,459
Motorcars
    Australia21,63725,691
    France and Monaco8571,920
    Germany, Fed. Rep.1,6432,677
    Italy1,0361,763
    Japan2,2483,578
    United Kingdom34,28440,702
    All countries62,46276,922
Lorries, Trucks, and Vans
    Australia6,6316,601
    United Kingdom13,03317,863
    All countries23,20629,488
Aircraft
    United Kingdom500398
    U.S.A.19,4551,398
    All countries21,0665,046
Ships and Boats
    Hong Kong2,600
    United Kingdom..2,405
    All countries3,1482,501
Equipment for Distributing Electricity
    Australia9721,403
    United Kingdom2,6532,564
    All countries4,5964,867
Watches and Clocks
    Germany, Fed. Rep.399519
    Switzerland1,0301,177
    United Kingdom473603
    All countries2,9143,806
Photographic Films, Plates, and Paper, (Not Developed Cinematographic Film))—
    Australia3,0043,650
    United Kingdom1,3481,264
    All countries6,3397,552
Clothing
    Australia275351
    Hong Kong417445
    United Kingdom1,5851,385
    All countries3,0213,006
Printed Books and Pamphlets
    Australia1,6843,076
    United Kingdom7,2077,254
    U.S.A.2,4462,722
    All countries13,12714,795
Newspapers and Periodicals
    Australia1,9032,123
    United Kingdom1,5541,672
    U.S.A.864877
    All countries4,3924,753

QUANTITIES OF PRINCIPAL ITEMS IMPORTED—The following table shows the quantities imported during June years of a large number of the principal items.

ItemUnit of QuantityYear Ended 30 June
1969197019711972
* Provisional.
Fish, canned, and fish preparationslb(000)3,8784,63910,5776,851
Wheat, unmilledbushels(000)1855532,9411,664
Ricecwt(000)61829998
Orangeslb(000)36,92530,36831,98836,208
Bananas50,25053,35448,87953,653
Fruit—
    Dried20,90823,45021,41422,894
    Canned8,48010,49814,19016,107
Desiccated coconut 3,0922,6382,8262,902
Edible nuts2,9162,5462,5182,532
Sugarcwt(000)3,2432,9593,3023,479
Coffee, rawlb(000)8,03913,48915,54914,400
Tea18,42616,83914,70217,704
Cocoa4,93216,5078,9229,059
Winegal(000)333346340453
Whiskeyproof gal(000)563357489504
Tobacco, unmanufacturedlb(000)7,5224,7507,4776,391
Synthetic and artificial fibres6,2345,9347,0636,604
Woven fabrics—
    Synthetic fibressq yd(000)20,95125,22829,02638,032
    Artificial fibres16,51714,07712,34611,237
Yarn and thread of silk, rayon, and synthetic fibreslb(000)4,4695,0035,6536,124
Yarn of wool and animal hair173240222499
Meat wraps, cotton4,7114,2204,3614,486
Textile fabrics coated with plasticsq yd (000)9851,1041,6282,264
Bags, sacks, wool packsdoz(000)812761610632
Cotton yard and threadlb(000)6,0657,2828,3567,610
Cotton fabrics, woven, unbleachedsq yd(000)8,8039,0179,32310,708
Cotton canvas and duck1,0721,3831,7071,774
Cotton fabrics suitable for the manufacture of apparel Flannelette, winceyette, diaper cloth10,17510,1879,4169,965
Other kinds28,40026,66725,61627,584
Cotton furnishing and household fabrics18,46620,56125,55729,390
Woven silk fabrics199193179173
Woven woollen fabrics2,3953,3252,9311,809
Woven linen, ramie, and hemp fabrics1,1391,6541,5541,361
Woven jute fabrics23,36523,33526,44931,478
Rubbercwt(000)383393400421
Timber, sawnsup ft(000)17,13722,69516,45513,320
Wood and paper pulptons11,21213,12817,25412,716
Nitrate of soda1,058450137375
Fertilisers, phosphatictons(000)1,0301,0709821,169
Gypsum, crudecwt(000)1,8832,0342,0722,243
Sulphurtons157,741242,997187,025178,232
Saltcwt(000)691710611535
Asbestos115171164132
Petroleum, crudetons(000)1,6581,6821,8821,915
Petroleum, partly refined1,0451,0291,025812
Motor spiritgal(000)64,87086,15070,87788,144
Distillate fuels42,97262,61150,43456,014
Kerosene and white spirit53,77659,25657,67954,763
Lubricating oils and preparations12,19811,14413,56511,807
Cream of tartar and substitutescwt(000)70.495.2137.181.5
Acids40.831.137.540.6
Caustic soda139.9143.9223.8252.4
Carbonate of soda532.8425.4424.0657.5
Calcium carbide56.970.869.962.8
Sulphate of ammoniatons18,76324,02520,76119,116
Potash131,458162,024194,997177,261
Pig iron and ingotscwt(000)199.7231.8534.1187.5
Bars and rods of iron or steel1,585.54,814.71,536.5604.1
Angles, shapes and sections of iron or steel1,004.41,147.71,622.3850.3
Universals, plates and sheets of iron or steel4,477.14,863.74,321.55,261.4
Hoops and strip of iron or steelcwt(000)253.5264.3250.7260.6
Rails of iron or steel—
    fish plates, etc.cwt(000)203.2178.4291.2208.2
Iron and steel wire343.2414.6469.1353.4
Tubes, pipes, and fittings of iron or steel1,044.11,030.01,016.0692.8
Silver and platinum not fully workedoz(000)1,886.61,268.41,351.61,283.4
Copper and copper alloyscwt(000)221.5233.1245.5209.1
Aluminium and aluminium alloys309.3410.0448.1321.5
Lead and lead alloys88.5117.081.1138.6
Finished structural parts and constructions262.7138.1243.5279.2
Wire products100.0123.796.987.6
Nails, screws, nuts, bolts, etc.30.841.654.163.9
Hand toolsdoz(000)500.3458.7471.6483.1
Knives, kitchen and table104.985.699.5102.8
Spoons and forks123.5138.7207.4239.3
Internal combustion engines (not aircraft)number79,415102,585106,36179,253
Agricultural mowers—
    crops, lawn, weed, scrub cutting1,5581,7622,1561,690
Agricultural harvesters and threshers—
    forage, tobacco337212122210
Earthmoving machines225255305256
Typewriting, calculating, and accounting machines37,85835,27630,62837,594
Domestic sewing machines16,68423,30142,16239,005
Electric motors—
    Under 1 bhp333,965410,935409,311398,017
    1 bhp and over14,47518,90223,83816,880
Sparking plugs(000)580637436476
Tractorsnumber4,7816,3864,5804,310
Motorcars—
    Unassembled50,02456,13658,00864,637
    Assembled3,7527,16513,41422,148
Lorries, tracks, buses, vans, etc.—
    Unassembled7,05818,20920,99720,892
    Assembled154278204741
Motor cycles3,4184,27415,47619,738
Bicycles5,6676,4577,1837,723
Rubber tyres and tubes (excl. bicycle)lb(000)2,3973,2773,2154,764
Plywoodsq ft(000)1,4941,1801,4491,573
Newsprint papercwt(000)20.110.810.17.1
Printing and writing paper—
    Machine made, not processed93.599.7102.196.4
    Impregnated, coated, or printed129.0143.9155.2159.2
Machine-made paper and paperboards, n.e.s.52.361.262.861.8
Greaseproof paper, etc.40.838.041.438.6
Wallpaperrolls (000)1.263.746.147.2
Linoleum and similar floor coveringssq yd(000)1,01.021,352.7919.1837.3
Carpets and carpeting of or with wool21.223.630.344.3
Glass plate and sheetsq ft(000)7,2168,21310,2708,415
Tableware and toilet potterylb(000)2,371.52,486.72,516.72,888.7
Footweardoz. pr(000)82.891.585.097.9
Cameras, photographic(000)146.054.4104.794.8
Watches(000)335.9201.8265.0249.4
Clocks, other than electric468.5200.9269.4315.7
Electric clocks84.234.739.536.4
Electric capacitors14,77016,268q8,22514,866
Insulated wires and cablescwt(000)58.557.939.040.0
Telephone handsets(000)84.392.690.491.9
Electric accumulators20.439.932.435.2
Electric lamp bulbs and tubes9,689.75,664.37,650.86,741.5
Thermionic, etc., valves and tubes2,1501,8771,7781,772
Crystal valves2,7454,7125,9984,488

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTS BY END-USE—In the following table imports are classified by end-use in the form of economic categories. The classification involves some arbitrary decisions but it is adapted to practical purposes and the comparability of the time series has useful economic applications.

Class of Goods ImportedYear Ended June
19681969197019711972*

*Provisional.

† For more detailed list of items included under each heading see relevant table in Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

 $(million)
Finished Capital Goods93.7122.1132.3164.2187.4
    Agricultural machinery and plant10.216.921.420.318.6
    Industrial machinery and plant31.738.342.253.678.3
    Construction machinery and plant0.72.73.36.24.9
    Transport and communication items15.224.113.918.924.7
    Other complete items35.940.151.565.360.9
Components and Materials for Capital Goods78.389.1119.0149.7137.3
    For agricultural machinery and plant4.35.87.07.25.6
    For industrial machinery and plant10.010.613.114.816.2
    For construction machinery and plant0.50.60.91.11.5
    For transport and communications items20.924.642.050.351.6
    For building, construction, roads9.36.26.310.610.0
    For other capital items33.341.349.765.652.2
Finished Goods and Components
    (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)79.4105.5130.2157.5204.9
    Complete transport items10.49.119.529.660.6
    Parts for transport items43.460.169.777.795.0
    Other complete items8.715.016.318.718.0
    Parts for other items16.921.224.731.431.2
Consumer Goods175.8213.5241.0280.2305.9
    Finished consumer goods85.3106.4116.0136.6152.4
    Components for consumer goods90.4107.1125.1143.6153.5
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere245.4315.6365.5391.0390.3
Stores Used Only for Defence2.17.119.113.010.2
Totals674.7852.91,007.21,155.51,235.9
 percent
Finished Capital Goods13.914.313.114.215.2
    Agricultural machinery and plant1.52.02.11.81.5
    Industrial machinery and plant4.74.54.24.66.3
    Construction machinery and plant0.10.30.30.50.4
    Transport and communications items2.32.81.41.62.0
    Other complete items5.34.75.15.74.9
Components and Materials for Capital Goods11.610.411.813.011.1
    For agricultural machinery and plant0.60.70.70.60.5
    For industrial machinery and plant1.51.21.31.31.3
    For construction machinery and plant0.10.10.10.10.1
    For transport and communications items3.12.94.24.44.2
    For building, construction, roads1.40.70.60.90.8
    For other capital items4.94.84.95.74.2
Finished Goods and Components     
    (Classed as consumption or capital according to type of buyer)11.812.412.913.616.6
    Complete transport items1.51.11.92.64.9
    Parts for transport items6.47.06.96.77.7
    Other complete items1.31.81.61.61.5
    Parts for other items2.52.52.52.72.5
Consumer Goods26.125.023.924.324.7
    Finished consumer goods12.612.511.511.812.3
    Components for consumer goods13.412.612.412.412.4
Materials Used in the Production Process and Items Unable to be Separately Classified Elsewhere36.437.036.333.831.6
Stores Used Only for Defence0.30.81.91.10.8
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

IMPORTS BY PORTS—In 1971 New Zealand bad 17 ports of entry for Customs purposes—ten in the North Island and seven in the South Island. The following table gives the total value of imports of merchandise for the several ports of entry. The value of overseas cargo landed at other ports is included with the appropriate port of entry. Basis of valuation is c.d.v.

PortJune Year 1967June Year 1968June Year 1969June Year 1970June Year 1971x
 $(thousand)
Whangarei38,63133,49137,31536,98243,359
Auckland301,230269,058345,966418,284473,792
Hamilton2,7372,1662,7523,8774,285
Tauranga20,4909,1097,6418,04712,276
Gisborne817644829818610
Napier15,70814,84117,16918,64221,715
Taranaki9,63610,02415,47816,35217,160
Wanganui9999901,1301,2141,400
Palmerston North2,7092,3182,9014,3403,998
Wellington219,144169,549222,266271,201306,508
Picton395530238254390
Nelson6,6294,3745,5006,2089,614
Greymouth418475405404511
Lyttelton88,54971,341102,163114,606117,358
Timaru4,7083,4263,2973,5862,436
Otago27,92520,46224,92728,90529,131
Bluff11,48210,1109,22010,60626,024
Totals752,206622,908799,197944,324x1,070,567

Almost three-quarters of the total imports usually come in by way of Auckland or Wellington. Lyttelton occupies third place and with the advent of the oil refinery plant at Whangarei this port has now reached fourth place in importance, followed by Otago.

Imports by air have been credited to the port in whose district the overseas airport is located. Thus goods which came in through Mangere Airport were included in the Auckland figures, imports through Wellington Airport and Ohakea in the Wellington figures, and through Christchurch Airport in the Lyttelton figures. The value of imports by air, the commodities and their countries of origin are listed in a supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

GOODS SHIPPED FROM COOK, NIUE, AND TOKELAU ISLANDS—Trade with the Cook and associated islands is not included in the export and import totals for New Zealand, but is shown separately in official publications. The following table shows the movement of goods from these islands to the main islands of New Zealand. Particulars of the trade of the islands with other countries will be found in the section dealing with New Zealand territory overseas.

June YearValue of Goods
 $(000)
19631,187
19641,562
19651,867
19661,582
19671,564
19681,656
19691,852
19702,659
1971x2,664
19722,513

The values of principal goods brought to New Zealand from the Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands during the June years were as follows:

ItemUnit of QuantityYear Ended 30 June
19711972
*Provisional. 
 $$
Oranges, whole fruit109,22947,181
Tangerines and mandarins, whole fruit42,08527,658
Lemons, grapefruit, etc., whole fruit10,7916,943
Bananas83,521127,443
Honey17,06112,353
Pineapples, whole fruit7,561349
Citrus fruit juices781,717733,579
Pineapple juice137,401186,562
Preserved fruit231,855319,567
Fresh tomatoes762581
Arrowroot, etc.14,14910,416
Copra246,824182,038
Coral and shells, etc., unworked or simply prepared238
Wood manufactures (not furniture)35,52629,056
Textile clothing (not knitted, etc.)—
    Men's and boys' outer garments680,979524,033
    Women's and girls' outer garments22,3913,763
    Men's and boys' undergarments124,542124,880
    Women's, girls' and infants' undergarments
Basketwork, wickerwork, etc.2,8392,287
Compressed gas cylinders, etc.10,60018,569
Other miscellaneous items103,971174,120
Totals2,664,0422,531,378

22 D—CUSTOMS TARIFF AND REVENUE

THE TARIFF—Briefly the Customs tariff, apart from obtaining revenue, has for its objects the following:

  1. The development of New Zealand industries.

  2. The maintenance and extension of markets for New Zealand produce.

  3. The implementation of New Zealand's tariff commitments in bilateral and multilateral trade agreements.

When New Zealand's first Customs Ordinance was proclaimed in 1841 the intention was to raise revenue and to some extent to give preference to goods of British origin. The tariff changes of 1851 and 1864 widened the scope of the tariff but retained its revenue aspects, though at this time the duties were mainly specific rather than ad valorem. In 1888 ad valorem rates became more general and the rate of duty was raised to 20 percent, which was double the amount charged in earlier years.

The prevailing economic philosophy was, of course, that of free trade, and in New Zealand's case it was underlined by the fact that Parliament predominantly represented the farming community. Even so, the depression of the eighties had so affected some of New Zealand's manufacturing industries that protection by tariffs became practical politics in 1888. The tariff revision of 1895 was aimed at protecting a small range of industries, and at the same time it eliminated the duties on many items which entered into the cost of living of those residing in urban areas. These tendencies were continued in 1900, 1907, and 1921, with British preferences becoming more evident.

In 1921 provision was made for an extra rate of duty on goods from countries with a depreciated rate of exchange. This was the first occasion when the legislature tried to cope with twentieth century economic conditions which threatened to cut across tariffs designed to give protection to industries which were supposed to develop in a manner normal to the nineteenth century. In 1921 provision was made for anti-dumping duties, another attempt to meet so-called abnormal practices. The depreciated currency duties ranged from 2½ to 20 percent; the dumping duty was not to exceed the difference between the sale price and the current domestic value.

The 1927 tariff revision extended further British preferences and increased the number of duties imposed for protection purposes. Further important items, if of British origin, were also placed on the free list. In 1930 surtaxes on dutiable goods were imposed for revenue purposes and the general tariff rate was increased by about 5 percent. In 1931 a primage of 3 percent was charged on imports (except in specified cases) which were otherwise free of duty.

In the meantime there had been a change in trade policy, which had tended to become one of protection rather than one of free trade.

As a result of the changing conditions the Ottawa Conference was called. The outcome of this conference was the Ottawa Agreement of 1932, the effect of which was to give further preference to British goods and to inhibit the use of the tariff by New Zealand for purely protective purposes. (The United Kingdom, for its part, granted duty-free entry for practically all New Zealand products and applied tariff rates on butter and cheese from foreign countries and undertook to place quota restrictions on meats from foreign countries. See Section 21A—Marketing of Primary Produce.)

In 1934 a Tariff Commission submitted a report which in the main adhered to the already established principle of British preference, and actually reduced the protection for New Zealand industries in more cases than it provided protection. The adoption of this report by the Customs Acts Amendment Act 1934 resulted in a wide range of items being made dutiable for revenue purposes, while a small group of items with a low to moderate duty gave limited protection against goods of British origin. Thus New Zealand's tariff remained an expression of the fact that New Zealand placed its economic emphasis on primary production, the market for which was mainly in the United Kingdom.

The Board of Trade, in November 1957, completed a comprehensive review of the whole structure and incidence of the tariff and reported to Government.

From 1 July 1962 there was introduced a revised tariff which took its structure from the Standard International Trade Classification (Revised), a document of the United Nations Economic and Social Council, designed to list in a systematic manner the goods of world commerce according to their economic significance. It was keyed to the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature (B.T.N.), an internationally agreed nomenclature which has carefully drafted rules of definition and in which articles are grouped in logical sequence often according to the nature of the material of which they are made. A new tariff based on the Brussels Tariff Nomenclature was introduced on 1 July 1967. The duty rates remain unchanged and the statistical details conform to the requirements of the S.I.T.C. (Revised). A further revised tariff introduced on 1 January 1972 incorporated preferences for developing countries in accordance with Government's decision to participate as a donor country in the UNCTAD scheme of preferences for less developed countries.

As a consequence of the United Kingdom's entry into the European Economic Community on 1 January 1973 a further tariff was introduced on 1 July 1974 to phase out the preference of goods of United Kingdom origin and to equate the duties payable on British and non-Commonwealth goods. Preferential duty rates on goods from other Commonwealth countries and developing countries have been retained. Imperial units of measurement were also converted to their metric equivalents.

The rates of Customs and excise duty in force in New Zealand are set out in the publication entitled the Customs Tariff of New Zealand. This publication is available from the Government Printer, Wellington.

CUSTOMS DUTIES—As the rates of duty on goods vary according to their country of origin as well as their classification, the tariff is printed in "multi-column" form listing rates of duty under (a) the British preferential tariff, applying to goods from the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland; (b) other preferential rates, chiefly those applicable to goods from Australia, Canada, other Commonwealth and developing countries; (c) the normal tariff, applying to goods from other countries.

Duty is generally calculated according to ad valorem rates; where, in certain cases, specific rates are prescribed, they are of a simple nature.

IMPORT CONTROL—Import licensing applies to approximately one-third of private imports and is explained in Section 22A.

EXCISE DUTIES—Excise duty is a tax on certain commodities manufactured in New Zealand. Duties on major commodities are as follows.

Beer—As from 22 August 1947 the excise duty on beer became 30c per gallon where the specific gravity of the worts used did not exceed 1,036, increased by .84c for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. From 27 June 1958 the excise duty on beer was increased to 60c a gallon where the specific gravity does not exceed 1,036, advancing by 1.67c for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. From 1 July 1974 the excise duty on beer became $13.20 per 100 litres where the specific gravity does not exceed 1,036 advancing by 36.66c. per 100 litres for every unit of specific gravity above 1,036. The specific gravity of distilled water at 15.6c is taken as 1,000, and the specific gravity of the worts is determined in relation thereto.

Tobacco—The following table sets out the rates of excise duty on tobacco from 1 July 1974.

DescriptionRate of Duty
Cigarettes— $
    Exceeding in weight 1.134 kg per 1,000per kg10.49
    Not exceeding in weight 1.134 kg per 1,000per 1,00011.90
Cigars and snuffper kg6.57
Other manufactured tobaccoper kg7.80

Sugar—There was an excise duty of $18.66 per ton on sugar manufactured in New Zealand but this was abolished in February 1972.

Alcohol—Excise duties were formerly levied direct on certain manufactures, the preparation of which involved the use of a considerable proportion of spirits. In lieu of excise duty on the finished manufactured article, however, a special schedule of duties has been provided since 1921 on alcohol used in manufacturing these articles in licensed warehouses. The present rates are: on alcohol used in manufacture: perfumed spirits, $1.80. per proof litre; toilet preparations, $2.75. culinary and flavouring essences, $3.44; medical preparations containing more than 50 percent of proof spirit, $4.10 per proof litre. In similar medicinal preparations containing nor more than 50 percent, the alcohol used is duty-free.

Distilleries—Excise duty on gin, geneva, schnapps, vodka, and other basically derived white spirit liquors approved by the Minister of Customs, which are produced by two rectifying and compounding distilleries, is at the rate of $2.97 per proof litre. The excise duty on whisky made or distilled in New Zealand is $2.915 per pro litre.

CUSTOMS REVENUE—Revenue from Customs and excise duties is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchExcise DutiesOther Excise and Customs DutiesTotal Excise and Customs Duties
BeerSpiritsTobaccoSugar
*Includes gross motor spirits duty credited to Consolidated Revenue Account.
 $(000)
196835,5915,82845,0002,48753,266*142,172*
196935,8266,66048,5702,41061,733*155,199*
197037,2827,18050,1732,47059,695*156,800*
197139,6537,23057,3972,54671,702*178,528*
197240,7007,66769,5312,38177,695197,974
197341,9018,23072,19987,910210,240

Motor spirits duty paid into the National Roads Fund has been excluded from Customs duties, but motor spirits duty paid into the Consolidated Revenue Account until 31 March 1971 is included in "Other Excise and Customs Duties".

Customs revenue as a proportion of taxation is discussed in the section on Central Government finance.

PREFERENCE AND RECIPROCITY—The following are the classes of goods which are deemed to be the produce or manufacture of countries whose goods are entitled to be entered for duty at British preferential rates:

  1. Goods wholly the produce of such countries.

  2. Goods wholly manufactured in such countries from unmanufactured raw materials and/or from one or more of the imported partly manufactured materials which are enumerated in the regulations.

  3. Goods partly manufactured in such countries, provided that the final process of manufacture has been performed in such countries, and also that the expenditure in material produced in such countries and/or in other items of factory or works cost incurred in such countries in respect of each article is not less than half of the factory or works cost of the article in its finished state.

The conditions applying to British Commonwealth countries, the products of which are admissible under the British preferential tariff pursuant to agreements made by New Zealand with such countries, may be varied to suit the provisions of such agreements.

Under the reciprocal trade agreements with Australia and Canada discussed hereunder, the duties on certain items are sometimes higher than the corresponding duties under the British preferential tariff and in a few cases lower.

Reciprocity With United Kingdom—Under the Ottawa Agreement New Zealand undertook to preserve the existing margins of preference on United Kingdom goods where the margin of preference did not exceed 20 percent, and where the margin exceeded that figure not to reduce it below 20 percent without the consent of the Government of the United Kingdom.

In 1958 New Zealand sought new arrangements with the United Kingdom and on 25 November 1958 the two Governments signed Heads of Agreement. This provided the basis for a new agreement to give New Zealand the right to reduce the margins of preference applied to United Kingdom goods entering New Zealand to 5 percent on certain imports essential for industry, to 7½ percent on an extensive list of welfare and producer goods, and to 10 percent on all other goods. The formal text of the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade Agreement was signed in Wellington on 12 August 1959.

On 28 June 1966 a "Record of Understanding" was agreed between New Zealand and the United Kingdom and this formed the basis for the New Zealand - United Kingdom Trade Agreement signed on 24 November 1966. New Zealand undertook to maintain duty-free entry for a short list of items and minimum margins of preference from 10 percent to 20 percent on another list of items. Otherwise the margins of preference in the 1959 Agreement were continued. On its part the United Kingdom undertook that, until 30 September 1972, it would admit without restriction of quantity, imports of the following New Zealand goods:

  1. Beef, veal, lamb, mutton, and the edible offals thereof, and chilled and frozen pork.

  2. Butter, cheese, skim and buttermilk powders, and casein.

Consequent upon the United Kingdom's entry into the European Economic Community on 1 January 1973, the tariff preferences accorded to British goods in the New Zealand market are being phased out in steps which began on 1 July 1974 and which will be completed by 30 June 1977. Some exceptions to this phasing arrangement are made for certain classes of goods such as plant and raw materials not produced in New Zealand. For these goods preferences were eliminated in one step on 1 July 1974. The necessary amendments were incorporated in a new Tariff introduced with effect from 1 July 1974.

Reciprocity With Australia—(a) An agreement, completed in April 1933 and confirmed by the Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act of that year, came into operation on 1 December 1933, and remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the agreement each country grants to the goods of the other the benefits of its British preferential tariff, except with regard to certain classes of goods, enumerated in the Schedules to the agreement, on which special rates are fixed.

The agreement provided for lower duties than those prescribed under Australia's British preferential tariff on many classes of New Zealand products entering Australia, including fresh and frozen fish and fish pastes; dried peas; fresh, smoked, and preserved meats; onions; lucerne seed; wine; furs; hats; caps; floor rugs; various agricultural and dairying implements; whale oil; casein; sugar of milk; and timber.

Minor modifications have been made to the Schedules of the agreement from time to time, but they remain substantially the same as originally negotiated.

The agreement must be read subject to the 1965 Free Trade Agreement with Australia.

The setting up of an Australian - New Zealand Consultative Committee on Trade was agreed on by the Australian and New Zealand Governments in August 1960.

(b) The New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement which came into force on 1 January 1966 provides for periodic reduction and ultimate elimination of duties on the goods listed in a schedule to the agreement when such goods qualify for admission into either country as the produce or manufacture of the other country. This agreement modifies or supersedes some of the provisions of the 1933 agreement, and, in particular, 1933 agreement rates which are higher than the equivalent British preferential rates are to be reduced to the British preferential level not later than 1 January 1974.

The goods listed in Schedule A to the agreement cover 60 percent of the imports from Australia and include forest products (timber, pulp, packaging materials, plywood and veneers), petroleum products, meat, fish, cheese, lead, zinc and other metals, copper rods and bars, wool, and some machinery and chemicals. The first review of the NAFTA resulted in the addition of further items to Schedule A, the duty reductions on which entered into force on 1 January 1968 at the same time as the second stage reductions on the original Schedule A items. As a result of subsequent reviews further items have been added to Schedule A on 1 January and 1 July in 1969, 1970, 1971, and 1972.

The agreement provides for reviews of trade between the two countries with a view to progressive inclusion of additional items within the agreement. The agreement is to remain in force for 10 years and thereafter shall remain in force unless terminated 180 days after appropriate notice is given by one country and the prescribed consultations between the two countries have been held.

On 7 May 1973 an exchange of letters took place between the New Zealand and Australian Governments. Among the mutual agreements reached was a general undertaking not to increase the duties and margins of preference on each others goods beyond those existing on 31 January 1973.

Reciprocity with Canada—Reciprocal trade arrangements between Canada and New Zealand are governed by an agreement negotiated in 1932, and this agreement remains in force until terminated by either party.

Under the terms of the agreement sausage casings, hides and skins, wool, apples, seeds, kauri gum, and phormium fibre are amongst the New Zealand products admitted free of duty. Certain other items such as butter, cheese, mutton, and lamb are admitted at rates of duty lower than the British preferential tariff.

On 26 July 1973 an exchange of letters took place between the New Zealand and Canadian Governments. Among the mutual agreements reached was a general undertaking not to increase the duties and margins of preference on each others goods beyond those levels existing on 31 January 1973.

Reciprocity with Malaysia—A trade agreement between Malaysia and New Zealand was signed in February 1961 by which each country accords preferential rates of duty to the other. Both countries agreed to guarantee minimum margins of tariff preference which apply to certain important items in each other's trade. The agreement remains in force until 6 months from the date on which notice of termination is given by either Government.

Other Trade Arrangements—New Zealand is also a party to certain commercial treaties, conventions, or arrangements with countries outside the Commonwealth. In some earlier cases New Zealand automatically became a party to arrangements concluded by the United Kingdom; in others she became a party by signifying her willingness to adhere to such arrangements. Other arrangements again resulted from direct negotiations between New Zealand and the countries concerned. In practice many of these arrangements (which generally provided for reciprocal most-favoured-nation tariff treatment) are superseded by New Zealand's accession to the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. However, some remain separately in force, and, in addition to those countries which are contracting parties to the General Agreement, New Zealand grants most-favoured-nation tariff treatment to Bulgaria, Liberia, Philippines, People's Republic of China, Somalia, Tunisia, and U.S.S.R.

The trade arrangements between Switzerland and New Zealand dating from 1938, under which New Zealand receives a guaranteed import quota for apples and pears, continues in force but the portion of the arrangement relating to most-favoured-nation treatment for imports has been superseded since Switzerland became a contracting party to GATT on 1 August 1966. Since 1957 the arrangement has been extended also to Liechtenstein.

The Federal Republic of Germany and New Zealand concluded a trade agreement in April 1959. The agreement is designed to facilitate as far as possible the exchange of goods and services between the two countries. New Zealand is granted quotas on certain primary products while for some others New Zealand will be considered as a source of supply for imports into Germany under the import programme. The agreement was concluded following international discussions under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade on problems arising out of the Federal Republic's import restrictions. The circumstances under which the negotiations with the Federal Republic were initiated were thus somewhat different from the usual, and because of this New Zealand is not required under the agreement to make any special arrangements regarding German exports. As contracting parties to the General Agreement the two countries already granted each other most-favoured-nation tariff treatment.

A trade agreement with the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics entered into force on 1 August 1963, and is subject to 3 months' notice of termination on either side.

The trade agreement provides for the mutual grant of most-favoured-nation treatment in matters concerning trade and shipping between New Zealand and the Soviet Union. In particular each country has agreed to grant to the other, most-favoured-nation treatment with respect to Customs duties and charges of any kind imposed on the importation or exportation of products from the other country. Similarly most-favoured-nation treatment will apply in relation to prohibitions or restrictions whether in the form of quotas, import or export licences, or other controls.

A trade agreement with the Polish People's Republic entered into force on 7 July 1965 and will remain in force for a period of 5 years and thereafter continue in force until the expiration of 6 months' notice of termination from either country. This agreement provides for mutual grant of most-favoured-nation treatment in matters relating to import and export duties and charges, and also in regard to prohibitions or restrictions whether by way of quotas, import or export licences, foreign-exchange controls, regulations, directions, or other control measures.

The Republic of Korea and New Zealand entered into a trade agreement on 31 January 1967 providing for mutual most-favoured-nation treatment in all matters of trade between New Zealand and South Korea, including non-discrimination in the treatment of foreign exchange for trade purposes. Similar agreements were made with the People's Republic of Bulgaria on 7 March 1968, with the Socialist Republic of Romania on 13 October 1969, and with the Hungarian People's Republic on 22 December 1970.

A trade agreement with the Republic of the Philippines entered into force on 19 July 1968. The agreement provides most-favoured-nation treatment being extended to the trade between the two countries, including the allocation of foreign exchange. Initially the agreement runs for 1 year, thereafter it may be terminated by either country on 6 months' notice.

GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (GATT)—Tariff negotiations took place in Geneva in 1947, and the concessions given by each participating country were embodied in schedules to a General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade. The tariff negotiations themselves were bilateral but all the concessions were applied multilaterally, so that New Zealand receives the benefit of reductions made by all participants, and, conversely, New Zealand's concessions apply to all the other countries which took part. Concessions are of two kinds—actual reductions of duties and bindings of duties against increase. The Agreement, which provides for concessions under both the British preferential and most-favoured-nation tariffs, was applied provisionally by New Zealand on 26 July 1948.

The foreign countries to whose products the concessionary rates (i.e., the most-favoured-nation rates) of duty apply by virtue of their membership in GATT or some special arrangement in GATT are: Argentina, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Burma, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Chile, Congo (Brazzaville), Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Dahomey, Denmark, Dominican Republic, Finland, France (including overseas territories), Gabon, Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Haiti, Hungary, Iceland, Indonesia, Israel, Italy, Ivory Coast, Japan, Kuwait, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malagasy, Mauritania, Netherlands (including overseas territories), Nicaragua, Niger, Norway, Pakistan, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, South Korea, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Togo, Turkey, United Arab Republic, United States of America, Upper Volta, Uruguay, Yugoslavia, Zaire. Eire is also a member of GATT but receives the concessionary rates of the British preference tariff.

The following Commonwealth countries are members of GATT: Australia, Barbados, Canada, Cyprus, Gambia, Ghana, Guyana, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Malawi, Malaysia, Malta, Mauritius, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Tanzania, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda, United Kingdom, and Northern Ireland (and dependent territories).

Some other countries, as newly-independent states, apply the GATT on a de facto basis: Algeria, Bahrein, Botswana, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Khmer Republic, Lesotho, Maldive Islands, Mali, Qatar, Singapore, Southern Yemen, Swaziland, Tonga, and Zambia. Tunisia has acceded provisionally to the GATT.

While the reduction of tariffs and other barriers to trade has been the principal aim of the General Agreement it has also provided an internationally accepted code of rules in world trade, and its regular sessions have been useful as a forum for the discussion and settlement of international trade problems and disputes.

Developments have tended to whittle away most of the trading advantages which countries relying heavily on agricultural exports reasonably expected to get from GATT membership. There has been a growing disparity between the benefits accruing under GATT to the industrialised countries and the far less tangible advantages it provides for primary producing countries like New Zealand. This has been due primarily to the growing use of quantitative restrictions on agricultural products by most of the large industrialised countries as an aspect of their policies of agricultural protectionism.

The results of the Kennedy Round which was concluded in June 1967 have not corrected this imbalance, although New Zealand did obtain improved access and some tariff concessions on a limited range of agricultural products exported to some GATT countries. As compensation New Zealand has undertaken to reduce most-favoured-nation rates of duty by up to 50 percent of existing rates on a number of items.

The last of the five equal annual reductions by which the commitment was implemented was made on 1 January 1972.

INTERNATIONAL COMMODITY AGREEMENTS: SUGAR—New Zealand's annual requirement of sugar is some 165,000 tons. Some two-thirds of this amount are usually imported from Australia with most of the remainder from Fiji. In recent years additional cargoes have been bought from Cuba, Taiwan, Colombia, and the Dominican Republic.

World trade in sugar takes place largely under the terms of a number of special arrangements such as the United States sugar quota, the Soviet Union's agreement with Cuba and the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement. Until 1973, New Zealand's sugar had been bought according to a 1957 Memorandum of Understanding agreed between New Zealand and the parties to the Commonwealth Sugar Agreement—New Zealand is not a member of the agreement itself. This understanding simply determined the quantity New Zealand would buy from Commonwealth suppliers at 75,000 tons.

The price at which New Zealand bought sugar however was the world price, the "London daily price", subject to a small adjustment in the case of the 75,000 tons bought under the Memorandum of Understanding.

Before 1957 New Zealand's purchases of sugar were governed by the 1951 Exchange of Letters between the New Zealand and British Governments. Under this exchange which was to operate from 1953 to 1958 inclusive the Ministry of Food agreed to supply 75,000 tons annually to New Zealand at a price negotiated by Britain and Commonwealth exporting countries. This arrangement proved unsatisfactory from New Zealand's point of view because in many years the Commonwealth negotiated price was higher than the world price. The arrangements under the exchange were terminated prematurely and replaced by the memorandum in 1957.

The Commonwealth Sugar Agreement will terminate at the end of 1974 as part of the phasing out of Commonwealth trading arrangements resulting from the United Kingdom's entry into the EEC.

New Zealand has been a member of the International Sugar Agreements of 1958 and 1968. These agreements incorporated mechanisms that regulated the supply and price of sugar on world markets. Under the agreements exporters undertook to regulate their sales on the free market according to agreed quotas while importers were to restrict their purchases from non-members during times when sugar prices remained within the range specified in the agreement. The 1968 agreement terminated in 1973 and the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) convened a conference to negotiate a new agreement. Against a background of record free market sugar prices, (moving from around £75 per ton at the end of 1972 to over £200 per ton at the beginning of 1974) agreement on appropriate indicator prices proved impossible to find and the conference settled for a consultative form of agreement without control measures of any kind. Work is proceeding within the consultative organisation on the drawing up of a new agreement containing economic clauses.

Coffee—New Zealand was a party to the International Coffee Agreement of 1968 which had replaced an earlier agreement of 1962. The 1968 agreement expired in September 1973 and early in that year negotiations took place to draw up a new agreement. An impasse had been reached however between producing and consuming countries on prices which proved impossible to solve; as a result a purely administrative agreement came into force, lacking any control measures that were the essential feature of the 1968 agreement.

The 1968 agreement had relied for its operation on a system of export and import controls by means of documents of origin and export stamps.

Cocoa—At the end of 1972 the United Nations Cocoa Conference succeeded in drawing up an International Cocoa Agreement which had been subject of negotiation for the best part of a decade. The agreement entered into force in June 1973 and New Zealand adhered to it shortly after that date.

The International Cocoa Agreement incorporates features common to other commodity agreements but, unlike the former International Coffee and Sugar Agreements, depends largely for the stabilising of prices on the operation of a buffer stock. Cocoa beans would be bought into the buffer stock at times of low prices and sold when prices pass an agreed maximum level.

The agreement entered into force at a time when world cocoa prices were rising steeply, reaching record levels by the latter part of 1973. As a result the buffer stock has not come into operation.

Chapter 25. Section 23; PRICES

CONTROL OF PRICES—The control of prices has become the responsibility of the Commerce Commission set up under the Commerce Act 1974. The Commerce Commission replaces both the Price Tribunal and the Trade Practices and Prices Commission.

The Secretary of Trade and Industry is given original jurisdiction to fix, subject to a right of appeal to the Commission, prices of goods and services which are subject to price control. Collective pricing practices and individual resale price maintenance agreements are subjected to strict control. Provisions relating to profiteering have been strengthened.

Part IV of the Commerce Act replaces the provisions of the Control of Prices Act 1947. While many of the provisions of this Part closely follow provisions of that Act there are a number of important differences. Besides providing for goods and services to be placed under price control provision is also made for regulations to be made placing goods and services under price restraint.

Substantial jurisdictional changes have also been made. The Secretary of Trade and Industry has replaced the Price Tribunal, as constituted by the previous Act, as the original price fixing authority in respect of the determination of the prices of controlled goods and services. Decisions take the form of price orders or special approvals as previously. The Commerce Commission sits as a judicial authority for the determination of appeals from decisions of the Secretary.

Decisions of the Secretary are made following investigations by him, upon receipt of an application in accordance with procedures set out in the Act. Provision is also made for the Secretary to review prices on his own motion with the consent of the Minister of Trade and Industry. Before making a determination in respect of an application or following a review on his own motion, the Secretary is required to fulfil certain duties which accord applicants the benefit of the rules of natural justice which applied under the previous judicial jurisdiction.

Where requested to do so by the Minister, the Commission may however exercise original jurisdiction in the determination of prices. At any such inquiry the Secretary is to be represented. Provision is also made where appropriate for the representation of consumer class interests.

The Minister of Trade and Industry publishes a Positive List of Controlled Goods and Services, which specifies the goods and services subject to price control. There is provision for other goods and services to be subject to a certain form of pricing restraint.

The Secretary of Trade and Industry makes price orders fixing the prices that may be charged or received for particular goods or services, and gives to interested parties the reasons for his decisions.

Criteria considered by the Secretary or the Commission in dealing with pricing matters include: The cost of production and distribution of the goods concerned; the ability of the applicant to absorb costs; profit margins and return on capital; stable internal prices; improvements in productivity and efficiency; market competition and subsidies or import protection given.

It should be observed that certain prices controlled under other legislation did not come within the scope of the Control of Prices Act 1947. For example, maximum and minimum prices of motor spirits are fixed by Order in Council (on the recommendation of the Minister of Trade and Industry) under the Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933. Milk and cream prices are set by Order in Council on the recommendation of the New Zealand Milk Board under the Milk Act 1944.

Subject to limited exceptions, both goods and services were subject to regulations which came into force on 1 April 1972 under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948.

The Price Justification Scheme was revoked and under the new system a number of items were added to the positive list of the Control of Prices Act. This augmented list was called Category A.

The regulations provided that in general the Price Tribunal or other pricing authorities would not allow adjustments to be made for increased costs (including wages and salaries) unless they accorded with criteria strictly defined in the regulations.

Goods and services not subject to direct control became known as Category B items. Prices for such goods and services could not be increased except to recover actual costs determined in accordance with the criteria laid down.

As long as the criteria were fully observed in fixing prices, notification and formal approval of increases were not required.

However, firms with a turnover exceeding $1,000,000 a year were required to make quarterly reports of all price increases and other firms could be required to do so.

All margins continued to be frozen unless it could be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the pricing authority that strict adherence to them would prejudice the viability of a business.

On 22 March 1973 the Government announced further price control measures. These comprised (a) A freeze on mutton and lamb and fish until prices could be fixed by the Department of Trade and Industry; (b) A rollback of sheepmeat prices by 2c a pound applied when the freeze was lifted on 9 April and prices were held at that level with State subsidies to wholesalers until April 1974; (c) The fixing of maximum retail prices, which were to be displayed on the package, for certain manufactured and processed goods—initially essential foodstuffs, footwear and clothing but eventually the whole range of goods normally sold in supermarkets; (d) The bringing of apples and pears under full price control; (e) A bar on auctioneering firms or their subsidiaries from bidding at their own auctions and setting artificially high fruit and vegetable prices.

Firm and wide-ranging price regulations, covering manufacturers' prices, distributive margins, and service charges, were introduced in November 1973. The Stabilisation of Prices Regulations 1973, which incorporated most of the previous legislation into one document, contained the following main points.

Manufacturers were asked to absorb increases in overhead costs without passing them on in price. They were also limited in the extent to which they could pass on wage increases. Moreover, they were restricted, by reference to their past profit performance, in the profits they could take and therefore in the prices they could charge.

Wholesalers and retailers were required to roll back distributive margins in four major distributive trades and, maximum retail mark-ups, which applied to their products, were set at a lower level.

Suppliers of some important services had their charges frozen, while other services were subject to a notification procedure and were also required to absorb certain cost increases.

Apart from some amendments, the current list of goods subject to direct price control, that is to say Category A items, continued. Manufacturers of other goods were able to recover higher material costs by price increases, but were required to absorb all increased overheads and also an additional 4 percent of wage increases incurred after 15 June 1973. Wage rises because of equal pay were excepted. This superseded a budget provision which allowed manufacturers to recover the first 5 percent of any wage increases since 15 June 1973. Manufacturers of goods outside Category A, with sales of more than $500,000 in the last financial year, had to notify the Department of Trade and Industry of any proposed price increases. If there was no objection from the department within 28 days the price increases could be implemented.

Other manufacturers had to abide by the same rules as to the passing on of costs. While their price rises did not need to be notified, there were regular checks by the department to ensure that the rules were being observed.

The department would also examine whether a manufacturer could absorb all or part of the price increase because of his current profit levels. There were profit criteria clearly set out in the regulations and these were to be taken into account in assessing a manufacturers' capacity to absorb costs.

The criteria were: His taxable profit as a percentage of turnover, averaged over the past 4 years; a taxable profit of more than 12½ percent of turnover; his taxable profit as a percentage of total funds (shareholders' funds and longer-term loans), averaged over the past 4 years.

The department was to continue to examine the ability of any manufacturer to absorb any cost increases.

In service industries, charges for the labour and overhead elements in services such as motor vehicles repairs, home maintenance, and appliances repairs were frozen. These charges were to be released from the freeze when satisfactory rates had been established by the department.

Services were broken in two categories:

Group 1 services where the charge for the total service was specifically determined by the supplier (for example, dry-cleaning charges).

Group 2 services, where the charge was determined according to the materials used and the hours taken to perform the service (for example, motor vehicle repairs).

Suppliers of both types of services were permitted to increase charges only to cover admissible increased costs, except for the group which was frozen. Some cost increases automatically had to be absorbed.

Where a supplier of Group 1 services had a turnover in excess of $250,000 or in the case of a supplier of Group 2 services had a work force of 10 or more persons, then that supplier had to notify the department of any proposed increases in charges and wait the prescribed 28 days before implementing them.

The department was to examine the ability of any supplier of services to absorb cost increases.

Importers', wholesalers', and retailers' margins were also controlled.

Maximum wholesale and retail margins for all goods which were included in the first step of the maximum retail price marking scheme, were also included in the regulations.

Most of the previous pricing ordinances were consolidated into one document, so that they were as simple as comprehensive legal drafting could make them. In order to inform consumers and traders about the operation of the procedures an explanatory booklet was issued.

The Stabilisation of Prices Regulations, which were brought down in November 1973, expired on 30 June 1974. The system applying from 1 July 1974 simplified previous procedures while maintaining control over practically all goods and services, with further restraints on profits in new areas.

A maximum retail price scheme, embodying marking the price on the container, applies to a wide range of goods manufactured from 1 July 1974, particularly to important foodstuffs and grocery lines. Goods and services subject to full price control procedures (category A) continue to require approval before prices can be raised. The return on shareholders' funds continues to be the main criterion for category A items, but regard may also be had to taxable profit and to turnover.

The profits of firms supplying category B goods and services are limited by the requirement that the before-tax profit to turnover achieved on an individual trades basis shall not exceed the average of the last four years.

As a general rule, the prices of any line of goods and services are not permitted to be increased more frequently than at 6-monthly intervals.

Trade Practices—Part II of the Commerce Act incorporates, with substantial amendments, most of the provisions of the Trade Practices Act 1958.

The Commerce Commission may make orders if it finds certain practices to be contrary to the public interest. Other trade practices are prohibited unless approved by the Commission. Certain prohibited practices are offences.

A trade practice is contrary to the public interest, if in the opinion of the Commission, it has the effect of maintaining certain costs, prices, or profits at an unreasonably high level. Collective pricing agreements need to be approved.

Consumer Information—The basic aims of the Consumer Information Act 1969 are for informative labelling and marking of goods, and for the prevention of deceptive or misleading packaging, labelling and advertising. The Act has general application to goods, including services, but the majority of the sections exclude foods, drugs, and medical devices as these are dealt with by the Department of Health under the food and drug legislation. There are provisions dealing with misleading advertising, misleading packaging, and false representations as to prices, and all goods packaged in New Zealand must show the name and address of the packager on the label. Provision is made for other specific packaging and labelling requirements, including the declaration on the label of the quantitative contents of the package—to be stipulated from time to time by the publication of notices in the Gazette or by regulations made by Order in Council.

CONSUMER COUNCIL—The Consumer Council, whose functions are to protect and promote the interests of consumers of goods and services, was established in 1959 and reconstituted under the Consumer Council Act 1966. The Council consists of 12 members appointed solely on the basis of personal qualifications by a representative appointments committee. The Secretary of Trade and Industry, the Director-General of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, and the Director-General of Health are also members.

The council lays down the policies to be followed by the staff of Consumers' Institute. It has appointed three District Consumer Committees and encourages the formation of local consumer associations. Citizens are invited to become members of the institute on payment of an annual subscription of $3. Membership was 112,500 at 30 September 1973.

The institute's work includes comparative tests and surveys of consumer goods and services, research into and advise on legislative and financial matters consumer education, and advice on and investigation into complaints.

Subscribing members receive the institute's monthly publication Consumer. Two separate $3 subscriptions cover the quarterly magazines Consumer Car Reports (results of car tests) and Consumer Review (financial and sociological matters). In addition the institute prepares teaching notes for schools, books on various subjects, and a weekly radio broadcast.

The Consumer Council is a council member of the International Organisation of Consumers Unions, and co-operates with and, assists other consumer organisations throughout the world.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL—A Monetary and Economic Council was established under the Monetary and Economic Council Act 1961 to report on the extent to which stability in prices and other economic objectives are being achieved. In its first reports the council dealt with the economic situation and the longer-term problems of slow growth and instability, and subsequent reports have dealt largely with the current economic situation and outlook.

PRICE STATISTICS—Actual prices of many goods and services at various levels are collected periodically by the Department of Statistics. The fields covered are retail prices, wholesale prices, farm input prices, export prices, import prices, share prices, and wool prices. In the case of retail, wholesale, and farm input prices, direct inquiry is made; export and import prices (or strictly, unit values) are mainly derived from trade statistics, share prices from records of the stock exchanges, and wool prices from the New Zealand Wool Marketing Corporation. In addition, average prices of many materials and products of manufacture are available from the statistics of industrial production. Some retail prices are shown later in this Section, and a wider coverage is published in the annual Report on Prices, Wages, and Labour Statistics; the chief use made of the prices collected is in the compilation of price index numbers. These are, fundamentally, weighted averages of price ratios, the weighting being so arranged that the index numbers give a general indication of price movements in the field covered. The usual technique employs fixed weights with, however, provision for revision of the weighting pattern at suitable intervals.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX—The Consumers' Price Index was revised in 1965. Complete details of the revised index are contained in the Consumers' Price Index Revision 1965 report. A brief summary of the salient features of the latest index is as follows:

  1. The basic formula used is that of Laspeyres in its aggregative form.

  2. The index relates primarily to urban and country-town dwellers living as families.

  3. About 90 percent of personal expenditure is covered.

  4. The number of items regularly priced is 535.

  5. The base is: 1962–63 consumption costed at 1965 prices.

  6. The sources of group and commodity weights were: (1) Census of Distribution 1962–63; (2) industrial or factory statistics; (3) import and export data; and (4) extension of regularly compiled statistics of consumable goods. Where considered desirable the base weight assigned to selected items was broadened to allow for expenditure on kindred items not selected for pricing.

  7. Prices are collected by field officers in 25 centres, including 2 combined areas.

  8. A scientific sample of rented houses and flats was selected.

  9. Special techniques are employed for costs of owner-occupiers, for prices of seasonal fruits, vegetables, and eggs, and for transport charges.

  10. Index numbers are compiled for all food and its subgroups at monthly intervals, and for all other groups and subgroups at quarterly intervals.

  11. Index numbers are published for the 4 chief centres and 10 larger centres individually. Combined index numbers are published for these two groupings and also for six smaller North Island centres and five smaller South Island centres. Each centre and grouping of centres is shown on its own base and on a common, all-centres, base.

  12. To provide a continuous series the pre-revision all-groups index has been converted to a 1965 base.

Costs of the following items are, for various reasons, outside the scope of the index: hotel accommodation, licensed and private; air transport; legal fees; commissions on sales, other than those incurred in the erection of house properties; gambling; church and charitable donations; private and boarding school fees; instalment credit interest and similar financial charges; personal accident insurance; photographers' charges; wages of domestic servants, jobbing gardeners, etc.; fees to chiropractors, herbalists, chiropodists, etc.; sundry licences (marriage, dog, etc.); direct taxation; savings, including amortisations of capital debts, investments, and life insurance; spirits and wine; jewellery and florists' goods; durable goods other than replacements; and private holiday transport.

In general the index assumes a constant pattern of expenditure for all centres, whether large cities or provincial centres, whether with warm or cool climates, etc. In transportation, however, the index compromises by setting up a constant base expenditure on transport for all centres, but allowing a varying dissection between the various modes of transport from centre to centre, according to local circumstances. Consequently there are no true "each on all" indexes for transportation, but "each on each" indexes can be used to produce "all on all" indexes. ("Each on all" means an index for an individual centre which uses as base the average for all centres, etc.)

A Consumers' Price Index Revision Advisory Committee was set up in June 1971 under the chairmanship of the Government Statistician to investigate changes that should be made to the index. It reported in September 1971. Its recommendations in parliamentary paper A. 40 were accepted in June 2 and it is expected that the revised index will commence to operate late in 1974.

The revised Consumers Price Index retains its basic objective of providing a multi-purpose indicator of retail price changes of those goods and services which are purchased by New Zealand residents living in New Zealand.

The revised Consumers Price Index substantially retains the previous group and sub-group structure.

The weights in the revised Consumers Price Index are based on the pattern of expenditure of the population covered by the index rather than on what is consumed by them.

Data to revise and update the Consumers Price Index are to be obtained mainly from continuing household expenditure surveys. These are to be supplemented and tested by additional data on housing, national consumption, production, and expenditure.

The selection of goods and services to be priced—inevitably only a small percentage of goods and services can be priced—has been widened to include more fields of expenditure and more pricing outlets. This reflects more adequately both the expenditure patterns of all New Zealand residents living in New Zealand and the movement in prices of consumer goods and services.

Current Consumers' Price Index—The tables which now follow relate to the current Consumers' Price Index only.

The first table supplies all-groups index numbers and index numbers of individual groups and subgroups for 25 centres combined. The group and subgroup weights are also shown as percentages of the base expenditure.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX—(ALL GROUPS)—
TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED
Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, 1965 (= 1000)
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
Groups—
    Percentages of base expenditure30.0917.9911.2113.129.4418.15100.00
Calendar year—
    19651,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
    19661,0181,0531,0101,0161,0371,0341,028
    19671,0921,1171,0631,0441,1021,1051,090
    19681,1261,1771,1051,0711,1701,1671,137
    19691,1801,2451,1401,1191,2181,2351,193
    19701,2581,3271,1861,1991,2801,3361,271
    19711,3731,4281,3041,3561,4631,4911,403
    19721,4381,5611,3941,4441,5841,6051,500
    19731,5991,7351,4601,5441,6571,6891,623
Quarter ended—
    1972–31 Mar1,4271,5001,3781,4171,5521,5871,474
              30 Jun1,4351,5421,3921,4361,5691,6021,492
              30 Sep1,4381,5791,3981,4501,6001,6161,508
              31 Dec1,4521,6241,4091,4731,6141,6131,526
    1973–31 Mar1,5121,6691,4251,4961,6301,6371,562
              30 Jun1,5771,7111,4531,5271,6511,6761,605
              30 Sep1,6241,7531,4731,5581,6691,7121,642
              31 Dec1,6851,8071,4901,5941,6791,7311,681
TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED
PeriodFoodHousingHousehold Operation
Fruits and VegetablesMeat, Fish, and PoultryOther Foods and EggsRentHome OwnershipFuel and LightHome FurnishingDomestic Supplies and Services
Subgroups—
    Percentage of base expenditure5.899.2214.985.5012.492.825.592.80
Calendar year—
    19651,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
    19671,1051,0731,0991,1121,1201,0831,0231,122
    19681,1381,1011,1361,1661,1821,1601,0601,140
    19691,1031,2221,1851,2241,2541,1731,1191,148
    19701,1801,3481,2331,2851,3461,1791,1841,197
    19711,3841,4291,3331,3511,4611,2151,3061,387
    19721,3741,5221,4111,4981,5901,2511,4011,526
    19731,4471,9131,4671,6381,7771,2951,4921,564
Quarter ended—
    1972–31 Mar1,4281,4701,4001,4181,5371,2411,3761,521
              30 Jun1,4391,4851,4021,4831,5681,2511,3961,525
              30 Sep1,3511,5271,4171,5281,6021,2531,4081,526
              31 Dec1,2781,6051,4271,5621,6521,2591,4231,532
    1973–31 Mar1,3811,7141,4381,6001,6991,2621,4501,539
              30 Jun1,4701,8491,4511,6211,7501,2901,4821,560
              30 Sep1,4481,9851,4711,6541,7971,3131,5051,571
              31 Dec1,4882,1021,5071,6781,8641,3161,5301,586
TWENTY-FIVE CENTRES COMBINED
PeriodApparelTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
ClothingFootwearPublic TransportPrivate TransportTobacco and AlcoholOther SuppliesOther Services
Subgroups—
    Percentage of base expenditure10.912.212.387.067.645.664.85100.00
Calendar year—
    19651,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
    19671,0391,0691,0821,1081,0981,0961,1251,090
    19681,0671,0901,1041,1931,1591,1541,1931,137
    19691,1131,1441,1401,2441,2131,2241,2841,193
    19701,1921,2341,1891,3111,3281,3301,3541,271
    19711,3551,3641,4431,4701,4751,4671,5461,403
    19721,4401,4661,6091,5751,5331,6071,7141,500
    19731,5381,5731,6681,6541,5601,6851,8981,623
Quarter ended—
    1972–31 Mar1,4151,4261,5891,5391,5221,5801,6961,474
              30 Jun1,4321,4571,6081,5561,5341,5961,7171,492
              30 Sep1,4461,4731,6171,5951,5341,6181,7441,508
              31 Dec1,4671,5061,6221,6111,5441,6321,7001,526
    1973–31 Mar1,4911,5211,6401,6261,5471,6541,7571,562
              30 Jun1,5191,5661,6661,6461,5471,6751,8811,605
              30 Sep1,5531,5821,6761,6671,5721,6971,9501,642
              31 Dec1,5881,6231,6901,6761,5721,7132,0031,681

The average level of consumer prices rose by 8.2 percent in 1973, compared with a rise of 6.9 percent the year before. Although price increases were recorded in all main groups of the index the major contributions to the overall result came from the meat, home ownership, miscellaneous services and rent sub-groups.

The following diagram shows the movement in consumers' price index numbers.

The following tables distinguish individual centres and groupings of centres, but the subgroup indexes are omitted. Attention is called, however, to the two-fold method of presentation: in the first table current prices in each centre are compared with prices in the same centre during the base period; in the second, current prices in each centre are compared with average prices over all the 25 centres in the base period.

Where the base is the individual centre, the index numbers are specially designed to show price movements in each centre. Vertical comparisons can also be made but they will show the relative amount of price movements in respective centres, not relative current price levels. In the second method, where the base is average prices over the 25 centres, horizontal or vertical comparisons may be made to compare relative price levels. However, these index numbers do not indicate how much dearer or cheaper it is to live in one centre or another, but only how much higher or lower retail price levels are in one centre than another. The construction of the index assumes the same consumption habits in all centres, regardless of size, climate, etc.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX—ANNUAL GROUP INDEX NUMBERS FOR INDIVIDUAL CENTRES AND GROUPINGS OF CENTRES
Base: Weighted average each centre and grouping, separately, 1965 (= 1000)
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
196519721973196519721973196519721973196519721973
Auckland1,0001,4361,5811,0001,5851,7671,0001,4101,4721,0001,4581,562
Wellington-Hutt1,0001,4391,5891,0001,5501,7141,0001,4201,4921,0001,4921,589
Christchurch1,0001,4311,6181,0001,5631,7571,0001,4011,4721,0001,4371,536
Dunedin1,0001,3911,5571,0001,5891,7761,0001,3681,4291,0001,4601,544
    Four chief centres1,0001,4301,5881,0001,5721,7531,0001,4051,4711,0001,4611,560
Hamilton1,0001,4761,6391,0001,4991,6761,0001,3521,4051,0001,4151,522
Tauranga1,0001,4131,5631,0001,5771,7361,0001,4121,4721,0001,4101,501
Rotorua1,0001,4501,6101,0001,6431,8061,0001,3841,4361,0001,4461,536
Napier-Hastings1,0001,4381,6301,0001,6051,7791,0001,3931,4691,0001,4111,512
New Plymouth1,0001,4551,6031,0001,5941,7551,0001,3781,4521,0001,3991,485
Wanganui1,0001,4651,6361,0001,5101,7211,0001,3771,4401,0001,4681,566
Palmerston North1,0001,4561,6081,0001,6241,7891,0001,3691,4621,0001,4261,524
Nelson1,0001,4651,6681,0001,5771,7311,0001,4351,4941,0001,4401,513
Timaru1,0001,4251,5791,0001,4391,5941,0001,3811,4361,0001,3931,475
Invercargill1,0001,4031,5611,0001,5131,6511,0001,3421,4031,0001,4541,567
    Ten larger centres1,0001,4501,6141,0001,5551,7221,0001,3741,4401,0001,4241,521
    Six smaller North Island centres1,0001,4401,6031,0001,5541,7261,0001,3961,4561,0001,4211,532
    Five smaller South Island centres1,0001,4301,6071,0001,4961,6371,0001,4181,4921,0001,4571,555
    Twenty-five centres combined1,0001,4381,5991,0001,5611,7351,0001,3941,4601,0001,4441,544
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
196519721973196519721973196519721973
Auckland1,0001,6371,7031,0001,6101,7041,0001,5151,636
Wellington-Hutt1,0001,6121,6741,0001,5991,6821,0001,5111,629
Christchurch1,0001,5801,6551,0001,5991,6921,0001,4961,631
Dunedin1,0001,6591,7221,0001,6171,6931,0001,4971,617
Four chief centres1,0001,6211,6881,0001,6061,6951,0001,5081,631
Hamilton1,0001,5641,6341,0001,6081,6961,0001,4911,614
Tauranga1,0001,5641,6361,0001,5981,6751,0001,4911,606
Rotorua1,0001,5631,6341,0001,5891,6741,0001,5131,630
Napier-Hastings1,0001,5541,6251,0001,5991,6691,0001,4981,627
New Plymouth1,0001,5541,6361,0001,6081,6941,0001,5001,616
Wanganui1,0001,5391,6221,0001,6011,6981,0001,4951,627
Palmerston North1,0001,5201,6001,0001,6171,7061,0001,5061,628
Nelson1,0001,5721,6441,0001,6211,7091,0001,5171,643
Timaru1,0001,5501,6371,0001,5881,6491,0001,4601,570
Invercargill1,0001,5401,6181,0001,6081,6861,0001,4711,587
Ten larger centres1,0001,5511,6261,0001,6061,6881,0001,4941,616
Six smaller North Island centres1,0001,5511,6281,0001,5971,6751,0001,4891,613
Five smaller South Island centres1,0001,5381,6161,0001,6001,6631,0001,4851,603
Twenty-five centres combined1,0001,5841,6571,0001,6051,6891,0001,5001,623
Base: Weighted average twenty-five centres, 1965 (= 1000)
CentreFoodHousingHousehold OperationApparel
196519721973196519721973196519721973196519721973
Auckland1,0141,4561,6031,1141,7661,9689951,4031,4651,0131,4771,582
Wellington-Hutt1,0121,4561,6081,1821,8332,0269791,3891,4609991,4911,587
Christchurch1,0021,4351,6229261,4471,6261,0011,4021,4749901,4221,520
Dunedin1,0121,4081,5768951,4221,5901,0231,4001,4621,0101,4751,560
    Four chief centres1,0111,4461,6051,0611,6691,8069961,4001,4661,0041,4681,567
Hamilton9851,4541,6149671,4501,6229641,3041,3559851,3941,499
Tauranga1,0211,4431,5961,1041,7411,9169721,3731,4321,0041,4161,508
Rotorua1,0021,4521,6131,0111,6611,8251,0041,3901,4429931,4361,525
Napier-Hastings9621,3841,5699121,4631,6221,0361,4441,5231,0061,4201,522
New Plymouth9791,4241,5699261,4761,6259841,3561,4299951,3921,477
Wanganui9731,4261,5928131,2281,3999811,3511,4129941,4591,557
Palmerston North9791,4261,5749181,4911,6439801,3421,4331,0191,4531,552
Nelson9551,3991,5929311,4681,6119711,3941,4511,0051,4471,520
Timaru9931,4161,5691,0171,4631,6221,0221,4111,4671,0051,3991,482
Invercargill1,0241,4371,5999531,4411,5731,0421,3991,4621,0081,4661,580
    Ten larger centres9851,4291,5919511,4781,6379931,3651,4301,0001,4241,522
    Six smaller North Island centres1,0021,4431,6079151,4221,5801,0301,4371,5009811,3941,503
    Five smaller South Island centres9861,4101,5858971,3421,4691,0221,4491,5259941,4481,545
    Twenty-five centres combined1,0001,4381,5991,0001,5611,7351,0001,3941,4601,0001,4441,544
CentreTransportationMiscellaneousAll Groups
196519721973196519721973196519721973
Auckland1,0001,6371,7039991,6081,7011,0261,5531,678
Wellington-Hutt1,0001,6121,6741,0191,6291,7131,0371,5671,689
Christchurch1,0001,5801,6559981,5951,6889861,4741,608
Dunedin1,0001,6591,7229831,5901,6659861,4751,594
        Four chief centres1,0001,6211,6881,0011,6081,6971,0151,5301,655
Hamilton1,0001,5641,6349931,5971,6849821,4651,586
Tauranga1,0001,5641,6369991,5961,6731,0221,5241,641
Rotorua1,0001,5631,6341,0161,6141,7001,0051,5211,638
Napier-Hastings1,0001,5541,6259941,5901,6609771,4631,589
New Plymouth1,0001,5541,6369961,6021,6889771,4661,579
Wanganui1,0001,5391,6229971,5961,6939551,4281,554
Palmerston North1,0001,5201,6009931,6061,6939781,4731,592
Nelson1,0001,5721,6449891,6031,6909691,4701,593
Timaru1,0001,5501,6371,0101,6041,6661,0061,4681,579
Invercargill1,0001,5401,6189911,5941,6711,0031,4751,591
    Ten larger centres1,0001,5511,6269961,5991,6829851,4721,592
    Six smaller North Island centres1,0001,5511,6281,0091,6121,6919881,4711,594
    Five smaller South Island centres1,0001,5381,6169951,5931,6559781,4521,568
    Twenty-five centres combined1,0001,5841,6571,0001,6051,6891,0001,5001,623

Retail Prices—New Zealand retail prices (weighted average prices over 25 centres) at 15 November 1973 of a number of the commodities which enter into the Consumers' Price Index are shown hereunder.

CommodityUnitPrice
  cents
Potatoes, main croplb6.39
Potatoes, newlb9.78
Appleslb27.78
Cabbagelb9.78
Carrotslb16.34
Onionslb13.26
Orangeslb18.28
Peaches, canned29 oz tin41.80
Peas, frozen30 oz pkt52.69
Beef, porterhouse steaklb123.30
Beef, prime riblb85.26
Beef, rump steaklb113.67
Beef, blade steaklb91.10
Beef, mincelb67.25
Beef, corned silversidelb93.21
Sausages, beeflb41.31
Hogget, cut leg, knuckle endlb63.18
Hogget, forequarterlb40.10
Hogget, chops, middle loinlb61.23
Pork, leg, wholelb91.65
Pork, chops, middle loinlb93.72
Tripelb37.27
Sheep's liverlb52.58
Sheep's tongueeach8.14
Ham, cooked, slicedlb183.39
Bacon, sidelb130.97
Tarakihi filletslb73.52
Groper (hapuku) pieceslb72.41
Sole or flounder, guttedlb63.89
Smoked fishlb69.46
Salmon, fancy pink7¾ oz tin57.39
Milk, fresh deliveredpint3.85
Butterlb32.79
Cheese, tasty rindlesslb62.81
Milk powder, full cream2½ lb tin138.93
Bread28 oz loaf15.19
Flour25 lb bag175.18
Oatmeal, pre-cooked3 lb pkt56.95
Prepared breakfast food24 oz pkt36.27
Ricelb19.23
Sugar6 lb54.52
Honey1 lb ctn45.17
Jam, apricot14 oz tin33.52
Tea½ lb pkt37.28
Cocoa½ lb pkt31.85
Coffee, pure, ground looselb108.22
Coffee, instant4 oz jar75.90
Salt, polythene wrapped5 lb bag29.62
Baked beans16 oz tin26.29
Tomato sauce10 oz btl29.74
Tomato soup11 oz tin18.64
Aerated water10 oz btl9.54
Ice-cream, vanillapint block25.55
Eggs, standard (in carton)Dozen63.10
Chocolate (tablet)6 oz34.18
  $
Weekly rent, unfurnished dwellingEach dwelling11.01
Concrete blocksper 10027.91
WallpaperRoll2.27
PaintGal. tin10.27
Weekly costs of owner-occupancy of dwellings—RatesEach dwelling2.08
Coal domestic¼ ton7.67
Electric current (incl. water heating)510 kwh per month5.82
Gas, domestic 1600 cu. ft. (7.2 therms Nat. Gas)per month3.11
Kerosene, domestic useGal.0.33
Fuel, oil domestic heating, deliveredGal.0.24
Refrigerator 9.25 cu. ft.Each223.92
Washing machine, semi-automatic, spin dryEach273.47
Vacuum cleanerEach75.00
Radio, table modelEach49.78
Radio, transistor, portableEach60.72
Television set 24” consoletteEach382.60
Electric radiatorEach49.85
Electric fry panEach37.17
Electric jugEach18.05
Electric toasterEach12.00
Electric iron, dryEach18.97
Electric blanketEach20.96
Electric hand drillEach18.99
Lawnmower, hand typeEach42.16
Lawnmower, rotary typeEach216.90
Piano, uprightEach694.66
PerambulatorEach70.67
Dining room suiteEach126.21
Cocktail cabinetEach170.98
TallboyEach40.63
Child's cotEach37.98
Lounge suiteEach331.96
BedsteadEach34.51
Mattress, innerspring, 4′ 6 inchEach104.15
Mattress, foam rubber, 4′ 6 inchEach66.47
Venetian blinds, 72 in. wide 54 in. dropEach40.47
Alarm clockEach10.20
Carpet, broadloomYard41.22
Doormat, coirEach2.52
Drapery—Blankets, single, all woolPair25.60
                Sheets, singlePair7.01
                Pillow, kapokEach2.31
                Towel, turkishEach2.70
                Tea towel, linenEach1.01
Plate, 10 in. replacement typeEach0.77
Tea set, 21 piece, bone chinaSet25.49
Knives, table, stainless½ doz7.95
Forks, table, E.P.N.S.½ doz7.44
Preserving jars, glass, quart 8″ seals and ringsDoz.2.86
Casserole dishEach3.80
Piedish, enamel 11″Each0.77
Mixing bowl, stainless steel, 8″Each3.10
Saucepan, 8″ aluminiumEach9.06
Dustbin—standard sizeEach6.10
BroomEach3.88
Scrubbing brushEach0.74
Bucket, plastic, 2 gallonEach1.30
Hammer, carpenters, steel shaftEach5.71
PlaneEach8.40
Spade, gardenEach8.27
Soap powder40 oz pkt0.56
Detergent, plastic container19½ oz0.46
Household cleaning pasteStandard tin0.38
Disinfectant110 ml.0.36
Fly spray12 flu. oz. can1.07
Boot polish2¾″ tin0.21
Floor polish8 oz tin0.58
Electric light bulb 100 wattEach0.37
Torch, battery, dry cellEach0.14
Telephone rental, private (main exchange)1 year59.94
Telegram, 15 wordsEach0.44
Postage, letter (first class surface)Each0.04
Dry cleaning, men's 2 piece suitPer suit1.68
Laundering sheets6 single1.26
Men's Raincoat, (terylene- mixture or similar)Each43.65
                Parka, unlinedEach14.81
                Raincoat, nylonEach7.39
                Hat, feltEach10.89
                Suit, worsted, ready-made, two pieceEach72.97
                Sports coat, worsted, ready-madeEach53.53
                Trousers, sportsPair21.59
                Trousers, jeansPair6.00
                Shirt, businessEach8.32
                Shirt, brushed cottonEach3.50
                Cardigan, all woolEach18.01
                Bathing trunks, Bri-nylonEach4.57
                Pyjamas, flannelettePair5.57
                Singlet, athleticEach1.18
                SocksPair1.83
                HandkerchiefsEach0.35
Women's suit, coat and skirt, ready-madeEach60.82
                Coat, woollen, winterEach59.80
                Raincoat, lightweight, proofedEach32.81
                Frock, summerweight, houseEach12.13
                Skirt, winterweightEach18.96
                Slacks, tailored, ready-madePair13.21
                Cardigan, all woolEach14.13
Wool hand knitting1 oz0.41
Women's Swimsuit, bri-nylonEach16.31
    Nightdress, nylonEach6.59
    Nightdress, winterweightEach4.53
    Underslip, nylonEach5.19
    Panties, cottonPair1.39
    Vest, silk and woolEach2.61
Women's Brassiere, cottonEach3.68
    Corset, lycraEach13.79
    Panty hosePair1.48
    Umbrella, nylonEach6.01
Boy's Raincoat, cottonEach14.87
    BlazerEach19.38
    Trousers, shorts, worstedPair7.10
    Shirt, cotton, college styleEach4.51
    Shirt, T-shirt, cottonEach1.83
    Pullover, woollenEach7.66
    SocksPair1.66
Girls' Gym frockEach16.46
    Frock, summer uniformEach10.69
    Blouse, college, cottonEach3.99
    Pyjamas, winceyettePair3.27
    Panties, interlockPair0.98
    SockettesPair0.91
Infants' Nursery squaresDoz.6.35
    Baby's vestEach0.81
    Baby wool1 oz0.41
Piece goods, tweed velour coatingYard5.80
    ViyellaYard2.82
    Sail clothYard1.01
    Dress, patternEach0.95
Men's Boots, heavyPair18.61
    Shoes, lightPair17.44
    SandshoesPair2.82
    Jandals (thongs)Pair1.69
    Slippers, leatherPair8.45
    Shoe repairs, ½ soled and heeledPair4.49
Women's Shoes, heavyPair13.73
    Shoes, lightPair14.36
    Slippers, feltPair3.82
    Shoe repairs, cemented leather sole, heel tip and toe platesPair3.21
Boy's Football bootsPair10.90
    Shoes, heavyPair9.04
    GumbootsPair5.33
Girls' Shoes, schoolPair7.40
    Shoes lightPair7.72
Infants' Shoes, plastic solePair2.21
Petrol - 96 octaneGal.0.48
Bicycle, men's sports roadsterEach72.59
Bicycle tyreEach3.18
Bicycle tubeEach1.64
CigarettesPkt of 200.43
Tobacco, cigarette2 oz. pkt0.76
AspirinPkt of 250.23
ToothbrushEach0.33
Toothpaste, large tubePer tube0.36
Toilet soap, bath size tabletEach0.15
Toilet paperPer 3 rolls0.40
Razor blades, stainless steelPkt of 50.69
Electric razorEach25.38
Baby talcum powderSmall tin0.38
Attache case, fibreEach5.44
Brief case, leatherEach24.78
Suitcase, largeEach15.17
Men's watch wristletEach48.23
Newspaper dailyEach0.06
Library subscriptionPer book0.14
Popular book paper backEach1.10
Writing padEach0.22
Pencil, black leadEach0.08
Developing and printing black and white filmPer film0.84
Camera film, colourEach3.85
Tricycle, child'sEach41.01
Teddy bearEach9.32
Junior engineering construction setEach5.62
Tennis racquetEach11.93
Tennis ballsPair0.93
Bowls, outdoorSet of 443.13
RifleEach41.37
Ammunition .303Box of 204.79
Optician fees, full examination and spectacles with caseEach25.12
Dental extractionEach4.15
Dental fillingEach3.43
DenturesSet103.49
Medical (excess over Social Security) Private general hospitalPer day10.77
Cinema admissionSeat0.87
Football admissionEach0.36
Football club subscriptionEach4.40
Tennis club subscriptionEach14.00
Television licenceEach20.00
Haircut, menEach0.86
Haircut, womenEach1.00
HairsetEach2.08
Permanent waveEach8.53
Watch, repair feeEach6.34
Funeral - burialEach322.87
Funeral - cremationEach285.24

International Comparisons—The table following provides a comparison of retail prices between New Zealand and certain other countries. All the prices have been converted into New Zealand currency and the Imperial liquid and dry measures have been adopted as the basis for common units of quantity.

Prices shown for the United States of America do not include sales tax. A similar table of wholesale prices is shown later. Currency conversion basis: Australia, A$1=NZ$1.04; Great Britain, $1 = NZ$1.6454; South Africa, 1 Rand = NZ$1.04; United States, US$1 = NZ67.709c; Canada, $1 = NZ$68.13c.

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON OF RETAIL PRICES OF BASIC FOODSTUFFS
(At December 1973 in New Zealand currency)
ItemUnitNew Zealand (Average 25 Centres)Australia (Sydney)Great Britain* (London)South Africa (Cape Town)United States (Average 56 Cities)

* November 1972.

† 1¾ lb.

† † Cake flour.

‡ At price for 3 lb lots.

‡‡ Mixed coffee.

§ Loose.

|| December quarter, 1972.

¶ Sirloin.

ϕ Hogget.

p 29 oz.

Sources:

Australia: Commonwealth Statistician.

Great Britain: New Zealand High Commissioner.

South Africa: Bureau of Census and Statistics.

U.S.A.: Bureau of Labor.

  centscentscentscentscents
Bread2 lb15.230.218.513.644.4
Flour25 lb175.2287.3168.0212.8† †337.6
Tealb72.962.652.782.2..
Coffeelb108.5§..84.757.0‡ ‡75.7
Sugarlb9.110.98.28.211.7
Milk (fresh)pint3.815.610.79.614.6
Butterlb32.560.331.345.970.6
Cheeselb62.860.350.255.696.1
Baconlb133.3118.484.577.498.3
Pruneslb51.8..39.850.4..
Canned peaches30 oz tin41.2p35.4p34.030.7..
Beef, rib roastlb85.588.6||72.479.2107.0
Mutton, leglb61.9ϕ63.6||..80.1..
Pork—Leglb93.5105.0||69.161.6..
Chopslb95.196.8||121.862.9106.7
Margarinelb..43.223.932.931.4

Comparisons in annual movement of Consumer Price Indexes of selected countries are given in the following table. (The base is calendar year 1965 = 1000.)

YearNew ZealandAustraliaCanadaFrance (Paris)JapanUnited KingdomUnited States
1,962916935942893832905960
1,963935940959944895924972
1,964967962976972929955984
1,9651,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
1,9661,0281,0301,0371,0231,0511,0391,030
1,9671,0901,0621,0741,0571,0921,0651,059
1,9681,1371,0911,1191,1071,1501,1151,104
1,9691,1931,1231,1691,1771,2131,1761,163
1,9701,2711,1671,2081,2441,3081,2511,232
1,9711,4031,2371,2421,3121,3881,3681,284
1,9721,5001,3101,3021,3931,4511,4661,327
1,9731,6231,4341,4001,4961,6221,6001,410

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX—The present Wholesale Prices Index was described in a special supplement to the October 1959 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics under the title Index Numbers of Wholesale Prices. A brief summary of the salient features of this revision appeared in the 1960 Yearbook (pages 992–994).

The index is not a single wholesale prices index, but a series of price index numbers related to broad groupings of the inter-industry transactions distinguished in the department's input-output tables for the New Zealand economy. Thus each of the index numbers relates to a group of commodity transactions occurring at certain price levels between defined sectors in the economy. Capital goods as well as goods for current consumption or usage are represented in the various commodity flows.

Wholesale Prices Index Numbers—The table which follows is divided into two parts; the first covers "input" prices and the second "output" prices. Within the first part of the table there is a breakup into goods for industrial use (analysed by sector destinations), for consumption, and for export. In each flow imported goods are distinguished from locally produced goods. In this part of the table all prices are inclusive of sales tax and excise duties and net of subsidies; the prices for exports marketed overseas are the prices in these markets brought to an f.o.b. basis, i.e., their "input" prices to other countries.

In the second part of the table the broad producing sectors are distinguished. Here the prices of their outputs are used. They are taken before the addition of sales and excise duties or the deduction of subsidies. The prices for export meat and dairy products are those payable to producers under the different stabilisation and minimum export-meat-prices schemes.

The primary produce processing industries group comprises the two major industries, meat export works and dairy factories, processing farm products mainly for export.

The expression base for the index is the calendar year 1958.

WHOLESALE PRICES INDEX
Base: 1958 (= 1000)
Index Numbers of Commodity Prices by Sectors of Destination*
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used byAll Commodities
Domestic IndustryConsumersDomestic Industry and ConsumersOther Countries (Exported)
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
1,9581,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
1,9631,0341,0131,0201,0401,0501,0471,0351,0251,0281,1601,0351,0541,050
1,9641,0391,0711,0601,0371,0881,0761,0381,0771,0651,2591,0381,1161,097
1,9651,0581,1111,0931,0541,1111,0971,0571,1111,0941,1841,0571,1261,109
1,9661,0751,1311,1131,0761,1241,1131,0751,1291,1131,1591,0751,1351,120
1,9671,1041,1231,1171,1431,1981,1851,1141,1481,1381,0421,1141,1251,122
1,9681,2381,1741,1951,2871,2631,2691,2501,2041,2181,1441,2501,1911,206
1,9691,2991,2451,2631,3221,3171,3181,3051,2691,2801,2241,3051,2591,271
1,9701,3921,3061,3341,3751,4081,4001,3881,3401,3551,2341,3881,3181,335
1,9711,4961,3951,4291,4831,5391,5251,4931,4441,4591,3821,4931,4301,446
1972x1,5971,5081,5371,5711,6121,6031,5911,5431,5571,8671,5911,6131,608
1973||1,7001,7931,7621,6521,7451,7231,6891,7771,7502,3221,6891,8951,843
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Primary IndustriesPrimary Produce Processing IndustriesAll Other Industries
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal
FarmingAll Other Industries
1,9581,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
1,9639898481,0269439649529531,0391,0711,056
1,9649999671,0309979951,0491,0471,0431,1071,078
1,9651,0281,1491,0561,0911,0591,0911,0901,0611,1221,094
1,9661,0461,2611,1061,1621,0881,0751,0751,0771,1411,113
1,9671,0681,1621,1471,1391,1331,0031,0071,1071,1751,144
1,9681,1541,0581,2101,1341,2561,0841,0891,2451,2361,240
1,9691,2131,1201,2431,1841,2581,1961,1981,3081,2921,299
1,9701,3091,2101,2871,2571,2491,2191,2201,4021,3711,385
1,9711,3811,2871,3691,3361,4061,2561,2601,5081,4911,499
1972x1,4721,4431,4481,4501,5921,3371,3451,6091,6171,614
1973||1,5452,0041,5521,7461,6471,8261,8201,7161,8031,764
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Manufacturing IndustriesBuilding and Construction
ImportedHome ProducedTotal
Other Manufacturing IndustriesAll Other IndustriesImportedHome ProducedTotal
1,9581,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
1,9631,0481,0391,1131,0611,0421,0721,061
1,9641,0431,0801,1811,0851,0701,0951,086
1,9651,0441,0841,1721,0841,0961,1411,124
1,9661,0631,0921,2091,1051,1101,1711,149
1,9671,0911,1631,1541,1251,1491,2031,183
1,9681,2501,2311,2241,2391,2841,2541,265
1,9691,3221,2981,3011,3111,3491,2981,316
1,9701,4071,3761,3311,3811,5081,4201,452
1,9711,5001,4781,4091,4731,6491,6081,623
1972x1,6011,6051,6401,6111,7551,6961,717
1973||1,7041,7222,1201,8061,8451,7921,812
Calendar YearPrices Paid for Commodities Used by Domestic Industry
Transport and CommunicationOther Industries§
ImportedHome ProducedTotalImportedHome ProducedTotal

*The prices used in this table are those payable by the using or consuming sectors, i.e., including indirect taxation and net after subsidies; the export prices are NZ$ f.o.b. equivalent of overseas market prices.

† This consists of manufacturing industries (excluding primary produce processing industries), building and construction, transport and communication, wholesale and retail trade, banking and finance, and public utilities and services.

‡Other than Primary Produce Processing Industries.

§Includes wholesale and retail trade, banking and finance, and public utilities and services.

||Provisional.

1,9581,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
1,9631,0091,0661,0251,0211,0631,051
1,9641,0171,0541,0271,0341,0861,071
1,9651,0721,0721,0721,0831,1031,097
1,9661,0731,0821,0761,1081,1061,107
1,9671,0961,1111,1001,1371,1871,173
1,9681,1891,1481,1781,2131,2461,237
1,9691,2271,1861,2161,2521,2881,278
1,9701,3071,2541,2921,3091,3701,353
1,9711,4301,3581,4101,4151,4811,463
1972x1,5361,4271,5061,4991,5531,539
1973||1,7201,4831,6551,5711,6451,625
Index Numbers of Commodity Prices by Sector of Origin*
Calendar YearPrices Received for Commodities Produced in New Zealand
Output ofUsed by
FarmingOther Primary IndustriesPrimary Produce Processing IndustriesOther Manufacturing IndustriesPublic UtilitiesAll Domestic IndustryIndustry and ConsumersOther Countries (Exported)

*The prices used in this part of the table are those receivable by producers, i.e., before addition of indirect taxation or deduction of consumer or user subsidies; prices for dairy produce and meat are those payable to producers under the schemes to stabilise returns from year to year.

† Comprises the outputs of the five sectors mentioned in this part of the table.

‡Provisional.

1,9581,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
1,9631,0201,1569791,0621,0761,0371,0241,079
1,9641,1111,1861,0711,0961,0941,0991,0781,166
1,9651,1131,2311,0951,1091,1061,1121,1141,106
1,9661,1181,2861,1171,1261,1161,1261,1331,105
1,9671,0271,3271,0461,1581,1781,1021,134994
1,9681,0531,4311,1431,2301,2921,1671,1911,086
1,9691,1191,4861,2361,2961,2981,2351,2581,161
1,9701,1441,5311,2731,3841,3081,2901,3281,163
1,9711,2011,7001,3401,5121,3221,3821,4301,222
1972*1,4141,7911,6051,6291,3861,5531,5351,611
19731,9761,8751,8991,7721,4271,8511,7752,098
COMPARISON OF WHOLESALE PRICES OF CERTAIN COMMODITIES
(At November 1973 in New Zealand currency)
For currency conversion basis see page 676
ItemUnitNew Zealand*CanadaGreat BritainUnited States

* Priced once each quarter.

† Price excluding tax.

Sources:

Canada: Prices and Price Indexes - Dominion Bureau of Statistics.

Great Britain: wheat and oats - Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, and Food: butter and cheese—New Zealand Dairy Board: motor spirits - Department of Trade and Industry.

U.S.A.: Survey of Current Business.

  $$$$
Wheatbushel1.5503.8022.5773.074
Oatsbushel1.0001.3551.4330.970
Flourshort ton101.587143.106..134.441
Sugarcwt9.04410.492..10.693
Butterlb0.3100.5110.3050.479
Cheeselb0.380..0.3530.637
Motor spiritgallon0.399..0.6010.126

Farming Costs Price Indexes—There are now three farming costs price indexes being calculated. These cover sheep farming, dairy farming, and all farming.

These indexes are designed to measure price movements only as they would affect a fixed quantity and pattern of materials and services used by the farmers in each category.

The base is the year ended June 1971 (= 1000).

It is emphasised that these indexes are not cost of production indexes, i.e., they do not purport to measure the actual total costs of running a farm, but only measure the movements in prices paid for commodities and services used by farmers.

Full descriptions of these indexes were published in supplements to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics; the sheep farming index in the September 1973 issue; the dairy farming index in the October 1973 issue; and the all farming index in the March 1974 issue.

The index values for the all farming index since the base period, year ended June 1971, are set out below.

ItemPercentage of Base ExpenditureYear Ended June
197119721973
*Excludes depreciation 9.63 percent.
Wages and rations13.711,0001,1111,233
Sharemilkers5.431,0001,2691,252
Animal health and breeding expenses2.211,0009961,093
Electricity1.321,0001,0341,034
Feed8.571,0001,0321,157
Freight2.881,0001,0701,110
Fertiliser and lime11.191,0009781,048
Seeds1.321,0009321,069
Shearing expenses3.631,0001,0741,120
Weed and pest control1.281,0001,0391,067
Other farm working expenses2.811,0001,0561,121
Repairs and maintenance8.731,0001,0391,147
Vehicle expenses7.571,0001,0631,122
Administrative expenses2.871,0001,0841,170
Insurance1.071,0001,0431,064
Rates3.081,0001,0531,200
Interest10.011,0001,0271,059
Rent1.691,0001,0121,013
All Groups90.37*1,0001,0571,133

EXPORT PRICES—The Export Prices Index was revised in 1972 and the base changed to the year ended June 1971. The revision of the Export Prices Index had as its main objectives:

(a) The broadening of the commodity coverage with the adoption of a more detailed and expanded classification. (The first full trade year for which statistics using this new classification were available was the year ended 30 June 1971). (b) Revision of the classification of commodity groupings. (c) The devising of an index which provides for a continuous updating of the pattern of exports. (d) The provision of complementary price and volume indexes.

The revised index series are constructed in a manner similar to the import series and this is a positive step towards standardisation.

Approximately 95 percent by value of all exports in the new index are explicitly dealt with. The proportion of manufactured exports so treated is higher than this overall average.

To qualify for inclusion as an explicit indicator of price movement in the index a commodity must have an aggregate value of at least $20,000 in an annual period, both base and current, and a minimum of $16,000 in the current quarterly period. This represents some 525 different items as well as subdivisions of these items.

A departure from the previous index is that the f.o.b. value of wool as recorded on export documentation is used, and not data derived from the Department of Statistics' wool price index which is based on auction sale data adjusted to an f.o.b. basis. (During the 1970–71 season 347,000 bales of wool were sold privately and 520,000 bales were scoured on account of buyers.)

In the following table are given export price index numbers for years ended 30 June.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year ended June 1971 (= 1000)
Year Ended JuneButterCheeseDairy ProduceMeatWoolMeat, Wool, and By-productsAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsAll Groups
1,9639497858686031,399855859......850
1,9641,0237669116411,7711,004976......960
1,9651,0628269817381,377948957......944
1,9669588239407211,365958952......938
1,9679098259067211,218892897......887
1,968933912944787944834867......862
1,9699509249428571,151964957......953
1,9709519229359551,070991974......973
1,9711,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
1972x1,6821,0361,6409871,1301,0391,1691,2011,0521,0971,157
1,9731,3421,6031,5551,2712,2631,5951,5621,3671,1051,8631,487

The next table shows export prices index numbers for all pastoral and dairy produce groups and for all groups combined on a long time series. Separate series are prepared for calendar years and years ended June, the latter relating more closely to the farming year.

EXPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
YearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll GroupsYearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll GroupsYearAll Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll Groups
Calendar Year 1,9321911941,952806798
   1,9331891941,953900888
1,9142412391,9342362391,954915905
1,9152752711,9352282331,955939929
1,9163273201,9362642661,956917906
1,9173673631,9373113111,957906893
1,9183733691,9382862881,958767761
1,9193973901,9392792821,959879868
1,9204043981,9403243251,960851843
1,9213843791,9413313341,961802797
1,9222972981,9423413421,962818813
1,9233553511,9433563571,963903890
1,9243973901,9443743761,964987970
1,9254184101,9454054061,965950937
1,9263373341,9464434441,966942927
1,9273353311,9475615571,967854846
1,9283743671,9486246191,968914911
1,9293583531,9496055991,969972966
1,9302782771,9508608461,970974971
1,9312102131,9511,0099921,9711056x1052x
      1,9721,2911,265
June Year  1,9403173201,957934923
   1,9413273301,958781773
1,9254304221,9423423421,959814805
1,9263663611,9433513521,960900889
1,9273343311,9443663681,961813807
1,9283693621,9453983991,962797791
1,9293733671,9464164171,963859850
1,9303083051,9475175131,964976960
1,9312272291,9486236181,965957944
1,9322022041,9495995941,966952938
1,9331831881,9506946851,967897887
1,9342352371,9511,0841,0621,968867862
1,9352172211,9528098031,969957953
1,9362542571,9538718591,970974973
1,9373033041,9549219091,9711,0001,000
1,9382962971,9559129031,9721,1691,157
1,9392812821,9569349221,9731,5621,487

IMPORT PRICES—Since 1949 the Import Prices Index has been derived from chained Fisher "Ideal" indexes. In this method two price indexes are calculated for each year on base previous year, one using the quantitative weighting pattern of the previous year and the other quantitative weighting pattern of the latest year. The geometric mean of these two becomes the definitive index for the year, on base previous year, and is linked on to the index for that year on some earlier expression base. Since the trade statistics have, since 1962, been prepared for years ended June, the definitive import and export price indexes, and consequently terms of trade, are calculated accordingly. As from 1959 the price index is designed to reflect changes in the true c.i.f. cost of imports. Previously the calculations were based solely on the current domestic values of imports in the countries of origin as verified by the Customs Department. Differential changes in prices of and freight rates for a substantial number of import items with a low value per unit of weight can result in current domestic valuation changes being only a poor indication of c.i.f. cost movements. By measuring current domestic valuation price changes at the item level, and adjusting for changes in c.d.v. and c.i.f. valuation ratios at the division level, the index shows changes in the true cost of imports to the New Zealand economy.

The Import Prices Index has been revised and the base changed to the year ended June 1971. Opportunity has been taken to prepare sub-indexes for several commodity groupings of major interest. These are presented in the following table back to 1963, and further groupings will be available in future.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (=1000)
Year Ended JunePetroleum and ProductsTextile Yarn, Fabrics, etc.Iron and SteelMachinery Other than ElectricElectric Machinery and ApparatusTransport EquipmentFood, Beverages, and TobaccoManufactured Goods other than FoodCrude Materials other than FuelsFuelsAll Groups
*Provisional.
1,963745939653663833657........718
1,964707913645680835649........727
1,965734901671702851650........730
1,966752895664720839660........734
1,967691881661714798680........773
1,968898892719787902762........808
1,969946929779912990828........898
1,970898970880919974864........935
1,9711,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
1,9721,0481,0519671,0761,0781,0261,0481,0461,0201,0481,044
1973*1,0511,0979971,1101,0721,1071,1361,0751,0061,0511,072

The following table shows a long time series of all groups import prices index numbers on the new expression base. Series are available for years ended March, June, and December.

IMPORT PRICES INDEX
Base: Year Ended June 1971 (= 1000)
Year31 December (Calendar Year)YearYear Ended
31 March30 June31 December (Calendar Year)
*Provisional.
1,9263151,950541554580
1,9273011,951592612679
1,9282841,952709730741
1,9292791,953732716698
1,9302761,954698694689
1,9312581,955690692703
1,9322441,956706715721
1,9332501,957729735745
1,9342471,958746743742
1,9352431,959740734724
1,9362421,960725732734
1,9372571,961734732738
1,9382581,962735733721
1,9392581,963716718721
1,9402971,964724727732
1,9413311,965734730732
1,9423631,966733734734
1,9434021,967734733745
1,9444201,968776808878
1,9454281,969887898912
1,9464781,970920935967
1,9475691,9719831,0001027x
1,9485811,9721,0331,0441,056
1,9495291973*1,0661,072 

TERMS OF TRADE—The terms of trade is the expression of the ratio of export prices to import prices, i.e., an index of the purchasing power (in units of imports) of a fixed quantity of exports. In the table that follows terms of trade are expressed on base 1957 (= 100). However, an index above or below 100 means only that terms of trade are more or less favourable than in 1957. The choice of base year was arbitrarily made and is not intended to indicate that 1957 was a normal or standard year. For the purposes of this table both import prices and export prices indexes have necessarily been converted to a 1957 base.

The table below shows index numbers of import prices, export prices, and terms of trade.

IMPORT AND EXPORT PRICES AND TERMS OF TRADE—ALL COUNTRIES
Base: Calendar Year 1957 (= 100)
PeriodImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of TradePeriodImport Price IndexExport Price IndexTerms of Trade
* Provisional.
Base Year—Quarter—
    1957100100100    1970–31 Mar12610885
        30 Jun13010883
Year Ended June—    30 Sep13011084
    1963969599    31 Dec13411082
    196497108111    1971–31 Mar13711181
    196598106108    30 Jun13611686
    196699105107    30 Sep14111984
    19679899101    31 Dec13912792
    19681089789    1972–31 Mar14013395
    196912110788    30 Jun14213897
    197012610987    30 Sep*142144101
    197113411283    31 Dec*143155108
    1972*14013093    1973*144167116
    1973–31 Mar*146172118    30 Jun*145187129

SHARE PRICES INDEX—The Share Prices Index is described in the special supplement to the March 1961 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics under the title of Share Prices Index—1960 Revision. The index is designed to reflect changes in the aggregate value of holdings of parcels of ordinary shares in representative selections of companies listed on the New Zealand Stock Exchanges and trading in New Zealand. In selecting the companies, the frequency with which shares are traded was used as a criterion as well as the value of the New Zealand shareholding. Within the subgroups the weights of the different companies are determined by the New Zealand shareholding, and appropriate methods take account of capital changes in the companies concerned.

The weights used to combine the subgroup indexes to obtain the group and all-groups indexes are fixed and are based on the aggregate value in 1960 of the total New Zealand shareholdings in all the exchange-listed company which qualified for representation in the index.

Share Price and Dividend Yield Index Numbers—The following table shows the averages for the last 14 calendar years.

SHARE PRICES AND DIVIDEND YIELDS—GROUP INDEX NUMBERS
Base: 1960 (= 1000)
Calendar YearIndustrialDistributionFinanceAll Groups
  Prices  
1,9601,0001,0001,0001,000 
1,961990930944968 
1,9629588641,026963 
1,9631,0949741,1421,089 
1,9641,3301,1431,1531,252 
1,9651,3691,1191,0581,245 
1,9661,2799021,0421,153 
1,9671,1257381,0281,031 
1,9681,3347531,3481,232 
1,9691,6868811,6881,541 
1,9701,7418951,7051,581 
1,9711,4978371,5291,380 
1,9721,6249401,6591,500 
1,9731,9561,1411,8291,770 
  Dividend Yields  
1,9601,0001,0001,0001,000 
1,9611,1511,1251,1351,143 
1,9621,2571,2611,1591,228 
1,9631,1591,1761,1301,153 
1,9641,0371,0701,1331,067 
1,9651,0541,1381,2821,120 
1,9661,1661,4321,3681,250 
1,9671,3691,7181,4261,433 
1,9681,1961,5971,1701,238 
1,9691,0191,3841,0461,068 
1,9701,0831,4851,1071,135 
1,9711,3101,6881,2751,351 
1,9721,2141,5341,1841,251 
1,9731,1181,3721,2351,183 

SUMMARY OF PRICE MOVEMENTS—A comparative table of index numbers of various related prices series is as follows. All index numbers are quoted on a New Zealand currency basis; index numbers of terms of trade on base 1965 (= 100.) all others on base 1965 (= 1000.)

YearImport PricesExport PricesTerms of TradeWholesale Prices*Consumers' PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
Pastoral and Dairy ProduceAll ExportsImportedHome ProducedAll CommoditiesFoodAll Groups

*The three series have been individually linked.

† Includes only those home-produced items used by domestic industry and consumers.

1,928389393392101326347330362404321
1,92938237737799322346328365403336
1,93037829329678317333319351394391
1,93135222122865310293299305364234
1,93233320120762308276291280336222
1,93334219920761326271299264319259
1,93433724825576323279301279324303
1,93533224024875324302310301336321
1,93633127828486324310313314347305
1,93735132833295351333339345370309
1,93835230130888354340344357382289
1,93935329430286358363355379397275
1,94040734134785423371396388415288
1,94145234935679476392435398431289
1,94249635936574523411470407445292
1,94354937538169576415502409455339
1,94457539440170595425517416464369
1,94558642743374604433525415470389
1,94665446747372602440527416474429
1,94777859259576615417547442488543
1,94879465766183691517609499527439
1,94972363363988676528605513536424
1,950792905903114717601649563566476
1,9519281,0631,059114836699768647629519
1,9521,01384985284942758853713678429
1,95395594794899895802844756709428
1,954942963966103855839837795741492
1,955961988992103870841846814760522
1,95698696596898893887878860786538
1,9571,01995395394916880889858803587
1,9581,01480781280946900914871839555
1,95998992692794970910928876871629
1,9601,00489690090956920931889877803
1,9611,00984485184960914928897893778
1,96298686186888961906922902916773
1,96398595195096979923940919935875
1,9641,0011,0391,0351039829699739729671,006
1,9651,0001,0001,0001001,0001,0001,0001,0001,0001,000
1,9661,003992990991,0171,0161,0171,0181,028926
1,9671,019899903891,0541,0341,0401,0921,090828
1,9681,201962972811,1831,0841,1131,1261,137990
1,9691,2461,0231,032831,2351,1421,1701,1801,1931,238
1,9701,3271,0251,037781,3131,2091,2401,2581,2711,270
1,9711,4041,1121,12380x1,4121,3001,3341,3731,4031,108
1,9721,4441,3591,350931,5051392x1425x1,4381,5001,205
1,973    1,5971,6081,6061,5991,6231,422

Various price index numbers for March and June years are given in the following table.

YearBase: Calendar Year 1965 (= 1000)
Import Prices (All Groups)Export Prices (All Groups)Wholesale Prices*Consumers' PricesShare Prices (All Groups)
ImportedHome ProducedAll CommoditiesFoodAll Groups

*The two component series have been individually linked.

† Provisional.

Year ended 31 March
1,940....368367362384401280
1,945....597425518415465371
1,950740..679534610517539432
1,9531,000863937764853723685419
1,954954964881814842768718442
1,955944975855846840801747504
1,9569651,001876840849819764527
1,957996962900885382862792543
1,9581,020915917889893865809596
1,9591,011822959909924875853549
1,960991948966913929876872675
1,9611,004881956919931894881823
1,9621,005842961913927899900758
1,963979888964906924902921791
1,964989990984932948929941913
1,9651,0031,0239839809829859781,026
1,9661,0029941,0061,0051,0061,0061,007974
1,9671,0049711,0241,0191,0211,0311,039900
1,9681,0619031,0821,0431,0561,1001,103829
1,9691,2139921,2011,0971,1281,1421,1521,076
1,9701,2571,0301,2471,1561,1831,1921,2071,271
1,9711,3421,0461,3381,2331,2641,2911,3031,224
1,9721,41211791,4411,3201,3561,3921,4311,110
1,9731,45714601,5221,4371,4631,4591,5221,268
Year ended 30 June
1,940..341383371373387405284
1,945..426599426520416467374
1,950757732687549621528545443
1,953978917926775851732692415
1,954949970870827840783728459
1,955947964860846842806751512
1,956977984880849855827769533
1,9571,005986908888887865797555
1,9581,016825919889894867813587
1,9591,003860972912930875864557
1,9601,001949962918931876873726
1,9611,001861957917930897884827
1,9621,002844962910925902907755
1,963982907971908927906926808
1,9649941,024982945956941948945
1,9659981,0079909889899939861,034
1,9661,0041,0021,0071,0111,0101,0141,015957
1,9671,0039471,0361,0251,0291,0511,055877
1,9681,1059201,1131,0511,0701,1061,113855
1,9691,2281,0171,2141,1121,1431,1561,1671,144
1,9701,2791,0391,2631,1701,1981,2101,2221,286
1,9711,3671,0681,3651,2561,2891,3181,3371,186
1,972142712351,4611,3411,3781,4121,4571,120
1,973146515871,5421,4891,5051,4951,5501,342

Chapter 26. Section 24; CONSUMPTION OF FOOD

CONSUMPTION IN NEW ZEALAND—The estimates of consumption per head of population in New Zealand, in the tables which follow, have been compiled by deducting net exports from the sum of production and imports, and allowing for recorded and estimated movements in stocks of commodities.

While the estimates may be generally accepted as being reasonably accurate there are some deficiencies to which attention needs to be directed. These relate principally to the quantities of fruit, vegetables, poultry, eggs, and milk which enter into consumption. Little information is available on the quantities of these foodstuffs produced by householders for their own requirements, or on the extent of wastage which occurs in the marketing of these and other foodstuffs. In all these cases estimates have been compiled from the best available data and the quantities shown under consumption have been adjusted to allow for these circumstances.

The absence of particulars of stocks of certain commodities will result in some variation in imputed consumption from year to year but generally the figures do indicate a fairly accurate trend in consumption patterns. Consumption of food is measured in general at producer level. As a result no allowance is made for wastage before the foodstuffs are consumed (either at retailer or consumer level) but this wastage is probably diminishing to negligible proportions with more efficient distribution and storage facilities.

Dairy Products—New Zealanders are the world's largest consumers of butter per head, but are fairly moderate consumers of cheese. Estimated figures of annual consumption per head of mean population for the main items of dairy and similar produce are given below.

ProductUnit19381968196919701971
*Includes condensed milk, evaporated milk and cream, milk powders, and sugar of milk.
Fresh milklitre125.0139.8140.8142.0143.5
Creamlitre4.02.93.03.03.0
Processed milk*kg2.37.67.18.47.6
Cheesekg2.33.64.34.24.2
Ice creamlitre1.714.116.517.015.7
Butterkg18.617.817.616.416.4
Lard, tallow, animal fatskg..3.12.62.43.9
Vegetable oils and other fatskg..1.31.01.92.2
EggsNo.240.0318.0300.0306.4298.1

Meat, Poultry, and Fish—There are gradual changes taking place in consumption patterns in meats, poultry, and fish of which the most notable change is the increase in the consumption of poultry.

In the estimates of average annual consumption of meats an allowance has been made for killings on farms. The weights shown are in each case on a bone-in dressed carcass basis.

Estimates have been made of non-commercial catches of fish, and home production of poultry in the figures shown below.

ProductUnit19381968196919701971
*Provisional.
Beefkg51.744.845.043.7*43.4*
Vealkg3.63.83.53.3*3.2*
Muttonkg31.330.030.730.9*30.8*
Lambkg..9.79.29.5*9.5*
Porkkg4.16.56.56.6*13.7*
Ham and baconkg7.77.37.07.1*
Edible offalkg4.14.54.95.2*5.3*
Poultrykg1.84.24.85.76.0
Fish-
    Fresh, frozenkg5.04.34.54.24.1
    Shellfishkg0.51.11.11.22.3
    Cannedkg1.40.40.71.00.9

Vegetables and Fruits—Domestic garden production is taken into account for fruit and vegetables, although it is difficult to calculate consumption quantities from this source. The estimates include, at fresh weights, the fruits and vegetables grown in New Zealand and either quick-frozen or canned for local consumption.

There are considerable variations from year to year for many of the commodities and these are often a reflection of a poor growing season, consumer resistance to higher prices, or a change in consumption pattern.

Annual consumption per head of mean population for individual items is estimated as follows.

ProductUnit19381968196919701971

*Includes asparagus, beans, brussels sprouts, cucumber, leeks, parsnip, spinach, swedes, sweetcorn, etc.

† Includes grapefruit, lemons, mandarins, tangelos, etc.

‡Includes apricots, nectarines, plums, grapes, pineapples, tamarilloes, kiwi fruit, passionfruit, etc.

Fresh vegetables
    Potatoeskg54.069.272.866.759.1
    Kumaraskg3.62.32.72.92.4
    Cabbagekg13.611.015.213.712.3
    Carrotskg5.410.313.113.610.0
    Cauliflowerkg..12.212.211.610.2
    Lettucekg..6.47.36.35.7
    Onionskg..6.79.56.26.8
    Pumpkinkg..6.66.56.46.3
    Tomatoeskg9.110.09.510.49.7
    Other vegetables*kg..10.312.210.38.8
Canned vegetableskg0.97.08.47.86.9
Quick-frozen vegetableskg..6.47.86.68.5
Fresh fruit
    Orangeskg7.36.25.94.96.0
    Other citrus fruitkg2.72.92.33.43.3
    Bananaskg9.18.56.77.79.5
    Appleskg20.422.219.624.020.8
    Pears and quinceskg2.75.24.55.05.0
    Berry fruitskg..2.01.92.22.2
    Peacheskg..8.07.98.67.9
Other fruitskg..5.15.06.14.1
Dried fruitkg..3.63.43.63.2
Canned fruitkg8.27.75.58.08.2

Other Foodstuffs, Beverages, etc.—There has been little change in the consumption of these foodstuffs in recent years.

There have been gradual changes in the preferences for beverages with a gradual rise in the consumption of beer and a relatively faster increase in wines.

ProductUnit19381968196919701971

*Includes treacle and golden syrup.

† Includes dried peas, beans, and lentils.

‡Includes barley, and maize used for cornflower and corn flakes only.

§Calculations are based on total imports in the period—no information is available on stocks held, hence short-term trends are not readily apparent.

Foodstuffs
    Refined sugarkg44.042.641.139.439.9
    Syrups, etc.*kg..3.14.34.24.4
    Honeykg..2.31.91.81.3
    Pulseskg0.91.51.41.71.7
    Nutskg..2.82.72.02.4
    Cocoakg0.91.00.31.00.9
    Cereals—
        Wheatkg80.774.774.373.472.4
        Oatskg4.11.91.72.01.5
        Ricekg2.31.51.11.61.8
        Otherkg..1.01.20.70.6
Beverages
    Beerlitre50.5110.5111.1116.8121.3
    Winelitre1.04.24.95.66.8
    Spiritslitre0.71.01.01.11.2
    Teakg3.03.02.62.52.7
    Coffeekg0.11.81.32.52.0
Tobaccokg1.72.32.32.52.3

PROPORTION OF FOODSTUFFS EXPORTED—A considerable proportion of the foodstuffs produced in New Zealand are not consumed in New Zealand and the following table indicates the percentage of the main commodities exported.

Product196719681969x19701971

*In some cases exports may exceed production for the period, the balance being drawn from stocks in store.

† Provisional.

Dairy products
    Processed milk75.473.087.1106.7*73.6
    Cheese98.183.994.388.188.2
    Butter82.480.178.580.873.0
    Tallow and animal fats73.577.275.774.571.1
Meat, poultry, fish
    Beef55.160.564.466.569.6
    Veal59.858.063.658.861.0
    Pig meat1.72.91.20.91.2
    Mutton57.060.959.055.256.4
    Lamb91.792.392.992.592.2
    Offal74.275.975.173.268.9
    Other meat22.922.818.319.221.1
    Fresh fish19.325.425.838.240.6
    Shellfish45.852.346.841.825.2
Fruit and vegetables
    Apples40.440.343.844.546.1
    Pears15.216.913.816.118.1
    Berryfruits4.95.48.85.44.9
    Potatoes1.82.42.24.82.8
    Onions22.734.514.032.034.0
    Canned vegetables6.09.48.513.513.5
    Quick-frozen vegetables14.529.626.336.828.6
Other foodstuffs
    Barley2.10.8
    Sugar1.32.01.91.51.0
    Honey5.83.55.310.236.3
    Pulses62.454.948.954.560.5
    Eggs1.31.93.03.37.5

CONSUMPTION OF DAIRY PRODUCTS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES—The following table shows consumption per head of dairy produce and similar products in various countries.

CountryYearFresh MilkCheeseButterMargarineEggs
*New Zealand figures supplied by various Producer Boards.
  litrekgkgkgNo.
Australia1,968126.83.69.65.1206
Canada1,970110.55.37.14.2262
Denmark1,970120.09.59.117.6190
New Zealand*1,970141.84.317.9306
Sweden1,970157.79.15.417.9206
United Kingdom1,970136.85.48.85.4249
United States1,970116.47.52.45.0285
Source: Commonwealth Secretariat.

COMPARISON WITH OTHER COUNTRIES—The table which follows presents statistics for selected countries of food consumption extracted from the Food and Agricultural Organisation's Production Yearbook. Total consumption in calories per person per day is shown, and includes foodstuffs not specifically mentioned in the table (i.e., pulses and nuts, eggs, fish, fats, and oils, all of which are consumed in considerably smaller quantities than the foodstuffs shown in the table).

CountryYearGrams per Day per PersonCalories per Day
CerealsPotatoes, StarchesSugars, SyrupsVegetablesFruitsNutsMilk Products

*Provisional.

† Estimated.

‡Statistics as supplied to the Food and Agricultural Organisation by the Department of Statistics.

Europe
    United Kingdom1970–71*2002791361701552095923,170
    Italy1969–70353129744662961363943,020
    Yugoslavia1,96849817866167178932813,130
    Israel1969–703041071073314101554032,990
Africa
    South Africa1964–664434410466811132222,730
    Ghana1966–681911,08324433416132,070
    Egypt1968–69*5652844288199311352,770
Asia
    India1969–70*3844849104841161,990
    Japan1970*35216173362142481372,470
North America
    Canada1970*180215136213230257619
    U.S.A.1,9701761511403182763106893,300
    Mexico1964–663793510935207551572,620
South America
    Brazil1970*27253712840150841952,820
    Chile1,970321128862651961082312,560
Oceania
    Australia1969–70*216154192275294646
    New Zealand1970212191124252180307*5483,321
    New Zealand1971209169125233170307*5443,309

SUBSIDIES—Government subsidies on food items apply from time to time as part of the economic stabilisation policy. Milk and eggs have been subsidised for a long period, the subsidy on eggs being 3.33c a dozen, and the average subsidy on milk for the year ended 31 August 1973 was 41.20 cents a gallon.

The following table shows the total cost of subsidies paid under the stabilisation vote. Other subsidies, involving farm incentives, etc., are included in other government expenditure. The total amount of all subsidies will be found in the section on National Income and Expenditure.

Subsidy ItemsYear Ended 31 March
19701971197219731974
 $(thousand)
Bread1,6503,545
Eggs1,3551,6151,5461,7561,689
Meat10,647
Milk14,02618,17125,70031,04042,256
Sugar11,600
Wool21,761
Coal gas1,3181,2029351,1901,452
Industrial coal (rail transport)481420519559535
Subsidy to meet losses on—
    Post Office operations7,000
    Railways operations11,700
Totals17,18021,40828,70036,195112,185

Chapter 27. Section 25; ECONOMIC AGGREGATES

25 A—NATIONAL INCOME AND EXPENDITURE

GENERAL—The national accounts record the value of goods and services produced by a country and the way in which these are used. Within the accounts the flow of production and disposal of goods and incomes are analysed in various ways to provide information on the inter-relationship between industrial and institutional sectors of the economy and between the economy and the rest of the world. The accounts are used as the statistical framework within which economic policy and planning is formulated and applied, the values of the various items in the accounts providing a quantitative measure of the country's economic performance and a benchmark against which to compare other measures of economic and social well-being.

National Income—The principal aggregate is that of "national income", which, in general terms, measures the total value of all incomes (before deduction of direct taxation) earned by the residents of New Zealand in producing the current output of goods and services.

Income can be earned in a variety of ways, and accrues to individuals according to the manner in which they participate in current production. Salary and wage payments and pay and allowances of armed forces represent the return to labour for services rendered, and included in this concept is supplementary income in kind such as board and lodging provided by the employer.

Rental value of owner-occupied houses is a non-monetary item representing the imputed net rent (before payment of rates, but after deductions for depreciation, mortgage interest, insurance, and repairs and maintenance) of all owner-occupied houses (except farmhouses).

Other personal income (excluding company dividends) represents the aggregate income of professional men, farmers, and individual traders, as well as income other than salary and wages received by salary and wage earners—e.g., rent and interest. Surplus of producer boards and of primary produce stabilisation accounts represents the increase (or, if negative, the decrease) in the revenue balances of producer boards, and the credits relating to primary production stabilisation schemes held by producer boards.

Company income represents the total income (distributed and undistributed) of companies. This means that dividends distributed to individuals are included under this heading, and not as personal income.

Apart from these incomes, which result from current productive activities on the part of individuals receiving them, there are other incomes of a "non-productive" nature in the form of social security benefits, pensions, and interest on public debt. These transfer incomes, as they are called, do not arise from the current production of goods and services and must therefore be excluded from the national income. They do, however, form part of the intermediate concept of private income, which represents the aggregate of earned incomes and unearned transfer incomes received by or accruing to persons. The deduction of direct taxation gives the concept of private disposable income. Capital receipts—e.g., from deceased persons' estates, repayment of debt, etc.—are, however, excluded both from private income and national income.

The addition to private income of Government and local authority trading profits and the deduction of transfer incomes, as already detailed, gives the concept of net national income at factor cost or, more briefly, national income. This may be defined as the income (before tax) earned by or accruing to the factors of production, in or only temporarily absent from New Zealand, in producing the current output of goods and services of all kinds. The further addition of indirect taxes (net of subsidies) is necessary to bring the national income to market price valuation.

Gross National Product—Gross national product is obtained by adding depreciation allowances to national income at market prices, and represents the value of output before deduction of allowances for depreciation and obsolescence attributable to the factors of production supplied by New Zealand residents during the year.

Gross Domestic Expenditure—This represents the total final expenditure of New Zealand residents during the year, irrespective of where the expenditure was incurred. It is the sum of personal expenditure on consumer goods and services, public authority current expenditure on goods and services, gross domestic capital formation, and changes in stocks. These four components are described in more detail in the following paragraphs.

Personal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and Services represents the value of the purchases of households and non-profit-making organisations. Besides the day-to-day expenditure on food, clothing, rent, travel and other services, etc., it includes expenditure on such items as motorcars for private use and household durables. The notable exception is expenditure on the purchase of houses; this is recorded under private capital formation.

Public Authority Current Expenditure on Goods and Services shows the current expenditure of the non-trading organs of the Central Government and local authorities. It does not include payment of pensions, monetary social security benefits or subsidies which are transfers and do not, in themselves, represent an expenditure on production. A more detailed analysis of public authority current expenditure is given later.

Gross Capital Formation represents the expenditure in New Zealand on new assets such as buildings, roads and other construction, plant, machinery and motor vehicles for business use. It does not include the value of land and secondhand assets purchased during the year which is a transfer of an asset. Nor does it include expenditure on financial assets such as company shares; such transactions do not result in direct expenditure but transfer claims from one person or organisation to another.

Change in Stocks—This represents changes in the value of stocks which may be the result of changes in volume, changes in unit values, or a combination of the two.

By adding the value of exported goods and services to gross domestic expenditure and deducting the value of imports, an estimate of the expenditure on gross domestic product is arrived at. This represents the value of goods and services produced in New Zealand during the year. The deduction of payments for the use of overseas-owned factors (capital and labour) completes the reconciliation of expenditure with the value of gross national product.

The following table shows for March years some of the more important aggregates.

PRINCIPAL AGGREGATES OF INCOME AND EXPENDITURE
Item1965–661966–671967–681968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73*
*Provisional.
National Income$m3,2613,3713,4693,6524,0574,6625,3706,075
Gross national product$m3,7843,9334,0844,3104,7755,4786,2617,056
Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services$m2,3622,4092,5422,5692,7863,3093,6594,041
    As percentage of gross national product 6261626058605857
Gross capital formation in New Zealand$m9159608699641,0911,2631,4151,644
    As percentage of gross national product 2424212223232323
Public authority current expenditure on goods and services$m5165655986507218611,0321,139
    As percentage of gross national product 1414151515161616
Private income$m3,4603,5913,6953,8804,3024,9785,7076,536
Private savings$m3914113735126195877771,099
    As percentage of private income 1111101314121417

In the year ended 31 March 1973 the gross national product was valued at $7,056 million, an increase of 12.7 percent on the 1971–72 figure of $6,261 million. Preceding annual increases were 14.3 percent in 1971–72, and 14.7 percent in 1970–71. These aggregates are expressed in current prices, and the increasing rate of growth of recent years reflects both the high rate of inflation in these years as well as the increases achieved in real terms.

The three main components of national income, namely, salaries and wages, company incomes, and "other personal income", when expressed in current values, increased by 10.8 percent, 21.8 percent, and 23.1 percent respectively.

In 1972–73 New Zealand had a surplus of $200 million on current account with the rest of the world; this can be compared with a deficit of $17 million in 1971–72, a deficit of $205 million in 1970–71 and a surplus of $27 million in 1969–70. Exports of goods at $1,683 million and imports of goods at $1,188 million gave a balance of commodity trade of $495 million in 1972–73, compared with $238 million in 1971–72. The income accruing to overseas investors totalled $112 million in 1972–73 against $75 million in 1971–72.

Total savings showed an increase of 20.8 percent in 1972–73, compared with 21.6 percent in the previous year. As a proportion of gross national product, total savings rose to 26.9 percent compared with 25.1 percent in 1971–72.

Gross domestic expenditure, at $6,881 million, was 9.5 percent greater in 1972–73 than in 1971–72, compared with a 12.7 percent rise in gross national product. The percentage increases in the components of gross domestic expenditure in 1972–73 over the preceding year were as follows: personal consumption increased by 10.4 percent to $4,041 million; Government and local authority current expenditure on goods and services by 10.4 percent to $1,139 million; Government and local authority capital expenditure by 18.5 percent to $588 million. Private capital expenditure, including that of public corporations, rose by 14.9 percent to $1,056 million. Private capital expenditure has fluctuated considerably in the past 5 years with a rise of 19.7 percent in 1968–69 and subsequent annual increases of 20.2, 17.2, 10.6 and 14.9 percent.

The estimates of national expenditure should be used with some caution, owing to the fact that not all of the items of expenditure can be estimated directly. Whatever inherent error may exist in the absolute values of individual expenditure items, year-to-year changes are likely to be reliable because the method of estimation remains the same.

In these national income aggregates, no allowances have been made for any possible understatement of income shown in the taxation returns on which the estimates are based. Also, because these aggregates are based on taxation data, there has been no deduction of current years' losses incurred by companies and by individuals operating businesses, while losses in past years carried forward for taxation purposes do result in a reduction of these aggregates. Any over or understatement of the gross product total arising from these sources will therefore be reflected in a similar over or understatement of personal consumption which is shown as a residual item in the break-up of national expenditure. Direct estimates are made of public authority current expenditure on goods and services, gross capital formation in New Zealand by private and public authority sectors, and the balance of overseas payments on current account (sometimes termed net overseas investment or net lending abroad).

After ascertaining personal consumption in the manner outlined above, it becomes possible to make an estimate of private savings. By deducting personal expenditure and direct taxation from aggregate private income, another residual is obtained—viz, private savings. Being a residual item it will, of course, contain certain minor errors of estimation inherent in the aggregates from which it is derived. It will be free, however, from the major apparent error which is caused by the understatement of incomes through tax evasion; this is due to the fact that the underestimate is cancelled out by being included both in the minuend and subtrahend, and the residual is consequently not affected.

Full details of the methods used and a description of the items in the tables are given in National Income and Expenditure 1972–73, obtainable from Government bookshops.

It is recognised that in this form the accounts do not completely fulfil the present needs of Government or those of indicative economic planning. Work on a more sophisticated system of national accounts is proceeding. Meantime it is intended to continue the present series.

CONSTANT PRICE ESTIMATES OF THE MAIN AGGREGATES—National accounting aggregates are, by their nature, summations of the values of all goods and services produced or consumed in a particular year. If the values of goods and services are expressed in current prices (i.e., the market prices prevailing in each particular year) then any comparison between 2 or more years is affected not only by changes in the volume of production between those years but by annual price movements as well. The effect of annual price movements is eliminated if all annual values are expressed in the average prices of a base period; the base used here is the year 1954–55. By expressing the aggregates in constant prices, and not in current values, their real value in terms of goods and services, either produced or available for use, can be better appreciated.

Three of the principal national accounts aggregates, gross national product, gross domestic product, and gross domestic expenditure, are expressed in current as well as 1954–55 prices in the following table.

YearAt Current PricesAt Constant 1954–55 Prices
Gross National ProductGross Domestic ProductGross Domestic ExpenditureGross National ProductGross Domestic ProductGross Domestic Expenditure
*Provisional.
 $(million)
1954–551,8601,8771,9271,8601,8771,927
1955–561,9651,9792,0151,9321,9461,961
1956–572,0612,0782,0791,9681,9841,955
1957–582,1842,2012,2652,0712,0872,102
1958–592,2702,2942,2962,1232,1452,031
1959–602,4342,4542,3382,2122,2302,086
1960–612,6222,6592,7122,3342,3672,359
1961–622,7222,7532,8142,4182,4462,394
1962–632,9212,9662,9492,4832,5212,418
1963–643,1973,2403,2112,6392,6752,634x
1964–653,4913,5503,5062,7912,8382,845x
1965–663,7843,8383,9402,9693,0113,109x
1966–673,9333,9994,0733,083x3,1353,232x
1967–684,0844,1394,1483,0713,1123,028x
1968–694,3104,3914,2513,117x3,1762,941x
1969–704,7754,8734,7323,283x3,350x3,121x
1970–715,4785,5535,6693,4393,4863,399
1971–726,2616,3366,2823,548x3,591x3,461x
1972–73*7,0567,1686,8813,7183,777 

The graph which follows demonstrates the use to which resources available in New Zealand were put during selected years.

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT AND EXPENDITURE—The following table gives the composition of the national income by factor shares plus net indirect taxation and depreciation allowances entering into the market prices of all goods and services the production of which can be attributed to New Zealand residents (gross national product); the other side of the product account is a description of final expenditure on gross national product by type of expenditure. Personal expenditure on consumer goods and services is obtained as a residual item in this table, all other aggregates being obtained by direct estimates.

GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesRental Value, Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal IncomeSurplus of Producer Boards and Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountsCompany IncomePublic Authority Trading IncomePublic Debt Interest Paid in New ZealandNational Income at Factor CostIndirect TaxationSubsidiesNational Income at Market PricesDepreciation AllowancesGross National Product
*Provisional.
  $(million)
1952–536962133400815539-341,317134-301,421961,517
1953–547692437445318150-371,471135-311,5751061,681
1954–558622440462119560-411,603161-271,7381221,860
1955–5693724434621118864-421,688171-251,8331321,965
1956–579902446512-1019761-471,773168-271,9151462,061
1957–581,0682648543-3921165-531,870182-272,0261582,184
1958–591,1162550496121974-571,923208-272,1041662,270
1959–601,18126515332024282-592,075217-262,2661682,434
1960–611,2772751581-1129191-652,242226-312,4371852,622
1961–621,3652760556-10288100-702,315231-282,5182042,722
1062–631,44529815916323105-772,504228-292,7032192,921
1963–641,55430866589370123-892,742254-302,9662323,197
1964–651,723329668111418136-953,002276-353,2422493,491
1965–661,89036109708-6480147-1043,261289-393,5112733,784
1966–672,04140118678-9471147-1163,371301-393,6323013,933
1967–682,12742130671-4460167-1243,469316-213,7643204,084
1968–692,24045136667-6520185-1363,652343-193,9763344,310
1969–702,49347149723-8600202-1484,057377-284,4063694,775
1970–713,008561687831634171-1584,662462-525,0724065,478
1971–723,4906818189150661200-1715,370537-895,8184446,261
1972–73*3,866702161,097-6805218-1916,075602-986,5804767,056
GROSS DOMESTIC EXPENDITURE
March YearPersonal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and ServicesPublic Authority Current Expenditure on Goods and ServicesGross Capital Formation in New ZealandChanges in StocksGross Domestic ExpenditureExports of Goods and ServicesImports of Goods and ServicesExpenditure on Gross Domestic ProductNet Factor Payments to Rest of WorldExpenditure on Gross National Product
PrivatePublic Authority
*Provisional.
 $(million)
1952–53938212202147261,525516-5131,528-111,517
1953–541,049226215158-421,606525-4411,690-91,681
1954–551,201227277164581,927507-5571,877-171,860
1955–561,275249266187382,015565-6011,979-141,965
1956–571,326274256203202,079595-5962,078-172,061
1957–581,445287287214322,265593-6572,201-172,184
1958–591,459302290214312,296576-5782,294-242,270
1959–601,465324297226262,338671-5552,454-192,434
1960–611,723346366233442,712630-6832,659-372,622
1961–621,793363393241242,814634-6952,753-312,722
1962–631,878394387255352,949671-6542,966-462,921
1963–641,993417423286923,211788-7593,240-423,197
1964–652,1344605003121003,506837-7933,550-593,491
1965–662,3625165733421473,940831-9333,838-543,784
1966–672,4095655893711394,073881-9553,999-663,933
1967–682,5425984933761394,148861-8704,139-554,084
1968–692,569650590374684,2511,114-9744,391-814,310
1969–702,7867217093821344,7321,264-1,1234,873-984,775
1970–713,3098618314322365,6691,284-1,4005,553-755,478
1971–723,6591,0329194961766,2821,522-1,4686,336-756,261
1972–73*4,0411,1391,056588576,8811,945-1,6587,168-1127,056

The following tables provide some more detailed analyses of particular aspects of the national accounts.

Private Income and Outlay—This table gives in detail the break-up of private income and, on the expenditure side, the manner in which these incomes are spent on personal expenditure on consumer goods and services, paid in direct taxation, or saved. An analysis of other personal income is also given.

The total of personal consumption derived from the preceding table is carried forward to this table and this time private savings is obtained as a residual item. The limitations of these two residual items have already been mentioned.

Revenue Account of Public Authorities—The Government sector is discussed in more detail later in this section, but this table gives a consolidated statement of Central Government and local authority revenue and expenditure, showing as a balance that portion of the revenue which was available for capital formation and other capital transactions.

Combined Capital Account—This account indicates the manner in which resources for capital formation have been made available (a) from private savings, (b) from revenue surpluses of public authorities, and (c) from amounts set aside as depreciation. Gross capital formation represents the construction in New Zealand or purchase from overseas of durable capital assets by the private, Central Government, and the local authority sectors, plus the net change in stocks of trading concerns.

Rest of World Account—An account of external economic transactions between New Zealand and other countries; it is in essence, a balance of payments on current account for the period, presented here in abridged form.

These four tables, then, give a comprehensive picture in broad terms of the changing pattern of New Zealand's economy. One important point to consider when examining the tables, however, is that all the figures are at prices current during the period and consequently are inflated to a greater or lesser extent by price movements over the period.

PRIVATE INCOME AND OUTLAY
March YearSalary and Wage PaymentsPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsRental Value of Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal IncomeSurplus of Producer Boards and Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountsCompany Income Before DistributionPrivate Income (Before Tax)
FanningBusiness and InvestmentChanges in Balances of Income Retention Accounts
*Provisional.
 INCOME $(million)
1952–536962110733232180-1281551,420
1953–547692411537259197-1131811,572
1954–558622412240263210-1111951,706
1955–569372412843257218-13111881,794
1956–579902413246290234-12-101971,891
1957–581,0682613948287256-392111,997
1958–591,116251605024924712192,065
1959–601,1812619851279255202422,251
1960–611,2772721351289291-112912,429
1961–621,3652721860251304-102882,503
1962–631,445292198127232063232,694
1963–641,5543022986315334893702,937
1964–651,72332234963213582114183,194
1965–661,89036242109332381-5-64803,460
1966–672,04140252118298384-4-94713,591
1967–682,12742269130294381-3-44603,695
1968–692,24045278136286381-65203,880
1969–702,493472981493024183-86004,302
1970–713,00856328168315467116344,978
1971–723,49068366181378513506615,707
1972–73*3,8667048821649157630-68056,536
March YearPersonal Expenditure on Consumer Goods and ServicesNet Transfers to Rest of WorldDirect TaxationPrivate SavingsPrivate Outlay
Undistributed Profits of CompaniesOther Private Savings
*Provisional.
OUTLAY $ (million)
1952–53938-3292391541,420
1953–541,0491308581561,572
1954–551,2012336571101,706
1955–561,275348421291,794
1956–571,326370461491,891
1957–581,445-1345451631,997
1958–591,459344264912,065
1959–601,4656420772832,251
1960–611,7238493831222,429
1961–621,7938531611102,503
1962–631,8789505872152,694
1963–641,99375421082872,937
1964–652,134106291013203,194
1965–662,362176911542373,460
1966–672,409177551442673,591
1967–682,542137671582153,695
1968–692,56987912272853,880
1969–702,786108872693504,302
1970–713,30951,0772503374,978
1971–723,659-151,2862565215,707
1972–73*4,041-401,4363837166,536
REVENUE ACCOUNT OF PUBLIC AUTHORITIES (CENTRAL GOVERNMENT AND LOCAL AUTHORITIES)
March YearTaxationDirectIndirectTrading Income
Direct Taxes Paid by Public Authority Trading UndertakingsTotal Revenue
*Provisional.
 REVENUE $(million)
1952–5329613439-5464
1953–5431113550-4492
1954–5534216160-5558
1955–5635417164-6582
1956–5737616861-6599
1957–5835018265-4593
1958–5944720874-5724
1959–6042521782-6718
1960–6149922691-7809
1961–62538231100-7862
1962–63512228105-8838
1963–64551254123-9919
1964–65640276136-111,040
1965–66702289147-111,127
1966–67767301147-121,203
1967–68780316167-131,250
1968–69806343185-151,320
1969–70904377202-171,466
1970–711,093462171-161,710
1971–721,300537200-152,022
1972–73*1,452602218-162,256
March YearCurrent Expenditure on Goods and ServicesTransfer IncomeSubsidiesBalance of Revenue Over ExpenditureTotal Expenditure Plus or Minus Revenue Balances
Social Security Benefits and PensionsNet Transfers to Rest of WorldInterest on Public Debt Paid in New Zealand
*Provisional
 EXPENDITURE $(million)
1952–532121073343078464
1953–542261153373181492
1954–5522712244127138558
1955–5624912834225135582
1956–5727413244727116599
1957–582871394532782593
1958–5930216045727174724
1959–6032419845926107718
1960–6134621346531151809
1961–6236321847028178862
1962–6339421947729115838
1963–6441722968930148919
1964–65460234595352121,040
1965–665162426104392201,127
1966–675652526116392251,203
1967–685982696124212321,250
1968–696502787136192321,320
1969–707212988148282621,466
1970–718613289158523021,710
1971–721,03236611171893532,022
1972–73*1,13948815191983262,256
COMBINED CAPITAL ACCOUNT
March YearPrivate SavingsRevenue Balances of Public AuthoritiesDepreciation AllowancesTotal SavingsGross Capital Formation in New ZealandChanges in StocksNet Investment OverseasTotal Investments
PrivateCentral Government Trading UndertakingsLocal Authorities Trading UndertakingsPrivateCentral GovernmentLocal Authorities
*Provisional.
 Savings$(million)Investments 
1954–551671381061424272771154958-72427
1955–561711351141534372661295838-54437
1956–571951161271644572561386520-22457
1957–58208821351844482871407432-85448
1958–591611741412055022901377731-33502
1959–60360107141225636297142842687636
1960–612051511552465423661498444-101542
1961–621711781732465533931479424-105553
1962–6330211518526763538715310235-42635
1963–6439514819727777442318010692-27774
1964–65421212213279882500196116100-30882
1965–663912202352810884573218125147-178884
1966–674112252573310936589242129139-163936
1967–683732322733512925493244132139-83925
1968–6951223228039151,07759023713669441,077
1969–7061926231043161,251708235147134271,251
1970–7158730234644161,294831270162236-2051,294
1971–7277735338145181,574918309188176171,574
1972–73*1,09932640948181,9011,056388200572001,901
REST OF WORLD ACCOUNT
March YearExports ofImports ofNet Factor PaymentsNet TransfersSurplus on Current Account
GoodsServicesGoodsServicesPrivatePublic Authorities
*Provisional.
 $(million)  
1952–5347640-415-98-113-3-9
1953–5449134-362-79-9-1-371
1954–5547136-459-98-17-2-4-72
1955–5652441-498-103-14-3-54
1956–5754847-488-108-17-4-22
1957–5854053-545-112-171-4-85
1958–5952848-468-110-24-3-4-33
1959–6062249-442-113-19-6-487
1960–6157456-546-137-37-8-4-101
1961–6258153-550-145-31-8-4-105
1962–6360763-509-145-46-9-4-42
1963–6472067-601-158-42-7-6-27
1964–6576770-616-177-59-10-5-30
1965–6674982-722-211-54-17-6-178
1966–6778795-723-232-66-17-6-163
1967–68753109-638-232-55-13-6-83
1968–69978136-722-253-81-8-744
1969–701,117147-828-294-97-10-827
1970–711,109174-1,043-356-75-5-9-205
1971–721,309213-1,071-396-7515-11-17
1972–73*1,683262-1,188-469-11240-15200

DISTRIBUTION OF PRIVATE INCOME—The following table gives an analysis of private disposable income with the amount of direct taxes on gross private income shown in parentheses. In the following table the items of private income are shown as percentages of the whole.

PRIVATE DISPOSABLE INCOME (WITH DIRECT TAXATION ON PRIVATE INCOME SHOWN IN PARENTHESES)
March YearSalary and WagesPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsOther Personal Income (Including Rental Value of Owner-occupied Houses)Surplus of Producer Boards and Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountCompany Income (Before Distribution)Total
*Provisional.
DISPOSABLE INCOME $(million)
1957–58975 (93)24 (2)583 (147)-39109 (102)1,652 (345)
1958–59982 (134)22 (3)505 (200)1113 (106)1,623 (442)
1959–601,035 (146)23 (3)620 (162)20133 (109)1,831 (420)
1960–611,130 (148)24 (3)629 (216)-11165 (126)1,936 (493)
1961–621,197 (168)24 (3)622 (211)-10138 (150)1,972 (531)
1962–631,272 (173)26 (3)707 (184)6179 (144)2,190 (505)
1963–641,378 (177)27 (3)774 (199)9207 (164)2,395 (542)
1964–651,517 (206)29 (4)788 (223)11221 (196)2,566 (629)
1965–661,654 (236)31 (4)821 (239)-6268 (212)2,768 (691)
1966–671,772 (269)35 (5)798 (250)-9240 (231)2,836 (755)
1967–681,844 (283)37 (5)826 (244)-5226 (234)2,928 (767)
1968–691,933 (308)40 (6)822 (258)-6300 (220)3,088 (791)
1969–702,146 (346)41 (6)880 (290)-8356 (244)3,415 (887)
1970–712,545 (463)48 (9)963 (315)1343 (291)3,900 (1,077)
1971–722,881 (609)57 (11)1,078 (360)50355 (306)4,422 (1,286)
1972–73*3,193 (673)58 (12)1,359 (442)-6496 (309)5,100 (1,436)
PRIVATE INCOME ON PERCENTAGE BASIS
March YearSalary and WagesPay and Allowances of Armed ForcesSocial Security Benefits and PensionsRental Value, Owner-occupied HousesOther Personal Income (Excluding Company Dividends)Surplus of Producer Boards and Primary Produce Stabilisation AccountCompany Income (Before Distribution)Private Income
*Provisional.
PERCENT
1957–5853.51.37.02.427.2-2.010.6100.0
1958–5954.01.27.72.524.010.6100.0
1959–6052.41.28.82.324.6-0.910.7100.0
1960–6152.61.18.82.123.9-0.512.0100.0
1961–6254.51.18.72.422.2-0.411.5100.0
1962–6353.61.18.13.022.00.212.0100.0
1963–6452.91.07.82.922.40.312.6100.0
1964–6553.91.07.33.021.30.313.1100.0
1965–6654.61.07.03.220.5-0.213.9100.0
1966–6756.81.17.03.318.9-0.313.1100.0
1967–6857.61.17.33.518.2-0.112.4100.0
1968–6957.71.17.13.517.2-0.213.4100.0
1969–7058.01.17.03.516.8-0.213.9100.0
1970–7160.41.16.63.415.712.8100.0
1971–72*61.11.26.43.215.60.911.6100.0
1972–7359.11.17.52.316.8-0.112.3100.0

PUBLIC AUTHORITY SECTOR—The Revenue Account of Public Authorities shown earlier is a consolidation and simplification of two separate and more detailed accounts—the Central Government Revenue Account and the Local Authorities Revenue Account. The consolidated account eliminates all transfers between the two levels of Government and aggregates the respective totals of economically significant flows.

  1. Central Government—The Revenue Account of the Central Government has been obtained by an analysis of the various accounts within the Public Account. In the case of trading department operations, which are treated separately, profits only are brought into the main account as a revenue item. Expenditure has been taken "net" in all cases, sundry departmental receipts being set off against departmental expenditure. The account covers only current revenue items and therefore excludes capital receipts and payments of all kinds, thus accounting in part for the differences between the details given here and those given in the published statement of the Public Accounts in parliamentary paper B. 1 [Pt. 1].

Current expenditure on goods and services by Government rose from $762.1 million in 1971–72 to $843.5 million in 1972–73. A better measure of the relativity, of Government expenditure is given by comparing it with gross national product. In 1972–73 Central Government expenditure amounted to 12.0 percent of gross national product compared with 12.2 percent in 1971–72.

Although all Government transfer expenditure—social security cash benefits and pensions, interest on public debt, and subsidies—is also paid from the Government's taxation revenue and trading profits, it is not part of Government final consumption. It only becomes final consumption in the hands of recipients, or, in the case of subsidies, can be looked upon as an offset to indirect taxation which reduces prices to consumers. For this reason the best measure of transfers is the national income itself on which they are a charge and which they redistribute.

Social security benefits and pensions, the most important item of the transfer group, were $487.5 million in 1972–73 or 33.3 percent higher than in 1971–72. Expressed as a percentage of national income, they were 8.0 percent in 1972–73, whereas the average in the latest 5 years was 6.8 percent.

With the removal of subsidies from some basic foodstuffs in earlier years their importance declined but they increased markedly from $28 million in 1969–70 to $52 million in 1970–71 to $89 million in 1971–72 and $98 million in 1972–73.

Interest on Government debt paid in New Zealand was 2.4 percent of national income in 1972–73 compared with 2.4 percent in 1971–72 and 2.6 percent in 1970–71.

Transfers to local authorities comprises two items, namely, finance provided by the Central Government to hospital boards, and transfers to other local authorities. The former, as a proportion of national income at market prices has remained quite constant, averaging 2.8 percent over the last 5 years. The latter represents a shift from local to national taxation and in 1972–73 it amounted to 2.9 percent of the total Government revenue from taxation, a reduction from the 3.2 percent average of the previous 4 years.

The balance of revenue over expenditure is the Government's surplus on current transactions and is, together with the depreciation provisions of Government trading undertakings, available for capital formation, lending, and debt repayment. Its magnitude changes appreciably from year to year both absolutely and in relation to total current revenue and is the result of short-term changes in fiscal and economic policies pursued by the administration. Year-to-year changes in the Government's surplus are, however, complementary to changes (in the opposite direction) in private savings. This is of course, merely a reflection of the fact that changes in taxation policies are a major cause of the redistribution of total savings as between the private and Government sector. From a long-term point of view, however, it is important to observe the changes in Government fiscal policy from pre-war to present days: in 1938–39, 4.8 percent of the Government's revenue was saved. In 1972–73 the proportion was 9.3 percent.

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—REVENUE ACCOUNT
Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–721572–73*
*Provisional.
1. TAXATION
    (a) Direct:REVENUE $(million)
        Income tax440.3456.7779.2957.31,161.11,300.5
        Social security taxation232.5234.8
        Land tax4.42.72.93.13.83.4
    Death duties21.423.626.129.224.828.4
    Other
Totals698.6717.9808.1989.51,189.71,332.3
    (b) Indirect:
        Sales tax75.482.897.6125.3139.5171.1
        Customs and excise duties131.1142.2152.8178.5198.0210.2
        Motor vehicles taxation87.094.298.4104.0108.6115.7
        Other20.221.024.127.330.537.1
        Payroll tax20.540.846.3
Totals313.7340.3372.9455.6517.3580.4
2. Totals, all taxation1,012.31,058.21,181.01,445.11,707.01,912.7
3. TRADING INCOME127.8142.7158.5126.8156.4174.0
4. Less direct taxation paid by trading departments-13.1-15.1.-17.0-15.7-14.8-16.3
Totals114.7127.6141.5111.1141.6157.7
5. TOTAL REVENUE1,127.01,185.81,322.51,556.21,848.62,070.4
6. CURRENT EXPENDITURE ON GOODS AND SERVICESEXPENDITURE $(million)
    (a) General administration53.055.263.273.493.5100.8
    (b) Interest21.628.830.832.136.338.3
    (c) Law and order13.413.016.320.726.631.5
    (d) Development of primary and secondary industries40.042.349.164.564.283.4
    (e) Health73.377.786.8103.7114.0103.0
    (f) Education136.8145.6168.4214.9279.6309.1
    (g) Other social services5.27.04.95.87.820.3
    (h) Defence83.795.9102.6122.8121.8135.5
    (i) Rehabilitation1.21.11.11.00.90.8
    (j) Maintenance of public works and services14.218.216.118.917.420.8
Totals442.4484.8539.3657.8762.1843.5
7. TRANSFERS
    (a) Monetary social security benefits and pensions263.0270.9292.4319.5361.4483.9
    (b) Family benefit advances6.16.66.08.54.53.6
    (c) Net transfers to rest of world6.46.67.79.310.715.1
8. Interest on Central Government debt paid in New Zealand94.2103.6113.4120.9130.6147.5
Totals369.7387.7419.5458.2507.2650.1
9. TRANSFERS TO LOCAL AUTHORITIESEXPENDITURE $(million)
    (a) Hospital boards94.9101.1113.3135.0169.1230.8
    (b) Other38.539.341.944.047.956.2
Totals133.4140.4155.2179.0217.0287.0
10. SUBSIDIES21.018.928.551.689.497.5
11. TOTAL EXPENDITURE966.51,031.81,142.51,346.61,575.71,878.1
12. Balance of revenue over expenditure160.5154.0180.0209,6272.9192.3
13. TOTAL EXPENDITURE PLUS REVENUE BALANCES1,127.01,185.81,322.51,556.21,848.62,070.4
  • Local Authorities—The revenue account of local authorities is in all respects similar to that of the Central Government and has been obtained by an analysis of the accounts of all local authorities including hospital boards. In 1972–73 the Central Government contributed 60.7 percent of the revenue of local authorities through transfers. Trading profits contributed a further 9.4 percent, and rates and licence fees at 29.9 percent continued the pattern of recent years.

Current expenditure on goods and services by local authorities in 1972–73, at $295.8 million was 9.7 percent higher than in the previous year, whereas the increase in Central Government current expenditure on goods and services was 10.7 percent. The limitation in the scope of local government activities as compared with those of the Central Government do not call for a detailed analysis of expenditure items and therefore current expenditure on the provision of goods and services by local authorities is shown as a single total.

LOCAL AUTHORITIES—REVENUE ACCOUNT
Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73*
*Provisional.
14. TAXATIONREVENUE $(million)
    (a) Direct: Rates81.288.695.5103.6110.5119.8
    (b) Indirect: Licence fees2.83.04.06.019.421.8
Totals84.091.699.5109.6129.9141.6
15. Trading income39.542.643.944.043.644.3
16. Transfers from Central Government133.4140.4155.2179.0217.0287.0
17. TOTAL REVENUE256.9274.6298.6332.6390.5472.9
 EXPENDITURE $(million)
18. Current expenditure on goods and services155.3164.7181.6202.8269.7295.8
19. Interest on local authority debt paid in New Zealand30.132.335.037.540.643.8
20. TOTAL EXPENDITURE185.4197.0216.6240.3310.3339.6
21. Balance of revenue over expenditure71.577.682.092.380.2133.3
22. TOTAL EXPENDITURE PLUS REVENUE BALANCES256.9274.6298.6332.6390.5472.9

25 B—BALANCE OF PAYMENTS

GENERAL—A country's balance of payments is an account of economic transactions which take place between that country and all other countries. The balance of payments is part of the national accounting system. The present series of New Zealand balance of payments estimates is largely based on the principles set out in the Balance of Payments Manual published by the International Monetary Fund and is in conformity with the methods used in other countries. For a more detailed description of statistical concepts and methods used in preparing balance of payments estimates, refer to the Report on the Balance of Payments for the year 1970–71, obtainable from the Government Printer.

The statement is divided into a current and capital account. The balances on both accounts are, by definition the same, the capital account showing how the surplus or deficit on current account was financed.

Current Account—The current account records all transactions between New Zealand and the rest of the world other than changes in overseas assets and liabilities. As far as possible transactions are recorded on a gross credit-debit basis rather than on the basis of net settlements. The current account includes credits and debits for goods, services (invisibles), and transfers (donations). The difference between current credits and current debits is the balance of payments surplus (deficit) on current account. This is the measure of the extent to which a country does or does not live; within its current income and it is the most significant datum emerging from a balance of payments compilation.

Capital Account—The capital account records changes in claims on, or liabilities to, the rest of the world. These may consist of changes in overseas private investments in New Zealand and New Zealand private investments overseas; borrowing or repayments overseas by the Government and official institutions and changes in Government overseas cash balances, net overseas assets, monetary gold, multilateral transfers, and other capital movements. Of the items comprising the capital account, the category of net overseas assets (the overseas exchange holdings of New Zealand's banking system) is most widely known and appreciated. Its importance lies in the fact that it records changes in overseas liquid resources which, by their nature, can be made immediately available for purposes of imports, public debt repayments, capital investments, etc. Within the confines of the balance of payments capital account the movement in net overseas assets is only one of several other capital movements with which it forms an integral part; it is the combination of all these capital changes which must be studied in order to understand the financing of the current surplus or deficit.

MERCHANDISE TRANSACTIONS: Exports—The source of export figures is Custom's export entries (exclusive of ships' stores) at f.o.b. valuation; exports from New Zealand to its island territories have been excluded, but exports from island territories to other countries have been added to New Zealand totals. The remaining adjustments are for items which are included in export and import entries (relief supplies, and some ships and aircraft), items where the valuation requires correction, e.g., parcel post, or items which are accounted for elsewhere in the balance of payments (export of gold).

Imports—The basic import figures originate from import entries. Some aircraft and ships not included in imports by Customs Department are added. New Zealand imports from its island territories have been excluded, but imports into island territories from other countries have been included.

It is necessary to comment here on the valuation method adopted for imports, Balance of payments accounts treat freight and marine insurance payments on imports (as far as they are made to non-residents) as invisible payments. As a result, merchandise transactions are shown on a f.o.b. valuation basis for imports and exports alike. This method of treatment has many advantages, and international comparability of merchandise movements is one of them. A special estimate is therefore made of imports f.o.b. for balance of payments purposes.

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND EXCHANGE RECORD—There are several very important differences between a balance of payments statement and the statistics of overseas receipts and payments which are included in an exchange record, such as is given in Section 29, Banking and Currency. The main differences are:

  1. The balance of payments attempts to show all economic transactions between residents of one country and residents of other countries, whereas the exchange record shows only transactions involving remittances.

  2. (ii) The import and export figures in the balance of payments are based on trade statistics, which enable goods to be valued at a definite and uniform valuation boundary—viz, f.o.b. country of export; the exchange record, on the other hand, records remittances for imports and exports whenever these are made and without adhering to any valuation boundary (f.o.b. or c.i.f.). The result is a difference both in timing and valuation between the two statements.

  3. Whereas exchange statistics record net settlements resulting from a number of possible contra-entries or offsets, the balance of payments shows these transactions as far as possible on a gross basis.

Other differences arise from the fact that the balance of payments is constructed on a basis of country of purchase for imports and country of destination for exports, country of residence of remittor or remittee, and nationality in the case of shipping companies, whereas the record of exchange transactions is based on the country of monetary settlement.

In essence, the exchange record is a statement of cash flows, or using the terminology of commercial accounting it is the "cash book" of the nation's transactions with other countries; the balance of payments statement on the other hand approaches an "income and expenditure" account.

GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION—The regional break-up of the balance of payments is on a geographical (as distinct from a currency) basis. This means that it is not the currency in which any economic transaction is settled but the residence of New Zealand's immediate partner in the transaction which determines in which regional column the transaction is recorded. Any exception to this rule is due to statistical necessity—insufficiency of basic data, etc., rather than choice.

The New Zealand figures include transactions of New Zealand's dependent island territories. In this respect they differ from the rest of the world account included in the national income and expenditure estimates, where the rest of the world account refers to New Zealand only, and does not cover the island territories. However, this difference in coverage only slightly affects the gross figures, and the final outcome of the balance of payments current account differs very little from that of the rest of the world account.

The regional areas and countries comprising them have been defined as follows:

Other Sterling Countries—Commonwealth countries (excluding the United Kingdom and Canada) and their trustee and dependent territories, the colonies, protectorates, and trustee territories, etc., of the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, Iceland, and South Africa.

EEC Countries—The six members of the European Economic Community which formed a common market in 1958; Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg, France, Italy, and West Germany, together with their associated and dependent overseas territories.

Other Countries—All countries not included in any other group.

International Organisations—Transactions with the United Nations and its agencies, the International Monetary Fund, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the Asian Development Bank, the International Finance Corporation, and the South Pacific Air Transport Council and other international organisations are included.

ACCOUNTING PERIOD—All estimates are for financial years ended 31 March.

RESIDENTS AND NON-RESIDENTS—The balance of payments is a record of economic transactions between residents and non-residents.

Residents are all people living permanently in New Zealand (and who have their "centre of interest" in New Zealand). Subsidiaries and branches of overseas companies are treated as residents, while subsidiaries and branches of New Zealand companies operating overseas are regarded as residents of the country in which they operate.

In order to simplify the rather complex operations of overseas shipping companies, the shipping transactions of their branches in New Zealand (such as their receipt of freights, port disbursements, administrative expenses in New Zealand, etc.) are regarded as transactions of non-residents, by way of exception to the general rule stated above; on the other hand, their investment activity is included in the data on New Zealand branches of overseas companies and conforms to the general rule.

SUMMARY TABLES, CURRENT AND CAPITAL ACCOUNTS—The following table summarises current transactions with all countries.

CURRENT ACCOUNT
Item1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73*
 NZ$(million)
*Provisional
Credits
Exports f.o.b. 974.2 1,113.2 1,102.7 1,305.5 1,664.6
Non-monetary gold     
Transportation 77.4 80.3 95.1 120.4 116.0
Travel 20.1 26.0 33.6 45.1 57.4
Insurance 7.3 3.0 0.9 0.2 5.8
International investment income— 31.8 34.8 42.8 46.2 61.8
    Income from direct private investment:8.3 11.3 13.5 13.0 10.4 
    Other private investment income16.5 14.6 24.8 13.8 20.5 
    Government and official institutions6.9 8.9 4.4 19.4 30.9 
Government transactions— 11.2 14.0 15.8 17.8 31.5
    Foreign Government expenditure6.9 9.6 8.9 11.0 20.4 
    New Zealand Government receipts4.3 4.3 6.9 6.8 11.1 
Miscellaneous receipts 26.3 29.1 35.2 37.3 51.3
Transfers— 37.1 37.9 47.8 69.2 99.6
    Government transfers      
    Personal remittances and other donations25.8 28.3 35.5 49.3 55.4 
    Migrants' funds7.0 5.9 8.3 14.6 35.2 
    Legacies4.4 3.8 4.1 5.3 9.0 
Total credits1,185.61,338.31,373.81,641.72,088.0
Debits 
Imports f.o.b. 720.4 827.1 1,042.0 1,070.3 1,187.0
Non-monetary gold     
Transportation 122.8 139.8 171.9 189.0 212.0
Travel 42.2 50.1 61.9 75.5 98.2
Insurance 2.5 1.6 4.3 4.9 10.5
International investment income— 112.5 132.4 117.9 121.0 169.5
    Income from direct private investment72.6 88.8 70.3 78.4 113.7 
    Other private investment income8.4 7.9 14.6 9.6 18.3 
    Government and official institutions31.2 35.3 32.6 32.9 37.3 
    Local authority interest0.2 0.4 0.4 0.1 0.2 
Government transactions— 25.1 27.8 29.9 39.8 46.2
    New Zealand Government expenditure25.1 27.8 29.9 39.8 46.2 
Miscellaneous payments 60.1 75.5 87.4 92.5 102.3
Transfers— 51.5 55.9 61.8 65.4 74.8
    Government transfers and contribution to Colombo Plan6.6 7.7 9.3 10.7 15.1 
    Personal remittances and other donations and transfers17.6 18.0 21.3 23.4 23.9 
    Migrants' funds22.6 23.2 23.9 22.6 26.2 
    Legacies4.6 7.0 7.3 8.8 9.6 
Total debits1,137.41,310.21,577.11,658.41,900.5
Balance on current account48.228.1-203.3-16.7187.5

The consolidated capital account shown below summarises capital transactions with all countries; some of the items are presented in simplified form (by adding or offsetting capital movements where these have occurred in respect of equally defined items).

CAPITAL ACCOUNT
Item1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73*
Increase inIncrease inIncrease inIncrease inIncrease in
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities

Minus (-) sign denotes decrease.

*Provisional.

† Allocation of special drawing rights and holdings in New Zealand currency are not increases in liabilities, but are entered here as contra entries to maintain the correct balance of the capital account.

Long-term capital (Private)—NZ$(million)
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand38.976.2130.097.5124.6
    New Zealand direct Investment overseas6.311.07.810.7-2.2
    Other long-term capital movements17.63.68.793.387.6
Long-term capital (Government)—
    Government investments-7.726.131.412.28.9
    Public debt15.42.950.672.2-49.6
    Local Authority debt-2.0-1.3-1.3-1.4-1.1
    Asian Development Bank—
        Holdings of New Zealand securities1.01.01.01.2
        Encashment of securities0.3
        New Zealand subscription2.02.02.02.0
    International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank)—
        Holdings of New Zealand securities0.4
        New Zealand subscription and security0.4
        Other4.6-5.3-11.51.410.5
Monetary institutions—
    Reserve Bank of New Zealand—
    International Monetary Fund-
        Drawings and repurchases-57.4-18.4-35.0
        Allocation of Special Drawing Rights23.619.319.1
        Increase in Quota40.2
        IMF holdings in New Zealand currency30.1
    Other borrowing and lending-9.427.9-5.1-5.4
    Monetary gold1.0-0.4-0.1
    Reserve Bank of New Zealand and other banks—
        Assets of New Zealand banking system-17.221.7-32.4159.0318.9
        Special Drawing Rights of IMF23.6-4.027.94.9
    Official export credits5.74.30.5
Short-term capital (Government)—
    Government cash balances-0.1-0.1
    Other12.3-18.2-0.357.673.1
Other short-term capital movements including errors and omissions60.316.966.811.845.7
Balance on capital account..48.2..28.1..-203.3..-16.7..187.5

ANALYSIS OF CURRENT ACCOUNT—Total credits moved ahead again in 1972–73 especially earnings from the exports of goods. This upsurge rectified the deficit in the current account which had been present in 1970–71 and 1971–72.

The balance of payments estimates show that for the year ended 31 March 1973 New Zealand's balance with the rest of the world on current account was $187.5 million. It was $16.7 million in deficit for the 1971–72 financial year.

(a) Merchandise Transactions—As compared with 1971–72, the value of exports rose by $359.1 million to $1,664.6 million, and imports (measured f.o.b. country of shipment) were $116.7 million greater than in 1971–72 at $1,187.0 million.

The long-term trend of a declining share of exports destined for the United Kingdom has continued. In 1952–53, 68.4 percent of New Zealand's exports, by value, were sold in the United Kingdom; by 1960–61 this proportion had fallen to 52.9 percent, and in the last 3 years the percentages have been 38.2 for 1969–70, 35.7 for 1970–71 and 33.9 for 1971–72.

The following table shows how trade with each area has moved.

Year Ended 31 MarchUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesUnited States and CanadaEEC CountriesOther Countries*Total. All Countries
*Includes International Organisations.
Exports (f.o.b. N.Z.)NZ$(million)
    1968–69377.0133.4193.6119.6150.6974.2
    1969–70425.4151.7221.4142.1172.51,113.2
    1970–71393.3179.8214.9135.9178.81,102.7
    1971–72443.1223.0250.7167.7221.01,305.5
Annual Change—
    1969–70+48.4+18.3+27.8+22.5+21.9+139.0
    1970–71-32.1+28.1-6.5-6.2+6.3-10.4
    1971–72+49.8+43.2+35.8+31.8+42.2+202.8
Imports (f.o.b. Overseas)—
    1968–69241.6222.7119.451.785.1720.4
    1969–70277.9257.3128.260.1103.6827.1
    1970–71304.8327.7174.981.5153.11,042.0
    1971–72325.4344.1146.682.5171.71,070.3
Annual Change—
    1969–70+36.3+34.6+8.8+8.4+18.5+106.7
    1970–71+26.9+70.4+46.7+21.4+49.5+214.9
    1971–72+20.6+16.4-28.3+1.0+18.6+28.3
Balance of Trade (Exports Less Imports)—
    1968–69135.4-89.374.267.965.6253.8
    1969–70147.5-105.693.282.068.9286.1
    1970–7188.5-147.940.054.425.760.7
    1971–72117.7-121.1104.185.249.3235.2
Annual Change—
    1969–70+12.1-16.3+19.0+14.1+3.3+32.3
    1970–71-59.0-42.3-53.2-27.6-43.2-225.4
    1971–72+29.2+26.8+64.1+30.8+23.6+174.5

(b) Invisibles—The deficit on the other items of the current account, invisibles, was $290.1 million for 1972–73 as compared with $251.9 million in 1971–72.

Large deficits occurred in the transportation and travel accounts. The transportation debit item includes freight on imports, passenger fares to non-resident shipping lines and air carriers, earnings and disbursements overseas by New Zealand carriers and disbursements in New Zealand by nonresident carriers (such as port disbursements, ships' stores and bunkers). The higher freight component of this item was affected by rises in freight rates.

Investment income credits include income from New Zealand direct investment overseas, other private investment income and interest on investments of Government and official institutions. The debits include income derived from overseas direct investment in New Zealand, other private investment income and interest on Government and local authority debt.

The following table gives details of invisible transactions by areas.

NET DEFICIT ON INVISIBLE ACCOUNT BY AREAS
YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesUnited States and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
 NZ$(million)
1969–70115.029.248.719.327.6240.1
1970–71116.038.243.121.231.5250.0
1971–72119.945.944.517.328.1255.7

In 1971–72 transactions with the United Kingdom accounted for 46.9 percent of the invisible deficit, those with the other sterling countries for 18.0 percent, those with the United States and Canada for 17.4 percent, those with the European Economic Community for 6.8 percent, and those with other countries for 11.0 percent.

(c) Transfers—Transfers consist of legacies, personal remittances, migrants' funds, Government contributions to international agencies, gifts and donations in cash or kind, for which there is no quid pro quo.

Analysis of Capital Account—The capital account of the balance of payments records changes in claims on and liabilities to other countries; such changes have direct reference to current transactions and the net difference between acquisition of new claims and the increase in liabilities explains how the current account was funded.

An analysis of the 1972–73 capital account is now presented.

Nature of CapitalNet Outflows of Capital (Increase in Claims)Net Inflows of Capital (Increase in Liabilities)
 NZ($million)
Long-term private214.4
Long-term Government50.2
Monetary institutions324.3
Short-term Government73.1
Other short-term (including errors and omissions)45.7
Excess of capital inflows over outflows (equals balance on current account)187.5
Totals447.6447.6

One of the major categories of private long-term capital movements is that of direct investment in New Zealand by overseas firms in branches and subsidiaries. In 1972–73 the increase in investment by overseas firms was $124.6 million compared with $97.5 million in 1971–72 and $130.0 million in 1970–71.

The two main components of Government long-term capital movements are Government investment overseas which increased by $8.9 million and the external public debt which fell by $49.6 million in 1972–73.

Under the heading Monetary Institutions are included the international transactions entered into by the Reserve Bank. During the year New Zealand acquired a further $4.9 million under the IMF designation programmes. It was settled by transfers of foreign exchange of the same value. Credits were made available to Indonesia and were drawn on during the year to the extent of $0.5 million. Finally the assets of the banking system rose by $319 million.

Government short-term capital is mainly composed of short-term securities held overseas. During 1972–73 it rose by $73.1 million.

The last item of the capital account is the short-term private capital and errors and omission due mainly to timing differences. No precise breakdown of this figure can be given but the inflow of short-term private capital was around $31 million.

BALANCES BY AREAS—The following tables for current account and capital account for 1971–72 respectively, analyse the balance of payments by area. The 1972–73 figures are not yet available.

A. CURRENT ACCOUNT BY AREAS 1971–72
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesUnited States and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesInternational OrganisationsTotal, All Countries
 CreditsNZ$(million)  
Exports f.o.b.443.1223.0250.7167.7220.91,305.5
Non-monetary gold
Transportation74.926.95.78.34.7120.4
Travel8.621.114.50.60.345.1
Insurance1.3-1.50.20.10.2
International investment income—
    (a) Income from direct investment overseas7.25.00.60.3-0.113.0
    (b) Other private investment income1.510.31.60.10.313.8
    (c) Interest on investments of Government and official institutions18.90.10.419.4
Government transactions—
    (a) Expenditure by foreign governments in New Zealand1.32.34.60.32.00.511.0
    (b) New Zealand Government current receipts from overseas3.51.51.90.16.8
Miscellaneous receipts12.813.36.91.62.737.3
Transfers—
    (a) Government transfers
    (b) Personal remittances and other donations and transfers20.017.98.12.21.049.3
    (c) Immigrants' funds8.43.32.60.30.114.6
    (d) Legacies3.21.40.60.1..5.3
Total credits604.7324.4298.4181.6232.20.51,641.7
 DebitsNZ$(million)  
Imports f.o.b.325.5344.0146.682.5171.61,070.3
Transportation115.613.510.518.530.9189.0
Travel21.840.78.92.12.075.5
Insurance4.5-0.10.50.14.9
International investment income—
    (a) Income from direct investment in New Zealand27.223.826.51.5-0.678.4
    (b) Other private investment income5.14.20.9-0.69.6
    (c) Interest on Government debt23.20.26.92.632.9
    (d) Interest on local authority debt0.10.1
Government transactions—
    Current Government expenditure18.113.46.91.60.6-0.839.8
Miscellaneous payments34.328.920.04.64.792.5
Transfers—
    (a) Government transfers and contribution to Colombo Plan0.41.82.26.310.7
    (b) Personal remittances and other donations and transfers5.711.82.11.62.3-0.123.4
    (c) Emigrants' funds6.911.52.61.10.522.6
    (d) Legacies3.93.71.10.18.8
Total debts592.1497.5233.5113.6216.45.41,658.4
Balance on current account (minus sign (-) denotes deficit)12.6-173.065.267.915.8-4.9-16.7
B. CAPITAL ACCOUNT BY AREAS 1971–72
ItemUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesUnited States and Canada
Increase InIncrease InIncrease In
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities
Long-term capital (private) —NZ$(million)
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand-7.238.167.6
    New Zealand direct investment overseas10.92.0-2.8
    Other long-term capital movements-8.469.50.320.1-1.0-1.0
Long-term capital (Government)—
    Government investments12.42.6
    Public debt-2.4-7.6
    Local authority debt
IBRD (World Bank)
    Holdings of N.Z. securities
    New Zealand subscription
    Other0.50.30.6
Monetary institutions—
    Reserve Bank of New Zealand—
        International Monetary Fund Allocation of special drawing rights
        Other borrowing or lending-5.4
    Reserve Bank of New Zealand and other banks—
        Assets of New Zealand banking system159.0
        Special drawing rights of International Monetary Fund
        Export credits
Short-term capital (Government)—
    Government cash balances
    Other29.9-1.6
Other short-term capital movements including errors and omissions131.3-121.9127.4
Multilateral transfers
Balance on capital account12.6-171.365.0
ItemEEC CountriesOther Countries and unallocatedInternational OrganisationsTotal, All Countries
Increase InIncrease InIncrease InIncrease In
AssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilitiesAssetsLiabilities

Minus (-) sign denotes decrease.

† Allocation of special drawing rights is not an increase in liabilities but is entered here as a contra entry to maintain the accounting balance of the Capital account.

 NZ$(million)
Long-term capital (private)—
    Overseas direct investment in New Zealand-8.07.097.5
    New Zealand direct investment overseas0.610.7
    Other long-term capital movements2.80.6-1.4-3.5-7.785.6
Long-term capital (Government)—
    Government investments-1.0-1.812.2
    Public debt64.721.9-4.472.2
    Local authority debt-1.4-1.4
    International Bank for Development (World Bank) Holdings of N.Z. Securities0.40.4
    New Zealand subscription0.40.4
    Other-0.50.9
Monetary institutions—
    Reserve Bank of New Zealand—
    International Monetary Fund—
    Allocation of special drawing rights19.119.1
    Other borrowing or lending-5.4
    Reserve Bank of New Zealand and other banks
        Assets of New Zealand banking system159.0
        Special drawing rights of International Monetary Fund27.927.9
        Export credits4.34.3
Short-term capital (Government)—
    Government cash balances
    Other18.09.22.257.7
Other short-term capital movements including errors and omissions105.3-27.2--18.5-11.8
Multilateral transfers
Balance on capital account67.815.9-4.9-16.7

The following diagram shows New Zealand's balance of payments by monetary areas for the latest 5 years.

SURVEY OF COMPANIES WITH OVERSEAS AFFILIATIONS—The picture of international capital movements would be incomplete without the consideration of investment flows originating with private commercial firms. While such investment takes place in response to usual economic motivations, its effect on a country's balance of payments differs in no respect from other capital movements, such as Government lending or borrowing abroad, investment or repatriation of assets from abroad by private individuals, etc.

The type of investment referred to here is that defined as direct private investment. Subsidiaries (i.e., New Zealand companies) under control of an overseas company, branches of overseas companies where many of the shareholders reside overseas, or any other companies where overseas shareholders exercise a controlling interest, fall under this category. The question of control is decided in some cases on the strength of the parent company's holdings (a 25 percent holding of the subsidiary's ordinary share capital is deemed as the qualifying minimum), in others on the actual circumstances of the case. The same criteria apply for direct investment by New Zealand companies and residents overseas.

Direct investment flows assume various forms; they may be by remittances of cash, the provision of plant, machinery, or goods without corresponding payments, charging up of services rendered by the parent company, the re-investment in New Zealand of undistributed profits, or the partial remittance only of declared dividends and branch earnings. The inclusion of undistributed profits may require some explanation: the non-remittance abroad of the whole of the current year's earnings, or any portion of them involves, where no statutory constraints exist on remittances of current profits, a decision to invest which is in every respect equal to a decision to bring additional investment capital into the country. By treating, as already mentioned previously, total earnings of subsidiaries and branches of overseas firms in New Zealand as a current account debit or payment to the rest of the world, the unremitted portions of such earnings are treated as an inflow of investment capital which, together with other forms of investment capital (cash, goods, services), make up the total of the private direct investment item in the capital account.

The information tabulated in the following tables is based on an annual survey of companies with overseas affiliations in which the companies report on the distribution of paid-up capital and its changes, dividends and dividend remittances, intercompany accounts with the parent company or affiliated company, and head office accounts in the case of branches.

It should be noted that investment figures given in the following four tables are in terms of annual changes at current prices. The total worth of direct investment assets is extremely difficult to establish in view of the fact that book values may bear little relationship to what such investments would realise on sale; annual changes on the other hand are capable of precise expression, and define exactly their relationship to other capital movements.

Overseas Private Direct Investment in New Zealand—Data on overall private investment in New Zealand are shown in the following table. The figures are totals reflecting investment changes in firms resident in New Zealand and controlled from overseas irrespective of their legal organisation. They include therefore subsidiaries incorporated in New Zealand, companies incorporated in New Zealand which have a majority of shareholders resident overseas or are controlled by overseas residents, and New Zealand branches of overseas companies.

The figures shown in the country or regional area columns refer to the country of incorporation of the New Zealand firm's parent company, head office, or other subsidiary of the parent associate company from which the investment flows, or the New Zealand company owes or is owed on outstanding accounts, or the country of residence of individual shareholders who collectively hold a controlling interest (as defined above) in the New Zealand company.

YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
*Provisional.
 NZ$(million)
1960–6120.79.32.40.71.234.2
1965–6622.825.815.11.4-2.462.8
1969–7018.231.516.61.48.576.2
1970–7137.030.712.923.725.7130.0
1971–72-7.238.167.6-8.07.097.5
1972–73*52.042.125.63.01.9124.6

The graph now presented shows changes in the overseas direct investment in New Zealand.

Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table provides a subdivision of total direct investment income derived by all enterprises controlled from overseas and operating in New Zealand. The investment income is given net (after payment of New Zealand taxation). The regional totals as well as the "All Countries" total correspond to the "Income from Direct Investment" debits shown in the regional current accounts.

YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesU.S.A. and CanadaEEC CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
*Provisional.
 NZ$(million)
 Dividends
1960–614.73.15.40.213.4
1965–665.74.56.90.11.018.2
1969–707.47.57.70.10.523.2
1970–7112.06.74.00.61.324.6
1971–729.48.28.41.62.029.6
1972–73*10.510.77.22.03.033.4
 Undistributed Earnings
1960–616.83.52.80.313.3
1965–668.09.95.20.40.323.8
1968–6921.58.29.2-0.40.338.8
1969–7022.110.715.00.448.1
1970–717.411.513.80.60.533.8
1971–7214.911.415.1-0.2-3.837.4
1972–73*32.815.118.2-1.1-3.261.8
 Net Earnings of Branches
1960–618.73.20.50.913.3
1965–667.64.41.113.0
1968–6911.63.80.40.416.2
1969–709.53.52.52.017.5
1970–715.94.01.70.311.9
1971–723.04.23.01.211.4
1972–73*12.03.12.5-0.31.218.5
 Total Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand
1960–6120.29.88.60.90.540.1
1965–6621.318.713.20.51.255.0
1968–6938.918.114.9-0.20.972.5
1969–7039.021.725.10.42.688.8
1970–7125.322.219.51.22.170.3
1971–7227.223.826.51.5-0.678.4
1972–73*55.328.927.90.51.1113.7

Industrial Classification of Overseas Private Direct Investment and Income from Direct Investment in New Zealand—The following table shows details of overseas direct investment and income from overseas direct investment classified by major industry groupings.

Industry1969–701970–711971–721972–73*
*Provisional.
 NZ$(million)
Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, and fishing0.11.11.81.4
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying2.211.52.53.1
Manufacturing—
    Food, drink, and tobacco6.11.01.12.8
    Meat and dairy products15.66.3-0.212.3
    Textiles, clothing, and footwear1.10.71.81.1
    Wood, cork, and furniture production0.10.40.2-0.3
    Pulp, paper, and printing-2.54.94.111.1
    Leather and rubber products1.71.31.91.2
    Chemical and mineral products1.68.816.812.0
    Metalworking8.545.239.0-1.7
    Engineering and transport equipment7.810.010.813.1
    Miscellaneous manufacturing7.43.02.33.8
Building and construction1.50.32.52.2
Electricity, gas, water
Wholesale and retail trade14.420.89.548.6
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property4.89.511.314.0
Transport and communications5.14.3-9.7-1.8
Services0.80.81.81.7
Totals76.2130.097.5124.6
Income from Direct Investment
Farming, hunting, and fishing--0.20.2
Forestry and logging
Mining and quarrying-0.21.11.2
Manufacturing—
    Food, drink, and tobacco4.74.75.36.1
    Meat and dairy products18.51.7-2.510.1
    Textiles, clothing, and footwear2.01.02.12.0
    Wood, cork, and furniture production0.10.20.10.2
    Pulp, paper, and printing4.73.33.64.6
    Leather and rubber products2.31.71.11.6
    Chemical and mineral products5.88.211.012.6
    Metalworking2.53.20.90.8
    Engineering and transport equipment12.910.711.513.2
    Miscellaneous manufacturing4.14.03.85.2
Building and construction2.00.62.52.1
Electricity, gas, water
Wholesale and retail trade20.721.225.434.9
Banking, insurance, and ownership of property6.18.49.014.8
Transport and communications1.81.10.72.2
Services0.60.42.62.0
Totals88.870.378.4113.8

Investment by New Zealand Companies Overseas—The following table presents the converse picture of those immediately preceding, viz, direct investment and income for direct investment by New Zealand companies in their overseas subsidiaries and branches.

YearUnited KingdomOther Sterling CountriesOther CountriesTotal, All Countries
*Provisional
 NZ$(million)
 Direct Investment
1967–681.1-3.61.2-1.3
1968–696.10.5-0.36.3
1969–70-2.29.93.311.0
1970–71-3.18.82.17.8
1971–7210.92.1-2.310.7
1972–73*-12.08.21.6-2.2
 Income from Direct Investment
1967–681.43.90.55.9
1968–692.64.90.98.3
1969–704.66.40.311.3
1970–715.97.30.313.5
1971–727.25.00.913.0
1972–73*5.73.70.910.4

25 C—INTER-INDUSTRY STUDIES

As a background to economic policy formation, and particularly with regard to planning of industrial development, it is desirable to have an overall view of the pattern and industrial relationships of all parts of the economy. This applies at a national level and also at lower levels of, say, an industry or group of industries, when decisions involving the direction of growth have to be taken.

Such a view can be provided in the first place by input-output tables, resulting from inter-industry studies of the New Zealand economy. These show in matrix form the transactions which took place between industries in the country and what inputs they required in a chosen year to deliver an output of goods and services to final demand users such as households, Government, and export. From these tables of commodity transactions, further tables of co-efficients are computed to show not only the degree of dependence of any one industry directly on other industries and on external producers, but also the indirect requirements of any industry on all others for each unit of its output. The relationships thus established can be held to be reasonably stable for several years in a developed country and also, for major planning purposes, can be up-dated by mathematical procedures which incorporate more recent data which may become available. In this way the tables can be made to serve until completion of a fresh inter-industry study, an undertaking requiring several years of investigation and processing.

One aim of inter-industry studies is to establish a connection between demand for finished products and its implications for production, employment, capacity utilisation, and raw material requirements of industries which may be significantly, even if remotely, involved in meeting this demand.

The input-output tables of the New Zealand economy compiled from the Department of Statistics' Inter-industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1959–60 were published in 4 parts and depict the productive sector as divided into 110 industries. A description of the industrial classifications is contained in the final volume together with an explanation of the input-output system of analysis.

A preliminary analysis of inter-industry input-output transactions for 1965–66 has been published as a supplement to the December 1973 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics. Further publications on the 1965–66 study are planned.

The Department of Statistics publication Inter-Industry Study of the New Zealand Economy 1959–1960 Part 4 may be used for general guidance to both the 1959–60 and the 1965–66 studies.

It should be noted, however, that because in some cases data were not available from the same source in both years, and for various other technical reasons, conclusions from the latest study regarding shifts in the technological inter-dependence of industries should be made with some caution.

The contributions to net output by the 21 industry groupings as adopted for national development planning are shown in the following table for 1965–66.

Industry GroupNet OutputProportion of Total Net Output
 $(m)Percent
Farming and hunting504.315.0
Pastoral products processing104.13.1
Non-pastoral farm products processing17.10.5
Fuel production8.90.3
Other mining and quarrying12.10.4
Fishing3.70.1
Fishery products processing0.3
Forestry and logging.20.30.6
Forestry products processing72.02.1
Other manufacturing502.215.0
Mineral products processing29.30.9
Fuel products processing7.50.2
Transportation200.66.0
Wholesale and retail trade617.418.4
Fuel and power generation and distribution77.42.3
Building and construction253.17.5
Banking and insurance68.82.0
Ownership of property228.06.8
Services to households30.20.9
Services to government284.08.5
Other service activities315.19.4
Totals3,356.3100.0

25 D—PRODUCTIVITY AND REAL DOMESTIC PRODUCT

INDEX OF PRODUCTION—The Index of Production measures the volume of output of all goods and services produced by the economy. Its coverage and concept of net output correspond to the national accounting aggregate of gross domestic product at factor cost.

All industries are represented in the Index of Production in proportion to their net outputs plus depreciation. The index remains weighted on the 1954–55 pattern but the industrial grouping of indicators has been amended to correspond more closely with the revised New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification by the transfer of Industry 468—Repairs to Motor Vehicles—from the Manufacturing Group to the All Other Industries Group. The amended weighting of the major industry groups for the base year (the 12 months ended 31 March 1955) is as follows.

 Weight (percent)
Farming20.7
Forestry and logging0.8
Fisheries, etc.0.3
Mining and quarrying1.0
Manufacturing20.2x
Electric power and gas1.6
Building and construction8.2
All other industries47.2x
 100.0

The following analysis of the Index of Production breaks it into industry groups.

Industrial Group1954–551962–631963–641964–651965–661966–671967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72*1972–73*

*Provisional.

† Decrease.

‡Revised on account of reallocation of Industry 468—Repairs to motor vehicles.

Farming1,0001,3381,3691,3971,4941,5431,5921,6271,5971,2671,6831,656
Forestry and logging1,0001,2951,3541,4771,5421,5591,5671,7782,0072,1132,0472,158
Fisheries, etc.1,0001,2181,2501,2691,3321,4551,5331,5431,3671,5431,6041,474
Mining and quarrying1,0001,2901,3641,4181,5501,6611,4601,4501,5661,7461,9782,332
Manufacturing1,0001,5051,6681,8822,0152,1262,0992,1632,4292,5542,6632,771
Power and gas1,0001,8322,0152,2042,4272,5812,6602,7812,9433,1463,5344,003
Building and construction1,0001,3101,3171,3791,5671,6331,5651,5131,6331,6301,5991,811
All other industries1,0001,2801,3611,4211,4771,5291,5031,5351,6031679x1,7171,834
All groups1,0001,3491,4301,5181,6121,6791,6651,7001,7941,8681,9252,025
Annual percentage increase in production index3.26.06.26.24.2-0.82.15.5x4.13.1x5.2

For the most heavily-weighted group, Services, the increase recorded has been below the All Groups average. Service industries may be said to be of two kinds, those for supplying the needs of final consumers, and those which service industries of all kinds. The volume index for these service industries covers many activities such as wholesale and retail trade, transport, communication, finance, education, and personal services.

INDEX OF EMPLOYMENT—This measures the number of members of the civilian labour force actively employed. It excludes the armed forces and unemployed workers, but includes part-time as well as full-time workers. No allowance is made for any variation in the proportion of full and part-time employment or in average hours worked.

INDEX OF PRODUCTIVITY—The term productivity has a number of meanings according to the statistical concept employed. The most usual concept is that of "ratio of net (unduplicated) real output to real factor (labour, capital) inputs", whether this is taken at industry level or for all industries combined and therefore at national level. The index expression is merely the ratio of the index of outputs divided by an index of inputs.

The real output of the economy or industry is largely the end result of undifferentiated labour working on or using the undifferentiated capital equipment and natural resources of land. However other influences besides the main factors of production help determine the real output produced from a given combination of resources. For instance, innovations in production processes, managerial interventions and other similar measures can and do increase output without necessarily using additional factor resources.

The purpose of what economists call production functions is to determine, in measurable form, how quantities of resources combined affect real output. Much effort has been put into establishing such relationships, often of a very complex mathematical nature, but with varying degrees of success. Difficulties encountered are connected either with statistical inference or measurement (e.g., the problem of measuring a unit of capital). Because of this, productivity is still being expressed only as the relationship of output per unit of labour input, the latter being a more measurable unit than the other factors influencing output.

The three indexes set out below are equated to base 1954–55 = 1000.

Production YearIndex of ProductionIndex of EmploymentIndex of ProductivityAnnual Percentage Increase in Productivity Index

*Provisional.

† Decrease.

1954–551,0001,0001,000
1955–561,0391,0201,0191.9
1956–571,0591,0381,0200.1
1957–581,1151,0591,0533.2
1958–591,1461,0821,0590.6
1959–601,1911,0931,0902.9
1960–611,2651,1181,1313.8
1961–621,3071,1431,1431.1
1962–631,3491,1611,1621.7
1963–641,4301,1921,2003.3
1964–651,5181,2301,2342.8
1965–661,6121,2741,2652.5
1966–671,6791,3141,2781.0
1967–681,6651,3151,266-0.9
1968–691,7001,3191,2891.8
1969–701794x1,3521327x2.9x
1970–711,8681,3891,3451.4x
1971–721,9251,4071368x1.7x
1972–732025*1,4261420*3.8

It can be seen that the Productivity Index is a little more sensitive to changes in economic tempo than is the Index of Production. Output is influenced by changes in all the inputs to production, including materials, capital, management and skills, as well as labour, but at this stage an index has not been developed to permit an assessment of relative contributions of each input to economic growth.

GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT IN CONSTANT PRICES—The fact that the Index of Production is a volume index covering the output of all goods and services means that it can be readily modified into an index of real gross domestic product. In New Zealand the most important change is to include the service of defence. The derived index is compared with the Index of Production in the following table.

YearIndex of ProductionIndex of Real Gross Domestic Product
*Provisional.
1954–551,0001,000
1955–561,0391,037
1956–571,0591,057
1957–581,1151,112
1958–591,1461,143
1959–601,1911,188
1960–611,2651,261
1961–621,3071,303
1962–631,3491,343
1963–641,4301,425
1964–651,5181,512
1965–661,6121,604
1966–671,6791,670
1967–681,6651,658
1968–691,7001,692
1969–701794x1785x
1970–711,8681,857
1971–721925x1913x
1972–73*2,0252,012

Having obtained an index of real gross domestic product it can be used to obtain gross domestic product and gross national product at constant prices from the original estimates expressed in current price terms. In the table below gross domestic product and gross national product are shown, firstly, in current prices as they appear in the annual estimates of national income and expenditure and, secondly, valued in constant 1954–55 prices. In this case the method used to obtain constant prices is to project the value of the gross domestic product for 1954–55 by the derived index.

YearGross Domestic Product in Current PricesGross National Product in Current PricesGross Domestic Product at 1954–55 PricesGross National Product at 1954–55 Prices
*Provisional.
$(million) 
1954–551,8771,8601,8771,860
1955–561,9791,9651,9461,932
1956–572,0782,0611,9841,968
1957–582,2012,1842,0872,071
1958–592,2942,2702,1452,123
1959–602,4542,4342,2302,212
1960–612,6592,6222,3672,334
1961–622,7532,7222,4462,418
1962–632,9662,9212,5212,483
1963–643,2403,1972,6752,639
1964–653,5503,4912,8382,791
1965–663,8383,7843,0112,969
1966–673,9993,9323,1353,084
1967–684,1394,0843,1123,071
1968–694,3914,3103,1763,117
1969–70x4,873x4,775x3,350x3,283x
1970–71x5,5535,4783,4863,439
1971–726,3366,2613,5913,548x
1972–73*7,1687,0563,7773,718

When correction is made for price changes in the values of exports and imports of goods and services, gross domestic expenditure may also be expressed in constant prices, as is done in the following table.

YearGross Domestic Product at 1954–55 PricesExports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 PricesImports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 PricesGoods and Services Available for Use* at 1954–55 Prices

*This is also called gross domestic expenditure.

† Provisional.

$(million) 
1954–551,8775075571,927
1955–561,9465685831,961
1956–571,9845925631,955
1957–582,0875966112,102
1958–592,1456635492,031
1959–602,2306805362,086
1960–612,3676586502,359
1961–622,4467076552,394
1962–632,5217386352,418
1963–642,6757837422,634
1964–652,8387697762,845
1965–663,0117958933,109
1966–673,1358329293,232
1967–683,1128657813,028
1968–693,1761,0027672,941
1969–70x3,3501,0778483,121
1970–713,4861,0669793,399
1971–723,5911,1269963,461
1972–733,7771,152  

The following table assesses movements caused by changes in the terms of trade, by showing gross domestic product at constant prices corrected for the terms of trade. By making this correction to the gross domestic product at 1954–55 prices, a much better picture can be obtained of the purchasing power, both here and abroad, of the income it represents.

YearGross Domestic Product at 1954–55 PricesExports of Goods and Services at 1954–55 PricesExports of Goods and Services Corrected for the Terms of TradeEffective Gross Domestic Product
*Provisional.
$(million) 
1954–551,8775075071,877
1955–561,9465685521,930
1956–571,9845925631,955
1957–582,0875965482,039
1958–592,1456635382,020
1959–602,2306806392,189
1960–612,3676585922,301
1961–622,4467075952,334
1962–632,5217386462,429
1963–642,6757837542,646
1964–652,8387697902,859
1965–663,0117957883,004
1966–673,1358328343,137
1967–683,1128657663,013
1968–693,1761,0028663,040
1969–70x3,3501,0779483,221
1970–713,4861,0669013,321
1971–723,5911,1261,0233,488
1972–73*3,7771,152  

25 E—ECONOMIC PLANNING

GENERAL—In its long-term economic planning and development of natural resources, the Government is assisted by a Planning Advisory Group and sector councils with wide coverage of economic, social and cultural life in New Zealand, namely, Agricultural Production Council, Manufacturing Development Council, Forestry Development Council, Mineral Resources Council, Tourist Development Council, Trade Promotion Council, Building Industry Advisory Council, Transport Advisory Council, Distribution Council, National Research Advisory Council, Advisory Council on Educational Planning, Environmental Council, Social Development Council, and Cultural Council.

The objectives of the planning include (a) a faster economic growth rate than would otherwise be possible, (b) balanced growth in which the aspirations of all main sectors are taken into account in the national targets and goals, and (c) the linking of economic and non-material objectives.

In March 1974 the Government decided that the top committee of Cabinet responsible for establishing policy and priorities should assume the functions which the National Development Council had undertaken since 1969. Individual ministers have become more closely involved in sector planning and each sector council reports primarily to the Minister holding the relevant portfolio. The Ministers report to the Cabinet Committee on Policy and Priorities and this committee invites the chairman of sector councils and others to participate in its deliberations as appropriate.

During the 1950s and 60s, "key sector" conferences were held on housing and industrial, export, and agricultural development*. These conferences reflected a changed attitude regarding the Government's role in growth and development. As a result of the work of the Agricultural Development Conference in particular, medium- and long-term projections were accepted as the basis for planning. Targets were set for agricultural production up to 10 years ahead. Another feature was the formation of continuing machinery after two of the conferences, namely the Trade Promotion Council and the Agricultural Production Council.

The Agricultural Production Council's purpose was to review agricultural sector targets and to advise the Government on how to achieve them. Other sectors became interested in this approach to planning within sectors. Preparations were being made by the end of 1967 for conferences on forestry and tourism to be held in early 1969. One drawback of this type of action was that each sector tended to view its problems and future in isolation. The Government decided therefore to hold a National Development Conference, with plenary sessions in August 1968 and May 1969, to set economic planning on a national basis. The outcome of the conference was the adoption of national and sector growth targets and 631 recommendations. Two-thirds of these recommendations have been implemented.

The National Development Council (NDC) was set up on the recommendation of the National Development Conference, with senior Ministers as chairman and deputy chairman. Members included the Secretary to the Treasury, the Secretary of Trade and Industry, and representatives of Federated Farmers, the Federation of Labour, the Manufacturers' Federation, the National Council of Women, producer boards, the universities, other institutions, and the younger age group.

The Council's terms of reference were:

  1. To keep under review:

    1. the targets and objectives set as a result of the National Development Conference; and

    2. the measures necessary for their implementation;

  2. To propose changes in the targets and objectives and in the measures for their co-ordinated implementation; (c) To consider matters referred to it by Government or sector councils; (d) To convene periodically, but at intervals of not less than once a year, joint meetings with the chairmen of sector councils to consider progress in the attainment of the targets; (e) To advise Government on the constitution (terms of reference, membership, and appointment), time of establishment, and functioning of new sector councils.

A review of targets was undertaken in 1970 and 1971, and revised targets were, on the advice of the council's Targets Advisory Group, set at the second National Development Conference in March 1972.

*National Housing Conference 1953; Industrial Development Conference 1960; Export Development Conference 1963; Agricultural Development Conference 1963–64.

ORIGINAL NDC TARGETS—The main targets set for the economy by the 1969 Conference for the period 1968–69 to 1972–73 can now be compared with the statistics of the outcome for the period.

CategoryOutcomeTarget
1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–735-year Average5-year Average
*Estimate
 Percent a year
Growth of real GNP1.54.74.02.6*4.5*3.54.5
Growth of real GNP per head0.63.62.41.0*2.4*2.02.7
Gross investments as % of GNP23.725.727.825.824.1*25.425.5

Targets for growth in real consumption per head averaging 2.0 percent a year in the five years to 1972–73 were also set by the 1969 Conference.

REVISION OF THE TARGETS—As the conditions on which the original targets were based had altered substantially since 1969, and a decision was then imminent on the UK application to join the EEC, the National Development Council decided early in 1971 to prepare a new set of targets for four 3-year periods ending 1972–73, 1975–76, 1978–79 and 1981–82. Each sector council was asked for detailed information on the current state of its sector, the expected output, the volume and prices of exports and investment and manpower requirements for the target years.

From the information received the Targets Advisory Group projected the possible growth rates for the economy and, after discussions with the sectors, examined the conflicting demands for resources from sectors.

On 17 November 1971 the NDC held a 1-day consultation on growth, productivity and exports. The consultation highlighted the critical issues of New Zealand's development as (a) growth of productivity, and (b) growth of export earnings.

A report from the Targets Advisory Group noted that higher productivity growth would require changes in attitudes and policies by all groups in the economy—management, labour, and Government—and should include not only farming and manufacturing but also the servicing sectors. The report listed the key factors for productivity growth as: control of inflation; improved industrial relations; greater skills on the part of management and labour; increased investment in labour-saving plant; increased domestic savings in order to finance the investment; better all round use of resources and speedy application of the latest technology.

The export targets adopted by the National Development Conference on 9 March 1972 are set out in the following table.

Sector Classification1969–70 Base Year1972–731975–761978–791981–82
 $(million)
Pastoral products9101,1371,2861,5521,857
Other agricultural products3244587392
Totals, agricultural products9421,1811,3441,6251,949
Manufacturing68155231345517
Forestry6394181228281
Fisheries1518233959
Minerals17232943
Other goods (including re-exports)2231395165
Totals, goods1,1121,4851,8412,3172,914
Tourism264674119178
Transport88129183253313
Other services476584107138
Totals, goods and services1,2731,7252,1822,7963,543

It was estimated that the projected exports of goods and services, together with an assumed external borrowing of 2 percent of GNP, would finance a level of imports sufficient to support the following growth rates, given the productivity growth indicated.

Growth RateThree Years Ending in Year Shown
1975–76 Target1978–79 Target1981–82 Target
 (percent a year) 
Real GNP per head2.82.72.7
Real GNP4.54.54.5
Productivity growth required2.52.52.5
Real consumption per head2.02.52.7

It was clear that deep consideration had to be given to improving productivity. For this reason the programme for the conference in March 1972 centred on the twin objectives of increasing productivity and export returns—the theme for the meeting being "New Zealand in the 1970s—Growth for Better Living". Background papers are available from Government bookshops.

PRODUCTIVITY CENTRE—A Productivity Centre was established within the Department of Trade and Industry in January 1973 to improve productivity in New Zealand's manufacturing and servicing industries. The work programme of the centre is guided broadly by the Productivity Advisory Council which is made up of representatives of both the Government and private sectors.

The objects of the centre are to stimulate interest in improving productivity, to disseminate and develop productivity measurements and techniques, and to generally encourage a better use of resources. The centre is acting as an extension service to industry and co-operating with other agencies working in this field. Particular attention is being paid to encouraging industry to use specific productivity techniques, and to identifying productivity problem areas in individual companies and industries. Advice and assistance from the wide range of financial, technological, managerial, and other advisory facilities available in the public and private sectors is then channelled to these problem areas.

The centre's programme includes general publicity, financial sponsorship of interfirm comparisons of selected industries, promotion of productivity groups, and productivity research. Close liaison with industry and all organisations interested in productivity is maintained especially through the centre's industry liaison officers in the Auckland, Wellington, and South Island areas.

REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT—Regional development, with special reference to manufacturing, was the subject of a report by a sub-committee in regional development published in February 1972.

In 1973 moves were made to set up regional development councils in priority areas. Their terms of reference include the following responsibilities. (1) To investigate and to assist and advise the Minister of Trade and Industry on matters relating to the economic and social development of the region and to ensure that the assets of the region are best developed in the national interest. (2) To give particular attention to the retention and expansion of existing industry, having regard also to the longer-term aim of attracting viable new industry. (3) To ensure that development is carried out in an orderly and desirable way, there should be a careful and progressive monitoring of the environment and social conditions. (4) In carrying out these objectives the regional development council may: (a) distribute and administer incentives and assistance, and spend such money as authorised by the Minister of Trade and Industry; (b) establish advisory committees; (c) promote research into specific aspects of development of the region; (d) seek and investigate opportunities for industrial and economic development in the region; (e) review and where appropriate encourage the development of infrastructure and facilities, including State-provided facilities, contributing to the economic and social development of the region; (f) provide information services to local industry and to prospective new industry on matters relevant to their expansion, establishment, or continuation of their activities in the region.

Regional development policies are basically concerned with seeking a better balance between the rates of growth of the different geographical areas of a country as it develops. In most countries overseas, regional policy measures were initially framed to deal with severe problems of income disparity, unemployment, or under-development concentrated in particular areas or urban centres of a country, or associated with particular sectors of the economy.

The specific attention that is now being given to regional policies in New Zealand follows on the initiatives for national economic planning, on a sectoral basis, which have taken place in the past few years. The criterion of the greatest national benefit is applicable to both a regional approach and a sectoral approach to development. In the case of regional development, the optimum for which all governments strive is a spatial distribution of population and economic activity which, after taking into account social costs and benefits to the community, can provide the greatest contribution to national development.

One of the first tasks in the programme for regional development has been to organise the establishment of regional development councils.

The Otago Council was the first to be set up. Others have followed on the West Coast, Wanganui, Southland, Northland, Wairarapa, Taranaki, East Coast, and in the King Country.

All have followed the same pattern, with a wide representation of people selected for their personal abilities—manufacturers, local body representatives, farmers, university staff. Each council has at least one local member of Parliament on it, and representatives of the Ministry of Works and Development and the Department of Trade and Industry attend as advisers.

Each council receives a Government contribution toward administration costs for a full year's operation.

Their task is basically to put into practice the measures announced in the 1973 Budget, although they do not have the final say. Their recommendations go on to the Department of Trade and Industry and ultimately the Minister, for final approval.

The Government's measures include: interest-free suspensory loans for plant and machinery, repayable only if the equipment leaves the development region within 5 years; guarantees through the Development Finance Corporation (now wholly Government-owned) on loans for plant and machinery, on bank overdrafts for working capital, and on mortgages for buildings; loans through the Development Finance Corporation; assistance with costs of approved training programmes; assistance with employee housing where necessary; assistance with transfer costs of strategic employees required to move to a development region.

Chapter 28. Section 26; CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

26 A—REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE

GENERAL—Central Government is concerned with the future of the nation and therefore with the economic, social, and cultural development of the people as a whole and the quality of their environment. In New Zealand the State is fairly broadly concerned in national development and social welfare. The Central Government budgets for and controls expenditure on capital works such as electricity supply, land settlement, housing, public buildings, forest development, railway and road construction, telecommunications, and on other functions such as social security, health, education, defence, and paying interest on the public debt.

Taxing, charging, and borrowing are the three alternative avenues of raising revenue to meet Government expenditure. The problem of choice between these avenues can be described as the choice of the most efficient and equitable way of paying for publicly-provided services. However, the problems of finance and of raising revenue cannot be considered in isolation. In the first place some Government expenditures, such as subsidies and transfer payments (for example, pensions and child benefits), can and do alter the equity of the tax system. For instance, subsidies and monetary benefits can be regarded as refunds of tax. In the second place, it is now generally accepted that a system of raising revenue must be in accord with the general objectives of Government economic policy. In the final analysis any system of Government finance, embracing both expenditure and the raising of revenue, must be designed to achieve the economic objectives of growth, full employment, price stability, and external balance of payments in an efficient manner, tempered by the prevailing views about freedom and the equitable distribution of income.

Central Government, by budgeting for a surplus (revenue exceeding expenditure) or a deficiency, or by varying the impact of taxation or the level of Government expenditure on certain sectors of the economy, now uses these powers to regulate internal economic activity.

The Public Revenues Act 1953 is the governing legislation on the administration of public money.

THE PUBLIC ACCOUNT—This is a single financial account held at the Reserve Bank. The following funds and accounts controlled by the Treasury are included in the Public Account; the Consolidated Revenue Account, Works and Trading Account, Trust Account, Loans Redemption Account, National Development Loans Account, Reserve Fund, and National Roads Fund. The Trust Account represents only lodgements or withdrawals of (mainly) non-Government money. (The Loans Redemption Account is dealt with in the subsection on indebtedness.)

The receipts and payments of the Consolidated Revenue Account over a long period will be found in the Statistical Summary near the end of this volume.

Financial Year—The financial year commences on 1 April and ends on 31 March. The expenditure, of public money is authorised by an annual Appropriation Act, which lapses at the end of the financial year. However, the Minister of Finance is authorised to pay money for services for a period of 3 months from the commencement of the next financial year, pending the granting of supplies by Parliament, which normally meets in June.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE—The following table shows gross Government expenditure and the net amount of expenditure which requires financing from the Public Account. The functional classification is intended to focus attention on the board areas in the economy in which there is substantial Government activity.

It is to be remembered that the Public Accounts as shown in this section are prepared on a receipts and payments (cash) basis, and consequently the accounts of the operations of various departments (prepared on an accrual basis) shown in other sections will differ to some extent from those appearing here.

The functional classification of Government expenditure is shown in the following table.

Item1970–711971–721972–73
GrossNet*GrossNet*GrossNet*
*Net expenditure is generally arrived at by deducting trading and departmental receipts from gross expenditure.
Administration—$(million)
    General administration56.853.262.057.168.461.6
    Law and order36.325.044.632.254.639.8
    Government services57.233.065.037.952.740.2
    Miscellaneous services11.22.113.93.415.04.2
    Stabilisation21.421.428.723.743.543.5
 182.9134.7214.2159.3234.2189.3
Foreign Relations—
    Defence109.1104.4121.2118.8129.8128.1
    Foreign Affairs15.314.518.715.428.227.3
 124.4118.9139.9134.2158.0155.4
Development of Industry—
    Land use135.368.4175.4102.9193.4100.0
    Fuel and power115.14.9124.010.2156.530.0
    Other industrial services33.227.838.833.142.238.7
 283.6101.1338.2146.2392.1168.7
Education—
    Education267.5265.5337.8335.0379.4376.8
Social Services—
    Social welfare339.4336.6378.2375.6509.5506.0
    Other social services22.519.120.516.324.121.3
 361.9355.7398.7391.9533.6527.3
Health-
Health245.3244.2292.9291.8343.8343.1
Transport and Communications—
    Transport239.9127.0262.3128.4308.6157.6
    Communications158.735.9180.316.0203.825.5
 398.6162.9442.6144.4512.4183.1
Debt Services and Miscellaneous—
    Debt services154.1154.1168.0168.0186.5186.5
    Miscellaneous investment transactions76.760.797.991.596.689.1
 230.8214.8265.9259.5283.1275.6
Totals2,095.11,597.82,430.21,862.32,836.62,219.3

The following table shows financing of Government expenditure.

Item1970–711971–721972–73

*Net expenditure.

† Excludes Treasury bills issued and redeemed of $195.9 million in 1970–71 and $318.4 million in 1971–72 and $598.0 million in 1972–73.

‡Includes $10 million deposited with trading banks in 1970–71; $20 million in 1971–72, which was repaid in 1972–73.

§Includes the purchase of Government securities from the Reserve Bank of $40.3 million in 1971–72, and $12.2 million in 1972–73.

¶Excludes supplier's credit and currency realignments adjustments.

Expenditure$(million)  
    Administration134.7 159.3 189.3 
    Foreign relations118.9 134.2 155.4 
    Development of industry101.1 146.2 168.7 
    Education265.5 335.0 376.8 
    Social services355.7 391.9 527.3 
    Health244.2 291.8 343.1 
    Transport and communications162.9 144.4 183.1 
    Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions214.8 259.5 275.6 
Total expenditure1,597.8 1,862.3 2,219.3 
    Financed from
        Taxation—
            Income tax957.3 1,161.1 1,314.5 
            Customs, sales tax, and beer duty303.9 337.5 381.4 
            Highways tax82.0 98.7 95.7 
            Other taxation101.8 118.6 135.0 
Total taxation1,445.0 1,706.9 1,926.6 
    Interest, Profits, and Miscellaneous Receipts72.2 83.1 86.7 
Total taxation, interest, etc. 1,517.2 1,790.0 2,013.3
    Amount to be financed from borrowing 80.6 72.3 206.0
Borrowing in New Zealand187.7 218.3 658.4 
    Less repayments in New Zealand109.2 118.7§ 340.0§ 
 78.5 99.6 318.4 
    Plus sales (less purchase) of investments+20.0 -14.0 +20.5 
    Net borrowing in New Zealand 98.5 85.6 338.9
    Internal surplus (+) deficit (-) +17.9 +13.3 +132.9
Borrowing overseas48.0 106.6 29.5 
    Less repayment overseas21.1 53.9 100.7 
 +26.9 +52.7 -71.2 
    Less purchase of overseas investments-29.8 -69.0 -48.3 
    Net borrowing overseas-2.9 -16.3 -119.5 
    Purchase of gold, etc. (I.M.F.) (A.D.B.)-11.6   
    Cash surplus (+) deficit (-)+3.4 -3.0 +13.4 

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—Tables are now given to show receipts and payments of the Consolidated Revenue Account.

By including the receipts of both the Consolidated Revenue Account and the National Roads Fund the following table shows the total receipts of direct and indirect taxation during the latest five years.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
19691970197119721973
 $(million)
Direct taxation—
    Income and social security income tax691.5779.2957.31,161.11,314.5
    Estate and gift duty24.126.329.325.028.6
    Land tax2.72.93.03.83.4
Total—Direct taxation718.3808.4989.61,189.91,346.5
Indirect taxation—
    Customs duty106.4115.5138.9157.3168.3
    Beer duty35.837.339.740.741.9
    Sales tax82.897.6125.3139.5171.1
    Racing duty11.212.113.215.616.5
    Stamp and other duties9.411.513.414.219.9
    Motor spirits duty11.93.53.9
    Highways taxation66.378.882.089.795.7
    Payroll tax20.540.846.3
    Other taxation16.316.418.519.220.3
Total—Indirect taxation340.1372.6455.4517.0580.2
Total—Taxation receipts1,058.41,181.01,445.01,706.91,926.6
Interest—
    On capital liability—
        Electric supply32.834.736.338.341.4
        Post Office11.812.212.914.715.5
        Other33.936.841.044.049.1
    On other public moneys5.66.27.59.413.0
Total—Interest84.189.997.7106.4119.0
Profits from trading undertakings5.49.716.115.42.3
Departmental receipts60.164.471.280.266.5
Special receipts13.717.119.03.398.2
Total—Other163.2181.3204.0205.3306.0
Total—Receipts1,221.71,362.21,649.01,912.22,226.5
Total taxation as percentage of national income28.8%29.3%31.2%31.7%31.7%

The following table shows expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1970197119721973
* Includes Reserve Bank compensation for depreciation of bank's investments.
Permanent appropriations—$(000)
    Under Special Acts of Legislature—  
        Civil List6719069901,128
            Debt services—
                Interest144,195153,019166,808184,817
                Transfer to Loans Redemption Account—
                    New Zealand Loans Act 1953—
                        Section 5932,25342,25337,39738,398
                        Section 57 (c)7,7477,74712,60311,602
                Administration and management1,0021,1141,2001,689
Total—Debt services185,197204,133218,008236,506
Special Acts—
        Superannuation Act 195619,45422,92520,18219,155
        Miscellaneous3,1533,2506,3707,527
Total—Special Acts22,60726,17526,55226,682
Total—Permanent appropriations208,475231,213245,551264,316
Annual Appropriations—
    Administration—
        General Administration-
            Vote—
                    Audit8239431,1221,346
                    Broadcasting33222328
                    Customs2,7453,5464,6315,094
                    Inland Revenue6,8598,30610,11711,324
                    Internal Affairs7,3349,81711,61311,576
                    Legislative9691,2081,4721,628
                    Prime Minister's Department586684137
                    State Advances Corporation276815
                    State Services Commission7649311,0396,153
                    Statistics1,3471,7993,5863,286
                    Treasury2,2222,5872,6433,041
                    Valuation1,7732,1572,8012,970
Total—General administration24,95431,38839,13946,598
    Law and order—
    Vote—
    Crown Law184225264302
    Justice11,91013,30816,30621,185
    Police14,85918,81123,13926,249
    Security Intelligence Service374434504
Total—Law and order26,95332,71840,14348,239
    Government services—    
    Vote—    
    Government Printing Office7,2179,1099,3539,587
    Works39,84446,75454,04439,814
Total—Government services47,06155,86363,39649,402
    Stabilisation—    
    Vote—    
    Stabilisation17,18021,40828,70036,195
Total—Administration116,148141,377171,378180,433
    Foreign relations—
        Defence—
            Defence89,721109,075121,169129,823
        Foreign affairs—
    Foreign affairs14,69515,18118,03822,494
Total—Foreign relations104,416124,256139,207152,317
    Development of industry—
        Land use—
            Agriculture28,83954,48088,66396,999
            Forest Service8,1559,7724,1224,946
            Lands and Survey6,2847,6387,0418,898
Total—Land use43,27871,89099,826110,843
    Fuel and power—
        Mines1,5281,2101,7511,745
    Other industrial services—
        Trade and Industry4,9945,3525,5267,079
        Labour5,0166,3437,8539,938
        Scientific and Industrial Research9,73813,20413,87216,154
        Tourist and Publicity5,9236,8157,5657,197
Total—Other industrial services25,67131,71434,81640,368
Total—Development of industry70,477104,814136,393152,956
    Education—
        Education196,333251,917319,250379,353
    Social services—
    Social Welfare307,935339,415378,210509,535
    Maori and Island Affairs8,0719,2349,95411,026
            Total—Social services316,006348,649388,164520,561
    Health—
    Health202,690241,951288,800339,575
    Transport and communications—
        Transport—
        Marine3,8734,1084,6025,336
        Roads, etc.2,2412,0662,3595,390
        Transport16,03520,15923,00129,441
Total—Transport22,14926,33329,96240,168
Total—Annual appropriations1,028,2191,239,2971,473,1541,765,363
Adjustment on currency realignment19412,857
Unauthorised expenditure1,3093031593,393
Defence credits and other special entries17,13419,0393,27195,097*
Additional contribution to Loans Redemption Account20,00045,00060,000
Transfer to National Development Loans Account15,000
Transfer to Reserve Fund11,00020,000
Transfer to Works and Trading Account10,000
Provision for Supplementary Estimates
Total Payments1,275,1371,560,8521,812,3292,141,026

NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT LOANS ACCOUNT—Particulars of receipts and payments of the National Development Loans Account were as follows.

Item1969–701970–711971–721972–73
*IBRD harbour projects.
Receipts$(thousand)
Stock issued157,924216,524261,665291,434
Advance subscriptions2,0402,386
International Monetary Fund—
    Allocation of Special Drawing Rights23,55019,29819,118
    Securities issued to Asian Development Bank—
        Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes1,0071,0071,209
    Securities issued to I.M.F.—
        Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes29,730
    Securities issued to IBRD—
        Non-negotiable non-interest-bearing notes394
Transfer from Consolidated Revenue Account15,000
Totals184,521283,945281,177291,643
Payments    
Charges and expenses on raising and repaying loans565192,246846
Transfer to Works and Trading Account—
    Public Works39,50052,50053,60065,000
    Electric supply37,00047,50054,00078,500
    Land settlement11,00010,7509,100
    State Coal Mines2001,000
    Working Railways5,4412,36510,44423,724
Capital equipment credit arrangements5,40314,26513,309
Advances to—
    Post Office10,50031,40012,90023,000
    New Zealand National Airways Corporation5001,000325
    New Zealand Steel Ltd.1,300
    State Advances Corporation51,00061,00075,00085,000
    Development Finance Corporation2,900100
    Tourist Hotel Corporation8651,0001,000355
New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation1,000
Christmas Island Phosphate Commission500
Natural Gas Corporation10,5373,1651,7641,700
Calls on shares in New Zealand Steel Ltd.1,039
Acquisition of shares in New Zealand Steel Ltd.4,8321,000
Acquisition of shares in Air New Zealand Ltd.10,4007,000
Calls on shares in New Zealand Wool Topmaking Investigating Co. Ltd.62
Holding of I.M.F. Special Drawing Rights transferred to Reserve Bank23,55019,29819,118
Further subscription to I.M.F.10,449
Further security in favour of I.M.F.29,730
Encashment of securities in favour of I.M.F.90
Encashment of securities in favour of Asian Development Bank20300
Currency subscription to Asian Development Bank1,0071,007820
Security in favour of Asian Development Bank1,0071,0071,209
Further subscription to IBRD..42
Further security in favour of IBRD394
Encashment of securities IBRD20
Advance subscriptions from previous year allocated2,4452,0402,385
Totals197,447279,305277,390302,209
Balances at end of year49,11053,74957,53747,970

WORKS AND TRADING ACCOUNT—The Works and Trading Account receipts and payments are shown in the following table.

* Included in amounts of $10,984,000 and $12,926,000 are $823,000 and $837,000 respectively, being interest on capital liability paid to Consolidated Revenue Account.

† All expenditure now met from Consolidated Revenue Account—Vote Education.

Receipts1971–721972–73
Administration—$(000)$(000)
General Administration
        Works1,8562,129
Development of Industry—
    Land Use
        Forest Service26,71730,007
        Lands and Survey27,59739,764
        Maori and Island Affairs11,61915,576
    Fuel and Power
        Electric Supply100,139111,090
        Mines11,95413,482
Social Services—
    Works2,8611,437
Transport and Communications—
    Transport
        Railways123,444137,852
        Transport18557
        Works1450
 306,387351,445
Contributions from National Development Loans Account—
    Electric Supply54,00078,500
    Land Settlement9,100
    Public Works53,60065,000
    Railways10,44423,724
    State Coal Mines1,000
 128,144167,224
    Capital equipment credit arrangements—
        Electric supply3,94610,391
        Railways10,3192,918
 14,26513,308
 142,409180,533
Contributions from Consolidated Revenue Account—
    From vote "Mines":  
        For losses incurred in State Coal Mines1,3521,275
Transfer from Consolidated Revenue Account10,000
Excess of payments over receipts5,678
 465,825533,253
Balances at beginning of year—
    Cash1,135770
    Investments4,98786
    Imprests outstanding1,408997
 7,5301,852
Excess of receipts over payments..8,647
Total7,53010,499
Payments1971–721972–73
Annual Appropriations—
 $(000)$(000)
    Administration—  
        General Administration  
            Works (Construction of Public Buildings)18,70228,841
    Development of Industry—
        Land Use
            Forest Service37,27843,829
            Lands and Survey23,41522,124
            Maori and Island Affairs10,94313,313
            Fuel and Power  
            Electric Supply107,200139,350
            Mines14,23114,274
    Education—
    University and technical institute buildings18,543-
    Social Services—
    Works (Programme VIII—Construction of Housing)10,98412,926
    Transport and Communications—
        Transport
            Railways131,242149,550
            Transport5,6026,246
            Works—Construction of Railways4,4456,674
 382,586437,129
Contributions to Superannuation scheme3,8185,224
Interest on capital liability paid to Consolidated Revenue Account—
        Electric Supply38,33141,369
    Land Settlement10,98111,563
    Railways2,3982,657
 51,71055,590
Contributions to Loans Redemption Account for redemption of securities10,48711,016
Capital equipment purchased under credit arrangements14,26513,308
Land acquired other than under annual votes2,7111,977
Miscellaneous expenditure218352
Unauthorised expenditure3110
Excess of receipts over payments8,647
 465,825533,253
Excess of payments over receipts5,678
Balances at end of year—
    Cash7707,273
    Investments8686
    Imprests outstanding9973,141
 1,85210,499
Totals7,53010,499

Works Programme—Details of the works programme expenditure by special categories are shown in the following table. (Roading is included).

ItemYear ended 31 March
1970197119721973

*Forestry planting programme is no longer included in Works programme.

† Previously included in Education buildings.

Administration—$(million)
    Works—
        National water and soil conservation7.0 7.3  7.6 9.2 
        Public building maintenance2.3 3.3 3.1 3.3 
            Irrigation and water supplies0.9 1.1 1.6 2.1 
    Public Buildings—
        Government services2.0 2.9 3.6 6.6 
            Law and order2.4 2.8 3.5 5.3 
        Miscellaneous2.6 3.7 2.6 3.3 
Totals 17.2 21.1 22.0 29.8
Foreign relations—
    Defence6.3 6.4 5.2 6.2 
    Public buildings—overseas posts 0.1 0.7 5.6 
Totals 6.3 6.5 5.9 11.8
Development of industry—
    Forestry15.5 17.3 3.3* 4.2* 
    Land utilisation5.6 5.1 4.0 2.7 
    Electricity67.0 74.0 79.8 103.9 
    Tourism1.3 1.5 1.5 0.4 
    Miscellaneous1.4 1.2 1.9 2.7 
Totals 90.8 99.1 90.5 113.9
Education—
    Primary, secondary and special education—
        Buildings21.1 28.0 30.7 37.1 
        Maintenance5.7 6.2 6.9 7.3 
    Tertiary education—
        University buildings9.9 11.3 14.6 20.0 
        Technical institutes2.8 4.2 4.0 3.7 
        Teachers' Colleges1.4 2.3 2.9 2.8 
Totals 40.9 52.0 59.1 70.9
Social services—
    Housing construction15.7 13.3 11.0 10.6 
    Public buildings—child welfare   1.111.7
Health—
    Health and hospital buildings 3.4 3.9 4.7 4.4
Transport and communications—
    Railways7.1 9.9 9.2 11.1 
    Roading79.9 87.8 90.5 104.1 
    Air transport2.0 5.3 6.3 8.1 
    Post Office26.4 27.3 27.2 33.0 
    Broadcasting1.7 1.9 1.9 1.6 
Totals 117.4 132.2 135.1 157.9
Grand totals 291.7 328.1 328.3 400.4

NATIONAL ROADS FUND—The National Roads Act 1953 established a National Roads Fund within the Public Account, the revenue of the Fund being derived mainly from motor taxation together with an annual contribution from the Consolidated Revenue Account. Expenditure from the Fund is for the purpose of developing State highways to modern standards and of subsidising the roading programmes of local authorities.

Receipts and payments of the National Roads Fund were as follows.

Item1969–701970–711971–721972–73
 $(thousand)
Receipts    
Motor spirits duty64,99266,86673,13578,608
Mileage tax and fees13,84415,09016,53217,098
Contribution from Consolidated Revenue Account1010103,000
Miscellaneous8308131,865906
Interest60786792
Totals79,73782,85891,60999,704
Payments    
State highways maintenance12,17914,05714,39615,725
State highways construction28,73531,21932,83838,029
Local authorities' subsidised works30,65333,21133,79039,388
Administration and general expenses6,0677,2407,0738,570
Unauthorised expenditure7669
Totals77,64185,73388,103101,722
Balance at end of year3,6637884,2942,276

SUMMARY OF BALANCES—A summary of the balances in the Public Accounts is given in the following table.

AccountBalance at 31 March
1970197119721973
*Cash received but not yet allocated.
 $(thousand)
Consolidated Revenue Account37,53842,86751,21945,988
Works and Trading Account23,6827,5301,85210,499
Loans Redemption Account45,00253,80796,510144,537
National Development Loans Account49,11053,74957,53747,970
National Roads Fund3,6637884,2942,276
Reserve Fund44,89359,23184,77195,282
Suspense Account*254265304100
Trust Account24,69525,67627,39118,422
Totals228,836243,913323,878365,075

The composition of the total balances is shown in the following table.

NatureAt 31 March
1970197119721973
 $(thousand)
Cash69,50372,91369,86583,236
Imprests11,33313,24713,28013,235
Investments in New Zealand60,49840,46854,46733,971
Investments overseas87,502117,285186,266234,632
Totals228,836243,913323,878365,075

26 B—TAXATION

TOTAL TAXATION—A summary of taxation revenue during the last 11 March years is given in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchDirect Taxes on Income (i.e., Income Tax and Social Security Taxation on Income)Total Taxation
AmountPercentage of Total Taxation (All Sources)Amount
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population
 $(million)$ $(million)$
1963432.8173.2063.3684.0273.80
1964466.5182.9062.8742.3291.10
1965547.7210.5564.8844.5324.65
1966606.0228.9266.0918.2346.86
1967664.4246.5667.2988.9366.98
1968672.8245.9866.41,012.7370.25
1969691.5250.5465.31,058.6383.54
1970779.2278.9866.01,181.3422.93
1971957.3337.4766.21,445.3509.51
19721,161.1403.6768.01,707.2593.54
19731,314.5448.2768.21,926.9657.11

The following table shows receipts, under the various heads, of taxation during the latest 5 years.

ItemRevenue for Year Ended 31 March
19691970197119721973

*At 1 cent per gal; excludes 2.3 cents per gallon paid to National Roads Fund.

† Included in National Roads Fund.

Consolidated Revenue Account—$(million)
    Customs revenue106.4115.5138.9157.3168.3
    Beer duty35.837.339.740.741.9
    Motor spirits duty less refunds11.93.5*3.9*
    Motor vehicles fees and charges15.315.717.918.920.0
    Sales tax82.897.6125.3139.5171.1
    Film-hire tax0.30.30.40.30.4
    Mileage tax0.70.40.2
    Estate and gift duties24.126.329.325.028.6
    Duty on instruments6.88.810.711.316.4
    Racing taxation11.112.113.215.716.5
    Payroll tax20.540.846.3
    Other taxation2.82.93.03.23.7
    Land tax2.72.93.13.83.4
    Income tax456.7779.2957.31,161.11,314.5
    Social security income tax234.8
National Roads Fund—
    Highways revenue (less rebate)66.378.882.089.795.7
Totals1,058.61,181.31,445.31,707.21,926.9

The sources of revenue are shown in the following diagrams.

A comparison of taxation revenue and total private income and national income is afforded by the following table, which also shows taxation as a percentage of private income and national income.

YearNational Income at Factor CostCentral Government Taxation
Total RevenuePercentage of National Income
*Provisional.
 $(million)percent
1962–632,504684.027.3
1963–642,742742.327.1
1964–653,002844.528.1
1965–663,261918.228.2
1966–673,371988.929.3
1967–683,4691,012.729.2
1968–693,6521,058.629.0
1969–704,0571,181.329.2
1970–714,6621,445.331.0
1971–725,370*1,707.231.7
1972–736,0751,926.931.7

CUSTOMS AND EXCISE TAXATION—Revenue under the headings of Customs does not include receipts from tyre tax and from motor spirits tax paid into the National Roads Fund. The following table shows customs and excise revenue, for ordinary revenue purposes, for the latest six years.

Year Ended 31 MarchCustoms Duties*Beer DutyTotal Customs and Excise DutiesProportion of Total Taxation

*Including excise duties other than beer duty.

† Includes gross motor spirits duty.

 $(thousand)percent
1968106,58135,591142,17214.0
1969119,37335,826155,19914.7
1970119,51837,282156,80013.3
1971138,87539,653178,52812.4
1972157,27440,700197,97411.6
1973168,33841,901210,23910.9

Information in regard to Customs and excise duties generally is contained in Section 22D—Customs Tariff and Revenue.

ROADS TAXATION—The National Roads Fund derives its revenues from a tax on motor spirits, heavy traffic licence fees, and a mileage tax on vehicles not using motor spirits. Other revenues of the fund, which are not classed as taxation, consist of a Government contribution, interest earned, and miscellaneous receipts—e.g., from the sale of materials, etc. For 1968–69, tax on petrol paid to the fund was 14.8c per gallon. From 1 April 1969 the rate was increased to 17.1c per gallon by the transfer to the fund of 2.3c per gallon previously credited to the Consolidated Revenue Account, and from 1 April 1971 to 18.1c per gallon by the transfer of a further 1c a gallon.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities in 21 tax areas covering the country to levy a local authorities petroleum tax at the rate of 1, 2, or 3 cents a gallon on motor spirits and 0.5, 1, or 1.5 cents a gallon on diesel fuel delivered in a tax area. All tax areas decided to make the levies at maximum rates from February or March 1971. The proceeds of any tax imposed may be applied to projects for the benefit of the region or distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenues. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of taxpayers.

Taxation receipts for roads purposes have been as follows during the latest six years, excluding rebates.

Year Ended 31 MarchPetrol TaxMileage TaxFeesTotal
 $(000) 
196850,5363,1959,26062,991
196953,6013,6049,12066,325
197064,9923,8999,94578,836
197166,8664,85810,23281,957
197273,1355,996x10,536x89,667
197378,6085,78211,31695,706

INCOME TAX—Income tax is levied under the Land and Income Tax Act 1954, the Income Tax Assessment Act 1957, and amendments.

Exemptions—Certain specified incomes and types of income are exempt from income tax. The incomes of local and public authorities (except for certain Government trading departments), building societies (with the exception of rental income), co-operative dairy and milk treatment companies, trustees of superannuation funds (subject to certain investment requirements), friendly societies, charitable societies, and others of similar character are exempt from income tax. The general principle is, when a society or association carries on business exclusively for the purpose for which it was established and does not operate for the private pecuniary profit of any individual, the income is exempt from income tax. Monetary benefits from the Consolidated Revenue Account (except the universal superannuation benefit), sick benefits from friendly societies, workers' compensation payments, war pensions, and for individuals the first $100 of income from interest, are exempt from income tax.

Pay as You Earn Income Tax—Payment of income tax is on a "pay as you earn" basis. It applies to all taxpayers including companies.

The main features of the scheme are:

  1. Income tax on salary and wages is deducted by the employer. In the main, taxpayers whose income consists solely of salary and wages are required to furnish a return of income only when their income during the year exceeds $2,600. However, they may furnish a return if they wish to have an adjustment made. In such cases the taxpayer is assessed on the basis of the annual return and receives a refund when tax assessed is less than the tax deducted by the employer.

  2. All other individuals (including self-employed, except for certain classes of farmers), estates, and companies pay provisional tax in two instalments on a provisional declaration of the current year's income. The income of the previous year is commonly used as a basis for computing the provisional tax. Farmers in some circumstances may pay in three instalments. There is an adjustment at the end of the year when the return of income is furnished.

Tax Code Declarations—Employees are required to deliver a tax code declaration to the employer each year before 1 April. The tax code declaration specifies whether or not the taxpayer has a dependent wife.

There is no obligation on the employer to check the accuracy of the tax code declaration. Except for cases when the employee ends and commences employment in the same week, the employee must not have more than one tax code declaration current during the pay period. However, there is provision for secondary tax code declarations when the employee has two or more employers at the same time.

At the end of the year or on the termination of employment the employer completes the tax code certificate by entering the amount of wages and salary paid and the amount of tax deductions made, number of shifts worked, and qualifying hours of overtime, hands one copy to the employee, and sends the other copy to the Commissioner.

In considering the incidence of income tax in New Zealand as illustrated by the next table it should be noted that under the provisions of the Social Security Act a family benefit of $156 a year is paid usually to the mother, for every child under 16 years of age irrespective of the income of the parents or the child. The allowance may continue to be paid up to age 18 years if the child is still attending school full time.

Amounts paid by an employee to a superannuation fund are deducted from the gross salary for the period: the income subject to P.A.Y.E. is the income after deduction of superannuation payments.

When there is no tax code declaration or special tax code certificate, the tax deduction is at the "no declaration" rate shown in the tax deduction tables. This deduction is at flat rate of not less than 25c in the dollar.

Special Tables—Special tables are provided for shearers and for casual agricultural employees. These are tables of deductions from daily earnings.

There are also tables of deductions at the flat rate of 19c and 21c in. $1. These apply to payments of extra emoluments and to secondary employment unless a special tax code certificate is issued by the Commissioner. Extra emoluments, e.g., end of year bonuses and retrospective wage increases, are treated as separate payments and taxed at 21c in the $1. Secondary employment exists when the taxpayer has two or more employers at the same time. The secondary employer deducts tax according to the flat rate table of 19c in the $1, while the principal employer uses the normal table.

Employer's Duties—The employer is required to keep a record for each employee showing the amounts of net payments, superannuation, tax deductions, hours of overtime, and number of shifts worked. Not later than 20 April each year he must deliver to each employee a signed tax deduction certificate shown this information for the year (or period of employment if less than one year). A similar certificate must be given to the employee within seven days from the cessation of employment.

The aggregate amount of all tax deductions is to be remitted to the Commissioner each month. Not later than 15 May each year the employer must deliver to the Commissioner a reconciliation statement showing the total amount of tax deductions paid to the Commissioner in respect of deductions made during the year, and the total amount of tax deductions shown in the certificates for employees. The reconciliation statement is accompanied by signed copies of all tax deduction certificates.

Withholding Payments—These are payments for services rendered, but in circumstances where there is no real employer-employee relationship. Examples are company directors' fees, agricultural contract work, fees for free-lace journalists. Tax is deducted from the gross amounts of such payments at flat rates which vary from 7½c to 25c in the dollar according to the nature of the work.

Provisional Taxpayers—Provisional taxpayers are those who derive any assessable income which is not subject to tax at source. However, the first $100 of interest is exempted from income tax, and is therefore not assessable income. Estates, trusts, and companies are also provisional taxpayers.

Tax on provisional incomes is normally payable in two instalments during the year, by 7 September and 7 March. However, for companies the due dates are governed by the companies' balance dates. Normally the provisional income is an amount equal to the taxpayer's income for the preceding year. When the taxpayer anticipates that the income will be less than that of the preceding year, he may make an estimate of the provisional income and pay provisional tax on the estimated income. The taxpayer may estimate or re-estimate his provisional income at any time before the date for payment of any provisional tax instalment. If he does this and his estimated provisional income is less than the normal provisional income (actual income of the previous year) and less than 80 percent of his actual income for the year, he may be liable to a penalty of 10 percent on the amount of provisional tax underpaid.

Alteration of Tax Code Declaration During Year—When the employee changes employment during the year, he must deliver a declaration to the new employer. If the declaration is delivered before the end of the first pay period, it applies from and including the first pay.

Employees who become entitled to claim allowances for new dependants during the year may deliver a new tax code declaration immediately the event occurs (e.g., marriage). The new tax code applies to the pay period commencing after the pay period in which the declaration was delivered.

When it becomes apparent that a dependent wife's income will exceed $688 for the year, the employee must immediately deliver a new tax code declaration omitting the wife as a dependant. The new code applies to the pay period following that in which it was delivered.

In other cases when a dependant ceases to be a dependant during the year—e.g., when a dependent wife dies—the employee is entitled to retain the tax code including them as dependants until the following 31 March. This applies even when the employee delivers a new code declaration on a change of employment.

Tax Deduction Tables: Principal Tables—The tax code declaration bears a code (M if the taxpayer is entitled to a wife's exemption; S if not so entitled): the tax deduction tables specify for each code the amount of tax to be deducted from the salary or wage payment for the period.

The amounts of tax shown in the tables are calculated as follows:

  1. The weekly income has been converted to an annual basis and after deduction of the special exemptions to which the taxpayer is entitled the amount of income tax is computed and is then divided by 52 to arrive at the weekly deduction.

  2. Fortnightly, three-weekly, four-weekly, and monthly tables of deductions are based on multiples of the basic weekly tables.

PAYE Tax Deductions—The tax rates for the purposes of PAYE tax deductions at source are the amounts shown in the tax deduction tables. These deductions are fixed according to the current amount of exemptions and tax rates. Some examples of these tax deductions are given for selected weekly incomes in the table which follows.

Weekly EarningsNot Entitled to Wife's RebateEntitled to Wife's Rebate
Operative from 1 April 1974
$$$
10
12
140.13
160.50
180.87
201.25
221.63
242.01
262.39
282.770.36
303.150.74
323.531.12
343.911.50
364.291.88
384.672.26
405.102.70
507.435.02
6010.127.72
7013.0710.66
8016.3513.94
9019.8517.44
10023.5621.16

Employees who, in addition to their income from employment, derive interest (after $100 exemption) dividends, or rents, not exceeding $200 in the aggregate, are not required to pay provisional tax on this income which has not been taxed at source.

Provisional taxpayers are required to furnish returns of income, irrespective of the amount of income. The Commissioner then makes an assessment of terminal tax. Any difference between that assessment and the amount paid as provisional tax is either payable by the taxpayer or, if an overpayment, refunded to him.

Farmers who satisfy the Commissioner that they regularly derive more than half their income from an agricultural business and that more than half their gross cash income is derived after 7 February, and whose balance date falls between 1 April and 30 September, may pay provisional tax in three instalments.

Statistics relating to the incidence of income tax are given in Section 28 of this Yearbook.

Taxation of Individuals: Rates—The rates of income tax increase in steps ranging from a minimum of 18 percent on the first $500 of taxable income to a maximum of 50 percent of taxable income in excess of $12,000. The following table shows the rate of income tax for each step of taxable income from 1 April 1974:

Taxable IncomeTax on Each Dollar
$         $    cents
Up to 50018
501–1,00018.5
1,001–2,00019
2,001–2,50022.5
2,501–3,00026.5
3,001–3,50028.5
3,501–4,00032
4,001–4,50034.5
4,501–5,00036
5,001–5,50039
5,501–6,00041.5
6,001–6,50044.5
6,501–7,00046
7,001–8,00047
8,001–9,00048
9,001–10,00048.5
10,001–11,00049
11,001–12,00049.5
Over 12,00050

Dividends—Dividends received by individual shareholders are included as part of their assessable income and assessed in the same manner as other income. A rebate of up to 10 percent of the taxable dividends is allowed when the taxable income including dividends is $4,000 or less. It abates $1 for every $10 of additional taxable income to disappear at $8,000. When profits from the realisation by a company of capital assets are distributed in cash, the amount of such profits may be exempted.

Special Exemptions and Rebates from 1 April 1974—In determining the taxable income of individuals certain special exemptions and rebates are deductible from the taxpayer's assessable income. A new system of allowing tax rebates against the actual tax assessed instead of allowing special exemptions from the assessable income has been introduced as from 1 April 1974. Rebates available are—personal, wife, husband, housekeeper, dependent relative. Special exemptions are retained for charitable donations, private school fees, life insurance premiums, superannuation contributions. These are as follows:

Rebates: Personal Rebate—A rebate of $125 is allowable as a deduction from the tax assessed on the assessable income of every taxpayer, except for non-resident taxpayers.

Wife Rebate—A rebate of $125 is allowable as a deduction from the tax assessed on a married man's assessable income. This rebate applies only when the taxpayer supports his wife during the income year. It is reduced 40c for each $1 of the wife's income in excess of $375 up to $688, so that the taxpayer receives no rebate when the wife's income exceeds $688.

Dependent Relative Rebate—A rebate of the amount contributed towards the support of a dependent relative of the taxpayer is also allowable. The rebate here is to be a maximum of $60 or 40c for every dollar where the amount contributed is less than $150. Where more than one taxpayer contributes towards the support of the same dependent relative, the rebate is apportioned between them. The rebate is also allowable in the case of amounts paid towards the support of a separated or divorced wife.

Housekeeper Rebate—A rebate equal to the wife rebate or 40c for every dollar of the amount of wages paid, whichever is the less, is allowable in respect of payments made to a woman or a day nursery, playcentre, creche, or kindergarten 10 care for a widowed, divorced, separated, or unmarried taxpayer's child under the age of 18 years, or any child who by reason of mental or physical infirmity is unable to earn a living. The rebate is also allowed to a working wife who pays a woman or a day nursery, playcentre, creche, or kindergarten to care for a child while she works, and to a taxpayer employing a housekeeper to look after the taxpayer's home because of the mental or physical infirmity of the taxpayer or his spouse.

Hardship Relief For Divorced or Separated Parents Supporting Children—When a taxpayer is a divorced or separated person and has a child dependent upon him in any income year he may be allowed a rebate of up to $60 for each child, not exceeding three. The taxpayer does not get this concession if he is entitled to a dependent relative rebate for the child nor does he qualify if the child lives with him for a substantial part of the year.

Special Rebates—In addition to the above rebates there are additional rebates which apply in some circumstances. These include rebates for overtime, shift work, back pay.

Special Exemptions: Donations and School Fees—A special exemption is allowable for cash donations for qualifying religious and charitable purposes land for tuition fees incurred in sending a child of the taxpayer to a registered private school or a special school for handicapped children provided that in each case the school is not run for private pecuniary profit. The maximum exemption under this heading is $200.

Insurance and Superannuation—A special exemption is allowed for premiums paid in respect of policies of life insurance, sickness, and accident insurance on the life of the taxpayer and his wife and children, and for contributions to an approved superannuation fund. The maximum exemption allowable is $950 but is limited to $700 when the taxpayer is a member of an employer-subsidised superannuation scheme.

No special exemption is allowed for premiums on any policy which has been assigned or mortgaged as a security for money borrowed and invested in or loaned to certain property syndicates formed after 3 September 1971. Where a taxpayer moves in or out of an employer-subsidised superannuation fund during an income year the basic special exemption of $700 is increased by $21 for each month the taxpayer is not a contributor to an employer-subsidised scheme.

Taxable Income—In the case of individuals, income tax is assessed on the taxable income. This comprises total income less expenses less (a) any income exempted from income tax and, (b) the amount of the special exemptions to which the taxpayer is entitled. Rebates are deducted from the actual tax assessed.

A summary of the changes in the principal special exemptions and in the rates of ordinary income tax for the last 6 years is given in the following table.

Income Year Ended 31 MarchSpecial ExemptionOrdinary Income Tax
PersonalWifeChildCharitable Donations and School Fees*Insurance and SuperannuationBasic Rates IntroducedRebates
Member of Subsidised Scheme*Others*RateMaximum

*Maximum.

† $140 for each child in excess of four.

‡Upon amalgamation of income tax and social security tax.

 $$$$$$ %$
19699363121561005006501,96110200
19702752401351005006501,969
19712752751351007009501,969
19722752751351007009501,970
1973275275352007009501,970
19742752752007009501,97010

Taxation of Companies: Rates—The rates of income tax as at 31 March 1974 are as follows:

Resident Companies and Public Authorities—The rate of income tax for every dollar of taxable income in the case of companies and public authorities is:

  1. When the taxable income does not exceed $6,250, 20c increased by 0.002 of $1 for every dollar of taxable income;

  2. When the taxable income exceeds $6,250, tax on the first $6,250 is calculated as given above and there is a flat rate tax of 45c for every dollar of income in excess of $6,250.

Non-resident Companies—(a) When the taxable income does not exceed $6,250, the rate of income tax for every dollar of taxable income is 25c, increased by 0.002 of $1 for every dollar of taxable income.

(b) When the taxable income exceeds $6,250, tax on the first $6,250 is calculated as in (a) above and tax on the excess is charged at a flat rate of 50c in the dollar.

Bonus Issue Tax—Bonus share issues are generally subject to a flat rate tax of 17½c in the dollar which is payable by the company making the bonus share issue. Bonus issues arising from capitalisations of capital profits, share premium reserves, and the writing up of capital assets are exempt.

All companies which are, or are deemed to be, resident in New Zealand are liable for the bonus issue tax on bonus share issues they make. The sole exception is a petroleum mining company.

Excess Retention Tax—Excess retention tax is assessed to "privately controlled investment companies" if the amount of dividends paid is less than 40 percent of the income after taxation. The basic rate of excess retention tax is 35c in the dollar of the insufficient distribution of income.

Grouping of Companies—Two or more companies which are two-thirds commonly owned in terms of paid-up capital, or nominal value of allotted shares, or voting power, or entitlement to profits, constitute a "group" of companies. The assessable incomes of companies included in a group are aggregated for the purpose of determining the rate of income tax. Provision exists for offsetting losses incurred by companies within a group and for the making of subvention payments. A tax credit is also available to qualifying minority shareholders for a proportion of the additional tax paid by the company consequent on the application of the grouping provisions.

Non-resident Investment Companies—Special provisions exist to limit the income tax payable by a non-resident investment company on income derived from investments or assets which are used wholly or principally in projects which are of importance in the development of New Zealand.

Unit Trusts—Unit trusts are treated as companies, and income and other payments to unit holders are treated as dividends.

Charitable Gifts By Public Companies—These companies are allowed a deduction for charitable gifts subject to a limit of $1,000 to any one donee and overall to 5 percent of the company's assessable income. The definition of public companies includes any company (other than a private company), any private company which is controlled by any such company or companies, and any local or public authority.

Taxation of Trusts—Trusts created after 18 July 1968, with the exception of trusts created by will or intestacy, or other specific cases such as trusts created by Court order and statutory trusts such as the Official Assignee as trustee for creditors, are subject to a minimum rate of income tax of 35 percent on income classified as trustee's income.

The trustee of a trust other than a specified trust is entitled to a special exemption of $100 and is subject to a rate of tax calculated by reference to the trustee's income at the rate for individuals.

Deductions of Expenditure From Total Income—Any expenditure or loss necessarily incurred in carrying on a business for the purpose of gaining or producing assessable income may be deducted.

As from 1 April 1974 salary and wage earners will be allowed a standard deduction of 2 percent of their salary and wages or $50 whichever is the lower.

No deduction is allowed for expenditure which is of a capital nature or of a private or domestic nature.

Depreciation Allowances: Ordinary Depreciation—On buildings the allowable ordinary depreciation rates vary from 2½ percent of cost price for wooden-walled and framed buildings to 1 percent of cost price for buildings of reinforced concrete. There are higher rates for certain buildings, such as cool stores, chemical works, glasshouses, etc. Various rates of depreciation have been fixed by the Commissioner of Inland Revenue for different classes of plant, machinery, and equipment. These are normally expressed as percentages of the diminishing value of the asset.

Special Depreciation—Special depreciation allowances are given on the cost of: plant and machinery (excluding motorcars and station wagons); employee accommodation; new farm buildings and extensions (other than residences); private bathrooms, showers and water closets installed in existing; hotels; new hotels erected pursuant to an "approved project"; new buildings or extensions erected: to provide storage for frozen meat or meat products.

Special depreciation is limited in the aggregate to 20 percent of the cost of the asset and is allowed in addition to ordinary depreciation.

Additional Depreciation—Additional depreciation is allowed on: plant, machinery, and equipment used for scientific research; safety frames on tractors; capital expenditure arising from compulsory surveys of fishing boats; capital expenditure in erecting or extending meat export slaughterhouses and meat packing houses; capital expenditure in erecting or extending buildings used for processing or storing fish or fish products for export.

Supplementary Depreciation—New farm buildings (other than residences) qualify for a supplementary depreciation allowance of up to 6 percent of cost. The overall deduction in conjunction with ordinary depreciation cannot exceed 10 percent of cost in any year. New hotels and motels catering for the travelling public qualify for a supplementary depreciation allowance of 1 percent of cost.

Tax Incentives—A number of taxation incentives designed to encourage investment in productive activities are available to industrial and agricultural enterprises. These incentives include:

Livestock Value—A farmer's livestock is treated as trading stock. Apart from the usual valuation options for trading stock used in a business, farmers are permitted to use a "standard value" for each class of livestock, thus reducing in some degree fluctuations in income which might occur if market prices or other valuations were used. The standard value system is universally used except for high-value stud stock. The value adopted for any particular class of animal is usually somewhat below actual cost and also usually below sale value. The disposal of all or a substantial part of a farmer's livestock may result in an unduly high income for the year. The tax law provides special measures to alleviate the tax burden if that happens in the following circumstances: (1) death of the farmer, (2) retirement from farming, (3) expiry of a lease or acquisition of the farm land by the Crown, and (4) forced sale of livestock due to an adverse event (e.g., fire, flood, drought, disease among livestock).

The term "adverse event" means any happening which is declared by the Minister of Finance to be an adverse event.

Increased Livestock Incentive—An optional incentive scheme aimed at maintaining and accelerating the growth of livestock numbers is available. It applies to sheep, cattle, and pigs in a farming business and provides for the establishment of base livestock numbers. Increases in stock above the base livestock number may, at the taxpayer's option, be brought in at a "nil" value. Because there may be changes in the type of livestock carried from year to year a system of equivalents is provided, namely, one head of cattle equals six sheep, one head of cattle equals four pigs, and three sheep equal two pigs. The equivalents are not based on standard or market values but on food intake.

Sharemilkers—A sharemilker who sells his livestock, or a farmer on leasehold land who quits the land and sells his livestock in order to purchase his own farm, is allowed to spread forward the excess income arising from the sale of the livestock. The excess income is the difference between the amount realised and the standard value adopted for the livestock. The excess is assessed as income in the fifth income year after the year of sale unless the taxpayer elects to have all or part of the amount assessed in any one or more of the intervening four income years.

Farm Income Equalisation—This is a scheme whereby farmers may deposit up to a maximum of 25 percent of their assessable income from farming, with a minimum deposit of $200, in an income equalisation reserve account. Deposits are deductible in the year of deposit and withdrawals constitute assessable income in the year of withdrawal. The maximum period in which deposits may be held in the reserve is five years; thus the scheme offers a means whereby a farmer can reduce fluctuations in his income.

Capital Development Expenditure—Taxpayers engaged in agricultural pursuits and in rock oyster farming or mussel farming may deduct certain capital development expenditure or spread it over a period of 10 years. In the case of rock oyster and mussel farming, development expenditure includes the cost of acquiring and preparing suitable surfaces for collecting spat.

Pollution—Business taxpayers, other than farmers, may claim a deduction for business expenditure incurred to prevent or combat environmental pollution. The deduction relates only to expenditure in the construction of earthworks, ponds, settling tanks or other similar improvements on land in New Zealand. Twenty percent of the expenditure is deductible in the year incurred and 20 percent in each of the 4 succeeding years. Farmers may also claim, but on a different basis.

Export Market Development and Tourist Promotion—A 150 percent deduction, subject to an overall limit, is allowable for qualifying expenditure as an incentive to promote the export of New Zealand goods and services; the overseas use of New Zealand trade marks, patents, designs, or copyright; and to develop the New Zealand tourist industry. Self-employed professional people can claim up to 50 percent allowance in respect of their own time spent on promoting their services for overseas projects. A formula is provided to value the time.

Forestry Encouragement Grants—Under a scheme introduced in 1970 the Government makes grants in respect of the planting, maintenance, and development expenditure of companies and individuals who undertake approved forest planting programmes. This grant for expenditure is not assessable income and a deduction is not allowed for the expenditure unless and to the extent that it is more than twice the amount of the grant. Grants are also made for the personal labour of the taxpayer and his family. These grants are assessable income.

Increased Exports—This incentive is to encourage exports by manufacturers who produce mainly for the local market. If the value of qualifying goods exported during the year has increased by comparison with the average value of goods exported during a "base period" of three years, 20 percent of the increase can be deducted. The "base period" is the first 3 of the previous 6 years.

Industrial Research and Development Grants—Grants made under the Industrial Research and Development Grants Act 1970 will not represent assessable income to the recipient. When the grant is in respect of deductible expenditure the amount ordinarily allowable is reduced by the amount of the grant. When the grant is for capital expenditure, e.g., plant, the cost of the asset is reduced by the amount of the grant in determining the amount of depreciation to be allowed.

Investment Allowance—An allowance of 20 percent of the cost of new plant and machinery which qualifies for the special depreciation allowance, is allowed in addition to the depreciation allowances.

Mining—The mining industry has special methods of tax assessment, and investors may make a deduction of one-third of calls paid on shares in mineral or petroleum mining companies.

Post Office Bonus Bonds—Prizes received in respect of Post Office Bonus Bonds are exempt from tax.

Post Office National Development Bonds—An additional tax exemption is available in respect of the accumulated interest on Post Office National Development Bonds. The exemption is available to individuals only, and is subject to a maximum exemption of $500 in any income year. The interest is paid on maturity or surrender and is deemed to be derived in the income year in which the bond matures or in the year in which it is surrendered.

Scientific Research—Special incentives to encourage scientific research are available. Expenditure on research equipment acquired for scientific purposes directly relating to the business of the taxpayer may be written off over a period of 5 years. Also the cost of research directly relating to the business of the taxpayer may be deducted in the year in which it was incurred, and gifts of money made by companies to universities and approved institutes for education and research are, subject to certain limitations, deductible.

Stamp Duty Exemption On First Conveyances—To encourage builders to start private housing schemes, when new houses and sections are sold the duty payable on the instrument of conveyance is computed on the unimproved value of the land only.

Visiting Experts—A special rebate is provided for approved visiting experts who provide (either as independent consultants or as employees) specialist, technical, or managerial expertise essential to the development in the initial years of an approved new and continuing enterprise in New Zealand; or provide expertise that is not generally available in New Zealand; or who are engaged in approved research work in institutions or universities. The effect of the rebate is to limit the New Zealand tax payable on income from the visiting experts' services to an average rate of 35 percent.

Land Tax—Land tax is levied on the total unimproved value of land held at 31 March by each owner after making, by way of special exemption from that value, the following deductions: where the value does not exceed $60,000, a deduction of $60,000; where the value exceeds $60,000 a deduction of $60,000 diminished at the rate of $1 for each $1 of that excess, so as to leave no deduction when that value amounts to or exceeds $120,000.

Subject to deductions provided, life tenants are liable for land tax and joint owners are assessed jointly as regards the land held in conjunction, and are liable severally in respect of each owner's interest in such land and other land. This liability for joint assessment also applies to companies owning land if they consist of substantially the same shareholders. Two or more companies are deemed to consist of substantially the same shareholders if they are two-thirds or more commonly owned by the same persons. The ownership may be measured in terms of paid-up capital, or nominal value of allotted shares, or voting power, or entitlement to profits.

The rates of land tax on a "step" basis are as follows: where unimproved value after allowing the special exemption does not exceed $20,000 the rate is 5/12;c for each dollar; where it exceeds $20,000 but does not exceed $30,000 the rate is ⅚c for each dollar; where it exceeds $30,000 but does not exceed $40,000 the rate is 1¼c for each dollar; where it exceeds $40,000 the rate is 1⅔c for each dollar.

There is a rebate of a sum equal to 50 percent of the tax so assessed.

Land used for farming or agricultural activities is exempt from land tax.

Mining Companies—These companies are taxed on a conventional profit and loss basis. Exploration and development expenditure, much of which would normally be classified as capital expenditure, may be claimed against income. Tax is levied on mining income at two-thirds of the rate applicable to the income of non-mining companies. Other assessable income is taxable at normal company rates.

Property Syndicates—Unincorporated associations of not less than 11 persons formed after 3 September 1971 for the sole or principal reason of holding real property for investment or sale are treated as companies assessable at ordinary company rates. Any interest paid to members of the syndicate is not deductible for tax purposes but, together with any other distributions to members, is treated as dividends to members. A special exemption is not allowed for premiums paid on life policies assigned for the purposes of financing investment in property syndication.

Payroll Tax—A payroll tax was introduced as from 1 August 1970. It was abolished from 1 October 1973.

PROPERTY SPECULATION TAX—The Property Speculation Tax Act 1973 became law in August 1973 and relates to all "dispositions" of "land" taking place on or after 15 June 1973. Under the Act, a profit on the "disposition" of "land" by any "person" is liable for the tax when there is a period of 2 years or less between "date of acquisition" and "date of disposition", and the profit is not exempt from the tax.

Sales or other Dispositions After 2 Years—When the land has been held for more than 2 years by the vendor, there is no liability for property speculation tax.

Sale of Own Residence—This is generally exempt if the dwelling was bought as a residence with no intention of resale at a profit, and the reason for resale developed after purchase and was not principally to realise a profit.

Sales of Business Premises—In general terms, the tests for exemption if disposition of business premises are similar to those for the home owner disposing of his home Exemption on these grounds is generally not available to businesses which consist principally of buying and selling land, developing land and buildings for sale, erecting buildings on land for sale, or investing in real estate

Calculation of Profit—In general terms, the "assessable profit" will be the difference between the sale price and the cost price of the property plus and minus any intervening receipts and expenditure not taken into account for income tax purposes. The point about income and expenditure for income tax purposes is that income, such as rents, and expenditure, such as repairs and maintenance, will be properly returnable for income tax purposes in the normal way.

Rates of Property Speculation Tax—Rates are set out below.

Where the period between Date of Acquisition and Date of Disposition isRate of Tax on Assessable Profit
 Percent
6 months or less90
Exceeding 6 and not exceeding 9 months85
Exceeding 9 and not exceeding 12 months80
Exceeding 12 and not exceeding 15 months75
Exceeding 15 and not exceeding 18 months70
Exceeding 18 and not exceeding 21 months65
Exceeding 21 and not exceeding 24 months60

NOTE—If a transaction is liable to Property Speculation Tax it is not also liable to income tax. For land held more than 2 years, there could still be a liability for income tax under the provisions of the general tax law, but this will depend on the particular circumstances of each case.

ESTATE AND GIFT DUTIES—The legislation dealing with estate duty and gift duty is contained in the Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968 and amendments.

When the final balance of the dutiable estate of a deceased person exceeds $12,000, estate duty is levied on the amount thereof. Exemptions are provided for the successions of a wife, husband, or infant child of a deceased person. (For this purpose an infant child is widely defined to mean a child, or stepchild, of a deceased person, under the age of 20 years; and includes any other person, other than the wife of the deceased, who is living and under the age of 20 years, and is in the opinion of the Commissioner, a dependant of the deceased.) These exemptions are subject to the following limitations and operate by way of a deduction from the duty of so much as is attributable to the exempted succession or exempted portion of the succession. In the case of a wife, the exemption applies to the value of her succession or $40,000, whichever is the less; in the case of a husband, to the value of his succession or $40,000, whichever is the less; and in the case of an infant child, to the value of the child's succession or $1,000, whichever is the less.

There are also various exemptions which operate by way of the exclusion of certain property in computing the amount of the final balance of the estate as, for example, for an interest in a home settled under the Joint Family Homes Act 1964 which passes to the surviving spouse; accrued amounts of war pensions and superannuation benefits; certain defined personal chattels to a value not exceeding $2,000; the property in an outright gift made before death to a charity; certain superannuation allowances for widows and infant children; and the wood value of growing trees on any land, a proprietary interest in which forms part of the dutiable estate.

An exemption is also provided for charitable bequests of up to $25,000 in aggregate in any estate. The amount of the charitable bequest is not excluded from the final balance of the estate but the rates of duty are adjusted to give the same result as if this had been done.

Relief is provided for quick successions where estate duty is payable twice on the same property by reason of the two deaths occurring within a short period. The duty is reduced in the second estate according to the interval between the two deaths as follows: second death within four months, 75 percent reduction; within eight months, 60 percent reduction; within one year, 50 percent reduction; within two years, 40 percent reduction; within three years, 30 percent reduction; within four years, 20 percent reduction; within five years, 10 percent reduction.

Income tax in respect of a deceased person up to the date of death is treated as a debt of the deceased in all cases.

Estate duty is due and payable to the Commissioner of Inland Revenue on the death of the deceased. Interest is charged at the rate of 5 percent on all duty unpaid within six months of date of death. In addition a penalty of 5 percent is payable if duty is not paid within three months after notice of assessment, but is not imposed earlier than six months after death. The time for payment of duty without incurring a penalty may be extended in certain cases.

There is a right of appeal to the Board of Review constituted under the Inland Revenue Department Amendment Act 1960, against decisions of the Commissioner in the exercise of his discretion under certain sections of the Act. There is also a right of appeal on points of law or of fact by way of a case stated to the Supreme Court.

The following table gives the scale of rates of estate duty which applies to estates of deceased persons dying on and after 25 June 1970.

Final Balance of EstateBasic PaymentRate on Excess
$         $  $percent
Up to 12,000
12,001–14,0007
14,001–16,0001408
16,001–18,0003009
18,001–20,00048010
20,001–22,00068011
22,001–24,00090012
24,001–26,0001,14013
26,001–28,0003,40014
28,001–30,0001,68015
30,001–32,0001,98016
32,001–34,0002,30017
34,001–36,0002,64018
36,001–38,0003,00019
38,001–40,0003,38020
40,001–42,0003,78021
42,001–44,0004,20022
44,001–46,0004,64023
46,001–48,0005,10024
48,001–50,0005,58025
50,001–52,0006,08026
52,001–54,0006,60027
54,001–56,0007,14028
56,001–58,0007,70029
58,001–60,0008,28030
60,001–70,0008,88031
70,001–80,00011,98032
80,001–90,00015,18033
90,001–100,00018,48034
100,001–110,00021,88035
110,001–120,00025,38036
120,001–130,00028,98037
130,001–140,00032,68038
140,001–150,00036,48039
Exceeding 150,00040,38040

Gift Duty—A gift means any disposition of property situated in New Zealand (or of property outside New Zealand if the donor is domiciled in New Zealand at the time of the gift) which is made otherwise than by will, whether with or without an instrument in writing, without fully adequate consideration in money or its equivalent. There is provision for a deduction from the value of the gift of money payments adequately secured to the donor which were fixed or ascertainable at the date of the gift. No duty is payable on a gift which, together with the value of all other gifts (not exempt from duty by reason of their nature) made at the same time or within 12 months previously or subsequently by the same donor to the same or any other beneficiary does not exceed the value of $4,000. Gifts up to $200 in any year to the same person are not taken into account for gift duty (or estate duty) if made as part of the donor's normal expenditure. Various other exemptions, including gifts to any charitable trust, are contained in the Act.

The amount of the gift duty is payable by either the donor or the beneficiary, but the beneficiary is entitled to be indemnified by the donor unless the terms of the gift provide otherwise. Particulars of any gift made exceeding $2,000 (or the value of which when aggregated with the value of all gifts made by the donor within 12 months previously exceeds $2,000) are required to be furnished for assessment of duty, if any, within three months of the date of the gift, and if the duty is not paid within six months of making the gift a 5 percent penalty is imposed. Interest is also payable at 5 percent on any gift duty not paid within three months of the date of the gift and on any penalty from the date it was incurred.

The following table gives the scale of rates of gift duty on gifts made on and after 19 July 1968.

Value of Gift (Together With Value of All Aggregated Gifts)Basic PaymentRate on Excess
*Of total value of gift.
$              $    $percent
Up to 4,000
4,001–6,0009
6,001–8,00018011
8,001–10,00040013
10,001–12,00066015
12,001–14,00096017
14,001–16,0001,30019
16,001–18,0001,68021
18,001–20,0002,10023
20,001–22,0002,56025
22,001–24,0003,06027
24,001–28,0003,60023
28,001–32,0004,52025
32,001–36,0005,52027
36,001–40,0006,60029
40,001–44,0007,76031
44,001–48,0009,00033
48,001–52,00010,32035
52,001–56,00011,72037
56,001–60,00013,20039
60,001–64,00014,76031
Over 64,00025*

The net revenue received from estate duty and gift duty during each of the latest six years is given below.

Year Ended 31 MarchEstate DutyGift DutyTotal Estate and Gift Duties
 $(thousand)
196820,2411,49021,731
196922,0502,06224,112
197024,6691,63326,303
197127,7511,58929,340
197223,6701,37925,049
197326,7141,85328,567

Board of Review—The Inland Revenue Department Act provides for the establishment of one or more Boards of Review. There is at present only one such board. Members of a Board are appointed by the Governor-General and consist of a chairman who is a barrister or solicitor of the Supreme Court of not less than seven years' practice, and two other members. The functions of a Board are to sit as a judicial authority for hearing and determining such objections to assessments of tax or duty or the decisions or determinations of the Commissioner as are authorised by the relevant legislation. A determination of a Board is final as to any question of fact, but subject to appeal to the Supreme Court on any question of law. However, questions of fact may be referred direct to the Supreme Court if both parties consent or if the Court considers it desirable that the objection be determined by it.

ESTATES PASSED FOR DEATH DUTY—Particulars of deceased persons' estates certified during the year ended 31 March 1972 are given in the tables following. Totals for the previous three years are appended. Estates of Maoris, other than hereditary interests in Maori land, are included.

The following table analyses the estates certified by size of estate value.

Size of Estate (Net Value)Estates of MalesEstates of FemalesTotal EstatesAggregate Net Value of EstatesEstate Duties Assessed
*Fifteen months to 31 March 1969
$(000) $(000)   $(000)$(000)
Under            25675901,1571,429
2 and under 49049131,8175,390
4 and other 69507831,7338,644
6 and other 88677031,57010,982
8 and other 107525711,32311,848
10 and other 126103911,00110,968
12 and other 144092556648,63539
14 and other 163162315478,20776
16 and other 182832014848,197118
18 and other 202401774177,902146
20 and other 221831573407,120161
22 and other 241721022746,294164
24 and other 3043323466717,826641
30 and other 4048222770924,5051,254
40 and other 5031613745320,2541,507
50 and other 602327530716,8011,564
60 and other 701477021713,9491,649
70 and other 801154115611,6621,589
80 and other 9083231068,9741,297
90 and other 1007315888,3481,344
100 and other 1201132313614,8392,685
120 and other 1405114658,3471,660
140 and other 160258334,8801,004
160 and under 180212233,8771,000
180 and other 200143173,179749
200 and over45115618,7625,945
Totals, 1971–728,4035,95714,360271,81824,592
Totals, 1970–718,6626,15214,814264,69425,995
Totals, 1969–708,4155,92614,341251,11628,611
Totals, 1968–69*10,2617,02117,282278,94529,069

The average net value per estate certified in 1971–72 was $18,928 (males $22,105; females $14,448), compared with $17,867 (males $20,809; females $13,726) in 1970–71. Duty on estates of males amounted to $17.7 million and on estates of females $6.9 million, the respective figures for 1970–71 being $18.5 million and $7.5 million.

The law relating to death duties is contained in the Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968 which came into force on 1 January 1969. From 26 June 1969 the exemption for both a widow and a widower has been $40,000 and estates up to a value of $12,000 are exempt from duty.

The average amount of duty assessed within each of the various estate groups is now given. The rates of average duty to average estate value are also given.

Size of Estate (Net Value)Average Duty AssessedAverage Duty as Percentage of Average Value of Estate
Estates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined AverageEstates of MalesEstates of FemalesCombined Average
*Fifteen months to 31 March 1969.
$(000) $(000)$$$percentpercentpercent
Under 10
10 and under 12
12 and under 1431101580.20.80–4
14 and under 16961951380.61.30.9
16 and under 181723412421.02.0134
18 and under 202025473481.12.91.8
20 and under 222956804731.43.22.3
22 and under 244029325991.74.12.6
24 and under 307311,3859602.75.23.6
30 and under 401,4362,4731,7684.27.15.1
40 and under 502,8014,5393,3276.310.27.4
50 and under 604,5706,7075,0928.412.29.3
60 and under 706,9199,0307,60010.714.111.8
70 and under 809,39712,39310,18412.616.613.6
80 and under 9011,38015,31112,23313.518.014.4
90 and under 10014,55018,81415,27715.319.916.1
100 and under 12018,81424,31319,74417.222.318.1
120 and under 14024,50029,33725,54219.122.619.9
140 and under 16030,42630,41330,42320.520.820.6
160 and under 18043,43343,92143,47625.726.325.8
180 and under 20041,40956,53844,07822.229.723.6
200 and over105,240109,925106,16031.333.531.7
    All estates, 1971–722,1041,1581,7129.58.09.0
    All estates, 1970–712,1361,2171,75410.38.99.8
    All estates, 1969–702,2311,6601,99511.211.711.4
    All estates, 1968–69*1,9521,2871,68210.610.110.4

A summary showing gross assets, notional estate, and debts and charges, classified in broad groups according to size of estate passed for duty in the March year 1972 is now given.

ItemSize of Estate (Net Value)All Estates
Under $6,000$6,000-$9,999$10,000 -$19,999$20,000-$23,999$24,000-$39,999$40,000-$99,999$100,000 -$199,999$200,000 and Over
Gross Assets—$(000), except average per estate $
    Cash6,2026,50111,8313,4828,28711,7294,1151,52853,675
        Average per estate1,3172,2473,8005,6716,0228,83815,01927,2783,737
    Furniture, effects, etc.7459731,5173799851,3144602826,664
        Average per estate1603364876187169891,6785,02746
    Farm stock, implements, etc.74882551005942,5091,8945086,022
        Average per estate1530821624311,8906,9139,064419
    Private business interests942544422571,1972,6751,6815987,197
        Average pet estate19871414188702,0156,13410,677501
    Assurance policies1,5382,0953,9591,0523,5085,1971,95249219,793
        Average per estate3267241,2711,7132,5493,9167,1228,7911,378
    Loans8121,6074,3411,6486,92216,0895,5511,96738,937
        Average per estate1725551,3942,6845,03012,12420,25835,1162,711
    Shares, stocks, etc.8211,5044,0631,7696,85915,4668,5157,13346,131
        Average per estate1745191,3052,8804,98511,65431,076127,3823,212
    Real property6,0199,27915,2613,72311,413,6856,7372,89575,012
        Average per estate1,2783,2074,9026,0638,29414,83427,87151,6975,286
    Other property7247751,9736221,8963,1641,28192811,362
        Average per estate1532676331,0121,3772,3844,67416,565791
    Notional estate1,1591,6432,7259882,5574,1771,88975615,984
        Average per estate2465678751,6081,8583,1476,89413,5061,106
    Foreign property911525312228142,8461,9642,4859,106
        Average per estate19521703615013,1447,16644,370634
Debts—
    Unsecured1,4621,0831,5423971,3662,3661,1655819,962
    Secured1,3609591,4474311,3372,4976522298,911
        Total2,8222,0422,9898282,7034,8631,81780918,873
        Average per estate5997059601,3481,9643,6646,62914,4491,314

Realty comprised 26.1 percent of gross New Zealand assets, while the proportion of cash was 18.5 percent.

The number of deceased persons' estates in each group for 1971–72 are classified below according to net value of estate.

Age Group of Deceased Person, in YearsUnder $2,000$2,000-$3,999$4,000-$5,999$6,000-$7,999$8,000-$9,999$10,000–519,999$20,000-$23,999$24,000–529,999$30,000–539,999$40,000–559,999$60,000-$79,999$80,000-$99,999$100,000-$199,999$200,000 and OverTotal
Under 20111611961366
20–2492213231236231121
25–29151013185275511100
30–348106910222585321192
35–3913261412824510683129
40–4425352426237510131410523265
45–493342604236862123141811610402
50–54419667535314134313230187145622
55–5980114117112872233742555726222551,002
60–641031451731591132846072847233234541,370
65–691252212191901493357378759644254091,679
70–74183276245182199402937010010251213871,969
75–79180238215228202442811119910349313282,019
80–841452612602352094648910110112769242662,117
85–81111851901621433166267798040182561,484
90–94458674775515433242630157121639
95–9913222220540586124223164
Unspecified1712101382924982411120
Totals1,1571,8171,7331,5701,3233,1136146677097603731942745614,360
Percent8.0612.6512.0710.939.2121.684.284.644.945.292.601.351.910.39100.00

In the following table deceased persons' estates for 1971–72 are analysed by occupations.

Occupational GroupUnder $ 6,000$ 6,000 to 9,999$ 10,000 to 19,999$ 20,000 to 23,999$ 24,000 to 39,999$ 40,000 to 99,999$ 100,000 and overTotals
Males
Architects, engineers, chemists, etc.2627462128155168
Doctors, dentists, and medical workers111324620296109
Teachers, clergy, and jurists25365812362510202
Artists, draughtsmen, and related workers292839823213151
Executive officials, directors, and managers1081001594613916171784
Bookkeepers, typists, and clerical workers2161712134367275742
Working proprietors, wholesale, and retail trade121629589281
Insurance, real estate, and all salesmen98851041241154359
Farmers and farm managers209174287873015451401,743
Farm workers593130363132
Hunters, fishermen, and loggers27181124264
Miners, welldrillers, and quarrymen378103361
Merchant marine officers and ratings195731439
Aircraft crews21227
Transport and communication workers177126104102471449
Spinners, cutters, tailors, etc.4417255632102
Furnacemen and moulders241272247
Instrument, tool makers, and machinists10999107163213376
Electricians3329433103121
Carpenters, painters, and bricklayers1851461321951267566
Compositors, bookbinders, etc.2514121557
Potters and clay workers41117
Millers, bakers, and food workers572831783134
Chemical and tobacco workers67331121
Production processors, packers, etc.20121121147
Lifting equipment and freight handlers11572656751271
Labourers, etc.27810266683463
Firemen, policemen, and guards14131712148
Housekeepers, cooks, waiters, and cleaners583618711121
Hairdressers, launderers, and drycleaners13644128
Athletes, recreation, and service workers24131228261
Occupation not stated or not working34516417421563611807
All uniformed personnel (services)129724135
Totals2,4211,6191,8583559159662698,403
Females
Occupation not stated or not working2,2361,2381,205245434341605,759
Doctors, dentists, and medical workers681234235
Teachers, clergy, and jurists8418310548
Bookkeepers, typists, and clerical workers1016914141
Housekeepers, cooks, etc.911112
Spinners, cutters, tailors, etc.415
Others136116911157
Totals2,2861,2741,255259461361615,957
NOTE—In this table for the separate occupation classes, estates in any value group which has less than three in it have been included with the number for the value group below; where this was not possible, no net estate distribution has been shown. As the full distribution for each occupation or value group has been given in the totals, this procedure means that in some cases the sum of individual groups will not agree with the totals.

OTHER DUTIES—These cover a miscellany of items of taxation.

In the next table the receipts for the last five years are shown under the various heads; receipts under agreement on sales of overseas lottery tickets in New Zealand have been added to the revenue items handled by the Duties Division of the Inland Revenue Department.

DutyYear Ended 31 March
19691970197119721973
 $(thousand)
Duty on instruments6,8398,80810,70011,32016,445
Duty on cheques1,8601,9482,0782,2292,395
Racing taxation11,15512,05413,15715,65616,513
Lottery duty655719686625976
Overseas lottery duty245273267296274
Totals20,75423,80226,88830,12636,603

Payroll tax, first collected from 1 August 1970, amounted to $46,308,000 in the year ended 31 March 1973; it was a tax of 2 percent on payrolls of employers, except farmers, agricultural contractors, dairy companies and meat processing companies. It was abolished in 30 September 1973.

Some of the more important items included in the foregoing table are dealt with in more detail under subsequent headings.

RACING TAXATION—The Government taxation on totalisator turnover is at the rate of 9.32 percent of gross turnover subject to a rebate of 2½ percent on the first $100,000 of gross investments received by a club in any one year. Total deductions from gross investments are as follows: (a) totalisator duty 9.32 percent; (b) club or Totalisator Agency Board's commission, 7.5 percent in respect of win and place dividends and 10.18 percent on doubles investments. In the case of special races, win and place investment commission of 8 percent is deducted and on special doubles commission of 10.68 percent is deducted, and in these cases the 0.5 percent levy is waived; and (c) ½ percent levy as provided by the Gaming Amendment Act 1965. Where the ½ percent levy is deducted by a racing or hunt club it is paid to the New Zealand Racing Conference and where it is deducted by a trotting club it is paid to the New Zealand Trotting Conference. Each conference pays the money received by it into a separate account, which is applied solely for the purpose of assisting clubs to provide, maintain, and replace amenities for the public and course improvements on their racecourses. The proceeds of the levy and the amounts paid to clubs are not subject to taxation.

The Racing Act 1971 is to come into operation on 1 August 1972 replacing the Gaming Act 1908 and its amendments. Under this Act, the ½ percent on bets for racecourse improvements is retained and an additional ½ percent levy is to be paid to the newly constituted National Racing Authority for supplementing stakes paid by clubs on specified races. The Totalisator Agency Board pays its profits to the authority which determines its distribution to totalisator clubs.

The Totalisator Agency Board established to conduct off-course betting receives 7½ percent of the turnover made through the totalisator agencies. This is the same percentage as that retained by clubs for on-course turnover.

The Minister of Internal Affairs granted totalisator licences for 433 days in the racing year 1972–73. Of these 433 days, 285 were allocated to racing and hunt clubs and 148 to trotting clubs.

The following table gives figures of totalisator duty, and the amount of turnover retained by clubs or the Totalisator Agency Board.

ItemYear Ended 31 July
19691970197119721973
*Retained by clubs and T.A.B.
 $(thousand)
Totalisator duty11,58012,44014,10515,95218,423
Amount of totalisator turnover retained by clubs or T.A.B.11,22311,91813,36915,04917,443
Unpaid fractions*532603674761816
Levy of 2 percent6356817718691,007

For the financial year ended 31 March 1973, Consolidated Revenue Account receipts from racing taxation amounted to $16.5 million, as compared with $15.7 million in 1971–72.

The following figures relate to the racing year, which ends on 31 July.

ItemGallopingTrotting
1970–711971–721972–731970–711971–721972–73
Number of racing days271271285133133148
Number of races2,3002,4382,4681,1791,1851,320
Amount of stakes$(000)3,5263,7634,6581,7151,7842,272
    Average per race$1,5331,5431,8871,4551,5051,722
Totaliser turnover—$ (million)
    On course42.646.051.119.320.024.2
    Off course67.879.589.525.129.436.4
Totals110.5125.5140.644.549.360.7
    Doubles (included above)38.744.253.414.015.121.4
    Amount paid in dividends89.8102.1114.336.240.149.3

Of the amount placed on the totalisator during the 1972–73 racing season, 81.3 percent was returned to bettors by way of dividends. Government taxes absorbed 9.1 percent and 9.1 percent was retained by clubs or T.A.B. A levy for racecourse improvements amounted to 0.5 percent.

FILM-HIRE TAX—Holders of renters' licences wider Part V of the Cinematograph Films Act 1961 pay a film-hire tax.

The film-hire tax payable is assessed on the net quarterly receipts derived by the renter from renting sound-picture films. On British Commonwealth films the tax is 10 percent and on foreign films 25 percent of the net receipts. Films made wholly in New Zealand are exempt from the tax. The film-hire tax yielded a revenue of $302,544 in 1967–68, $270,908 in 1968–69, $291,077 in 1969–70, $369,541 in 1970–71, $330,963 in 1971–72, and $352,313 in 1972–73.

SALES TAX—Sales tax is collected under the authority of the Sales Tax Act 1974. The Sales Tax Exemption Order 1974 consolidates in one list all the existing exemptions from sales tax. The rate of tax is normally 20 percent; for motor vehicles it is 40 percent. The tax is not a turnover tax, being payable only once and, as far as possible, at the point where the goods pass to the retailer. The Sales Tax Act is administered by the Customs Department. The net amount yielded by the sales tax during each of the latest five March years has been: 1967–68, $75,389,000; 1968–69, $82,801,000; 1969–70, $97,615,000; 1970–71, $125,343,000; 1971–72, $139,538,000, and $171,142,000. in 1972–73.

26 C—STATE INDEBTEDNESS

GENERAL—The principal legislative measure which is concerned with public indebtedness is the New Zealand Loans Act 1953.

The money composing the public debt has been borrowed on the security of the public revenues of New Zealand. No portion of the public estate is pledged of either principal or interest.

Whereas in 1934, 56 percent of the public debt was owing to overseas investors, the percentage has now dropped to 16 percent. Over 40 percent of the public debt is held by Government-owned institutions, and by reserve accounts set up for the benefit of the primary industries. Internal public debt as at 31 March 1973 comprised $2,939 million of the total public debt of $3,503 million.

Most of the present public debt has been borrowed for national development. There was established within the Public Account, as from 1 April 1942, a National Development Loans Account into which moneys for national development are paid. The amounts raised by loans since the inception of this account to 31 March 1973 totalled $3,336 million, of which $291 million was raised in 1972–73. Moneys are transferred from this account as required, the amounts transferred during the last three years being given in Section 26A.

MOVEMENT IN PUBLIC DEBT—Movement of the overseas public debt can be gauged from the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchLondon and EuropeUnited States and World BankTotal Overseas Debt
New BorrowingsRepayments*Balance of DebtNew BorrowingsRepaymentsBalance of Debt
*Includes debt transferred to New Zealand register.
 NZ$(thousand)
196866,23120,210329,37767,9894,546170,706500,083
196940,26133,409336,22922,63214,119179,219515,448
197010,3295,002341,55619,98214,953184,248525,804
197158,9632,703397,81613,97319,603178,618576,434
1972132,13935,820494,1356,29325,505159,406653,541
197346,641111,890428,8864,60328,914135,095563,981

A summary of movements in the public debt 1972–73 is given in the following table.

ItemAmount
 NZ $(million)
*Includes third Cook Strait ferry $2 million; Silver Fern railcars $0.9 million; New Plymouth power station $10.4 million.
External Debt—
    Loans Raised—
        World Bank2.5
        Defence credits7.6
        Capital equipment credit arrangements*13.3
        Dutch guilder loan15.5
        French franc loan12.3
 51.2
    Loans Redeemed—
        London46.5
        New York6.3
        Multi-currency credit agreement33.6
        World Bank5.0
        Capital equipment credit arrangements1.1
        Defence credits8.1
        Transfer to New Zealand Register0.2
    Currency adjustments39.9
 140.7
    Net decrease in External Debt89.5
Internal Debt—NZ $(million)
    Loans raised1,343.9
    Loans converted778.6
    Transfers from London Register0.1
        Loans Redemption Account2,122.6
    Loans redeemed938.0
    Loans converted778.6
 1,716.6
    Net increase in Internal Debt406.0
    Total increase in Public Debt316.5
Outstanding—31 March 19733,503.0

A detailed allocation of the public debt as at 31 March 1973 is now given.

Allocation of DebtLoan CapitalInterest on Loan CapitalEquity Capital*Total Allocation

*The following dividends have been received during 1972–73:

  1. Air New Zealand Ltd. $630,000.

  2. Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd. $722,000.

  3. Bank of New Zealand $2,620,781.

**Interest during construction to be capitalised.

† Interest capitalised and payment deferred until such time as the industry has recovered its initial deficit and is operating profitably.

‡Free of interest.

ϕInterest on loan capital remitted each year.

||Free of interest—position to be reviewed after 30 September 1973.

¶Includes $5 million being excess development costs not represented by sale value and not tearing interest

† † Includes calibration aircraft $1, 986,527.

(a) Loans and investments in trading undertakings—$(000)percent$(000)$(000)
      Air New Zealand Ltd.  30,00030,000
      Tasrnan Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.6,6004,000 
      Tasman Pulp and Paper Co. Ltd.9374 ¼2,00013,537
      New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation1,0006 1,000
      New Zealand Steel Ltd.6,0009,990 
      New Zealand Steel Ltd2,7506½-7 18,740
      New Zealand Wool Topmaking Investigating Co. Ltd.  6262
      New Zealand National Airways Corporation  8,3258,325
      Bank of New Zealand shares  12,65612,656
      Development Finance Corporation of New Zealand3,000 3,000
      Railways31,250 180,186211,436
      Railways (IBRD Railway projects)30,187Var. 30,187
      Railways (Third Cook Strait Ferry)5,565 5,565
      Railways (North Island sleeper train)1,9696 1,969
      Railways (G.E.C. Locomotives)2,967Var. 2,967
      Railways (Silver Fern railcars)911 91.1
      State Advances Corporation682,523 682,523
      State coal minesϕ29,606  29,606
      Tourist Hotel Corporation1,948|| 4,000 
      Tourist Hotel Corporation2978 6,245
      Electric power834,6395  
      Electric power (IBRD Inter-island Transmission project)19,303  
      Electric power (IBRD Marsden Point power project)8,759  
      Electric power (New Plymouth power station)14,481 877,182
      Post Office333,7985 333,798
      Housing under construction and land development24,956 24,956
      Land settlement226,304 226,304
      IBRD Harbour projects4,653 4,653
      Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand**22,2936  
      Natural Gas Corporation of New Zealand7176 23,010
    Earning interest but not at full rate—
      Housing Account (S.A.C.)312,9013 312,901
    2,861,533
(b) Not earning interest though represented by permanent assets or development works—
      Airport development† †   26,640
      Education buildings   131,378
      Forests (State)   73,447
      General public works   126,430
    International finance organisations—
      Cash portion of subscriptions   22,160
    380,055
(c) Non-productive debt—
    Consolidated Revenue Account—
      Defence   38,200
      Reserve Bank indemnity   67,380
    New loan moneys on hand—
        National Development Loans Account   47,970
        Loans Redemption Account   107,917
    200,467
  Total 3,503,055

GROSS INDEBTEDNESS—The gross indebtedness of the Central Government and the amount of indebtedness per head of population are given in the following table. Figures for previous years are shown in a table in the Statistical Summary.

At 31 MarchAmountPer Head of Population
 $(m)$
19631,934765.18
19642,022782.89
19652,140813.87
19662,256842.78
19672,412884,42
19682,617949.72
19692,776998.40
19702,8771,019.96
19713,0071,051.06
19723,1871,095.22
19733,5031,217.86

INTEREST—The following table shows the payments of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchInterestInterest on Overseas Debt as Percentage of Export IncomeRecovery of Interest from Government Enterprises and InvestmentsNet Interest CostNet Cost as a Percentage of Total Taxation
OverseasNew ZealandTotal
 NZ$(thousand)
196821,59294,214115,8062.775,99139,8153.9
196928,767103,592132,3593.084,12848,2314.6
197030,840113,355144,1952.789,94654,2494.6
197132,076120,943153,0192.897,71255,3073.8
197236,260130,548166,8082.7106,40260,4063.5
197338,318146,499184,8172.3118,97065,8473.4

RECENT LOANS—Details of loans for preceding periods are given in earlier issues of the Yearbook.

External Loans—In 1968 a loan of 80 million deutschemark was raised with D.M. bearer bonds at 7 percent maturing 1978.

A further loan of 100 million deutschemark was raised in 1969 with 6¾ percent D.M. bearer bonds maturing on 1 February 1984.

A loan of 100 million deutschemark with D.M. bearer bonds at 7½ percent maturing 1986 was raised in April 1971.

In February 1972 a loan of 100 million deutschemark was raised with D.M. bearer bonds at 7 percent maturing 1987.

In November 1970 a bond issue was floated on the Swiss capital market. This issue, which was fully subscribed, was for a term of 15 years and raised 50 million Swiss francs, equivalent to about NZ$10.37 million. The coupon was 6¾ percent with an issue price of 98.

A placement of 100 million Swiss francs was made on 1 July 1971 with bearer bonds at 7¼ percent maturing 1976.

A placement of 60 million Dutch guilders was raised in August 1971 with bearer bonds at 7½ percent maturing 1978.

In May 1972 a loan of 75 million francs (NZ$12.3 million) with a consortium of international banks in Paris for 15 years at 7¼ percent was arranged.

In. July 1970 the Government entered into a revolving multi-currency credit agreement with a consortium of international banks led by the Bankers Trust Company, London, for a loan of the equivalent of US$40 million. The loan was raised in two tranches, each of the equivalent of US$20 million (NZ$17.8 million). At 6-monthly intervals the Government has the option of renewing the two tranches of the loan at current interest rates in any one of three euro-currencies or repaying them.

A loan of £(stg)10 million was raised in London in December 1971 with 7¼ percent stock issued at £99¾ percent maturing 1977.

In April 1972 a loan of 60 million Dutch guilders was raised with bearer notes at 6¾ percent maturing 1979.

Internal Loans—In February 1971 a cash loan was opened and the following stocks were offered at par: 4.9 percent 15 March 1975, 5.2 percent 15 March 1978, and 5.50 percent 15 March 1990. The amount subscribed was $25 million.

A second cash loan was opened in June 1971 and the stocks offered at par were: 4.9 percent 15 August 1974, 5.2 percent 15 August 1977, and 5.5 percent 15 August 1989. Approximately $54.5 million was subscribed.

A further cash loan offering stock at 4.9 percent maturing 15 December 1974; 5.2 percent 15 December 1977 and 5.5 percent 15 December 1989 was opened in November 1971. The stocks were offered at par and the amount subscribed was approximately $48.1 million.

In June 1972 a cash loan was opened and the following stocks offered at par: 4.75 percent 15 June 1975, 5.20 percent 15 June 1978 and 5.5 percent 15 June 1990; the amount subscribed was $88 million.

A further cash loan offering 4.55 percent stock maturing 15 December 1975, 5.10 percent maturing 15 December 1978 and 5.50 percent maturing 15 December 1990 was opened in December 1972; the amount subscribed was $24.3 million.

In July 1973 a cash loan offered stock at 4.1 percent, 5.0 percent and 6.0 percent maturing in 1976, 1979 and 1991 respectively; the amount subscribed was $135.8 million. The second cash loan for the year was offered in December on a corresponding basis; the amount subscribed was $75.3 million.

Conversion Loans—Conversion loans in 1972 resulted in the conversion of $10.90 million in February 1972, $3.75 million in March 1972, $1.8 million in June 1972, $32.6 million in July 1972, $16.69 million in September 1972, $26.20 million in November 1972 and $4.21 million in December 1972. Conversion in 1973 resulted in the conversion of $6.34 million in February 1973.

In the financial year 1973–74 conversions totalled $42.9 million. Further details of subscriptions to Government loans and conversion loans are published in the annual report of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand, parliamentary paper B. 16.

MATURITY YEARS OF DEBT—The maturity years of the debt outstanding at 31 March 1973 are shown in the following statement, which distinguishes between overseas and internal debt. All amounts shown may be regarded as being either in New Zealand dollars or in nominal amounts.

Loans Maturing in Financial Year Ending 31 March*DueTotal Debt (Nominal Amount)
OverseasNew Zealand
PublicDepartmental and Other
*In respect of many of the loans, the Government has the option to redeem the securities at an earlier date.
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
197455,990116,88894,022266,900
197516,16660,51883,960160,644
197633,181134,731136,202304,114
197771,934131,180108,119311,233
197864,68974,29396,961235,943
197951,098127,01886,042264,158
198051,29244,10358,635154,030
198148,97972,000120,979
198214,74743,46245,317103,526
198316,76278,369112,402207,533
198445,64293,46171,513210,616
198519,101108,30239,613167,016
198612,13772,07155,096139,304
198728,16737,08123,64288,890
19882,78254,51572,959130,256
19894,65335,63079,277119,560
199086,75658,392145,148
1991167,499121,946289,445
199226,6601,52828,188
Special development bonds712712
Registered Treasury Bills54,86054,860
Totals563,9801,522,9771,416,0983,503,055

OWNERSHIP OF PUBLIC DEBT—As shown in the preceding table, a large proportion of the public debt outstanding is held by various Government departments and quasi-Government organisations. A summary of these investments for the latest three years is as follows.

StockholderAt 31 March
197119721973
 $(thousand)
Investments held by accounts within the Public Account30,40827,98127,981
Earthquake and War Damage Commission115,454129,554138,554
Government Life Insurance50,65758,05765,556
Government Superannuation Board169,187195,187228,587
Maori Trustee6,7166,7586,657
National Provident Fund73,77658,17491,174
Post Office597,890614,590692,090
Post Office: National Savings338338338
Public Trustee2,9013,6014,101
Reserve Bank52,87712,607432
State Advances Corporation39,61245,11252,612
State Insurance Office8,1217,2928,596
Meat Industry Account81,17974,17969,639
Wool Commission Account22,28030,73029,781
Totals1,251,3961,264,1601,416,098

Other holders of Government stock at 31 March 1973 included trustee savings banks ($322.0 million), private savings banks ($304.6 million), life insurance companies ($299.3 million), and trading banks ($297.4 million).

Chapter 29. Section 27; LOCAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE

GENERAL—The constitution and franchise of local authorities are described in Section 2, History, Government, and International Relations.

Local government is concerned with the provision of facilities for the population of a limited area, with finances levied from that area. The major authorities are city, borough, and county councils. These authorities raise money mainly by rates on property and by loans. They expend it on the provision of roads, water supply, sewerage, transport, recreational, and other services. Electric power boards and harbour boards, among the larger of the other local authorities, collect revenue from consumers or users in payment for the facilities or services provided.

Detailed statistics relating to each local authority, other than hospital boards, are contained in the Report on the Local Authority Statistics, an annual publication of the Department of Statistics. Hospital boards, which supply their returns to the Department of Health, are omitted from most of the statistics contained in this section. A special note is made where they are included, while summarised data relating to hospital boards will be found in Section 5B.

In general, the local authority year ends on 31 March. Exceptions are harbour boards (other than Greymouth) where the year ends on the preceding 30 September, the Hutt Valley Drainage Board where the year ends on the last day of February, and Chatham Islands County, where the financial year now ends on 31 December.

RATING—Local authorities are largely dependent on revenue from rates to carry out their activities, and even loans raised for special purposes are, except where the assets purchased provide revenue to meet the loan charges, ultimately liquidated by rate revenues—known then as special rates. The law relating to the malting and levying of rates is contained in the Rating Act 1967. Three broad classes of rates are distinguished:

  1. General, for general purposes.

  2. Special rates imposed to secure the repayment of loan money, being sufficient to produce interest and sinking fund, or interest and instalment of principal, as the case may be; and

  3. Separate rates levied for the construction of public works, for the acquisition of land and buildings, or for the benefit of the whole or part of a local district.

There are three main systems of rating: (a) by capital (land and improvements) value; (b) by annual value; and (c) by unimproved value.

For rating on either the capital value or the unimproved value, the rating roll is based on the district valuation roll prepared by the Valuation Department. Where the rating is on the annual value, the local authority generally prepares its valuation roll on the basis of the valuations made by its own valuers. Separate rates require to be struck on the annual value, and when the annual value has not been entered in the valuation roll, the annual value is required to be taken as 6 percent of the capital value. Provision is made for the Valuer-General to act as a local authority valuer where an annual roll is to be prepared.

For Chatham Islands county, import and export dues are charged in lieu of rates on land. In the case of pest destruction boards the system normally used is by rating on an acreage basis, though occasionally some boards rate according to the number of sheep and/or cattle carried.

The system of rating normally attributed to a local authority is that applicable to the general rate, but it is stressed that, in many instances, subsidiary rates of the local authority are levied in accordance with other systems.

The Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970 authorised territorial local authorities in 21 tax areas covering the country to levy a local authorities petroleum tax at the rate of 1, 2, or 3 cents a gallon on motor spirits and 0.5, 1, or 1.5 cents a gallon on diesel fuel delivered in a tax area. All tax areas voted to levy the tax at the maximum rate mostly from 1 February 1971. The proceeds of any tax imposed may be applied to projects for the benefit of the region or distributed among the constituent local authorities according to their proportions of total rate revenue. This legislation was designed to spread the rating burden of ratepayers.

With harbour boards, two types of rates are applicable, namely: (a) harbour improvement rates, based on so much per ton of cargo by weight or measurement; and (b) harbour rates on rateable property, which are levied according to the system of rating in force by each of the local authorities within the harbour boards' rating areas. However, the Rating Act 1967 gives to harbour boards the power to have a system of rating different from that in force in all or some of its constituent local authority districts.

RATING BY TERRITORIAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The following table shows the amounts levied under the various systems of rating and by annual fees or charges by the territorial local authorities for the year ended 31 March 1972. Amounts levied on behalf of other authorities are included.

System of RatingCountiesCities and BoroughsTown DistrictsTotal
 $(thousand)
Unimproved value23,46759,79221883,478
Capital value9,4263,4085312,888
Flat rate1,6507,156288,827
Annual value116,641716,649
Uniform fees and charges4591,639252,123
Totals35,00588,636324123,966

The total of all rates collected by counties was equal to $6.31 per $1,000 of rateable capital value at the beginning of the year. The corresponding figure for cities and boroughs was $10.35; for independent town districts, $10.68; for dependent town districts, $6.28 (excluding rates levied by county councils). Total rate receipts have remained as a relatively constant percentage of gross national product, national income, and private disposable income, despite short-term fluctuations.

Financial Year Ended 31 MarchRates and LeviesAnnual IncreaseRates and Levies as % of GNPRates and Levies as % of N.I.Rates and Levies as % of P.D.I.
 $(m)PercentPercentPercentPercent
1,95125.2..1.812.06.91
1,95229.015.12.012.322.15
1,95330.76.22.032.342.17
1,95432.86.51.952.232.09
1,95536.511.31.962.242.14
1,95637.83.61.922.242.11
1,95741.39.32.002.332.10
1,95845.49.92.082.432.27
1,95948.87.52.152.542.36
1,96051.55.52.122.482.29
1,96155.06.82.102.452.26
1,96258.05.52.132.512.32
1,96362.47.72.142.502.32
1,96468.39.52.142.492.33
1,96577.213.02.212.572.42
1,96680.54.32.132.472.33
1,96785.96.72.192.562.40
1,96892.47.62.272.672.51
1,96999.98.12.312.722.56
1,970108.18.22.282.682.53
1,971117.99.12.172.542.58

RECEIPTS—The sources of revenue of all local authorities including electric power boards, and hospital boards, are shown by broad classes in the following table.

Year Ended 31 MarchRates and LeviesInspection Charges and Licence FeesReceipts from Public Utilities Rents, and InterestGovernment Grants and SubsidiesOther Receipts (Including Loan Money)Total Receipts
$(thousand)
1,96785,8942,889188,34341,77177,632396,529
1,96892,4472,764197,45842,31695,031430,016
1,96999,8772,951220,71944,896104,206472,649
1,970108,0854,002236,18849,231105,834503,341
1,971117,9194,277258,42453,558101,902536,080
1,972126,2544,551288,45454,554119,909593,722

Rates, inspection charges, and licence fees were equivalent to $50.85 per head of mean population in 1971–72.

A fairly large proportion of the receipts of urban local authorities result from the sales of commodities or services, for instance, sales of electric power and gas, and fares collected for public transport. Government grants and subsidies to county councils are normally less than the amount collected in rates.

The next table shows the receipts for 1971–72 for each type of local authority. From 1 September 1968 the New Zealand Milk Board assumed control of all milk districts and the 15 independent milk boards were abolished.

Local AuthorityReceipts
RatesPublic Utilities, Licences, Rents, InterestGovernment*Other (Including Loans)Total

*Includes all grants and subsidies.

† Includes Petrol tax; Regional Authority $599; Cities and boroughs $10,148,095; Counties $4,666,656; Dependent Town districts $5,830; Independent Town districts $31,575.

 $(thousand)
Catchment boards2,7582125,0722,62510,667
City and borough councils81,62998,50716,13649,298245,570
County councils31,21424,47526,88514,04696,619
Electric power boards116,43610,448126,885
Fire boards7,4237955578,775
Gas boards12856184
Harbour boards388117701,169
Harbour bridge authority3,39532,8928517,74654,118
Land drainage boards2,2821,0001,0284,310
Local railway board3611216578616
Museum authority64166
Nassella tussock boards188198386
Pest destruction boards8919236317
Pest destruction boards (county)1,5671562,2102554,188
Regional authority1468572176
River boards11,4691,26312,46825,199
Road board1761812279395
Road tunnel authority5052001706
Town boards—
    Dependent64221915120
    Independent25581112160608
Underground water authorities26163
Urban drainage boards4,182343794,1878,791
Urban transport board6171,9436253,184
Valley authority120197318
Water supply board21122
Totals126,251297,63854,554115,008593,451

Of the total rates of $126,251,000 collected during 1971–72 general rates levied brought in $82,449,000 and other rates (including penalty on overdue rates) $43,802,000. Of the latter $34,997,000 was received by cities and boroughs, and $5,497,000 by counties. The whole of the rates collected by harbour boards, $3,395,000, were classed as general rates.

EXPENDITURE—The expenditure of all local authorities during each of the latest 11 years has been as follows.

Year Ended 31 MarchMaintenance and ConstructionAdministrationInterest on LoansOtherTotal Expenditure
 $(thousand)
1,962207,86014,32414,51430,846267,544
1,963222,84015,42015,81632,400286,476
1,964241,51618,11617,52052,470329,624
1,965262,83819,97419,17859,116361,106
1,966288,66822,86620,61655,392387,544
1,967302,97624,54322,93151,108401,558
1,968311,36727,15225,74756,482420,748
1,969334,73029,12727,34165,420456,618
1,970362,80831,78730,03667,452492,082
1,971402,35536,53832,11568,178539,186
1,972451,81446,57634,25472,013604,657

The main items of expenditure of the various classes of local authorities during 1971–72 are shown below.

Local AuthorityMaintenance and ConstructionAdministrationInterest on LoansLoans RepaidOther PaymentsTotal Expenditure
 $(thousand)
Catchment boards7,4811,93727228796110,937
City and borough councils184,81216,97414,10015,87217,456249,214
County councils74,8528,2342,5172,9397,29995,840
Electric power boards103,64710,8953,9376,8306,352131,661
Fire boards8,106397258342289,131
Gas boards865515155
Harbour boards8148110092521,138
Harbour bridge authority40,4734,3366,2175,82381157,659
Land drainage boards2,6071831,146421794,437
Local railway board46184101747618
Museum authority481462
Nassella tussock boards20417533412
Pest destruction boards306208334
Pest destruction boards (county)3,7784161518574,284
Regional authority14918121171
River boards16,0961,4973,4183,43271425,157
Road board34549181816445
Road tunnel authority1041832916111650
Town boards—
    Dependent8221273115
    Independent42261412821573
Underground water authorities34101660
Urban drainage boards4,1445621,8101,4892438,249
Urban transport board2,5572739944373,010
Valley authority1899941219324
Water supply board18321
Totals451,81446,57634,25437,73434,279604,657

ANALYSIS OF EXPENDITURE—The next table sets out details of total expenditure of local authorities by categories. (Source: Local Authority Finance in New Zealand.)

Year Ended 31 MarchTerritorial Local AuthoritiesNon-territorial Authorities
CountiesMunicipalitiesAuckland Regional AuthorityTotalAnnual Change
 $(million)$(million)$(million)$(million)Percent$(million)
(a) In Money Terms
1,9666616512243..145
1,9677017211253+4.1149
1,9686917214255+0.8166
1,9697418618278+9.0179
1,9708120319303+9.0189
1,9718822222332+9.6207
(b) In Real Terms (1971 prices)
1,9669523817350..209
1,9679924316358+2.3221
1,9689523619350-2.2228
1,9699523923357+2.0230
1,97010025023373+4.5233
1,9719824825371-0.5231

The next table shows, in real terms, trends in expenditure per head of population, by types of local authorities in real terms (1971 prices). (Source: Local Authority Finance in New Zealand.)

Year Ended 31 MarchTerritorial Local AuthoritiesNon-territorial Authorities
CountiesMunicipalitiesAuckland Regional AuthorityAllAnnual Change
 $$$$Percent$
1,96610513929131..78
1,9671171342613177
1,96811012830127-3.183
1,96911012736129+1.683
1,97011613135132+2.382
1,97111212837130-1.579

Total capital expenditure by all local authorities is shown in the following table.

Year Ended 31 March*In Money TermsAnnual ChangeIn Real TermsAnnual ChangeIn Real Terms per Head of PopulationAnnual Change
*Derived from the Ministry of Works Local Authority 5-year Capital Expenditure Survey.
 $(million)Percent$(million)Percent$Percent
1,967129+3.2182+0.667.5-0.7
1,968132+2.3181-0.566.1-2.1
1,969136-3.0174-3.963.0-4.7
1,970147+8.1181+4.064.8+2.9
1,971162+10.218163.9-1.2
1,972175+8.0175-3.360.8-4.9

The following is a breakdown of the preceding table in categories of local authorities. (Source: Local Authority Finance in New Zealand).

Year Ended 31 MarchTerritorial Local AuthoritiesNon-territorial Authorities
CountiesMunicipalitiesAuckland Regional AuthorityTotalAnnual
 $(million)$(million)$(million)$(million)Percent$(million)
(a) In Money Terms
1,96728.150.51.279.7+2.249.2
1,96825.946.53.175.5-5.456.5
1,96927.943.94.175.9+0.560.1
1,97031.450.84.987.1+14.859.9
1,97133.055.16.094.1+8.067.9
1,97235.148.08.591.6-2.783.4
(b) In Real Terms (1971 prices)
1,96739.771.31.7112.769.3
1,96835.663.84.3103.7-8.077.3
1,96935.856.35.397.4-6.577.1
1,97038.762.76.0107.3+10.673.7
1,97536.961.66.7105.2-2.075.8
1,97235.148.08.591.6-12.983.4

TERRITORIAL LOCAL AUTHORITIES—The following table shows total receipts and payments of territorial local authorities for years ended 31 March. The local authorities petroleum tax introduced in March 1971 produced $15.6 million in 1971–72 and $16.9 million in 1972–73 for the general purposes of territorial authorities.

Item1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–711971–72

* Receipts from municipal undertakings and other trading activities are included under "Works and services".

† Receipts under "Repayment of advances and payments from other local authorities" include the ARA's levy on constituent local authorities and revenue from its bulk water sales.

 Receipts $(million)
Rates (including grants and charges in lieu)76.582.689.596.9106.2113.2
Inspection charges2.92.82.94.04.34.6
National Roads Board29.728.430.733.836.536.5
Government grants and subsidies4.65.05.66.47.37.9
Works and services*76.675.084.589.8100.4113.3
Rents3.54.04.64.95.311.5
Interest2.73.13.64.24.6
Sale of capital assets3.63.73.85.05.45.7
Loan money35.338.142.541.440.143.5
Repayment of advances and payments from other local authorities4.56.68.28.910.27.2
Other8.512.313.412.49.110.0
Total248.4261.6289.3307.7329.3368.1
Percentage increase on previous year6.7%5.3%10.6%6.4%7.0%11.9%
Percentage of GNP6.3%6.4%6.7%6.4%6.0%5.9%
 Payments $(million)
Maintenance and construction192.9189.9202.9223.2247.9292.2
Administration14.015.717.018.620.826.8
Loan repayments (excluding interest)16.818.324.724.923.522.3
Interest on loans13.315.616.418.218.920.1
Other payments15.615.216.617.921.224.9
Total252.6254.7277.7302.8332.3386.3
Percentage increase on previous year4.0%0.8%9.0%9.1%9.7%16.2%
Percentage of GNP6.4%6.3%6.4%6.4%6.1%6.2%

Works and Services—The item "works and services" in the preceding table covers a wide variety of public utilities and amenities being provided by territorial local government, the main ones being abattoirs, gasworks, passenger transport undertakings, and electricity supply undertakings.

YearReceiptsPayments
 $(million)$(million)
1963–6462.986.9
1964–6564.992.5
1965–6672.3104.9
1966–6776.6113.0
1967–6875.0114.3
1968–6984.5127.0
1969–7089.8136.1
1970–71100.4153.7
1971–72113.3 

Many of the services provided are also trading undertakings. Generally speaking, territorial local authorities are restrained from operating trading undertakings that are particularly profitable. Public transport undertakings, which are usually a substantial burden upon ratepayers, are particularly unprofitable. The only major exception is electricity distribution from which a few territorial local authorities make surpluses.

Grants and Subsidies—The following table shows grants and subsidies received by territorial local authorities for years ended 31 March. As can be seen these form a substantial portion of local authority revenues.

Item1966–671967–681968–691969–701970–71
 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
National Roads Board29,67428,35330,68533,74536,467
Roads Vote (M.O.W.) (Development Roading)1,0451,9501,9502,1502,340
N.Z. Forest Service (fifths)183215250193245
Sewage treatment469110718262
Water and sewerage1,032
Rural water supply6715391301105
Pensioner housing5441,0249308481,199
Urban renewal2652
Civil defence21314959
Rural electricity distribution22231696
Pest destruction68625985
Noxious weeds eradication130124153204304
Miscellaneous2,5641,2892,0152,4131,777
Totals34,30133,31136,29040,15343,733

National Roads Board—The finance available from the National Roads Fund represents an important source of revenue for territorial local authorities. (See section 11c.)

Forest Service Fifths—The New Zealand Forest Service distributes to territorial local authorities grants equal to one-fifth of net revenue received from the sale of timber, and in the case of national endowment land, one-tenth of net revenue from the sale of timber

Water and Sewerage Subsidies—From 1960 until 1969 a sewage treatment subsidy was available to local authorities with populations of less than 20,000. In 1969 this scheme was replaced by a more comprehensive water and sewerage subsidy scheme administered by the Department of Health, which provided assistance towards certain loan repayments on existing works and towards the capital costs of new works. There was a subsidy limit of $100,000 for any one project. Up to 31 March 1972 $5.9 million had been approved in respect of this and the earlier scheme. In 1972 the subsidy limit was abolished. This is expected to increase total annual subsidy payments under the scheme to some $8.8 million within a few years and at the same time further stimulate or encourage the upgrading and extension of water and sewerage facilities.

Rural Water Supply Scheme—The Rural Water Supply Scheme is administered by the Ministry of Works and Development and provides for subsidies towards the cost of piped water supply to rural areas.

Pensioner Housing—The Department of Health, in co-operation with the State Advances Corporation and the Ministry of Works and Development, has administered a pensioner housing loan and subsidy scheme since 1951. Since inception the scheme has aided the construction of over 7,000 units by local authorities. A subsidy of up to 100 percent of the total cost of each unit less a maximum loan of $3,500 per unit is available. The loan money is provided by the State Advances Corporation at 3½ percent interest.

Urban Renewal—Grants for urban renewal have been available for local authorities since 1945. Since the passing of the Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act in 1969 a number of local authorities have exhibited a renewed interest in urban renewal projects. This is reflected in grants of $52,000 and $47,322 being made for the years 1970–71 and 1972–73 respectively, whereas for the 3 previous years no grants were made.

Civil Defence—A dollar-for-dollar subsidy towards some items of civil defence costs is paid by the Ministry of Civil Defence.

Rural Electricity Distribution—The Rural Electricity Reticulation Council has since 1947 provided subsidies towards the cost of rural electricity distribution lines. The chief beneficiaries have been power boards, but small amounts ($6,000 in 70–71 and $975 in 1972–73) have been paid to territorial local authorities.

Noxious Weeds Eradication—The Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries operates the subsidy scheme on the cost of noxious weeds eradication.

Urban Passenger Transport—Municipal and private urban passenger transport operators receive subsidies based on the heavy traffic licence fees they pay. From November 1969 to March 1971 the amount of the subsidy was equal to twice the fees paid, and although the subsidy was then discontinued, it was resumed in September 1972 at a rate equal to the licence fees. In April 1973 it was restored to the March 1971 level. The annual payments will be approximately $1 million. The scheme is administered by the Ministry of Transport.

Local Authorities Petroleum Tax—For the year ended 31 March 1972 local authorities received $15.6 million from the tax of 3c per gallon on petrol and 1.5c on diesel fuel. For 1972–73 this tax produced $16.9 million, an increase of 8 percent over 1971–72.

BORROWING—Under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 all loan proposals of local authorities, except in regard to money borrowed in anticipation of revenue, require the sanction of the Local Authorities Loans Board.

As a general rule local authorities may raise a loan by special order and without a poll of ratepayers, but in the case of a local authority that is a rating body, a poll of ratepayers is to be taken if—

  1. The Local Authorities Loans Board requires a poll to be taken; or

  2. Before the date fixed for the meeting of the local authority to confirm the resolution to raise the loan not less than 5 percent of the ratepayers demand a poll; or

  3. The local authority itself decides to take a poll.

A poll cannot be required in cases such as renewal loans, loans raised for emergency expenditure by reason of flood, storm, earthquake, etc., or loans for work of national and local importance and carried out by an agreement between the Government and a local authority.

Where a poll is required it shall be deemed to be carried if a bare majority of the valid votes recorded is in favour of the proposal. The properties and revenue of the local authority may be pledged as security for the repayment of any principal sum or interest thereon, or a special rate may be levied for the same purpose.

The borrowing activities of certain types of local authority are subject to special provisions. Under the Hospitals Act 1957 a hospital board must first obtain the approval of the Minister of Health before exercising its power to borrow; under the Fire Services Act 1949 the boards of urban fire authorities must obtain the prior consent of the Fire Service Council, while the Fire Services Amendment Act 1963 brought the procedure for borrowing by fire authorities into line with the procedures of the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956. Harbour boards derive their authority to borrow for harbour works from special empowering legislation and similar authority is given for the capital works of certain other local authorities.

Interest Rates—The Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 places the determination of rates of interest in the bands of the Local Authorities Loans Board, subject to the approval of the Minister of Finance of the maximum rate.

The current interest rates are as follows: 1 year, 4.5 percent; 2 years, 4.75 percent; 3 years, 5 percent; 4 years, 5.25 percent; 5 years, 5.5 percent; 6–9 years, 5.75 percent; 10 years and over, 6.25 percent.

Total borrowing by types of local authorities is shown in the following table. (Source: Local Authority Finance in New Zealand.)

Year Ended 31 MarchTerritorial Local AuthoritiesNon-Territorial Authorities
CountiesMunicipalitiesAuckland Regional AuthorityTotal
 $(million)$(million)$(million)$(million)$(million)
(a) In Money Terms
1,9666.623.04.334.035.1
1,9675.826.44.736.928.9
1,9686.927.74.238.840.0
1,9696.229.65.941.755.8
1,9706.828.16.741.647.1
1,9716.127.26.940.354.1
1,9728.128.47.043.550.3
(b) In Real Terms (1971 prices)
1,9669.534.36.250.050.7
1,9678.237.56.652.140.5
1,9689.537.95.853.255.2
1,9698.038.07.653.571.6
1,9708.434.78.351.458.2
1,9716.830.47.745.160.4
1,9728.128.47.043.550.3

The Local Authorities Loans Board has, in recent years, authorised between 80 and 90 percent of applications for loans. However, not all loan money sanctioned by the board has actually been raised. The following table shows that the percentage of authorised borrowing actually raised within 6 years of authorisation has remained fairly constant at about three-quarters of the amount of the authorisations.

Year Ended 31 MarchLoans Actually Raised Within 6 Years of Authorisation
CountiesMunicipalitiesAuckland Regional AuthorityAll Territorial Authorities
 PercentPercentPercentPercent
1,96677.875.250.473.4
1,96780.177.857.275.9.
1,96881.379.355.576.4
1,96978.079.858.676.1
1,97080.181.169.979.0
1,97172.576.380.476.2

Loans Sanctioned, Authorised, Raised, and Uplifted—The following summary of the operations of the Local Authorities Loans Board during the last 11 years shows concisely the trend of local authority borrowing during that period. Hospital boards are included in this instance.

YearValue of Total ApplicationsSanctioned
New WorksRedemption Loans
 $(thousand)
1962–6362,71851,5067,158
1963–6488,98062,47424,364
1964–6590,36059,04220,316
1965–66111,13080,00615,216
1966–6793,83464,15413,390
1967–68115,74171,69213,729
1968–69109,90386,78218,805
1969–70115,67391,29616,050
1970–71109,66681,77615,564
1971–72184,900133,40013,000
1972–73170,000110,80021,400

The next table shows summaries of borrowing at 31 March by each class of local authority.

Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised*Amounts Raised at 31 March 1972 on Authorisations for
1969–701970–711971–721969–701970–711971–72
*Adjusted for amounts revoked or lapsed.
 $(million)
Catchment districts0.51.80.20.20.50.1
Cities and boroughs25.939.335.710.113.49.7
Counties6.410.79.32.82.32.8
Electric power and gas districts13.58.915.72.93.63.7
Fire districts0.60.81.30.40.10.3
Harbour districts18.811.012.54.24.24.0
Harbour bridge authority0.30.50.20.30.50.2
Hospital districts21.525.028.95.15.44.0
Pest destruction districts
Pest destruction districts— county
Regional authority2.84.119.02.13.03.4
River districts........
Town districts0.20.10.1
Urban drainage districts5.53.43.62.11.21.0
Urban transport districts0.5
Totals96.0105.5126.930.334.229.2

The following table shows loans authorised during year ended March 1972, with amounts raised and uplifted to 31 March 1272 on these authorisations.

Local AuthorityAmounts Authorised Year Ended 31 March 1972*Amounts Raised to 31 March 1972Balance Not Raised at 31 March 1972Amounts Uplifted to 31 March 1972
 $(thousand)
Catchment boards2095115851
City and borough councils35,7229,70726,0159,227
County councils9,2732,8096,4642,338
Electric power and gas boards15,6623,69611,9663,697
Fire boards1,288303985206
Harbour boards12,4923,9858,5073,972
Harbour bridge authority162162162
Hospital boards28,9084,04924,8593,871
Pest destruction boards888
Pest destruction boards (county)
Regional authority18,9673,38115,5863,381
River boards
Town boards1342211221
Urban drainage boards3,5581,0142,5441,014
Urban transport boards490490
Totals126,87129,18597,68627,946

INDEBTEDNESS—The gross public debt of local authorities (excluding hospital boards) at 31 March 1972 amounted to NZ$667,086,000 and net indebtedness (i.e., after deducting accumulated sinking funds from debentures and other securities) to NZ$618,884,000, nearly all domiciled in New Zealand. When hospital boards are included, the gross public debt of local authorities at 31 March 1972 was NZ$782,968,804. Hospital board loans are shown in Section 5B. Since 1 April 1958 the Government has assumed complete financial responsibility for public hospital finance, apart from the raising by hospital boards of loans for major capital construction, and these must be approved by the Minister of Health.

The following table shows comparative debt figures.

Year Ended 31 MarchAmounts Sanctioned by Loans BoardAmounts Authorised by Orders in CouncilGross Indebtedness at Beginning of YearAmount UpliftedPrincipal RepaidGross Indebtedness at End of Year
*As returned by local authorities.
 $(thousand)
1,96251,68860,726373,59842,12820,392395,338
1,96358,66468,828395,33859,26820,612433,994
1,96486,84091,818433,99482,91942,652474,263
1,96579,35889,126474,26382,55945,498511,324
1,96695,222104,394511,32471,55444,389538,488
1,96777,54478,852538,48864,95039,855563,584
1,96885,42177,969563,67678,65724,163618,170
1,969105,587107,848618,17097,56251,752663,981
1,970107,34696,074663,981*93,65351,607706,027x
1,97197,340105,520706,02790,87650,047746,856
1,972146,500125,846746,85695,94259,830782,969

About one-third of the gross local authority debt consists of investments by Government departments as shown in the following table.

DepartmentAs at 31 March
19661967196819691970

*Including hospital boards.

† Provisional.

 $(thousand)
Government Life Insurance Office22,44422,06222,34323,42724,486
National Provident Fund Board88,008101,465118,555131,124145,284
Public Trustee9,72610,13910,49111,30811,468
State Advances Corporation—
    Trading15,10414,36413,65912,90512,205
    Housing Account8,34212,01314,48616,92619,368
    Rural Housing Act 19395,7767,7789,82911,07311,855
Other13,71416,07717,75720,04121,735
Totals163,114183,898207,120226,804246,401
 percentpercentpercentpercentpercent
Percentage of total gross public debt*30.332.633.634.234.6

Registered stock issued under the Local Authorities Loans Act 1956 at 31 March totalled the following amounts: 1966, $336.5 million; 1967, $359.2 million; 1968, $393.9 million; 1969, $425.9 million; and 1970, $466.4 million.

The outstanding loans of local authorities (other than hospital boards) at the end of each of the latest 11 years are shown in the following table.

At 31 MarchGross Public DebtNet Debt (i.e., Less Accumulated Sinking Funds)
 $(thousand)
1,962337,456320,660
1,963370,090349,975
1,964401,701381,368
1,965436,101413,635
1,966461,293435,515
1,967484,944455,644
1,968533,450500,020
1,969564,296527,923
1,970597,176558,057
1,971629,814586,406
1,972667,086618,884

The net indebtedness of cities and boroughs represents 3.0 percent of their rateable capital value. For counties, the aggregate net indebtedness was 1.0 percent of rateable capital value.

The following table shows, per head of the population, the gross public debt of local authorities and the annual charge thereon for the latest 11 years.

At 31 MarchGross Public DebtAnnual Loan Charge
AmountRate Per HeadAmountRate Per Head
 $(000)$$(000)$
1,962337,456136.3732,40013.09
1,963370,090146.4035,91914.21
1,964401,701155.5546,32717.94
1,965436,101165.8952,33919.91
1,966461,293172.3252,04919.44
1,967484,944177.9056,81020.84
1,968533,450193.7956,09520.38
1,969564,296203.1957,26320.62
1,970597,176212.0759,70421.20
1,971629,814220.0162,81721.94
1,972667,086229.2567,60323.23

In the following table gross public debt is classified by types of local authority. It should be noted that the debt of electric power districts shown in the following table does not represent the complete local authority debt on account of electric power activities, since a considerable portion of the city and borough debt, and a small part of the county and town district debt also, was incurred for that purpose.

At 31 MarchCities, Boroughs and Town DistrictsCountiesElectric Power DistrictsHarbour DistrictsUrban Drainage DistrictsUrban Transport DistrictsOther DistrictsTotal
 $(thousand)
1,962141,92622,32651,36348,01943,3626,62223,838337,456
1,963157,13723,97954,10156,07447,5696,34624,882370,090
1,964173,03128,40153,71665,40949,3125,86225,971401,701
1,965187,92731,84558,14272,07050,9105,28429,923436,101
1,966203,13331,54759,98579,80523,21898762,619461,293
1,967215,08835,51962,00182,80624,25086864,413484,944
1,968228,46840,26664,46988,04726,41498784,799533,450
1,969241,92843,08266,49995,21228,60186088,114564,296
1,970252,56146,21870,641103,30831,33265992,459597,176
1,971264,97748,14873,802111,14132,7441,39497,608629,814
1,972277,31253,62876,269121,51134,0651,974102,328667,086

The debt of "Other Districts" at 31 March 1971 was mainly that of river districts ($337,260), catchment districts ($5,283,453), land-drainage districts ($214,842), gas districts ($1,649,951), fire districts ($4,785,000), pest destruction districts, excluding county districts ($273,828), a harbour bridge authority ($18,082,325), a road tunnel authority ($5,799,260), and Auckland Regional Authority ($64,974,789).

The total debt for the drainage and for the transport division of the Auckland Regional Authority is now included in the Auckland Regional Authority figure.

Chapter 30. Section 28; INCOMES AND INCOME TAX

GENERAL—Comparisons between money incomes in different years should be subject to qualifications. With the changing value of money, comparisons should be made in terms of effective or real income, i.e., money in relation to the costs of goods and services. However, it is not easy to measure these changes as there is no one index that adequately gives a measure of the changing purchasing power in all circumstances. This is because the purchasing power of money is conditional to a large extent on the patterns of expenditure out of income, and these may and do differ substantially from person to person. While not an ideal measure of the changes in purchasing power, in all these circumstances the Consumers' Price Index, which measures price changes in a wide range of goods and services purchased, may be used as the best available indicator insofar as income, if expended, would be spent on these kinds of goods and services.

The elements of individual and company income and the taxation requirements of a modern welfare state are closely related. Statistics of incomes and income tax are compiled annually by the Department of Statistics. Complete details and methods of compilations are given in the annual statistical report on Incomes and Income Tax.

TREND OF INCOMES: Individuals—The data required for statistical compilation of incomes do not become available for a lengthy period after the end of the income year. This, coupled with the necessary time taken by the statistical processing, means a long time lag before final results of the compilation are available. To meet this situation provisional estimates are made on the basis of a restricted sample. The tables in the first part of this Section are presented on this basis.

The next table gives data for the principal sources of incomes of individuals.

Source of Total IncomeIncome Years
1970–711971–721972–73
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
Self-employment— $(m) $(m) $(m)
  Agriculture and livestock production—
    Sheep farming24,20090.824,000103.223,750159.1
    Dairy farming26,30082.826,300114.426,000130.0
    Other farming23,45070.423,40081.923,00098.9
Totals, farming73,950244.073,700299.572,750388.0
    Manufacturing6,70023.56,75026.07,00031.2
    Construction14,30057.014,40064.514,55073.3
    Wholesale and retail trade13,15043.413,15048.713,20056.8
    Transport4,55016.94,60018.74,65020.4
  Services—
    Professional9,20089.79,400103.29,550118.4
    Other9,90028.710,00033.010,05036.1
    All other industries7,40018.57,45019.17,60019.8
Totals, self-employment139,150521.7139,450612.7139,350744.0
Salary and wages1,200,0003,113.61,225,0003,649.11,250.0004,018.2
Investment incomes98,000207.699,500221.1100,000244.1
Grand totals1,437,1503,842.91,463,9504,482.91,489,3505,006.3

Farmers constitute more than one-half of the numbers of all self-employed persons and are decidedly the most variable section as far as income levels are concerned. In 1970–71 dairy farmers' incomes increased by an estimated $2.3 million, sheep farmers' incomes decreased by $4.5 million, and other farmers' incomes increased by $3.6 million.

The estimates for 1971–72 showed an increase of $55.5 million in the incomes of all farmers, with the incomes of sheep farmers showing an increase of $12.4 million, while the incomes of dairy farmers and other farmers increased by $31.6 million and $11.5 million respectively. In 1972–73 the estimated incomes of sheep farmers increased by $55.9 million, while the incomes of dairy and other farmers increased by $15.6 million and $17.0 million respectively.

The estimate of the incomes of the non-farming section of self-employed individuals showed an increase of $51.3 million in 1970–71 followed by increases of $35.5 million and $42.8 million in 1971–72 and 1972–73 respectively.

The following table shows an analysis by the amount of total income for the three major sources (self-employment, salary and wages, and investment incomes) combined.

ALL SOURCES
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1970–711971–721972–73
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income

*An “unknown” group has been included to cover cases still under investigation mainly because of problems in matching tax deduction certificates for broken periods of work; this applies to salary and wage earners with incomes of less than $2,600 who were not required to furnish a return of income. This group has been provisionally estimated at a fixed value of $48 million for the years 1970–71 to 1972–73 inclusive on the basis of past experience.

$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)4,2603,6302,690
1–  19983,5108.382,7608.381,7308.2
200–  39973,34022.071,63021.567,61020.3
400–  59947,77023.845,91023.040,96020.6
600–  79949,16034.445,09031.540,47028.3
800–  99952,06046.843,74039.342,70038.5
1,000–1,19955,66061.146,58051.245,65050.1
1,200–1,39957,32074.546,60060.546,00059.8
1,400–1,59956,74085.045,43068.144,08066.1
1,600–1,79955,48094.346,03078.243,66074.3
1,800–1,99955,070104.650,46095.850,32095.7
2,000–2,399114,760252.8101,150222.593,440205.4
2,400–2,799118,910309.1100,750262.091,800238.7
2,300–3,199121,420364.199,500298.589,100266.8
3,200–3,599128,180436.3103,490351.798,580335.6
3,600–3,999115,820439.2123,960472.3111,970425.4
4,000–5,999182,830856.0301,8101,417.5345,1001,639.4
6,000–7,99938,450262.259,580405.981,050553.5
8,000–9,99912,200109.023,600207.837,950336.3
10,000 and over14,210211.422,250320.334,490495.3
Unknown*48.048.048.0
Totals1,437,1503,842.91,463,9504,483.91,489,3505,006.3

The next table provides an analysis of the incomes of self-employed individuals by the amount of total income.

SELF-EMPLOYED PERSONS
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1970–711971–721972–73
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)2,4601,9301,140
1–  1994,2600.43,6300.43,1000.3
200–  3993,1400.92,4300.71,9100.6
400–  5992,6701.32,2101.11,7600.9
600–  7992,6601.92,0901.41,8701.3
800–  9993,3603.02,5402.22,2002.0
1,000–1,1993,6603.92,8803.12,4502.6
1,200–1,3994,3205.73,4004.42,8003.6
1,400–1,5994,7407.13,7305.53,0804.6
1,600–1,7995,2809.04,2307.13,4605.9
1,800–1,9995,57010.64,6608.83,7207.1
2,000–2,39910,06022.28,05017.75,84012.8
2,400–2,79910,81028.09,15023.87,10018.4
2,800–3,19910,12030.38,90026.67,60022.8
3,200–3,5999,68032.99,09030.88,38028.4
3,600–3,9998,52032.48,46032.18,97034.0
4,000–5,99925,830123.830,210144.327,600132.8
6,000–7,99911,35077.015,880107.618,850128.7
8,000–9,9994,20037.16,50057.111,350100.4
10,000 and over6,46094.29,480138.016,170236.8
Totals139,150521.7139,450612.7139,350744.0

These estimates provide a small decrease in numbers for 1972–73; the principal reasons are that in recent years the numbers of companies have risen substantially, with corresponding deductions from the numbers of individuals operating as sole traders or as partnerships.

The practice of changing to company ownership has reached dimensions which are large enough to have some effect on the income trends disclosed in these statistics of individuals. There is a greater tendency for the higher income units to adopt company ownership.

The incomes of salary and wage earners are given in the following table.

SALARY AND WAGE EARNERS
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1970–711971–721972–73
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income

* An “unknown” group has been included to cover cases still under investigation mainly because of problems in matching tax deduction certificates for broken periods of work; this applies to salary and wage earners with incomes of less than $2,600 who are not required to furnish a return of income. This group has been provisionally estimated at a fixed value of $48 million for the years 1970–71 to 1972–73 inclusive on the basis of past experience.

$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)900600600
1–  19975,1007.575,0307.575,0307.5
200–  39964,00019.263,00018.960,00018.0
400–  59940,00020.039,00019.535,00017.5
600–  79940,00028.037,00025.933,50023.4
800–  99940,00036.033,00029.733,00029.7
1,000–1,19943,00047.335,00038.535,00038.5
1,200–1,39945,00058.535,00045.535,00045.5
1,400–1,59946,00069.036,00054.036,00054.0
1,600–1,79945,00076.537,00062.936,00061.2
1,800–1,99945,00085.541,00077.941,00077.9
2,000–2,39997,000213.786,000189.281,000178.1
2,400–2,799103,000267.986,000223.678,000202.8
2,800–3,199107,000320.985,000255.175,000224.5
3,200–3,599115,000391.590,000306.085,000289.5
3,600–3,999105,000398.1113,000430.7100,000380.0
4,000–5,999151,000702.2265,0001,240.2310,0001,469.2
6,000–7,99924,500167.141,000279.459,100403.1
8,000–9,9997,00062.916,000140.825,000221.6
10,000 and over6,50093.911,370155.816,770228.2
Unknown*48.048.048.0
Totals1,200,0003,113.61,225,0003,649.11,250,0004,018.2

The next table gives corresponding data for individuals whose incomes were principally derived from investment, i.e., from interest, rents and royalties, “estate” income, and also company dividends if there was no other major source of income.

INVESTMENT INCOMES
Amount of Total IncomeIncome Years
1970–711971–721972–73
Number of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
$ $(m) $(m) $(m)
Under 0 (losses)9001,100950
1–  1994,1500.44,1000.43,6000.4
200–  3996,2001.96,2001.95,7001.7
400–  5995,1002.54,7002.44,2002.2
600–  7996,5004.56,0004.25,1003.6
800–  9998,7007.88,2007.47,5006.8
1,000–1,1999,0009.98,7009.68,2009.0
1,200–1,3998,00010.38,20010.68,20010.7
1,400–1,5996,0008.95,7008.65,0007.5
1,600–1,7995,2008.84,8008.24,2007.2
1,800–1,9994,5008.54,8009.15,60010.7
2,000–2,3997,70016.97,10015.66,60014.5
2,400–2,7995,10013.25,60014.66,70017.5
2,800–3,1994,30012.95,60016.86,50019.5
3,200–3,5993,50011.94,40014.95,20017.7
3,600–3,9992,3008.72,5009.53,00011.4
4,000–5,9996,00030.06,60033.07,50037.4
6,000–7,9992,60018.12,70018.93,10021.7
8,000–9,9991,0009.01,1009.91,60014.3
10,000 and over1,25023.31,40026.51,55030.3
Totals98,000207.699,500222.1100,000244.1

In the 3 years covered in the above table, persons with certain types of investment income were not required to complete income tax returns unless they were normally in receipt of income from self-employment or were applying for refunds. The conditions under which returns were not required were as follows.

In 1970–71 and 1971–72 if:

  • all investment income was from dividends and the person's total income was under $1,070. In 1972–73 if:

  • all income was from dividends and was less than $1,100.

  • all investment income was from dividends and total income was less than $960.

These changes affect the numbers of returns in the table.

Average and median incomes have been estimated from a restricted sample on a provisional basis. The averages are based on total income derived from all sources and not on income from self-employment alone or salary and wages income alone. Incomes of self-employed persons include an element of interest return on capital investment as well as a reward for the person's own efforts.

The following table gives estimates of average and median incomes of self-employed persons in selected industries.

SELF-EMPLOYED PERSONS
Type of Self-employmentIncome YearIncome Year
1969–701970–711971–721972–731969–701970–711971–721972–73

* Arithmetic mean.

Agriculture and livestock production—Averages*Medians
    Sheep farming3,9003,7504,3006,7003,3503,4004,0006,200
    Dairy fanning3,0703,1504,3505,0002,8102,8504,1004,750
    Other farming2,8503,0003,5004,3002,3102,3502,8003,500
Manufacturing3,1003,5003,8504,4502,6702,8503,2003,600
Construction—
    Builders3,5604,0504,5005,2003,3003,8504,2004,700
    Building ancillary trades3,4403,9004,4504,9003,1803,7004,0004,600
Wholesale and retail trade3,0403,3003,7004,3002,5702,8003,1003,500
Transport—
    Road passenger2,8503,0503,1503,2502,8802,9503,1003,200
    Road freight3,9704,6005,3005,8003,7504,1004,7505,100
Services, professional—
    Medical practitioners (includes surgeons, specialists, and physicians)10,70012,70014,45016,3009,62011,30012,75014,300
    Dental practitioners8,1309,40010,50011,5007,6508,7509,85011,100
    Legal practitioners10,75011,95014,00016,8009,74010,80012,70015,400
    Public accountants7,6808,6009,80011,1507,0907,8508,5509,800
Services, other2,6202,9003,3003,6002,0102,2502,5002,800

In the table shown above the averages for the 1969–70 year are based on the normal statistical collection while those for the later years are based on the smaller sample used for provisional estimates in the 1973 year.

Companies—The provisional estimates of assessable income for companies are given in the next table. They are calculations based on the income trends revealed by a small sample of returns. The sample is confined to those income returns which are available at an early date. Companies with balance dates later than 30 June would be almost completely unrepresented in the sample.

The estimates are given with the warning that the figures are subject to a possible considerable margin of error and should therefore be used with caution.

Industry Group1970–711971–721972–73
Number of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income
  $(m) $(m) $(m)
Agriculture and livestock production6,00013.06,50015.86,95021.6
Manufacturing9,850246.010,200242.410,550288.7
Construction5,40023.45,70028.26,00029.7
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail trade18,850207.519,650210.520,450241.4
    Other17,400128.018,400142.419,450162.7
Transport, storage, and communication2,50016.32,55020.92,65022.7
Services5,65022.46.10024.46,59023.1
All other industries8504.29004.29004.7
Totals66,500660.870,000688.873,500794.6

Assessable income increased by $82.7 million in 1969–70. It is estimated that company assessable incomes for 1970–71 will show an increase of $38.0 million, followed by further increases of $28.0 million and $105.8 million in 1971–72 and 1972–73 respectively.

BASIS OF STATISTICS—The tables in the remainder of this Section are final figures for earlier years. In the case of individuals, the statistics are in normal years substantially based on a 5 percent sample for all incomes of less than $8,000; there is a complete enumeration of all incomes of $8,000 and over.

The broad principle adopted in calculating the assessable income is that any expenditure or loss exclusively incurred in the production of assessable income for any year may be deducted from the total income from any assessable source for that year. Depreciation is allowed, varying rates for different classes of assets being fixed. The assessable income is approximately equivalent to the net profit as determined by the normal commercial accounting systems after the deduction of special taxation incentive allowances. Before the deduction of these allowances it is on the whole, rather higher than the commercial net profit, since certain types of expenditure which are regarded as a revenue charge in commercial accounts are not permissible deductions for income tax purposes.

Where the operations of a source of income which would normally produce assessable income have resulted in a loss for the year, the loss may be set off against assessable profits from other sources (if any), or in default thereof, may be set off against assessable profits in subsequent years.

Capital profits are not assessable and capital losses are not deductible.

In these statistics the incomes given for individuals are the net incomes after deducting losses from the same source which have been carried forward from previous years. Losses for the current year which have been set off against income from some other source are recorded in the tables in this Section as the difference between the total of the component income items and the given total income.

For companies, incomes before deduction of losses carried forward from previous years are shown in a separate column and the assessable and returnable incomes given are those after the deduction of such losses. Losses during the current year from any source are deducted from the income from any other source.

CLASSES OF TAXPAYERS—“Individuals” comprise all assessments for individual persons. Partnership returns are ignored in the compilation, as the individual shares of partnership income are included in the individual tax assessments. The incomes of deceased persons' estates are not included, as the greater part of these are transferred to assessments of the beneficiaries.

The term “companies” not only covers companies incorporated under the Companies Act and other Acts relating to the formulation of companies, but also includes local and public authorities, associations (incorporated or unincorporated), and aggregations of individuals (other than partnerships) which form separate and distinct entities for income tax purposes. Government departments which are liable to pay income tax are included, but local and public authorities are generally not taxable even in respect of their trading operations, and consequently are not included in these statistics.

Apart from the next two tables, statistics of the incomes of individuals and of companies are presented as two distinct parts of this Section. The latest statistics are generally for the income year 1969–70 for both individuals and companies.

SUMMARY OF INCOMES, EXEMPTIONS, AND TAX—The following tables briefly summarise the main items of information for income years. Individuals and companies are given in separate successive tables respectively.

INDIVIDUALS
YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersAssessable IncomeTotal IncomeExemptionsTaxable IncomeOrdinary Income Tax Assessed*

* Includes social security income tax.

† There was no annual equivalent for exemptions and taxable income available where incomes and tax data were derived from tax deduction certificates prior to 1969–70. For 1969–70 exemptions and taxable income were estimated.

   $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1964–651,227,8101,137,6302,410,2402,430,8101,148,550911,720353,810
1965–661,273,7301,203,0502,611,2302,611,3001,197,5701,030,480393,190
1966–671,308,9101,239,7002,772,1302,772,1301,265,4301,125,700421,550
1967–681,342,6401,270,6102,870,6202,870,6201,315,3901,200,050443,700
1968–691,367,6401,291,0302,993,1602,993,1601,353,8401,289,620475,050
1969–701,414,3501,296,9503,273,7203,273,720781,9202,470,480524,350
COMPANIES
YearNumber of ReturnsNumber of TaxpayersAssessable Income*Returnable IncomeTaxable Income*Income Tax Assessed
OrdinarySocial Security

* Assessable income and taxable income are identical, as “exemptions” are normally nil. In ascertaining assessable income any expenditure exclusively incurred in the production of the income for the year may be deducted.

   $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
1962–6342,01130,453361,781389,770361,781134,09225,810
1963–6444,73233,492411,700450,534411,700154,86829,458
1964–6547,87835,754458,278501,698458,278172,82832,814
1965–6651,69839,436484,880522,401484,880181,37634,427
1966–6754,95841,531485,058527,690485,058182,38734,284
1967–6856,60141,552479,040520,517479,040178,58533,512
1968–6960,62843,623540,057591,358540,057204,52137,741
1969–7062,97045,066622,795682,066622,795278,426

A strict comparison of the figures for any year with those of another is not possible, as changes in compilation practice and numerous amendments in income tax law have affected the comparability of the figures.

INCOMES OF INDIVIDUALS—The numbers of returns and the amounts of total income are shown in the following table.

Total income is used in the sense that it is the total of the various component items of income. It does not include income which is exempt from taxation, such as social security benefits (other than universal superannuation), the first $100 of income from interest, war pensions, workers compensation payments, and certain other types of income.

Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
1967–681968–691969–701967–681968–691969–70
$   $(000)$(000)$(000)
Losses5,4505,2305,210
1–  19984,90093,54098,5708,4309,09010,070
200–  39976,39081,13085,99022,36023,53024,990
400–  59951,67051,52055,18025,69025,69027,310
600–  79952,89051,04052,40037,14035,68036,600
800–  99965,31059,08060,70058,82053,52054,820
1,000–1,19977,49070,04065,50085,25077,10071,900
1,200–1,39975,05075,86067,50097,38098,46087,670
1,400–1,59969,20068,11066,070103,700102,04099,110
1,600–1,79969,49066,40062,690118,220112,810106,330
1,800–1,99973,90072,45062,970140,460137,720119,590
2,000–2,399160,270156,720139,110352,520344,720305,820
2,400–2,799143,380145,950139,190371,420378,520361,060
2,800–3,199109,640118,630126,580327,660354,510379,170
3,200–3,59973,19080,85096,980247,540273,710328,820
3,600–3,99944,19049,11068,110167,106185,890257,690
4,000–5,99977,36085,600116,150365,090405,020545,080
6,000–7,99919,80021,35026,940135,070145,530183,800
8,000–9,9996,1596,9608,29154,73461,74673,691
10,000–11,9992,9983,4204,28132,63337,22246,539
12,000–13,9991,4981,8482,30819,32323,80029,732
14,000–15,9998549851,26712,72814,66718,888
16,000–17,9995075417478,5629,12712,632
18,000–19,9992973614765,6146,8279,024
20,000–39,99964278696416,41920,26624,684
40,000–59,99976961163,6744,6075,551
60,000 and over3840613,5783,4755,539
Unknown49,44047,88047,600
Totals1,342,6401,367,6401,414,3502,870,6202,993,1603,273,720

There is an explanation on an earlier page concerning the methods adopted to estimate the figures given in the table.

Where salary and wage income returns were not available (and there was between 1958–59 and 1963–64 no obligation to furnish returns if the income from salary and wages only was less than $2,080, raised to $2,600 in 1964–65), the statistical information was derived from the tax deduction certificates.

There were 891,630 males and 522,720 females included in the 1969–70 income year statistics. The respective numbers of these for each total income group appear in the next table, which also gives comparisons with data for 1967–68 and 1968–69,

Income1967–681968–691969–70
MalesFemalesMalesFemalesMalesFemales
$      
Losses3,6401,8103,1302,1003,3101,900
1–  19937,72047,58037,20056,34039,17059,400
200–  39922,29054,10023,40057,72026,17059,820
400–  59915,84035,82015,69035,84017,28037,900
600–  79915,91036,98018,88035,14015,40037,000
800–  99921,03044,27018,95040,12019,49041,210
1,000–1,19925,67051,82022,51047,52020,74044,760
1,200–1,39929,49045,56029,03046,82023,32044,180
1,400–1,59931,75037,45029,73038,39025,75040,320
1,600–1,79939,22030,27033,84032,56028,47034,220
1,800–1,99951,02022,88047,89024,56036,95026,020
2,000–2,399130,75029,520123,32033,41099,71039,400
2,400–2,799127,70015,680129,41016,550117,84021,350
2,800–3,199100,8608,780107,89010,750113,07013,500
3,200–3,59968,4404,75075,7305,12088,9308,060
3,600–3,99941,6702,52046,3002,81064,4203,680
4,000–5,99972,1305,24079,9305,680109,0307,130
6,000–7,99918,8001,01020,0401,30025,3101,630
8,000–9,9995,8083516,5504107,752539
10,000–11,9992,8051933,2172034,011270
12,000–13,9991,400981,7171312,150158
14,000–15,99978965917681,19770
16,000–17,999470375053670542
18,000–19,999278193283343442
20,000–39,999574687038387886
40,000 and over99151171914730
Totals865,750476,890873,920493,720891,630522,720

The numbers in the higher income groups have been increasing, partly as a result of inflationary movements.

Broad trends in total income movements over the three latest available income years appear in the percentages which are given in the following table.

Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
1967–681968–691969–701967–681968–691969–70
$  percent  
1–1,19930.5629.8329.668.437.637.00
1,200–1,99921.5120.7618.4016.3015.3112.79
2,000–3,99939.6840.4640.4751.9752.2050.60
4,000–9,9997.738.3610.7519.6720.7924.88
10,000 and over0.520.590.723.634.074.73
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

The main subdivision into incomes derived principally from self-employment, from investments, and from salary and wages by amount of total income forms the subject of the next table, which relates to the income year 1969–70.

Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsTotal Income
Self-employedInvestmentsSalary and Wage EarnersSelf-employedInvestmentsSalary and, Wage Earners
$percent
1–1,19915.3642.2330.282.5214.207.30
1,200–1,99915.3624.5818.256.8718.7213.47
2,000–3,99937.3022.9842.2530.1531.2856.01
4,000–9,99928.229.038.8845.3325.4620.91
10,000 and over3.761.180.3415.1310.342.31
Totals100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00100.00

In 1969–70, 9.22 percent of salary and wage earners received $4,000 or over, compared with 31.98 percent of self-employed individuals and 10.21 percent for those with incomes principally derived from investments. The percentages in the above table relate to individuals who were so classified because they obtained the largest part of their income from that source. They do not refer to amounts of income actually derived from those sources.

The 1969–70 data relating to the major sources of income are given in the next table.

Source of IncomeNumber of ReturnsIncome
Salary and Wages (Taxed at Source)Not Taxed at Source
From Self-employmentOther*Assessable DividendsLossesTotal

* Includes investment income other than dividends, universal superannuation, estate income, and shareholder employee emoluments not taxed at source under PAYE.

    $(thousand)   
Self-employment138,76016,980448,94018,7306,0602,490488,220
Investments97,16013,9705,020134,07043,1201,810194,380
Salary and wages1,178,4402,419,68012,530129,93034,8905,9202,591,120
Totals1,414,3502,450,640466,490282,74084,07010,2103,273,720

As the terns used in this table were adopted as a consequence of the introduction of PAYE taxation, the meanings attached to them are:

Income Taxed at Source—This is essentially salary and wages, including bonuses, taxable allowances, and the like. Also included are withholding payments, which are substantially salary and wage payments made in circumstances where no true employer-employee relationship exists (e.g., company directors' fees, fees for contributions to newspapers, jurors' fees) and some “estate” income.

Income Not Taxed at Source—The principal component is income derived from self-employment, which is given separately in the table. Subdivisions of “other” such income for which statistics are available were income from estates, $27,100,000, and from social security universal superannuation, $47,090,000. The balance is mainly income from interest and rents, but it includes salaries of shareholder-employees of companies. In certain circumstances, such salaries are not subject to tax deduction at source.

As has been previously mentioned, in the preceding table, as in the other statistical tables relating to individuals, the aggregate of the component income items may differ from the given totals because of rounding off.

These same 1969–70 data about sources of income are in the following table analysed by amount of total income.

IncomeIncome Tax Assessed
Amount of Total IncomeNumber of ReturnsSalary and Wages Taxed at SourceNot Taxed at SourceLossesTotal 
From Self-employmentOtherAssessable Dividends

* See note to second table in this section.

$$(thousand)
Losses5,2105704701501,180
1–  19998,57010,0201,860820802,71010,070280
200–  39985,99022,0009702,22025044024,990550
400–  59955,18022,8901,3202,82049022027,3101,040
600–  79952,40029,7501,8104,78045019036,6001,720
800–  99960,70042,9103,3508,09072025054,8202,880
1,000–1,19965,50057,0904,2709,9601,07049071,9005,020
1,200–1,39967,50070,5005,92010,4201,07035087,6707,650
1,400–1,59966,07079,9307,64010,5701,28031099,1109,870
1,600–1,79962,69086,6008,33010,3701,580540106,33011,470
1,800–1,99962,97098,12010,5509,6001,560240119,59013,560
2,000–2,399139,110256,71024,32022,2103,160580305,82036,630
2,400–2,799139,190310,50028,83019,4502,790500361,06047,040
2,800–3,199126,580324,97031,17019,6903,780440379,17053,190
3,200–3,59996,980276,00032,06017,7803,350380328,82049,940
3,600–3,99968,110214,22027,00013,4403,200170257,69041,820
4,000–5,999116,150367,910111,45052,29013,980540545,080104,770
6,000–7,99926,94078,02065,64029,81010,570230183,80046,750
8,000–9,9998,29121,55532,07213,6646,54814873,69122,752
10,000–11,9994,28111,79521,8627,8895,0849046,53916,496
12,000–13,9992,3086,71913,8135,0624,2056729,73211,515
14,000–15,9991,2673,9399,3332,7362,9183918,8887,784
16,000–17,9997472,6735,8591,8942,2251912,6325,422
18,000–19,9994761,5954,0171,4691,956139,0243,963
20,000–39,9999644,8139,8333,7056,4239024,68411,453
40,000–59,9991167672,0407841,983245,5512,701
60,000 and over614671,1807563,193575,5392,440
Unknown*47,60047,6005,630
Totals1,414,3502,450,640466,490282,74084,07010,2103,273,720524,330

An interesting feature is that assessable dividends are heavily concentrated in the hands of individuals who have incomes of $4,000 or more. They received 70.3 percent of this class of income.

Industrial Classification of Incomes—Incomes of individuals who were classified as mainly deriving income from self-employment in 1969–70 are in the next table analysed by industrial affiliation. For the sake of completeness, the table also includes the totals for salary and wage earners and for individuals deriving income from investments, but there is no information available concerning the industrial classification of these two classes of individuals.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsIncomeIncome Tax Assessed
Salary and Wages (Taxed at Source)Not Taxed at SourceLossesTotal
From Self-employmentOtherAssessable Dividends

* There are differences between the totals of component items and the given cross totals, as “rounding off” accounts from plus or minus $10,000

Self-employed—$(thousand)
  Agriculture and livestock production—
    Sheep farming24,4102,12087,3305,6201,6301,40095,30021,750
    Dairy farming26,2502,03075,0903,17035015080,49013,740
    Other23,4402,67061,4002,42073039066,84012,010
Total farming74,1006,820223,82011,2102,7101,940242,63047,500
    Forestry, hunting, and fishing5,0801,0406,100110201207,1401,270
    Mining and quarrying9024025050
  Manufacturing—
    Food, drink, and tobacco600102,060140102,220500
    Apparel, textiles, and footwear1,120602,10014020302,290420
    Metals and metal products2,97031010,050320201010,6802,070
    Other1,9301304,91032040305,3601,090
    Construction14,1801,64046,9601,3701707049,8108,710
    Electricity, gas, water and sanitary services4060207010
  Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail trade13,1801,76036,4901,5703709040,1007,660
    Other2,1001,7407,9604802502010,4202,970
    Transport, storage and communication4,50051013,990400703014,9502,550
  Services community—
    Professional9,0501,97070,7201,8302,0909076,53026,940
    Other9,83098023,7608102805025,7704,970
Totals, self-employed138,76016,980448,94018,7306,0602,490488,220106,710
Salary and Wages1,178,4402,419,68012,530129,93034,8905,1202,519,120387,030
Investment income97,16013,9705,020134,07043,1201,810194,38030,590
Grand totals1,414,3502,450,640466,490282,74084,07010,2103,273,720524,330

As the table gives the amounts received from each major source of income, it will be appreciated that the classification is based on the source of the largest component item of total income. The United Nations “enterprise” concept has been adopted for classification purposes. Under this concept, if an individual receives income from two or more of the separately classifiable industries, the whole of the income is classed as if derived from the industry which provided the largest amount of income, and no attempt is made to allocate the component portions of the income to the different industries from which derived. These statistics are therefore not exactly comparable with most other types of statistics where the “establishment” concept is generally used. This provides for the subdivision of the “enterprise” where more than one separately classifiable industry is carried on and each subdivision is then appropriately classified.

Exemptions—In the case of individuals certain statutory deductions are made from the assessable income, and income tax is paid on the balance. Absentees are not usually entitled to the benefit of exemptions. These exemptions in 1969–70 were:

  • A personal exemption of $275.

  • An exemption of $240 in respect of a dependent wife (or husband), diminished by $1 for every $1 of the wife's income in excess of $375.

  • An exemption not exceeding $240 in respect of a housekeeper employed by a widow, widower, or divorced person to have the care and control of any child or children of the taxpayer. This is included with the wife's exemption in the statistics.

  • An exemption for contributions not exceeding $135 towards the support of a relative by blood, marriage, or adoption, who was dependent on the taxpayer. Children of the taxpayer were included in this definition, the exemption normally continuing until the child reaches the age of 18 years.

  • Life assurance premiums, National Provident Fund, superannuation, and similar contributions. An exemption up to a maximum of $500 was allowed for life insurance premiums. National Provident Fund, superannuation and similar contributions, in the case of a contributor to the Government Superannuation Fund or a contributor to a subsidised staff superannuation scheme. In the case of other taxpayers, the maximum exemption allowed was $650.

  • Donations and school fees. Exemptions for donations to charities (maximum $50), gifts of money and/or school fees to private schools (maximum $100) were allowed. Where exemptions were available under more than one of these headings the total maximum allowed was $100.

The scope of some of the above exemptions has been extended in later income years. Details of the later exemptions are given in Section 26B.

The next table shows the amounts of the insurance, gifts and school fees, total and excesses for the income year 1969–70, classified by size of total income. Potential exemptions have been recorded and the “excess” column gives the amounts by which the exemptions exceed the assessable income. The amounts of taxable income are also given in the table.

Amount of Total IncomeExemptionsTaxable Income
InsuranceGifts and School FeesTotalExcess
$$(thousand)
Losses560102,9702,970
1–  1993502028,53018,610140
200–  3994005025,6703,4202,740
400–  5994206016,93062011,000
600–  7995208016,42027020,440
800–  9991,00014019,69020035,340
1,000–1,1991,45016021,6307050,340
1,200–1,3991,83024023,3707064,370
1,400–1,5992,38021024,3103074,830
1,600–1,7992,73023024,9201081,410
1,800–1,9993,21025028,23091,360
2,000–2,3999,96062074,640231,180
2,400–2,79913,12075087,250273,820
2,800–3,19916,31093091,240287,930
3,200–3,59915,21089077,340251,490
3,600–3,99912,80071059,470198,230
4,000–5,99930,8401,990110,420434,670
6,000–7,99910,33078028,210155,590
8,000–9,9993,5423269,12064,571
10,000 and over4,76350611,551141,036
Totals131,7208,960781,92026,2802,470,480

The preceding figures include the exemptions and taxable incomes for all taxpayers incorporated in these statistics. Where income and tax data were derived from tax deduction certificates, there is no information available concerning the amounts of exemptions or taxable income, but for these statistics exemptions have been estimated for these persons according to their tax code.

COMPANY INCOMES—It is perhaps desirable to draw attention to the fact that the term “companies” as it is used in connection with these statistics has been given a wider meaning than that which is commonly assigned to it. A definition of the term will be found under the subsection entitled “Basis of Statistics” in this chapter.

The various statutory exemptions which are granted to individuals do not apply in the case of companies. The amounts of assessable income and taxable income are identical in the case of companies.

These statistics for companies have been compiled from returns for all companies, and are not estimates based on a sample survey.

The following table gives particulars of the number of companies and their aggregate assessable income for 1969–70 and the 2 preceding years.

Amount of Assessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income
1967–681968–691969–701967–681968–691969–70

* Assessable income before deduction of losses brought forward from previous years.

$   $(000)$(000)$(000)
1–        1998,2388,5918,039386411425
200–        3992,7262,9963,072797881905
400–        5992,3372,4472,5991,1601,2121,292
600–        7992,0422,1042,2211,4251,4671,549
800–        9991,8421,9001,8871,6501,7071,693
1,000–      1,1991,5891,6841,7231,7451,8461,888
1,200–      1,3991,4701,5411,5191,9072,0001,970
1,400–      1,5991,3291,3301,4581,9921,9922,180
1,600–      1,7991,1101,1491,2081,8851,9512,048
1,800–      1,9991,0651,1001,1062,0242,0892,098
2,000–      3,9996,8287,0517,36419,40620,19421,132
4,000–      5,9993,2263,5043,66615,76117,16717,926
6,000–      7,9991,7971,9212,11612,37513,30514,608
8,000–      9,9991,0781,1301,2999,59410,11311,580
10,000–    11,9996877687947,5098,3768,696
12,000–    13,9995315036056,8816,5237,821
14,000–    15,9994133924506,1855,8576,736
16,000–    17,9993073273595,2195,5386,105
18,000–    19,9992512722964,7565,1545,620
20,000–    39,9991,1541,3381,48532,15237,56041,868
40,000–    59,99945948351522,13023,24825,067
60,000–    79,99924224528516,64816,86619,785
80,000–    99,99916115517014,41213,79315,363
100,000–199,99932432839845,14946,48055,854
200,000–399,99916118422644,12850,60661,964
400,000–599,99949627223,62929,77034,835
600,000–799,99922272615,03818,91917,182
800,000–999,99918162715,65514,06223,619
1,000,000–1,999,99942454460,24863,50965,464
2,000,000–3,999,99916192541,78749,99665,528
4,000,000 and over8111245,40767,46579,992
Current net loss11,11511,86512,256
Assessable income before losses*3,9645,1405,648
Totals56,60160,62862,970479,040540,057622,795

The item “assessable income before losses”, which appears in the preceding table and also in subsequent tables, requires a little further explanation. Companies, and also individuals, are permitted to offset losses for one particular source of assessable income against the profits from any other source of assessable income during the same income year. The remainder of the loss, if any, can be carried forward and offset against the assessable profits of the subsequent years. This item represents the number of companies whose assessable incomes for the current year have been reduced to “nil” by the offsetting of losses incurred in previous income years.

In 1969–70, including those with “current net loss” and “assessable income before losses”, about 67.9 percent of all companies had assessable incomes of under $2,000. Most of these companies are virtually owned and controlled by one person or are the equivalent of a small partnership. In such cases the managerial salaries paid to the proprietors are an important element in the total income drawn from the company by the proprietors.

After an increase of $61,017,000 in assessable income in 1968–69 there was a further increase of $82,738,000 in 1969–70.

In the following table the amount of assessable income of companies is classified for the 1969–70 income year.

Amount of Assessable IncomeNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income Before Losses*Assessable IncomeReturnable IncomeCurrent Net LossIncome Tax Assessed

* Assessable income before deduction of losses brought forward from previous years.

$$(thousand)
1–        1998,03996742512,105888
200–        3993,0721,2379051,785–        192
400–        5992,5991,5721,2921,594–        281
600–        7992,2211,7571,5491,854345
800–        9991,8871,9741,6932,168386
1,000–      1,1991,7232,0671,8882,030439
1,200–      1,3991,5192,1241,9702,253471
1,400–      1,5991,4582,3212,1802,489529
1,600–      1,7991,2082,1562,0482,529505
1,800–      1,9991,1062,1812,0982,138528
2,000–      3,9997,36422,04121,13223,2845,806
4,000–      5,9993,66618,37017,92618,7935,689
6,000–      7,9992,11614,82614,60816,8265,213
8,000–      9,9991,29911,95411,58011,8524,472
10,000–    11,9997948,7938,6969,7773,523
12,000–    13,9996057,9327,8218,2123,248
14,000–    15,9994506,8876,7366,8672,874
16,000–    17,9993596,2606,1056,4462,691
18,000–    19,9992965,6715,6205,8782,517
20,000–    39,9991,48542,17641,86846,44719,069
40,000–    59,99951525,30525,06727,38711,885
60,000–    79,99928519,87119,78521,9749,566
80,000–    99,99917015,92815,36317,5907,601
100,000–199,99939856,97055,85459,555926,877
200,000–399,99922663,08361,96465,62230,054
400,000–599,9997235,02434,83537,40217,211
600,000–799,9992617,19917,18217,5228,328
800,000–999,9992723,64823,61924,17911,346
1,000,000–1,999,9994465,96765,46468,78832,992
2,000,000–3,999,9992565,53065,52873,649530,052
4,000,000 and over1279,99279,99281,65433,943
Net loss12,25698353,122
Assessable income before losses*5,64816,443435
Totals—1969–7062,970648,226622,795682,06653,144278,426
1968–6960,628557,000540,057591,35848,939242,262
1967–6856,601491,479479,040520,51739,485212,097

Companies are classified by industry, the classification being identical with that used for individuals, with the minor exception that “community services—professional” do not form a separate group. Attention is drawn to the remarks on the industrial classification of incomes in this Section regarding the difference between the enterprise and the establishment concepts. The statistics are based on the enterprise concept, i.e., the whole of the company's activities are classified according to the predominant activity. The figures in the next table give the results of this classification for the income year 1969–70.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable Income Before Losses*Assessable Net LossReturnable IncomeCurrent IncomeIncome Tax Assessed

* Assessable income before deduction of losses brought forward from previous years.

$(thousand)
Agriculture and livestock production5,58314,91812,78713,0945,1414,599
Forestry, hunting and fishing3971,5941,3831,4231,067589
Mining and quarrying3292,6402,4522,5121,8441,059
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages and tobacco91172,56270,78873,0572,65034,937
    Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles and footwear97522,61922,18222,8581,56210,741
    Metals and metal products4,22851,41048,79450,3247,75022,695
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)3,505103,264100,784108,2945,38748,958
Construction5,00422,14719,89620,1923,6288,175
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services46396388388136180
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail18,026190,033183,970198,7949,69386,460
    Other16,304126,613123,150153,2835,06544,166
Transport, storage and communication2,40718,25015,52316,0835,1326,961
Services, community, business and recreation5,25521,78120,69821,7664,0888,906
Totals—1969–7062,970648,226622,795682,06653,144278,426
1968–6960,628557,001540,057591,35848,939242,262
1967–6856,601491,479479,040520,51739,485212,097

The principal sharers of the additions to the numbers of companies in 1969–70 were “commerce—other” (770) and “agriculture and livestock production” (475).

A large proportion of the companies in the “commerce—other” group were at one time actively engaged in some type of business operations but on the death or retirement of the principal shareholders the companies have become property holders receiving income from interest or rents. The farming community has also contributed a share of the increase in “commerce—other”. Many companies have been formed for the purpose of owning farm land and buildings, with the farmers owning and controlling the farming operations either as individuals or partnerships. An additional factor contributing to the increase in the numbers of companies in the “Commerce—other” group is the formation of “own your own flat” companies.

Rates of Tax: Companies—For the income year ended 31 March 1970 ordinary income tax and social security income tax were merged into one composite income tax. The rates of income tax payable by companies on incomes received during that year were—

New Zealand Resident Companies

  • When taxable income did not exceed $7,200, 20 cents increased by 1/48,000 of $1 for every dollar of taxable income.

  • When taxable income exceeded $7,200, tax on the first $7,200 of income was calculated as in (a) and tax on remainder was charged at a flat rate of 50 cents in the dollar.

Non-Resident Companies were liable for income tax on income derived in New Zealand at a rate of 5 cents per dollar of income greater than a New Zealand resident company.

More information about the taxation of companies will be found in the section on taxation.

The next table shows some additional data concerning companies which relate to the income year 1969–70.

Industry GroupStocks at End of PeriodIncomeExpenditureGross Profit
Sales and ServicesInterest and Gross RentsPurchasesSalaries and WagesInterestRentDepreciation
* Gross profit not normally available.
    $(thousand)    
Agriculture and livestock production57,603169,3202,51942,37539,6208,8884,6469,92486,940
Forestry, hunting, and fishing99824,5093916,8075271,3082,0469,632
Mining and quarrying2,70842,60230912,3894586072,808*
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco164,8201,458,6555,127958,365164,87310,2456,65226,618267,034
    Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear84,057375,5631,260209,33485,6633,6345,3778,02090,600
    Metals and metal products152,717786,9483,427470,325153,8469,4808,88916,165173,817
    Wood, paper, and chemical produce (including miscellaneous)209,7451,162,3718,459561,104225,80813,97413,32141,159331,086
Construction90,260570,2512,383298,712134,9304,0132,79912,692105,659
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1,5187,042762,5802,220321217023,403
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail695,3504,720,81231,3703,669,298385,78132,71644,20445,703788,753
    Other18,242392,835311,27019,42997,41699,4718,35816,440*
Transport, storage, and communication2,352329,8222,45815,63696,2256,5713,62729,282*
Services, community and business, and recreation14,613326,3774,987115,96389,6544,6199,54614,19968,561
Totals—1969–701,494,9861,036,701374,0336,363,1211,495,233194,917109,355225,7581,925,485
1968–691,310,4779,055,695322,1595,537,8621,311,371161,36995,806200,3561,669,650
1967–681,220,3488,265,925292,0585,052,6471,226,899146,42587,448194,5611,512,576

One point which should be noted is that the purchases figures have not been given for the forestry and mining industry groups. It was found that there was a considerable lack of uniformity in such data for these two groups, which was probably connected with differing treatments of royalty and equivalent payments.

The amount of gross profit shown in the accounts is used in these statistics, despite the wide variations in the conceptions of gross profit. No attempt has been made to secure uniformity of calculation for individual companies, but of course the total gross profit for each industry should correspond with that industry's average conception of gross profit. In some industries, such as the transport industry, it is not normal practice to calculate gross profit, and in some cases the gross profit is recorded in these statistics as nil. Estimates of the amount of gross profit were, however, made when any company did not calculate the gross profit, and it was the custom of the industry concerned to show this figure.

The abridged version of the full industry classification for which data are given in this publication does not reveal the individual industries where the gross profit is not generally calculated. Apart from “Mining and quarrying”, “Commerce—other”, and “Transport, etc.”, there are a number of industries included in “Services, community” which do not show gross profit.

The assessable income, dividends, paid-up capital, and shareholders' funds for 1969–70 are given in the two following tables.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeDividends PaidShareholders' Funds
TotalPaid-up Capital
$(000)
Agriculture and livestock production5,58312,7873,597200,06779,076
Forestry, hunting, and fishing3971,38337014,0016,010
Mining and quarrying3292,45277752,14812,383
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco91170,78818,714417,218178,138
    Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear97522,1827,730132,25854,125
    Metals and metal products4,22848,79412,242299,192138,873
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)3,505100,78436,493589,079290,825
Construction5,00419,8964,163113,95842,928
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services463881586,9543,180
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail18,026183,97055,8621,121,651483,246
    Other16,304123,15048,9401,134,546554,311
Transport, storage, and communication2,40715,5234,416135,72965,966
Services, community and business, and recreation5,25520,6984,045157,18351,626
Totals—1969–7062,970622,795197,5084,373,9851,960,687
1968–6960,628540,057168,3763,874,8141,802,886
1967–6856,601479,040153,0573,595,2751,689,997

In 1969–70 dividends paid were equal to 31.7 percent of the assessable income compared with 31.2 percent in 1968–69 and 32.0 percent in 1967–68.

For the purposes of these statistics, the shareholders' funds of a company are defined, briefly, as the amount which would be available to shareholders if the assets were realised and the liabilities discharged at the net values shown in the balance sheet. In the case of New Zealand branches of overseas companies, either the paid-up capital and the shareholders' funds are apportioned on some equitable basis, or the balance of the branch's head office account is taken. The capital loan liabilities of those Government departments which are included in these statistics have been omitted from both paid-up capital and shareholders' funds. Advances from shareholders have been added to shareholders' funds and advances to shareholders deducted.

An analysis of companies by amount of paid-up capital for 1969–70 discloses the position shown in the next table. Those with no paid-up capital are mostly industrial and provident societies, clubs, associations, and similar incorporated bodies.

Amount of Paid-up CapitalNumber of ReturnsPaid-up CapitalShareholders' FundsDividends Paid
$  $(000) 
Nil4,600167,0525,163
1–        9994,5911,58852,5441,852
1,000–      1,9995,7296,52454,6852,092
2,000–      3,99912,06128,413162,7995,408
4,000–      5,9998,73138,192137,0255,389
6,000–      7,9994,97131,39290,7923,158
8,000–      9,9993,17026,46667,1352,607
10,000–    11,9993,79338,518113,3034,236
12,000–    13,9991,89823,33257,8082,199
14,000–    15,9991,26718,47143,6171,553
16,000–    17,9991,07117,47241,0491,591
18,000–    19,99971613,22228,8491,125
20,000–    39,9995,383134,948331,34312,567
40,000–    59,9991,74780,151169,2486,641
60,000–    79,99980853,078111,4847,228
80,000–    99,99941035,51766,9672,567
100,000–119,99936237,59885,3444,311
120,000–139,99917021,36441,1781,590
140,000–159,99914421,25842,6962,026
160,000–179,99910417,33540,6202,057
180,000–199,9995410,10520,125778
200,000–399,999549142,964301,06212,511
400,000–599,99918787,509190,6848,732
600,000–799,99910167,676117,1195,656
800,000–999,9995043,74772,8783,448
1,000,000–1,199,9995860,743104,0273,611
1,200,000–1,399,9993240,65376,0014,215
1,400,000–1,599,9992334,11963,3462,063
1,600,000–1,799,9992948,07788,8144,670
1,800,000–1,999,9991222,30257,3803,792
2,000,000–3,999,99986226,383432,53820,747
4,000,000 and over63531,571944,47251,926
Totals—1969–7062,9701,960,6874,373,985197,508
1968–6960,6281,802,8863,874,814168,376
1967–6856,6011,689,9973,595,275153,057

In 1969–70 there were 1,190 companies with paid-up capital of $200,000 and over. Corresponding figures for 1968–69 and 1967–68 were respectively 1,126 and 1,072. These companies had 66.6 percent of the total paid-up capital and 56.0 percent of the total shareholders' funds.

The number of companies increased by 3.9 percent in 1969–70 and paid-up capital rose by 8.8 percent. The percentages for 1968–69 were respectively 7.1 percent and 6.7 percent.

An analysis by the type of company—i.e., private, public, overseas, etc.—is given in the three following tables, which present some of the principal data for the year 1969–70.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessable IncomeIncome TaxNet Business LossShareholders' FundsDividends Paid
Paid-up CapitalTotal
  $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
New Zealand Private Companies
Agriculture and livestock production5,56512,4844,4605,13277,023197,2403,555
Forestry, hunting, and fishing3881,0394171,0623,5668,892355
Mining and quarrying3071,8267934617,54632,473539
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco92613,4516,3581,29826,84564,2343,420
    Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear4,15438,76917,6733,42377,010199,2668,091
    Metals and metal products72222,85710,9761,97648,589113,8145,149
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)3,30053,90525,3664,38593,505244,08116,029
Construction4,98018,5547,4923,53237,770105,8083,822
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services407024672185306
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail17,611126,95657,6838,756278,810660,72236,699
    Other14,79131,50112,0902,816291,167596,71420,494
Transport, storage, and communication2,28911,0304,6763,23143,42785,9013,142
Services (community and business, and recreation)4,26914,4115,9782,37141,75592,0673,495
Totals—1969–7059,342346,854153,98638,4761,027,2332,401,743104,796
1968–6956,874283,048123,96635,893950,9752,102,90293,422
1967–6852,804258,489111,49629,747891,4141,964,30590,300
New Zealand Public Companies
Agriculture and livestock production1012557857599730
Forestry, hunting, and fishing829314551,3293,64215
Mining and quarrying186262651,3313,36417,967238
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco17545,63622,775268120,391282,82813,119
    Textiles, wearing apparel, made-up textiles, and footwear468,2184,12926426,88866,5074,203
    Metals and metal products648,8254,3814,29058,89594,6973,997
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)16338,76519,509835187,265315,62618,574
Construction13821403334,5677,538342
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services6318156692,9626,424152
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail27744,57522,223627183,399356,96017,766
    Other33841,83318,0391,683224,982440,90022,249
Transport, storage, and communication1043,9061,9791,88121,58549,0591,260
Services (community and business, and recreation)443,9981,9681,3789,54732,604518
Totals-1969–701,266197,93996,03012,671846,0221,675,75082,464
1968–691,342184,03290,5999,863768,5421,496,05666,403
1967–681,339148,34972,5746,471720,7561,380,75756,175
Remainder of Companies (Overseas, Industrial, and Provident Societies, etc.)
  $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Agriculture and livestock production81788211,4771,83012
Forestry, hunting, and fishing55127522,5873,174-
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco142,2961,1864439,15920,576445
    Textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles35132553921,517107
    Metals and metal products101,200641372,9695,229154
    Wood, paper, and chemical products (including miscellaneous)428,1154,08416410,05428,7231,891
Construction1152028063590612
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail13812,4396,55431121,037103,9691,397
    Other1,17549,81514,03656638,15396,9096,196
Transport, storage, and communication14587307216911,44114
Services (community and business, and recreation)9422,28995934032332,51232
Totals—1969–702,36278,00228,4101,99787,432296,49210,248
1968–692,41272,97727,6973,18383,369275,8538,554
1967–682,45872,20228,0263,26777,828250,2136,582

Government departments which are liable for income tax have been classified as New Zealand public companies. In a percentage of cases, precise information concerning the type of company was not available and there consequently may be some instances of incorrect classifications.

The greatest part of the annual increase in the number of companies is concentrated in the New Zealand private companies. This does not mean that overseas companies are no longer venturing into the New Zealand field. Most of the overseas companies now doing this are establishing a subsidiary company, usually registered as a New Zealand private company, instead of setting up a New Zealand branch of the overseas company.

On average, private companies are much smaller than are public companies, but in the aggregate they employ a larger amount of paid-up capital. Their shareholders' funds are also a rather higher percentage of the paid-up capital (233.8 percent against 198.1 percent for public companies). However, as shareholders' funds include advances from shareholders ($512,995,000), the bulk of which relate to private companies, it is evident that the relation of retained income to paid-up capital is nearly identical for both types of companies. The earning power per unit of shareholders' funds employed is considerably higher in the case of private companies, since their assessable incomes are 14.4 percent of shareholders' funds against the 11.8 percent for public companies.

While on the subject of dividends paid, it should be pointed out that the disposable profits of the New Zealand branches of overseas companies are remitted to their overseas head offices and that these disposable profits are not included as dividends paid in New Zealand. Where the overseas company operates through a New Zealand subsidiary company, the New Zealand company is classified as either public or private and any dividends paid will be included in the statistics.

Companies with Overseas Affiliations—As a further exercise the Department of Statistics has now identified those companies operating in New Zealand, but considered to be subject to some degree of overseas control. Two types of company were selected as meeting these two criteria: first, branches of overseas organisations operating in New Zealand, and second, New Zealand registered companies with 25 percent or more of their equity shareholding subject to overseas control. The second category includes not only companies in which overseas residents have a 25 percent or greater shareholding, but also companies which are subject to this degree of control without themselves having any overseas owners. For instance, if a New Zealand company was 50 percent owned by another New Zealand company, which itself was 50 percent overseas owned, the company would qualify as having 25 percent overseas control. These are generally termed “second generation” companies.

On the other hand, overseas companies whose only New Zealand income is from investments, patent rights, royalties, copyrights, and the like, are not included in the 1,275 companies selected, as they are not considered to be active in the New Zealand economy. Also excluded are those overseas companies such as air and shipping lines, which enjoy exemption from New Zealand income tax under the terms of double taxation agreements with their own countries. Such companies were also excluded from previously published statistics.

The 25 percent minimum equity criterion used to classify objectively a New Zealand company as subject to some degree of overseas control, approximates the definition of international private direct investment used by such organisations as the International Monetary Fund. Although the measure of overseas control of New Zealand firms varies according to a great number of circumstances, a minimum holding of 25 percent does provide a consistent and practical criterion for determining its presence.

In the following table, six significant values for the 1,275 overseas controlled companies are shown in industry groups both as absolute values, and as percentages of the totals for all companies assessed for income tax in the 1969–70 income year. The figures for assessable income and for shareholders' funds would indicate that overseas-affiliated companies are, on average, larger units than are wholly New Zealand controlled companies. On the other hand it must be remembered that the New Zealand companies include Government trading departments which may follow profit policies different from private sector companies and for which capital values are not included in shareholders' funds. The figures would also suggest that there is some concentration of branches and subsidiaries of overseas companies in the four manufacturing groups and mining and quarrying; these industries offer scope to large concerns with access to capital and technical expertise.

Industry GroupNumber of ReturnsAssessed IncomeIncome Tax AssessableNet Business LossShareholders' FundsDividends Paid
Paid-up CapitalTotal

* Overseas companies in percentage of total.

     $(million)  
Agriculture and livestock production, forestry, bunting, and fishingOverseas companies120.20.10.22.53.8
All companies5,98014.25.26.285.121.44.0
Percentage*0.21.42.03.23.01.80.1
Mining and quarryingOverseas companies190.10.24.332.4
All companies3292.51.11.812.452.10.8
Percentage*5.83.94.211.635.162.211.6
Manufacturing — food, beverages and tobaccoOverseas companies6221.36.60.936.391.34.0
All companies91170.834.92.7178.1417.218.7
Percentage*6.830.030.334.620.421.921.3
Manufacturing — textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textilesOverseas companies325.92.90.314.035.52.6
All companies97522.210.71.654.1132.37.7
Percentage*3.326.827.416.625.926.834.0
Manufacturing — wood, paper and chemicalOverseas companies19735.317.51.296.0177.712.2
All companies3,505100.849.05.4290.8589.136.5
Percentage*5.635.035.822.233.030.233.3
Manufacturing — metals and metal productsOverseas companies15316.58.21.055.5100.24.8
All companies4,22848.822.77.8138.9299.212.2
Percentage*3.633.936.312.340.033.539.1
ConstructionOverseas companies271.30.60.13.24.20.1
All companies5,00419.98.23.642.9114.04.2
Percentage*0.56.57.93.47.13.72.5
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary servicesOverseas companies
All companies460.40.20.13.27.00.2
Percentage
Commerce — wholesale and retailOverseas companies34753.327.00.8106.2243.014.0
All companies18,026184.086.59.7483.21,121.755.8
Percentage*1.929.031.38.622.021.725.1
Commerce—otherOverseas companies32846.715.50.5105.3212.511.7
All companies16,304123.244.25.1554.31,134.548.9
Percentage*2.037.935.09.519.018.723.9
Transport, storage, and communicationOverseas companies413.11.60.18.922.60.7
All companies2,40715.57.05.166.0135.74.4
Percentage*1.719.823.32.213.516.715.0
Services — community, business and recreationOverseas companies570.90.40.93.95.90.1
All companies5,25520.78.94.151.6157.24.0
Percentage*1.14.34.921.67.51.73.8
All industriesOverseas companies1,275184.584.66.2436.1929.250.2
All companies62,970622.8278.453.11,960.74374.0197.5
Percentage*2.029.630.411.622.221.225.7

BALANCE DATE OF COMPANIES—A classification of companies by the month in which the balance date fell was made for the income year 1969–70. As the results could be of some general interest, the table below shows for each industry group the number of companies by month of balance date. More complete descriptions of the industry groups will be found in earlier tables.

Industry GroupJanuaryFebruaryMarchAprilMayJuneJulyAugustSeptemberOctoberNovemberDecember
Agriculture35122,605434462,06310850341172347
Forestry7432146202558510
Mining34248352364410118
Manufacturing—
    Food271551357978432524491241
    Textiles4020651122179231311342051
    Metals63633,493394813446344410945110
    Wood52572,674353620543466110033163
Construction58414,504112073212334983388
Electricity3711133
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail52477613,561179299875417250241424167313
    Other18222912,8261172241,321193140182351130409
Transport32201,8381433183423349693262
Services69903,98260812811228110613265186
Totals1,0921,33147,2535231,2985,3361,0677047981,5015661,501

CENSUS 1971: INCOMES OF INDIVIDUALS—The following statistics on incomes were compiled from the population census taken on 23 March 1971.

The table divides into income groups the persons actively engaged, and also the total population, including those not actively engaged in employment.

The questionnaire on the schedule asked for income for the year ended 31 March 1971 from all sources without deduction of taxes, superannuation, life insurance, rates, etc. Social security benefits (age, family, etc.) and war pensions were not included.

Income GroupPersons Actively EngagedTotal population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
$      
Nil    –    99935,46978,733114,202638,9981,121,3341,763,332
  1,000–1,39928,95953,52982,48838,39869,440107,838
  1,400–1,79933,33653,89987,23539,40562,854102,259
  1,800–2,19962,17749,982112,15968,16457,790125,954
  2,200–2,59997,16836,254133,422101,39741,015142,412
  2,600–2,99999,19623,871123,067102,00626,793128,799
  3,000–3,999202,78021,218223,998206,74724,939231,686
  4,000–4,999100,9575,228106,185102,9886,793109,781
  5,000–5,99946,5241,79948,32347,6472,63350,280
  6,000–6,99922,03477722,81122,6941,27123,965
  7,000–7,99911,91740212,31912,27468212,956
  8,000–8,9998,3452868,6318,6074999,106
  9,000–9,9995,6151725,7875,7862866,072
10,000–14,99911,62630011,92612,00066012,660
15,000 and over5,7751615,9366,0223726,394
Not specified13,0917,25520,34617,72314,41432,137
Totals784,969333,8661,118,8351,430,8561,431,7752,862,631

There would also be, in the smaller income group, considerable numbers of people who began work towards the end of 1970, or early in 1971, i.e., school leavers.

In the following table incomes of actively engaged persons from the population census on 23 March 1971 are related to highest levels of educational attainment or attendance.

Highest Formal Educational QualificationIncome GroupTotal
Under $1,000$1,000-$2,999$3,000-$5,999$6,000-$7,999$8,000 or over

* Most of this group have attended secondary school.

University degree of diplomaM1,2825,17316,3176,6219,13337,721
 F9993,0943,4753041448,057
University Entrance or higher secondaryM3,01016,79328,4535,1063,82057,386
 F4,74119,1005,4741116329,675
School Certificate (incl. endorsed)M4,45730,59628,3382,0121,37367,149
 F9,07637,2224,245627251,244
Other secondaryM9728,17119,8612,2041,39832,816
 F3,26112,2612,381884818,262
Primary, nil and not specified*M25,748260,103257,29218,00816,637589,897
 F60,656145,85812,670614592226,628
Totals, actively engagedM35,469320,836350,26133,95131,361784,969
 F78,733217,53528,2451,179919333,866

Income Earners in Each Household—An analysis of income earners in each household was made from the information collected at the census of population in 1971. For this analysis an income earner was defined as one who received $200 or more a year, excluding social security benefits, universal superannuation, and war pensions. A summary of the analysis is given in the following table.

Number of OccupantsNumber of Households with—Total Households
No Income Earners1 Income Earner2 Income Earners3 Income Earners4 Income Earners5 or more Income Earners
140,28173,008113,289
231,13280,280100,142211,554
38,26852,34447,02824,628132,68
46,25064,66044,23018,0938,723141,956
54,14344,65931,97911,8605,5562,257100,454
62,57423,11116,8947,2873,3311,65554,852
71,5369,5837,1413,6161,8071,04724,730
89604,2532,9691,72396663111,502
95561,8671,2979125104055,547
102949016394612882302,813
111883703242211321311,366
121011881411327375710
13705568513147322
14312523223123155
15 and over511315242441168
Totals96,435355,317252,89069,03021,4726,542801,686

Of the 801,686 households at the 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings, there were 485,789 complete one-family-only households, that is a husband and a wife with or without unmarried children of any age. These were analysed by the incomes of the head of the household and the wife (or spouse) and the results are given in the following table to indicate where the income of the wife (or spouse) exceeded $600 a year.

Income GroupHeads of Households in Income GroupSpouses with Incomes over $600Households with Unmarried Children of Any Age
NumberPercentage of HouseholdsNumberPercentage of Households
$     
Under 60036,6872,9858.17,46520.3
    600–    9996,8821,89827.62,14031.1
  1,000–  1,3999,2082,76830.14,09544.5
  1,400–  1,79910,5193,34931.85,55252.8
  1,800–  2,19926,8017,82229.216,35561.0
  2,200–  2,59950,01715,59931.233,56367.1
  2,600–  2,99956,86818,55332.639,97970.3
  3,000–  3,999133,69243,37032.4100,40975.1
  4,000–  4,99972,07822,11330.757,23679.4
  5,000–  5,99933,33210,00930.026,68980.1
  6,000–  6,99915,7194,56229.012,48979.5
  7,000–  7,9998,3552,43329.16,67479.9
  8,000–  8,9995,8021,68929.14,56378.6
  9,000–  9,9993,9031,08327.73,10479.5
10,000–14,9997,7542,40031.06,20480.0
15,000 and over3,4641,20734.82,76379.8
Not specified4,7081,24426.42,91762.0
Totals485,789143,08429.5332,19768.4

Households in which the highest percentages of wives had incomes above $600 (many of these would be in the labour force) were those in which the head's income was under $4,000. Households with heads in this income range also had the lowest percentage of children (except for the low-income groups of mainly retired persons). The relatively moderate incomes and relatively high percentages of households without children suggest that a substantial proportion of these households consisted of young married couples who had not yet started families, so that wives were able to remain in employment. Income includes investment income as well as wages or salary; this could have significance in the wealthier households.

Chapter 31. Section 29; BANKING AND CURRENCY

GENERAL—The core of the New Zealand banking system comprises a central bank (the Reserve Bank of New Zealand) and five commercial or trading banks. There are also 12 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank, while each trading bank has had a private savings bank since 1 October 1964. In addition, a number of trading companies, investment societies, etc., perform quasi-banking functions, accepting deposits and granting credits (short-term and long-term) to clients. In some instances deposits are repayable to the client's order at call—virtually a system of cheque issuing. An expansion in the size and scope of near-banks (or non-banking financial institutions) has been a feature in recent years in New Zealand as in many other countries. Report No. 10 of the Monetary and Economic Council, The New Zealand Financial System, published in March 1966, presents a comprehensive description of the financial and credit system, and Report No. 24, published in December 1972, reviews recent developments in the financial system.

RESERVE BANK—The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 provides the Reserve Bank with powers in line with modern central banking practice and monetary policy. It provides the Government and the Reserve Bank with flexible authority to take such monetary action within, and to some extent outside, the conventional banking system as may be appropriate to the times.

Section 8 is the most important section in the Act. As amended in 1973, it restates the primary functions of the bank, its basic relationships with Parliament, the Government, and the Minister of Finance, and lays down the criteria for Government monetary policy. The section reads:

  • “(1) The primary functions of the bank shall be—

    • To act as the central bank for New Zealand; and

    • To ensure the availability and conditions of credit provided by financial institutions are not inconsistent with the sovereign right of the Crown to control money and credit in the public interest; and

    • To advise the Government on matters relating to monetary policy, banking, and overseas exchange; and

    • Within the limits of its powers, to give effect to the monetary policy of the Government as communicated in writing to the bank under subsection (2) of this section, and to any resolution of Parliament in relation to that monetary policy.

  • “(2) For the purposes of this Act, the Minister may from time to time communicate to the bank the monetary policy of the Government, which shall be directed to the maintenance and promotion of economic and social welfare in New Zealand having regard to the desirability of promoting the highest degree of production, trade, and employment and of maintaining a stable internal price level.

  • “(3) The bank shall, as directed by the Minister, regulate and control on behalf of the Government—

    • Money, banking, banking transactions, credit, currency and the borrowing and lending of money;

    • Rates of interest in respect of such classes of transactions as may from time to time be prescribed;

    • Overseas exchange and overseas exchange transactions.

  • “(4) The bank shall make such loans to the Government and on such conditions as the Minister decides from time to time, in order to ensure the continuing full employment of labour and other resources of any kind.”

Whilst the bank must give effect to Government monetary policy or to resolutions of Parliament related thereto, the directors are given a fair degree of independence and responsibility in the carrying out of the policy laid down, and in the management of the bank and the conduct of its business.

The exercise of the Reserve Bank's powers is at the discretion of the directors, but the consent of the Minister of Finance is required in certain special cases. The consent of the Governor-General in Council is required before the bank can engage in trade or have a direct interest in any commercial, industrial, or financial institution, or purchase, or lend against, the shares of a trading bank or financial institution. The Government is required to entrust to the bank, and the bank to undertake, free of charge to the Government, all Government banking transactions.

The Reserve Bank has 10 directors, comprising the Governor, the Deputy Governor, the Secretary to the Treasury, and seven other directors appointed by the Governor-General in Council.

Bank Notes—The bank retains the sole right of issue, and has authority for the calling in, with the consent of the Minister, of any note or series of notes issued by the bank. Notes called in cease to be legal tender, but remain a liability of the bank. Provisions covering the defacing of bank notes and their reproduction or imitation without the prior consent of the bank are in the Reserve Bank Act.

Overseas Exchange—Part IV of the Reserve Bank Act 1964 deals with overseas exchange and other transactions affecting the overseas resources of New Zealand. The bank has the authority to fix the actual exchange rates used in its operations, and may also prescribe or approve rates of exchange to be used by other persons in foreign exchange transactions. In December 1968 an amendment to the Act gave the Minister of Finance the right, after consultation with the Governor, to determine the par value of the New Zealand dollar in terms of the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund.

In recognition of the fact that the holding of external reserves is dependent on aspects of economic policy and conditions beyond the control of the Reserve Bank, its duty is described as “to endeavour, within the limits of its powers, to maintain, in addition to any holdings of gold, an adequate level of overseas reserves”. The bank keeps the Minister of Finance informed of the overseas exchange position and prospects, and of the level of overseas exchange reserves it regards as adequate. To assist it in carrying out this duty to hold reserves, the bank has a statutory power to require trading banks to sell to it their foreign exchange holdings in excess of maximum amounts prescribed by the Reserve Bank.

Comprehensive permissive provisions for exchange control regulations are set out in Part IV of the Act. There are adequate powers for control of takeovers in New Zealand by overseas interests, and for control over overseas companies commencing business in New Zealand and control of capital issues.

Since the passing of the 1964 Act, regulations have been promulgated for the control of: (a) overseas remuneration received by New Zealand residents for services rendered to non-residents (subsequently included in the Exchange Control Regulations 1965); (b) company takeovers by overseas residents; (c) capital issues by overseas companies in New Zealand or issues overseas by New Zealand companies; and (d) finance companies by giving power to the Reserve Bank to require them to hold a percentage of their holdings in Government stock.

Regulation of Banking and Credit—In Part V of the 1964 Act, trading banks are required to make monthly returns to the Reserve Bank detailing their principal liabilities and assets, separating demand and time deposits by customers from other demand and time liabilities. Statutory authority has been provided for obtaining of such subsidiary returns and other information from trading banks as the Reserve Bank may require.

There is complete flexibility, subject to the approval of the Minister, in the application of reserve ratios or assets ratios. The trading banks may be required to hold balances at the Reserve Bank or to hold assets of a specified kind including balances at the Reserve Bank. The minimum requirements may be laid down as a percentage of deposit liabilities or of assets, as a percentage of parts of such deposit liabilities or assets or as percentages of both, or in any other manner. Different percentages may be laid down for different classes of deposit liabilities or assets. Under earlier legislation, the minimum requirements could not be reduced below 7 percent of demand plus 3 percent of time liabilities; there is now no minimum.

The Reserve Bank is authorised to give directions to trading banks as to the policy to be followed in relation to advances, discounts, and investments and in relation to rates of interest or discount.

To enable the Reserve Bank to obtain information of all other financial institutions the bank may from time to time, with the consent of the Minister, by notice in writing to any financial institution (other than a trading bank), or by notice in the Gazette applying to any specified class of financial institution (other than a trading bank), require the institution(s) of that class to supply to the bank such returns or information relating to the assets and liabilities of its business. The Governor-General may also require, by Order in Council, all or any specified class of financial institution (other than trading banks) to hold specified assets.

Statistics collected from finance companies, the short-term money market, life assurance companies, stock and station agents, and all savings banks appear regularly in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

Bank Profits—The net profits of the bank are paid to the Consolidated Revenue Account. The net profit for the year ended 31 March 1972, was $15,466,212, and for the year ended 31 March 1973, $7,904,657.

The indemnity arrangement between the Reserve Bank and the Government in the event of an exchange rate adjustment was re-enacted in 1973 in an amended form because the section of the Act was not adequate to deal with the new situation of floating exchange rates. The latest amendment enables the indemnity arrangement to be adjusted in the event of any prolonged floating of any one or more of the major currencies. While a currency is “floating” or has been allowed to depart from its declared I.M.F. parity but the requisite formalities to establish a new parity have not been completed, the Minister of Finance now has the power to declare a basic rate between that currency and New Zealand currency for the purposes of making a settlement between the bank and the Government.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT—Initially the Reserve Bank, as established by the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1933, was a privately-owned institution with a share capital widely held throughout New Zealand. Of the seven full directors other than the Governor and Deputy Governor, three only were appointed by the Governor-General. The Secretary to the Treasury, although a member of the board, did not have the right to vote. The bank was therefore to a large extent independent of the Government, but the original Act required it, as its primary duty, to exercise control over monetary circulation and credit to the end that the economic welfare of the Dominion might be promoted and maintained.

Considerable care was taken to see that the bank was free from political interference. The first Governor of the bank made it clear, however, that the board of the bank accepted the view that the ultimate responsibility for the monetary policy of New Zealand must rest with the Government of the day. The board, nevertheless, held it was the duty of the bank to tender to the Government impartial advice on monetary and financial matters, and to exercise its own judgment in carrying out those functions entrusted to it.

The business of the bank was strictly defined, however, and the 1933 Act laid down limitations designed to ensure that the bank did not become an easy source of credit for the community, or a source of inflationary finance for the Government. The bank was given power to determine the exchange rates at which it bought and sold sterling, was required to be prepared at all times to sell sterling at the rates so fixed, and was also required to hold overseas exchange reserves equivalent to at least 25 percent of its notes and other demand liabilities. In addition, the trading banks were deprived of the right to issue notes and were required to hold minimum balances with the Reserve Bank.

Through this 1933 legislation, Parliament substantially increased its control over the monetary affairs of the country, and set up a national institution, with the sole right of note issue, to manage the currency. The legislation was the culmination of proposals, ranging back to 1886 that a central bank, or a State trading bank, should be set up in New Zealand.

In 1936 the bank became a State-owned institution, the whole of the board being appointed by the Government, and the Secretary to the Treasury was given the right to vote at board meetings. Its general function was changed to that of giving effect to the monetary policy of the Government, as communicated to it by the Minister of Finance. For this purpose, and the promotion of economic and social welfare, the bank was still required to regulate and control currency and credit, but was also empowered to control the transfer of money to and from New Zealand, and the disposal of export proceeds. Power was taken to suspend the bank's duty to sell sterling on demand.

In 1936 also, some of the restraints on Reserve Bank lending were relaxed, but the ability of the Reserve Bank to influence monetary conditions was greatly enhanced by empowering the Governor of the bank, with the authority of the Minister of Finance, to vary the minimum balances that the trading banks were required to hold at the Reserve Bank. In the same year, the Reserve Bank became Registrar of Government Stock.

In 1939 the Government's authority was reinforced by adding a requirement for the bank to have regard to any representations made by the Minister in respect of any functions or business of the bank, and to give effect to any decision of the Government in relation thereto conveyed to the Governor in writing. The Minister of Finance was given power to suspend indefinitely the duty of the bank to hold overseas reserves equal to not less than 25 percent of its demand liabilities, which could previously be suspended for short periods only.

In 1950 the 1939 amendment relating to representations by the Minister and decisions of the Government in respect of the functions and business of the bank was repealed. A new requirement—to give effect to any resolution of Parliament in respect of the bank's functions or business—was substituted, this change being designed to restore to the bank a degree of independence, while still requiring it ultimately to carry out Government policy. The duty of the bank to hold overseas reserves was changed to a duty to hold reserves which the board considered would provide a reasonable margin for contingencies. A further change in 1950 was to add to the criteria for monetary action the safeguarding of a stable internal price level and the promotion of the highest degree of production, trade, and employment that could be achieved by monetary action.

Towards the end of 1960, an amending Act removed the reference to a resolution of Parliament, reinserted the 1939 requirement regarding representations by the Minister and decisions of the Government, and recast, without significant change, the criteria for monetary policy. It declared the sovereign right of the Crown to control currency and credit, and introduced wide general powers for the bank, on behalf of the Government, to regulate and control “money, banking, credit, and currency” and interest rates, together with specific power to give directions to the trading banks. The existing right of the bank to determine overseas exchange rates was made subject to a prior right for the Minister of Finance, after consultation with the Governor, to determine the basic rate of exchange with sterling.

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 consolidated and amended the earlier enactments and made better provision for the control of overseas exchange and other transactions.

The Reserve Bank of New Zealand Amendment Act 1973 stated that it is a primary function of the Bank to ensure that the availability and conditions of credit provided by financial institutions are not inconsistent with the sovereign right of the Crown to control money and credit in the public interest.

The bank was also empowered to regulate credit from all sources, not just bank credit. At the same time the bank was required to make loans to the Government on such conditions as the Minister of Finance might decide to ensure continuing full employment of labour.

Discount Rate—In effect, the Reserve Bank's discount rate is the minimum rate at which trading banks may borrow from the bank if they need to do so in order to maintain the statutory minimum ratios, and the rate at which the bank lends to approved short-term money market dealers. So far the Reserve Bank's discount rate has applied mainly to transactions with trading banks and the approved short-term money market dealers. The discount rate does not apply to advances to the State or marketing organisations.

Liabilities and Assets—Details of the liabilities and assets of the Reserve Bank at the end of June for the latest six years, and weekly averages for calendar years are shown in the following tables.

LIABILITIES OF RESERVE BANK
YearBank NotesDemand DepositsOther LiabilitiesTotal Liabilities
StateMarketingBanksOther
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
1,963169.636.23.0141.84.419.9374.9
1,964166.636.82.6138.84.620.6370.0
1,965166.035.62.698.212.221.6336.2
1,966164.334.03.866.556.430.1355.1
1,967163.834.73.039.1106.746.2393.5
1,968162.151.15.035.4102.648.3404.5
1,969173.974.24.536.360.240.8389.9
1,970182.974.14.144.736.959.9402.6
1,971201.880.13.432.315.976.4409.9
1,972223.9195.83.638.018.8124.6604.7
1,973262.3276.317.931.563.8308.9960.7
At End of June
1,968155.270.64.715.683.750.4380.2
1,969167.8100.54.320.182.241.8416.7
1,970176.177.13.548.448.265.7419.1
1,971193.8115.73.329.214.770.0426.6
1,972212.6267.93.235.325.8106.2651.0
1,973249.7426.817.50.451.2335.91,081.5
ASSETS OF THE RESERVE BANK
YearOverseas AssetsInvestments in New ZealandAdvances in New ZealandAll Other Assets in New Zealand
GoldShort-termInvestmentsSpecial Drawing RightsStateMarketing OrganisationsOther Advances and Discounts
$(million)
Weekly Average for Calendar Year
1,9680.7108.624.261.545.4139.17.617.5
1,9691.072.044.969.213.2150.824.014.8
1,9700.857.551.516.474.77.4148.329.716.3
1,9710.786.260.320.665.35.7135.919.116.1
1,9720.7193.4121.349.740.50.2156.011.531.4
1,9730.7240.1315.052.082.80.2205.611.552.7
At End of June
1,9681.2121.628.057.20.2148.96.716.5
1,9691.0103.142.955.70.4169.129.415.2
1,9700.869.958.123.565.90.4163.122.814.6
1,9710.794.473.819.462.20.5137.711.326.7
1,9720.7202.1159.851.629.80.4173.19.923.7
1,9730.7263.5407.651.9115.00.2207.29.326.0

TRADING BANKS—There have been trading banks in New Zealand since the early days of settlement and they have conducted their business according to the general principles which have long been traditional in British banking institutions. With the exception of the Bank of New Zealand, which became a fully State-owned bank with the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act 1945, the banks are owned by private shareholders and their shares are traded on the stock exchanges. New Zealand has a branch banking system with more than 1,000 branches and agencies in New Zealand and a world-wide network of agents and correspondents. The general business of banking is governed by the Banking Act 1908. Part II of the Bills of Exchange Act 1908 and the Cheques Act 1960 are the law relating to cheques drawn on a bank.

Banks accept deposits from the public for either a fixed term or on a “on demand” basis. Fixed term or time deposits bear interest, but unlike demand deposits cannot be operated on by cheque. Cheques drawn on current accounts are efficient and widely used instruments for the settlement of commercial and private debts. The fundamental principle of bank lending is to confine advances as far as possible to financing customers' current trade or seasonal requirements, and to avoid tying up available resources in fixed or long-term finance. The major form of bank lending to customers is still by way of overdraft but term lending, mainly for medium terms of from 2–5 years, grew rapidly from approximately 3 percent of total bank lending in December 1971 to 12 percent in December 1972.

With the enactment of the Private Savings Banks Act 1964 the trading banks established savings banks from 1 October 1964 on a similar basis to that of the Post Office Savings Bank, including ordinary accounts, investment, thrift club, home lay-by, and special purpose accounts.

There are five trading banks in New Zealand, two of these institutions—the Bank of New Zealand and the National Bank of New Zealand—being incorporated by special Acts of the General Assembly of New Zealand, although the National Bank is domiciled in the United Kingdom. The other three banks—the Australia and New Zealand Bank, the Bank of New South Wales, and the Commercial Bank of Australia—which are predominantly Australian institutions, have in the aggregate much greater capital resources, etc., than the two New Zealand banks, but the New Zealand banks' advances are about 58 percent of total advances. The close Australian affiliations of the Australian banks operating in New Zealand resulted in the past in an interlocking between the Australian and New Zealand financial structures, the separation of New Zealand business being one of the major motives leading up to the founding of the Reserve Bank.

Bank of New Zealand—The Bank of New Zealand became a wholly State-owned trading bank on the passing of the Bank of New Zealand Act in 1945. At 31 March 1973 it had 192 branches and 217 agencies in New Zealand, and overseas branches in London, Australia, and Fiji. In addition, in common with other trading banks, it operates a savings bank. A finance company promoted by the bank commenced operations on 1 April 1966.

Gross profits of the Bank of New Zealand during the year ended 31 March 1973 totalled $35.2 million giving a net profit of $5.2 million. Comparable figures for the previous year were $30.1 million and $4.14 million. The total assets amounted to $886 million. Among the main items were loans and advances to customers ($462.4 million); securities of, or guaranteed by, the New Zealand Government ($128.0 million); and cash in hand and deposits with bankers, $221.3 million. Bank properties and equipment were valued at $29.8 million. The principal item of liabilities was deposits, at $751.3 million. The paid-up capital and reserves totalled $55.2 million.

Liabilities and Assets of Trading Banks—Since the Reserve Bank commenced operations the trading banks have been required to submit at monthly intervals a return of certain liabilities and assets in respect of New Zealand business. Monthly averages for the latest five calendar years and figures as at the last Wednesday in June are given in the next table.

SELECTED LIABILITIES OF TRADING BANKS*
YearLiabilities in New ZealandLiabilities Outside New ZealandTotal Liabilities
DepositsOther Liabilities
DemandTime

* Trading bank business only, excludes liabilities of savings bank subsidiaries, shareholders' funds, capital liabilities to overseas head offices, contingencies, interbank accounts, and transit items within New Zealand.

$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
1,968593.9151.727.411.6784.6
1,969613.7198.244.46.9863.2
1,970640.5270.043.06.3959.8
1,971682.9340.430.710.71,064.7
1,972808.9500.119.221.31,349.5
1,9731,072.0781.731.934.31,919.9
At End of June
1,968590.9144.825.916.3777.9
1,969613.7198.244.46.9863.2
1,970653.7253.332.08.2947.2
1,971686.3317.412.814.81,031.3
1,972795.9485.216.020.81,317.9
1,9731,101.4752.542.135.81,931.8
SELECTED ASSETS OF TRADING BANKS
YearCoinReserve Bank NotesDemand Deposits Held in Reserve BankOverseas AssetsInvestmentsAdvances and Discounts*Other AssetsTotal Selected Assets

* Excludes interbank borrowing, but includes term lending.

†Includes interbank borrowing, land and buildings.

$(million)
Monthly Average for Calendar Year
1,9684.140.035.862.184.2515.480.6822.2
1,9694.142.738.278.1117.9572.466.1919.5
1,9704.139.545.483.6130.5665.450.91,019.4
1,9714.343.031.087.4167.9738.347.61,119.5
1,9724.247.138.791.3429.6773.657.01,441.5
1,9734.754.933.1111.8692.41,020.881.11,998.8
At End of June
1,9683.839.115.676.384.7521.179.2819.8
1,9693.741.720.186.989.6589.159.5890.6
1,9703.840.248.497.497.6673.348.51,009.2
1,9713.738.529.290.7113.9763.845.81,085.6
1,9723.840.833.884.5358.6787.549.91,358.9
1,9734.446.40.4129.7733.91,009.895.52,020.1

Deposits and Advances—The weekly averages of total deposits (together with the amount per head of mean population), and of total advances, and the ratio of advances to deposits for each of the last 11 calendar years, are given in the following table.

YearDepositsAdvances
Not Bearing InterestBearing InterestTotal*Per Head of Mean PopulationTotal AmountRatio to Deposits

* Including Government deposits.

† Exclusive of transfers by the Bank of New Zealand to its Long-term Mortgage Department but includes advances, discounts and term loans.

  $(m) $$(m)percent
1,963518.3147.6676.5266.00403.859.7
1,964567.3146.8724.8279.00439.960.7
1,965565.3152.6729.9276.00493.367.6
1,966549.1170.4731.8272.30513.470.2
1,967539.6181.9721.5264.30527.573.1
1,968536.6203.3739.9268.40522.070.6
1,969560.3249.0809.3290.70580.871.8
1,970581.1325.9907.0321.10669.173.8
1,971616.7400.81,017.4355.20738.572.6
1,972728.9561.61,290.5443.01774.660.1
1,973982.6852.51,835.2616.111,014.555.3

Since 1962 credit restraint policies have tended to limit advances. In 1966 the increase in advances was associated mainly with farm development and financing exports. This increase in advances continued in the first half of 1967, but the adoption of tighter credit and fiscal policies in February and May 1967 led to a decline in advances which became particularly noticeable towards the end of the year when trading bank lending actually fell to levels below those of 1966. The low level of advances continued to June 1968 when, following the upturn in the economy, advances overtook 1966 and later 1967 levels. In October 1968, following further increases, the reserve ratios were raised thus forcing the banks to borrow from the Reserve Bank. This policy was still operating at the end of 1969, although in October the mechanism of varying the reserve ratios to impose a desired level of penal borrowing, was replaced by a system whereby each bank was penalised according to the level of its non-priority sector advances in relation to the official ceilings for those advances. During 1970 advances grew by more than $100 million, mainly due to increased lending to the export sector. Non-priority sector advances continued to exceed their official ceilings and the banks were penalised continuously throughout the year. By March 1971 the banks were again within their ceilings and no penal borrowing was incurred for the remainder of the year. During 1971 the rate of growth of lending declined steadily. The rate of growth of lending continued to be very slow throughout 1972 until December when an upswing in bank lending commenced. By December 1972 advances were $55 million above the December 1971 level. Advances in 1973 rose sharply, largely in response to increased economic activity.

Interest rates on trading banks advances are given in the following table.

Rate Charged PercentPercentage of Total Advances at Each Rate
At 31 March 1970At 31 March 1971At 31 March 1972At 31 March 1973At 31 March 1974
Less than 5/12;4.34.13.74.24.9
5/12; and less than 639.740.143.642.738.9
6 and less than 6/12;12.211.49.99.913.0
6/12; and less than 720.819.517.016.414.0
7 and over23.025.025.826.929.2

The weighted average rate of interest for the six months ended 31 March fell from 6.14 percent in 1970 to 6.08 percent in 1971 but rose slightly to 6.10 percent in 1972; this rate continued in 1973.

An analysis of demand deposits in New Zealand trading banks as at 14 November 1973 gave the following percentages for the different sectors: farming, forestry, hunting and fishing, 12.0 percent; manufacturing, 5.9 percent; construction, 4.4 percent; electricity, transport, local authorities, etc., 2.6 percent; commerce, trade finance, 14.9 percent; services, 29.8 percent; personal, 30.4 percent.

An analysis of advances and term lending by the New Zealand trading banks is given in the following table.

Group11 March 197010 March 19718 March 197214 March 197313 March 1974
1. Farming, forestry, hunting, and fishing—$(million)
    (a) Mainly dairy farming24.224.522.130.140.9
    (b) Mainly sheep fanning34.038.237.127.642.2
    (c) Other farming20.426.327.727.643.8
    (d) Farm services3.85.05.97.010.8
    (e) Forestry, hunting, and fishing5.06.27.06.87.7
Sub-totals87.4100.399.899.0145.4
2. Mining and quarrying1.21.21.13.52.9
3. Manufacturing—
    (a) Dairy companies, factories, etc.9.010.87.16.513.4
    (b) Freezing works, meat companies, etc.89.9127.5123.1150.1189.2
    (c) Other food, beverages, and tobacco11.612.918.826.932.1
    (d) Textiles, footwear, and clothing23.523.922.925.530.1
    (e) Pulp and paper and paper products2.74.56.114.818.7
    (f) Metal products, machinery, and engineering30.438.037.550.970.2
    (g) Transport equipment6.45.310.013.623.1
    (h) Other manufacturing40.844.447.962.280.3
Sub-totals214.6267.2273.3350.4457.1
4. Construction25.427.326.937.468.1
5. Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1.21.92.62.03.9
6. Transport, storage, and communication11.011.810.318.431.5
7. Commerce, trade, and finance—
    (a) Wholesalers, mainly importers29.626.743.637.447.3
    (b) Wholesalers, other16.716.315.923.129.5
    (c) Retailers40.639.145.452.876.6
    (d) Woolbuyers36.437.145.067.261.1
    (e) Stock and station agents25.433.719.74.336.6
    (f) Finance companies (mainly hire-purchase)2.03.23.63.912.4
    (g) Other financial institutions12.815.414.827.450.5
Sub-totals163.6171.4187.9216.1314.1
8. Local bodies, n.e.i.1.31.33.13.73.7
9. Services31.031.934.957.187.1
10. Personal—
    (a) For housing purposes18.218.921.231.673.2
    (b) Other45.339.248.0103.1141.7
    Sub-totals63.658.169.2134.8214.9
Totals600.2672.3709.2922.41,328.6

The following diagram illustrates the movements that have occurred in deposits and advances, the figures used, as in the foregoing table, being the weekly averages for calendar years.

The following diagram illustrates the level of trading bank advances in March of the last three years.

Advance Control PolicyQualitative—An instrument of credit control used by the Reserve Bank from 1942 to 1962 was a selective control of bank advances to restrict the availability of credit to certain kinds of borrowers for certain purposes. On the whole the application of the rules prescribed by the Reserve Bank was left to the trading banks themselves, with only marginal cases referred to the Reserve Bank for decision. The main emphasis throughout was on avoidance of the use of bank credit for long-term capital purposes, hire-purchase finance, speculation, and the financing of excessive imports. As from 1 January 1963, the operation and administration of qualitative control was handed back to the trading banks without, however, any relaxation. The Reserve Bank from time to time issues guidelines on priorities.

Quantitative—The advance control policy outlined above was supplemented in 1952 by the quantitative control of advances and reliance was placed mainly on the quantitative method of control through the reserve ratio procedure and discount rate policy. The minimum balances the trading banks were required to maintain at the Reserve Bank were adjusted from time to time through the reserve ratio procedure and the discount rate so as to reduce the margin of free cash (balances in excess of the minimum required) held by them. Since 1957 a flexible policy of control has been followed. The aim generally has been to allow for a small growth in advances. Quarterly targets for bank advances were used generally from 1962 on, but from 1966 targets were established on a two-month basis. Generally, some small growth was permitted in the targets for advances, particularly in the export field. Targets were set for farming and export advances and for “other advances” on a differential basis. If these targets were met, banks were allowed small margins of free cash, the reserve ratios being changed as often as necessary to achieve this. If the targets were exceeded the ratios were raised sufficiently to ensure that the banks were required to borrow from the Reserve Bank. As mentioned earlier, this method of penalising the banks was replaced in October 1969 by another whereby each bank was penalised according to the level of its non-priority sector advances in relation to the official ceilings for those advances. In July 1971 the banks were given a growth guideline for total bank lending for the 12 months to June 1972. This was an interim step in a move to abolish two-tier control of bank credit which had become very complex and arbitrary to administer. The bottom-tier ceilings remained in force meantime but no bank would be penalised for exceeding its ceiling if the all bank figure for total advances was within the guideline. In June 1973 a more flexible system was introduced whereby each bank was required to hold in the form of reserve assets a Government-determined percentage of its deposits.

Cheque Transactions—In the financial year 1972–73, the number of transactions debited to trading banks customers' accounts totalled 154 million, compared with 145 million in 1971–72, and 135 million in 1970–71. There are now over 1,000,000 cheque accounts in trading banks.

Unexercised Overdraft Term Loan Authorities—The following are the average for calendar years and the amounts at the end of June of aggregate unexercised overdraft and term loan authorities of the trading banks.

YearAverage for Calendar YearAt End of June

* From July 1972 unexercised term loan authorities are also included.

 $(million)
1,963295.8281.6
1,964338.6315.8
1,965339.8325.6
1,966326.7317.4
1,967305.9272.3
1,968293.3284.3
1,969281.0261.9
1,970292.5286.1
1,971307.9287.0
1,972402.7*359.4
1,973569.4*554.6

MONETARY POLICY—Up to 1962 the financial system functioned under the restraint of a capital issues control, an interest on deposits order, and tax laws unfavourable to the raising of capital by convertible note issues. Capital issues control curbed the supply and the issue price of financial assets available to the community, while the interest on deposits orders prescribed maximum rates of interest that might be paid on various types of deposits. Thus, over the years prior to 1962 the community's preferences for financial assets could be expressed only in a tightly controlled market and these preferences were distorted. The removal in 1962 of the capital issues control and the interest on deposits order, and a change in the tax laws affecting issues of convertible notes were quickly followed by an expansion in the supply of liquid assets and the demand for them. Interest

rates on deposits outside the remaining controlled area rose sharply and keen competition developed among the various financial institutions. Finance companies, which were particularly affected by the operation of capital issues control, offered deposit facilities at attractive rates of interest and with limited transferrable rights attached to them. Trading companies developed forms of market instruments relatively new to New Zealand, such as short-dated debenture and mortgage stocks. In 1964 these expanding market influences were greatly strengthened by the commencement of the private savings banks and the extension of the trustee savings banks to the whole of New Zealand. This was a new powerful factor in the monetary scene. The supply of liquid assets again rose sharply. No doubt much of this movement after 1962 was the expression of the public's preferences which had been artificially curbed for many years, in association with the growth of new institutions and financial practices.

The main emphasis on credit restraint was directed to the limitation of bank credit but in August 1965 the Minister of Finance announced special measures to curb the level of spending in the community by further reducing the flow of credit to the private sector. Agreement was reached with the larger trustee savings banks, the private savings banks, and insurance companies, that they would increase the ratio of their purchases of Government securities to those of other assets. (In addition, certain groups of financial institutions which engage in financing hire-purchase transactions or make credit available for extended periods, agreed to take up, in quarterly instalments, Government securities equivalent to 7/12; percent of their new lending.)

In September 1966 finance companies agreed to take up additional amounts of Government securities. At the same time the credit restraint was extended to include most credit financing except normal retail store monthly accounts. The insurance companies agreed to take up additional amounts of Government securities and to increase their rate of lending to the farming sector.

On 11 February 1967 the voluntary credit restraints applicable to finance companies were superseded by regulations controlling the capital issues of finance companies. In October 1968 the Government reduced the percentage of deposits which the savings banks were required to invest in Government securities, with the object of assisting the building industry. For the trustee savings banks, of new investable funds in ordinary deposit accounts, 50 percent was to be invested in Government securities and 20 percent in new local authority securities or housing mortgages. For the private savings banks the percentages were 70 and 10 respectively. At the same time the insurance companies agreed to lend greater proportions of their new investable funds to local authorities, the export sector, and housing, while still investing certain minimum proportions in Government securities.

In June 1969 capital issues control on finance companies was abolished and replaced by a Government stock ratio requirement under which finance companies have to hold a percentage of their borrowings in the form of Government securities. The ratio is normally 10 percent but is varied if necessary from time to time.

The interest rate ceiling of 4/14; percent that trading banks were permitted to pay on deposits was removed in June 1969 for deposits of over $25,000. Treasury bills were introduced in October 1969 and the trading banks were permitted to invest freely in Treasury bills and Government stock, subject to their maintaining statutory minimum cash balances at the Reserve Bank. During 1969 the proportion of investible funds which the Trustee Savings Banks were required to invest in Government securities was changed from 50 percent of ordinary accounts and 100 percent of investment accounts, to 60 percent for both types of deposit. The ratio was reduced from 60 percent to 57 percent in October 1971, releasing about $14 million for investment in the private sector, and further reduced to 54 percent in March 1972. At the same time the ratio on private savings banks' ordinary accounts was reduced from 70 percent to 63 percent. From 1 March 1974 the ratios became:

  • Trustee savings banks—53 percent of all accounts;

  • Private savings banks—62 percent of ordinary accounts and 99 percent of investment accounts.

In June 1970 public sector security ratios were extended to building societies (5 percent of the deposit liabilities), and private superannuation funds (30 percent of total assets). A five-year transitional period was allowed. Life insurance companies agreed to invest a further 5 percent of new investable funds in Government securities. In October the maximum interest rate of 4/14; percent payable on trading bank fixed deposits of $25,000 and under was increased to 4.8 percent for two-year deposits. Fixed deposits of any amount for periods in excess of two years were not subject to control. To provide the banks with an investment opportunity and an incentive to compete for fixed deposits at the new rates, the banks were permitted to increase their bottom-tier lending by 80 percent of new deposits fixed for over two years (later amended to three years and over). The incentive was very effective and fixed deposits grew strongly. In March 1972 the Government introduced the Interest on Deposits Regulations as part of stabilisation policy. These were applied to deposits taken by the trading banks which were not already subject to control. From 1973 investment orders for building societies and insurance companies require these institutions to hold specified assets.

In June 1973 a new system of controlling trading bank operations was introduced. The reserve assets ratio scheme consists of a conventional liquidity requirement with the minimum ratios expressed as percentages of trading bank demand and time deposits. The percentage requirements, which may be varied from time to time, will be less for time deposits than for demand deposits in order to continue to give the banks an incentive to compete for term deposits. Reserve assets consist of trading banks' holdings of notes and Government securities and the time and demand balances of the trading banks at the Reserve Bank.

SAVINGS BANKS—Savings banks include the Post Office Savings Bank, the trustee savings banks, and the savings banks operated by the trading banks. In recent years there have been major changes in savings bank operations. Following an amendment to the Trustee Savings Bank Act passed in 1957, the five trustee savings banks that had survived from the middle of the last century were joined by eight new trustee savings banks between 1959 and 1964. In 1972 2 of these banks merged and there are now 2 trustee savings banks. Another major change was the formation of private savings banks by the five trading banks, following the passing of the Private Savings Bank Act in 1964.

As from April 1973 trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been able to advance personal loans. In March 1973 the responsibilities for the administration of the trustee savings banks and the private savings banks was transferred from the Treasury to the Reserve Bank. Trustee savings banks and the Post Office Savings Bank have been allowed to offer cheque facilities since 1974.

The following table shows the total amounts of transactions in savings bank accounts, including accounts in the Post Office Savings Bank and trustee savings banks, National Savings accounts, and from 1 April 1964 School Savings Bank Accounts, but excluding National Savings bonds. From 1965 private savings banks are included.

Year Ended 31 MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestAmount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits Plus Interest Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

* From January 1958 includes interest paid out on Investment accounts.

† Excludes $918,000 Cook Islands Savings Bank balances from 1 April 1967.

$(million)
1,963559.927.2530.656.5964.6
1,964672.429.6616.285.81,050.4
1,965838.132.2745.9124.41,177.7
1,966994.735.8906.9123.61,301.3
1,9671,103.439.41,045.797.21,398.5
1,9681,138.143.71,096.585.41,483.0
1,9691,245.548.21,203.090.71,573.7
1,9701,468.450.91,408.6110.81,684.5
1,9711,739.155.71,708.586.31,770.8
1,9721,923.154.71,917.959.91,830.7
1,9732,413.960.42,256.8217.52,048.2

In the following table the accounts in the three types of savings banks are classified by amount groups. It will be noted that over two-thirds of the accounts have balances of less than $200.

Balances in the Post Office Savings Bank and the trustee savings banks are as at 31 March 1973. In the private savings banks, balance dates range between 31 March and 31 October. National Savings and school savings accounts are included.

SAVINGS BANK ACCOUNTS BY AMOUNT GROUPS
BalancePost Office Savings BankTrustee Savings BanksPrivate Savings Banks
Number of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of TotalNumber of AccountsPercentage of Total
$      
      Under 2586,79720.7232,99815.1136,15815.4
      2–  1991,565,68855.2797,26051.5447,75450.6
      200–  999437,92215.4328,75421.2184,62720.9
1,000–1,999122,2124.3102,8466.659,9486.8
2,000–3,99977,8312.759,6813.939,3484.4
4,000 and over47,9911.727,0141.717,4782.0
All accounts2,838,441100.01,548,553100.0885,313100.0

POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK: Operation—The business of the Post Office Savings Bank started on 3 February 1867, when branches were established at Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Hokitika. There are now 1,215 branches of the bank throughout New Zealand. Deposits may be made at any of these branches. A full demand withdrawal service is provided at 180 branches which have ledgers, and a limited service is provided at the remaining non-ledger offices.

The following table covers the activities of the Post Office Savings Bank.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of MarchTotal Amount of DepositsInterestTotal Amount of Withdrawals*Excess of Deposits, Plus Interest, Over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of March

*Includes interest paid out on investment accounts.

†Excludes Cook Islands balances of $918,232 omitted from ordinary accounts from 1 April 1967.

 (000)  $(thousand)  
1,9632,191409,12321,997397,18533,935770,586
1,9642,245471,59023,633442,95252,272822,858
1,9652,563506,66525,056501,71730,004855,838
1,9662,604507,79325,844521,85011,787867,625
1,9672,640525,63426,025542,0099,650877,275
1,9682,646488,12127,224512,4152,930879,287
1,9692,682487,66327,980507,8527,791887,078
1,9702,701568,54728,211561,81634,942922,020
1,9712,737620,87529,590626,41124,054946,074
1,9722,756663,54028,941676,16716,314962,388
1,9732,830782,36430,478736,50776,3351,038,723

The number of deposits made in the year ended 31 March 1973 was 16,319,245 and the number of withdrawals 10,279,692. Issues of bonus bonds totalled 525,411, and of national development bonds, 14,299.

The securities standing in the name of the Postmaster-General on account of the Post Office Savings Bank on 31 March 1973 included Government stock to the value of $690.4 million and State Advances Corporation stock to the value of $340.1 million.

Withdrawal Services—When application is made at the ledger office where the account is held, a depositor may make a withdrawal on demand to the full extent of his account balance. Limited demand withdrawals may also be made at any other Savings Bank office. If the depositor's specimen signature is on file at the office of application he may withdraw on demand up to $200 in any period of days. If a specimen signature is not on file he may withdraw on demand up to $40 in any period of 7 days, provided he can establish his identity. A depositor may have his specimen signature placed on file at any number of offices and this provision is useful while travelling anywhere in New Zealand.

Ordinary Savings Bank Accounts—These form the bulk of Post Office Savings Bank accounts. An account may be opened individually, jointly with another person, or as a trustee or beneficiary in a trust account. Clubs, societies, sports bodies, and any other non-mercantile body may also have these accounts, and organisations of this type have been able to operate under a cheque system since 1 March 1959.

Thrift Club Accounts—These accounts are designed to meet the needs of salary and wage earners who wish to save something each payday to provide for annual recurring changes.

At 31 March 1973 there were 256,702 accounts open, the amount at credit being $30,069,249.

Home Ownership Accounts—Introduced on 1 October 1973. Home Ownership Accounts are accounts with special benefits to assist people to accumulate capital to build or buy a first home (house or fit). These accounts may be opened by any person of the age of 15 years or more, two people jointly, or any person as trustee for another person.

The main features of these accounts are (a) interest, at the rate of 3 percent a year is payable on savings; (b) savings (excluding interest) when being withdrawn for use for approved purposes are increased by an amount equal to one-quarter (25 percent) of that saved; (c) preference in the allocation of mortgage finance will be given by the State Advances Corporation in line with their normal lending policies; (d) annual mortgage interest payments for the first 5 years may be reduced by a subsidy related to the amount and duration of saving.

Special requirements applying to the scheme are (a) Home Ownership Account savings must be applied to build or buy a first house or flat for own occupancy; (b) eligible savings are limited to $1,000 a year, exclusive of the first $250 saved; (c) the minimum period, to qualify for all the benefits is 3 years from the date the first $250 is saved; (d) the maximum period is 5 years from the date the first $250 is saved; (e) the amount withdrawn for the purchase of a section qualifies for the benefits provided the depositor builds on the section.

The mortgage interest subsidy for each of the first years of the mortgage is calculated as follows: 2/12; percent of the amount saved in the final year to which the special requirements apply, plus 5 percent of the amount saved in the year before that, plus 7/12; percent of the amount saved in the year before that again.

If the period before the home is acquired is longer than 3 years, then the subsidy includes 10 percent of the amount saved in the fourth year and 12/12; percent of the amount saved in the fifth year (in both cases counted back from the date the subsidy is calculated).

The qualifying $250 is included in the calculation of the subsidy. A mortgage interest subsidy is payable only to the extent that it does not reduce the average rate of interest on all mortgages on the property below 3 percent per annum.

The entitlement to all benefits will not be disturbed if home finance is obtained from any source other than the State Advances Corporation.

School Savings Bank—The lodgment of deposits is made at the school, the cash and deposits slips being handed in later at the Post Office.

On 31 December 1972 there were 2,170 schools operating accounts and the total amount at credit in savings accounts was $5,306,795.

Investment Accounts—One-year accounts may be opened by any person or any organisation, including business concerns. The minimum deposit is $200 and deposits above $200 must be in multiples of $20. Deposits must not exceed $25,000 in any year commencing on 1 October. The minimum term of investment is 1 year and deposits not withdrawn are automatically reinvested. Interest runs from the date of deposit at 5 percent a year on amounts that remain on deposit for the first and each subsequent 12-monthly period.

On 31 March 1973, 53,343 Investment accounts were open with a total credit balance of $143,452,972.

Two-year Investment Accounts—Two-year investment accounts may also be opened by any person, club, society, institution, or business.

Interest is payable at the rate of 5/12; percent a year on amounts up to $25,000 annually invested for a term of 2 years.

On 31 March 1973, 342,059 accounts were open with a total credit balance of $80,069,122.

National Savings Accounts—Deposits made in any investment year mature on 30 June 2 years later. Interest is at the rate of 3/12; percent a year.

At 31 March 1973 there were 72,715 accounts open, the amount at credit being $28,563,752.

National Development Bonds—Interest is not payable until redemption of the bond at maturity (8 years) or its earlier surrender. The rate of interest is 2/12; percent a year in the first year rising by 1 percent a year to reach 9/12; percent a year in the eighth year. A taxation exemption of up to $500 in the income year the bond matures or is surrendered is allowed on the interest earned. The bonds may be purchased by individual persons only. They are not available to any company or body of persons whether incorporated or unincorporated or jointly in the names of two or more persons.

As at 31 March 1973 bondholders' funds totalled $19,518,455 and the number of bondholders was 50,477.

Bonus Bonds—Bondholders' funds are investigated in Government securities and the equivalent of 4 percent interest on the bonds is paid into a prize pool for distribution by ballot of cash prizes.

At 31 March 1973 bondholders' funds amounted to $55,755,325. The number of bondholders was 1,341,318.

Personal Loans Service—A Personal Loans Service was introduced on 16 April 1973. Loans are available to individual persons for any purpose except for the purchase of financial assets.

Types of loans available and maximum amounts that may be borrowed are: (a) unsecured loan—$500; (b) secured loan—no maximum; (c) partly secured loan—$500 for the unsecured portion.

The minimum amount of loan is $200 and the maximum term 3 years.

For unsecured and partly secured loans interest at a flat rate of 6 percent a year is charged on the total loan for the full period of the loan. This works out at the following true rates on the monthly reducing balance of the amount borrowed: 1 year, 11.08 percent a year; 2 years, 11.52 percent a year; 3 years, 11.68 percent a year.

For loans fully secured by a depositor's Post Office Savings Bank account or bonds, a true interest rate of 10 percent a year is applicable which converts to a flat interest rate of: 5.41665 percent a year for 1 year, 5.20835 percent a year for 2 years, 5.13890 percent a year for 3 years.

Travellers' Cheques in Overseas Currency—As an extension of the overseas remittance services operated by the Post Office Savings Bank, the sale of travellers cheques in overseas currency was introduced on 2 February 1970. The travellers' cheques are available in sterling, Australian dollars, and United States dollars.

Estates—The Postmaster-General may repay deposits from any type of account to a maximum of $1,000 to the legal representative of a deceased depositor without requiring him to take out letters of administration or to prove the will. This provision, together with another whereby a depositor may nominate one or more persons to receive part or all of the amount at credit of an account after the depositor's death, enables the next of kin to obtain possession of perhaps much-needed funds without delay or cost.

Solicitors Trust Accounts—Introduced on 1 November 1970, the service is designed to provide a convenient form of investment for funds held by solicitors or other agents (including accountants and trustee companies) acting on behalf of executors, administrators, and trustees.

Money Transfer Service—Integration of the Post Office Savings Bank and the trading banks money transfer services took effect from 1 October 1971. There are three services in the integrated system, namely:

Automatic Payments Service—provides for the settlement of fixed amounts at regular intervals and is suitable for recurring payments made more frequently than quarterly. Hire purchase could be paid this way.

Direct Credits Service—provides for a large number of payments to be made on any one day, such as when an employer pays his staff. The money is deposited direct to Post Office depositors' or trading bank customers' accounts.

Monthly Accounts Service—provides for a number of payments to be made over different days. The payer receives a statement at regular intervals recording the transaction made on his account.

Integrated money transfer statement accounts are non-interest bearing.

PRIVATE SAVINGS BANKS—The Private Savings Bank Act 1964 came into force on 1 October 1964. Under this Act the five trading banks all formed private savings banks. These savings banks may transact business only in premises ordinarily occupied and used by the parent bank. In addition to ordinary deposits, these banks may accept investments similar to the trustee savings banks, by way of deposits in Home Lay-by, Investment accounts, Thrift Club, and Special Purpose accounts.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
    $(thousand)  
1,968460,366244,919196,82748,0925,818237,222
1,969577,956268,349228,50139,8488,351285,420
1,970662,706307,782276,33531,4479,932326,800
1,971738,247391,333377,75413,57912,088352,467
1,972789,982412,861424,254−11,39410,986352,059
1,973862,797575,032540,21934,81312,627399,500

Private savings banks assets at 31 March 1973 included $77.5 million invested in mortgages and other loans, $305.2 million in New Zealand Government securities, out of the total assets figure of $419.9 million. Government securities must be held for amounts equal to 62 percent of deposits in ordinary accounts and 99 percent of deposits in investment accounts.

TRUSTEE SAVINGS BANKS—The trustee savings bank movement is generally regarded as having originated in Scotland in 1810. The movement spread quickly, and the first such New Zealand bank was established in Wellington in 1846, 20 years before the New Zealand Post Office Savings Bank commenced business. By 1870 nine trustee banks were in existence, but four, namely, Lyttelton, Wellington, Napier, and Nelson did not survive the turn of the century. The five remaining banks—Auckland (1847), New Plymouth (1850), Dunedin (1864), Southland (1864), and Hokitika (1866), grew in strength and their activities became an important factor in New Zealand's economic structure. Since 1957 a number of new trustee savings banks have been established, and the total is now 13. The legislation dealing with trustee savings banks is contained chiefly in the Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948. Not less than 53 percent of investments must be held in the form of Government stock, and a proportion of depositors' balances must be kept as cash in hand or on current account, namely 5 percent up to $20 million, and 2/12; percent of the amount in excess of $20 million. Repayment of deposits is guaranteed by the State.

In addition to ordinary deposits, trustee savings banks may accept investments similarly to the Post Office Savings Bank, by way of deposits in Investment accounts. The maximum rates of interest payable on deposits are fixed by Order in Council. Maximum rates payable on these and other deposits are given later in this section.

The following tables relate only to trustee savings banks.

Year Ended 31 MarchNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
NOTE—This statement includes national savings accounts.
 No.  $(thousand)  
1,963536,981150,827133,38317,4445,159194,010
1,964588,124200,769173,24427,5245,966227,500
1,965665,835262,133228,20333,9307,003268,433
1,966775,339325,352294,69730,6558,386307,475
1,967884,223372,297351,27221,0259,447337,947
1,968996,271405,109387,22617,88310,690366,520
1,9691,116,583489,515466,65722,85811,863401,242
1,9701,238,042592,099570,45021,64912,794435,685
1,9711,302,818726,930704,38122,54913,996472,230
1,9721,431,898846,700817,51129,18914,817516,236
1,9731,553,8501,056,494980,07176,42317,285609,945

The following table shows the results of the transactions inclusive of National Savings accounts, of each of the trustee savings banks during 12 months ended 31 March 1973.

BankNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearTotal Amount of Withdrawals During YearExcess of Deposits Over WithdrawalsInterest CreditedTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year
NOTE—Hawke's Bay and Gisborne/Manawatu-Wairapapa merged as Eastern and Central Savings Bank as from November 1972.
 No.  $(thousand)  
Auckland635,804365,075336,24328,8317,487263,937
Waikato130,397100,78794,4496,3381,24943,507
Bay of Plenty74,38360,69856,5034,19570225,850
Taranaki76,62041,11238,8812,2321,00732,614
East Coast Central104,91571,19465,0306,16496835,161
Wanganui41,44326,16523,7692,39642313,619
Wellington District53,80039,27936,1833,09648017,297
Westland14,6167,6386,6449942257,505
Canterbury190,547165,862154,73211,1301,85367,297
South Canterbury23,27316,31614,5831,73328010,050
Otago123,64758,90955,0553,8541,38646,456
Southland79,108103,45897,9995,4591,22446,652
Totals1,548,5531,056,494980,07176,42317,285609,945

Following is a summary of trustee savings banks' assets at 31 March 1973. The total assets include an amount of $1,512,000 securing National Savings deposits all of which is invested in New Zealand Government securities. Under the Trustee Savings Banks Act, however, National Savings deposits are not regarded as assets of the Trustee Savings Banks, and for this reason are shown separately.

BankMortgagesNew Zealand Government SecuritiesLocal Authority DebenturesCash in Hand and on Call at BankTotal Assets* (Includes Other Assets but not National Savings Deposits)National Savings DepositsTotal Held Including National Savings Deposits

*Total assets include $31.9 million in fixed deposits and money at call.

NOTE—The Hawke's Bay and Gisborne and Manawatu-Wairarapa Savings Banks merged on 1 November 1972 under the name of Eastern and Central Savings Bank.

    $(thousand)   
Auckland86,707142,31027,3261,062283,651901284,552
Waikato15,82022,6263,43315644,41544,415
Bay of Plenty9,05713,3401,73724626,63026,630
Taranaki14,39816,8838957134,76916734,936
Eastern and Central12,67717,5941,45724236,24436,244
Wanganui5,0057,00662469414,07714,077
Wellington District7,4058,71378334618,43218,432
Westland3,0483,8111912147,9417,941
Canterbury24,35635,3823,8872,96170,19070,190
South Canterbury2,8625,20084064210,36310,363
Otago19,44324,1671,91567849,51438249,896
Southland10,31024,2537,0573,52849,9206149,981
Totals211,089321,28449,34011,341646,1461,512647,658

STOCK AND STATION AGENTS—Many of the existing stock and station agents first commenced business as general merchants or retailers in the early days of the country's settlement. However, during the greater part of their history, the main financial operations have been in the supply of merchandise, machinery and implements, and the provision of finance to the farming community. The companies have developed a specialised banking business involving the maintenance of current accounts for farmers, the acceptance of time deposits and the granting of secured and unsecured advances. It is a widespread practice for farmers to have current accounts with their stock and station agents to which the proceeds of the sale of livestock and produce are placed and farm and personal expenses charged. Any surplus may be left on current account or placed with the agents on fixed deposit. Stock and station agents have top-tier borrowing priority with the trading banks in order to obtain additional funds to lend for seasonal and farm development needs.

Financial data as at 30 June are given of deposits, advances, etc., for the stock and station agents operating in New Zealand, The statistics refer to the whole of the companies' trading operations including, in some cases, activities additional to normal stock and station transactions, such as retail trading in consumer goods.

The deposit figures include only moneys received for an agreed term and rate of interest and exclude amounts secured by mortgage or debenture, and amounts in credit on current account. Secured advances to customers include those made on mortgage or chattel security. The figure for merchandise and commodity stocks includes all types of trading stock which are regarded as current assets, but excludes livestock, goods held on consignment, or motor vehicles used by the company.

The following table summarises the financial statements of stock and station agents. Quarterly information, including details of interest rates, is published in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemAt 30 June
196819691970197119721973
$(thousand)
Deposits held26,22631,20435,51436,82637,76857,965
Customers' credit balances on current account32,15737,36339,97035,47838,51775,118
Advances to customers—
    (a) On current account (unsecured)56,58660,14666,97688,21377,84377,188
    (b) Other advances (secured)47,15248,24945,52149,79944,00430,626
Investments—
    (a) Government securities5,1735,3075,5524,5015,4951,915
    (b) Fixed deposits3591,0991,09349912,01461,578
    (c) Other investments11,32811,95117,6176,91516,45922,198
Cash balances (in hand and at bank)4,0907,1624,8632,9816,6219,858
Bank overdrafts outstanding11,59011,22918,69224,66416,77317,412
Merchandise and commodity stocks34,28836,57739,03642,94944,82544,824
Interest rates paid on deposit—Percentage of Deposits
    Under 5 percent36.329.926.617.836.052.0
    5 percent and under 6 percent54.855.153.454.929.822.4
    6 percent and under 7 percent8.913.818.825.430.921.8
    7 percent and over0.21.21.21.93.33.8

The total of unsecured advances by agents of $77 million at 30 June 1973 was $39.1 million below that of trading bank advances to farmers of $116.1 million at 11 July 1973.

OVERDRAFT RATES—The maximum permitted average interest rate on bank overdrafts, which had been 5.84 percent since June 1962, was raised to 6 percent on 31 August 1965.

DEPOSIT AND INTEREST RATES: Trading Banks—The following rates have been paid since 21 June 1966 by the associated banks on amounts lodged on fixed deposit: 30–180 days, 3 percent; six months and under 12 months, 3/12; percent; 12 months and under 24 months, 4 percent; 24 months and over, 4/14; percent. As previously, variations in these rates and terms may be negotiated on deposits in excess of $20,000.

Post Office Savings Bank—The Post Office Savings Bank pays interest on all deposits. The present rates on ordinary, Thrift Club, Home Lay-by, and School Savings Bank deposits are 3 percent per year on deposits of up to $20,000. For Special Purpose accounts the rate is 3 percent per year on balances up to $1,000 in each of the five accounts permitted.

The rates of interest on Investment accounts that remain intact for the terms of investment are: 1-Year Investment accounts, 5 percent a year; 2-Year Investment accounts, 5/12; percent a year, but if withdrawals are made before maturity, the interest rate is adjusted for the broken period in respect of the amount withdrawn.

The rate of interest on National Savings accounts is 3/12; percent per year but if withdrawals are made before maturity date of the deposits, interest on the amount withdrawn is credited at Savings Bank rates.

Trustee Savings Banks—A rate of 3 percent is payable on any amount from $1 to $4,000. On deposits in investment accounts the rate is 2/12; percent for periods less than 12 months, 5 percent for each complete period of 12 months with 3 percent payable on deposits withdrawn during the year after he first year.

Private Savings Banks—The rate of interest payable on deposits in private savings banks is 3 percent a year up to $4,000. This applies to the savings banks operated by trading banks from 1 October 1964. On deposits in investment accounts the rate is 2/12; percent for periods less than 12 months, 4/12; percent for each complete period of 12 months with 3 percent payable on deposits withdrawn during the year after the first year.

Company, etc., Deposits—Since 5 July 1962 there has been no control on interest rates payable on deposits held by stock and station agents, trading companies, and building and investment societies.

Other Deposits and Interest Rates—References to rates of interest on mortgages will be found in Section 30A (Mortgages), while interest on Government debt is referred to in Section 26C (State Indebtedness), and Interest on local authority debt in Section 27 (Local Government Finance).

FINANCE COMPANIES—In 1971 there were 26 finance companies designated “large” by the Reserve Bank for statistical purposes, and their assets were 80 percent of the total assets of 526 surveyed finance companies. There has been rapid growth of these companies in recent years as people have responded to higher interest rates on deposits and debentures and to the improved services offered. The large finance companies have developed simple and easily operated means of accepting money. Furthermore, many companies offer flexible deposit plans to depositors with large sums.

A much smaller proportion of the companies' lending is now channelled to individuals in the form of hire-purchase loans for consumer durables, either directly or through retailers, although hire-purchase advances for cars are still an important form of lending. Large short-term industrial loans have become more common than they were in the sixties, the finance company usually taking a floating second debenture charge against all the assets of the company. The bulk of industrial lending by finance companies, however, is still by way of hire purchase and is primarily used for commercial vehicles, machinery, and plant. In recent years several companies have begun to specialise in leasing. In addition they offer limited import and export services, and factor book debts. Another new development fostered by a few of the larger finance companies is the commercial bill market which has grown slowly but steadily since 1969.

Statistics of deposits, debentures, and notes held by the large companies for which the Reserve Bank collects statistics are shown in the following table.

TermAt 31 March
19691970197119721973
   $(m)  
At call6.712.717.025.323.0
Under 3 months2.82.66.514.818.3
3–5 months3.24.311.812.324.7
6–11 months7.39.613.318.832.7
12–23 months8.213.920.628.432.0
2 years and over30.738.551,070.077.9
Totals58.981.6120.2169.6208.6

Gross loans and advances of these finance companies are shown in the following table.

Type of loanAt 31 March
19691970197119721973
Motor vehicles
$(m)
    Commercial9.716.023.225.637.7
    Private21.527.838.348.667.5
Television sets1.30.80.70.60.8
Other consumer durables2.25.06.17.413.8
Machinery and equipment—
    Industrial16.716.721.229.535.7
    Agricultural3.34.74.36.17.2
Property loans8.69.011.320.427.9
Other13.018.528.134.535.0
Total76.398.5133.2172.7225.7

A common feature of finance company lending is the regular repayment required on most loans and the short turnover period of assets, often averaging less than a year. This enables finance companies to switch their lending rapidly from one purpose to another. Interest rates range from about 12 percent to a more common 17 to 20 percent for most instalment loans. Despite the high costs, businesses have grown to appreciate the fast and efficient services offered by finance companies, which process loan applications quickly and accept greater risks than other lenders.

MERCHANT BANKS—The major expansion of merchant banking in New Zealand occurred in 1971, when the Government allowed overseas companies to participate in their establishment. At the present time there are eight companies which are considered to be active in merchant banking. They offer a wide range of financial services to industrial clients and also manage investment portfolios and deal in and accept commercial bills. The merchant banks engage in underwriting new share issues by companies, advise on and finance mergers and takeovers, and lend money for expansion to growing companies.

STRUCTURE OF FINANCIAL SYSTEM—The changing structure of the New Zealand financial system is shown by movements in the money supply and other major liquid assets of the public; a comparative table of selected liquid assets is now given. (Source: Reserve Bank Bulletin.)

Deposits, etc.At 31 MarchPercentage at 31 March
19721973195519721973
    (a) On an institutional basis$(m)$(m)   
Trading banks1,054.01,521.039.031.136.3
Private Savings banks352.2399.510.49.5
Sub-totals1,406.21,920.539.041.545.8
Post Office Savings Bank962.61,039.040.428.424.8
Trustee savings banks514.7609.97.415.214.6
Stock and station agents74.9121.52.92.22.9
Finance companies190.9233.30.95.55.6
Official money market42.750.81.21.2
Notes and coin203.1212.49.46.05.1
Total selected liquid assets3,391.34,187.4100.0100.0100.0
  (b) On a functional basis     
Money supply907.51,133.941.626.827.1
Other demand deposits1,369.01,605.640.240.238.3
Sub-totals2,267.52,739.581.867.065.4
Time and fixed deposits1,127.61,447.918.233.034.6
Total selected liquid assets3,395.14,187.4100.0100.0100.0

Loans and investments by sector of selected financial institutions at the end of March 1972 are shown in the following table. Significant omissions are general insurance companies, trustee companies and the Development Finance Corporation.

InstitutionsNo.GovernmentLocal AuthoritiesHouseholdsAgricultureOther BusinessTotal
HousingOtherFarmersBusiness

* Estimates

† Includes lending to State Advances Corporation.

‡ Figures for building and friendly societies at end of calendar year.

(Source: Monetary and Economic Council.)

$(m)
Reserve Bank113174187
Trading banks514552148100203344866
Private savings banks52911019*11*22*353
Trustee savings banks1328542134*13*17*491
Post Office Savings Bank1955955
Public Service Investment Society14112*8*8*33
Official money market5339345
Finance companies261810*63*7*128*226
Stock and station agents22512*126*143
Building societies631610*228*15*16*17*302*
Life offices21323115202701286531,491
Government Superannuation Fund1195195
National Provident Fund1581971256
Earthquake and War Damage Fund1130130
Friendly societies306*5*8*6*5*30
State Advances Corporation14512581334321,004
Total1972,522*406*1,216*222*728*384*1,229*6,707*

COINAGE AND CURRENCY: Decimal Currency—Under the Decimal Currency Act 1964 a system of decimal currency was introduced in New Zealand on 10 July 1967 with the dollar as the monetary unit. The dollar is equivalent to the previous 10s. The equivalent in decimal currency of the shilling is 10c. There are coins for $1 (not in general circulation), 50c, 20c, 10c, 5c, 2c, and 1c, and Reserve Bank notes for 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, and 100 dollars. The coins are cupro-nickel, except for the one and two cent pieces which are bronze. Notes and coins have distinctive New Zealand designs.

Issue of Notes and Coin—Since 1 August 1934 the Reserve Bank has had the sole right to issue bank notes in New Zealand. Coin is the responsibility of the Treasury but is distributed by the Reserve Bank. Notes and coin are issued solely in response to the demands of the public. In assessing likely requirements there are seasonal factors to be considered, as well as basic economic conditions, such as national income, the levels of salaries and wages, changes in price levels generally, and in the total volume of money. In addition, methods and frequency of payments affect the amount to be issued.

Legal Tender—Under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964 notes issued by the Reserve Bank are constituted legal tender up to any amount. In terms of the Decimal Currency Act 1964, dollar coins are legal tender for any amount, coins of 5, 10, 20, and 50c for any amount not exceeding five dollars, and coins of 1 and 2c for any amount not exceeding 20c.

Restrictions on Export of Currency—Under the Exchange Control Regulations 1965 the taking or sending of money from New Zealand is forbidden except with the consent of the Reserve Bank. The Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1965, Amendment No. 8, permits travellers to take out up to $50 of New Zealand money in notes of $5 or $2 or $1 or in coin up to $4. The export of any other New Zealand notes or coin or the currency of any other country requires specific consent. (See also Exchange Control, paragraph (b), Export and Import of New Zealand notes.)

WORLD CURRENCY REALIGNMENT—In December 1971 there was a general realignment of the world's exchange rates. Subject to Congressional approval the official price for a troy ounce of fine gold was changed from US$35 to US$38. This represented a devaluation of the U.S. dollar by 7.89 percent. As part of the realignment the currencies of certain countries (notably Japan, Germany, and Netherlands) were revalued in terms of gold, while others, notably South Africa, decided to devalue their currencies.

New Zealand, like the United Kingdom, Australia, and a number of other countries, elected to leave its I.M.F. parity unchanged. As a result all these currencies appreciated 8.57 percent in terms of the U.S. dollar (after the change in gold price to US$38 = 1 ounce). At the same time New Zealand, like Australia, nominated the U.S. dollar as its intervention currency instead of sterling as had previously been the case. This enabled New Zealand to quote fixed exchange rates on U.S.A. and fluctuating rates on London. New Zealand decided to avail itself of the wider margins within which its exchange rates are permitted to move. This means that New Zealand's public exchange rates for the U.S. dollar may fluctuate 2/14; percent either side of its par value (i.e., US$1.2160 = NZ$1) while New Zealand's rates for other currencies are permitted to move up to 4/12; percent either side of the cross rates of the par values (or central rates, where these have been established pending approval by the U.S. Congress of the new gold price). (In July 1973 the N.Z. dollar was floated.)

The following table shows exchange rates for telegraphic transfers quoted by the New Zealand trading banks for various currencies as at 31 December 1972. All quotations are on the basis of foreign currency units to NZ$1 except in the case of United Kingdom for which the basis is New Zealand dollars to £Stg1.

New Zealand onSellingBuying

* Fixed.

† Fluctuating.

U.S.A.*1.18871.2017
Australia*0.93550.9395
United Kingdom1.97491.9624
Canada1.17991.1929
France6.0396.161
Japan356.81364.01
Switzerland4.4474.536
West Germany3.7793.855

EXCHANGE RATES—The rates of exchange for overseas transactions are fixed by the Reserve Bank, subject to a right of the Minister of Finance, after consultation with the Governor of the Bank, to determine the par value of the New Zealand dollar in terms of the Articles of Agreement of the International Monetary Fund.

The significance of the exchange rate in the case of New Zealand depends chiefly upon the country's position in regard to overseas trade and to overseas borrowings. The course of development of New Zealand has not reached a stage where the country is fully self-contained, and the external trade per head is greater than that of most countries of the world. In former years by far the bulk of New Zealand's external trade was with the United Kingdom and the London financial market played a predominant role in financing New Zealand's external trade and as a source for capital requirements. However, progressively, the base of New Zealand's external trade has been broadened which has resulted in New Zealand relying less on London to finance its trade and capital requirements. New Zealand is a member of the International Monetary Fund, and as such is required to maintain telegraphic transfer buying and selling rates for exchange transactions in its currency within certain limits either side of its established par value. The par value may be changed, i.e., the exchange rate altered, with the approval of the International Monetary Fund; this must be given if the proposed change does not exceed 10 percent, or if a “fundamental disequilibrium” exists in the country's balance of payments.

NEW ZEALAND AND STERLING EXCHANGE—Traditionally New Zealand currency was linked to sterling. Prior to December 1929 New Zealand currency was at virtual parity with U.K. currency, only slight deviations occurring from time to time, but then commenced to depreciate gradually, reaching, in January of 1931 a level of approximately £110 New Zealand = £100 London for telegraphic transfers. At that level it remained fairly stationary until January 1933, when as a result of Government intervening it was abruptly depreciated to a further degree. The relationship existing from 20 January 1933 until the establishment of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand on 1 August 1934, was £125 (selling) and £124 10s. (buying) New Zealand = £100 sterling for telegraphic transfers.

From 1 August 1934 Reserve Bank quotations for £100 sterling for immediate delivery in London were: buying rate, £124, selling rate, £125. It was intimated that the policy of the Bank would aim at retaining these rates unchanged for a long period unless there occurred marked changes in existing conditions. While prepared to fulfil its statutory obligations, the Reserve Bank did not desire to compete for exchange business, provided adequate facilities were available elsewhere.

Following the statement of the Reserve Bank's policy, the trading banks adopted as from 1 August 1934 a scale of rates representing a reduction of 10s. per £100 on the rates ruling from 20 January 1933 to 31 July 1934. The rates were slightly changed on 21 October 1938, and further changes were made in the selling rates as from 1 December 1943 and in the buying rate as from 6 November 1940. During the year 1945–46 the Reserve Bank agreed to certain alterations in the trading banks' on-demand and usance rates.

The position was materially altered as from 20 August 1948, following the announcement by the Government on the previous night of the appreciation of New Zealand currency to parity with sterling. The Reserve Bank quotations from 20 August 1948 for £100 sterling for immediate delivery in London were: buying rate, £100, selling rate, £101. Consequential adjustments to the scale of rates of trading banks in New Zealand were also made.

On 21 November 1967 the New Zealand dollar was devalued by 19.45 percent in terms of the United States dollar following the United Kingdom devaluation of sterling by 14.3 percent on 18 November 1967. The New Zealand dollar became equivalent to the Australian dollar and NZ$100 equivalent to £46.67 sterling. In terms of the United States dollar NZ$1 was equivalent to US$1.12.

OVERSEAS RESERVES—The trading banks are required to supply returns to the Reserve Bank at monthly intervals showing among other things overseas assets held and liabilities incurred on amount of New Zealand business.

Statistics of New Zealand's official overseas reserves are shown in the following table. The figures for assets of the banking system and gold are as at the last Wednesday of the month; other figures are as at the end of the month. (Source: Reserve Bank of New Zealand.)

As atAssets of N.Z. Banking System*Treasury-held Overseas SecuritiesGovernment-held Overseas SecuritiesGoldReserve Position at I.M.F.Special Drawing Rights§Total

*Comprises foreign exchange and overseas investment of the Reserve Bank and the trading banks in respect of New Zealand business. A small item “Liabilities in Other Currencies” has been deducted from the Reserve Bank's overseas assets while gross foreign liabilities on account of New Zealand business have been deducted from the trading banks' overseas foreign assets.

† Gold holdings of the Reserve Bank at NZ$1.25a fine ounce.

‡ Equal to the gold subscription less any drawings of the gold tranche.

§New Zealand's initial allocation made on 1 January 1970.

NZ$(million)
End of June
1,963191.448.917.50.522.5280.8
1,964202.365.017.70.522.5307.9
1,965160.867.918.10.522.5269.8
1,966123.561.712.70.1198.1
1,967111.757.113.10.6182.4
1,968209.376.814.51.2301.9
1,969229.478.915.31.0324.6
1,970216.887.916.10.823.5345.0
1,971243.9132.817.40.745.119.4459.3
1,972425.2216.218.90.745.151.6757.7
1,973764.3209.122.30.745.151.91,093,5
End of December
1,963120.850.117.70.522.5211.5
1,964127.866.517.70.522.5235.0
1,965102.654.812.30.3170.0
1,96690.660.512.70.2163.9
1,967145.175.013.90.5234.5
1,968112.078.014.50.5205.0
1,969155.186.415.30.8257.6
1,970128.6117.516.10.745.10.3308.4
1,971244.1146.517.40.745.124.8478.6
1,972435.7209.825.60.745.152.1768.9
1,973502.1202.522.50.745.151.9824.8

A surplus on current account of $208.4 million was recorded for the year ended December 1972 This improvement resulted resulted from a rapid increase in export receipts accompanied by a slow rate of growth of import payments and a small increase in the deficit on invisible transactions.

Export receipts rose by 18.4 percent during the year to reach $1,507.2 million, the most significant gains being for wool, reflecting the marked price recovery of this commodity, meat, and milk powders.

Total import payments rose by 4.7 percent to $1,101.6 million, this limited growth contributing to the surplus on trade transactions which rose by $184.8 million to $405.5 million.

The deficit on invisible transactions during 1972 was $197.2 million compared with the relatively low deficit of $179 million recorded in the previous year. Both receipts and payments for invisibles rose strongly during 1972.

The capital account recorded a net inflow of $91.9 million for 1972. Private capital transactions were responsible for the large inflow. Official debt repayment exceeded new official borrowings by $18.3 million.

The surpluses on both capital and current accounts together with the third allocation of Special Drawing Rights from the International Monetary Fund in January 1972, combined to increase official overseas reserves by $290.4 million to total $768.9 million at the end of December 1972.

A surplus of $152.0 million was recorded on current account for the year ended December 1973.

Export receipts totalled $1,844.2 million, an increase of $337.0 million or 22.4 percent over the previous year. A decline in receipts from dairy products was comfortably exceeded by increased receipts from meat, wool, and other animal products. All other export items also rose.

Import payments totalled $1,485.7 million, a 34.9 percent increase over 1972.

The deficit on “invisible” transactions for the year was $206.6 million, or $9.4 million higher than the deficit for 1972. Although both receipts and payments grew, payments for outward travel rose at a somewhat faster rate than the total and were the main cause of the small change.

There was a net outflow of $20.8 million on capital account for the year. Private capital (gross) was still flowing in at a high level, but more overseas debt was repaid than in 1972 due in some measure to the revaluation of the New Zealand dollar in September, thus giving a small net private capital inflow. On the other hand there was little official overseas borrowing and the value of loans repaid was less than in 1972 resulting in a net official capital outflow.

Following the revaluation of the New Zealand dollar in September an immediate downward adjustment of approximately $90 million was made in the New Zealand currency book value of official overseas reserves. The total adjustment required to take account of all exchange rate fluctuations since the beginning of the financial year amounted to approximately $139 million. Accordingly, a further reduction of approximately $49 million was made to New Zealand currency book values during December. Despite these adjustments, the New Zealand official overseas reserves increased by $55.9 million during the year to total $824.8 million at the end of December 1973.

The following diagram shows the overseas reserves, the first portion showing the figures as at the end of December and the second portion those as at the end of June in each year quoted.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS—Statistics of overseas exchange transactions include transactions both through the banking system and through the Government's overseas accounts. A full classification of overseas exchange transactions for the two latest calendar years is now given.

OVERSEAS EXCHANGE TRANSACTIONS
Item19721973
U.K.Other CountriesTotalU.K.Other CountriesTotal
NOTE—Minus sign (-) denotes a deficit.
   NZ$(million)   
Exports—  Receipts   
    Butter96.418.8115.393.917.0110.9
    Cheese58.216.374.538.321.059.2
    Meat205.0277.3482.3218.6405.3624.0
    Wool74.7233.4308.076.7374.7451.4
    Other46.3480.8527.172.4526.4598.7
Total, export receipts480.51,026.61,507.2499.91,344.41,844.2
Other Current—
    Cook Islands exports
    Transport41.717.258.951.926.978.8
    Insurance3.83.16.92.88.811.6
    Travel (excluding fares)9.242.051.211.561.072.5
  International investment income—
    Interest and dividends27.96.034.038.712.651.3
    Other investment income1.04.15.10.64.04.6
    New Zealand Government receipts and expenditure by other Governments in New Zealand5.512.017.67.616.023.6
  Miscellaneous—
    Commissions, royalties3.86.910.73.88.111.9
    Expenses of business firms1.76.88.52.17.910.0
    Personal receipts, legacies and immigrants' transfers46.544.991.467.152.9126.0
    Other current transactions3.87.211.03.49.37
Totals, current625.41,176.81,802.5689.51,551.82,1.3
  Capital Transfers—
    Government borrowing19.054.673.63.73.7
    Other official receipts0.60.6
    Private103.797.0200.765.7114.7180.5
Totals capital122.6151.6274.365.7119.0184.7
  M.F.—
    Drawings
    Allocations of SDRs19.119.1
Total Receipts748.11,347.72,095.9755.31,670.82,426.0
Imports—Payment
    Private375.7659.91,035.6419.41,003.41,422.8
    Government34.831.266.134.028.962.9
Totals, import payments410.5691.11,101.6453.41,032.21,485.7
Other current—
    Cook Islands imports0.10.40.40.30.3
    Transport84.133.9118.093.251.3144.5
  Insurance—
    Premiums3.30.94.13.00.83.8
    Claims0.40.81.20.20.60.8
    Other transfers6.26.112.36.55.912.4
    Travel (excluding fares)30.563.794.240.392.8133.1
  International investment income—
    Private15.228.243.520.436.056.3
    Government interest24.69.233.826.97.834.7
    Local authority interest0.20.20.10.1
    Government expenditure overseas16.229.245.58.849.158.0
  Miscellaneous—
    Commissions, royalties, and rebates4.916.421.35.419.124.4
    Expenses of business firms25.023.348.226.325.351.6
    Film hire and entertainment0.43.64.00.53.43.9
    Religious and charitable1.45.67.01.38.710.0
    Personal remittances, legacies, and emigrants' transfers13.625.939.516.130.146.2
    Transfers by temporary residents1.85.06.94.07.111.1
    Other current transactions2.79.512.22.210.212.4
Totals, current640.9953.01,593.9708.62,380.72,089.3
  Capital Transfers—
    Government debt repayments39.952.091.921.020.641.5
    Other official payments3.23.2
    Private46.342.789.193.666.3159.9
    Local authorities debt repayment1.41.40.90.9
Totals, capital86.396.1182.4114.690.9205.5
    I.M.F. Repurchases
Total Payments727.31,049.11,776.5823.21,471.62,294.8
    Surplus of receipts over payments+20.8+298.6+319.4−67.9+199.1+131.2

The next table gives overseas exchange transactions in summary form for a number of June years, which fit more closely to the farm-production export season than do calendar years. Information for calendar years over a similar period is in the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

ItemYear Ended 30 June
196819691970197119721973
NZ$(million)
Receipts
Exports—
    Butter106.5109.4118.5124.5145.3106.3
    Cheese45.841.350.951.871.764.3
    Meat261.1315.8413.9414.8447.7585.7
    Wool168.2226.1228.5206.1252.5436.3
    Other251.7308.1352.6396.6469.9580.5
    Total exports833.31,000.81,164.51,193.81,387.11,773.1
Other current receipts119.1144.2155.8209.6266.0349.9
    Total current receipts952.41,145.01,320.31,403.41,653.12,123.0
Capital receipts—
    Government borrowing81.048.86.269.4112.14.2
    Other official receipts
    Private54.646.363.0117.5175.7187.0
    Total capital receipts135.695.169.2186.9287.9191.2
I.M.F.—
    Drawings45.8
    Allocation of SDRs23.619.319.119.1
    Total Receipts1,133.71,240.11,413.01,609.51,960.12,314,2
Payments
Imports—
    Government56.548.445.263.366.165.9
    Private577.8723.1843.3962.21,006.51,182.8
    Total imports634.3771.6888.51,025.51,072.61,248.7
Other current payments—      
    Government61.564.370.970.477.598.2
    Private219.2259.1299.3321.7372.8451.1
    Total current payments915.01,095.01,258.81,417.61,522.81,798.0
Capital payments—
    Government debt repayments7.446.218.721.749.992.9
    Other official repayments26.832.27.65.32.8
    Private28.240.455.955.794.591.6
    Total capital payments62.3118.782.282.7147.2184.5
I.M.F. repurchases62.526.118.4
    Total payments1,039.91,239.91,359.41,500.31,670.11,982.5
Balance on trade transactions+199.0+229.2+276.0+168.3+314.5+524.4
Balance on current account “Invisible” transactions−161.7−179.3−214.4−182.5−184.2−199.4
Balance on current account+37.3+49.9+61.5−14.3+130.3+325.0
Balance on capital account+73.3−23.7−13.0+104.2+140.7+6.8
I.M.F. transactions (incl. SDRs)−16.7−26.1+5.1+19.3+19.1+ −
Change in official overseas reserves+119.4+22.7+20.4+114.3+298.4+335.8

Overseas Travel Allowances—Since 1938, there have been restrictions on the amount of overseas travel funds made available for non-business purposes. From June 1973 trading banks have been able to sell overseas exchange to travellers up to $1,000 a month with a maximum of $4,000 a year. Requests for higher amounts need to be referred to the Reserve Bank, which is prepared to approve all reasonable requests.

Exchange Control—Transactions affecting overseas exchange are governed by the Exchange Control Regulations 1965, made under the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964. The exemption in respect of dealings in sterling area currencies and securities in the hands of New Zealand residents was continued by the Exchange Control Exemption Notice 1965.

Certain new measures in exchange control and related fields were introduced by the Minister of Finance in the Budget of 16 June 1966, and are set out in paragraphs (a) to (d).

(a) Overseas Securities and Currencies: The facility previously available to New Zealand residents to sell overseas sterling area securities for New Zealand currency or other assets in New Zealand was withdrawn. These securities could then be sold only for other sterling area securities or for sterling area currencies. Therefore, if a New Zealand resident sought cash in New Zealand for his sterling area securities the only avenue available at law was to sell overseas and transfer the proceeds to New Zealand through the banking system.

This measure, in effect, closed the market in sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency. A limited market has since been re-opened (see(f) below).

In June 1972 the United Kingdom made changes in its exchange control system. As a result the sterling area and the non-sterling area were redefined. For New Zealand exchange control purposes the sterling area incorporates the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland. The non-sterling area covers all other countries outside New Zealand except Rhodesia. Exchange control transactions with Rhodesia are strictly limited because of the United Nations sanctions against that country Therefore, all currencies and securities domiciled outside New Zealand (except Rhodesia) may now be dealt with freely, i.e., in the same manner as sterling area currencies and securities were previously. (See also paragraph (f)).

(b) Export and Import of New Zealand Notes: A limit was set in June 1966 on the export of notes at $10 for all travellers, regardless of destination.

The importation of New Zealand money (including postal notes, money orders, cheques, and promissory notes, but excluding travellers' cheques) was also prohibited, except that travellers to New Zealand could bring in with them up to $10 in New Zealand notes.

From June 1971 travellers from New Zealand have been able to take out up to $50 (of which not more than $4 may be in coin and the denominations of the notes may not exceed $5). For travellers to New Zealand there is now no restriction on bringing in notes of $1 or $2 or $5 or coin of any denomination.

(c) Supervision of Non-Residents' Accounts in New Zealand: The Reserve Bank was given power to exercise supervision over specific accounts in New Zealand of non-residents, with banks or elsewhere. The following accounts were initially declared to be controlled accounts:

  • Those of non-resident banks;

  • Those of non-resident travel agents;

  • A group of seven individual accounts connected with international currency dealers.

A subsequent notice to banks had the effect of bringing under control any accounts for the credit to which New Zealand money was received from overseas without the consent of the Reserve Bank. No change of policy was involved, this being a technical measure to ensure that transfers of funds outside the banking system were not facilitated by the operation of New Zealand accounts.

(d) London-domiciled New Zealand Government Stock: In 1920 provision was made for New Zealand residents to transfer holdings of London-domiciled New Zealand stock to the New Zealand register, a facility which provided a means of transferring funds to New Zealand outside the banking system. The volume of such transactions in recent years became excessive, and the following conditions were therefore applied to transfers to the New Zealand register on 16 June 1966:

  • Stock must have been registered in the applicant's name for at least six months;

  • After stock has been transferred to the New Zealand register it may not be sold for six months.

Since 5 September 1969 the transfer to the New Zealand register has been limited to stock held on or prior to that date. Stock purchased subsequently may not be transferred to the New Zealand register.

(e) Capital Issues Control: Any New Zealand incorporated company which is 25 percent or more owned by overseas residents and any branch of an overseas company requires the prior consent of the Reserve Bank in terms of the Capital Issues (Overseas) Regulations 1965 before it may borrow, or, in the case of New Zealand incorporated companies, issue shares in New Zealand. While bank advances are specifically exempt from these regulations, requests for higher overdraft limits are subject to Reserve Bank approval in terms of section 34 of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964.

Any New Zealand incorporated company also requires the prior consent of the Reserve Bank before it borrows overseas or issues shares to overseas residents.

(f) Market in Overseas Securities: Trading in overseas sterling area securities in exchange for New Zealand currency is confined to New Zealand residents, and to securities which were registered in the names of New Zealand residents on 16 June 1966. All dealings must be effected through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, and both seller and purchaser must supply details of the transaction to an approved depository, with whom the scrip must be lodged. Securities so purchased may be sold for New Zealand currency under the same conditions, or sold for overseas currency through a member of a New Zealand stock exchange, provided the proceeds are either remitted to New Zealand or re-invested in similar securities within three months. The new scrip must also be lodged with an approved depository. The approved depositories are the Reserve Bank in Wellington and its branches in Auckland and Christchurch and the Bank of New South Wales (in respect of its own shares only). Up to 31 December 1973 some 96,083 transactions involving approximately 45,100,000 shares had taken place under these arrangements.

Administrative details on import and export control and exchange allocation are set out in Section 22A.

ROYAL COMMISSION ON MONETARY, BANKING, AND CREDIT SYSTEMS—The report of the Royal Commission, which was released in April 1956 (as parliamentary paper B. 3, 1956) gives a general background on the monetary, banking, and credit systems of New Zealand. The Royal Commission examined and reported on these systems and made recommendations within its order of reference which had the stated objectives of fostering a greater degree of stability in prices, maintaining full employment, ensuring the healthy development of natural resources, and promoting generally the economic, financial, and social welfare of the people.

Section 4 of the report outlines the history of monetary, banking, and credit systems from 1934 to 1955. As recommended by the Royal Commission, New Zealand has joined the International Monetary Fund, a Monetary and Economic Council has been established, and the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act has been amended to give the Government full and final responsibility for decisions on monetary policy. (A summary of the report was given as Appendix (d) of the 1956 issue of the Yearbook.)

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT, AND INTERNATIONAL FINANCE CORPORATION—New Zealand became a member of these three organisations on 31 August 1961 under the International Finance Agreements Act 1961. The organisations are specialised agencies of the United Nations, and their objectives and the implications of New Zealand membership are set out in parliamentary paper A. 12, 1961. One of the purposes of the International Monetary Fund is to give confidence to members by making the fund's resources available to them under adequate safeguards, thus providing them with opportunity to correct maladjustments in their balance of payments without resorting to measures destructive of national or international prosperity. By paying in some gold and the balance of its fund quota in its own currency a member is able to draw against its gold for a nominal cost. New Zealand's fund quota was increased in March 1966 and again in December 1970 with the result that drawing rights have risen to a maximum of $225.5 million. In addition, drawings may be made under the fund's compensatory finance arrangements.

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) is designed to promote the international flow of capital for productive purposes and to assist in financing the development of the resources of its member countries.

New Zealand paid $24.4 million in gold and $1 million in New Zealand currency to join the three agencies, and in addition $77.2 million of non-negotiable non-interest bearing bonds were lodged with the Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

The World Bank made a loan of $5.6 million to New Zealand in November 1963. The loan is for a term of 25 years and bears interest at 5/12; percent, including the 1 percent commission which is allocated to the Bank's special reserve. It has assisted in financing improvements at the ports of Auckland, Lyttelton, Napier, Timaru, and Whangarei, and applied to the overseas-currency content of capital works. A loan of $23.4 million was received for the Cook Strait electricity cable project. These loan agreements are set out in parliamentary papers A. 21 and A. 23, 1964.

In December 1965 the World Bank agreed to lend $30.2 million for railways modernisation and $14.7 million for power development. The railways loan is being used to buy additional diesel locomotives and rolling stock, while part was used to pay for the second rail-road ferry Aranui. The electricity development loan was used to meet the overseas costs in the building of the thermal power station at Marsden Point, Whangarei. The term of the loans is 15 years with interest at 6/14; percent.

New Zealand's transactions with the International Monetary Fund are shown in the attached table. Special drawing rights are intended to supplement existing reserve assets and facilitate the expansion of world trade.

DateDrawingsRepurchasesDrawings OutstandingSpecial Drawing RightsTotal Holdings
Acquisitions*Utilisation

*Includes both allocations to New Zealand from the IMF and SDRs received by way of transactions with other countries.

NZ$(million)
1965—Nov 1055.455.4
1966—Mar 237.162.5
1967—May 1026.188.6
        Oct 3140.2128.8
        Dec 513.4142.1
1968—Mar 2631.3110.9
        May 831.379.6
        Nov 120.179.6
        Dec 1326.153.5
1969—Aug 2018.435.0
1970—Jan 123.623.5
        Sep 1635.023.20.3
1971—Jan 119.319.4
        Oct 195.424.8
1972—Jan 119.143.9
        Jan 183.647.5
        Jun 164.551.6
        Sep 120.452.1

ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK—New Zealand is participating in the Asian Development Bank, whose main objective is to accelerate the economic development of the ECAFE region. New Zealand's contribution to the capital stock of the Bank is US$22.56 million, half of which is payable in convertible currency and half in New Zealand currency. The local currency portion is restricted to payment for goods and services produced in New Zealand. At the present time only half of the capital stock of the Bank is being paid up so the cost to New Zealand's overseas reserves has been just over $5 million since contributions began in 1966.

MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL—In 1961, in line with a recommendation of the Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems, there was established a Monetary and Economic Council whose principal functions are to report from time to time on the extent to which stability in the prices of goods and services, economic growth, full employment, and higher standards of living are being achieved, and to make recommendations as to measures that should be taken to promote such developments. Among other matters, the council is required to consider the provision of finance for the expansion of primary and secondary industries and of services, and the ensuring of a balanced relationship between the creation and issue of money and the production and provision of goods and services. A series of reports have been made to the Government and have been published.

DEVELOPMENT FINANCE CORPORATION—This Corporation was established under the Development Finance Corporation Act 1964 primarily as a lender of last resort for small and medium sized businesses which could not secure finance on reasonable terms from conventional sources. The corporation's share capital was owned in approximately equal thirds by the Reserve Bank, the Associated Trading Banks, and a group of insurance companies.

The scope of the corporation's activities was progressively broadened in the years following its establishment and in the 1973 Budget, the corporation was made responsible for the administration of the special schemes of suspensory loans, mortgage guarantees, and bank overdraft guarantees designed by Government for the encouragement of regional development and the growth of export industries. In June 1973 Government acquired by negotiation the whole of the share capital and the corporation was reconstituted under the Development Finance Corporation Act 1973.

The general functions of the corporation are to provide finance for the establishment of new industries and for the development of existing industries and to encourage and promote investment in the industrial development of New Zealand by providing suitable technical advice.

The corporation secures finance for its operation partly by direct loans from Government and partly by borrowing from the public, both by way of medium- and long-term debentures and by way of short-term deposits. Loans to the corporation are defined by its Act as trustee securities. The corporation is also prepared in appropriate circumstances to act on behalf of borrowers as a financial intermediary in arranging overseas sources.

Chapter 32. Section 30; INVESTMENT AND FINANCE

30 A—MORTGAGES

MORTGAGE LAW—The borrowing of money on mortgage is a principal means of financing the erection or purchase of houses and commercial buildings, and the purchase of farms. Under the Land Transfer Act 1952 “mortgage” means and includes any charge on land created under the provisions of that Act for securing:

  • The repayment of a loan or satisfaction of an existing debt.

  • The repayment of future advances, or payment or satisfaction of any future or unascertained debt or liability, contingent or otherwise.

  • The payment to the holders for the time being of any bonds, debentures, promissory notes, or other securities, negotiable or otherwise, made or issued by the mortgagor before or after the creation of such charge.

  • The payment to any person or persons by yearly or periodical payments or otherwise of an annuity, rent charge, or sum of money other than a debt.

Where the ownership of land is registered under the Land Transfer Act (as, see Section 10A, the great majority of land titles now are) mortgages on that land are granted by virtue of the provisions of that Act; they take effect as securities and do not operate as transfers of the estate or interest charged. In the case of other land or property a mortgage is granted under what is known as the deeds or deeds-registration system; the mortgage in this instance operating as a conveyance or assignment of the land or property mortgaged, for the mortgagee becomes the registered proprietor of the land, subject to the right of the mortgagor to have the property reregistered in his name on the discharge of his obligations under the mortgage. Although in form a mortgage under the deeds system is a conveyance, in equity it is treated as merely a charge on the land.

SUMMARY OF MORTGAGES REGISTERED AND DISCHARGED—A table is given showing the number of urban and rural registrations, and amounts involved.

(A longer time series is produced in the Statistical Summary at the back of the Yearbook.)
Year Ended 31 MarchMortgage RegistrationsAreaAmount Secured
UrbanRuralTotalRuralUrbanRuralTotal
NOTE—These figures exclude certain miscellaneous registrations, but may include minor duplications.
  No. hectares$(m)$(m)$(m)
    (000)   
196348,78410,52859,3121,300205.1103.9309.0
196452,61311,40864,0211,490222.9117.4340.3
196558,23213,29971,5311,739257.2162.8420.0
196662,80914,16976,9781,829308.0180.0488.0
196761,01714,28675,3032,196307.8185.6493.4
196860,15513,18073,3351,901315.3152.4467.8
196963,16912,37475,5431,641334.3148.1482.3
197069,49513,98383,4781,805388.3185.6573.9
197180,03917,90397,9422,448488.4214.6703.0
197285,44617,454102,9002,463544.5215.3759.8
1973101,04417,960119,0042,339684.0256.7940.7

The 101,044 urban mortgages in 1972–73 were in the following categories: first table, 38,208, first flat, 34,175; subsequent table, 12,437; subsequent flat, 12,368; increases in amount, 3,856. The 17,960 rural mortgages in 1972–73 were in the following categories: first table, 4,469; first flat, 6,052; subsequent table, 2,564; subsequent flat, 3,239; increases in amount 1,646.

MORTGAGES REGISTERED: Value by Districts—The total amount for which mortgages were registered, under the Land Transfer Act, in each registration district is given in the next table.

District1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
$(million)
North Auckland152.5175.5221.3239.0285.8
South Auckland70.682.6100.0110.5140.0
Gisborne5.97.08.58.99.4
Hawke's Bay21.326.830.432.742.8
Taranaki14.317.323.524.230.2
Wellington95.0108.3129.5141.3188.8
Marlborough5.96.28.48.39.6
Nelson9.211.115.217.917.4
Westland1.72.12.93.33.1
Canterbury58.978.195.7104.9123.9
Otago28.331.939.339.451.5
Southland18.727.128.229.438.3
Totals482.3573.9703.0759.8940.7

The following table shows urban and rural mortgages by land registration district for 1972–73. Auckland urban area, the largest centre of population in New Zealand, is in the North Auckland district.

Land Registration DistrictUrbanRuralTotal
NumberAmountNumberAmountAreaNumberAmount
     hectares  
  $(m) $(m)(000) $(m)
North Auckland33,697242.23,70143.521837,398285.8
South Auckland12,08680.24,00159.832616,087140.0
Gisborne9174.73804.61031,2979.4
Hawke's Bay4,42925.41,00117.41695,43042.8
Taranaki2,06713.51,08216.71273,14930.2
Wellington21,979157.02,08731.829424,066188.8
Marlborough9025.33154.3991,2179.6
Nelson2,27713.05244.3492,80117.4
Westland3731.71191.5234923.1
Canterbury14,03088.92,43335.039016,463123.9
Otago5,66033.81,15717.73546,81751.5
Southland2,62718.31,16019.91873,78738.2
Totals101,044684.017,960256.72,339119,004940.7

Classification by Amounts—The following table shows urban and rural mortgages by amount groups for 1972–73.

Amount GroupUrbanRuralAll Properties
NumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmount
$ $(000) $(000) $(000)
Under    1,0003,8092,2742461404,0552,414
  1,000–  1,9999,87113,12466087410,53113,999
  2,000–  3,99917,03445,1941,8725,15218,90650,347
  4,000–  5,99911,94856,1061,6597,76813,60763,874
  6,000–  7,99912,93287,8081,4519,66914,38397,477
  8,000–  9,99913,752121,3441,0899,34414,841130,688
10,000–14,99914,367162,6072,38427,56016,751190,168
15,000 and over6,814195,5695,789196,21112,603391,781
Unspecified10,5172,81013,327
Totals101,044684,02717,960256,719119,004940,747

Rates of Interest—The average rate of interest on new mortgages over the last 50 years is given in a table in the Statistical Summary at the end of this Yearbook.

The average rate of interest for urban properties for 1972–73 was 7.74 percent, as compared with 7.23 percent for rural properties. The comparable rates for 1971–72 were 7.61 and 6.82 percent respectively.

In 1972–73 the number of 3-percent mortgages decreased from 944 to 582 and the amount advanced decreased from $8.4 million to $5.8 million.

An analysis showing amounts classified by interest rate groups is given below. It should be noted that some mortgages, notably those of trading banks, do not specify the rate of interest.

Year Ended 31 MarchNot Exceeding 3 PercentOver 3 Percent to 5 PercentOver 5 Percent to 5/12; PercentOver 5/12; Percent to 6 PercentOver 6 Percent to 6/12; PercentOver 6/12; Percent to 7 PercentOver 7 Percent to 8 PercentExceeding 8 Percent
$(million)
196339.160.431.772.533.017.48.85.9
196434.062.726.571.653.023.212.87.6
196532.986.427.292.463.933.213.011.7
196627.191.528.181.7107.050.224.322.3
196713.7102.126.146.193.482.439.324.4
19688.944.656.931.064.1109.857.534.2
19699.527.865.130.869.5108.274.737.7
197010.826.276.638.974.4145.0105.937.5
197117.320.5105.946.365.3149.7175.051.2
19729.518.6109.833.625.1101.7239.1140.9
19736.420.0135.226.822.6109.4267.9256.1

A similar analysis by interest rate groups is shown (together with the annual average interest rate) in the following diagram.

Mortgages by Class—In this section, mortgages are tabulated by class, i.e., as first flat, subsequent flat, first table, subsequent table, and as increases on existing mortgages, The majority of housing mortgages, especially those from Government agencies, are table (or instalment) mortgages. At the 1966 Census, out of a total of 716,104 inhabited permanent private dwellings, 213,807 were owned with table mortgage compared with 80,885 owned with flat mortgage (197,085 dwellings were owned without mortgage, 177,429 were rented or leased, and the balance of the dwellings were free with job, loaned without payment, or the tenure was unspecified).

The following table shows the amounts advanced and average interest rates of mortgages on urban and rural property by class. Mortgages for which the interest rates are not specified are excluded from the calculations of average rates.

Year Ended 31 MarchClass of MortgageTotal, Urban and Rural
UrbanRural
First FlatFirst TableTotal (Including Other)First FlatFirst TableTotal (Including Other)
Amount advanced $(m)
196898.1172.5315.351.855.7152.4467.8
196988.5202.9334.344.961.1148.1482.3
197074.4258.6388.346.781.1185.6573.9
1971112.6304.2488.454.286.5214.6703.0
1972193.3263.7544.564.569.0215.3759.8
1973250.3335.7684.088.081.2256.7940.7
Average interest rate (percent)
19687.336.196.776.646.176.396.64
19697.456.366.846.736.376.506.74
19707.366.546.876.866.446.556.77
19717.686.567.027.016.366.546.88
19728.226.817.617.436.476.827.40
19738.337.017.737.796.887.237.60

From 12 February 1958 the State Advances Corporation has made housing loans with provision for rebate of interest to 3 percent where the income of applicants does not exceed prescribed limits. If mortgages at 3 percent interest are excluded from the calculations, the average rate of interest on all mortgages during recent years becomes 6.41 percent in 1966–67, 6.71 percent in 1967–68, 6.81 percent in 1968–69, 6.84 percent in 1969–70, 6.98 percent in 1970–71, 7.45 percent in 1971–72, and 7.63 percent in 1972–73.

SOURCES OF MORTGAGE FINANCE—The following table indicates the sources of finance for mortgages registered. For mortgages on urban properties, 18.6 percent of the aggregate advances in 1972–73 were obtained from Government agencies (of which the principal one is the State Advances Corporation) compared with 17.0 percent in 1971–72.

Year Ended 31 MarchGovernmentLocal AuthoritiesTrading BanksTrustee Savings BanksBuilding SocietiesInsurance CompaniesPrivate IndividualsAll OtherTotal
$(million)
Urban Properties
196865.70.41.611.742.039.7100.653.7315.3
196968.30.52.718.144.745.8105.648.6334.3
197076.00.44.222.356.649.7114.464.9388.3
197195.71.14.734.966.049.6126.4110.2488.4
197292.50.64.337.561.351.6144.6152.1544.5
1973127.20.78.259.071.054.9150.0213.0684.0
Rural Properties
196835.70.10.62.34.419.370.919.2152.4
196933.30.11.64.25.219.062.821.8148.0
197047.80.12.54.86.522.472.329.2185.6
197167.40.11.96.27.818.076.137.0214.6
197278.60.11.44.86.515.572.735.7215.3
197383.90.11.48.37.919.082.653.4256.7

Points to note in considering statistics of mortgages by source of finance are that most trading bank mortgages specify neither interest rates nor the amounts involved; and that the Government Life Insurance Office and the State Insurance Office are included among Government agencies, not with insurance companies.

Supplementary details on sources of mortgage finance with numbers and amounts of mortgages at various rates of interest are given in a supplement to the July 1974 issue of the Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

MORTGAGES DISCHARGED—Details of urban and rural discharges for the latest 2 years are given in the following table.

Land Registration District1971–721972–73
UrbanRuralUrbanRural
NumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m) $(m) $(m)
North Auckland21,540108.52,20115.926,257139.73,06423.9
South Auckland6,81537.22,41124.88,32541.72,81729.2
Gisborne6654.32351.77522.82602.0
Hawke's Bay2,58712.25726.93,09513.16618.7
Taranaki1,3915.87126.11,6457.57927.3
Wellington13,74467.41,34712.016,64189.11,57615.8
Marlborough6072.42921.58033.82632.3
Nelson1,54614.74212.41,7367.44392.5
Westland3000.71020.42860.9710.7
Canterbury8,96740.41,30012.710,71047.41,68016.8
Otago4,54716.37646.15,14120.28447.7
Southland1,9809.26496.42,18711.08238.8
Totals64,693319.011,00696.877,578384.613,290125.5

Many discharges are not registered, particularly in the case of leaseholds and also of second or other further mortgages when the power of sale has been exercised by the first mortgagee. The figures for discharges are further affected by the high proportion of table mortgages. This is particularly so in cases where the mortgage is approaching maturity, since the whole amount remains on the register until finally discharged, despite the fact that the original amount of indebtedness has been considerably reduced.

30 B—STATE FINANCE OF HOUSING AND FARMS

GENERAL—Government first entered the field of mortgage finance in 1894 with the passing of the Government Advances to Settlers Act—the objective being to provide loans at economic interest rates and on stable terms and conditions to farmers for land development purposes. The functions of the office, later known as the State Advances Department, were subsequently enlarged to allow loans for the erection and purchase of houses and to local authorities for the provision of public facilities. A public corporation was established with the passing of the Mortgage Corporation Act 1934–35—the share capital of $2,000,000 being subscribed equally by Government and public. In terms of the State Advances Corporation Act 1936, the Government acquired the privately-owned share of the Mortgage Corporation, extended its functions and changed its name to the State Advances Corporation of New Zealand. Under the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation Act 1974 the rural lending activities of the State Advances Corporation have passed to the new corporation from 1 April 1974. Loans may be made in respect of farms and farm support industries. The State Advances Corporation has transferred part of its General Reserve Fund and approved securities to the Rural Banking and Finance Corporation.

Under the Housing Corporation Act there is provision for the functions of the State Advances Corporation in housing to be amalgamated with those hitherto performed by the Housing Division of the Ministry of Works and Development to constitute a Housing Corporation responsible to the Minister of Housing.

Since 1937 when Government embarked upon the scheme for the erection of State rental houses, the corporation has been responsible for the letting and subsequent administration of these properties.

FARM LOANS—Loan finance is granted by the corporation for the purchase and/or development of farm properties. Present policy is directed towards stimulating increased production, the strengthening of marginal farms and assisting suitable young farmers and farm workers who can demonstrate a need for finance from the corporation, and who have not previously owned an economic property. Loans may be granted for the purchase of land and improvements and stock and plant, the erection of necessary buildings, and for essential development work. Loans are generally limited to two-thirds of the corporation's value of the land and improvements, although loans in excess of this margin may be approved where collateral security over stock and plant is available. The maximum loan available for the purchase of a dairy farm is $45,000 and for a sheep farm $65,000. However, loans in excess of these amounts will be considered in special circumstances, such as high-country sheep stations. Some funds are allocated for refinancing of existing debts where these are considered to be onerous. Where a farmer whose property is already mortgaged elsewhere requires finance for development and for increasing production, the corporation is able in appropriate cases to grant loans by way of second (or subsequent) mortgage. The current interest rate for new farm purchase loans is 7 percent on first mortgage security. Interest rate for refinancing loans is 7 percent first mortgage and 8 percent second and subsequent mortgage. Farm development and amalgamation loans bear an interest rate of 5/12; percent first mortgage and 6 percent second or subsequent mortgage up to $30,900 (including any previous loans) thereafter at 7 percent and 8 percent respectively. Repayments are normally on a table basis for 25 years but this is often varied to suit the particular case.

Loans on Stock and Plant—Loans by way of first security over stock and plant only can be granted by the corporation to fanners, including sharemilkers and lessees of farms, for the purchase of stock and plant or for other farming purposes. These loans are limited to 60 percent of the value of the stock and plant with a maximum of $12,000 for one man. The loans are repayable over a short term, usually 5 years with interest at 5/12; percent.

Co-operative Rural Intermediate Credit Associations—Loans may be granted by the corporation to co-operative rural intermediate credit associations operating in terms of the Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927 and amendments. The interest rate charged by the corporation to the associations is 4/12; percent and the associations relend to their members at 5/12; percent for the purchase of farm stock and plant or other farming purposes. The loans are secured over the stock and plant and are repayable by the farmer borrowers over a short term, usually 5 years. At 31 March 1972 there were five co-operative rural intermediate credit associations in operation. The loans authorised through this channel during the year 1972–73 amounted to $1,716,180, and loans current at the end of the year amounted to $2,119,391.

FARM MORTGAGE GUARANTEES—In recognition of the need for farmers to have access to more capital for future reorganisation and reconstruction than the Corporation can make available by direct loans, the Corporation operates a Farm Mortgage Guarantee Scheme. Under this scheme the corporation protects prudent lenders with soundly administered mortgages against loss of capital. For an additional fee and at the lender's option the corporation also offers a guarantee of payment of instalments due in terms of the mortgage if the farmer is temporarily unable to meet them. The optional instalment scheme operates only for the first 5 years and for a maximum of 2 years charges. These guarantees are backed by the existing reserves of the corporation.

An important feature of the Corporation Farm Mortgage Guarantee is that the loan can be classed as a trustee investment even though normal trustee limits are exceeded.

All lenders, including vendors, are eligible to have their mortgages guaranteed. The farm property concerned must be capable of servicing the total debt and the mortgagor is expected to have a minimum equity of 30 percent of the value of the proposition. Loans of up to 80 percent of the mortgageable value of the security (as determined by a registered valuer) may be guaranteed.

Both table and flat mortgages on first, second, and subsequent securities are acceptable. One single fee is payable on the first uplifting of loan moneys. The fee varies between 25c and $2 per $100 of loan guaranteed, according to risk.

HOUSING LOANS—In view of the heavy calls on its funds the corporation continues to concentrate its residential ending on the provision of loans for the erection of houses or the acquisition of houses not previously occupied. In 1964 the provision of loans to assist home seekers to purchase previously occupied houses was reinstated and has since been operated to the extent of available funds. The loans are made on the security of a first mortgage of land. Each case is considered on its merits taking into account the financial position of the applicant and the cost of the proposition. Each applicant is expected to make a reasonable contribution himself.

Loans on first mortgage for the purchase of houses which have been previously occupied are in general limited to two-thirds of the assessed value of the property.

In February 1958 a scheme was introduced whereby loans with interest rebated to 3 percent were made available for the erection of houses or the acquisition of houses not previously occupied. In May 1964 the scheme was extended to loans for the purchase of houses previously occupied. To qualify for a rebated interest loan the borrowers must not have owned a property within 5 years prior to the date of the loan application and the breadwinner's gross income, excluding overtime, must not exceed $70 a week increased by $5 for each dependent child.

Loans now being granted at 3 percent interest provide for the interest rate to be raised to 4 percent after three years and 5/12; percent (the corporation's usual lending rate) after a further three years. The normal interest rate is subject to a 5-yearly review.

For the year ended 31 March 1973, 466 loans involving $3,982,000 were authorised with rebate to 3 percent compared with 782 loans for $5,511,720 in 1971–72.

Loans will also be granted for alterations or additions and where the housing of an elderly or dependent relative is involved. Loans may be up to 90 percent of the value and may be by way of first or second mortgage security.

Housing improvement loans were introduced from November 1972. The pilot scheme is confined to inner areas of the four main centres. The main purpose is the up-grading of the older housing stock. Loans will be entertained for owner-occupied or tenanted properties on first or subsequent mortgage.

The 1973 Budget authorised the corporation to refinance existing mortgages on a residential property where the family income is under undue strain caused by high interest rates and/or onerous terms of repayment. It is not necessary for the property to be already mortgaged to the corporation in order to qualify.

Family Benefit Capitalisation—A further scheme of housing finance administered by the corporation is that involving capitalisation of family benefits, which came into operation on 1 April 1959, the moneys for which are provided by the Social Welfare Department and paid out by the corporation. Applications for advances under the Family Benefit (Home Ownership) Act 1964 are received only from applicants who have already been declared eligible by the Social Welfare Department. For the year ended 31 March 1973, 5,421 advances totalling $7,045,423 were authorised by the corporation under this agency, compared with 4,489 advances totalling $5,780,450 in 1971–72.

Mortgage Guarantee Scheme For Housing—The corporation has statutory authority to guarantee mortgages and operates schemes whereby an approved lender may be guaranteed either repayment of that portion of a housing loan granted by the institution in excess of its normal limits (usually two-thirds of the value) or the whole of the amount advanced. The guarantee operates up to 90 percent of value for a first table mortgage or 85 percent for a first flat mortgage, but second or subsequent mortgages are also guaranteed. Loans granted under this scheme are for the erection of a house, for the purchase of an existing house, for alterations and additions, or to refinance existing mortgages. Fees are assessed in accordance with the type of loan guaranteed. Guarantees since the inception of the scheme total 7,837 involving $52,347,379 advanced by lending institutions, of which $10,112,309 was guaranteed.

REHABILITATION—The corporation is the principal agent for the Rehabilitation Board regarding loans granted on rehabilitation terms to eligible ex-servicemen for the purchase and improvement of farms and the purchase or erection of dwellings. Loan moneys for these purposes are made available from the corporation's own funds. The securities taken by the corporation are similar to mortgages taken for the purpose of securing loans made under the corporation's ordinary lending activities, except that the Reserve Fund contribution on loans within the respective rehabilitation loan limits is paid to the corporation by the Consolidated Revenue Account which also meets the difference between the corporation's normal interest rate and the reduced interest rate charged to ex-servicemen. The classes of loans currently granted are set out in Section 6B (War Pensions).

LOANS TO INDUSTRY—The corporation is also authorised to make loans for the development of existing industries or the establishment of new industries where they are in the public interest. Apart from loans, guarantees may also be given to other lenders, in terms of Government schemes designed to promote the provision of tourist accommodation and the development of the fishing industry.

LOAN AUTHORISATIONS—A summary of loans authorised by the corporation for the latest 2 financial years ended 31 March is given in the following table.

Class of Loan1971–721972–73
NumberAmountNumberAmount
Farm loans— $(000)..$(000)
    Purchase42310,44652416,052
    Development1,91218,6631,31512,796
    Refinance1,60916,2964224,784
    Additional land1,16222,8731,24428,186
Stock loans—
    Direct4882,5465013,656
    RIC associations2301,2852541,716
Lands Department settlements2455321581
Totals, rural5,84872,6624,28167,771
Housing loans—
    Erection6,34049,89410,319102,622
    Purchase4,99733,0673,06024,269
    Other purposes5038527571,645
Totals, urban11,84083,81314,136128,536
Loans to industry528,736403,294
Grand totals17,740165,21118,457199,601

The above figures include rehabilitation loans to ex-servicemen in respect of farms and houses.

The aggregate loans approved from its own funds since the corporation commenced business in 1935 to 31 March 1973 are as follows.

Type of LoanNumberAmount

*Since 1958 the whole of the General Reserve Fund has been invested in Government securities.

  $(million)
Farm67,722690.6
Housing288,6581,332.3
Loans to industry37255.8
Loans to local authorities (from General Reserve Fund)*1,13138.3
Totals357,8832,117.0

Conditions of Loans—The large majority of the loans granted by the corporation are secured by table mortgages for terms varying from 10 to 30 years, but the corporation also has power to make advances on flat mortgages on certain conditions.

When loans are granted in excess of normal lending margins, mortgagors may be required to offer some form of collateral security (e.g., mortgage of life policy).

All mortgagors who receive from the corporation a loan secured by a mortgage of land are required to pay, as a contribution to the corporation's General Reserve Fund, an amount equal to 2 percent of the amount of the loan and this amount may be borrowed as an addition to the principal sum if so desired. This contribution may be waived, or reduced, in respect of a loan granted within 5 years of repaying an earlier loan from the corporation. These amounts, together with the transfer from profits referred to later, form the General Reserve Fund.

Interest Rates—The rates of interest on housing loans is generally 5/12; percent, but may range up to 8 percent if the corporation is second or subsequent encumbrancer and on loans to industry 6 to 7 percent (farm loans are covered earlier).

Mortgages granted after 1 April 1968 provide for a review of the rate of interest at 5-yearly intervals.

Annual Repayment Costs—The following summary shows the annual cost—i.e., interest and principal payments—per $100 borrowed on table mortgage at 3 percent, 5/12; percent, and 6 percent for the various periods.

TeamAnnual Amount Payable Per $100 Borrowed
3 Percent5/12; Percent6 Percent
 $$$
10 years11.6413.1413.44
15 years8.329.9010.20
20 years6.688.308.66
25 years5.727.407.78
30 years5.086.847.22

FINANCIAL—Balance-sheet figures show that at 31 March 1973 stock and debentures outstanding were $346,022,780. National Development Loans capital was $682,523,230, compared with $597,523,230 at 31 March 1972.

The General Reserve Fund at 31 March 1973 amounted to $52,583,109 and in addition there were specific reserves amounting to $10,163,109, making total reserves of $62,746,218 as compared with $57,518,291 at 31 March 1972.

Funds available to the corporation from National Development Loans Accounts have been subject to an interest rate of 4/12; percent from 1 April 1963, and a total of $85,000,000 was advanced during the year.

As from the same date the corporation was reimbursed for interest concessions on civilian rebated housing loans (that is, for the difference between its normal lending rate and the rebated rate). This reimbursement is effected by deduction from interest payments due by the corporation to the Public Account in respect of National Development Loans capital and the interest concessions so reimbursed amounted to $3,370,349 for the year ended 31 March 1973.

Mortgages and accrue interest at 31 March 1973 totalled $1,024,546,750, an increase of $82,064,246 over the amount at 31 March 1972, while Government and local authority securities and accrued interest, at $63,457,916, were greater by $6,856,577.

After such provision as the Minister of Finance thinks proper has been made for the depreciation of securities or other assets, and for such other matters as in his opinion are necessary for the efficient conduct of the business of the corporation, the surplus for each financial year after payment of income tax is to be paid into the Public Account unless the Minister, in his discretion, authorises it to be credited in whole or in part, to the General Reserve Fund of the corporation.

The details of profits in respect of operations during each of the latest 3 financial years are given in the following table.

Disposition and Appropriation of Profits1970–711971–721972–73
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Gross income45,30049,33455,232
    Less interest on Reserve Fund investments2,5042,6942,939
    Less interest on loan capital34,49337,24541,378
        Gross Profit8,3039,39510,915
    Less management expenses3,2203,7454,068
        Net Profit5,0835,6506,847
    Less reserve for taxes2,5502,5623,091
    Less transfer to General Reserve404040
    Less transfer to Premises Capital Reserve8001,0001,000
        Surplus payable to Public Account1,6932,0482,716

The gross income of $55,391,651 in 1972–73 included $47,965,960 interest on mortgages and current accounts, $2,988,398 interest on Government and local authority securities, $846,645 recovery from the Rehabilitation Division on account of interest concessions to ex-servicemen on rehabilitation advances, and $3,370,348 for interest concessions on civilian rebated advances. Corresponding figures for 1971–72 were $49,334,298, $41,958,113, $2,783,656, and $939,678 respectively for the first four items.

HOUSING ACT 1955: In addition to its lending activities the State Advances Corporation has the important function of administering the Housing Act 1955 on behalf of the Crown. The following are the main operations:

  • Letting and administration of State rental houses and flats.

  • Sale of State rental houses to tenants desiring to purchase.

  • Loans to local authorities for the erection of rental accommodation.

State Rental Housing—The number of additional dwelling units taken over by the corporation during the year ended 31 March 1973 totalled 765. State houses under administration on a tenancy basis at 1 April 1972 were 52,580. After adding the new units taken over and allowing for sale and repurchases, there was a net total of 52,580 at 31 March 1973. An increase of 203 over the previous year.

Rental accounts in arrears at 31 March 1973 were 6.77 percent compared with 7.13 percent a year earlier.

Rents received from tenancies amounted to $20,808,759. In addition the sum of $512,088 was recouped by deduction of interest payable on National Development Loans capital to offset rental concessions granted to pensioners, etc., thus bringing the total receipts to $21,320,847 compared with $20,310,127 for 1971–72. Apart from interest, the largest single item of expenditure charged against rentals was the provision for maintenance of State houses. For the year ended 31 March 1973 this amounted to $5,980,343 against $5,336,286 for the previous year. Rates payable to local authorities showed an increase for the year ended 31 March 1973 being $3,947,257 compared with the previous year's figure of $3,508,312.

As in the preceding year, the interest rate payable on National Development Loans capital in 1971–72 was 3 percent. The year's revenue transactions in the Housing Account produced a total surplus of $1,461,323 which, together with a surplus of $12,036,062 brought forward from 1971–72, resulted in a revenue surplus of $15,039,579 being carried forward at the close of 1973.

References to State housing construction are contained in Section 19 (Building Construction and Housing).

Sale of State Houses—The corporation does not extend an automatic right to a tenant to purchase the dwelling he occupies. However in most cases tenants can purchase single units on the following terms:

  • A minimum deposit of $400 or 5 percent of the gross purchase price if this is higher but where, however, the financial position of the purchaser warrants, the corporation may require a greater deposit.

  • The balance of the purchase money, together with interest, payable over a period of up to 40 years on an instalment-table basis.

  • Interest at 5/12; percent reducible to 3 percent while conditions of sale are complied with in the case of purchasers who would qualify for a 3 percent housing loan.

  • Agreements for sale completed after 1 April 1968 provide for a review of the rate of interest at 5-yearly intervals.

From the inception of the sale of State rental houses up to 31 March 1973 the number sold was 24,996 for a total sale price of $140,111,664. Of the houses sold, 1,305 have been repurchased by the corporation for $6,553,320. The repurchases comprise properties which have been bought back in terms of the sale agreement—generally from purchasers who have transferred to other towns in the course of their employment.

Loans to Local Authorities for Housing—The corporation has authority to advance moneys received under the Housing Act 1955 to local authorities for housing purposes; loans are made for housing of the elderly and community housing including urban renewal and, in some cases, the development of land for housing. Under the Rural Housing Act 1939 the corporation had authority also to grant finance to local authorities for farm housing. A summary of loans authorised under these provisions, during the latest 2 financial years, is given in the following table.

Type of Loan to Local Authorities1971–721972–73
NumberValueNumberValue
  $(000) $(000)
Housing of the elderly461,014563,450
Community housing2,380
Rural housing311,844616,756
Totals775,23811710,206

Interest rates on loans granted to local authorities are: housing of the elderly and urban renewal schemes, 3/12; percent; other community housing, 5 percent; and rural housing 4/34; percent.

SUMMARY OF ACTIVITIES: Classification of Accounts and Balance Sheet Assets at 31 March 1973—As already indicated, the corporation, in addition to its normal lending functions, administers a number of other State activities, and a general summary of the business under administration as at 31 March 1973 is as follows.

ItemNumber of AccountsAmount
State Advances Corporation— $(000)
  Loans on mortgage—
        Rural21,756364,638
        Urban134,126622,008
        Industrial16033,122
        Hotel investment loans251,779
Totals156,0671,021,547
    Advances to rural intermediate credit associations52,119
    Advances on current account273
    Mortgage securities in course of realisation30133
    Government and local authority securities38363,458
    Fixed and current assets18,446
    Farm guarantees1041
    Sheep farmers supplementary finance scheme8041,678
Totals1,25985,878
Agencies—
    Advances under Rehabilitation Act 1941—
        Furniture, business, and miscellaneous712142
        Interest-free supplementary loans(2,267)373
    Department of Health764,184
    Gas companies14360
    Suspensory loans (rural and urban)97204
    Mines Department suspensory loans6668
    Miscellaneous rentals, etc.686
    Agriculture suspensory9,705
Totals11,3565,331
Housing Account— $(000)
    Properties sold—amounts owing13,55659,265
  Loans to local authorities—
        Urban housing63726,277
        Rural housing38816,639
  Properties let—  
        Dwellings52,408277,059
        Shops, halls, and communal garages172 
    Current assets920
Totals67,161380,160
Grand totals235,8431,492,916

Farm loans and residential loans to ex-servicemen under the Rehabilitation Act 1941 are included in the table with mortgage investments. Particulars of all rehabilitation loan authorisations will be found in Section 6B (War Pensions).

30 C—BUILDING SOCIETIES

GENERAL—Building societies are a relatively popular means of saving and investment in New Zealand and have over 430,000 members. There are 66 building societies with total assets of $359.8 million. They provide finance for home ownership to the extent of over $68 million a year. Building societies have assisted the national economy by developing the field of contractual saving. They are encouraged by legislation, as in other countries and are exempt from income tax except for income derived from the letting of property. The relevant legislation is the Building Societies Act 1965, the Building Societies Savings Bank Regulations 1966, and the Building Societies Regulations 1967.

In 1970 a measure was introduced requiring building societies to hold 5 percent of their assets in the form of public securities.

TERMINATING SOCIETIES—Although some of these societies issue preference shares and accept deposits, most of their funds are obtained from periodical subscriptions paid by members on their shares. In general members contract to subscribe for a minimum period of 10 years. Subscriptions cannot be withdrawn within 10 years of membership without penalty. Field staffs are employed to recruit by direct canvassing new members who take up subscription shares, each share entitling a member to compete for a loan of $400, with a contractual payment of 10 cents weekly per share. As funds allow, ballots are held for interest-free loans. A member winning an interest-free loan may use it to finance a home, but the popular feature of these societies is that they offer to ballot-winners, as an alternative to an interest-free loan, a tax-free lump sum payment which is accepted by the great majority of ballot-winners in preference to the interest-free loan.

Members may also compete for interest-bearing loans by a process of tendering or by application. Over 90 percent of the loans granted are on an interest-bearing basis and generally if a member receives an interest-bearing loan he is then excluded from ballots. Terminating societies do not pay an annual dividend or interest on subscription shares but shareholders who have not received a loan and withdraw their shares after 10 or more years of membership receive their subscriptions back in full plus such an amount as the directors may determine. Shares are segregated into groups which terminate after some 30 years when those remaining financial members who have not won a ballot nor received an interest-bearing loan receive a share of profits in addition to a return of their subscriptions. In 1972 there were 16 terminating societies with 392,751 shareholders and 502 terminating groups; the number of borrowers had reached 60,849.

For 1972 878 interest-free loans won by ballot were taken up, while in 3,888 cases members elected to receive payments for rights won by ballot; 1,088 advances were made through tender or auction process, and 4,647 other interest-bearing advances were made on mortgage to members.

PERMANENT SOCIETIES—Whilst encouraging systematic savings these societies rely more substantially for their funds on single investment deposits and fully paid shares. Some of these societies are authorised to conduct savings banks in a manner substantially similar to the Post Office and other savings banks. A number of permanent societies maintain financial ratios which have enabled them to qualify for designation as societies with which trustees may invest trust funds by way of deposit.

Permanent societies do not conduct ballots but make loans available to members on application. The structures of permanent societies differ, some being purely co-operative, others being partly proprietary and partly co-operative, and others being fully proprietary with all fixed capital somewhat similar to finance companies. In 1972 there were 50 permanent societies with 40,654 shareholders; the number of borrowers totalled 19,707.

ACTIVITIES OF SOCIETIES—A review of main activities is given in the following table.

 Permanent SocietiesTerminating Societies
Item1971197219711972
 $(million)
(a) At end of year—
    Paid-up capital47.952.0186.8203.7
  Borrowings—
        Savings bank deposits2.52.40.10.2
        Other deposits42.147.422.224.5
  Investments—
        NZ Government securities4.15.111.412.2
        Local authority securities1.22.49.210.4
        Other3.05.57.911.0
    Mortgages90.195.0179.1195.0
(b) During year—
    Advances made on mortgage21.919.848.849.7
    Special advances made included in above1.71.05.54.5

A summary of receipts and payments is given in the following table for the financial year of societies ended during 1972.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

* Ten societies are authorised by the Act to accept deposits on conditions substantially similar to the conditions pertaining to the Post Office, trustee, and private savings banks.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Receipts
Share subscriptions (excluding subscriptions on borrowing shares)14,66035,48150,141
Deposits received—
    Savings bank*3,7852994,084
    Other51,54416,27767,821
Interest and principal repaid—
    Advances on mortgage (including subscriptions on borrowing shares)21,38044,90766,287
    Advances on shares2386,2126,450
Investments realised11,11839,70350,821
Payments
Share moneys withdrawn
Deposits and interest withdrawn—10,89417,55328,447
    Savings bank*3,8882094,097
    Other47,85714,77162,628
Advanced on mortgage19,83349,67469,507
Advanced on shares2046,6136,817
Investments made15,75344,84160,594

A summary of income and expenditure for financial years ended in 1972 is given in the following table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

* Mainly levies on members as provisions against losses on mortgage.

† Mainly agency commissions.

Income
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
Interest earned on—
    Advances6,31412,62618,940
    Investments4971,8412,338
Fees, commissions and fines78591669
Incomes from properties54339393
Net credit from shares forfeited or withdrawn at a discount401,1201,160
    Other*58517575
Total Income7,04117,03424,075
Expenditure
Interest incurred on borrowings2,3651,4133,778
Directors' emoluments11381194
Auditors' fees285280
Salaries4061,9842,390
Other administrative expenses2611,3401,601
Selling and establishment expenses—written off281,6061,634
Payments for ballot loan rights—written off..3,3013,301
Expenses on properties, including depreciation47207254
Discount on shares paid in advance—written off..6161
Other37795832
Total expenditure3,28510,84014,125
Excess of income over expenditure3,7566,1949,950

The purposes of advances on mortgage in the three latest calendar years are shown in the following table.

Purpose of LoanPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
197019711972197019711972197019711972
  $(m)  $(m)  $(m) 
Dwellings—
    Erections3.03.53.24.96.56.77.99.99.9
    Purchases12.313.912.325.924.425.738.338.438.0
    Other purposes1.81.82.311.211.711.913.013.514.3
Business and other properties3.42.72.05.76.15.39.28.97.3
Totals20.521.919.847.848.849.768.370.769.5

The following table summarises balance sheets for the financial year ended during 1972.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies

* Most terminating societies bring the principal outstanding on interest-free loans into their balance sheets at its face value.

† In previous years included in either “Advances on security of mortgage” or “Other”.

Assets$(000)$(000)$(000)
Land and buildings1,0106,7477,757
Other fixed assets65849914
Advances on security of mortgage (less credits on borrowing shares)*94,976194,963289,939
Advances on security of shares3749,2509,624
Investments13,03033,64146,671
Cash and bank348213561
Appropriations in trust debit balances2,1302,130
Other432,1562,199
Total assets109,846249,949359,795
Liabilities
Paid-up capital (excluding borrowing shares)52,001203,694255,695
Reserves5,57111,18216,753
Retained profits78122,01022,791
..58,353236,886295,239
    Less fictitious assets12516,33816,463
..58,228220,548278,776
Deposits—
    Savings bank2,4201992,619
    Other47,42424,49271,916
Appropriations in trust credit balances2,2162,216
Provisions1,2148202,034
Bank overdraft4111,0961,507
Other149578727
Total liabilities109,846249,949359,795

The book values of investments at the end of the three latest financial years are shown in the next table.

ItemPermanent SocietiesTerminating SocietiesAll Societies
197019711972197019711972197019711972
  $(m)  $(m)  $(m) 
Government securities3.94.15.111.711.412.215.615.517.3
Local body securities1.11.22.48.69.210.49.710.412.8
Short-term money market0.80.82.10.31.51.10.83.6
Advances to employees1.82.12.41.92.12.4
Deposits with other societies0.60.50.40.60.50.4
Deposits with banks2.02.13.20.62.23.82.64.37.0
Other1.92.92.92.03.02.9
Totals8.18.313.025.428.433.633.536.846.6

30 D—COMPANIES

GENERAL—The method of carrying on business by companies is now a proved system, a system for the incorporation of persons into a separate entity for trading purposes and providing a convenient method for the investment of capital and for the limitation of liability of the people associated in the company. The incorporation of a company with limited liability provides the framework of commercial and industrial life; private companies have become a usual form of business organisation for the smaller trader.

LEGISLATION—Comprehensive legislation relating to companies is contained in the Companies Act 1955, which came into force on 1 January 1957. An important principle in the legislation is the protection of shareholders, creditors, and the general public by the requirement that there must be the fullest practicable disclosure of information concerning the activities of companies. The annual financial statements must exhibit a true and complete account of a company's affairs and transactions. A prescribed form of presentation is required, and comparative figures for the previous year must be shown. A prospectus must be deposited with the Registrar of Companies before it is issued.

Any number of persons from 2 to 25 may form a private company; a public company must have at least 7 members. A private company of not less than seven members may, under certain conditions, be re-registered as a public company.

The Companies Amendment Act 1963 restricts company takeovers. The Companies Amendment Act 1966 deals with deposits and debentures, and came into force on 1 January 1967.

NEW COMPANIES REGISTERED—The following table shows for the last 11 years the number and aggregate nominal capital of new private companies registered.

In comparing one year with another it should not be overlooked that reregistrations, on account of reconstruction of companies or for other reasons, are included. Such reregistrations of large companies may have a considerable effect on the year's total, so far as capital is concerned.

The nominal capital shown for overseas companies is the total nominal capital of these companies and, of course, bears no relationship to their capital resources employed in New Zealand. It is shown merely as some indication of the relative size of overseas companies commencing business in this country.

YearPrivate CompaniesPublic CompaniesOverseas Companies
NumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal Capital

*Two companies are limited (as to capital) by guarantee.

  $(000) $(000) $(000)
19623,30122,9202510,5882511,581
19634,10730,358266,3153237,460
19645,00943,8322614,3071931,814
19655,50436,7793725,3792223,602
19665,55637,570166,88737142,882
19674,77132,0762713,1453157,497
19684,95530,033206,03235154,036
19696,33860,0603015,00435211,552
19706,34645,1543438,43451199,318
1971*5,42538,5233142,17534278,291
1972*6,48482,931104,672534,183,507

The following table gives a classification of new companies registered in 1972 according to the amount of nominal capital.

Amount of Nominal CapitalPrivate CompaniesPublic CompaniesOverseas Companies
NumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal CapitalNumberNominal Capital
$ $(000) $(000) $(000)
Under       2,0002,5181,68031
    2,000–    3,9991,3013,04913
    4,000–    5,9999914,574
    6,000–    7,9994002,550
    8,000–    9,9992502,09219
  10,000–  11,9994554,59213130
  12,000–  13,999911,110112
  14,000–  15,999851,260
  16,000–  17,99919314118
  18,000–  19,99911199
  20,000–  29,9991633,4701206132
  30,000–  39,999431,326130
  40,000–  99,999944,83621005282
100,000–199,999343,9352268
200,000 and over2947,94664,549184,182,626
Limited by guarantee, etc.2 
Totals6,48482,931104,672534,183,507

The number of private company registrations in 1972 was 6,484, an increase of 1,059 from the 5,425 registered in 1971. The nominal capital of companies increased by $44.4 million over the previous year.

The extent of changes in the number and nominal capital of new registrations of private companies between 1962 and 1972, expressed as percentages of the totals is shown in the following table.

Amount of Nominal CapitalNumberAmount of Capital
1962197219621972
$  percent 
Under 2,00025.038.82.42.0
  2,000–9,99957.445.432.314.8
10,000–19,99910.210.217.79.0
20,000 and over7.45.647.674.2
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

Compiled from published sources, the following summary gives the stated objects of all new companies registered during the latest 3 years. Because of possible inaccuracies in the source data, and the difficulty of precise classification by industrial group from the information available, the figures should be regarded as approximate only.

Industry Group197019711972
Agriculture and livestock production670405460
Forestry, hunting, and fishing845867
Mining and quarrying765031
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco617174
    Textile, footwear, and apparel768483
    Woodwork and furniture695679
    Machinery145154241
    Transport equipment250183218
    Other301315320
Construction606526667
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail1,9231,6782,070
    Banks and other financial institutions393257235
    Real estate589426515
    Other262020
Transport, storage, and communication21618200
Services—
    Community and business181267335
    Personal579562747
Other5991106
Miscellaneous or not known12710679
Totals6,4315,4906,547

Changes of Nominal Capital by Registered Companies—In the calendar year 1972, 1,404 public and private companies which previously had a total nominal capital of $220.7 million increased their nominal capital by $218.3 million to $439.0 million. There were 35 cases with increases of $1 million or more and these accounted for $168.1 million of the total increase.

Overseas companies registered in New Zealand, but not included in the preceding figures, increased their nominal capital by $1.7 million, from $12.0 million to $13.7 million.

In 26 cases local companies reduced their nominal capital by a total of $6.9 million from $16.4 million to $9.5 million.

Companies on Register—At 31 December 1973 there were 94,233 companies on the register compared with 88,071 at the same date last year. Included in these figures are overseas companies which amount to 519 and 513 respectively. These figures were supplied by the Registrar of Companies.

Companies Gazetted as Deleted From the Company Register—During 1972 there were 2,559 companies deleted from the Company Register, their total nominal capital being $132.7 million. In the previous year 1,142 companies with total capital of $20.8 million were deleted.

ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC COMPANY FINANCIAL STATEMENTS—Since 1953 the Reserve Bank of New Zealand has undertaken an analysis of the annual financial statements of a sample of public companies in New Zealand to obtain information concerning company finance and the capital market. Results of these analyses are published in the Reserve Bank Bulletin.

The basis of coverage includes only companies of New Zealand domicile whose income is wholly or mainly from New Zealand sources. This definition excludes, among others, companies carrying on insurance, some stock and station agents, and shipping companies. The number of companies covered has been: 1968–69, 279; 1969–70, 260; 1970–71, 248; 1971–72, 248; and 1972–73, 239. The surveys cover analysed accounts received during the 12 months ended 30 June.

Changes in sources of funds over the latest four years are shown in the following table.

Source of Funds1969–701970–711971–721972–73
 percent
Retained profits and depreciation44.742.437.140.4
Other long-term sources25.324.430.544.3
All long-term sources70.066.867.684.7
Short-term sources30.033.232.415.3
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

The next table sets out proportionately the use of funds.

Use of Funds1969–701970–711971–721972–73
 percent
Property and plant46.841.449.153.5
Long-term investment9.711.48.45.2
..56.552.857.558.7
Stocks18.322.320.58.5
Debtors24.223.621.317.2
Other short-term1.01.30.715.6
Totals100.0100.0100.0100.0

Appropriation of income of 239 New Zealand public companies in the latest two years is shown in the following table.

Item1971–721972–73
 $(000)
Income for year—
    Trading286,456305,418
    Investment income9,99210,890
    Other non-trading income2,2922,435
Total income298,740318,743
Deductions—
    Depreciation68,23877,202
    Interest on fixed liabilities24,59529,553
    Directors' fees1,7471,862
    Tax on current year's income93,54285,591
    Minority interests2,2222,451
Total deductions190,344196,659
Net profit after tax108,396122,084
Previous year's adjustments—   
    Tax3382,017
    Other8,97111,235
    Available for appropriation117,705135,336
Appropriations—  
    Goodwill, etc., written off8,48314,103
    Ordinary dividends56,99461,305
    Preference dividends1,9391,919
    Retained in reserves50,28958,009
Total appropriations117,705135,336

Chapter 33. Section 31; INSURANCE

31 A—LIFE ASSURANCE

DEVELOPMENT OF LIFE ASSURANCE—Life assurance is no longer restricted to its original function, but has been encouraged for its avenue of contractual savings accumulating to considerable capital investment. Its additional role as the basis of many private superannuation schemes gives to a large segment of the labour force a protection not available to it a generation ago. Whole-life assurance has been widely supplemented by endowment assurance. Under this category there are policies with titles such as “family-income”, “education”, “mortgage-protection”, or “retirement”, and persons taking out policies regard them as a means of systematic saving. Government encouragement is given by way of income-tax concessions on premiums paid, this approach being common to the governments of many countries.

The steady flow of funds to insurance companies by the payment of premiums are in the form of contractual saving, and the investment of these funds has become a major influence on the financial market. Life-assurance companies are leading lenders of long-term funds to the private sector and important investors in Government and local authority securities. Growth in life-assurance assets has exceeded $100 million a year in recent years and in 1972–73 they totalled $1,688 million of which 33.4 percent is invested in mortgages on property, 28.1 percent in Central Government and local authority securities, and 16.7 percent in company stocks, shares and debentures. Premiums paid each year for life assurance are the equivalent of some 3.6 percent of national income, and life assurance and the insurance organisations as a group have financed about 10 percent of the country's internal public debt.

In the year 1972–73 there were 241,557 new policies issued for a total sum assured of $1,988.1 million, or approximately $538 per head of population. The total number of policies in force at the end of the year was 2,442,607 for a total life assurance of $9,445 million. (These figures exclude annuities.)

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON—On the basis of the ratio of the value of life assurance in force to the national income, New Zealand is fourth to Canada, the United States, and Sweden, as shown in the following table. This survey covered 43 countries. (Source: Life Insurance Fact Book, 1973.) Selected countries are listed in the following table.

Country19661971
 percent
Canada176184
United States159176
Sweden149156
New Zealand140149
Japan100149
Australia102131
Netherlands119127
United Kingdom92113

In Sweden the introduction in 1936 of a large national group life plan sponsored by the Government but underwritten by private life companies helped to increase the ratio markedly. Term life cover is believed to constitute a higher proportion of the total coverage in Canada and the United States than in New Zealand, where permanent life cover is relatively high. (Purchase of assurance for a set term provides maximum immediate cover at the lowest cost and can be used to cover mortgage repayments on a house; insurance for a short term for travel purposes is also popular in the United States and Canada.) Group life plans are negotiated by groups of workers in other countries and typically provide for a death benefit equal to one or two times annual earnings.

GENERAL—The statutory provisions affecting life assurance in New Zealand are in the main contained in the Life Insurance Act 1908, the Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910, and the Government Life Insurance Act 1953.

There are 25 life-assurance offices conducting business in New Zealand at the present time. Of these, eight are purely New Zealand institutions—namely, the Government Life Insurance Office, Capital Life Assurance Ltd., Cuna Mutual Insurance Society, New Zealand Insurance (Life and General) Co. Ltd., Metropolitan Life Assurance Co. of New Zealand Ltd., the South British Life Assurance Co. Ltd., Primary Industries Insurance Co. Ltd., and the Tasman Mutual Life Assurance Co. Ltd.; whilst three, the Provident Life Assurance Co., Dominion Life Assurance Office of New Zealand Ltd., and the Monarch Life Insurance Co. of New Zealand, are registered in this country. The balance dates of the offices vary between June and May of the following year, the financial year of the majority ending in December. The statistics given here relate exclusively to business transacted in New Zealand. Further information is available in the Report on Insurance Statistics prepared by the Department of Statistics and available in Government bookshops.

LIFE ASSURANCE: Ordinary and Industrial—The progress of life assurance in New Zealand is illustrated by the following diagram, which shows the amount of new business transacted.

A summary of annual life-assurance business is given in the following table.

YearValue of Policies IssuedValue of Policies DiscontinuedValue of Policies Existing at End of YearAnnual Premiums on Existing PoliciesNumber of Policies in Force

*Includes policies (value $12.1 million) transferred.

 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)(000)
1962–63435.2140.22,842.869.41,751
1963–64508.6156.03,195.575.51,793
1964–65595.6183.33,609.182.81,846
1965–66674.0213.34,069.891.11,911
1966–67744.0227.04,586.7100.91,973
1967–68768.9260.65,094.9113.62,028
1968–69793.2309.25,579.0121.42,087
1969–70928.8346.16,155.0131.72,149
1970–711,173.9*434.56,894.5146.62,230
1971–721,560.5462.97,996.4168.62,337
1972–731,988.1563.09,445.0199.32,443

While the upward trend shown in the figures has been influenced both by the rate of monetary depreciation and the normal growth of population, the course of life-assurance business, particularly during the past decade, has been one of steady progress. In the last 11 years the face value of new business underwritten annually and the amount of cover in force has more than trebled.

Total discontinuances include surrenders and lapses, as well as policies maturing or terminated by death.

ORDINARY LIFE ASSURANCE: Progress of Business—A table showing the progress of business over a period of 11 years is given below. Annuities are excluded from these figures.

YearPolicies IssuedPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies Existing at Find of Year
NumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums

*Includes 4,222 policies with sum assured of $12.1 million and annual premiums $274,978 of the New Zealand Victoria Life Ltd. at 1 June 1970 included in New Zealand (Life General) Insurance Co. Ltd.

  $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m)
1962–63119,238424.58.468,757132.03.31,339,1712,753.265.4
1963–64131,279497.49.871,403148.03.71,399,0473,102.671.5
1964–65140,865583.511.472,074175.34.21,468,0513,512.178.7
1965–66149,768660.913.169,720204.64.81,548,0993,968.486.9
1966–67152,584730.014.673,718217.54.91,626,9654,480.996.6
1967–68151,835754.315.689,575251.22.91,689,2244,984.0109.3
1968–69150,856779.414.784,635298.97.01,755,4455,464.4117.0
1969–70165,343913.617.689,550335.17.21,827,5286,036.2127.2
1970–71190,0731,156.8*23.3*97,354423.08.51,920,2476,770.0142.0
1971–72214,3521,537.831.399,090449.49.52,035,6597,861.9163.8
1972–73229,0111,963.838.8108,984546.311.62,159,7509,302.9194.4

In addition to the figure of $38.8 million representing annual premiums payable for policies issued during 1972–73, an amount of $9.3 million was paid during that year in the form of single premiums.

The average annual premium for each $100 of new business effected during 1972–73 was $1.97, compared with $2.03 in 1971–72. There has been evident for some years past a growing preference for whole-life policies or longer-term endowment assurance. Group assurance as a substitute for, or supplementation of, private or national superannuation schemes, has also assumed relative popularity, but owing to lack of data it is unfortunately not possible to give an analysis of policies by types.

Annuity policies issued during 1972–73 (excluded from these tables) numbered 183, as against 192 in 1971–72. The corresponding annual amounts were $7.4 million and $8.3 million. There were 1,819 annuities in force at the end of the year assuring an annual amount of $28.3 million.

A prominent feature of new insurances of recent years has been the increase in the average amount of the sum assured per policy.

YearAverage Amount
 $
1962–633,560
1963–643,788
1964–654,142
1965–664,412
1966–674,784
1967–684,968
1968–695,166
1969–705,525
1970–716,159
1971–727,174
1972–738,575

Reasons for the growth in the average amount of the sum assured per policy shown in the above table include the changing types of policies being issued, and the increasing numbers of such policies which have a high cover (for example, cover for staff superannuation purposes by business concerns, temporary insurance with a high death-risk cover, multiple death benefit and family benefit policies having a high initial cover, and “unit” policies whereby a single premium provides a high initial death cover).

The average face value of discontinued policies during 1972–73 was $5,013, while the average face value of policies in force at the end of the year was $4,307.

Particulars of Policies Discontinued—The causes of discontinuances during each of the latest 5 years are contained in the next table.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
Number of Policies
1968–698,05920,05232,31917,9376,26884,635
1969–707,88520,09034,80318,2268,54689,550
1970–718,77820,82739,65519,9828,11297,354
1971–728,57122,26238,70921,9807,56899,090
1972–738,65822,79141,52725,73210,276108,984
Sum Assured $(m)
1968–6916.217.2122.377.465.8298.9
1969–7015.817.4147.284.270.5335.1
1970–7119.520.7176.796.6109.4423.0
1971–7219.623.5189.3120.696.3449.4
1972–7321.525.9230.7158.4109.8546.3

Revenue and Expenditure—A statement of revenue and expenditure under the various heads illustrates the course of ordinary life-assurance business in New Zealand during the past 5 years. Transfers between head offices and branches are included. The ratios of management expenses to premium income and to total revenue are also given.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
Revenue$(000)
New and renewal premiums118,999128,938144,827162,618192,463
Consideration for annuities1,5271,6522,1443,4624,894
Interest, rents, etc.61,60469,01176,75685,33196,519
Transfers1,5505939021,0592,207
Other revenue8721,0681,2702,1854,881
Totals, revenue184,551201,262225,898254,654300,965
Expenditure     
Claims by death and maturity41,44943,17551,13055,58460,824
Annuities7899581,0601,4392,026
Surrenders15,09717,15620,33223,34027,298
Cash bonuses236258281276294
Commissions9,35510,59913,31117,09721,209
Other management12,50313,63615,70818,85123,181
Rates and taxes5,4126,0777,7638,9589,605
Transfers7701,0799781,1242,420
Other expenditure1,4011,8431,3522,0612,417
Totals, expenditure87,01294,781111,916128,732149,275
Ratios  percent  
Management expenses to premium income18.418.820.022.123.1
Management expenses to total revenue11.812.012.814.114.7

Of the excess of revenue as shown in the above statements a large proportion is transferred annually to reserves to meet future payments under policies.

INDUSTRIAL LIFE ASSURANCE: Progress of Business—In principle there is no difference between ordinary and industrial assurance. With the latter class of insurance the premiums are payable at shorter intervals than 3 months and are usually collected personally by agents. Collection of premiums from family homes at 4-weekly intervals has led to the informal description of this branch as home service insurance. During the last decade particularly, the promotion of this type of life assurance has declined, the number of policies issued in 1972–73 being only 65.1 percent of the 1962–63 total. Of the 25 life offices, only 5 engage in industrial business.

A summary of the course of industrial-assurance business is given in the following table.

YearPolicies IssuedPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies Existing at End of Year
NumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums
  $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000) $(m)$(000)
1962–6319,28410.641541,0268.2408412,24389.63,959
1963–6418,14411.342336,8278.0380393,56092.94,001
1964–6517,24212.144432,6758.0374378,12797.04,072
1965–6616,19013.146331,7748.7388362,543101.44,147
1966–6717,05314.050333,4309.6420346,166105.84,230
1967–6815,93314.550722,9879.4400339,112111.04,336
1968–6913,68613.847921,22310.2419331,575114.64,396x
1969–7014,15715.252624,58211.0442321,150118.84,481
1970–7112,96517.256023,92611.5451310,189124.54,590
1971–7212,69822.668221,94412.7463300,943134.44,809
1972–7312,54624.473130,63216.7585282,857142.14,955

The average sum assured under each policy of new business effected in 1972–73 amounted to $1,941 with an average annual premium of $58. Corresponding averages for 1962–63 were $551 and $22.

Particulars of Policies Discontinued—A summary of the number of industrial policies and the corresponding assurances discontinued according to the several causes is now given.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
Number of Policies
1967–681,57510,5516,4493,69371922,987
1968–691,4385,9456,5635,5451,73221,223
1969–701,44711,8096,2644,82024224,582
1970–711,46711,3006,2644,76912623,926
1971–721,53210,4265,5664,28113921,944
1972–731,53218,5145,8604,59313330,632
Sum Assured $(000)
1967–683041,4993,0974,3661439,408
1968–692799293,1995,43737710,222
1969–702811,9323,3535,2949310,952
1970–713171,8833,6565,6123911,507
1971–723481,7473,5886,9285312,664
1972–733663,2694,0608,88715016,733

Of the assurance in force at the end of the previous year, 6.9 percent of the ordinary was discontinued in 1972–73 as compared with 12.4 percent of the industrial.

In the following table the sums assured for the various classes of discontinuances are expressed as percentages of the total discontinuances.

YearDeathMaturitySurrenderLapseOther CausesTotal
percent
1967–683.215.932.946.41.6100.0
1968–692.79.131.353.23.7100.0
1969–702.517.630.648.40.9100.0
1970–712.716.431.848.80.3100.0
1971–722.813.828.354.70.4100.0
1972–732.219.524.353.10.9100.0

Industrial policies are often taken out by parents for children shortly after they are born for the policies to mature when the children are approaching 20 years. This partly explains the greater proportion discontinued by maturity compared with ordinary policies.

Revenue and Expenditure—The several items of revenue and expenditure in industrial business are shown in the following 5-year table, together with the ratios of management expenses to premium income and to total income.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
Revenue  $(000)  
Premiums4,2984,3834,4724,6484,861
Interest, rents, etc.2,5602,7782,9403,0813,276
Other revenue40555765151
Totals, revenue6,8987,2267,4697,7948,288
Expenditure     
Claims by death and maturity1,6472,6022,6212,5544,605
Surrenders648661691673773
Commissions530549553678702
Other management8398919881,1191,259
Rates and taxes183222250283293
Other expenditure1861229511179
Totals, expenditure4,0335,0475,1995,4197,711
Ratio  percent  
Management expenses to premium income31.932.934.538.740.3
Management expenses to total revenue19.919.920.623.123.7

The higher ratio of management expenses to premium income in the industrial branch is largely accounted for by the cost or renewal commissions on collection of premiums and the greater amount of office work involved in relation to the amount assured. In the ordinary branch, commission (new and renewal) in 1972–73 was equivalent to 11.0 percent of the premium income, and in the industrial branch to 14.4 percent. Excluding commission, the ratio of management expenses to premium income was 25.9 percent in the industrial branch, as against 12.0 percent in the ordinary.

LIABILITIES AND ASSETS—The principal items in the balance sheets of life-assurance companies are summarised below for the 3 latest years. Both classes of assurance are represented in the figures which, as in the previous tables, relate to New Zealand business only. In the case of some companies other branches of insurance business are included.

Liabilities1970–711971–721972–73
  $(000) 
Paid-up share capital3,6914,5505,066
Life-assurance and annuity funds1,335,2101,464,3031,612,799
Depreciation, reserve, and other special funds27,22929,00335,088
Claims admitted but not paid9,27111,03111,038
Other liabilities21,86222,06524,424
Totals1,397,2631,530,9521,688,415

The assets of the New Zealand branches at the end of each of the 3 latest years were as follows.

AssetsAmountPercentage of Totals
1970–711971–721972–731970–711971–721972–73
  $(m)  percent 
Mortgages on houses, etc.510.4539.2564.636.535.233.6
Loans on policies64.877.487.14.75.15.2
Central Government securities288.3315.3350.920.620.620.7
Local authority securities101.3113.4123.97.37.47.3
Real estate155.6184.9219.311.112.113.0
Company shares and debentures230.7251.4282.316.516.416.7
Outstanding premiums12.414.115.70.90.90.9
Interest accrued, etc.14.316.318.31.01.01.0
Cash7.15.49.50.50.40.5
Other assets12.313.616.80.90.91.0
Totals1,397.31,531.01,688.4106.0100.0100.0

The Government has made agreements with the life-insurance companies regarding the proportion of their new funds invested in Government and local authority securities. By 1970 the life-insurance companies were investing 30 percent of their new investable funds in public sector securities, of which not less than 22.5 percent would be in Government stock and 7.5 percent in local authority stock. As a further measure to help restrain expenditure by the private sector, the life-insurance companies were asked by the Government to invest an additional 5 percent of their new funds in public sector securities from 1 October 1970.

For 1972–73 the average rate of interest earned on the life funds of both departments was $7.05 percent, compared with $6.69 percent during 1971–72. This rate was calculated by taking the arithmetic means of funds at the beginning and end of the year less half the amount of interest, etc., earned.

The following diagram illustrates the expansion that has taken place in recent years in the assets of the New Zealand branches of life-assurance companies and the manner of their investment. In composite-insurance offices, receipts of life assurance and annuity business must be treated as a separate fund, and the interests of the policyholders are safeguarded by the fact that these funds are available only for liabilities arising from such business.

31 B—ACCIDENT INSURANCE

GENERAL—Until 1974 there were three principal classes of accident insurance transacted in New Zealand. These were: (a) personal, covering accidents, sickness, etc.; (b) employers' liability under statutory or common law; and (c) motor vehicle insurance, providing comprehensive coverage and compulsory third-party risks cover. Other classes of accident insurance include the insurance of plate glass, television sets, luggage, and livestock.

The Accident Compensation Act 1972, effective from 1 April 1974, provides continuous cover against accidents of all persons in regular employment, whether at work or not, through an earners' scheme financed by levies averaging 1 percent of incomes payable by employers on behalf of employees: the levies replace employers' liability premiums under the Workers' Compensation Act. A second scheme, also originating from the Woodhouse Report, has established a motor vehicle fund financed by levies similar to the compulsory third-party premiums previously payable. (A supplementary scheme brings in all those not otherwise covered).

The number of accident insurance offices represented in the statistics for 1972–73 is 67. The head offices of the companies concerned were in the following countries: Great Britain, 23; Australia, 13; United States of America, 3; Hong Kong, 1; and New Zealand, 27.

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—The following table shows the principal items of revenue and expenditure. Premiums and claims are net, i.e., after deductions for acceptances of reinsurance, whether effected locally or overseas, have been taken into account.

YearNumber of OfficesRevenueExpenditure
PremiumsOther RevenueTotal*ClaimsCommissionSalariesOther ExpensesTotal*

*Excluding reserve provisions.

     $(million)    
1962–638042.22.044.326.83.24.84.639.6
1963–648146.82.349.030.23.55.24.843.7
1964–658051.52.754.233.93.95.65.348.7
1965–668060.03.062.939.54.26.05.955.6
1966–678266.03.369.343.84.16.77.061.6
1967–687769.23.873.047.74.37.47.867.2
1968–697771.64.275.849.04.47.69.070.0
1969–707576.94.681.554.24.88.49.777.1
1970–717588.04.892.865.85.69.48.689.4
1971–7267106.25.7111.977.27.011.38.6104.1
1972–7367126.26.3132.586.58.012.213.3120.0

Premium receipts in 1972–73 were 18.8 percent above the 1971–72 figure, while claims rose by 12.0 percent.

A review of the expenses incurred in transacting all accident insurance is contained in the table following. The fluctuations over a period of 5 years are shown in the form of percentages of revenue to expenditure under various heads. The percentages do not take into account reserve provisions.

YearClaims to PremiumsCommission to PremiumsSalaries to PremiumsOther Expenses to PremiumsTotal Expenses (other than Claims) to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to PremiumsTotal Expenditure to Total Revenue
    percent   
1967–6869.06.210.711.328.297.292.1
1968–6968.56.110.612.529.397.792.3
1969–7070.46.310.912.629.8100.294.6
1970–7174.86.310.79.826.8101.596.3
1971–7272.76.610.68.125.398.093.0
1972–7368.56.39.710.526.695.190.6

Working expenses (excluding taxation) amounted to $22,081,000 in 1970–71, $26,605,000 in 1971–72 and $29,389,000 in 1972–73. The ratios of working expenses to premium income for each of the 3 years were respectively 25.1, 25.1, 23.3 percent.

ANALYSIS OF PREMIUMS AND CLAIMS—In the next table particulars of premiums and claims for the three main classes of accident insurance are given for the last 5 years. Reinsurances effected outside New Zealand are not taken into account in the figures presented below.

YearEmployers' LiabilityPersonal Accident and SicknessMotor Vehicle ComprehensiveMotor Vehicle Third-party RisksOtherTotal
$(thousand)
Premiums Received
1968–6915,2457,08231,0918,13311,09172,642
1969–7016,6017,90533,5038,36612,13378,507
1970–7119,0389,19338,9138,80414,48190,429
1971–7223,26710,75448,52911,68216,353110,586
1972–7326,89012,02656,77514,21119,790129,692
Claims Paid
1968–6910,9082,97622,3796,9615,26148,486
1969–7011,7523,32725,8656,9465,72853,619
1970–7113,4973,81931,6297,4027,59763,944
1971–7215,6804,39037,30210,0137,73475,120
1972–7318,1304,76738,88510,8209,16581,767

Premiums and claims for motor vehicle third-party risks insurance relate to the years ended 30 June.

Claims under motor vehicle comprehensive policies decreased from 76.9 percent of the premiums in 1971–72 to 68.5 percent in 1972–73, while claims under third-party risks policies decreased from 85.7 percent in 1971–72 to 76.1 percent of premiums in 1972–73. From 1 July 1965 insurance for motor vehicle third-party risks was extended to cover non-paying passengers and premiums were increased (however, from 1 July 1967 premiums on some classes of vehicles were reduced and these changes are reflected in the fall and rise in the rates of claims to premiums).

Reducing the figures of each class for the years 1970–71 to 1972–73 to a percentage basis, the following results are obtained.

Class of InsuranceClaims to PremiumsPremiums to Total PremiumsClaims to Total Claims
1970–711971–721972–731970–711971–721972–731970–711971–721972–73
     percent    
Employers' liability70.967.467.421.121.020.721.120.922.2
Personal accident and sickness41.540.839.610.29.79.36.05.85.8
Motor vehicle comprehensive81.376.968.543.043.943.849.449.747.6
Motor vehicle third-party risks84.185.776.19.710.611.011.613.313.2
Other52.547.346.316.014.815.311.910.311.2
All classes70.767.963.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0100.0

MOTOR VEHICLES INSURANCE (THIRD-PARTY RISKS)—The Transport Act 1962 required owners of motor vehicles to insure against their liability, through their negligence, to pay damages on account of the death or of bodily injury to another person. Since 1 July 1974, under the Accident Compensation Act 1972, compensation is available to everyone injured in a motor accident for the period of working life, if necessary, and without having to establish that anyone is to blame; and that applies if the applicant himself is solely responsible.

Premium receipts and claims actually paid have been shown in the earlier tables, but the claims figures given later also show amounts on account of the estimated liability for claims still outstanding at 30 June 1972, which are necessarily subject to revision.

The following table gives the premium rates for the various classes of motor vehicles over the last 4 years to 1974, and also the levies payable under the Accident Compensation Act from 1 July 1974. A small insurance indemnity surcharge also applies from July 1974 to pay for the backlog of third party claims made on insurance companies.

Class of Motor Vehicle1970–711971–72*1972–731973–741974–75

*Includes motorcars manufactured before 1 January 1919.

 $$$$$
Motor cycles5.506.907.907.909.90
Power cycles0.801.001.101.101.35
Tractors1.101.401.601.602.00
Private cars, business cars and private taxicabs7.909.9011.3511.3514.20
Trucks and vans8.0510.0511.5511.5514.45
Taxis, public32.0040.0046.0046.0057.50
Buses, over 29 seats (maximum)48.0060.0069.0069.0086.25
Service coaches, over 19 seats (maximum)43.0053.7561.8061.8077.25
Contract motor vehicles (maximum)8.0010.0011.5011.5014.40
Trailers0.400.500.550.550.70
Rental cars35.0043.7550.3050.3062.85
Fire brigade vehicles, ambulances, and miscellaneous12.0015.0017.2017.2021.50

Statistics of third-party risks insurance during the latest 5 years, with a summary covering the latest 10 years, are given in the following table. It should be noted that the liability for outstanding claims is usually over-estimated, and that the total claims for any particular year, when finally settled, may be expected to be somewhat smaller than the amounts now given.

It follows that the ratios given below are also likely to be reduced in course of time, particularly those for the most recent years.

ItemRegistration Year Ended 30 JuneTotal for 10 Years to 30 June 1973
19691970197119721973
$(000)
Premiums received8,133.48,365.68,803.611,682.414,211.087,065.2
Claims actually paid to 30 June 19738,048.78,180.35,152.01,707.3185.554,367.3
Estimated liability for claims outstanding at 30 June 19732,280.35,194.211,124.813,833.912,587.346,382.2
Ratio percent of claims, paid and outstanding, to premiums127.0159.9184.9133.089.9115.7

A summary showing the experience over the last 3 registration years for each of the principal classes of motor vehicle is given in the table following.

Class of Motor VehicleNet Premiums ReceivedClaims PaidEstimated Claims Outstanding
Arising During YearArising During Previous YearsArising During YearArising During Previous Years

*Includes private taxis.

   $(000)  
   1970–71  
Motor cycles1494137182458
Private and business cars*6,8062015,6736,91818,089
Goods-service vehicles1,346279789953,397
Public taxicabs9228074327
Public omnibuses125667145352
Other classes28552212281,328
Totals8,8042457,1578,54323,950
   1971–72  
Motor cycles2328216219589
Private and business cars*9,0202277,2098,74621,541
Goods-service vehicles1,762231,5501,1893,965
Public taxicabs118216575330
Public omnibuses152697357378
Other classes39855052861,231
Totals11,6822719,74210,87128,034
   1972–73  
Motor cycles3224205367764
Private and business cars*11,0091458,19010,18326,143
Goods-service vehicles2,073231,5451,3154,552
Public taxicabs1393110108365
Public omnibuses1706125241549
Other classes49964603741,422
Totals14,21118610,63512,58733,795

31 C—FIRE INSURANCE

GENERAL—Fire is still the main cause of property damage, but today many property owners seek protection not only against fire damage, but also against a wide range of other dangers including, water, windstorm, explosion, breakages, theft, aircraft, and impact by motor vehicles. Under houseowners' and householders' comprehensive policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, many thousands of additional claims are now dealt with each year. Increasing numbers of commercial property owners, too, are extending their fire policies to include damage from other causes.

In 1971 there were 53 fire-insurance companies conducting business in New Zealand. Of these the head offices of 21 were in New Zealand, 21 were in Great Britain, 8 in Australia, 2 in the United States of America, and 1 in Hong Kong. The statistics in this section relate to the calendar year for about two-thirds of these companies; for the remaining companies the financial year nearest to the calendar year is used.

SUMMARY OF BUSINESS—The statistics in the following summary of business relate to the business conducted with the insuring public. Reinsurance transactions are not taken into account. While the bulk of the claims represent fire losses the figures also include the numerous, frequently minor, claims made under comprehensive policies for damage from other causes.

YearPolicies at 31 DecemberGross Cover at 31 DecemberPremium IncomeClaimsPercentage of Claims to Premium Income
  $(m)$(000)$(000)percent
1962–631,584,0988,044.318,9957,53139.6
1963–641,664,0458,969.320,2697,01034.6
1964–651,722,6129,555.922,5747,30532.4
1965–661,739,03110,399.924,0338,38734.9
1966–671,776,85611,076.125,9958,46632.6
1967–681,853,43912,115.228,38711,87741.8
1968–691,895,71913,598.130,01613,81446.0
1969–701,913,29913,805.132,69513,01039.8
1970–712,032,10516,069.437,45614,80639.5
1971–722,068,97018,309.443,33917,34940.0
1972–732,092,71121,223.754,49220,86038.3

LIABILITIES—The following table shows whole-world liabilities of fire-insurance offices. The figures refer to all departments of business underwritten. Funds of life departments are added for completeness, but by the Life Insurance Act 1908 life funds must be accounted for separately, and form a security for life-policy holders which is not available for other classes of insurance transacted. Of the 53 fire offices, 11 also engage in life-assurance business, but only 2 of these conduct such business in New Zealand.

Item1970–71 (Total)1971–72 (Total)1972–73
Overseas CompaniesLocal CompaniesTotal
$(million)
Paid-up capital497.9480.9474.935.0509.9
Reserves4,208.24,846.24,545.9111.24,657.0
Other liabilities5,504.96,298.67,857.4176.68,034.0
Totals10,211.011,625.712,878.2322.713,201.0
Life funds10,695.311,364.511,694.20.411,694.7
Total liabilities20,906.422,990.224,572.5323.224,895.6

ASSETS—The following table gives the amount of assets in New Zealand as at the end of each of the last 5 years classified under various heads. The figures given include all investments in New Zealand securities and do not relate merely to the assets held by the New Zealand branches of the companies concerned. The assets of other departments—accident, life, marine, etc.—are also included.

Assets in New Zealand1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
   $(million)  
Real estate21.6424.8929.9236.0941.29
Central Government securities34.2332.6631.6729.9331.77
Local authority securities22.7625.1223.9125.4728.40
Company shares and debentures32.1141.9247.3158.7579.02
Mortgages, etc.31.0631.5731.9235.2137.22
Outstanding premiums16.4318.1322.3227.7631.43
Cash and other assets in New Zealand37.0434.0736.4740.9751.75
Total New Zealand assets195.26208.35223.52254.17300.88

REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE—A statement of the total revenue and expenditure, both gross and net, of all offices is now given in respect of New Zealand business. The gross figures include reinsurance business accepted, while the net figures comprise insurances with the public, plus reinsurances accepted, and less amounts reinsured with other offices.

It is insurance practice at the closing date of the accounts of a fire-insurance company to transfer to a reserve a proportion of the income received during the year, to allow for policies whose currency extends into the following accounting year. Thus, if the amount transferred to reserve at the end of the current year is greater than that transferred at the end of the previous year, the net effect is equivalent to an increase in this year's expenditure and the difference is therefore shown as expenditure. Similarly, if the amount transferred this year is less than last year, then the difference will be shown as revenue.

The entry of change in reserve provision in the gross figures, it should be noted, is calculated on the assumption that it bears the same proportion to gross premium income as does the actual net reserve to the net premium income.

Item1971–721972–73
GrossNetGrossNet
Revenue$(thousand)
Change in reserve provisions20313412985
Amount of fire premiums received during year51,24733,57366,33742,609
Interest and dividends2,5952,5953,1193,119
Rents494494688688
Other revenue4949204204
Totals54,58836,84670,47746,705
Expenditure    
Change in reserve provisions3,5772,2265,1903,411
Amount of fire claims paid during year, including adjustment and other expenses of settlement, but less salvage21,29013,23022,70415,241
Fire authority levies3,9442,8345,9534,430
Central Government taxes2,2351,5803,4053,626
Rents322517623622
Depreciation368368462462
Allowance and commissions on premiums to agents, subagents, and others5,7782,5297,7303,904
Salaries and wages, including commissions, on profits or bonuses6,1106,1007,2107,198
Other expenses of management3,5703,5594,4424,451
Totals47,39532,94457,71843,333

The principal items of net revenue and expenditure for 1972–73 of the overseas and local companies operating in New Zealand are contained in the next table.

Class of OfficeNet RevenueNet Expenditure
PremiumsTotal* (Including Other)ClaimsSalaries and CommissionsTotal* (Including Other)

*Excluding change in reserve provisions.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)$(000)
Overseas companies19,38320,8996,4304,95518,467
Local companies23,22725,7228,8116,14821,455
Totals42,60946,62015,24111,10239,922

Excluding the change in reserve provisions, the excess of net revenue over net expenditure (after tax) for 1972–73 of $6.70 million compares with surpluses of $5.99 million and $6.17 million for 1971–72 and 1970–71 respectively.

The following table shows the percentage ratio of working expenses to premium income for the years 1968–69 to 1972–73. Under the Fire Services Act 1949 fire-insurance companies are required to make a return of premium income to the Fire Service Council which makes a levy, normally just over 10 percent of the returnable figures, for the administration of fire services. This levy meets almost half the cost of the services. It is sometimes contended that contributions to the fire-prevention authority are not a working expense, but should be added to the total of fire losses. While this view is not subscribed to in the compilation of the statistics, there is a definite relationship between the items, and this table shows the ratio both inclusive and exclusive of such levies.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
   percent  
Net working expenses (excluding taxes) to net premium income45.945.150.647.449.4
Net working expenses (excluding taxes and fire service levies) to net premium income39.938.742.038.939.0
Gross working expenses (excluding taxes) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)37.037.141.139.6x39.8
Gross working expenses (excluding taxes and fire-service levies) to gross premium income (including reinsurances from other offices)31.831.433.631.9x30.9

FIRES AND LOSSES—Annual fire losses in New Zealand have been estimated to average over $8.7 million over the last 10 years. This is allowing 15 percent above the known figures of insured losses as the estimated cost of fire damage not covered by insurance. The Government, for example, usually bears its own risk.

A summary of fire losses over the latest 11 calendar years follows. The figures are subject to considerable annual fluctuations as a result of the severe losses that can be caused by individual major fires. During 1971 there were 24 payments of $40,000 or more, the aggregate amount of loss being $1.9 million, as compared with 24 payments involving a loss of $2.1 million in 1970.

YearNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsGross LossAverage Fire-loss Payments
  ($000)$
196132,0304,726148
196232,2275,834182
196336,7855,675154
196437,5466,192164
196538,6905,863152
196640,6476,158151
196742,5608,307195
196843,9727,151163
196950,0207,912158
197051,9818,685167
197153,3138,975168

The average insurance claim paid for material fire damage per head of total population was $2.20 in 1965, $2.27 in 1966, $3.03 in 1967, $2.58 in 1968, $2.82 in 1969, $3.05 in 1970, and $3.10 in 1971.

At 31 December 1971 there were 17 united urban, 120 urban, and 139 secondary urban fire districts constituted. The following table analyses fire losses by fire districts for 1971.

Type of Fire DistrictNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsCross Amount of Loss Paid on Risks AffectedProportion of Loss to Total Loss
  $(000)percent
United urban fire districts27,3374,06145.3
Urban fire districts20,3223,70041.2
Secondary urban fire districts2,6246196.9
Remainder of New Zealand (including floating risks)3,0305956.6
Totals53,3138,975100.0

The relationship between the number of payments and loss incurred is fairly closely sustained for the main types of district; 89.4 percent of payments related to fires which occurred in urban (including united urban) fire districts, the loss amounting to 86.5 percent of the total.

Causes of Fires—Particulars regarding causes of fires are contained in the following table.

Cause of Fire196919701971
Number of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of Loss
  $(000) $(000) $(000)
Electricity17,4331,76218,3521,53019,2871,535
Gas445585353950698
Chimneys and flues70414257913162899
Fireplaces and stoves12,60459911,93965410,955658
Inflammable spirits and materials940270839423874313
Outside cause1,5492691,5933631,654295
Smoking and matches11,47654513,19778914,043974
Arson and incendiarism245302283363206247
Other specified causes1,7202991,5343191,910437
Unknown causes2,9043,6663,1304,0743,2504,319
Totals50,0207,91251,9818,68553,3138,975

The actual cause of many fires is not easily ascertainable, especially in cases of total, or near-total loss, where evidence as to origin is obliterated. This accounts for the high proportion of loss due to unknown causes and for the fact that the average loss payment is much greater in these instances. During 1971 the average payment for specified causes was $93, while the average for the unspecified group amounted to $1,329. As most major fires result from unknown causes this accounts for the large difference between the averages.

Extent of Loss—The next table gives particulars of fire losses during the latest 3 years, classified according to the amount of loss. The majority of fires cause only minor damage. During 1971 payments of less than $20 accounted for 56.4 percent of the total number but only 3.3 percent of the total loss sustained. On the other hand, payments of $20,000 or over, numbering only 44, represented 27.7 percent of the insured loss.

Loss Category196919701971
Number of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of Loss
$ $(000) $(000) $(000)
Under 2029,78527530,37328730,085296
      20–4911,45134412,14436312,985389
      50–1995,9265196,4835747,117637
    200–1,9992,1171,3182,2311,3612,3361,423
  2,000–3,9993841,0683689983751,049
  4,000–9,9992621,5372771,6133051,787
10,000–39,999761,263811,405861,452
40,000 and over191,588242,085241,942
Totals50,0207,91251,9818,68553,3138,975

Class Groups—Losses classified in broad groups according to the nature of the risk are presented in the next table. Fires in private dwellings accounted for 88.2 percent of the total number of payments during 1971, but the proportion of loss sustained was only 38.4 percent. It should be noted that the “contents”, where insured, are included in the various class groups. Consequently the total for the houses and flats group is swollen by the numerous small claims on account of damage to personal effects, etc., the actual building not being affected by the fire in many instances. The miscellaneous risks group also include those cases where a fire has affected two or more buildings, which individually are classifiable into more than one of the other groups shown in the table, or, in some instances, single buildings housing occupiers of different groupings.

Class Group196919701971
Number of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of LossNumber of Fire-loss PaymentsAmount of Loss
  $(000) $(000) $(000)
Private houses and flats, boardinghouses, etc.44,7173,58946,0983,44847,0393,443
Hotels and restaurants9483951,0913041,021393
Offices and public buildings619315737231747266
Theatres and entertainment places15227243102224155
Bulk stores and warehouses240576256593215366
Shops8211,036767935860717
Factories and industrial risks1,1391,5741,4322,7181,4363,175
Farm risks (other than dwellings)564281561273639324
Miscellaneous (including unclassified)419843575449090
Floating and travelling risks401364392864246
Totals50,0207,91251,9818,68553,3138,975

FIRE BRIGADES—At 31 March 1973 there were 274 fire brigades under the administrative authority of the Fire Service Council.

MUTUAL INSURANCE ASSOCIATIONS—Mutual associations are governed by the Mutual Insurance Act 1955, which allows 200 or more owners or occupiers of isolated or farm properties to subscribe to a declaration, and form themselves into a mutual association to insure against loss to an amount in the aggregate of not less than $400,000. The Act permits these associations to conduct accident business in addition to fire insurance. Such associations effect insurance on the premium note principle, and accept premium notes to be assessed for losses in the proportion of the total amount of such notes. The amount of a member's premium notes limits his liability. Mutual insurance associations carrying on employer's liability insurance business are now required to deposit approved securities to a specified value with the Public Trustee.

The Mutual Insurance Regulations, gazetted in 1956, permit these associations to carry on additional types of insurance (other than life assurance).

Summarised figures for the two associations formed under the Act appear below.

Year Ended 31 MarchNet Premium IncomeTotal Net IncomeNet ClaimsReserves and FundsAssets*
FireAccidentFireAccident

*Including premium notes.

$(000)
1968277335656771545451,626
1969284334665801745581,686
1970297365710901685941,794
1971332384779792066341,872
19723804438761102216841,836
19734184929931282537251,977

31 D—STATE INSURANCE

LIFE ASSURANCE—The New Zealand Government Life Insurance Office was founded in 1869 at a time when New Zealanders had comparatively poor facilities in regard to life assurance. The payment of all policies has always been guaranteed by the Government.

From a total of 59 policies, assuring a sum of $60,005, issued during 1869–70, the business of the office has grown to a stage when, at the end of 1972, policies numbered 434,839 and the total sum assured reached $1,304 million. Among life insurance companies, the Government Life Insurance handles the second largest volume of business in New Zealand.

Income and expenditure figures of the Government Life Insurance Office are now given for each of the latest 5 years.

YearPremium Income (Including Purchase of Annuities)Total IncomeManagement ExpensesTotal ExpenditureRatio of Management Expenses to Total IncomeRatio of Management Expenses to Premium Income
  $(thousand) percent
196819,51931,0002,56013,5898.2613.11
196920,87733,5922,80514,4818.3513.43
197022,71737,0533,23416,2608.7314.24
197124,94141,0083,95618,5739.6515.86
197228,13646,0584,53721,1579.8516.13

During the year 1972 payments were made under the following heads: matured policies (including bonus addition), $5,981,741; claims by death (including bonuses), $3,077,465; annuities, $488,197; surrendered policies and bonuses cashed, $5,487,348; commission $2,262,441; other management expenses, $2,274,972; taxes, $1,155,565; and other expenditure, including transfers to reserves, $429,269.

Figures showing the progress of the office are contained in the next table. Annuities are excluded.

YearNew BusinessPolicies DiscontinuedPolicies in Force at End of Year
Number of PoliciesSum AssuredAnnual* PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual PremiumsNumberSum AssuredAnnual Premiums

*Excludes single premiums.

  $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m) $(m)$(m)
196825,733104.61.816,60941.30.9391,701922.918.3
196926,651119.12.118,11149.61.0400,241992.419.3
197027,974134.72.617,85951.41.1410,356x1,075.720.9
197129,708160.23.417,47053.31.2422.5941,182.623.1
197232,147190.73.819,90269.51.6434,8391,303.925.3

The average sum assured per policy was $4,064 in 1968, $4,470 in 1969, $4,814 in 1970, $5,392 in 1971, and $5,933 in 1972. In the total sum assured at the end of the year, accrued reversionary bonuses amounting to $112,692,188 have been added. Values of immediate and deferred annuities in force at the end of latest 5 years were as follows: $9,516,000, $10,299,000, $11,413,000, $12,678,000, and $13,357,000. New business in annuities in 1972 totalled $2,269,000 and discontinuances $1,590,000.

The office's total assets at 31 December and their class of investment are shown in the following table.

Class of InvestmentAmountPercentages
197019711972197019711972

*Mainly premiums and interest due and accrued interest.

  $(thousand)  percent 
Mortgages on freehold property97,022105,686113,68439.5039.3138.70
Loans on policies14,87517,01218,4636.056.336.28
Government securities51,11257,02663,60620.8121.2121.65
Local authority securities25,29126,55426,13310.309.888.90
Real estate17,87621,47726,1247.287.998.90
Company shares and debentures34,35335,19639,01813.9913.0913.28
Miscellaneous assets*5,0875,8916,7382.072.192.29
Totals245,616268,842293,767100.00100.00100.00

At 31 December 1972 assurances, annuity, and endowment funds, apart from special reserves of $4.1 million, amounted to $261.9 million.

FIRE, ACCIDENT, AND OTHER INSURANCE—The State Insurance Office is empowered to carry on any class of insurance business other than life assurance. As the State Fire Office it commenced business in 1905. In 1925 accident business was transferred to it from the Government Life Insurance Office and since 1947 it has undertaken marine insurance.

Its growth is indicated in the following table.

YearNet PremiumsClaimsWorking Expenses
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
192335713793
1933502195141
19431,123438185
19533,1181,652916
19638,6325,2171,801
196815,3789,9752,713
196916,36011,2872,829
197019,77715,5373,692
197125,75820,2194,193
197230,29120,6154,479

The main classes of accident insurance transacted are motor vehicle (comprehensive and third-party risk), employers' liability, personal accident, public risk, and plate glass.

Fire insurance is perhaps more accurately described as property insurance, since the houseowners' and householders' policies, which have largely superseded fire insurance policies for covering dwellings and their contents, provide coverage not only against fire but also against a wide range of other possible causes of damage. Commercial property owners, too, are increasingly extending their fire policies to cover other dangers.

The total assets of the State Insurance Office at 31 December 1972 amounted to $48.2 million which included $34.3 million in the form of investment ($8.6 million in Government securities, $12.3 million in local body securities), and $9.6 million in fixed assets, mainly land, buildings, and plant. Of the total liabilities, reserves amounted to $20.0 million, unexpired risks to $11.9 million, and unadjusted claims to $5.6 million.

EARTHQUAKE AND WAR DAMAGE INSURANCE—The Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944 is administered by a commission. All property insured against fire is deemed to be insured to the extent of the indemnity value against earthquake and war damage. Premiums at the rate of 5c for each $100 of insurance cover are collected by the insurance companies and paid into the Earthquake and War Damage Fund (less commission of 2/12; percent).

Advances may be made from the Consolidated Revenue Account if at any time the amount in the Earthquake and War Damage Fund is not sufficient to meet the claims thereon.

“Earthquake damage” is defined as damage occurring as the direct result of earthquake or of fire occasioned by or in consequence of earthquake. In 1950 an extension of the scheme was instituted to provide some measure of protection to the insured against storm and flood of an abnormal or widespread nature. In 1954 the definition of disaster damage was extended to include volcanic eruption, and authority was given to the commission to accept insurance against landslip. This latter type of cover does not apply automatically. Finance is provided by crediting 10 percent of the premiums compulsorily collected under the Act to a special Disaster Fund.

Since 1 June 1967 the commission has had power to underwrite the geothermal activity insurance on a voluntary basis.

The following is a comparative statement for the last 6 years of the financial operations under the Earthquake and War Damage Act, together with a statement showing the position from the inception of the fund to 31 March 1973.

Item1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–721972–7319 Dec 1941 to 31 Mar 1973

*At end of each period.

†From commencement in November 1949.

Income—$(thousand)
  Premiums—
        Earthquake and war damage5,6866,1726,4117,3117,9019,623108,823
        Storm and flood6296847068108821,06910,641
        Interest4,5145,0295,8076,7257,6728,78067,079
Totals10,82911,88512,92314,84616,45619,472186,542
Outgo— 
  Claims— 
        Earthquake and war damage202,573120352112734,236      
        Storm and flood3392,1661728905634368,494      
    Salaries and expenses of management517962x72x63x631,501      
    Discount to insurance offices1551681742042152692,760      
Totals5654,986529x1,202x1,052x1,04016,992      
Surplus10,2646,89912,39513,64515,404x18,432169,550      
Earthquake and War Damage Fund*101,138109,450121,211134,929150,306164,886164,886      
Disaster Fund2,5451,1321,6631,5901,9502,6002,600      

During the year ended 31 March 1973, 3,700 earthquake claims were lodged compared with 1,848 for the previous year.

A total of 1,703 claims under the storm and disaster damage provisions were made during the year ended 31 March 1972 compared with 2,680 in the previous year.

Chapter 34. Section 32; EMPLOYMENT

LABOUR FORCE—The size of the labour force as a percentage of population is affected by various factors, notably by changes in the birth rate causing variations in the percentage of the population in working-age groups, by extension of school attendance, and by the changing proportion of married women seeking work. The fluctuations in the growth of the labour force follow those of births some 15 years earlier. Net migration flow has only a minor effect on the work force (except in times of recession) and the effect varies according to the age structure of the migrants and their dependency ratio. There is a relatively greater importance of the 15–25 year age group in the labour force as the majority of females are actively engaged at this period of their lives before taking on home-making responsibilities.

The New Zealand economy has normally enabled a policy of full employment to operate. The labour force therefore embraces almost all those seeking work.

The percentage of the male population in active employment was 57 percent in 1956, 55.3 percent in 1961, 55.5 percent in 1966, and 54.9 percent in 1971. Females actively engaged rose from 18 percent in 1956 to 18.7 percent in 1961, to 21 percent in 1966, and 23.3 percent in 1971. Married women working (as a percentage of all married women) rose from 12.9 percent in 1956 to 16 percent in 1961, to 20 percent in 1966, and 26.1 percent in 1971. Increasing numbers of married women have entered the labour force after their family responsibilities have lightened.

The estimated annual growth of the labour force is shown in the following table.

As at AprilMalesFemalesTotalLabour Force as a Percentage of Total Population
NumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual IncreaseNumberAnnual Increase

*Decrease.

 (000)percent(000)percent(000)percentpercent
1,963693.71.9236.22.4929.92.036.8
1,964709.82.3248.15.0957.93.037.1
1,965728.92.7262.55.8991.43.537.7
1,966745.62.3280.46.81,026.03.538.3
1,967759.41.9293.14.51,052.52.638.6
1,968756.2−0.4*287.2−2.0*1,043.4−0.9*37.9
1,969764.71.1296.53.21,061.21.738.2
1,970779.21.9311.55.11,090.72.838.7
1,971789.81.4322.23.41,112.01.938.9
1,972796.90.9326.01.21,122.91.038.9
1,973814.72.2335.52.91,150.22.438.7

The average annual increase percentage for males was 1.6 percent as compared with 3.8 percent for females and 2.2 percent for the total labour force over those 11 years.

The following table shows the male and female members of the labour force by age groups at five censuses.

Age Group (Years) 19511956196119661971

*Includes Not Specified ages at 1951 and 1956 censuses.

Under 20(m)47,84953,84862,39678,66975,973
 (f)41,04448,88958,22474,35872,598
20–24(m)68,77466,40775,68291,155108,686
 (f)36,38133,63438,88449,32163,367
25–34(m)138,261155,628153,128159,117175,557
 (f)31,86632,65830,58636,87551,687
35–44(m)131,371138,820149,691164,492158,185
 (f)27,24232,55838,31746,54557,206
45–64(m)159,639184,497209,456229,693244,476
 (f)31,74042,34654,93868,60884,098
65 and over(m)22,46122,93520,15322,46922,092
 (f)3,0743,7933,9084,7374,910
Totals*(m)568,963622,758670,506745,595784,969
 (f)171,533194,094224,857280,444333,866

Though year-to-year fluctuations were considerable during the 10 years to 1967 the average migration gain to the population was about 10,000 a year, representing approximately one-fifth of the annual increase in the population as a whole. As immigrants as a body have a higher proportion in the working-age group than the normal cross-section of population, a period of high net immigration adds rapidly to the percentage of the population in the labour force and is particularly valuable where vacancies requiring particular skills are filled by migrants. In 1968 and 1969 there was a migration loss with a loss of some workers to Australia and a consequent slowing down of the labour force growth. From 1970 migration gain has averaged about 14,000 a year.

EMPLOYMENT STRUCTURE—The growth of population has been accompanied by a changing emphasis in employment. In the nineteenth century the major activities of farming, mining, and lumbering gave rise to manufacturing industries and to commercial and professional occupations. In 1881, 11.2 percent of the total population was engaged in agriculture, 13.1 percent in industries, which included mining, and 6.6 percent in commercial and professional occupations. By 1901 the proportion in tertiary activities and farming had increased while that in secondary industries had remained constant, and mining had declined relatively in importance. The proportions were then 14.5 percent in farming, 13.1 percent in industry, and 11 percent in services.

The more recent rapid development of larger urban centres has been associated with a trend away from primary into secondary industries, a trend which developed noticeably after the depression of the 1930s and which was given marked impetus by the war. The broad changes in the economy are indicated by the following table. Decreases in the proportions engaged in primary production are typical of advanced economies, although it has to be noted that the farming community makes greater use of the services sector in the development of farm productivity.

Group1961 Census1966 Census1971 Census
Persons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour ForcePersons EmployedPercentage of Labour Force
Primary production136,09815.2140,93613.7134,15912.0
Secondary industry321,24135.8381,58937.2388,07134.7
Services438,02449.0503,51449.1596,60553.3

From April 1971, estimates of the industrial distribution of the total labour force have been made according to the newly revised New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification.

As a result, comparisons with the earlier estimates for the industrial groups shown in previous issues of the Yearbook are not possible. Only the figures for “Total in industry” and “Total labour force” are comparable with previous estimates.

The estimates for April 1972 and April 1973 are as follows:

Industrial Group N.Z.S.I.C.April 1972April 1973
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
  (000)  (000) 
Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing120.616.5137.1121.016.6137.6
Mining and quarrying4.30.14.44.20.14.3
Manufacturing industry—
    Food, beverages, and tobacco55.611.867.458.012.570.5
    Textiles, wearing apparel and leather17.330.447.717.731.048.7
    Wood and wood products19.71.721.420.71.922.6
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing20.47.127.520.57.427.9
    Chemicals, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastics14.75.520.215.45.821.2
    Non-metallic mineral products10.21.211.410.51.111.6
    Basic metals, metal products, machinery and equipment, and other manufacturing industries66.411.978.370.713.484.1
Totals, manufacturing industries204.369.6273.9213.573.1286.6
Electricity, gas, and water13.01.314.313.21.314.5
Construction83.92.586.486.12.788.8
Wholesale and retail trade110.877.4188.2111.778.4190.1
Transport, storage, and communication86.117.3103.486.617.9104.5
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.38.528.967.441.030.271.2
Community, social and personal services—
    Public administration, etc.31.911.943.833.112.445.5
    Sanitary and similar services4.92.06.94.92.17.0
    Social and related community services45.280.6125.847.483.0130.4
    Recreational services6.53.510.06.63.610.2
    Personal and household services32.812.645.433.212.645.8
Totals, community and personal services121.3110.6231.9125.2113.7238.9
Total in industry782.8324.21,107.0802.5334.01,136.5
Armed forces in New Zealand10.60.611.210.60.611.2
Registered unemployed3.51.24.71.60.92.5
Total labour force796.9326.01,122.9814.7335.51,150.2

LABOUR FORCE PROJECTIONS—Labour force projections have been made by the Department of Statistics for the period up to 2000.

A new set of projections, based on more recent experience, will be published when relevant data on the labour force from the 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings become available.

As at 31 DecemberProjected Total New Zealand Labour Force (*) Assuming () Net Annual Immigration () of:
5,00010,000
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal

*These projections have as a base the estimated labour force as at 31 December 1971 and incorporate the following assumptions:

  • That 1967 age-of-mother and marital-status specific birth rates, adjusted to allow for changes in birth rates during 1968–71, apply throughout the projection period;

  • That New Zealand life table mortality rates (total population) 1960–62, adjusted to allow for changes in mortality rates between 1960–62 and 1971, apply throughout the projection period.

† These projections are based on 1966 Census of Population age and marital status (females only) specific labour force participation rates adjusted to allow for changes in labour force participation rates up to mid-October 1971.

‡ The assumed net migration is taken to commence from the projection base.

    (000)  
1971 (base)7933251,1177933251,117
1,9728083301,1388103311,140
1,9738243361,1608273371,164
1,9748403421,1828453441,189
1,9758573491,2068633511,214
1,9768743561,2298823591,241
1,9778913631,2549013661,268
1,9789093691,2799213741,295
1,9799273751,3029403801,320
1,9809433791,3229583851,344
1,9819593831,3429763891,366
1,9829753861,3619943941,388
1,9839913901,3811,0123981,410
1,9841,0073941,4021,0304031,433
1,9851,0243991,4231,0494091,457
1,9861,0414051,4451,0684151,483
1,9871,0594111,4701,0874221,510
1,9881,0774191,4961,1084311,539
1,9891,0964271,5241,1294401,569
1,9901,1164371,5531,1514501,601
1,9911,1374461,5831,1744601,635
1,9921,1594571,6151,1984711,669
1,9931,1824671,6491,2234831,706
1,9941,2054781,6831,2494951,743
1,9951,2304891,7191,2755071,782
1,9961,2555011,7561,3025191,821
1,9971,2815121,7941,3315311,862
1,9981,3085241,8321,3605431,903
1,9991,3355351,8711,3895561,945
2,0001,3635471,9101,4195681,987

EMPLOYMENT SITUATION—In the post-war years up to 1967 the labour situation was characterised by overfull employment and a high number of vacancies in industry. In 1967, following deflationary measures, there was a sharp rise in the number of unemployed persons. By the middle of the year when seasonal workers found difficulty in obtaining off-season jobs the number of unemployed rose to over 6,000, or about 0.6 percent of the labour force. Unemployment became stabilised at about this level until the autumn of 1968, when it rose further to 8,500 and remained about this figure during the following winter. From a peak of 8,560 in July 1968 the number of unemployed fell steadily, except for occasional monthly increases, to under 1,200 in March 1971. The number of unemployed rose to average 5,684 for 1972 but for 1973 dropped to an average of 2,321. Vacancies, which moved from a general level of about 8,000 to a level between 2,000 and 4,000 during 1967 and 1968, increased to approximately 6,000 in late 1969, and averaged 2,648 for 1972, and 3,538 for 1973.

PROMOTION OF EMPLOYMENT—The functions and duties of the Department of Labour are set out in the Labour Department Act 1954. On the employment side the duties include: the provision of a complete employment service for the purposes of placing workers in employment, assisting employers to provide employment, helping persons to find better or more suitable employment, and aiding persons who require occupational readjustment or training; the collection and publication of information relating to employment and unemployment; the making of surveys and forecasts of the classes of employment required or available; the promotion of voluntary placing of suitable persons in such employment; and in general the promotion and maintenance of full employment. In particular the department may operate hostels for workers, provide a home-aid service, and arrange for the selection, transport, and accommodation of immigrants.

Accordingly the department seeks to maintain a policy of full employment at the highest productive level, operates 21 district employment offices, provides (through a home-aid service) domestic help for families in urgent circumstances, and administers employment schemes, subsidised where necessary, for those unfit to compete in the ordinary labour market.

The nine hostels operated by or for the department at 31 March 1973—comprising an industrial workers' hostel, immigration hostels, Public Service hostels, miners' hostels, and Maori youth hostels—provided accommodation for 1,269 workers.

The department's employment service is being developed in order to provide the co-ordinating point for employment and related services for the work force. A new development has taken place in Auckland where, since June 1972, additional staffing resources and better facilities (including open-planning layout replacing the “barrier” of the traditional public counter) have been provided. These have helped to achieve a situation in which for the last few months of 1973 there were no registered unemployed in a labour market of some 300,000 persons. The work and functions of the Auckland Employment Centre are reviewed regularly by an employment advisory committee representing interested groups, including representatives of trade unions, employers' organisations, and the special interests of the Polynesian people, women, and the disabled. The Departments of Education, Health, Labour, Maori and Island Affairs, and Social Welfare also have members on the committee.

The experience of the Auckland Employment Centre has demonstrated that, given better staffing and facilities, a more positive attitude can be secured from those seeking employment and that employers will co-operate in notifying vacancies on a more regular basis.

Four sub-committees of the Auckland Employment Advisory Committee have undertaken valuable work corresponding to the special employment problems faced by the disabled, Polynesians, young persons, and women returning to the work force. The Disabled Persons Subcommittee brought down a report with practical recommendations on the co-ordination of services leading to a more rational procedure for the placement of the disabled. Its recommendations were endorsed by the National Civilian Rehabilitation Committee late in 1973 when steps were taken to implement the subcommittee's proposals. Another development with which the new Auckland Employment Service has been connected was a pilot survey of women who wish to return to the work force in a full-time capacity.

Rotorua has become the second of the Department's upgraded employment districts.

MANPOWER PLANNING—Changes in the structure of industry and in technology are occurring at an ever-increasing rate. This fact has led to a growing emphasis on forecasting manpower supply on the one hand and likely manpower requirements on the other, with a view to equating the two by means of relevant manpower policies. The forecasts are based on certain assumptions concerning the growth of population, net migration and labour force participation rates on the supply side, and on production plans and productivity rates on the demand side. As the bases of the forecasts are volatile, the latter need to be revised at frequent intervals. The forecasting process is therefore never completed, but is an on-going task which must take account of the dynamic forces operating in the labour market.

Vocational Training—Most vocational training schemes in existence today have been developed since the Second World War, except apprenticeships. It is now recognised in most countries that vocational training should be closely integrated with economic and manpower planning.

The Tyndall Commission of Inquiry into Vocational Training in 1965 recommended the establishment of a Vocational Training Council. Although general satisfaction was expressed with the then existing situation there was support for better co-ordination in forecasting needs and recommending programmes to meet these needs.

Under the Vocational Training Council Act 1968 the council's functions are prescribed as advisory to Government, State departments, industry, commerce, agriculture, social welfare, and other interested organisations. Recommendations may relate to improved training, the development of new or established facilities, the co-ordination of training schemes, levies or other methods for the financing or encouragement of training, the award of scholarships, the fostering of research, the carrying out of inquiries and investigations in any field of training, and the development and implementation of techniques relating to occupational identification, description, and classification and to job analysis and specification.

The council has the following membership, appointed jointly by the Ministers of Education and Labour: a chairman; the Director-General of Education; the Secretary of Labour; two members nominated by the N.Z. Employers' Federation; two members nominated by the N.Z. Federation of Labour; one member nominated by the N.Z. Manufacturers' Federation; one member nominated by the Technical Institutes Association; one member nominated by the Technicians Certification Authority of New Zealand; and not more than five other members—(two appointments have so far been made under this provision).

In addition, the council has three associate (non-voting) members: an appointee of the State Services Co-ordinating Committee; an appointee of the Combined State Services Organisations; and the Chairman of the University Grants Committee.

The first meeting of the council was held in August 1969 and the council then set about: (a) identifying short and long-term training needs in the major industries and industry sectors and in other areas such as the social sciences; (b) assessing existing training schemes and promoting the formulation of new or revised schemes where necessary; (c) examining a number of National Development Conference recommendations relating to vocational training and education; and (d) undertaking investigations and research relating to: particular industries; regions of the country; and the needs of various occupations and sectors to see where vocational education and training can assist in the solution of their problems.

The Council decided that these objectives could best be achieved by thinking in terms of “industries” in commonly recognised groupings such as building, farm production and processing, or tourism. In general, it rejected the idea of dealing with occupations such as carpentry or individual firms. An advantage of this approach is that most industry groups have national employer and employee groups with whom meaningful discussions can be held.

Representative voluntary industrial and commercial training boards had been established for 24 industries by September 1973. Boards include members from employer, employee, educational, and other specialist groups. A major incentive has been the Government grant to encourage the appointment of executive training officers to work for industry training boards. This grant is 90 percent of the cost of employing an executive training officer with a maximum grant of $12,000 per officer each year. These boards, among other things, examine existing training and assess the need for revised or new schemes. This involves both the identification of the level of ability of the person required (machine operator, graduate, tradesman, supervisor, etc.) and the numbers required at each level.

In addition, the council has concerned itself with matters common to a number of industries, for example, apprenticeship and trade training, women and employment, technician training, management and supervisory training, and regional differences in educational and vocational opportunity.

The council in its activities is working closely with the various social and economic sector organisations and Government departments, particularly the Departments of Labour and Education.

References—Further background information on vocational training in New Zealand may be found in:

Report of Commission of Inquiry into Vocational Training in New Zealand, 1965.

The Development of Technical Institutes in New Zealand, B. C. Lee, New Zealand Journal of Public Administration, Volume 32, No. 2, March 1970.

Annual Reports of the Vocational Training Council.

STATISTICS OF EMPLOYMENT: Half-yearly Surveys—The Department of Labour carries out at half-yearly intervals a general survey of employment in New Zealand. These surveys are conducted by means of inquiries sent out to employers of labour, the results being published in the Labour and Employment Gazette. Returns are required from all establishments in which at least two persons (including working proprietors) are engaged. Government and local authority employment is included. Employers in farming, hunting, trapping, fishing, waterfront work, seagoing work, private domestic service, and armed forces are not required to submit half-yearly returns. The following tables are based on these surveys. (A survey of farm employment is included in Section 14, Farming.)

A summary of employment is given in the following table.

Date of SurveyFull-time Employees and Working ProprietorsPart-time WorkersHalf-yearly Percentage Rate of Labour Turnover*
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemales

*The relationship between the number of terminations over the previous half-year and the average number of employees during the same period.

April—      percentpercent
  1963491,568190,830682,39816,90827,90644,8141832
  1964507,174200,596707,77018,48130,80049,2812032
  1965526,455211,599738,05420,38634,66955,0552133
  1966542,943223,955766,89823,81339,81463,6272336
  1967554,644233,899788,54324,37244,45368,8252134
  1968547,000227,045774,04523,44943,51266,9611628
  1969558,695235,077793,77225,07448,22173,2952030
  1970572,052247,353819,40527,64357,45585,0982335
  1971584,793255,687840,48029,11066,00095,1102436
  1972589,740257,792847,53228,54568,32296,8672133
  1973606,567265,756872,32330,18274,898105,0802333
October
  1972581,577256,914838,49129,74072,379102,1191930
  1973600,203273,409873,61233,06284,927117,9892433

Public Service Employment—Distribution of permanent staff in the Public Service by sex and by occupational classes as at 31 March 1973 is shown in the following table. (Railways, Post Office, Police, Education Boards and Universities staffs are not included.)

Occupational ClassMalesFemales

*Mental hospital staff transferred to hospital boards during the year.

Accountants26710
Actuarial4
Administrative88
Agriculture extension—  
    Farm advisory35468
    Home science instruction1
    Poultry instruction2
    Sheep and wool instruction22
Agriculture (grading and testing)—  
    Dairy instruction694
    Seed analysis170
Agriculture instruction—  
    Apiary instruction10
    Farm dairy instruction94
    Farm livestock instruction401
Aircraft surveying26
Air traffic control29639
Architectural1978
Art and display5313
Aviation calibration20
Aviation operations38
Bailiffs83
Clerical8,3666,067
Coal mining—  
    Coal mining35
    Mine surveying10
Communications2801
Computer programmers8834
Customs—  
    Customs (boarding and prevention)71
Customs (bond)16
Dental nursing—  
    Dental attendants2
    School dental nursing1,741
Dental officers383
Dietitians4
Dockyard trades367
Draughting1,578335
Editorial and journalists9228
Education18411
Education (teaching service)1314
Electricity (linemen)405
Electricity (operating)873
Engineering1,1671
Engineering officers9972
Engineering technicians73129
Executive1,89847
Farming1382
Fire protection and services223
Fisheries and marine inspection41
Forest management993
Forestry161
General servicing1858
Health education426
Health inspection106
Horticultural inspection50
Hostel and domestic services26121
Industrial inspection—  
    Explosives9
    Factory985
    Factory (bush)9
    Pert safety5
    Safety inspection40
    Weights and measures Institutional welfare—39
Institutional instruction284
    Institutional welfare16581
Investigating20027
Land management333
Land surveying184
Landscape and gardening753
Legal1298
Library63327
Lighthouse keeping54
Machining355
Manual (non-trades)1,008
Meat inspection1,264
Medical5016
Mental health—  
    Mental health (assistant nurses)21
    Mental health (community nurses)2
    Mental health (general nurses)1
    Mental health (hospital aids)25
    Mental health (nurses)596
Meteorological615
Meteorological observing17623
Mine management, inspection, and engineering34
Mine underviewers and deputies99
Motion picture production7314
Motor vehicle inspection211
National parks and reserves68
Nautical services37
Nursing4276
Occupational therapy9
Office and general assistants5531,160
Patent examining165
Pharmacy123
Photographic5218
Physiotherapy3
Port agriculture service915
Printing (non-trades)87122
Printing trades362
Prisons—  
    Prison instruction1646
    Prison officers69345
Prison officers (nursing)151
Property supervision130
Psychology174
Quantity surveying1223
Road traffic—  
    Parking meter enforcement63
    Road safety instruction6
    Road traffic enforcement669
    Road traffic instruction72
Rural valuing119
Sawmilling80
Science1,16074
Science technicians1,146395
Ships officers24
Social workers383256
Storekeeping6633
Survey assistants109
Survey engineering76
Technicians28352
Timber inspection39
Town planning315
Trades—  
    Trades1,155
    Carpenters and related trades222
    Electricians and related trades490
    Fitters and related trades651
    Motor mechanics and related trades184
    Painters and related trades93
    Plumbers and related trades33
    Other trades5
Traffic engineering12
Typing—  
    Shorthand reporters4
    Shorthand typists1,395
    Shorthand typists (special duties)65
    Teletypists18
    Typists1,222
    Varitypists16
Urban valuing282
Veterinary1352
Vocational guidance3024
Welders (non-trades)18
Wildlife management67
Totals36,245*14,768*

EMPLOYMENT BY LOCAL AUTHORITIES—Employees of local authorities are principally engaged in the construction and maintenance of roads and streets, the operation and maintenance of public-utility industries (gas, electric and water supply, and transport), and community services.

In the following table particulars are given of the number of all direct wage-earning employees who were actually in the employ of the various classes of local authorities (hospital boards excluded) at 31 March of each of the latest five years inclusive. Besides permanent staff, including administrative and professional employees, the statistics include part-time, casual, and temporary employees, and subsidised workers, but exclude those employed by contractors.

Local AuthorityEmployees at 31 March
19681969197019711972

*As at 30 September.

†County pest destruction districts included.

‡Milk boards abolished as at 1 September 1968.

§Now redesignated as a county.

Catchment boards739753788762761
City and borough councils16,15616,36316,52816,66616,902
County councils5,9265,9696,0586,0456,269
Electric power boards5,2095,2725,4755,6465,794
Fire boards1,0081,0461,2521,3871,550
Gas boards3137414859
Harbour boards*3,8183,7463,7103,8143,886
Harbour bridge authority174139156150135
Land drainage boards10087979182
Local railway board1515151515
Milk boards36
Museum authority55110112118146
Nassella tussock boards7848423431
Plantation board9998
Pest destruction boards1,3131,2671,2261,2071,122
Regional authority1,5791,5361,5141,5821,683
River boards3737343230
Road board272628§§
Road tunnel authority4142424244
Town boards—
    Dependent2727262622
    Independent5452526754
Underground water authorities66544
Urban drainage boards417428430453466
Urban transport boards430410416423445
Valley authority2424262725
Water supply boards55555
Totals37,31437,45438,08738,65239,538

UNEMPLOYMENT—Except for occasional returns relating to State unemployment relief which were presented to Parliament from time to time, practically no direct statistical evidence as to the extent of unemployment in New Zealand prior to 1892 is available. Such information is, however, available from the census (since 1896) and from the records of the Department of Labour (since 1892). In addition, statistics of unemployment among trade unionists were collected from trade union secretaries by the Department of Statistics from 1925 to 1930. A table showing figures of unemployment from June 1931 to March 1939 will be found on page 854 of the 1940 Yearbook.

Census Data on Unemployment—The great disadvantage of the census inquiry as an indicator of the trend of unemployment is that it provides data at quinquennial intervals only. Unemployment figures from the 1971 Census were 8,757 males and 7,411 females.

The following table gives relevant census data on unemployment. Prior to 1951 Maoris were not included.

CensusNumber of Males UnemployedProportion per 1,000 Male Wage and Salary Earners
12 April 189614,759100
31 March 19018,46748
12 April 19068,18939
2 April 19117,15230
15 October 19165,92026
17 April 192111,06139
20 April 192610,69434
24 March 193635,77496
25 September 19455,82316
17 April 19517,90218
17 April 19565,55812
18 April 19614,6749
22 March 19665,1258
23 March 19718,75713

The 1936 figure includes men on rationed relief work, but excludes men (16,222) partly unemployed but not on relief work. The 1945 figure includes ex-servicemen recently returned from overseas who had not then resumed work. At the time of the 1951 Census the waterfront strike was in progress and it was estimated that approximately 15,000 workers in that and other industries were on strike. Evidently many of these were not returned as unemployed; it is likely that a number changed to other industries, while some may not have considered themselves to be unemployed.

Unemployment Benefit—Unemployment benefits under the Social Security Act have been payable since 1 April 1939. The number in force at 31 March 1973 was 1,782.

Subject to the conditions set out in Section 6A, the unemployment benefit may be claimed as of right. Registration at a district office of the Department of Labour is a compulsory prerequisite to eligibility for the benefit. Hence it is considered that the great majority of workers becoming involuntarily unemployed would register for employment in order to validate a claim for the benefit.

Close liaison is maintained between the Social Welfare Department and the Department of Labour to prevent the payment of benefit where work is available. In addition to the requirement that a benefit applicant must register for work at an employment office, all unemployment beneficiaries must report once weekly at the employment office.

VACANCIES, PLACEMENTS, AND UNEMPLOYED PERSONS—In addition to the half-yearly survey of the employment position, the Department of Labour maintains a weekly record of registered unemployed persons and a half-monthly record of vacancies and placements. The following tables are derived from this record and hence relate only to the department's operations as an employment service.

The following table contains a summary of the numbers of notified vacancies, placements, and registered unemployed persons as recorded by the Department of Labour.

DateNotified Vacancies at End of MonthPlacements During MonthRegistered Unemployed Persons at End of Month
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Monthly Average For Calendar Years
1,9633,7461,9855,7318033701,173726123849
1,9644,8471,7666,6137883921,180511139650
1,9656,0001,9367,9367223791,101385128513
1,9665,5502,2037,7536743371,011332131463
1,9672,6821,4454,1271,3764071,7833,2675853,852
1,9681,8528282,6801,8215422,3635,2721,6096,881
1,9692,9771,1904,1671,1623781,5402,1917352,926
1,9703,7941,4515,2457962901,0861,2253751,600
1,9712,2079503,1579463371,2832,5555603,115
1,9721,7908572,6471,5293961,9254,3681,3165,684
1,9732,6269123,5381,3123941,7061,5917302,321

Registered unemployed, vacancies, and placements are classified by occupation in the following table on the basis of monthly averages.

Occupation GroupRegistered Unemployed (Monthly Average)Vacancies (Monthly Average)Placements (Monthly Average)
197219731972197319721973
Professional, technical, and clerical3521694423156071
Sales2741271201135245
Farming, fishing, logging3911823553237230
Transport and communications25786508803443
Manufacturing and trades1,7946379861,640390387
Service535275120209122129
Labouring1,622582116291972702
All other occupations4592633208375899
All occupations5,6842,3212,6473,5381,9251,706

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE—Since 1938 vocational guidance of pupils at secondary schools has been undertaken by the Department of Education which has Vocational Guidance Centres in Auckland, Hamilton, Napier, Lower Hutt, Wellington, Christchurch, and Dunedin. Activities are described in Section 7A, Education.

APPRENTICESHIPS—Under the Apprentices Act 1948 orders governing apprenticeships are made by the Court of Arbitration, which consists of a Judge, a workers' member, and an employers' member. Orders are made on the recommendations of New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees, which consist of four representatives of employers, four representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of each committee. The New Zealand committees are in effect policy making committees. There are 34 committees, which normally meet once or twice a year.

Day-to-day administration of the Apprentices Act and the apprenticeship orders is carried on by local apprenticeship committees, of which there are 241. They consist of three representatives of employers, three representatives of workers, a person conversant with technical education, and the District Commissioner of Apprenticeship, who is ex officio chairman of all committees for the district for which he is appointed. District Commissioners delegate chairmanship to other officers of the Department of Labour when necessary.

The apprentice learns by doing tasks under supervision. Provision is made in a number of apprenticeship orders for a specific list of operations and skills to be taught apprentices by their employers. Both employers and apprentices are thus helped to define the scope of training, and apprenticeship committees, when called on to do so, are enabled to judge whether or not training is adequate.

As no employer may engage an apprentice without the prior consent of the appropriate local committee, the facilities for training are known to the committee in each case. When an employer who has not previously had an apprentice applies for permission to engage one, arrangements may be made for an inspection of his workshop by two members of the local committee. On their report the full committee makes the appropriate decision. Every apprentice has a contract of apprenticeship, which is registered by the District Commissioner.

Local committees deal with complaints from apprentices and employers, with applications to transfer apprentices to other employers, and applications to discharge apprentices for misconduct. Their decisions, which are of a semi-judicial nature, are subject to review by way of appeal to the Court of Arbitration.

In the majority of industries there are provisions in apprenticeship orders for the attendance of apprentices at technical classes, both during working hours and in the evening. In the 40-hour week four hours are spent at day classes, with usually equivalent amount of time at evening classes. In some industries technical training is concentrated into an annual course of three or four weeks' duration. The classes are operated by Technical Institutes and Secondary Schools.

The general policy regarding apprentice education is determined by the Department of Education in co-operation with New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees. That department itself operates a Technical Correspondence Institute, which provides courses of instruction for those apprentices who live too far from any school to allow them to attend evening classes.

A statutory body, the New Zealand Trades Certification Board, conducts examinations for apprentices (see Section 7A, Education). The examinations are voluntary and, except in the electrical trade and in plumbing, no examination test is required for the practice of a trade. There is very close liaison between New Zealand Apprenticeship Committees and the board, the Commissioner of Apprenticeships being a member of the board.

During the five years to March 1973 a total of 41,337 new apprenticeship contracts were registered, 25,019 were completed and 12,214 lapsed or were cancelled; in the building trades there were 14,415 new contracts over the period and 9,578 completions and 3,998 lapses.

The number of apprenticeship contracts registered during the year, completed during the year, and in force at the end of the year, are indicated in the following table.

TradeApprenticeship Contracts
Registered During Year Ended 31 MarchCompleted During Year Ended 31 MarchIn Force at 31 March
197219731972197319721973
Aircraft72715265338329
Baking1071063849240263
Boilermaking57764749238239
Bricklaying69813131219240
Carpentry1,3611,8729268114,6345,291
Clothing80663640249233
Coachbuilding5414353052421,9041,889
Dentistry410642123
Electrical5915993573581,9962,107
Engineering7516854874932,6702,711
Footwear repair and making61241813
Footwear manufacturing51612824124136
Furniture284360119184883949
Hairdressing5946061462971,4841,409
Heating and ventilation41391210104120
Horticulture64644355206198
Jewellery40432619182189
Masonry521134
Motor trades1,4771,4699879385,3865,525
Moulding25166116859
Painting3214281531829171,030
Photo-engraving57293823181180
Piano repairing and tuning1211011
Plastering66784237177189
Plumbing3223771561601,0571,162
Printing3392302281881,1981,121
Radio861126267337364
Refrigeration engineering53404030162163
Retail meat industry341328184184897940
Saddlery, leather and canvas goods27338116669
Sheet-metal working1231244865372382
Shipbuilding47412515131137
Timber industry364225299188
Others44593330140149
Totals8,0838,5964,6994,70426,69327,912

TRAINING COURSES FOR MAORIS AND POLYNESIANS FROM THE PACIFIC—Trade training is one approach that is being adopted to broaden employment opportunities for Maori and Polynesian youths.

The trade-training schemes have the approval of the educational and apprenticeship authorities. Time spent on a course is credited towards the normal apprenticeship, which is completed with employers in the usual way. The schemes are run in conjunction with the technical institutes at Auckland, Hamilton, Petone, and Christchurch. Special tuition is also given in other subjects to help the boys adapt themselves to urban living.

Entry into the schemes is generally restricted to boys from country areas where apprenticeships are not normally available. Boys taken into the schemes, and their parents, enter into a training agreement with the Maori and Island Affairs Department, whereby the boys are required to live at approved hostels, regularly attend evening technical classes, and to sit the appropriate trade examinations. The trainees are paid a weekly training allowance.

Training is provided in 11 trades—carpentry (all four centres), motor mechanics (Auckland, Hamilton, and Christchurch), plumbing, electrical wiring (Auckland and Hamilton), diesel mechanics and sheetmetal work (Auckland), fitting and turning (Hamilton), plastering (Petone), and painting, panelbeating, and bricklaying (Christchurch), with a total intake of 274 boys each year. The training courses last for 1 year, except that carpentry is a 2-year course and includes 1 year on practical house building works for the department. From the time of the pilot scheme in 1959 up to 31 March 1973, 2,424 Maori youths had been taken into the schemes, and 975 of them had completed their apprenticeships with private employers and were qualified tradesmen.

The increase in the number of Maori apprentices in recent years is illustrated by the following table.

At 31 MarchRegistered Maori ApprenticesPercentage of Total Registered Apprentices
1,9636042.9
1,9647703.3
1,9658523.6
1,9669813.9
1,9671,0724.2
1,9681,0314.3
1,9691,1914.8
1,9701,3025.1
1,9711,3755.3
1,9721,4895.6
1,9731,4715.3

Farm Training—Special arrangements have been made for 4 Maori boys to enter Telford Farm Training Institute each year. This is a comprehensive one-year course covering important theoretical and practical aspects of farming and farm management. The department meets full cost of board and school fees at the Institute.

City Pre-employment Courses—Special pre-employment courses to help Maori boys and girls from country areas coming to cities for work are conducted early each year by the Department of Maori and Island Affairs in conjunction with the Wellington Polytechnic and the Auckland, Christchurch, and Waikato Technical Institutes. The Education, Health, and Police Departments and local civic authorities also co-operate in the schemes. The courses, which last about four weeks, are specially designed to help with initial adjustments to city life and with the selection of suitable employment. At the end of the course the students take up suitable employment in the city. Accommodation is provided at hostels. The present annual intake of students into the course is: Wellington, 60 boys—75 girls; Auckland, 30 boys—20 girls; Hamilton, 15 girls; and Christchurch, 15 girls.

STATISTICS FROM CENSUS OF POPULATION—Statistics on industrial distribution, occupations, and occupational status compiled from the population censuses of 1966 and 1971 are given in the following tables.

Excluded from the tables are members of the Armed Services overseas at census dates, numbering 1,936 in 1966 and 1,482 in 1971.

Occupational Status—The following table shows the occupational status of persons in the work force, and also the persons not actively engaged including children.

Occupational Status1966 Census1971 Census
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Employer66,1707,25473,42459,8158,10367,918
Self employed61,9757,85669,83162,18510,10172,286
Wage or salary earner610,732260,081870,813651,499307,064958,563
Unemployed5,1253,9829,1078,7577,41116,168
Relative assisting, unpaid312488800250353603
Not specified1,2817832,0642,4638343,297
Totals, actively engaged745,595280,4441,026,039784,969333,8661,118,835
Not actively engaged598,1481,052,7321,650,880645,8871,097,9091,743,796
Grand totals1,343,7431,333,1762,676,9191,430,8561,431,7752,862,631

The number actively engaged increased by 9.0 percent, between 1966 and 1971. In the wage or salary earner group the increase was 10.1 percent.

Female wage or salary earners increased by 18.1 percent.

The following table classifies households at the 1971 Census according to the occupational status of the head and the number of persons in the household with an income exceeding $200.

Occupational Status of HeadHouseholds by Number of Persons with Incomes of $200 or moreTotal Households
1 Person2 Persons3 Persons4 Persons5 or more PersonsNil (incl. not Specified)

*Including relative assisting heads and not specified but who are in the labour force.

Employer19,37623,8368,3572,6539691,49556,686
Own account27,20521,1975,3581,4423671,66257,231
Wage or salary earner240,819179,00748,75515,5084,45912,461501,009
Unemployed1,37178322173348093,291
Totals*288,914224,87762,70919,6815,83116,901618,913
Not actively engaged head—
    Retired33,51716,5142,98662017035,36289,169
    Full-time student7231,2695264823054263,731
    Housewife30,7729,6782,64063921341,53585,477
    Others1,39155216950232,2114,396
Totals66,40328,0136,3211,79171179,534182,773
Totals, all heads355,317252,89069,03021,4726,54296,435801,686

Industrial Distribution: Divisions—The industrial distribution of the labour force by the principal divisions of industry is now given.

Industry Division19661971Percentages of Totals
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal19661971
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing119,71214,868134,580110,66518,229128,89413.111.5
Mining and quarrying6,2501066,3565,0881775,2650.60.5
Manufacturing208,96564,121273,086207,08974,022281,11126.625.1
Construction92,9722,23095,20290,6713,01793,6889.38.4
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services12,35694513,30112,1061,16813,2741.31.2
Commerce114,20966,896181,105117,23781,078198,31517.617.7
Transport, storage, and communication82,62915,58198,21084,86318,320103,1839.69.2
Services104,467112,946217,413148,694132,603281,29721.225.2
Activities not adequately described4,0352,7516,7868,5565,25213,1080.71.2
Totals, actively engaged745,595280,4441,026,039784,969333,8661,118,835100.0100.0

Industrial participation by industrial divisions is now given for the 1971 Census.

Industrial Division and Major GroupMalesFemalesTotal
Agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing—
    Agriculture and hunting101,31017,962119,272
    Forestry and logging6,8571967,053
    Fishing2,498712,569
Total110,66518,229128,894
Mining and quarrying—
    Coalmining2,054472,101
    Crude petroleum and natural gas production19818216
    Metal ore mining23011241
    Other mining2,6061012,707
Total5,0881775,265
Manufacturing—
    Food, beverages and tobacco54,08111,12665,207
    Textile, wearing apparel and leather industries17,71733,18150,898
    Wood and wood products including furniture19,3171,58020,897
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing21,0297,32028,349
    Chemicals and chemical, petroleum, coal, rubber, and plastic products16,7236,41723,140
    Non-metallic mineral products except products of petroleum and coal9,3821,31210,694
    Basic metal industries3,7952834,078
    Fabricated metal products, machinery and equipment62,94710,89873,845
    Other manufacturing industries2,0971,9054,002
Total207,08874,022281,110
Electricity, gas and water—
    Electricity, gas and steam11,1881,15312,341
    Waterworks and supply91715932
Total12,1051,16813,273
Construction90,6713,01793,688
Wholesale and retail trade and restaurants and hotels—
    Wholesale trade43,60413,22156,825
    Retail trade60,96749,121110,088
    Restaurants and hotels12,66618,73631,402
Total117,23781,078198,315
Transport, storage and communication—
    Transport and storage66,9786,83873,816
    Communication17,88311,48229,365
Total84,86118,320103,181
Finance, insurance, real estate, and business services—
    Financial institutions10,5528,32918,881
    Insurance8,7685,01213,780
    Real estate and business services18,49113,62232,113
Total37,81126,96364,774
Community, social and personal services—
    Public administration and defence34,65111,80046,451
    Sanitary and similar services3,7933,1146,907
    Social and related community services42,50974,973117,482
    Recreational and cultural services8,3023,68211,984
    Personal and household services21,10811,83932,947
    International and other extra-territorial bodies524232756
Total110,887105,640216,527
Activities not adequately defined8,5565,25213,808
Grand total actively engaged784,969333,8661,118,835

Occupations—The occupational classification in major groups is given for 1971 in the following table.

Occupational Major Groups and Minor GroupsMalesFemalesTotal
Professional and technical—
    Physical scientists and technicians3,1331,3144,447
    Architects, engineers and technicians22,6391,06223,701
    Aircraft and ships officers2,82142,825
    Life scientists and technicians2,7071,6014,308
    Medical, dental, and veterinary workers9,32722,25431,581
    Statisticians, mathematicians, systems analysts and technicians1,2902481,538
    Economists42251473
    Accountants7,1702647,434
    Jurists2,683502,733
    Teachers18,44625,83444,280
    Workers in religion2,8305013,331
    Authors, journalists and writers1,9186682,586
    Sculptors, painters, (artists), photographers2,7149263,640
    Composers and performing artists1,0627921,854
    Athletes, sportsmen702139841
    Professional, technical and related workers n.e.c.2,0861,7323,818
Total81,95057,440139,390
Administrators and managers—
    Legislative officials and government administrators62413637
    Managers (excluding those in wholesale and retail trade, catering and lodging services and in farming)26,7241,04227,766
Total27,3481,05528,403
Clerical workers—
    Clerical supervisors4,0594654,524
    Government executive officials4,6261924,818
    Stenographers, typists and punch machine operators52633,86634,392
    Bookkeepers, cashiers13,74016,17229,912
    Computing machine operators5966,7337,329
    Transport and communication supervisors5,8481505,998
    Transport conductors6362638
    Mail distribution clerks2,1521,5543,706
    Telephone and telegraph operators1,5715,5687,139
    Clerical and related workers n.e.c.36,28045,64581,925
Total70,034110,347180,381
Sales staff—
    Managers (wholesale and retail trade)16,0172,28018,297
    Working proprietors (wholesale and retail trade)8,3194,11112,430
    Sales supervisors, and buyers8,0198638,882
    Technical salesmen, commercial travellers and manufacturers' agents12,98630713,293
    Insurance, real estate, securities and business services salesmen and auctioneers9,78138410,165
    Salesmen, shop assistants and related workers21,33130,70252,033
    Sales workers n.e.c.9036126
Total76,54338,683115,226
Service workers—
    Managers (catering and lodging services)1,9931,1883,181
    Working proprietors (catering and lodging services)3,1452,2345,379
    Housekeeping and related service supervisors2542,9703,224
    Cooks, waiters, bartenders6,33612,47418,810
    Maids and related housekeepers1,0599,04910,108
    Building caretakers, cleaners5,3314,2129,543
    Launderers, dry-cleaners and pressers1,2582,7914,049
    Hairdressers, barbers, beauticians and related workers1,5104,6676,177
    Protective service workers7,4522187,670
    Service workers n.e.c.3,3415,8999,240
Total31,67945,70277,381
Occupational Division and Major GroupMalesFemalesTotal
Note: N.e.c.—not elsewhere classified.
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters—
    Farm managers and supervisors5,798705,868
    Farmers58,8296,45665,285
    Agricultural and animal husbandry workers39,05810,62849,686
    Forestry workers5,337405,377
    Fishermen, hunters3,393413,434
Total112,41517,235129,650
Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers—
    Production supervisors, overseers and general foremen (non-clerical) (and excluding Agricultural, transport, sales and service supervisors, overseers and foremen)—13,1441,01314,157
    Miners quarrymen, well-drillers2,6992,699
    Metal processors2,5071202,627
    Wood preparation workers and paper makers7,5662047,770
    Chemical processers2,2933142,607
    Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers5,5124,52010,032
    Tanners, fellmongers and pelt dressers1,3171651,482
    Food and beverage processers36,7703,84440,614
    Tobacco preparers and tobacco product makers162360522
    Tailors, dressmakers, sewers, upholsterers4,76421,01625,780
    Shoemakers and leather goods makers2,1462,8945,040
    Cabinet makers4,8942065,100
    Stone cutters and carvers1971198
    Blacksmiths, toolmakers and machine tool operators6,7606017,361
    Machinery fitters, machine assemblers and precision instrument makers (except electrical)46,4451,02747,472
    Electrical fitters and electrical and electronics workers23,2852,19625,481
    Broadcasting station and sound equipment operators and cinema projectionists33098428
  Plumbers, welders, sheet-metal and structural metal
    preparers and erectors22,46777323,240
    Jewellery and precious metal workers657168825
    Glass formers, potters2,3014832,784
    Rubber and plastics product makers4,0721,7945,866
    Paper and paper-board products makers8456941,539
    Printers8,2932,60510,898
    Painters12,28815312,441
    Production and related workers n.e.c.2,8161,7264,542
    Bricklayers, carpenters and other construction workers44,275944,284
    Stationary engine and related equipment operators n.e.c.3,27643,280
    Material handling and equipment operators, dockers and freight handlers37,9757,80545,780
    Transport equipment operators41,1781,01742,195
    Labourers n.e.c.24,9342,14927,083
Total366,16857,959424,127
Workers not classifiable by occupation—
    New workers seeking employment9961,6322,628
    Workers reporting occupations unidentifiable or inadequately described4,1591,7835,942
    Workers not reporting any occupation (excluding armed forces)2,8711,3694,240
    Armed forces10,80666111,467
Grand total, actively engaged784,969333,6661,118,835

EMPLOYMENT ON FARMS—A table giving statistics for farm employment is given in Section 14A of this Yearbook.

TRAVEL TIME—Travel time to work for persons actively engaged in 1971 is shown in the following table.

Travel Time (Minutes)Drive Car Van or TruckPassenger in Car Van or TruckBusTrainCycle, Motor cycleWalkTotal Including Others

*Includes 126,705 who work at home (such as farmers) and 28,252 not applicable, etc.

1–426,0072,767114223,51830,15062,779
5–9105,24316,3112,16113115,65335,369175,723
10–14128,59725,68111,22547420,17029,452216,833
15–1989,27220,13818,48481712,50417,177159,056
20–2465,07115,84725,4861,8707,25912,654128,741
25–2918,2624,05610,4301,2931,7153,35839,267
30–3943,46214,46335,9156,5683,2907,601112,151
40–499,3554,37917,6936,2845941,60540,476
50–591,1957083,2472,754572048,312
60–743,3752,0725,8164,36312643616,459
75–893052886447569392,085
90 +75543459858417442,560
Not Specified3,289672406562414419,751
Totals494,188107,816132,21925,97265,153138,5301,118,835*

Means of transport to work for particular urban areas are shown in Section 11C, Roads and Road Transport.

WOMEN IN THE LABOUR FORCE—During the past 40 years there has been a marked change in the composition of the New Zealand labour force. The female component of the labour force increased from 20.9 percent in 1926 to 29.8 percent in 1971. Some of the relevant issues are discussed in the report of a commission of inquiry Equal Pay in New Zealand (Parliamentary Paper H.54, 1971).

Female labour force participation rates for women aged 15 to 64 years have been: 1926, 25.6; 1936, 26.5; 1945, 29.0; 1951, 28.4; 1956, 29.7; 1961, 31.9; 1966, 35.4; 1971, 38.9.

Between 1936 and 1971 the male work force increased by 48.8 percent while the female labour force grew by 135.2 percent.

Despite these marked increases the New Zealand female participation rate in the labour force is not as high as that of some overseas countries.

Female labour force participation rates for women aged 15 to 64 years in certain countries are given in the following table. Source: ILO Year Book 1970.

CountryYearParticipation Rate of Women Aged 15–64 years

*Estimated.

United Kingdom1,96650.1
Denmark1,96547.6
Sweden1,96544.3
France1,96843.5
United States1969*42.4
Australia1,96640.1
Canada1,96134.9
New Zealand1,96635.4
 1,97138.9

Compared with Australia and New Zealand, the United States and Sweden report considerably lower participation rates by 15 to 19 year old girls, reflecting the longer time spent in formal education. This trend is also appearing in New Zealand and may be expected to continue. There is a rather lower New Zealand participation rate in the 25 to 29 years age group and this may be due to the higher incidence of marriage, the higher New Zealand birth rates, and the social attitudes in New Zealand which expect a mother to care for her own children. It seems apparent that the likely continued rise in the female labour force will be due mainly to the re-entry of married women after their children have reached school age.

Married women in paid employment have increased until in 1971 49.8 percent of the total female labour force consisted of married women.

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of the female labour force are given in the following table.

Item1936194519511956196119661971
Married women in labour force11,29131,95841,93262,03384,556116,314166,472
Percent8.517.724.432.037.641.549.8

Married women in the labour force as a percentage of all married women progressed from 3.5 in 1926 to 26.1 in 1971, with every indication that this momentum of increase is being sustained.

Married women in labour force as a percentage of all married women in the same age group are given in the following table.

Age (Years)1936194519511956196119661971
percent
16–195.718.214.518.520.023.530.3
20–244.317.416.019.420.726.734.3
25–293.710.39.711.611.915.820.7
30–343.68.08.911.313.316.424.3
35–393.68.410.513.918.021.831.8
40–443.98.712.216.621.326.935.3
45–494.47.813.117.523.127.735.9
50–544.26.110.715.520.725.230.7
55–594.24.66.910.814.918.522.0
60–642.82.53.75.27.59.511.2
    65+1.61.01.41.61.72.12.4
All ages—
    16+3.77.79.712.916.019.926.1

Occupation and age groups of married women working in 1971 are shown in the following table.

OccupationAge Group in YearsTotal
Under 2020–2930–3940–4950–5960–6970 and Over
Note: N.E.C. — Not elsewhere classified.
Professional and Technical
    Medical, dental, veterinary942,4181,3571,60287911736,470
    Teachers964,2332,9242,750984192811,187
    Other621,276581726510119163,290
Totals2527,9274,8625,0782,3734282720,947
Administrators and Managers
    Managers28515322115743166
    Administrators111317
Totals286154222160441669
Clerical and Related Workers
    Stenographers, typists and punch machine operators4605,9472,8613,1821,447243914,149
    Bookkeepers, cashiers1932,5311,4172,0001,084158107,393
    Clerks5195,7504,4356,5293,8236242021,700
    Other2252,8271,5031,2054485926,269
Totals1,39717,05510,21612,9166,8021,0844149,511
Sales Staff
    Managers51594036274379931,733
    Working proprietors83819361,24371317093,460
    Saleswomen and shop assistants3492,7273,6655,9684,0016992817,437
    Other5138200317221341916
Totals3673,4055,2048,1555,3721,0024123,546
Service Workers
    Working proprietors (catering and lodging services)22165317033688261,908
    Cooks, waitresses, bartenders1059861,5532,1691,768404146,999
    Maids and housekeepers, n.e.c.545259841,331987218214,120
    Building caretakers, cleaners214179521,09165516863,310
    Service workers, n.e.c.45534674769474822,578
    Other1551,3638941,2991,07023195,021
Totals3824,0415,5887,3625,3221,1855623,936
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters—
    Farmers89851,9981,574711180205,476
    Agricultural and animal husbandry workers801,4692,4012,12893817597,200
    Other agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen, and hunters1184027194109
Totals892,4724,4393,7291,6683592913,785
Production workers, transport operators and labourers—
    Spinners, weavers, knitters, dyers616257427435148322,770
    Food and beverage processors693465197054997713,316
    Tailors, dressmakers, sewers, upholsterers3192,1913,1264,0692,4054451812,573
    Shoemakers and leather goods makers342734226153686511,778
    Material handling and equipment operators, dockers and freight handlers1046821,0921,6331,18021164,908
    Other2281,8842,5683,2832,0993251110,398
Totals8156,0018,46911,0487,0651,2063934,643
Armed Forces25220217102
Other including new workers seeking employment workers not reporting any occupation or not adequately described3678677266131333
Grand totals, actively engaged3,34241,11739,01948,60328,8355,321235166,472

Participation of married women in the labour force may be said to follow this pattern—higher than average percentages below 25 years of age when the economic desirability of a second income in the purchase and furnishing of a home is likely to be at its greatest; lower than average percentages between 25 and 34 years when younger families are being cared for; higher than average percentages at 35–54 years when family responsibilities have diminished; and lower than average percentages at 55 years and beyond when retirement causes increasing withdrawals from the labour force.

The increasing tendency for women to continue in employment after marriage until the birth of the first child and to re-enter the labour force as family responsibilities lessen has been aided by a combination of factors, including the progressively younger ages at marriage, changing social attitudes particularly toward the role of married women, and possibly to a greater awareness and readier acceptance of family planning and improved methods of contraception.

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS—The Census of Population and Dwellings 1971 included a question on the highest educational qualification obtained. An analysis by occupational major groups of the labour force is given in the following; table. Additional information will be given in the census reports, Volume 4, Industries and Occupations, and Volume 6, Education.

Occupation Major GroupUniversitySecondary
DegreeDiploma or otherScholarship, H.L.C. U.E.*School CertificateOther Examination

*U.E.—University Entrance; H.L.C.—Higher Leaving Certificate.

Professional and technicalM24,0073,60319,00310,6745,604
 F5,0691,37017,55916,5003,077
Administrators and managersM1,6427304,5982,3242,509
 F68611286129
ClerksM1,45350012,59611,8776,156
 F7571638,24924,9589,780
Sales staffM7799647,0717,6394,343
 F99531,0752,8481,549
Service workersM1381201,3412,0341,462
 F96701,0552,5381,639
Agricultural, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen and huntersM5611,8624,9389,0192,189
 F78988561,680631
Production workers, transport operators and labourersM5075516,79321,2619,921
 F66315982,0541,336
Workers not classifiable by occupationM231681058
 F617222729
Workers reporting occupation unidentifiable or inadequately describedM386697362
 F13327342
Workers not reporting any occupationM298638236
 F102195915
Armed ForcesM173268462,061526
 F14822135
Totals, examination qualificationsM29,3508,37157,38667,14932,816
 F6,2621,79529,67551,24418,262

WORKING LIFE EXPECTANCIES—A table of working life displays the manner in which rates of participation in, entry to, and withdrawal from the labour force vary with age for the given population group. Also included are expectancies of future working life and retirement life, assuming that the rates displayed in the table continue unchanged. The main applications of these tables are to economic and social studies relating to large groups of people. Individuals frequently do not conform to group patterns and, therefore, applications of any statistics from the tables must be made with caution.

Abridged tables are now presented of working life for males based on the year 1966 and of working life for females based on the year 1951 (this being the latest table available for females).

Exact Age (Years)Percentage of Population in Labour ForceNumber in Labour Force, per 100,000 Live BirthsChanges in the Labour Force in the following 5 Years of Age, per 100,000 Live BirthsExpectation of Work Life of Person in Labour Force (Years)Expectation of Retirement Life of Person in Labour Force (Years)
Total Entries*Total Withdrawals

*Entries of females into the labour force below the horizontal line are secondary entries by those who withdrew at younger ages for reasons connected with marriage.

†The working life expectancies for females allow for the possibility of a second spell of labour force membership after a period of non-membership due to marriage.

‡Difference between life expectancy and working life expectancy.

§These are withdrawals at all ages 80 and above.

Males 1966
1586,17441347.08.3
2089.185,7607,82172242.38.3
2597.292,8601,51567437.68.4
3098.893,70124681732.88.5
3599.193,131461,14828.18.5
4099.092,0291,98823.48.6
4598.590,0433,36318.98.7
5097.686,6805,95314.58.8
5595.580,72515,30510.48.9
6084.065,42026,6407.18.7
6556.738,78123,0695.27.4
7028.115,71210,2964.45.4
7513.35,4173,7873.93.5
806.51,6291,628§3.12.5
Females 1951
1581,8058,47316.242.7
2076.573,3321,12942,40712.441.8
2533.632,0541,13614,06416.732.7
3020.219,1264,0315,03020.324.4
3519.218,1274,2283,06219.920.1
4020.719,2933,0141,80317.517.9
4522.320,5041,2972,65113.617.2
5021.319,1507754,6769.916.6
5517.615,2493515,4497.215.2
6012.310,1516,4144.613.8
654.93,7372,5923.811.0
701.71,1451,0142.58.9
750.21311311.17.4

Chapter 35. Section 33; WAGES

GENERAL—For many years the basis for determination of wages and salaries for the majority of employees has been a system of conciliation and arbitration supplemented by general wage orders. About half of New Zealand's wage and salary earners are subject to awards and industrial agreements falling under the jurisdiction of the Industrial Relations Act 1973 which has superseded the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and replaced the Court of Arbitration with the Industrial Commission and the Industrial Court; the commission has the function of adjusting wages in awards.

The State Services Regeneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, provides for determinations covering salaries and conditions of service for State employees to be made by employing authorities. A State Services Co-ordinating Committee has been established as the principal coordinating body for Government and as the main official negotiating body on issues having significant inter-service or “across the board” application. Hospital and Education Services Committees have been appointed to conduct negotiations on matters affecting respectively the hospital service alone and the education service (teachers) alone. There is a State Services Tribunal to hear appeals by employee organisations, and also a Government Service Tribunal, a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, a Post Office Staff Tribunal, and a Hospital Service Tribunal, all with a common chairman.

Pay and allowances for the Armed Services are prescribed by the Secretary of Defence in accordance with provisions of the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969. A Police Staff Tribunal established under the Police Act 1958 makes orders as to the remuneration and conditions of service of members of the Police.

The State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969 provides for the wages and salaries of all State servants to be adjusted half-yearly on the basis of an index of general movement from the half-yearly survey of wages and salaries conducted by the Department of Labour, but the operation of the October 1973 and April 1974 adjustments was suspended by the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1973 and the Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974 further suspended this provision.

A significant feature of recent years has been the exceptionally high rate of wage and salary increases. Average weekly earnings have increased at more than double the average annual rate of 4.8 percent for the 10 years prior to 1970. Following the 1970 experience of a rise of 13.6 percent, consideration of deflationary measures began with discussions between the Government and representatives of the Employers' Federation and the Federation of Labour, with a view to slowing down the accelerated trade-by-trade leap-frogging which was occurring with wage bargaining. These discussions showed that the relativities, issue was but one aspect of a total problem contributing to the inflationary spiral. Attention then turned to positive wage and salary stabilisation as part of an overall stabilisation programme, and on 25 March 1971 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act was parsed. This Act stipulated that new awards and agreements had to remain in force for at least 12 months and established an independent Remuneration Authority to administer certain arrangements under the Act. The Remuneration Authority continued to operate until December 1972, although in April 1972 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act was superseded by the stabilisation of remuneration regulations. Following the introduction of stabilisation measures, the rate of increase in average weekly earnings gradually eased and by 1972 the annual rate was down to 9.6 percent.

After the abolition of the stabilisation of remuneration regulations in December 1972 there was a return to free collective bargaining within the framework of the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954. However, in response to increasing pressure on the level of wage settlements during the early part of 1973, direct Government intervention in the wage-fixing process was again deemed necessary and the economic stabilisation regulations became effective on 10 August 1973. Under the regulations a partial wage pause until June 1974 was introduced with a Wages Tribunal being established to deal with various administrative aspects of the regulations, including the settlement of wage relativity anomalies caused by the regulations.

GENERAL WAGE ORDERS—Prior to 1970 general wage orders were made by the Court of Arbitration under the authority of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1953. From 1970 the authority was the General Wage Orders Act 1969. This Act was suspended with the enactment of the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971. Under the General Wage Orders Act 1969 the Court of Arbitration was vested with the power to make general wage orders. The general purposes of the Act was to provide for the making of a just and equitable review of rates of remuneration in awards and industrial agreements. Every such review had to consider whether an adjustment should be made in the rates of remuneration, in order to: (a) maintain and promote living standards, so far as it was within the capacity of the economy to sustain such an adjustment; (b) to promote industrial harmony; and (c) maintain and promote exports by New Zealand industry.

General orders could be made by the Court of its own initiative or on the application of any industrial union or industrial association of employers or workers.

General wage orders from 1964 were as follows:

Date of OrderDate of ApplicationIncrease in Minimum Wage Rates

*Application limited to first $40 a week for male workers, $30 for female workers and $25 for junior workers. Earlier, in June 1968, after a general wage order hearing, the Court had decided not to issue a general wage order.

  percent
19 August 196410 September 19646
10 November 19661 December 19662/12;
5 August 196819 August 19685*
3 November 197023 November 19703

The General Wage Orders Act 1969 was further suspended by the Wage Adjustment Regulations gazetted in June 1974.

STABILISATION OF REMUNERATION—On 25 March 1971 the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971 was passed which, among other things, limited the renegotiation of new agreements affecting remuneration for a minimum period of 12 months (subject to certain exceptions), and generally aimed to restrict the annual increase in such agreements to a maximum of 7 percent. In addition, a Remuneration Authority was established to administer certain arrangements under the Act.

Under the Act the Remuneration Authority was required to make cost of living orders as soon as possible after the Consumers' Price Index had been prepared by the Government Statistician for the quarters ended 30 June 1971 and 31 December 1971. Two orders were made by the Remuneration Authority—the first of 4.8 percent applying from 21 July 1971, and the second of 9.1 percent (including the order of 4.8 percent) applying from 31 January 1972. The orders applied automatically to all awards and agreements which, based on the rate of 1 January 1971, had not changed. The General Wage Orders Act 1969 was suspended while the Stabilisation of Remuneration Act was in force (until 31 March 1972).

As from 1 April 1972, increases in pay were subject to the Stabilisation of Remuneration Regulations 1972, which were made under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948. The Remuneration Authority continued to operate until 17 December 1972 when it was discontinued with the change in Government.

The main features of the regulations were:

The rates of remuneration under existing agreements and other instruments were to continue in force for the period of their currency and all new instruments were for a period of not less than 12 months.

Apart from certain increases for individuals (as under the Stabilisation Act), no increases in the rate of remuneration payable on 31 March 1972, could take effect without the authority's consent.

New criteria were established to guide the authority in making its decisions.

There was no longer a guideline or “specified percentage” for pay increases. The authority had to place “paramount importance on the need to achieve and maintain stability in the levels of remuneration and prices”.

The regulations provided that the authority could not consent to any increase in any rate of remuneration unless it was satisfied that it was warranted in the special circumstances of the particular case. The grounds on which the authority could consent to an increase were limited.

It could make adjustments to the minimum extent required to remove or relieve serious anomalies. It could also consent to increases in remuneration on the grounds of increased productivity, provided that the cost would not result in an increase in prices.

There would, however, be some increases in prices due to unavoidable costs including the increased costs of imports. The Government therefore decided to make provision for a cost of living order related to movement in the Consumers' Price Index over the 9 months ended in September 1972.

An order of 4.2 percent was made by the Remuneration Authority following publication of the index for the September 1972 quarter. The order applied automatically from 26 October 1972 to minimum rates in awards and industrial agreements as at 1 February 1972 and, by agreement between the parties, could be applied to other rates of pay.

As with the orders made under the 1971 Act, negotiated increases effective from February 1972 were offset against the order. But increases approved by the authority explicitly on the grounds of productivity not involving price increases were not to be offset.

Under the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1973 a wage adjustment order increased wages by 8.5 percent, with a limit of $5.80 a week, from 11 August 1973.

Following the abolition of the Remuneration Authority in December 1972, New Zealand experienced a return to free collective bargaining during the earlier part of 1973. However, in response to the high level of wage and salary increases in the period of free bargaining, deflationary measures were considered necessary and resulted in the promulgation of the Economic Stabilisation Regulations 1973. These regulations became effective on 10 August 1973, the section relating to wages being designed to expire on or before 30 June 1974.

The main features of the regulations were:

All instruments in force at the date of making of the regulations were to continue in force without amendment until the expiry of the regulations. All new instruments made subsequent to 10 August 1973 were to cover a period of not less than 12 months.

A wage adjustment order of 8.5 percent, up to a maximum of $5.80 per week, was introduced to be applied to all rates payable under any award or industrial agreement. The increase could also be applied to other rates of pay by agreement between the parties concerned. However, this order was to be offset by any increase effected during the period 1 February to 10 August 1973 (inclusive). The application of the wage adjustment order to State employees was limited to 6.2 percent up to a maximum of $4.60 per week.

A Wages Tribunal was established to remove or relieve any serious anomalies created by the regulations. Provision was also made for the tribunal to consider applications for wage increases on the basis of productivity gains.

Under the regulations a further wage adjustment order effective from 11 February 1974 was made on the basis of movements in the Consumers' Price Index during the 6 months ended 31 December 1973. The amount was 2.7 percent based on a 4.7 percent rise in the index over the period abated by 2 percent.

A general wage adjustment of 9 percent, effective from 1 July 1974, was provided by the Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974, also made under the Economic Stabilisation Act 1948. Freedom was restored to negotiate improvements to wages and conditions up to 2.25 percent (one-quarter of the general increase) subject to the determination of the Industrial Commission or other appropriate wage-fixing tribunal.

The Industrial Relations Act 1973 established an Industrial Commission to adjudicate on disputes of interest, including wages.

The Wage Adjustment Regulations gazetted in June 1974 gave the Industrial Commission power to grant cost-of-living increases based on movements in the Consumers Price Index at intervals of not less than six months, the first to be not earlier than 15 January 1975. The filing of applications for cost-of-living orders is restricted to a central organisation such as the Employers' Federation, the Federation of Labour or the Minister of Labour.

In approving awards the Industrial Commission is required to take into account the need to achieve stability in pay rates and also the effect any increases will have on prices and charges.

The Higher Salaries Commission was established by the Wage Adjustment Regulations 1974. Among its functions are the determination of salaries and allowances of members of Parliament, the salary of the highest paid executive officer of each of a number of corporations and other public bodies, salaries of the highest paid officers of local authorities and the salaries of certain university positions.

MINIMUM WAGE—Enforceable minimum wage rates are determined under various statutes, the most universally applicable being the Minimum Wage Act 1945. This Act provides that workers of age 20 years and upwards must receive not less than the rates prescribed under the Act. In the great majority of cases, however, workers are subject to wage orders, awards, or industrial agreements relating to the particular industries in which they are employed and which provide somewhat higher enforceable minimum rates. The minimum wage for males is currently set at a rate which is lower than the standard rate for unskilled labour.

In February 1974 the minima became males $48.30 a week; females, $38.60 a week.

EQUAL PAY—The Report of the Commission of Inquiry into Equal Pay (Parliamentary paper H.54 1971) was tabled in Parliament in September 1971. An Equal Pay Act giving effect, in the main, to the Commission's recommendations was passed in October 1972. It provided for the phasing in of equal pay in five annual steps, ending in 1978, but an amendment to the Act in 1973 requires the phasing in to be completed by 1977. After this time there will be equal pay in the private and public sectors. The Government Service Equal Pay Act was passed in 1960.

INSTITUTIONAL SECTORS—A classification of salary and wage payments by institutional sectors is given in the following table.

Institutional SectorPayments
Producer enterprises—$(million)
    Corporate1,375.61,634.2
    Non-corporate242.6273.9
    Producer boards3.94.7
    Government producer enterprises204.8252.9
    Local government producer enterprises42.454.2
Totals1,869.22,219.9
Financial intermediaries—
    Central bank29.733.0
    Trading banks - Central Government and private Insurance and pension funds—
  Central Government41.944.5
    Local Government
  Private
Other financial intermediaries—
 $(million)
  Central Government14.117.2
    Local Government
  Private
Totals85.794.8
General Government—
    Central Government444.4578.0
    Local Government68.576.2
Totals512.9654.1
Private non-profit organisations serving households36.442.3
Rest of world0.30.4
Totals2,504.63,011.5

INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION OF SALARY AND WAGE PAYMENTS—The data in the following table represent the results of an industrial classification of the salary and wage payments to employees during the latest three years ended 31 March. This information is extracted from returns required in connection with “pay as you earn” income tax.

Actual gross payments made during a year are not the exact equivalent of the earnings of the employees during that year. Accrued wages at the beginning of the year are taken into account but those accrued at the end of the year are not. The effect of this is normally insignificant.

The “enterprise” concept has been used in this classification. Under this concept where an individual or a company is concerned in two or more industries for which separate classifications are provided, the whole of the wage payments have been classified according to the predominant activity, In most statistical analyses the enterprise is subdivided into separate units where two or more industries are involved, and each unit is then appropriately classified. A minor exception to the general rule has been made in the case of the road passenger transport and the electricity supply services of local authorities. These activities have been included in the appropriate industries.

Industry GroupSalary and Wage Payments
1968–691969–701970–71
  $(million) 
Agriculture and livestock production102.8108.5116.4
Forestry, hunting, and fishing8.49.810.9
Mining and quarrying12.913.215.3
Manufacturing, food, beverages, and tobacco159.0177.3222.7
Manufacturing, textiles, wearing apparel, and made-up textiles74.789.0107.2
Manufacturing, wood, paper, chemical, etc., products (including miscellaneous manufacturing)233.2266.9318.8
Manufacturing, metals and metal products152.2179.0223.8
Construction187.1205.7243.3
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services (not construction)35.738.145.7
Commerce—wholesale and retail trade355.4392.4460.2
Commerce—other116.4130.2150.5
Transport, storage, and communication263.9293.1366.3
Services, community, business, recreation, and personal548.7601.0729.6
Activities not adequately described0.50.40.6
Totals2,250.92,504.63,011.5

Percentage rates of increase during the last 3 years were: 1967–68 to 1968–69, 5.3 percent: 1968–69 to 1969–70, 11.3 percent: 1969–70 to 1970–71, 20.2 percent. It should be noted that the labour force has grown over the period.

WEEKLY EARNINGS—The Department of Labour carries out surveys at half-yearly intervals; returns are required from all establishments in which at least two persons (including working proprietors) are engaged; Government and local authority employment is included, but not farming, hunting, fishing, waterfront and seagoing work, domestic service in private households, and armed forces.

The following table shows the average weekly wage payout per person (covering males and females, adult and juvenile) derived from this survey during the last 11 years. Comparison is made, for those years for which figures are available, with the weighted average nominal wage rate for adult males as used in the wage rates index covering rates prescribed by all determining authorities.

Date of SurveyWeekly Wage Payout per Person
Aggregate Payout (Including Overtime, Bonus Earnings, etc.) for One Week Divided by—Aggregate Ordinary-time Earnings Divided by Full-time and Half Part-time EmployeesNominal Minimum Weekly Wage for Adult Males* as at End of Preceding Month
Full-time and Part-time EmployeesFull-time and Half Part-time Employees

*Nominal minimum weekly wage, which relates to adult males only, is the weighted average of the sample rates used in the calculation of the Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index.

 $$$$
1963—April33.06834.19530.994..
    October33.37534.60431.428..
1964—April34.08535.31231.720..
    October35.74537.12533.562..
1965—April36.88138.30134.381..
    October37.25638.82934.804..
1966—April38.05239.67635.34636.369
1966—October38.94740.71436.50337.337
1967—April40.20042.00137.55138.435
    October39.97141.77138.46338.959
1968—April41.41843.26039.50839.232
    October42.38544.39440.82441.524
1969—April44.28646.38241.89841.942
    October45.04647.36942.77842.885
1970—April47.85250.37844.87444.887
    October51.15754.07748.57949.902
1971—April56.49359.72553.61356.891
    October59.29962.84457.05560.631
1972-April63.93267.62260.97063.415
    October65.01669.00662.63263.830
1973—April71.75576.10367.88668.889
    October74.93780.00771.81874.743

HOURLY EARNINGS—In the following table average hourly earnings from the half-yearly surveys axe shown; estimated average ordinary time worked by full-time employees has been obtained by dividing aggregate ordinary-time hours worked during one week by the sum of full-time employees plus half of the part-time employees; hence if there are any part-time workers the sum of the average ordinary-time hours and overtime hours will not be equal to the average time worked by full-time and part-time employees as shown in the last column.

DateAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Worked by Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOrdinary Time and Overtime Worked by Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $$$hourshourshours
1963—April0.8181.2420.84537.92.739.1
    October0.8311.2300.85637.82.739.0
1964—April0.8391.2520.86837.73.039.2
    October0.8801.3060.91737.82.839.0
1965—April0.9081.3370.93937.63.139.0
    October0.9271.3670.95637.73.139.0
1956—April0.9391.4180.97537.73.239.0
    October0.9671.4321.00037.83.138.9
1967—April0.9961.5181.03337.73.138.9
    October1.0191.5051.04637.72.338.2
1968—April1.0451.5431.07637.82.538.5
    October1.0811.5811.10937.82.438.2
1969—April1.1081.6341.14437.82.938.7
    October5.1371.6791.17437.62.938.4
1970—April1.1931.7911.23837.63.238.6
    October1.3031.9341.34837.33.038.0
1971—April1.4402.1781.49137.23.037.9
    October1.5362.2631.58237.22.737.5
1972—April1.6402.4421.69437.22.937.7
    October1.6002.4561.74037.12.837.4
1973—April1.8282.7011.89437.13.237.9
    October1.9342.8181.99837.13.137.5

The preceding table combines all industries. A dissection by industrial groups of the last line of that table according to the major headings of the newly adopted New Zealand Standard Industrial Classification, relating to October 1972, is now provided.

Industrial GroupAverage Hourly Earnings for All Workers Covered by Half-yearly SurveyAverage Weekly Hours Worked by Workers Covered by Half-yearly Survey
Ordinary TimeOvertimeOrdinary Time and Overtime CombinedOrdinary Time (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOvertime (Estimated) Worked by Full-time EmployeesOrdinary Time and Overtime Worked by Full-time and Part-time Employees Combined
 $$$hourshourshours
Forestry and logging1.8232.8781.89138.22.640.4
Mining and quarrying2.1092.7852.21236.96.740.0
Manufacturing—
    Seasonal food processing2.1073.1232.24234.95.439.8
    Other food, beverages, and tobacco1.7322.7311.85936.75.938.6
    Textiles, clothing, and leather1.5632.3731.61635.62.735.9
    Wood and wood products1.8102.6961.91137.34.941.1
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing1.9813.1062.09037.74.239.9
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics2.0122.8752.10637.24.740.7
    Non-metallic mineral products1.8152.6371.94236.76.942.4
    Metal products and engineering1.9282.8902.05237.95.842.3
    Machinery1.9092.9352.03337.75.342.0
    Electrical equipment1.7602.5331.83336.84.039.3
    Transport equipment1.9712.8852.07437.04.841.3
    Other manufacturing1.6362.3501.68236.72.836.5
Group1.8622.8321.96836.74.739.8
Electricity, gas and water2.1273.1102.20438.33.341.3
Construction1.9192.8052.02938.75.544.2
Wholesale, retail, etc.—
    Wholesale trade1.9922.6392.01938.11.738.4
    Retail trade1.5452.4361.57337.11.433.0
    Restaurants, hotels, etc.1.6052.4051.65333.63.226.8
Group1.7272.5121.75836.91.833.7
Transport and communication—
    Transport and storage2.0133.0382.14338.35.742.9
    Communication1.9283.1202.00738.62.840.2
Group1.9813.0572.09438.44.641.9
Finance, insurance, etc.—
    Finance2.0522.5002.05737.60.536.8
    Insurance2.1362.9232.14337.30.436.7
    Real estate and business services2.1832.7842.19636.40.934.5
Group2.1292.7302.13937.00.635.7
Community and personal services—
    Government services, n.e.i.2.3082.9492.32137.50.837.9
    Local Authorities, n.e.i.2.1872.7822.21938.22.239.2
    Sanitary services, etc.1.5732.5241.61432.32.922.4
    Education services2.4863.5542.48935.30.132.8
    Research and scientific institutes2.6273.1682.63937.40.837.5
    Health services1.8392.3881.86238.71.936.2
    Other community services1.8652.7681.87336.20.430.3
    Recreational services2.1093.1302.15033.31.927.6
    Personal and household services1.6482.6031.69537.92.137.6
Group2.0902.6452.10636.81.234.5
All surveyed industries1.9342.8181.99837.13.137.5

NOMINAL WAGE RATES—The present index dates from 1966 and is designed to represent the movements in all minimum or mandatory rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Industrial Commission or any special industrial tribunal, or determined from time to time by some statutory authority. Within this wider index a major sub-index is provided of minimum rates of pay fixed by or within the jurisdiction of the Industrial Commission. The residue then provides a second major sub-index of mainly mandatory rates fixed within the jurisdiction of other industrial tribunals or determined by some other statutory authority. Within the “All Jurisdictions” index and both the “Commission” and “Other Jurisdictions” major sub-indexes, further sub-indexes give analyses firstly by industry groups and secondly by occupation groups.

Complete details of the new revised index are contained in the Report of New Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Index for Adult Males published as a special supplement to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics in August 1968.

The next table shows the index numbers of nominal wage rates of adult males for industry and occupation groups. For revisions of recent quarters see Monthly Abstract of Statistics.

Base: For each group the average rates for that group at 31 December 1965 (= 1000)*.

Industry GroupAverage for Calendar YearAs at
1971x1972x197331 Dec 1972x31 Mar 197330 Jun 197330 Sep 197331 Dec 1973
Part I—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of the Industrial Commission
Industry Groups        
Primary industries1,4491,5791,7591,6961,6971,7131,8371,848
Manufacturing1,6771,8132,0041,9201,9331,9602,0962,096
    Food, beverages, and tobacco1,5681,6981,8721,7791,7861,8581,9411,942
    Meat processing and dairy factories1,5541,6761,8451,7481,7541,8411,9091,909
    Other food, beverages, and tobacco1,6391,8012,0001,9281,9381,9382,1002,100
    Textiles and apparel1,6681,8111,9791,8941,9241,9582,0602,062
    Wood, pulp, paper and their products1,6891,8151,9991,9301,9301,9302,1022,102
    Printing and allied industries1,7561,9032,1202,0442,0442,0692,2212,221
    Metals, machinery and transport equipment1,7731,9122,1242,0372,0622,0672,2292,229
    Other manufacturing1,6551,8041,9861,9081,9211,9302,0892,091
Construction1,7181,8652,0491,9631,9631,9682,1632,166
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1,6361,7562,0501,8981,9302,0802,1242,124
Commerce1,5941,7621,9781,9061,9091,9352,0762,076
Wholesale and retail trade1,5931,7641,9841,9091,9121,9422,0842,084
Finance, insurance and real estate1,5971,7501,9441,8871,8901,8902,0292,032
Transport, storage and communications1,5711,6701,8391,8601,8721,8982,0312,032
Services industries1,5641,7231,9191,8041,8471,8952,0032,011
Occupation Groups        
Professional, technical, managerial1,5661,7261,9551,8651,8761,9332,0482,048
Clerical1,5761,7741,9721,8941,8991,9272,0682,068
Sales1,5681,7421,9941,9101,9141,9742,0962,096
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining1,4851,6261,8081,7421,9431,7631,8891,898
Transport1,5841,6631,8191,8601,8621,8732,0152,016
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers1,6891,8242,0171,9291,9411,9642,1142,114
Service occupations1,5701,7331,9201,8061,8631,9251,9992,017
  All (industry or occupation) groups combined
..1,6431,7851,9801,9041,9161,9432,0842,086
Industry GroupAverage for Calendar YearAs at
1971x1972x197331 Dec 1972x31 Mar 197330 Jun 197330 Sep 197331 Dec 1973
Part 2—Rates Prescribed by Wage and Salary Determining Authorities Other Than the Industrial Commission
Industry Groups        
Primary industries1,3421,4341,8271,4761,4761,9732,0212,070
    Agriculture and livestock1,2131,2671,7291,2751,2751,9221,9592,029
    Other primary1,6371,8192,0521,9391,9392,0892,1632,163
Manufacturing1,6201,7511,9391,8941,8941,8942,0092,009
Construction1,6161,7561,9301,8871,8871,8871,9951,995
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1,6581,8051,9921,9521,9521,9522,0552,055
Commerce1,6571,8232,0201,9851,9851,9852,0752,075
Transport, storage and communication1,5661,7531,9361,8311,8311,8551,9451,945
Service industries1,7101,8922,0882,0562,0562,0562,1412,141
Education and health services1,6991,8932,0832,0522,0522,0522,1312,131
Government, community, business, personal, and recreational services1,7201,8902,0942,0592,0592,0592,1502,150
Occupation Groups        
Professional, technical, managerial1,7121,8992,0892,0602,0602,0602,1362,136
Clerical1,6391,7971,9941,9561,9561,9562,0522,052
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining1,3391,4321,8271,4741,4741,9752,0222,072
Transport1,5901,9222,1171,8841,8841,8851,9871,987
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers1,5671,6951,8681,8101,8101,8371,9341,934
Service occupations1,7951,9712,2002,1602,1602,1602,2742,274
    All (industry or occupation) groups combined1,6001,7641,9801,8801,8801,9542,0402,046
Industry GroupAverage for Calendar YearAs at
1971x1972x197331 Dec 1972x31 Mar 197330 Jun 197330 Sep 197331 Dec 1973
Part 3—Rates Within the Jurisdiction of All Determining Authorities
Industry Groups        
Primary industries1,3701,4711,8071,5321,5321,9031,9712,009
Manufacturing1,6721,8031,9931,9111,9231,9502,0832,084
Construction1,6911,8322,0121,9381,9381,9412,1142,116
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services1,6441,7712,0231,9141,9342,0252,0922,092
Commerce1,5951,7581,9721,9021,9041,9292,0682,068
Transport, storage and communication1,5681,7241,9021,8401,8441,8691,9731,974
Service industries1,6731,8482,0441,9912,0011,0132,1042,106
Occupation Groups        
Professional, technical, managerial1,6781,8582,0572,0142,0172,0292,1142,114
Clerical1,6041,7801,9771,9181,9211,9362,0562,056
Sales1,5661,7351,9861,9021,9061,9662,0882,088
Farm, forestry, fishing, mining1,3881,4951,8181,5611,5621,9011,9752,011
Transport1,5851,7521,9231,8691,8701,8772,0042,005
Craftsmen, process workers, labourers1,6631,7921,9801,8991,9091,9322,0712,071
Service occupations1,6531,8182,0251,9341,9692,0082,0972,108
    All (industry or occupation) groups combined1,6281,7781,9801,8961,9031,9472,0692,072

*Comparisons of the index numbers for one grouping of rates with those for other groupings indicate the relative movements in the average rates for the different groupings, not the relative levels of the average rates of wages and salaries in the different groupings.

Allowances for housing, board and lodging, or rations are included in cases where these are normally provided in addition to the cash pay.

EFFECTIVE WEEKLY WAGE RATES—The index numbers quoted in the foregoing paragraphs relate to nominal weekly wage rates only—that is, they are based on actual or equivalent money rates without any allowance being made for changes during the period under review in the prices of those goods and services which are purchased out of wages earned. It is obvious that this factor is of considerable importance, for a rise in wage rates may be offset by a fall in the purchasing power of the monetary unit, while, on the other hand, a fall in money wages may be offset by a rise in the purchasing power of money. Index numbers of effective (or “real”) wage rates are arrived at by dividing the index numbers of nominal wage rates by the corresponding all-groups index numbers of consumer prices (both series of index numbers having first been set on a common time base) and multiplying the result by the base value of 1000.

The following table accordingly shows a comparison of nominal and effective weekly wage rates of adult male workers. The base of the index numbers is in each case 31 December 1965 (= 1000).

YearConsumer Prices (All Groups)Nominal Weekly Wage Rates Adult MalesEffective Weekly Wage Rites Adult Males

*Provisional.

1,956777748963
1,957794783986
1,958829791954
1,959860806937
1,960866846977
1,961882866975
1,962905881973
1,963923905980
1,964956933976
1,9659889891,001
1,9661,0161,0171,000
1,9671,0771,070994
1,9681,1241,111988
1,9691,1791,176997
1,9701,2561,3271,057
1,9711,3861,6281,175
1,9721,4821778x1200x
1973*1,6041,9801,234

The continuous index of consumer prices required for the foregoing table has been obtained by linking together the successive series of the Consumers' Price Index and converting the whole to the base: quarter ended 31 December 1965 (= 1000).

In making use of these results it should not be overlooked that the index numbers of nominal rates apply only to full-time employment at award or mandatory rates of pay. They do not take into account either, on the one hand, above-award rates or overtime earnings, or on the other, short-time deductions. Nor do the consumer prices index numbers take cognisance of all classes of household expenditure; income tax, charitable and other gifts, air and overseas travel, domestic help, etc., are omitted.

AVERAGE MINIMUM WEEKLY WAGES—A table showing minimum wages in various occupations is given in the annual statistical report Prices, Wages, and Labour available in Government bookshops.

FARM EMPLOYEES—A survey of farm employment was made by the Department of Statistics in 1972 and the following table shows salaries and wages (including bonuses) paid to permanent employees; no account is taken of free housing and food, etc.

Farm TypePaid Permanent Employees on 15 June 1972Salaries and Wages Year Ended 30 June 1972
 MalesFemalesMalesFemales
   $(000)$(000)
Dairy5,9722,14514,3772,271
Sheep3,6596578,440476
Beef7741611,824134
Pig1863355333
Cropping1722141512
Dairy with sheep2558358479
Dairy with beef6152301,528232
Dairy with other1946546972
Sheep with beef4,81861012,308477
Sheep with cropping6121081,38859
Sheep with other1832639613
Beef with sheep1,1991593,024143
Beef with other722716622
Cropping with sheep3675289531
Cropping with other4571356
Mixed livestock4,07963810,505529
General mixed farming1,1391412,786109
Poultry3392211,002276
Orchardist9552033,000344
Market gardening5612031,638313
Tobacco grower1302640030
Nurseries304581,063114
Other farming917803,096119
Totals27,5475,95469,9925,894

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON—Average hourly earnings of adults (both sexes) in non-agricultural sectors in 1970 were as follows: United States, US$3.65; New Zealand NZ$1.72, and in Canada average weekly earnings (both sexes) were Can $149.22. For adult males in non-agricultural sectors in 1972 average weekly earnings in Australia were A$96.68 and average hourly earnings in the United Kingdom £0.80. (Source: International Labour Office—Bulletin of Labour Statistics). Exchange rates are given in Section 29.

Chapter 36. Section 34; INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS AND WORKING CONDITIONS

GENERAL—A system of industrial conciliation and arbitration peculiar to New Zealand was evolved from the first legislation on industrial relations passed in 1894. The system was based on: (a) the voluntary registration of industrial unions and industrial associations; (b) the regulation of conditions of employment by industrial agreements made between industrial unions or industrial associations of workers on the one hand and industrial unions or industrial associations of employers or individual employers on the other hand; (c) the reference of disputes to a Council of Conciliation convened by a Conciliation Commissioner; (d) in the event of failure of the parties to reach agreement in the conciliation proceedings the dispute was referred to the Court of Arbitration and after hearing the parties the Court made an award. Action for breach of an award or industrial agreement could be taken by any of the parties thereto or an inspector of awards in a Magistrate's Court, or by an inspector in the Court of Arbitration. The system owed much of its strength to the success of Judges of the Court of Arbitration in maintaining the dignity of the office with a minimum of formality and in demonstrating a wide and practical grasp of economic and technical problems and human relationships. In recent years it had become apparent that the system was increasingly unable to deal flexibly with developments in the industrial relations field. This was evidenced by an increase in the growth of direct bargaining outside the system.

In 1971 a comprehensive review of industrial legislation and wage-fixing procedures was undertaken, culminating in the introduction of draft industrial relations legislation on a new basis into the House of Representatives in 1972 and its enactment with amendments in 1973.

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS LEGISLATION — The revised legislation is the first major restructuring of New Zealand's industrial legislation and institutions since 1894. It provides a new charter for the conduct of industrial relations. It replaces the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954, the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913, and the Industrial Relations Act 1949.

Changes in legislation over the years from 1894 left untouched the basic precepts on which the 1894 Act was founded. For this reason, where modern needs were not accommodated, the legislation was often inadequate. A discussion on some of these areas was included in the 1973 issue of the Yearbook.

In the framing of the new legislation the following factors not taken into account (or only partially so) by the previous legislation, were recognised.

  • Industrial relations cannot be divorced from the general social and economic environment. It must be accepted that particularly in times of labour shortage, industrial growth and heavy capital investment, employer and union self-interest is not sufficient to protect the public interest.

  • The majority of differences between employers and workers on industrial relations matters are handled by the parties in private negotiations requiring a sound system of communication between employers and workers. Moreover, a set of clearly understood procedures needs to exist to enable complaints and grievances to be dealt with promptly and constructively.

  • Bargaining generally calls for negotiation to be carried out by people skilled and experienced in the art, and operating within the framework of well structured organisations.

Institutions—It was suggested by the Employers' Federation and the Federation of Labour that there should be a split in the functions of the Court of Arbitration in the belief that the more strictly legal functions of interpretation and enforcement should not be carried out by a body which has an arbitral role. The Act has provided for the separation of functions along these lines.

The Industrial Commission has taken over the arbitral functions of the former Court of Arbitration. The commission has jurisdiction for the settlement of disputes of interest (i.e., disputes during the negotiation or renewal of an agreement) and for the making of awards. Collective agreements negotiated voluntarily by the parties to a dispute of interest are registered with the commission. Registration of collective agreements is an important provision in that agreements will be binding on the parties.

The Industrial Court is the ultimate court of appeal on disputes of right (i.e., disputes over the interpretations of an instrument, personal grievances, and other disputes arising while an instrument is in force). The Court also hears and determines enforcement and recovery actions.

An Industrial Relations Council has been established as an advisory body comprising representatives at national level of employer organisations, worker organisations, and Government. Establishment of the council recognises the need for permanent machinery for central consultation on industrial affairs. The council gives advice to the Government on ways of improving current industrial legislation in order to accommodate changes in the industrial environment. Some specific matters to which the council gives consideration are: the formulation and implementation of manpower policies; the formulation of codes of practice relating to industrial relations; ways and means of improving industrial relations, industrial organisations, and industrial welfare.

Procedures for the Settlement of Disputes of Interest—The Act (in line with the joint proposals) recognises the right of parties to a dispute to negotiate a voluntary settlement or a conciliated settlement, resulting in a collective agreement. If the parties are unable to reach a settlement in conciliation, the dispute, with any partial settlement, will be referred to the Industrial Commission for arbitration. The commission on hearing the case will issue an “Award”.

Procedure for Settlement of Disputes of Right—To facilitate the settlement of disputes of right each instrument will contain or be deemed to contain “disputes committee” and “personal grievance” procedures. Where a demarcation question arises, any union or employer who is a party to the award or collective agreement may apply to the Industrial Court to determine the question.

Right to Strike—By the removal of previous provisions which made strikes illegal the Act gives implicit recognition to the right to strike and provides no punitive clause for strike action. However, the following controls remain: stoppages tantamount to breaches of awards may incur appropriate penalties; in essential industries 14 days notice of proposed strike or lockout action must be given; the Minister of Labour has the power to call a compulsory conference of parties wherever he has reasonable grounds for believing a strike or lockout exists or threatens; in extreme cases the Minister of Labour may deregister a union, and in situations of public emergency, it is intended that special legislation be passed if necessary.

INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES—The Industrial Relations Act 1973 has replaced the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1954, the Labour Disputes Investigation Act 1913, and the Industrial Relations Act 1949.

Dispute of Interest—The Industrial Relations Act defines a dispute of interest as a dispute created with intent to procure a collective agreement or award settling terms or conditions of employment of workers in an industry.

The Act recognises the right of parties to a dispute to negotiate a voluntary settlement, or a conciliated settlement resulting in a collective agreement. The procedures available for the settlement of disputes of interest include: (a) The Industrial Mediation Service; (b) the Industrial Conciliation Service; (c) the Industrial Commission.

Industrial Mediation Service—The Industrial Mediation Service will continue to provide assistance to employers, workers, and their respective organisations to prevent or settle disputes (including disputes of interest) at an early stage. The mediator, however, will have no jurisdiction over an industrial dispute which is the subject of conciliation or arbitration proceedings. The service will consist of mediators, appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister after consultation with the central organisations.

In carrying out his duties and responsibilities a mediator has the following functions and powers:

  • To use his best endeavours to prevent industrial disputes.

  • Where he, or any employer or union considers that an industrial dispute is likely to arise, to offer his services to the parties to assist in preventing the dispute.

  • When an industrial dispute arises, to offer his services to the parties to assist them in bringing about a settlement of the dispute.

  • In giving such assistance, to inquire fully into the dispute and all matters affecting its merits and to make such suggestions and recommendations and do all such things as he thinks right and proper for inducing the parties to come to a fair and amicable settlement.

  • Where the parties to an individual dispute agree, to decide such matters as they may refer to him for decision.

  • To maintain a close and continuous liaison with the parties in industry, and to carry out such studies and surveys as will enable him to exercise his functions.

  • To exercise such other functions as conferred on him by the Act.

The service operates independently of any Government department, and any mediator may exercise his function within any part of New Zealand.

One of the major causes of industrial disputes is a breakdown in communications. This might occur either between union officials and their members, or between management and those same workers, or any combination of both. The Industrial Mediation Service will continue to perform an invaluable role in ensuring a constant dialogue between parties where normal channels have broken down, and in facilitating prompt settlement of an industrial dispute before an unnecessary stoppage or severe deterioration in industrial relations occurs. However, in order to fulfil his functions satisfactorily, the co-operation and assistance of employers, workers, and their organisations with the mediator is essential, particularly in advising him of problems and seeking and accepting his assistance when the need arises.

Industrial Conciliation Service—The Industrial Conciliation Service (now attached to the Industrial Commission) will continue to be available to assist the parties to reach a conciliated settlement over a dispute of interest. Conciliators will be appointed for a term of 3 years by the Governor-General on recommendation of the Minister. Their general functions will be to convene conciliation councils, and ensure that the parties enter properly into the process of reconciling their differences.

In performing his duties the conciliator has the following functions and powers: to appoint dates for the hearing of disputes in consultation with representatives of the parties; to appoint assessors and constitute conciliation councils; to join or strike out parties to a dispute; to call compulsory conferences; to record the proceedings of conciliation councils; to report to the commission the terms of settlement of any industrial dispute; to refer unsettled disputes to the commission.

Either party to a dispute of interest may make application to the Industrial Commission for the dispute to be heard by a conciliation council. Where an award or agreement is in force, application must be made not more than 6 months before the expiry of the agreement (3 months for disputes affecting a single district). The applicant must cite the respondent parties to the dispute, and prepare a detailed statement of the claims against the respondents. The Industrial Commission, when it receives the application, will appoint a conciliator to hear the dispute.

Copies of the application, incorporating the claims, must be forwarded to the Registrar of the Industrial Commission, the conciliator, the central organisations, and the respondent parties, not less than 6 weeks before the commencement of the hearing. The respondents are to prepare their counter claims, and forward the requisite copies not less than 2 weeks before the commencement of the hearing. Each party is then entitled to nominate up to seven assessors, or up to four in a dispute affecting a single industrial district, to act on their behalf in the conciliation council. Where it is claimed by the applicants or respondents that more than 7 or 4 assessors are needed to represent them adequately, the conciliator will have the power to increase the numbers of assessors up to 10 (6 in the case of a dispute affecting a single district) as he thinks fit. Before appointing the assessors nominated by the parties, the conciliator must be satisfied that they are fully representative of the parties to the dispute and have the authority to make a settlement. The assessors and the conciliator form the conciliation council.

The primary function of the conciliation council is to reconcile conflicting viewpoints and reach a settlement in the dispute. In deciding matters of procedure before the council a decision of a majority of assessors will suffice, or where the assessors are equally divided, the conciliator will have the casting vote.

Where complete agreement is reached in conciliation, the terms of the conciliated settlement are referred to the Industrial Commission for registration. A copy is retained at the office of the commission and copies are also sent to the central organisations, to the representatives of the parties, and to the Secretary of Labour. The commission will be responsible for printing and publishing collective instruments.

By force of the Act, unless agreed otherwise, an agreement binds every union, association, or employer who is connected with the industry to which the agreement applies.

Any party to the agreement may, within 1 month of the agreement coming into force, apply to the Industrial Commission for a total or partial exemption. The commission may grant such an exemption, either in whole or in part, and subject to such conditions as it thinks necessary.

In New Zealand, conciliation has always played an important and integral role in the formal industrial relations system. Indeed, in by far the majority of disputes, complete agreement has been reached in conciliation. It has been considered essential, therefore that the characteristics of the conciliation service should be retained in the new industrial relations legislation.

The emphasis in conciliation is on negotiation and compromise. However, where the parties have reached a deadlock in negotiations, the conciliator, by ascertaining the parties' true position, can assist in reconciling their differences. In so doing he can substantially reduce the area of conflict.

Industrial Commission—If the parties are unable to reach a settlement in conciliation, the dispute, with any partial settlement, is referred to the Industrial Commission for arbitration. The commission comprises five members, two of whom are appointed on recommendation of the workers and employers central organisations, the remaining three not representing any sectional interest. Of the three, one is appointed president of the commission and another deputy president. The appointment of the president and deputy president is made after consultation with the central organisations (and after taking into account the views of non-affiliated organisations).

The jurisdiction of the commission is exercised only if the parties fail to reach complete agreement in conciliation. Before arbitrating, the commission will first hear representations from the parties to the dispute. However, the exercise of the commission's arbitral powers is by no means automatic. Indeed, if the commission is not satisfied that the parties have made a genuine attempt to settle, it may refer the matter back to the conciliation council. This provision is in line with current legislation. The commission might also, with the consent of both parties, refer the dispute to a mediator if it is satisfied that this might assist the parties to reach agreement.

When the Commission arbitrates, an award is made which is binding on the parties to the dispute and every other union, association or employer who is connected with or engaged in the industry and area to which the award applies. Exemption may be sought in the same manner as for collective agreements.

Voluntary Settlements—Apart from the formal machinery available to the parties for the conciliated settlement of interest disputes, the parties may jointly agree to negotiate a collective agreement of the voluntary settlement of the dispute. In these cases, a negotiating committee will be formed, comprising an equal number of properly appointed representatives of employers and the union of workers. The voluntary settlement is recorded in writing by the parties and forwarded to the Industrial Commission for registration as a collective agreement. The registered agreement will bind only the signatory parties. Any union or association or employer within the locality of the agreement may, with the consent of the original parties, become a party to the agreement by filing with the Registrar of the Industrial Commission a notice of concurrence.

Disputes of Right—Disputes of right are defined as those concerning the interpretation, application, or operation of a collective agreement or award; interpretation, application, or operation of an enactment or contract of employment, being a matter related to a collective agreement or award; any dispute that is not a dispute of interest; or a personal grievance.

Every award or collective agreement is to contain procedures for determining disputes of right and personal grievances. Disputes committees comprising representatives of the union and the employer and a chairman agreed on by the parties or a conciliator or a person appointed by him are to determine disputes or right, other than personal grievances. If the members of the committee are unable to reach a settlement the chairman may either make a decision or refer the dispute to the Industrial Court for settlement. There is a right of appeal to the Industrial Court against a decision of the committee.

If a worker has grounds for personal grievance, the matter is to be taken up initially with his supervisor and in turn the union representative may take it up with the employer. If settlement is not reached, it will go before a disputes committee comprising a maximum of three representatives from each side. If the committee cannot reach a decision the matter goes to the Industrial Court for decision.

INDUSTRIAL UNIONS—The New Zealand system of conciliation and arbitration is based on the voluntary registration of industrial unions and industrial associations. The Industrial Relations Act 1973 simplified and consolidated procedures developed over the years under the former Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act. A sliding scale operates to determine the minimum number required to form a union depending on the number of industrial districts in which the union has coverage. A union of employers with coverage of up to one full industrial district is to have a minimum of members or more than 75 percent of employers engaged in the industry in the area concerned, employing more than 75 percent of the workers so engaged, with an absolute minimum of 3. A union of workers with coverage of up to one full industrial district is to have a minimum of 30 members or more than 50 percent of the total number of workers engaged in the industry in the area concerned with an absolute minimum of 10 members. The prime minimum and the absolute minimum figures increase progressively with coverage of greater number of industrial districts. If the membership of a union falls below the minimum requirements the union may be deregistered.

The great majority of unions of workers and employers in the private enterprise field are registered under the Industrial Relations Act. The wages and conditions of the majority of agricultural workers have been determined by wage orders made under the Agricultural Workers Act 1962 but it is now proposed to bring them within the scope of the Industrial Relations Act. The history and development of industrial unions is covered comprehensively in Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration in New Zealand by N. S. Woods.

Further provisions of the Industrial Relations Act 1973 operate to deter multiple unionism and simplify the procedures for amalgamation of unions. It is hoped that this will give impetus to amalgamation of unions.

Restrictions on the exercise of welfare activities by unions have been removed and unions are able, subject to membership approval, to devote any percentage of subscription to welfare activities. A union may apply funds to furtherance of political objects if this is decided by a secret ballot of members.

Awards and agreements may, by agreement of the parties or by wish of the majority of the workers concerned, contain a clause making membership of a union a condition of employment, but not so as to restrict an employer's right to engage a worker who at the time of engagement is not a member of the union. Where no such “unqualified” preference clause is inserted, the award or agreement will contain a “qualified” preference clause requiring the employer to give preference to a unionist over a non-unionist if the non-unionist has been requested to become a member by a representative of the union and a union member is ready and willing to be engaged and is equally qualified to do the particular work required. In fact, every award and industrial agreement currently in force at 31 December 1972 included the “unqualified” preference clause.

UNIONS OF WORKERS—In the years subsequent to 1936, when changes in the law enabled national unions of workers to be formed and introduced compulsory membership of unions, two tendencies were visible. The first was the immediate creation of many new small unions, the number of unions jumping from 410 in 1935 to 499 in 1937, as many small groups of workers for the first time became unionised and secured an award. Later, a tendency for small unions to amalgamate into New Zealand unions became evident, so that the total number of unions declined at the same time as the number of larger unions increased. By 1942 the result of these changes was to leave the number and membership of the small unions little different from what they were in 1928, but substantially to increase the number of larger unions, and to increase greatly their membership.

Compulsory unionism resulted in a great numerical strengthening of the existing unions with consequential increase in their financial strength, while the legislation enabling national unions to be formed helped to consolidate these gains: at the same time it resulted in the unionisation of many small groups of workers who were previously unorganised. Since 1962 the State has not imposed compulsory union membership.

The union movement remains diverse, with 338 separate registrations and some important unions and the professional associations outside it*. In size, the registered unions range from about 39,000 members down to 5, with many of them having fewer than 100. Amalgamation is proceeding and significant consolidation has occurred recently in the meat freezing, labourers', and carpenters' unions.

Most unions are still occupational, or craft-based, and the industry agreements that are becoming more common—especially at the informal bargaining level—require the co-operation of numerous unions.

The Act provides for a worker to seek a certificate of exemption from any union-membership provision on grounds of conscience.

This situation of fragmentation and limited functions is due partly to the legal and traditional demarcation and the various forms of compulsory unionism which have inhibited mergers or vigorous competition for membership, and partly to the poverty imposed by legal limits on members' subscriptions. Welfare activities were permitted and subscription limits raised by amending statutes in 1964 and 1970 respectively.

Federation of Labour—The great increases in the membership of the trade unions brought about by compulsory unionism and the formation of national unions were factors facilitating the formation of the Federation of Labour in 1937 as an organisation representative of the trade union movement as a whole on a national basis.

The supreme authority of the Federation of Labour is the annual conference of delegates representing affiliated unions. Between conferences the business of the federation is carried on by a National Executive Committee and a National Council. The executive consists of the president, vice president, secretary, and six members elected directly by the conference. The National Council which meets regularly twice a year, and at other times as required, consists of members of the National Executive and are representative of each local trades council. It is the governing body of the federation between meetings of the conference. The local organs of the federation are the local trades councils, 20 in number, and one trade union committee, to which all local unions and branches of unions affiliated to the Federation of Labour are entitled to send representatives. The trades councils meet once a month to carry on the local business of the federation and they maintain close contact with the National Executive by means of exchange of minutes of meetings. Within each district the trades council has local autonomy, but where any matter affects other districts the National Executive or the National Council usually deals with it.

UNIONS OF EMPLOYERS—By registering, the employers secure all the rights of a union and can exercise them, with only minor differences, in the same manner as a union of workers.

Compulsory membership of unions does not apply to employers and in many cases their unions are maintained with a nominal membership.

*Mainly the State services organisations, and the pulp and paper workers and fertiliser workers.

†The Engineers Union.

‡More than a dozen, for example, in the forest products agreements and in the Hutt Valley motor vehicle assembly plants agreement.

Employers are more organised for negotiations with unions than figures of membership and the prevalance of local unions of employers might suggest. The New Zealand Employers Federation is the central organisation of employers and the chief co-ordinating body of employers in all matters of industrial relations and employment. It comprises four regional divisions (the Auckland Provincial, Wellington Regional, Canterbury, and Otago-Southland Employers Associations) plus national and North or South Island organisations that are admitted to membership of the Federation's General Council. There are nearly 70 in this latter category.

Individual company membership of the four regional divisions of the federation now exceeds 10,000 and these employers receive advice, assistance, and representation from the associations' specialist industrial staff. In addition to work in the negotiations and advocacy field, the Employers Federation has staff handling research and information services.

A new constitution adopted by the federation in 1971 was designed to achieve greater unity amongst employers and employer organisations associated with the federation, and greater employer sector participation has been provided in the formulation of the federation's policies.

STATISTICS: Unions of Workers—The numbers and membership of workers' unions at the end of the year according to industry groups is shown in the following table. Where the members of a union are employed in more than one industry they have been classified to the predominant industry for the union concerned. It should be noted that the industry groups in this table are not directly comparable with the occupational groups used in previous issues of the Official Yearbook.

Industrial Group19681969197019711972
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.411,843410,43149,45559,38159,195
Mining and quarrying11997108211067795076442
Manufacturing—
    Metal products and engineering1943,1981943,4361846,0261747,9321647,519
    Textiles, clothing, and leather2525,8442525,6572527,7852528,2692428,525
    Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal5144,6115045,6675046,0224845,6534845,555
    Wood and wood products, including furniture1013,7911014,1981014,590915,442916,794
    Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing108,095108,333108,566108,577109,475
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics102,689102,795103,028103,123103,331
    Non-metallic mineral products51,24961,41051,42651,37451,431
    Other manufacturing10993111,046121,0621190411967
Construction2839,8432741,3592542,6262443,2652241,776
Road and rail transport1933,5361932,1161734,0541732,3991734,280
Air transport51,11051,15751,13851,14251,189
Shipping and stevedoring4214,5984314,4014314,2424313,0454414,488
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.3148,2073149,1983151,3913153,5533155,611
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.4057,9553857,0133857,3773759,7533660,489
Government and local authority137,691138,060138,599149,4641410,646
Recreational services142,854122,853112,970113,809113,942
Social community services including health, education, etc.33284602459342933343
Other personal and community services125,440125,970126,538118,390118,750
Total362364,872359366,523353378,465346386,275338394,748

The following table shows membership of industrial unions of workers at the end of each year.

YearNumber of Members

*1950 figure includes the membership of five subsequently deregistered unions totalling 8,554 members.

1,90017,989
1,90123,768
1,90223,816
1,90327,640
1,90430,271
1,90529,369
1,90634,978
1,90745,614
1,90849,347
1,90954,519
1,91057,091
1,91155,629
1,91260,622
1,91371,544
1,91473,991
1,91567,661
1,91671,587
1,91772,873
1,91871,447
1,91982,553
1,92096,350
1,92197,719
1,92296,838
1,92394,438
1,92496,822
1,925100,540
1,92699,567
1,927101,071
1,928103,980
1,929102,646
1,930101,526
1,93190,526
1,93279,283
1,93371,888
1,93474,391
1,93580,929
1,936185,527
1,937232,986
1,938249,231
1,939254,690
1,940248,081
1,941231,049
1,942218,398
1,943214,628
1,944223,027
1,945229,103
1,946247,498
1,947260,379
1,948271,100
1,949275,977
1,950275,779*
1,951272,957
1,952283,496
1,953290,149
1,954299,254
1,955304,520
1,956308,031
1,957317,137
1,958324,438
1,959327,495
1,960332,362
1,961324,747
1,962332,801
1,963334,128
1,964346,338
1,965353,093
1,966362,760
1,967366,884
1,968364,872
1,969366,523
1,970378,465
1,971386,275
1,972394,748

The outstanding feature is the large increase consequent upon the 1936 amendment to the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act, which made union membership compulsory whenever an award or industrial agreement existed. There has been a steady growth in the average size of workers' unions, the trend being to a certain extent obscured by the cancellation and registration of some large unions. The average membership of the 338 unions registered in 1972 was 1,168 compared with 118 in 1901.

In the following table industrial unions of workers are classified according to membership.

At 31 DecemberUnder 100100–199200–299300–499500–9991,000–1,9992,000–2,9993,000–4,9995,000–9,99910,000 and OverTotal
NOTE—Unions in process of cancellation at the end of each year and for which no membership figures are available have been included in with the unions with less than 100 members.
Number of Unions
1,90114230195411202
1,9111825326231481307
1,9212397036282811321418
1,931239583130291431405
1,9411847038383227131052419
1,9511656944383928111173415
1,96114758393946251511114395
1,96613356204641291314125369
1,96713349314136301311145363
1,96813347274339291213145362
1,96912946314137311213145359
1,97012743264138321410184353
1,97112739293739291313146346
1,97211541273542301513137338
Membership
1,9015,7774,0324,8152,0732,5201,6512,90023,768
1,9117,5217,6866,3608,8799,6859,4146,08455,629
1,92111,2229,7089,18211,06618,52714,5807,4336,5069,49597,719
1,9319,9697,9667,57811,24420,60218,5666,7447,85790,526
1,9417,9099,7689,20715,06022,84135,41731,10241,19128,98720,657231,049
1,9517,87510,22510,39414,67127,27439,65327,36443,21840,27852,000272,957
1,9616,3747,9229,37414,64332,61935,30034,72046,06172,39365,341324,747
1,9665,7937,5974,68017,33828,57039,41631,50756,30185,04486,514362,760
1,9675,6136,7197,58616,52625,76042,87832,01844,58095,07390,131366,884
1,9685,8066,5186,44316,79427,21940,04928,49451,69894,85886,993364,872
1,9695,7666,2927,67916,03025,56942,99929,13852,25596,09584,700366,523
1,9705,6085,8376,39115,40425,50644,67833,69138,662125,25477,434378,465
1,9715,0645,2987,26614,74826,84442,34631,16649,78898,144105,611386,275
1,9724,6725,7016,49113,56428,70943,00335,38451,16985,224120,831394,748
Percentage of Total Membership
1,90124.317.020.38.710.66.912.2100.0
1,911.513.811.416.017.416.911.0100.0
1,9211.59.99.411.319.014.97.66.79.7100.0
1,93111.18.88.412.422.820.57.48.6100.0
1,9413.54.24.06.59.915.313.417.812.612.8100.0
1,9512.93.73.85.410.014.510.015.814.819.1100.0
1,9612.02.42.94.510.010.910.714.222.320.1100.0
1,9661.62.11.34.87.910.98.715.523.423.8100.0
1,9671.51.82.14.57.011.78.712.225.924.6100.0
1,9681.61.81.74.67.511.07.814.226.023.8100.0
1,9691.61.72.14.47.011.77.914.326.223.1100.0
1,9701.51.51.74.16.711.88.910.233.120.5100.0
1,9711.31.41.93.87.011.08.112.825.427.3100.0
1,9721.11.41.63.57.310.99.013.021.630.6100.0

Unions of Employers—The numbers and membership of registered industrial unions of employers as at the end of the year are shown in the following table according to industrial groups. Some are employers belonging to two or more unions.

Industry Group19681969197019711972
UnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembersUnionsMembers
Agriculture, grazing, etc.92,48692,56692,49592,57092,551
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing—Metal products and engineering, etc.101,055101,05891,07691,10491,167
    Textiles, clothing, and leather1253612509124871247912453
    Food, beverages, and tobacco, including seasonal3161730584295722368221565
Wood and wood products, including furniture93759374934193719486
    Paper and paper products, printing, and publishing1441014419144101440014391
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber, and plastics51806222623452335230
    Non-metallic mineral product;359359359345245
    Other manufacturing125125124124125
Construction564,777574,853564,941554,893555,453
Road and rail transport10508105711049151,71051,750
Air transport234234234234234
Shipping and stevedoring1412613102141111415514122
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.11892871
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.6310,2046310,117649,985639,6166313,468
Government and local authority, n.e.c.54125407540153905403
Recreational services194199112611051106
Social community services, including health, education, etc.27353746277427712780
Other personal and community services67046765669666866584
Totals25323,33725423,51025223,25723924,45723729,485

INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS—Associations of two or more unions in different districts in the same industry can be registered as industrial associations. As at 31 December 1972 there were 15 industrial associations of employers and 35 of workers, the former having 127 affiliated unions and the latter 189. The following summary shows the number of industrial associations of employers and workers in each industrial group, with the number of affiliated unions in each case. In most cases the associations cover the entire country.

Industrial GroupEmployersWorkers
AssociationsAffiliated UnionsAssociationsAffiliated Unions
19711972197119721971197219711972
Agriculture, grazing, etc.1144
Mining and quarrying1
Manufacturing—
    Metal products and engineering331111
    Textiles, clothing and leather1122441314
    Food, beverages and tobacco335412331414
    Wood and wood products, including furniture11441154
    Paper and paper products, printing and publishing2211111188
    Chemicals, petroleum, rubber and plastics1132
    Non-metallic mineral products11332244
    Other manufacturing2255
Construction334444331515
Road and rail transport111212
Air transport
Shipping and stevedoring111111333434
Finance, insurance, real estate, etc.221414
Wholesale and retail trade, including hotels, restaurants, etc.333640333029
Government and local authority, n.e.c.1155
Recreational services2266
Social community services including health, education, etc.1133
Other personal and community services155
Totals15151651273635191189

PROPORTION OF UNIONISTS—The following table, showing the proportion of workers belonging to registered unions to the total number of wage earners in the country, is of interest as manifesting the movement in and the extent of unionism during the period under review. The figures for total wage earners are derived from census enumerations and include professional, business, and other classes in which unionism prior to the passing of the amending Act of 1936 did not exist, and agricultural and pastoral occupations where it was practically non-existent. In addition, females are included in both sets of figures, although the proportion of women unionised prior to 1936 was negligible.

Census YearTotal Wage EarnersUnemployed MalesEnd of Year Nearest to Census DateNumbers of Workers on Rolls of Registered UnionsPercentage of Wage Earners on Rolls of Registered Unions

*1950 figure now includes the membership of 5 subsequently deregistered unions, totalling 8,554 members.

†Nearly all of the relatively small numbers of unemployed from 1951 onwards would have been wage earners.

‡There are a number of associations of employees not registered. These include many State servants and mine workers, chemical fertiliser workers, agricultural workers, etc.

1901 (Mar)224,3468,4671,90017,9898
1906 (Apr)269,0398,1891,90529,86911
1911 (Apr)304,2727,1521,91057,09119
1916 (Oct)302,1615,9201,91671,58724
1921 (Apr)370,69211,0611,92096,35026
1926 (Apr)414,67310,6941,925100,54024
1936 (Mar)496,56335,7741,93580,92916
1945 (Sep)473,6845,8231,945229,10348
1951 (Apr)577,6947,9021,950275,779*48
1956 (Apr)653,3585,5581,955304,52047
1961 (Apr)750,8824,6741,960332,36244
1966 (Mar)870,8135,1251,965353,09341
1971 (Mar)958,5638,7571,970378,46539

STATISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES—In the tables which follow only those disputes are included which resulted in a strike, penalty, or lockout, or where organised “go slow” or other passive-resistance methods were clearly manifested. Many disputes are, of course, settled without recourse to such measures; these are not recorded for statistical purposes. Stoppages in which no demand is made on the employer (or the employees in the case of a lockout) are not included—for example any stoppage which is the result of disagreement by workers with measures taken (or not taken) by Government or other authority, as distinct from employers, is excluded. To avoid confusion with the term “dispute” as used in industrial relations legislation, these statistics have been called “industrial stoppages”. A long-term series of stoppages is given towards the back of this Yearbook.

The figures for stoppages include details of stopwork meetings unless, as on the waterfront, provision is made for these in the relevant award or agreement. In all cases unauthorised stopwork meetings are included, also unauthorised delays in resuming work after recognised stopwork meetings. A single stoppage may include or may consist of one stopwork meeting or several stopwork meetings; if several such meetings are included, these may be held at different times or at different places, provided all relate to the same issue.

In the table shown later, recording methods of settlement, all such interruptions of labour, including periods of deliberate absence from work by way of protest against an alleged injustice, are classified under the heading “voluntary return to work”. In 1965, these cases comprised 27 out of 105 stoppages; in 1966, 59 out of 145; in 1967, 26 out of 89; in 1968, 26 out of 153; in 1969, 27 out of 169; in 1970, 72 out of 323; in 1971, 95 out of 313; and in 1972, 119 out of 284.

The following table shows incidence rates of stoppages for the last 20 years. (A 50-year time series is tabulated in the Statistical Summary towards the end of this Yearbook.)

YearNumber of Wage and Salary Earners*Workers Involved as Percentage of Wage and Salary EarnersWorking Days Lost per 1,000 of Wage and Salary Earners

*October estimates.

 (000)  
1,951583.26.321,984.55
1,952592.22.7547.49
1,953609.43.6439.66
1,954623.62.5932.83
1,955639.63.1681.37
1,956652.92.0836.56
1,957670.22.3242.06
1,958693.01.9827.11
1,959699.42.6842.39
1,960725.91.9749.16
1,961752.72.2150.73
1,962763.95.23121.95
1,963788.01.8969.15
1,964814.64.2782.05
1,965846.71.8025.76
1,966875.03.79113.25
1,967871.83.27160.00
1,968876.04.28148.71
1,969899.74.90154.13
1,970928.811.85298.60
1,971935.89.19173.77
1,972948.57.18148.31
1,973930.98.03291.68

Nature and Duration—The next table shows the number and nature of the stoppages and the number of workers involved during the last 11 years.

YearNature of StoppageNumber of Workers Involved
Direct StrikeSympathetic StrikePartial Strike*PenaltyTotalDirect StrikeSympathetic StrikePartial Strike*PenaltyTotal

*i.e., where no actual cessation of work, but a ‘go slow’ or other policy of protest adopted.

†Waterfront stoppages sometimes result in the imposition of penalties under Port Bureau Rules. Details of stoppages where penalties were imposed are:— 1964–4, (two of two days, one of three days, one of five days), some 6,520 working days were lost and $67,924 in wages. 1966–4. (one of one day, two of two days, one of three days), some 684 working days lost and $7,330 in wages. 1971–2, (two of two days), 2,322 working days lost, and approximately $33,080 in wages. 1972–3, (three of two days), 1,833 working days lost and approximately $32,240 in wages These figures are included in the statistics.

‡Two lockouts involving 572 workers are included.

§Including 3 lockouts involving 549 workers.

¶One lockout involving 60 workers included.

**Three lockouts involving 354 workers.

1,96358116011,8273,0503414,911
1,9648949330,1964,58334,779
1,965972410513,31272665715,267
1,96613731414531,906725949233,132
1,96779738924,1024,03435428,490
1,9681483215336,16883145937,458
1,9691601816943,0553695044,041
1,970307310323§106,5202332,794110,096
1,971283522231381,5434362,8781,15286,009
1,9722371331328458,8842,5575,3121,35768,110
1,973350536394*107,9441,7605,807115,865

The table following illustrates the duration of stoppages during 1973.

DurationNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostEstimated Loss in Wages
     $
1 day and less16521643,52623,492440,340
Over 1 day but not over 2 days538414,44922,457352,880
Over 2 days but not over 3 days40658,32510,865196,900
Over 3 days but less than 1 week6713034,815106,7981,737,750
1 week but less than 2 weeks40548,49748,796820,940
2 weeks but less than 4 weeks19344,04033,633517,700
4 weeks but less than 8 weeks782,12416,174146,910
8 weeks and over34894,49175,610
..39459511,865271,7064,289,030

Industrial Distribution—In the following table industrial stoppages are classified according to the industry in which they took place. The figures relate to stoppages which terminated during 1973.

IndustryNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedAverage Duration (Days)Number of Workers InvolvedWorking days LostApproximate Loss in Wages ($)
Forestry220.759060510
Coal mining342.3348888214,470
Stone quarrying335.832998485,970
Abattoirs558.301,2033,21256,830
Meat freezing, preserving981384.0173,085141,7382,330,330
Bacon curing331.171872873,240
Bread making153.001062584,150
Cake-pastry making119.001896958,400
Ice-cream making111.003539500
Other foods, n.e.c.442.38173991,130
Brewing, malting, etc.233.001082094,250
Woollen mills117.00975216,170
Carpets, rugs, etc.226.006344,41581,930
Other textiles338.3320567713,330
Footwear227.504435057,180
IndustryNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedAverage Duration (Days)Number of Workers InvolvedWorking days LostApproximate Loss in Wages ($)
Cabinet, furniture making111.00146
Pulp and paper products16165.162,94514,786118,900
Printing and publishing223.251383235,270
Tanning and currying1116.50111373,350
Rubber products including pneumatic tyres and tubes9275.893,14011,466198,300
Chemicals, chem, prod.665.083901,11515,350
Petroleum refining112.00751502,150
Non-metallic minerals11124.681,7556,35185,760
Iron and steel making443.0030974315,520
Metal products101110.009254,14263,340
General engineering182014.311,0873,91598,120
Battery manufacture111.002130970
Ship and boat-building110.50106731,130
Motor vehicle assembly10106.101,9203,68186,260
Painting and decorating116.0017971,380
Electric installation354.338970912,430
Building construction53974.698,26422,967365,560
Road construction2318535160
Electric power construction9116.561,4396,797124,030
Electric power supply331.675381,05213,920
Sanitation, disposal of refuse, etc.1112.0843363,930
Wholesale and retail trades8114.561925777,560
Railway services224.003881,07216,540
Trolley bus services222.7566398012,500
Motor bus services444.88125441,410
Carriers9162.396111,38421,340
Harbour Boards2154.50203491,730
Shipping services40403.041,0682,5507,860
Waterfront15572.077,31010,453192,140
Other transport334.501082824,060
Storage112.002234630
Services9124.179474,4454,920
Industry not specified:
    Factory engineers2137.753,10016,327262,340
    Boilermakers160.509454860
    Drivers220.2524069920
Totals3945954.80115,865271,7064,289,030

CAUSES AND RESULTS—In the next table the causes and results of stoppages occurring during 1973 are shown. Under the heading “Wages” are included stoppages concerning wages, overtime, or rates for piecework.

Stoppages concerning the employment or dismissal of persons are included under the heading “Employment”. Stoppages on the subject of employment usually concern the dismissal of a worker on allegedly insufficient grounds.

“Other working conditions” are of diverse nature, and include such causes as the following: distribution of work in coal mines and on wharves, conveyance to and from work, atmospheric conditions in coal mines, accommodation on ships, numbers of men to be allocated to certain duties, supply of food, and the method of handling cargo.

Under the heading “Sympathy” are included all stoppages caused by workers striking not on account of a grievance arising out of their own wages or conditions, but in sympathy with the demands of other workers.

In compiling this table no stoppage has been included as ending in favour of either employers or workers unless the result has been beyond question. In cases where workers have made more than one demand, succeeding in one or more and failing in one or more, or where they have made one or more demands and in respect of each have been partially successful only, the result has been treated as a compromise. Where strikers have returned to work without any definite decision being arrived at regarding the demands made, or where (as in the case of a sympathetic strike) no definite demand has been made, or when a strike is merely by way of a protest, the result has been recorded as indeterminate.

ResultCause
WagesHoursEmploymentOther Working ConditionsSympathyOtherTotal
Number of Stoppages
In favour of workers102436676
In favour of employers14113230
Compromise954481810175
Indeterminate4052324615113
Totals159910681633394
Number of Firms Affected
In favour of workers142545892
In favour of employers15113231
Compromise1805632212282
Indeterminate75538342216190
Totals284101371042238595
Number of Workers Involved       
In favour of workers3642,45511,72939614,944
In favour of employers2,4623,8981,859748,293
Compromise36,21824014,2443,8371,12455,663
Indeterminate17,5401,2294,5936,7002,1414,76236,965
Totals56,5841,46925,19024,1252,1416,356115,865
Number of Working Days Lost
In favour of workers1,7675,16310,09472317,747
In favour of employers3,80120,9351,82011426,670
Compromise125,4323,83945,6617,3442,486184,762
Indeterminate22,7258885,1806,4822,9284,32442,527
Totals153,7254,72776,93925,7402,9287,647271,706
Estimated Loss in Wages
..$$$$$$$
In favour of workers30,86076,950139,9409,620257,370
In favour of employers66,560295,29030,4401,850394,140
Compromise1,977,66061,970668,220125,52041,4102,874,790
Indeterminate432,98015,29084,710121,72043,99064,050762,730
Totals2,508,06077,2601,125,170417,62043,990116,9304,289,030

Methods of Settlement—Following is a table showing the methods of settlement of disputes causing stoppages in 1973. Negotiations supposedly under the Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act and the Labour Disputes Investigation Act were treated as “Intervention of third party”. “Voluntary return to work” includes such cases as “Protest” absence and stopwork meetings.

Method of SettlementNumber of StoppagesNumber of Firms AffectedNumber of Workers InvolvedNumber of Working Days LostEstimated Loss in Wages
     $
Private negotiations between parties17722635,46276,2301,129,110
Intervention of third party10219243,844157,9172,484,990
Substitution226141
Voluntary return to work10516735,54632,813583,880
Other889524,70591,050
Totals394595115,865271,7064,289,030

WORKING CONDITIONS—A considerable proportion of the persons comprising the labour force of New Zealand have their working conditions determined either directly or indirectly by virtue of the provision of the Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971, the Factories Act 1946, the Coal Mines Act 1925, the Shops and Offices Act 1955, the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952, the Agricultural Workers Act 1962, the Construction Act 1959, the Machinery Act 1950, the Disabled Persons Employment Act 1960, the Bush Workers Act 1945, the Sharemilking Agreement Act 1937, and the Shearers Act 1962. Legislative authority covering the working conditions of substantially the greater portion of the remaining participants in the labour force is contained in the State Services Act 1962, the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, the Government Railways Act 1964, the Post Office Act 1959, the Police Act 1958, the Education Act 1964, the Hospitals Act 1957 and the Hospital Employment Regulations 1963, and the Waterfront Industry Act 1953.

Notes on Acts which have as their prime purpose the protection of workers from accidents in the course of their employment have been included in Section 35 D—Occupational Safety.

HOURS OF WORK—Employees in most occupations have had the benefit of a 40-hour 5-day week since 1946, with the first legislation in this regard being enacted in 1936.

HOLIDAYS—The Annual Holidays Act 1944 provides for an annual holiday of 2 weeks' duration on ordinary pay for all workers who are not otherwise provided for in this respect. A worker who has been employed for less than 1 year, on termination of his employment, is entitled to payment equal to one twenty-fifth of his ordinary pay for the period of employment. An employer is required to keep a record (holiday book) containing particulars of employment, annual holidays, and amounts paid in respect of each worker in his employment.

Every award provides for workers to have at least 11 whole holidays on pay, in addition to annual holidays. The holidays so provided include Christmas Day. Boxing Day, New Year's Day, 2 January (or a day in lieu), New Zealand Day, Good Friday, Easier Monday, Anzac Day, Labour Day, the Sovereign's Birthday, and the provincial anniversary day (or a day in lieu).

The Public Holidays Act 195; gives rules which are applicable to the provisions of any Act, award, or industrial agreement when Christmas Day and New Year's Day fall on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday. The effect of the Act is broadly to provide that provisions regarding the granting of a holiday or observable of certain hours of labour or payment of certain specified rates of wages are carried over from Saturday and Sunday to Monday (or Tuesday). In a similar way, where the anniversary day of any province falls on a Friday, Saturday, or Sunday, the provisions governing holiday, pay, etc., on anniversary day apply on the next succeeding Monday; if it falls on a Tuesday, Wednesday, or Thursday, the provisions apply to the immediately preceding Monday as if it were the anniversary day. Labour Day is deemed to be the fourth Monday in October. New Zealand Day is 6 February.

Other statutes dealing with holidays are the Anzac Day Act 1966, Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952, and the New Zealand Day Act 1973.

ANZAC DAY ACT—Anzac Day (the 25th day of April) is a day of commemoration, being the anniversary of the first landing of troops on Gallipoli in 1915, and in terms of employment is observed as if it were a holiday. Where Anzac Day falls on a Sunday it is not transferred to a working day.

FACTORIES ACT—The Factories Act 1946 applies to “any building, office, or place in which two or more persons are engaged or in which one or more persons are employed … directly or indirectly, in any handicraft, or in preparing or manufacturing goods for trade or sale …”.

Restrictions on Employment—No boy or girl under 16 years of age may be employed in any factory unless a certificate of fitness is issued by an Inspector of Factories.

Safety, Health, and Welfare—The safety measures have reference to dangerous liquids, harmful noise, means of access and safety of employment, and means of escape in case of fire. The employer is required to keep a register of all accidents of which he has any knowledge, and first-aid appliances must be provided and maintained. The health and welfare provisions are very extensive and include reference to such matters as air space, cleanliness, ventilation, canteens, the care of employees, amenities, and other things to be supplied by the employer to secure employees' health or welfare.

SHOPS AND OFFICES ACT: Hours of Work—For shop assistants the hour of commencing work for persons under 16 years must not be earlier than 7 a.m., except that newspapers may be delivered from 6 a.m. by persons aged 12 years and under 16, and milk by persons aged 14 years and under 16 from the same hour. Persons under 18 years may not be employed after 10.30 p.m. The Act also provides that persons under 18 years cannot be employed in restaurants before 5 a.m. or after 10.30 p.m.

Sunday Trading—Sunday trading is prohibited except: (a) if provision is made in an award, the prior consent of the Minister being required to such inclusion; (b) for sale of exempted goods listed later; (c) if individual shops are granted exemption by the Shops and Offices Exemptions Tribunal or the Minister to permit them to open on Sunday. This is designed to offer a relaxation to enable shops to cater for the essential needs of the public after work and on weekends.

Exempted Goods—The Shops and Offices Exempted Goods Order 1968 permits the sale of various commodities including bakers' and pastrycooks' lines, building supplies and handyman's requisites, condiments, cooked foods, dairy produce, drinks, fish, frozen foods, fruit and vegetables, gardening supplies, miscellaneous groceries, magazines and periodicals, meats and small goods, medicinal and household goods, photographic goods, and some miscellaneous items.

Non-exempted goods must be properly locked away from the view of the public after normal closing hours.

Safety, Health, and Welfare Provisions—The Act also makes provision for the welfare, health, and safety of assistants. Particular matters that are covered relate to dangerous liquids and noxious gases, limitation of loads, safe means of access, construction and maintenance of floors, passages, stairs, fire precautions, lighting, cleanliness, ventilation, drinking water, drainage, washing facilities, clothing, accommodation, seating and first-aid facilities, rest rooms for women, sanitary conveniences, temperature and heating appliances, accommodation for meals, etc.

AGRICULTURAL WORKERS ACT—Under the Agricultural Workers Act 1962 regulations have been made setting out minimum standards of accommodation to be supplied for agricultural workers.

Restrictions on Employment of Children—Under the Agricultural Workers Act no child under the age of 15 years may: (a) be employed in any agricultural work during such times as the child is required to attend school under the Education Act; (b) be required to lift any weights, or to perform any task, likely to be injurious to his health; (c) work more than 8 hours in any 1 day.

SHEARERS ACT—Under the Shearers Act 1962 an employer is required to provide amenities for all shearers employed by him. Where five or more shearers are to be accommodated on the farm suitable accommodation must be provided. Minimum standards of amenities and accommodation are prescribed by the Shearers Regulations 1963.

SHIPPING AND SEAMEN LEGISLATION—The general superintendence of matters relating to merchant ships and seamen in New Zealand is the responsibility of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport.

Competence, Safety, and Welfare Provisions—The Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 makes provision to ensure competence on the part of navigational officers, engineers, and certain crew members. Rules or regulations under that Act set out the qualifications and examination standards for persons to obtain the appropriate certificates in New Zealand, and there are provisions for the acceptance of certain certificates granted in other Commonwealth countries. The number and qualifications of persons required to man ships of various classes are set out in statutory scales.

The seaworthiness of ships is covered by annual survey for compliance as to condition and equipment, and regulations govern the day-to-day operations of ships to ensure their safe navigation and operation.

The pay and many conditions of employment are determined by industrial awards or agreements between shipowners and employee organisations. There are also legislative measures to ensure compliance with some of the international conventions or recommendations relating to the employment of seafarers.

MINING LEGISLATION—Consolidating legislation has been passed as the Mining Act 1971 and this will become law after its attendant regulations are gazetted.

Working Conditions—In the coal-mining industry working conditions are determined by agreement reached at annual conferences between the coal-mine owners and the employee organisations.

Restrictions on Employment—No person under the age of 16 years may be employed underground in any coal mine, or in any alluvial mine, or on or about any dredge; while the minimum age in respect of underground work in a quartz mine is 19 years. No youth may be employed in a mine for more than 8 hours per day or 48 hours per week except in cases of emergency.

OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY—Measures for occupational safety, involving the Machinery Act 1950, the Construction Act 1959, and a number of other Acts, are discussed in Section 35D.

WORKING CONDITIONS OF STATE SERVANTS—Apart from remuneration (which is discussed in Section 33, Wages) the working conditions of State servants are controlled by legislation set out in the following paragraphs.

Members of the Public Service are governed by the State Services Act 1962 and the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969. Included in the functions of the State Services Commission are the provision of suitable office accommodation, the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions, and also the regulations of a variety of points connected with control —e.g., leave, hours of work.

The Government Railways Act 1949 furnishes the legislative framework for determination of the working conditions of railway employees. There is a Government Railways Industrial Tribunal, the principal functions of which are to prescribe conditions in regard to hours of work, etc.; and terms and conditions in respect of leave of absence, railway concessions, etc.

Working conditions for Post Office employees are determined by the administrative authority, the Postmaster-General, with the Director-General as executive head. Power is vested in the Minister by virtue of the Post Office Act 1959. There is a Post Office Staff Tribunal whose function it is to make recommendations to the Minister on such matters as may be referred to it by the Minister, the Director-General, or the New Zealand Post Office Association (Incorporated).

There are other legislative enactments which apply to the relevant sections of general Government employees. Members of the Police are governed by the Police Act 1958 and the Police Regulations 1959, while there is also a Police Staff Tribunal. The three armed services are controlled by the Defence Act 1971.

The Education Act 1964 and amendments authorise, either by regulation or through the agency of education boards, the determination of the conditions of employment, leave of absence, etc., for the members of the teaching profession.

LEGISLATIVE PROVISION FOR CERTAIN OTHER GROUPS: Hospital Board Employees—The provisions relating to working conditions of hospital board employees, such as nurses, etc., will be found in the Hospitals Act 1957 and the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969.

Waterfront Industry—The legislation at present governing waterside work is contained in the Waterfront Industry Act 1953, which defines waterside work as “the loading and unloading of ships, barges, lighters, and other vessels; and, in relation to any port where the harbour board acts as wharfinger, includes the work of receiving and delivering cargo customarily performed by waterside workers at that port”. Under the Act functions of government are shared between two types of bodies—one legislative and judicial, the other administrative only.

The legislative and judicial body is the Waterfront Industry Tribunal which consists of a chairman and two other members appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour. The tribunal is appointed for a term of 3 years and is a Commission of Inquiry under the Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908. The functions of the tribunal are, firstly, to prescribe the terms and conditions of employment for waterside work, and here the tribunal's procedure is similar to that followed by the Government Service Tribunal. To assist with this function, the Act also provides for the setting up by the Minister of Labour of a National Conciliation Committee to be appointed for a term not exceeding 2 years and consisting of eight employer and eight worker representatives, with an independent chairman, to conduct conciliation proceedings on any application to the tribunal which concerns two or more ports. Secondly, the tribunal is required to settle any disputes that arise in relation to waterside work, and for this function has the assistance of Port Conciliation Committees which consist of an equal number of employers' and workers' representatives with an independent chairman. Thirdly, the tribunal is a general Appeal Court from decisions of Port Conciliation Committees (with certain limitations), the National Amenities Committee, and orders of the Waterfront Industry Commission imposing levies or charges.

The Waterfront Industry Commission which is the administrative body, consists of one commissioner appointed for a term of 5 years by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Minister of Labour. The functions of the commission are, firstly, to carry out all administrative work in connection with the engagement of, and payment of wages to waterside workers, including administrative work in connection with guaranteed minimum payments, annual and statutory holiday payments, and systems of payment by results for waterside workers. Secondly, the commission is responsible for the provision of amenities for waterside workers (subject to the direction of the National Amenities Committee) and for the equipping, operation, and management of these amenities which include waiting rooms or assembly halls, restaurants, canteens, and first-aid rooms. The National Amenities Committee, which is associated with the commission in the function of provision of amenities, consists of six nominated representatives of employers, workers, and harbour boards, and the Waterfront Industry Commissioner as chairman, and is appointed by the Minister of Labour. This committee acts in an advisory capacity to the commission, authorising amenities costing not more than $10,000 each at any port, and approving schemes for the provision by harbour boards of amenities costing more than $10,000 each at any port.

The organisation of “registered” waterside workers is on the basis of separate port unions with one association or federation of unions. The port unions and the association are registered through the Registrar of Industrial Unions in the Department of Labour.

Chapter 37. Section 35; INDUSTRIAL SAFETY

35A-ACCIDENT COMPENSATION

NEW DEAL IN ACCIDENT COMPENSATION—The Accident Compensation Act 1972, which took effect from 1 April 1974, is unprecedented anywhere in the world and provides insurance against injury by accident at any hour of the day or night to virtually every member of the community.

It has superseded the Workers' Compensation Act 1956, the compulsory third-party insurance against personal injury received in motor vehicle accidents, and the fault principle under which court actions for damages for personal injury were brought by the injured person or his dependants.

Workers' compensation in the more limited form familiar to New Zealanders for many years has been abolished and the need to prove negligence is a thing of the past. There is now a comprehensive system, the essence of which is that the community itself recognises its responsibility for both the accident toll and its effects, and finances and provides for the victims of all accidents however their injuries are caused.

The three objectives of the legislation are: (a) to promote safety in every walk of life; (b) to urge forward the concept of prompt and effective rehabilitation of all people injured by accident so as to restore them to the fullest physical, mental, social, vocational, and economic usefulness of which they are capable; (c) to provide prompt, fair, and reasonable compensation so that every accident victim will be treated according to his real needs.

Accident prevention, which is of great importance to the Accident Compensation Commission, is being tackled by a safety division aiming at co-ordinating existing organisations and initiating its own accident prevention programme.

The Accident Compensation Act 1972, therefore: (a) provides immediate compensation without proof of fault for every injured person, regardless of his or her fault, and wherever the accident occurred; (b) entitles the injured person to compensation both for permanent physical disability and also for income losses on an income-related basis; (c) provides for regular adjustment in the level of payment to injured persons in accord with variations in the value of money; (d) urges forward the injured person's physical and vocational rehabilitation; and (e) provides effective 24-hour insurance against personal injury by accident for every New Zealander.

THREE SCHEMES IN SYSTEM—People are covered against injury by accident under three schemes in the accident compensation system:

Earners' scheme, which provides for everyone who receives remuneration either as an employee or as a self-employed person.

Motor vehicle scheme, which covers everyone injured in a motor accident and replaces the compulsory third-party insurance.

Supplementary scheme, which brings in all those not otherwise covered, among them tourists and visitors to New Zealand, and people not earning, such as housewives, children, students, and retired people.

The earners' scheme provides for the payment of compensation under a formula which gives 80 percent of the averaged earnings after the first week of incapacity through accident (supported by a medical certificate). If the accident occurs out of and in the course of the employment, the employer pays the employee at his normal rate of pay (excluding overtime) for the time lost during that first week. There is no provision for payment of the first week's wages if the accident occurred outside the place of employment, but the scheme takes effect if incapacity extends beyond the first week.

If the injured person has more than one job he receives full pay for the first week from his employer on the job on which the accident occurred, and the commission will pay compensation based on the amount he would have earned from the other jobs.

After the first week's incapacity and for the ensuing 4 weeks, the earner can be paid 80 percent of his average earnings for the 28 days preceding the accident. Beyond that time the 80 percent is related to the average earnings over the 12 months preceding the accident.

Weekly payments generally cease at age 65 years, but can continue until the normal retiring age for a particular job. If the accident occurs after age 60 years payment continues for a further 5 years; if it occurs after age 65 years, then up to age 70 years; and if the accident happens after age 70 years, compensation is payable for 1 year, assuming in all these cases that the injured person was an earner at the time of the accident.

In addition, the injured person may qualify for payment of a lump sum for permanent loss or impairment of bodily function up to a maximum of $5,000 and for loss of capacity to enjoy life, for pain and mental suffering, and for disfigurement up to a maximum of $7,500.

The injured earner can also qualify for compensation for reasonable expenses resulting directly from the accident, such as medical and hospital expenses, the cost of transport to hospital, or wages paid to an attendant or nurse.

In the event of a fatal accident, the commission pays reasonable funeral expenses.

The dependent widow of an earner who has died as a result of an accident can qualify for half the earnings-related compensation her husband would have received had he been totally incapacitated but still living. For each dependent child up to a total of three, an additional one-sixth can be payable so that for a widow with three or more children, there could be paid the full earnings-related compensation her husband would have received had he been totally incapacitated. In addition, a lump sum of up to $1,000 is payable to the dependent widow, plus up to $500 for each dependent child to a maximum of $1,500 for the dependent children.

Non-earners do not normally qualify for earnings-related compensation, but they are eligible for all other benefits.

Motor accident victims qualify for all benefits including, if they are earners, earnings-related compensation.

In some special circumstances, compensation for loss of potential earnings may be awarded.

Earnings-related compensation is taxable, although other forms of benefits are not taxable.

Provision is made for rehabilitation and retraining of accident victims.

Housewives—The provisions for non-earners are of particular interest to housewives. Housewives injured in an accident are eligible for the benefits available to non-earners and, if justified, home help can be paid for, or the husband compensated for loss of earnings while he is looking after the house until the injured wife can resume her duties.

Furthermore, visiting women from overseas who are non-earners can qualify for the same benefits if injured during a visit to New Zealand.

FINANCING OF COMPENSATION FUNDS—Accident compensation is a form of compulsory insurance in which the community as a whole accepts responsibility for the accidents, which inevitably will afflict a proportion of its members as a consequence of the kind of life that society today demands as its right.

The community pays in these ways:

Levies on employers (including the Crown) and on the self-employed to pay for the earners' scheme. They are paid to the Inland Revenue Department (the commission's agents).

Levies on vehicle owners are paid to an agent for the commission, the Post Office, in place of the present third-party insurance premiums, to pay for the motor vehicle scheme.

General taxation pays for the supplementary scheme through the Consolidated Revenue Account.

The employer pays levies on a scale ranging from 25 cents to $5 per $100 of wages paid and he classifies his employees for the appropriate levy in accordance with the industrial-activity in which he is engaged. There are special classes for staff on clerical/management and commercial travelling duties, so that the employer can pay for them at a lower levy rate than he would for the employees engaged in his industrial activity.

A levy of 1 percent of earnings applies to self-employed people, regardless of their industrial activity, but the limit of income on which the levy may be imposed is $10,400 a year. The maximum payable by any self-employed person is thus $104 a year.

The levy system in respect of employees is risk-related, as it was previously. The previous range was 5 cents (clerical rate) to $9 per $100 of salary or wages. The new rates as promulgated by Order in Council follow the provision in the Act that they be not less than 25 cents and not more than $5 per $100. Thus employers of clerical staff have faced a substantial increase, while employers of high-risk staff pay substantially less.

The logic, is that risk averages out over the 24 hours of the day. The clerical worker is at greater risk when he leaves his office, and the tunneller or sawmiller faces far less risk when he knocks off work for the day.

Future cover and benefits are incomparably in advance of what was available previously under workers' compensation or social welfare. Some benefits, for example, continue for the whole working life.

Levies for the motor vehicle scheme are collected in the same manner as for the previous third-party insurance. The commission estimates that its first full year will cost between $23 million and $28 million, and this has involved an increase in the annual amount of the insurance premium paid at relicensing time; a 25 percent increase adds $2.84 a year for the private motorcar, but in return compensation is available to everyone injured in a motor accident for the period of working life, if necessary, and without having to establish that anyone was to blame; and that applies even if the claimant himself is solely responsible.

The non-earners' scheme, it has been estimated, will require $1.1 million for the first year rising to 51.3 million annually in 3 years.

HANDLING OF CLAIMS —For the initial period, the State Insurance Office has been designated as the claims handling agent. Claims are made by a worker injured at his place of employment notifying his employer and filling in a claim form which the employer then forwards to the State Insurance Office, or in other cases by direct notification to the State Insurance Office. Claims need to be supported by a medical certificate.

It is intended that there should be no long delays in providing compensation. An injured worker who is hurt at work will receive his pay in full from his employer for the first week he is unable to work. If his incapacity continues beyond the first week, earnings-related compensation will promptly become available so that effectively there is no break in his flow of income. He will continue to be paid locally, without delay.

Naturally it will take time to assess permanent disability, loss of faculty, potential earnings, pain and suffering, and loss of enjoyment of life, and the like, but here again it is firmly intended that previous delays will be markedly reduced.

REHABILITATION—Prompt and successful rehabilitation will reduce the need for compensation, return persons to economic usefulness more quickly and in some cases provide them with a vocation and self-respect they might otherwise have lost altogether, and keep faith with the best humanitarian principles.

Adequate compensation will, by removing anxiety and economic fear, both present and future, in itself help to achieve rehabilitation of the injured. From the outset they will be assured of retaining a reasonable enjoyment of life and a reasonable standard of living, despite even the most severe disability.

The commission's interests extend to co-operating with existing rehabilitation work, some of it of extremely high standards already, and to developing this concept to give the injured person the best possible treatment.

This concept extends to such matters as reducing the possibility of permanent disability; if there is disability, then to making the best possible use of what ability remains or can be inculcated by new training, further education, or other special help; re-establishing people in employment; modifying homes or workplaces to provide for incapacitated people; providing wheelchairs, or adapting a car to hand control so that transport to work will be available.

ACCIDENT COMPENSATION COMMISSION—To administer the Act the Accident Compensation Commission, comprising three persons, was appointed in December 1972.

The Accident Compensation Commission, based in Wellington, progressively built up its staff to a full strength of more than 130 by the time the system came into effect on 1 April 1974.

The commission has compensation, finance, administration, and safety divisions each headed by a director, a legal division under the control of the chief solicitor and a medical and rehabilitation division controlled by a qualified medical director.

35 B—INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS

GENERAL—Statistics of industrial injuries have become increasingly important with the widening mechanisation of industry and the growing labour force. They are basic material for programmes of industrial safety. The national bill for compensation payments is in the region of $9 million annually.

The system of statistical reporting of industrial injuries introduced from 1 January 1968 involves returns of compensable accidents being generally notified to the Department of Statistics shortly after the accident, while claim details are sent to the department later when settlement has been achieved. (Under the previous system which operated up to and including the 1966 year, both the accident and claim settlement details were forwarded at settlement date).

The statistics cover compensable accidents, which require that the injured worker is paid compensation for an absence from work of one day or longer. Considerable numbers of accidents involving reimbursement of medical expenses only, i.e., "no time lost" cases, are thus excluded from the statistics. The statistics exclude accidents to working proprietors and similar persons not insurable under the Workers Compensation Act 1956. This limits the scope of the statistics in the farming industry especially. Coverage does, however, extend to organisations exempt from insurance under the Act.

Claims resulting from the more serious accidents are frequently not settled for some considerable time after the occurrence of the accident, and a period is therefore allowed so that the bulk of such claims may be included in the statistics for the year in which the accidents occurred. From 1963 the closing date has been standardised at mid August of the following year. Even allowing this period of 7½ months, it is inevitable that any year's statistics will include a small proportion of long-delayed claims from previous years, but these late claims should be compensatory from year to year.

The Accident Compensation Commission, a unique new statutory body, has been set up to provide from 1 April 1974 far-reaching personal injury compensation cover for earners and self-employed persons for accidents both inside and outside working hours and all victims of road accidents. Non-earners (including housewives) have been included in the scheme under amending legislation. The commission is also charged with the promotion of general safety, with a view to preventing accidents and minimising injury, as well as responsibility for rehabilitation of the injured.

PRINCIPAL STATISTICS—The following table gives a summary of the principal statistics for compensable accidents. (See the report Industrial Injuries for further statistics.)

Item196819691970

*Adjustment according to age of worker, i.e. number of total days (9,263) of working-life expectancy remaining.

†For definition of rates see Industrial Injuries (Department of Statistics).

‡Including fatalities with claims not finalised, total for 1968 was 82, for 1969 78, and for 1970 88.

Number of accidents resulting in—
    Fatality676674
    Permanent total disability13311
    Permanent partial disability1,0049711,012
    Temporary disability59,40061,91266,734
Totals60,48462,95267,831
Item196819691970
Compensation paid (inch damages)—
    Total$(m)9.28.89.4
        Average per accident$151139139
Calendar days lost—
    Temporary disability only (000)..885.3934.4990.9
        Average days per accident..151515
    Total on constant basis* (000)..3,952.13,707.73,896.1
        Average days per accident..655957
    Total on actual basis (000)..3,749.03,704.03,888.0
        Average days per accident..625957
Frequency and severity rates
    Frequency rate..3.643.703.88
    Injury severity rate..1,4181,3071,333
    Economic severity rate..1,3491,3141,335

CLASSIFICATION BY INDUSTRY—In the following table industrial accidents during the year 1970 are classified by industrial groups.

IndustryAccidentsCalendar Days Lost (Constant Age Basis)Man-hours Worked During Year (Hundred Thousand)Frequency Rates (Accidents per 100,000 man-hours worked)Injury Severity Rate*Economic Severity Rate*

*Man-hours lost per 100,000 man-hours worked, ignoring age in the case of permanent disability and fatality. This rate gives a comparison between industries of the physical severity of injuries suffered in industrial accidents.

†Man-hours lost per 100,000 man-hours worked, allowing for age and sex in the case of permanent disability and fatality. This rate gives a comparison between industries of the economic severity of industrial accidents.

NOTE—Within any industry the two severity rates are not comparable.

Agriculture, forestry, hunting and fishing—
    Agriculture and livestock production5,502394,0711,446.963.801,9452,002
    Forestry65416,17392.717.05984946
    Logging1,002177,88255.9617.9120,20821,316
    Hunting, trapping, and game propagation7917,48229.532.683,5523,068
    Fishing18239,02356.883.204,9004,745
Totals7,419644,6311,682.044.412,6282,698
Mining and quarrying—
    Coal mining88022,21138.4722.872,8873,366
    Metal mining503,23113.623.671,5761,966
    Crude petroleum and natural gas34542
    Stone quarrying, clay and sand pits34949,23543.328.067,7129,137
    Non-metallic21236
Totals1,33475,45595.4113.984,8915,786
Manufacturing—
    Meat freezing and preserving7,773224,251545.2314.262,4092,228
    Other food3,426150,584429.627.972,0281,902
    Beverages4325,20081.635.29391431
    Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes311,04321.611.43272345
    Textiles1,05461,388295.403.571,1581,122
    Footwear, other wearing apparel and made-up textile goods61125,039505.611.21255260
    Sawmilling1,63472,751253.986.431,6981,432
    Other wood and cork (excluding furniture)1,03266,372120.158.593,3143,724
    Furniture and fixtures50726,695102.164.961,5122,007
    Paper and paper products70684,987177.613.982,8712,165
    Printing, publishing, and allied industries41225,623328.821.25434433
    Leather and leather products18513,18163.762.901,2111,394
    Rubber products34225,94896.313.551,5971,598
    Chemicals and chemical products69544,339169.544.101,494985
    Products of petroleum and coal6088818.683.21292321
    Non-metallic mineral products1,51872,110238.086.381,8611,818
    Basic metal industries55156,67092.945.933,6585,012
    Metal products (except machinery and transport equipment)2,127138,071259.068.213,1982,930
    Machinery (except electrical machinery)3,460133,347498.966.931,6031,734
    Electrical machinery, apparatus, appliances, and supplies86054,972194.984.411,6111,755
    Transport equipment3,097122,802876.673.538001,011
    Miscellaneous manufactures68469,294183.363.732,1602,288
Totals31,1971,475,5555,554.165.621,5561,559
Building and construction
Totals9,695681,7511,437.966.742,9802,975
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services—
    Electricity, gas, and steam1,32679,149262.155.061,7901,894
    Water and sanitary services55730,16852.6910.573,3942,998
Totals1,883109,317314.845.982,0582,078
Commerce—
    Wholesale and retail trade4,684251,5392,279.232.06568574
    Banks and other financial institutions20135294.160.0723
    Insurance168,069214.810.0719995
    Real estate61,94644.500.1322886
Totals4,726261,6892,832.701.67476471
Transport, storage, and communications—
    Loading and discharging vessels1,122159,635134.148.367,5656,539
    Other transport4,596195,1281,118.534.111,0591,192
    Storage and warehousing34416,57757.455.991,6691,987
    Communication1,08411,052585.411.85108119
Totals7,146382,3921,895.533.771,2441,263
Services—
    Government40620,089700.380.58154144
    Community and business2,00490,7092,322.100.86195162
    Recreational35568,424116.643.042,2212,008
    Personal1,65681,257550.613.01622463
Totals4,421260,4793,689.731.20315262
Industry not specified104,877
All industries67,8313,896,14617,502.373.881,3331,335

NATURE OF INJURIES—Industry groups by nature of injury are shown in the following table for 1970.

Nature of InjuryAgriculture, forestry, hunting and fishingMining and quarryingManufacturingBuilding and ConstructionElectricity, gas, water and sanitary servicesCommerceTransport, storage, and communicationServicesActivities not adequately describedTotals
Traumatic amputation or enucleation21395273764166
Fracture659671,4896129232150931714,067
Dislocation without fracture7521065011275226349
Sprain, strain2,0995969,1563,5248061,6973,0641,645122,588
Laceration, puncture or open wound2,51822110,7302,4984071,5511,243973120,142
Superficial injury (scratch, abrasion, etc)3231361,4264431231863091223,068
Bruise contusion5001532,8219571754171,05638026,461
Foreign body in eye or ear94541,3785095955286552,490
Burn, scald255421,900323901141353893,248
Injury to nerve or spinal cord14135125343
Internal injury not eye or ear51151216545
Multiple1022923812228114
Other865582,10572911534646550755,195
Totals7,4381,33531,2639,7121,8904,7367,1584,4341067,976

PERMANENT PHYSICAL DISABILITY—Where a permanent disability results from an accident, the percentage of disability is determined by, or assessed from, the First Schedule to the Workers' Compensation Act 1956.

The numbers of permanently disabling accidents according to the percentage of disability are shown in the following table.

Extent of Disability196819691970
Percent   
5188211216
6–10191190195
11–15182174178
201057596
25515063
30565754
40424552
50 and over189169158
Total disability13311
Totals1,0179741,023

The largest proportions of permanent total and permanent partial disabilities occurred in the agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing; manufacturing; building and construction; and transport, storage, and communication industries.

Industry GroupFatalityPermanent Disability—Claims Settled Cases
Reported CasesClaims Settled CasesTotal DisabilityPartial Disability
196819691970196819691970196819691970196819691970
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing21242714202212105107121
Mining and quarrying222221141112
Manufacturing19171118151044418456467
Building and construction141619111516323201153141
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services5185151151117
Commerce726615111765875
Transport, storage, and communication1211898631112119117
Services2412239605361
Activities not adequately described11331
Totals827893676674133111,0049711,012

INCAPACITY BEYOND 3 MONTHS—Those accidents in which weekly compensation was paid for more than 3 months' duration of incapacity are shown as follows.

Duration of IncapacityTemporary IncapacityOther
196819691970196819691970
*Excludes some of the longer-term absence cases for which claim settlements have not been received.
Over 3 months and up to 6 months755763785184173183
Over 6 months and up to 1 year200162170147116115
Over 1 year4040351589793
Totals995965990489*386*391*

The following table shows, for industrial divisions, the calendar days lost on an actual age bassi and the compensation and damages paid.

Industrial DivisionCalendar Days LostCompensation (Including Damages)
196819691970196819691970
    $(000)
Agriculture, forestry, hunting, and fishing493,891594,665661,6861,0901,1901,451
Mining and quarrying90,17764,75689,118237201227
Manufacturing1,500,8311,580,1471,478,3763,3633,5073,773
Building and construction722,821707,367680,6821,8221,6751,534
Electricity, gas, water, and sanitary services136,43364,857110,374250175256
Commerce226,384179,270259,064570507635
Transport, storage, and communication395,860361,079389,4711,200956941
Services175,290141,380216,583619516572
Activities not adequately described7,25110,3802,47114276
Totals3,748,9383,703,9013,887,8259,1668,7529,396

DURATION OF ABSENCE FROM WORK—Excluding fatalities and cases of permanent total disability, duration of absence from work is shown in the following table.

There were, however, more unsettled claims arising from accidents in 1969 and 1970 than there were for accidents in 1968, and the exclusion of these longer-term duration of absence cases affects, slightly, the longer-term absence group.

Duration of Absence196819691970196819691970
    Percent
1–2 days7,0027,0417,06911.611.210.4
3 days to 1 week20,58321,94324,14334.134.835.6
8 days to 2 weeks15,62516,48317,75025.826.226.2
Over 2 weeks17,19417,41618,78428.527.827.7

AGE GROUPS—Accidents by age groups are shown in the following table.

Age Group (Years)Accidents*Percentage of Accidents for each SexPercentage of Total Wage or Salary Earners 1966 Census
196819691970196819691970
*Excludes 3,348, 3,480, and 3,898 accidents in 1968, 1969, and 1970 respectively where age not stated.
 Males
Under 2110,00910,81111,80519.0719.9020.3215.66
21–247,5238,0538,75714.3314.8315.0810.89
25–3412,55312,55513,54323.9123.1123.3221.64
35–449,94310,07810,31118.9418.5517.7520.60
45–547,4737,6818,17514.2414.1414.0716.87
55–644,3674,4964,7348.328.288.1511.27
65 and over6276497591.191.191.312.62
Totals52,49554,32358,084100.00100.00100.00100.00
 Females
Under 211,3591,5011,56128.3527.8426.0433.05
21–2457763775612.0411.8112.6112.85
25–3463278891013.1914.6115.1812.94
35–448579991,16317.8818.5319.4016.11
45–549229501,10219.2417.6218.3915.85
55–643934654448.208.627.417.69
65 and over5352581.100.970.971.51
Totals4,7935,3925,994100.00100.00100.00100.00

TIME OF ACCIDENT—Times of accidents are shown in the following table.

Time of Accident196819691970
11.30 p.m. to 7.29 a.m.2,0512,1342,447
7.30 a.m. to 8.29 a.m.2,9133,0553,533
8.30 a.m. to 9.29 a.m.5,9616,1686,855
9.30 a.m. to 10.29 a.m.7,1887,3347,935
10.30 a.m. to 11.29 a.m.7,4847,9358,678
11.30 a.m. to 12.29 p.m.4,4754,8434,852
12.30 p.m. to 1.29 p.m.2,9152,9943,249
1.30 p.m. to 2.29 p.m.6,0526,2256,653
2.30 p.m. to 3.29 p.m.6,2816,3856,703
3.30 p.m. to 4.29 p.m.5,6955,6916,037
4.30 p.m. to 5.29 p.m.2,8082,9683,099
5.30 p.m. to 6.29 p.m.9139831,131
6.30 p.m. to 11.29 p.m.1,9782,1852,180
Not stated or not applicable3,9224,2954,624
Totals60,63663,19567,976

Type of Accident, Source of Injury and Agency of Accident—Analyses of accidents by type, source and agency are now covered.

The definitions of the three characteristics are as follows.

Type of Accident—Occurrences as falls, stepping on, striking against, or being struck by objects, over-exertion, or strenuous movements.

Source of Injury—The source of injury covers the object that inflicted the injury on the worker, e.g., the ground when someone falls from a ladder.

Agency of Accident—The direct cause of the accident, e.g., if a workman strikes his finger with a hammer then the hammer is both the source of injury and the agency of the accident. However, in the instance of an impact with a surface following a fall, e.g., floor, then the floor would be taken as the source of the injury but not the agency. The agency would be a slipping ladder or some such other cause.

Agencies of accidents are analysed in the next table.

Agency of Accident196819691970
Machines—
    Prime movers and pumps (excluding electric motors) and transmission machinery230154218
    Metal-working machines1,8481,6812,313
    Woolworking machines1,2161,0731,433
    Other machines2,3472,0872,612
Means of transport and lifting equipment—
    Lifting machines and appliances795548708
    Means of transport3,5133,1153,588
Other equipment—   
    Tools, implements, and appliances including electric hand tools7,9897,6068,537
    Other equipment1,7081,9492,046
Materials, substances, and radiations—
    Objects stepped on, struck against, or being handled18,49920,79821,928
    Other materials, substances, and radiations7,7069,8419,904
Working environment and other agencies14,78514,34314,689
Totals60,63663,19567,976

The following table analyses the types of accidents.

Type of Accident195819691970
Falls of persons12,68813,17813,430
Struck by falling objects4,7354,7784,986
Stepping on, striking against, or struck by objects (excluding falling objects)15,70616,27317,407
Caught in or between objects6,0286,5017,230
Overexertion or strenuous movements10,36111,40812,596
Exposure to or contact with extreme temperatures1,8461,9062,133
Exposure to or contact with electricity456495607
Exposure to or contact with other harmful materials, substances, or radiations4,0254,2774,574
Other types of accident4,7914,3795,013
Totals60,63663,19567,976

In the next table sources of injury are analysed.

Source of Injury196819691970
Machines—
    Prime movers and pumps (excluding electric motors) and transmission machinery202144206
    Metal-working machines588605772
    Wood-working machines1,0811,0001,267
    Other machines1,8831,7962,133
Means of transport and lifting equipment—
    Lifting machines and appliances378308347
    Means of transport1,6301,4741,651
Other equipment—
    Tools, implements, and appliances including electric hand tools6,9186,9307,557
    Other equipment1909864
Materials, substances, and radiations—
    Objects stepped on, struck against, or being handled19,25421,05222,536
    Other materials, substances, and radiations10,86511,92413,052
Working environment and other sources17,64717,86418,391
Totals60,63663,19567,976

35 C—FARM ACCIDENTS

GENERAL—In the preceding section on industrial injuries the statistics include farm employees but not self-employed farmers. There are 67,000 farmers apart from nearly 50,000 general farm workers.

The high degree of mechanisation on the 60,000 farm holdings of 4 hectares or more is responsible in large part for the high output per unit of labour engaged in farm production; but it has been responsible too for an increase in the hazards associated with rural work. Nearly 6,000 threshing machines, 19,000 wool presses, 30,000 internal combustion engines, 120,000 electric motors, 97,000 agricultural tractors, 25,000 milking plants, 73,000 shearing stands, as well as farm trucks, cultivating and harvesting implements, and other farm equipment and installations have taken a high annual toll La accidents and deaths, especially in recent years when there has been rapid growth in the use of heavy machinery, both for normal farm activities and for bringing new land into production.

The increasing use of chemicals in agriculture for weed control, and as pesticides and therapeutants, has added to the hazards to which those engaged in the agricultural industry are subjected. The Department of Agriculture undertakes educational activities to endeavour to reduce the accident rates.

Tables in this section present information compiled by the National Health Statistics Centre of the Department of Health on farm accidents and deaths sustained by farmers and their employees. The statistics relate to actual farm work, that is, they exclude domestic accidents or accidents in farm homes.

Accidents on Farms—The following table shows the number of patients discharged from, or dying in, public hospitals in 1971 after treatment for injuries sustained in farm accidents (excluding motor vehicle accidents).

Cause of AccidentsAge of Patients (in Years)Total Patients
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
Farm machinery7098109738358
Falls1789170529400
Animals232650298136
Accidental poisoning9813838
Firearms5101117
Fires or explosions15219
Hot substances, corrosive liquids, or steam171881254
Blow from falling or projected objects182425524123
Cutting or piercing instruments83849281124
Other and unspecified farm mishaps2338664713187
Totals, 1971352356393302431,446

Deaths from Accidents on Farms—Causes of deaths from accidents on farms are shown in the following table. Injured persons who died after admission to a public hospital are also included in the preceding table, (Motor vehicle accidents on a farm are included.)

Cause of Fatal AccidentAge of Deceased (in Years)Total Deaths
0–1415–2425–4445–6465 and Over
197019711970197119701971197019711970197119701971
Tractors436756512152133
Electric current122142
Falls12214
Firearms21214121104
Blow from falling or projected object12122
Drowning or submersion84211115
Other and unspecified1423111168
Totals16149121781017375558

35 D—OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY

GENERAL—The legislation on occupational safety is principally contained in the following statutes (and the regulations made under them):

The Factories Act 1946, sections 44 to 79; the Machinery Act 1950; the Bush Workers Act 1945; the Construction Act 1959; the Shops and Offices Act 1955, First Schedule; the Accident Compensation Act 1972; the Coal Mines Act 1925; the Mining Act 1926; the Explosives Act 1957; the Dangerous Goods Act 1957; the Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950; the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952; the Quarries Act 1944; the Health Act 1956 so far as it relates to occupational health (see Section 5A).

Government departments and other organisations concerned with the administration of the Acts, or who have responsibilities for occupational accident prevention, have the scope of their work summarised in the following pages, and legislative requirements are also covered.

Department of Labour—This department has the largest overall responsibility for the prevention of accidents in industry. The principal statutes it administers are: the Factories Act 1946, of which a large section is concerned with safety, health, and welfare in factories; the Construction Act 1959, which completely covers safety, health, and welfare of workmen on works of building and engineering construction; and the Machinery Act 1950, which is concerned with the inspection of all machinery (with some exceptions covered by other legislation) in work places and the safety of persons working with such machinery. The department also administers regulations under these Acts, and other statutes dealing with specific spheres of occupational safety, health, and welfare—the Bush Workers Act 1945 and the Shops and Offices Act 1955. In addition, the department supervises more than 750 awards and industrial agreements, many of which include specific safety, health, and welfare provisions relating to particular occupations and processes.

The administration of this safety legislation is based primarily on regular inspection of work places and requisitioning for improvements, together with investigation of reported breaches of legislation by employers and workers and investigation of a large number of accidents including serious and fatal accidents in industries coming within the scope of the legislation. Special attention is given to dangerous machinery. The department employs some 130 inspectors of factories (including 8 who specialise in bush undertakings), together with some 41 safety inspectors appointed under the Construction Act 1959, all of whom are qualified by special examination. Their work is substantially preventive.

The Department of Labour also engages in a large amount of occupational safety education. It collaborates with the Department of Education and with teachers training colleges and technical institutes in the instruction of technical teachers in occupational safety and in the safety training of apprentices and senior school pupils. It also participates in the substantial number of safety courses for all levels of industry conducted by the National Safety Association. Further, every 2 months it issues occupational safety posters to industry and publishes a range of safety booklets, pamphlets, warning notices, and other printed publicity. Its library of occupational safety films, which is widely used by industry, Government departments, trade unions, industrial organisations, etc., is believed to be the largest specialised film library of its kind in the world. The department produces industrial safety displays and exhibits (it has its own specially fitted exhibition van by means of which the displays are taken on tour regularly through selected areas of the country) used in the education and instruction of apprentices, school children, workers, employers, and the general public. The department also publishes the Labour and Employment Gazette, a quarterly industrial periodical which includes a substantial amount of material relating to occupational safety.

In Wellington the department has a Safety Centre consisting of a lecture room and a large display and demonstration area. The centre is used for courses for field staff and departmental officers and is also available to teachers, trade and industry groups, other Government departments and so on.

The department co-operates with all other bodies working in this and related fields and seeks specialist advice from time to time from such other departments as Health, Transport, Internal Affairs, Forestry, Mines, Railways, Works and Development, Electricity, Agriculture and Fisheries, and Scientific and Industrial Research, and collaborates with them in matters of mutual concern.

A joint Committee on Occupational Health and Safety Education of the Departments of Labour and Health ensures that the educational work of these departments in this field is co-ordinated and wherever responsibility is shared that it is undertaken jointly.

Machinery Act—The Machinery Act 1950, with certain exceptions, applies to all machinery and places an obligation on the owners of machines to securely fence moving and dangerous parts. The exceptions include ships' machinery, aircraft, boilers, lifts, and cranes. The Act provides for inspection of machinery and the investigation of accidents by inspectors who are officers of the Department of Labour. Penalties are prescribed for failure to comply with the requirements of the Act including failure to use any machine guard that has been provided for securing safety.

The Act has been extended to include amusement devices, which require a certificate from a registered engineer that the device is mechanically and structurally safe for the purpose intended. Another amendment to the Act requires the testing and certification of tractor safety frames used in agricultural pursuits. Regulations which came into force on 1 June 1967 provide that all safety frames which are fitted to tractors after that date shall have been tested and bear a certificate number. Provision was made for the compulsory fitting of safety frames on all new wheeled tractors within the weight range of 15 cwt to 4 ton used for agricultural purposes, sold or let on hire after 1 September 1970.

Construction Act—The Construction Act 1959 is an Act to promote the safety and welfare of persons engaged in construction work. Construction work covers a wide variety of work including new construction, maintenance and demolition of buildings, roads, harbour works, railways, canals, bridges, dams, pipelines, earthworks, etc. Under the Act construction safety may be enforced on, in, or about coal mines, other mines, and petroleum drilling operations; certain works which normally would be under the Quarries Act for safety may be classed as construction works under the Construction Act.

An advisory committee, with the chief safety engineer as chairman and comprising representatives of workers and employers from all sectors of the construction industry, meets as required to advise on all facets of safety in the industry.

The Construction Regulations made under the Act include notifiable work, requirements for health and welfare, general safety standards, scaffolding, excavation, powder-powered tools, safety supervisors, safe blasting, certificates of competency, ladders, gas supply safety, underwater work, and work with compressed air. Certificates of competency are currently being issued after examination for scaffolders, safety supervisors, and construction blasters. Courses of instruction are also given to scaffolders, safety supervisors, and construction blasters. The regulations are amplified by various guides and codes of safe practices.

Bush Workers Act—The Bush Workers Act 1945, as amended by the Bush Workers Amendment Act 1967, makes provision for the safety and protection of workers engaged in any tree felling or logging undertaking or felling trees for land clearance, including persons working on their own account or under a contract of service. It is an offence under the Act to carry out any unsafe work method which is likely to endanger any person working in the bush. Inspectors appointed under the Act have the authority to insist on the wearing of protective equipment such as safety helmets, gloves, goggles, etc. The Act binds the Crown.

Ministry of TransportSafety of Ships—A substantial portion of the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 is concerned with the safety of ships and those who sail in them. This Act contains the necessary authority for implementing the provisions of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea 1960 and the International Load Line Convention 1930, to both of which New Zealand is a signatory. Both conventions deal principally with ships engaged on international voyages, but the Shipping and Seamen Act 1952 also contains provisions concerning the safety of all other ships plying in and about New Zealand coastal waters.

With the exception of certain fishing boats, pleasure yachts not exceeding 50 tons register, missionary ships, and certain small vessels engaged in carrying agricultural or pastoral produce, the hull, machinery, and equipment of every New Zealand ship are required to be surveyed once in every 12 months by a Surveyor of Ships of the Marine Division of the Ministry of Transport. A certificate of survey sets out the limits in which the vessel may ply, the number of passengers and/or crew she may carry, and the lifesaving appliances to be carried.

Port Safety—All cargo gear used in working cargo must comply with the requirements of the General Harbour (Safe Working Loads) Regulations. Cargo gear is tested and inspected by officers of the Ministry of Transport.

Aircraft—The Ministry of Transport is responsible for the safety of aircraft and crews engaged in private and commercial carriage of the public and commercial carriage of goods, including agricultural aviation. The Ministry lays down standards of aircraft construction and maintenance by means of Civil Airworthiness Requirements and by regulation controls the standards of crew competence and physical fitness.

Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes—The Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950 is designed to promote the safety of life and limb in the operation of steam boilers, digesters, other steam-pressure vessels, and air receivers; hydraulic, electric, and other lifts; all types of power-driven cranes.

All boilers and power cranes are inspected and certificated once per year and lifts twice per year. In the calendar year 1972 there were 21,860 inspections of boilers, 5,624 inspections of lifts, and 3,997 inspections of cranes.

Mines Department—The Mining Act 1971 and the Quarries Act 1944 make provision for the safety of persons working in mines (both undergound and opencast) and in quarries. The definition of a quarry covers the construction of electric power generation works, dams for public water supply, tunnels, and opencast coal quarries.

New Zealand Electricity Department—In addition to its major role of supplying bulk power, the New Zealand Electricity Department, amongst other things, administers the Electricity Act 1945, the Electricity Supply Regulations, the Electrical Wiring Regulations, the Electricians Act 1952, the Electric Linemen Act 1959, and the Gas Industry Act 1958.

The Electrical Wiring Regulations set out minimum requirements for electrical installations, apparatus, and appliances used on consumers' premises. It is the responsibility of Electrical Supply Authorities to inspect such installations to see that they comply with the Wiring Regulations, which are designed to promote safety to life and property. The Handbook to the Electrical Wiring Regulations incorporates explanatory notes and diagrams.

Department of Internal Affairs—The Department of Internal Affairs, through its Explosives Branch, administers legislation which has as its purpose the protection of life and property from the hazards associated with the handling, storage, transport, manufacture, and use of explosives and dangerous goods.

Explosives—The empowering legislation is the Explosives Act 1957. The regulations in force are the Explosives Regulations 1959, and the Explosives Authorisation Order 1959 lists the explosives which may be imported into or manufactured in New Zealand. The explosives legislation is concerned solely with explosives proper, such as blasting powder, gelignite, and detonators which are used in blasting operations, explosive compositions used in ammunition or fireworks, and also ammunition and fireworks in their final manufactured form.

Dangerous Goods—The relevant legislation is the Dangerous Goods Act 1957 and the Dangerous Goods Regulations 1958. Substances controlled under the heading of dangerous goods embrace a wide range of inflammable materials, such as petrol, kerosene, fuel oil, calcium carbide, white phosphorus, ammonium nitrate, the chlorates of sodium, potassium, and calcium, compressed gases, and liquefied petroleum gas.

State Services Commission—The Commission watches statistics and trends and directs special attention to causes and localities with a high incidence of accidents. It encourages departments to campaign for safety, and offers active assistance where needed. Also, on behalf of its associated departments, the commission is a member of the National Safety Association of New Zealand.

Ministry of Works and Development—On each major construction project the Ministry of Works and Development appoints a senior technical officer to act in the capacity of safety officer. He is invariably an officer with considerable practical knowledge and experience of departmental construction works. It is his duty to see that every section of the work is safeguarded to the maximum extent.

Safety requirements prescribed in various Government Acts and regulations play a major part in safety promotion on construction works. The safety officer is required to have a sound working knowledge of these requirements. In addition, he is sent on training courses conducted periodically by the National Safety Association of New Zealand.

In the main it is the department's foremen and overseers who can play the most important part in accident prevention on the job. These supervisors are in direct control of the day-to-day work, and by instructing their workers in the use of correct, efficient, and safe working methods, can prevent accidents.

National Safety Association of New Zealand (Inc.)—This organisation comprises member firms interested in promoting occupational safety, and is controlled by an elected executive functioning through specialist committees, five branch committees, and a small headquarters staff, together with a number of field officers. It seeks to stimulate firms and organisations in taking all possible measures to reduce accidents in their own establishments, and especially in establishing their own internal safety organisations, full-time or part-time safety officers, and where possible joint management-worker safely committees. The association also issues safety education material, undertakes general safety instruction and supervisor training within firms through its field staff, and organises periodical courses for farm safety officers and industrial safety officers. Its field of interest is substantially limited to occupational safety.

Industrial Health Centres—The Department of Health provides industrial health centres at strategic points. The following table shows attendances at industrial health centres and waterfront clinics in 1972.

CentreAttendances in 1972Total
FirstReattendance
*Operated chiefly in connection with the Hearing Conservation Programme.
New Lynn1,6612,9344,595
Mount Wellington2,2731,8604,133
Penrose6,7856,76713,552
Queen's Wharf4,8767,03711,913
Rosebank Road, Auckland1,2301,1932,423
Wairakei*35342377
Mount Maunganui1,0697771,846
Petone1,0041,1602,164
Glasgow Wharf, Wellington2,7387573,495
Woolston7483161,064
Lyttelton1,1883851,573
Hornby25661317
Dunedin Foreshore6194941,113
Totals 197224,48224,08348,565
(Totals 1971)(24,837)(22,498)(47,335)

Chapter 38. Section 36; OVERSEAS TERRITORIES AND THE COOK ISLANDS

GENERAL—New Zealand is responsible for Niue, the Tokelau Islands, and the Ross Dependency, also for the defence and international relations of the Cook Islands.

Self-governing Territory—The 15 Cook Islands achieved a status of self-government in free association with New Zealand in 1965. The Cook Islands were proclaimed a British Protectorate in 1888, and in 1901 they were annexed and proclaimed part of New Zealand under the Colonial Boundaries Act 1895.

Territory Which is Mainly Self-governing—Niue, which was also brought within the boundaries of New Zealand in 1901, is at a stage of achieving internal self-government. Constitutional changes are being negotiated between the Niue Legislative Assembly and the New Zealand Government.

Non-self-governing Territory—The Tokelau Islands became a legal part of New Zealand in 1949. The group had formerly been part of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, although New Zealand had administered it on behalf of Britain since 1925.

Reports on progress in both Niue and the Tokelau Islands are forwarded annually to the United Nations.

Administered Territory—New Zealand administers the Ross Dependency. The Ross Dependency has been inhabited for some years by parties of persons maintaining the permanent scientific bases.

The Minister of Island Affairs is charged with the administration of Niue and the Tokelau Islands and in terms of the Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964 he has also been designated as the Minister charged with handling Cook Islands affairs in so far as they affect New Zealand.

The South Pacific Commission is an advisory and consultative body comprising the governments of Britain, Australia, New Zealand, France, the United States, Western Samoa, Nauru, and Fiji. The functions of the commission are to recommend to the member Governments means for promoting the social, economic, and medical welfare of the peoples in the region, and to this end several programmes are in effect. The South Pacific Health Service advises member Governments on health matters, collects and distributes epidemiological information, assists in the maintenance of professional staffs, and encourages medical research and the training of indigenous people as assistant medical practitioners and nurses.

The Department of Maori and Island Affairs administers a training scheme under which selected students from the Cook, Niue, and Tokelau Islands receive education and vocational training in New Zealand, Fiji, Western Samoa, and elsewhere. The Department of Education's Officer for Maori and Islands Education advises the department of educational policy matters, and assists with the appointment of New Zealand teachers on secondment, the publication of school journals and textbooks in the vernacular of the different groups, and the supply of modern teaching equipment.

By arrangement between the Governments of Fiji and New Zealand, young Cock Islanders, Niueans, and Tokelau Islanders receive training at the Fiji School of Medicine and the Central Nursing School in Suva to equip them for duty in their own territories as medical officers, assistant dental officers, pharmacy and laboratory assistants, and assistant health inspectors. Students receive diploma level instruction in tropical agriculture in Western Samoa and Fiji.

People migrate from the Pacific islands to New Zealand to seek employment opportunities.

At the 1971 Census of Population there were 11,523 Cook Island Maoris in New Zealand compared with 8,663 in 1966 and 4,499 in 1961. Likewise in 1971 there were 5,459 Niueans and Tokelauans in New Zealand compared with 2,846 in 1966 and 1,728 in 1961.

An indication of the immigration from the Pacific islands during the first flush of migration is reflected in the statistics of birthplace. At the 1966 Census 67.39 percent of the Cook Island Maoris resident in New Zealand were born in the Cook Islands. In recent years the migration rates have decreased slightly and relatively more persons, particularly children, will have been born in New Zealand.

The high fertility rates result in the total population in the islands being maintained despite emigration, but proportions in the working age groups are affected.

COOK ISLANDS: Descriptive—There are 15 islands in the Cook Group, scattered over an area of some 850,000 square miles of ocean, and extending from Penrhyn, situated 9° south of the equator, to Mangaia, which is just north of the Tropic of Capricorn. The Cook Islands are bounded on the east and west by the 156th and 167th meridians of west longitude respectively, and on the north and south by the 8th and 23rd parallels of south latitude. The total land area of the 15 islands is approximately 93 square miles.

Of the islands of the Southern Group, Rarotonga, Aitutaki, Atiu, Mitiaro, Mauke, and Mangaia are elevated and fertile, while Manuae and Takutea and the islands of the Northern Group, comprising Penrhyn, Manihiki, Rakahanga, Pukapuka, Palmerston, Nassau, and Suwarrow, are sea-level coral atolls. As a consequence the southern islands support the greater population. The Northern Group island of Penryhn possesses a good harbour while Avatiu harbour in Rarotonga can accommodate vessels of approximately 1,000 tons.

All of the Cook Islands lie within the hurricane zone, and a number of destructive storms have been experienced. The Cook Islands are covered by a meteorological service with headquarters in Fiji, and advance warning of the intensity and path of tropical storms is available and enables precautions to be taken to protect life and property. From December to March the climate is warm and humid, and there is always the possibility of serious storms. In the remaining months of the year the climate of the Southern Group is mild and equable. The mean annual temperature in Rarotonga taken over the last 40 years was 23.6°C, and the average yearly rainfall over the same period was 213.4 cm.

Administration: Executive Government—The Executive Government of the Cook Islands is vested in the Crown in the right of New Zealand. The Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964 provides for the appointment by the Governor-General of a High Commissioner of the Cook. Islands as the representative of Her Majesty the Queen in the Cook Islands, and also as the representative of the Government of New Zealand.

Executive Government lies with a Cabinet of Ministers comprising the Premier of the Cook Islands and six other Ministers. The Premier is appointed by the High Commissioner as the member of the Assembly commanding the confidence of the majority of members in the Assembly, and the other Ministers are appointed by the High Commissioner on the advice of the Premier. An Executive Council of the Cook Islands, consisting of the High Commissioner of the Cook Islands and the members of Cabinet, may be summoned by the High Commissioner or the Premier to consider any Cabinet decision, and has power to ask Cabinet to reconsider its decisions. If Cabinet, after reconsideration, reaffirms its original decision, this decision is forthwith put into operation.

The departments of the Cook Islands Government are structured in the following Ministries: Financial Services, Economic Services, Social Services, Supportive Services, Outer Island Affairs, Justice and Land Development. The Premier is responsible for the Police Department and the Public Service Commission.

The House of Ariki—The House of Ariki of the Cook Islands consists of up to 15 Ariki, representing all islands in the group, and is required to meet at least once every 12 months. The House considers any matters relative to the welfare of the people of the Cook Islands which may be submitted to it for consideration by the Legislative Assembly and has such other functions as may be prescribed by law.

Island Councils—Island councils exist in each of the main islands of the Cook Islands and have done so for many years. All island councils were reconstituted by the Local Government Act 1966, the major effect of which was to provide that the chairman was to be elected from among the councils' members. Previously the Resident Agent (except on Rarotonga) was Chairman ex officio. The Resident Agents are still members ex officio, but without vote, and their primary function is of advisers.

The councils meet regularly and are empowered to make bylaws for the imposition of tolls, rates, taxes, and other charges (except customs duties); to regulate, control, or prohibit many activities; and to carry out various works and services on each island.

The Local Government Act is administered by the Minister of Internal Affairs.

Legislative Government—The Legislative Assembly of the Cook Islands, as constituted by the Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964 consists of 22 members, all elected by secret ballot under a system of universal suffrage by the electors of the following islands: three members from Aitutaki and Manuae; two members each from Atiu and Mangaia; one member each from Manihiki, Mauke, Mitiaro, Penrhyn, and Rakahanga; one member from Pukapuka and Nassau; nine members from Rarotonga and Palmerston.

General elections are normally held at four-yearly intervals, the latest being held in April 1972. There is a common roll for both Maoris and non-Maoris. The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly is elected by members from persons within or without the Assembly.

The Legislative Assembly may make Acts for the peace, order, and good government of the Cook Islands. (These powers extend to the making of laws having extra-territorial operation.) The responsibilities of the Crown in right of New Zealand for the external affairs and defence of the Cook Islands are discharged after consultation by the Prime Minister of New Zealand with the Premier of the Cook Islands.

The Constitution of the Cook Islands is the supreme law of the Cook Islands and the Legislative Assembly alone has power to amend or repeal it. Such repeal or amendment, however, can only be made by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the Assembly followed by an interval of not less than 90 days.

By virtue of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948, Cook Islanders remain British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

Population and Vital Statistics—The Cook Islands Maori is Polynesian and has a common ethnic origin with the New Zealand Maori. There is a strong resemblance between the two peoples in tradition, language, and custom. Many of the tribes in both places are able to trace their descent back to a common ancestor.

A census of the Cook Islands taken on 1 December 1971, recorded a total population of 21,317, an increase of 2,070 or 10.75 percent as compared with the Census of 1 September 1966. Details of population of the islands of the group as at 1 December 1971 are set out in the following table.

IslandMalesFemalesTotal
Rarotonga5,8945,53911,433
Aitutaki1,4431,4122,855
Mangaia1,0331,0472,080
Atiu7606951,455
Mauke368395763
Mitiaro172159331
Manuae22
Palmerston333972
Pukapuka373381754
Nassau9672168
Manihiki239213452
Rakahanga167172339
Penrhyn329283612
Suwarrow11
Totals10,91010,40721,317

During the year ended 31 December 1972 births numbered 703 and deaths 104. The number of deaths of children under one year of age was 24, which represents a mortality rare of 34.14 per 1,000 live births. Marriages totalled 94 in 1972 compared with 128 in 1971.

Cook Islanders go to New Zealand to seek employment or learn trade skills.

Migration movement is shown in the following table.

NationalityArrivalsDepartures
1971197219711972
American108928881
Australian48694466
British (United Kingdom and Ireland)9610072137
Cook Islands, Maori9891,0331,2241,872
French, including Tahitians7618381181
Dutch78108
New Zealand, including New Zealand Maori759640681782
Other6011151108
Totals2,1432,2362,2513,235

Health—All Cook Islanders receive free medical and surgical treatment. School and pre-school children also receive free dental treatment.

Although lying with in the tropics, the Cook Islands are singularly free from the common diseases prevalent in other tropical islands. Malaria is unknown, but filariasis is endemic, and this provides the main health problem of the group.

A general hospital equipped with dispensary, X-rays, and laboratory facilities, is maintained in Rarotonga. In the outer islands dispensaries with accommodation for a few patients are operated by assistant medical practitioners. Cottage hospitals have been built at Aitutaki, Atiu, Mauke, Penrhyn, Manihiki, Pukapuka, and Mangaia.

Education—Primary education in the Cook Islands is provided by the Government, the Roman Catholic Mission, and the Seventh Day Adventist Mission. The Government also provides secondary education.

Education is free, compulsory and secular from the time of a child's sixth birthday to his fifteenth birthday. At 31 March 1973 the total number of pupils on the rolls was 7,094, comprising 6,646 pupils at Government schools and 448 at denominational schools. At the same date 75 students and trainees were receiving education or vocational training under the New Zealand Training Scheme.

Labour and Employment—On the atolls in the Northern Group the people subsist largely on coconuts and fish, and apart from making copra, there is little opportunity for them to engage in other economic pursuits. It is in the fertile islands of the Southern Group that most of the population is concentrated, and labour is required for the growing, harvesting, packing, and shipment of fruit. As most of the land in these islands is held by family groups under customary title, many of the people are engaged in work on their own plantations. There is, however, opportunity for wage and salary earners in Government departments, in plantation work, in the handling of fruit for export, and in commerce.

In Rarotonga secondary industries have been established in the form of two clothing factories a fruit cannery, and factories manufacturing local artifacts. Products from these industries are exported to the New Zealand market.

Agriculture—Fresh fruit exports are now almost limited to bananas and mandarins, but canned pineapple and fruit juices processed locally have become major exports. The following are the estimated areas planted in the principal crops: coconuts, 14,200 acres; citrus fruits, 1,477 acres; taro, 238 acres; bananas, 482 acres; tomatoes, 27 acres; pineapples, 367 acres; maniota, 310 acres; kumaras, 151 acres; yams, 6 acres; coffee, 15 acres.

Transport and Communications—The New Zealand Shipping Corporation operates fortnightly shipping services between the Cook Islands and New Zealand ports.

An international airport was opened for full international services in December 1973.

Radio communication has largely removed the former isolation of the islands, there being now no permanently inhabited island without a radio station. The chief station is Rarotonga Radio, which maintains direct communication with the substations and with Wellington, Apia, and Suva. Postal and telegraph services are available in all the islands. There is a telephone service in Rarotonga and smaller services operate on Aitutaki and Mangaia.

Trade—A summary of exports by country of destination and imports by country of origin over a period of five years is contained in the next table.

Country19661967196819691970
 Imports $(000)
New Zealand2,3082,0322,7462,1874,397
Australia150191120209213
United Kingdom194229141245213
Canada2015191722
United States6247272653
Japan and Hong Kong306233226297478
Other156244100420390
Totals3,1962,9913,3793,4015,766
 Exports $(000)
New Zealand1,7261,7581,9042,2672,641
Australia11011
United States2
United Kingdom6
Other12191711239
Totals1,7401,7771,9222,3952,691

There is free trade between the Cook Islands and New Zealand. Import licences are required for goods imported from countries other than New Zealand.

Details of the quantities and values of the principal commodities exported are shown below.

CommodityUnitQuantityValue $(000)
197019711972197019711972
*Includes 10,780 gallons of other canned fruit.
Bananascases75,293125,60736,191277433104
Copracwt22,79820,89015,24020615884
Fruit juice—
    Pineapplegals261,328106,996145,647258105164
    Citrusgals557,606383,608383,157699501626
    Othergals55,19419,10640,129672356
Canned pineapplegals160,56955,770*170,26424690176
Fruit pulpgals72,70084,88184,8577710792
Pearl shellcwt8319832352714
Orangescases45,76821,7361,902133635
Mandarinscases35,32919,04014,001784734

Foodstuffs continue to be the largest class of import; the values of major imports are set out in the following table.

Commodity196819691970
 $$$
Foodstuffs927,352816,5021,360,000
Drapery and piece goods617,439335,336512,236
Oils and petrol, etc.67,364335,758275,067
Tobacco and cigarettes75,26191,152..
Vehicles and parts177,141144,126500,000
Timber and cement158,756127,383137,438

Public Finance—New Zealand currency is in use in the Group. For the calendar year 1971 revenue items were: import duties, $403,530; income and welfare tax, $566,230; export produce tax, $14,610; sales tax, $103,700; and stamp sales (overseas), $70,970.

The New Zealand Government has continued to give financial aid to the Cook Islands Government through grants for social services and ordinary administrative expenditure plus grants and loans for capital works and economic development. The level of aid is reviewed triennially. The amount of aid approved for the triennium 1971–74 is $7,450,000.

A comparative statement of receipts and expenditure is now given.

YearAid from New ZealandReceipts from Cook IslandsExpenditure

*9 months to December 1970.

†Year to March 1971.

 $(000)$(000)$(000)
1967–681,8691,8173,686
1968–692,0621,5593,619
1969–702,375779*3,006*
1,9702,3751,9174,618
1,9712,9431,7024,695

The principal items of expenditure are education, health services, and capital works.

National Income—Gross domestic product at producer prices for 1970 has been estimated at $8,300,000 made up as follows: Agriculture (including processing), $1,991,000; manufacturing, $907,000; construction, $764,000; wholesale and retail trade and restaurants, $1,136,000; transport, storage and communications, $599,000; public administration, community, social and personal services, $2,262,000; other items, $641,000.

NIUE: Descriptive—Niue Island, discovered by Captain Cook in 1774, became part of New Zealand in 1901, when the boundaries of New Zealand were extended to include the Cook Islands. The island is situated in latitude 19° 02′ south and longitude 169° 52′ west, approximately 300 miles east of Tonga, 350 miles south east of Samoa, and 580 miles west of Rarotonga. The island, which has an area of 64,028 acres, is an elevated coral outcrop with a coral reef fringing a precipitous and broken coastline. The central saucer-shaped plateau, rising to a height of 220 ft, is encircled by a narrow terrace about 90 ft above sea level. The soil, though fertile, is not plentiful, and this feature, combined with the rocky and broken nature of the country, makes cultivation difficult. The climate is mild and equable, but the island is in the hurricane belt. The mean annual temperature is 24.7°C, and the average rainfall is 217.7 cm.

Administration—The Niue Island Assembly meets regularly and consists of 14 members elected by universal suffrage and representing all villages on the island. The Executive Committee has four members, one of whom acts as Leader of Government Business.

Laws are made by Act of the New Zealand Parliament, or regulations issued thereunder, or by ordinances passed by the Assembly.

Legislation has been introduced into the New Zealand Parliament providing for self-government by the people of Niue and allowing for a continued association with New Zealand and a common citizenship. New Zealand would continue to provide necessary economic and administrative assistance and be responsible for external affairs and defence.

Population and Vital Statistics—Niueans are Polynesians with close ethnic ties with the Tongans and Samoans. The language is a Polynesian dialect peculiar to the island, but closely related to that of Tonga and Samoa, with some elements from eastern Polynesia.

The population census at 28 September 1971 was 4,990 comprising 2,507 males and 2,483 females.

The inhabitants are distributed amongst 12 villages, of which Aloft is the largest. Niueans are British subjects and New Zealand citizens. A number of Niueans migrate to New Zealand each year.

For the calendar year 1972, births totalled 154 and deaths 51. There were 3 deaths of children under one year of age, the infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births being 19.59.

Age groups are shown in the following table from the 1971 census.

Age Group in YearsPersons
0–4M463
 F420
5–9M458
 F436
10–14M400
 F354
15–19M291
 F220
20–24M136
 F152
25–29M110
 F139
30–34M131
 F137
35–39M98
 F129
40–44M85
 F85
45–49M81
 F82
50–54M54
 F69
55–59M49
 F52
60 and overM151
 F204
Not specifiedM
 F4
TotalsM2,507
 F2,483

Health—Niue, although situated in the tropics, is largely free from diseases prevalent in tropical countries. The Niuean standard of general hygiene is very good by Pacific standards.

All medical and dental treatment, including hospital services, is provided free of charge, the money for this expenditure being provided out of grants from the New Zealand Government. There is a Government hospital. Attached to the hospital is an outpatients department, X-ray unit, laboratory, and dispensary. The staff at April 1973 numbered 54.

The amounts expended on public health during the past five years were as follows.

Item1968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
Amount expended$163,215$174,806$161,322$175,229$187,324
Population5,3235,3035,1284,9884,419
Amount per head of population$30.67$32.96$31.46$35.13$42.40

Education—The eight primary schools and the high school are all under the control of the Government.

The total number of children attending school in Niue at December 1972 was 1,618 while students and trainees attending school or receiving training in New Zealand numbered 45. Education is free and compulsory for those aged from six to 14 years, but most children remain at school until they reach 16 years.

Labour and Employment—The only substantial employer of labour is the Government, which employs Niueans in the Education, Police, Public Works, Health, Agriculture, and other Departments, and in the loading or discharge of vessels. A large number of unskilled labourers are employed on public works. There is no unemployment problem as most Niueans work in their family plantations.

Agriculture—The principal agricultural exports are passion fruit, honey, copra, and limes.

The extremely rocky nature of the ground makes all agriculture difficult, as practically the whole of the arable land is confined to small pockets of soil among the coral rocks. Of the total area of some 64,900 acres, approximately 50,900 acres are more or less continuously cultivated, while some 13,600 acres are in forest. The remaining 400 acres are in mixed vegetation. The Agriculture Department has a programme for soil study and plant improvement, rehabilitation of coconut areas, and rearing of cattle for local consumption.

As the Niuean depends for his livelihood upon his family lands, alienation is prohibited, so that there are no landowners apart from the Niueans and the Government.

Transport and Communication—Apart from taxis there are no internal transport services. The transport of goods and produce to and from the ports of Alofi is carried out by Government and privately-owned motor vehicles. There are some 77 miles of all-weather roads on the island.

At Alofi there is an open roadstead only, and cargo is handled by lighters.

Full postal services are provided at Alofi, where there is a Post Office Savings Bank. A single-line telephone system connects all villages on the island, and a radio station is maintained by the Government for overseas communication.

An airport with a sealed runway of 5,400 ft was completed in October 1970 and became fully operational for commercial air services in 1971.

Trade—During 1972 total cargo handled was 4,718 tons. As usual the bulk of the trade was with New Zealand.

The values of exports and imports for the latest five years available are given below.

YearExportsImportsTotal Trade
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
1,96856693749
1,96970771841
1,970194748942
1,971179811990
1,9721369181,054

Exports of principal commodities over the latest five years were as follows.

Item19681969197019711972
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
  $ $ $ $ $
Copra (tons)455,135264,05512326,70614625,72019530,489
Bananas (cases)14736235299413032043170
Kumaras (bags)6,48910,0299634,4089084,2401,7655,981
Plaited ware8,3602,6042,2615,5125,193
Honey (lb)99,8588,63359,8006,324163,62416,362142,10014,92054,9157,168
Passion fruit (lb)27,2289,003107,40834,601154,70348,125108,00839,370

The New Zealand Customs Tariff as modified by the Niue Customs Tariff Order 1969 is in force, and there is free trade between the islands and New Zealand.

Public Finance—Revenue is raised principally from import and export duties, income tax, "aid to revenue" tax and the sale of stamps.

Budget deficits are met by grants and loans from New Zealand. A comparative statement of receipts and expenditure during the latest five financial years is given in the following table.

YearReceiptsExpenditureGrants and Loans
 $(000)$(000)$(000)
1967–687531,560751
1968–698091,767900
1969–708351,877941
1970–711,0372,103972
1971–729802,1521,140

TOKELAU ISLANDS: Descriptive—Situated some 300 miles to the north of Western Samoa, between 8° and 10° south latitude and between 171° and 173° west longitude, are the three atoll islands of Atafu, Nukunonu, and Fakaofo, of the Tokelau Group. A fourth island, Olosega, belonging to the United States of America and lying 100 miles to the south of Fakaofo, completes the group.

Each atoll is composed of a number of coral islets surrounding a central lagoon. These islets vary in size from 100 yards in length, while none is wider than 400 yards nor, with but few exceptions, higher than 10 ft above sea level. The land area of each atoll is approximately as follows: Fakaofo. 650 acres; Atafu, 500 acres; Nukunonu, 1,350 acres. The atolls do not lie in close proximity, there being 40 miles of open sea between Fakaofo and Nukunonu, and 57 miles between Nukunonu and Atafu.

Owing to the absence of humus in the soil, the vegetation is practically restricted to coconut palms, although one islet of each atoll is reserved for growing the tauanave, a short stubby tree, which yields to the Tokelau Islanders their only timber for the construction of canoes and utensils.

Administration—The Tokelau Islands were included under the protection of Great Britain in 1877. In 1916 the islands, at the request of the inhabitants, were formally annexed to Great Britain by an Order in Council, which also extended the boundaries of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony to include the Tokelau Group (then known as the Union Islands) and their dependencies. The group was governed by the High Commissioner for the Western Pacific and administered by the District Officer at Funafuti, in the Ellice Group. In 1925 the New Zealand Government, at the request of the British Government, agreed to administer the islands. By Order in Council the group was separated from the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony, and by a further Order in Council in the same year the Governor-General of New Zealand was empowered to make laws for its peace, order, and good government.

By the Tokelau Islands Act 1948 the Tokelau Group was included within the territorial boundaries of New Zealand; legislative powers are now vested in the Governor-General in Council. The inhabitants of the Tokelau Islands are British subjects and New Zealand citizens.

The Secretary of the Department of Maori and Island Affairs in New Zealand is Administrator of the Tokelaus and in this capacity is responsible to the Minister of Island Affairs.

Because of the very restricted economic and social future in the atolls, the islanders agreed to a proposal put to them by the Minister of Island Territories in 1965 that over a period of years most of the population be resettled in New Zealand. To date 458 migrants have entered New Zealand as permanent residents under Government sponsorship. Many others have settled in New Zealand of their own accord.

Village affairs are managed by the Council of Elders, or "fono", comprising representatives of the families, and this body also exerts influence over the "aumaga" or village labour force. In this way the traditional form of patriarchal authority has been preserved and regulates Tokelau society, performing a service alongside, and in addition to, the public duties of government which are carried out by local officials such as the Faipule and the Pulenu'u.

Population—The people are closely allied to the Samoans.

On 21 February 1972 a census showed a total population of 1,599.

IslandMalesFemalesTotal
Atafu272305577
Fakaofo302352654
Nukunonu163205368
Totals7378621,599

Health—The health authorities in the Tokelau Islands receive advice and guidance from Apia. The incidence of disease in the islands is comparatively slight.

A Fiji-trained Tokelauan medical practitioner is stationed on each atoll. Other medical staff consists of staff nurses, nurses, and dressers, who obtain their training at Apia hospital in Western Samoa. In addition, each atoll has an active women's committee, and to these committees much credit is due for their work in village health and sanitation.

Education—There axe now 32 trained Tokelau teachers in the islands. On each island there are qualified New Zealand teachers. They are endeavouring to raise educational standards by training Tokelauan teachers in improved teaching techniques and by modernising the curriculum. They also help to prepare intending migrants for life in New Zealand. All necessary school equipment, stationery, and textbooks are supplied by the New Zealand Government; the schools also receive copies of the Samoan Teachers Monthly Guide and of Samoan and New Zealand School Journals. In addition, they are equipped with filmstrip and movie projectors and also with radio sets so that the daily educational broadcasts of the Western Samoan Education Department may be utilised.

Tokelau pupils are included in the training scheme for education in New Zealand, and selected students also receive schooling and training in Western Samoa and Fiji.

Communications—Trading voyages between Western Samoa and the Tokelau Islands are made at regular intervals by an Administration-chartered vessel.

Radiotelegraph receivers and transmitters are operated on each atoll. In addition, radio receiving sets are installed in all villages and enable the people to listen to broadcasts from the Apia broadcasting station.

Trade and Finance—The quantity of copra shipped for the year ended 31 March 1972 amounted to 154 tons. Apart from copra, the only other exports are handicrafts.

Revenue is derived principally from export duty on copra, Customs duty of 12½ percent ad valorem on all goods entering the islands, trading profits, and the sale of postage stamps. Total revenue for 1972–73 was $53,721. Expenditure for the year 1972–73 was $217,770.

Under the Tokelau Islands Copra Regulations 1952 a Copra Stabilisation Fund was established by a levy on purchases of copra for export, and is used to supplement the prices received by the producers, or by the purchasers on resale after export, as may be necessary from time to time. At 31 March 1973 there was $23,629 in the fund.

ROSS DEPENDENCY: Descriptive—The Ross Dependency comprises the sector of the Antarctic continent between 160° east and 150° west longitude, together with the islands lying between those degrees of longitude and south of latitude 60° south.

Within these boundaries there are an estimated 400,000–44,000 square kilometres of land and 330,000 square kilometres of permanent ice shelf. The land is virtually entirely covered by ice, but has bases inhabited by scientific personnel.

Administration—By Order in Council of 30 July 1923 under the British Settlements Act 1887 (Imp.) the territories of the Ross Dependency were brought within the jurisdiction of the New Zealand Government. From time to time laws for the Dependency have been made by regulations promulgated by the Governor-General of New Zealand.

Administrative powers are vested in the Governor-General of New Zealand, and administrative officers (commonly referred to as Administrators) have been appointed from time to time since 1923. Since 1956, the Leader of the New Zealand Expedition at Scott Base has been vested with the powers of Magistrate, Justice of the Peace, and Coroner. The Officer in Charge has jurisdiction over all New Zealand nationals in Antarctica and is responsible for the implementation of the Antarctic Research Programme as directed by Antarctic Division, DSIR.

The Ross Dependency Research Committee formulates the New Zealand Antarctic Research Programme. The committee comprises representatives of divisions of the Departments of Scientific and Industrial Research, the Lands and Survey, the Dominion Museum, the Royal Society of New Zealand, New Zealand Universities, the Chiefs of Staff of the New Zealand Armed Forces, and the Department of Foreign Affairs. It is representative of all scientific disciplines with Antarctic interests.

Antarctic Division, DSIR, is responsible for detailed planning and implements the programme. The division employs staff and obtains supplies and equipment for all Government projects. University projects are financed and equipped from university sources. The operation and control of all projects is directed by the Antarctic Division through the Officer in Charge, Scott Base.

New Zealand's international relations on Antarctic affairs are conducted at the political level by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Whilst scientific contact with other countries and institutions engaged in Antarctic research is maintained at all levels, the primary channel is the Ross Dependency Research Committee, which is also New Zealand's National Committee on Antarctic Research.

In 1959 New Zealand was one of the 12 nations to sign the Antarctic Treaty which requires that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only, promotes international co-operation, freedom of scientific investigation and exchange of information and scientific personnel, but does not require New Zealand to renounce her territorial claim to the Ross Dependency. Delegates from the 12 signatory nations met in Wellington for the Seventh Antarctic Treaty consultative meeting from 30 October to 10 November 1972. The Treaty has been completely successful in all its aims and has allowed freedom of scientific research in Antarctica.

The Antarctica Amendment Act 1970 provides means of enforcing the regulations contained within the Antarctic Treaty (known as the Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora) and the prevention of pollution to the Antarctic Continent and surrounding waters.

Exploration and Field Activities—Various expeditions have operated within the area of the Dependency since the coastline was explored by Sir James Clark Ross in 1841. These include the two expeditions of Scott 1901–04 and 1910–13 and that of Shackleton 1907–09.

In January 1957 the first New Zealand expedition under the leadership of Sir Edmund Hillary established Scott Base near Cape Armitage on Ross Island. The purpose of the expedition was twofold: to take part in the crossing of the Continent from the Weddell Sea to Scott Base by the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition and to participate in the Antarctic programme of the International Geophysical Year. In the summer of 1957–58 the expedition established depots for the use of the crossing party and Sir Edmund Hillary and four companions pushed on to the South Pole, which was reached on 4 January 1958. Sir Vivian Fuchs's successful crossing party reached Scott Base on 2 March 1958.

Field Work—Since 1958 remote field parties using dog teams and sledges, but more recently mechanical transport, have almost completely mapped the Ross Dependency. Geological survey parties have completed a reconnaissance of the Dependency and resulting from various interesting finds, work is now directed to specialised research in these particular areas. The Lands and Survey Department has issued a series of 48 maps based on survey work carried out by New Zealand field teams during the past few years.

Scientific Programme—During the International Geophysical Year 1957 New Zealand maintained at Scott Base and jointly with the United States at Hallett Station a scientific programme in close accord with the aims and objects of the I.G.Y. (References to these activities are contained in Appendix (d) of the 1958 Yearbook.)

Since its establishment Scott Base has been continuously occupied each year by teams of scientists and supporting base personnel. The summer population may rise to 70 or 80 people but only about 12 winter-over to continue the scientific programme of continuous observations in the fields of seismology, geomagnetism, ionosphere physics, micropulsations, aurora and airglow, whistlers and VLF radio propagation, satellite tracking, meteorology, glaciology, and oceanography.

In 1968 a new scientific station was built near Lake Vanda in the Wright Valley of Victoria Land, some 130 km west of Scott Base. It is the first New Zealand base actually on the Antarctic Continent.

For the first two seasons after its opening Vanda Station was manned on a year-round basis to enable scientists to carry out environmental investigations in this ice-free area and also to undertake studies in upper air physics and earth sciences in co-ordination with the programme at Scott Base. Blowing dust collection in the vicinity of the station is continuing as part of the study of weathering in the Dry Valleys.

The station was used only as a summer base during 1970–71 and 1971–72, but it is proposed to open it again during the full year of 1974 to implement further scientific work.

Since the summer of 1972–73 New Zealand scientists have been involved with scientists from Japan and the United States in a Dry Valley drilling project, with the object of studying the subsurface of the McMurdo Sound region by means of deep drill holes in various areas. This work will extend over several seasons.

The New Zealand Oceanographic Institute has also inaugurated a study of trace element chemistry of Ross Sea sediments.

Biological Programme—Biological studies have been conducted each summer season at various localities within the Dependency.

In the McMurdo Sound and Cape Hallett areas, scientists continue the census and tagging of the seal population. Marine plankton samples are taken from under the sea ice near Scott Base, and further marine research is concentrated in the Cape Bird and Cape Hallett areas. Studies continue of penguin and skua gull behaviour at Cape Bird and Cape Royds.

Whaling—Regulations dated 24 October 1929 prohibit whaling in the territorial waters of the Ross Dependency without a licence. New Zealand is a member of the International Whaling Commission, the purpose of which is to enforce conservation of whale stocks.

Review of Development—Since 1959 New Zealand has achieved many of its earlier aims and ambitions. A topographic survey has been made of the Ross Dependency bringing to an end the era of long and arduous traverses. The numerous maps produced have provided detailed geographic information, particularly important for subsequent field research programmes.

A geological reconnaissance has been conducted of the same area. During recent years New Zealand has been involved in specialised work which has provided evidence indicating that the southern land masses were once linked together to form one super continent—Gondwanaland. Recent fossil discoveries in Antarctica, including land animals similar to those found in South Africa and Australia, seem to confirm this theory. Oceanographic and paleomagnetic researchers also add credence to it. Their studies show that continental drift has been, and still is, taking place at a quite rapid rate of about 3 cm to 5 cm a year. These findings have impelled scientists to revise completely their earlier ideas on the earth's history, the forming of the continents, the causes of earthquakes, and the future physical changes to the surface of the earth that can now be predicted with reasonable certainty.

Detailed hydrographic charts of the Ross Sea area have given considerable information about the ocean floor lying between New Zealand and Antarctica. Oceanographers and marine biologists have carried out intensive studies of the marine life of the Southern Ocean. Results show that the waters surrounding the Antarctic continent contain the richest marine life found anywhere—a great potential food source for the increasing human population.

Extensive studies have been made by biologists of the fauna and flora of Antarctica, enabling accurate assessments of the likelihood of survival of various species. This has given a better understanding of how the many primitive life forms adapt and survive in the narrow life-support zone of Antarctica.

There has been a substantial contribution to man's knowledge of the ice budget of Antarctica—not only important to the study of Antarctica itself but also necessary to a better understanding of the global climate changes that have occurred and the present position of the earth in the cycle of the ice ages. Antarctica contains about 95 percent of the world's ice and small changes in this amount would have a significant if not catastrophic effect on the rest of the world. This southern continent about 80,000,000 to 100,000,000 years ago enjoyed a tropical climate and more recently there have been warm periods.

Continuing studies and monitoring of the upper atmosphere from Scott Base and other Antarctic Stations have provided significant information, when correlated with satellite and space vehicle data, towards new concepts of the sun-earth relationship. Practical application of some of this new knowledge has led to vastly improved methods of radio communication.

Years of intensive studies of meteorology in Antarctica have improved the understanding of the significant part Antarctica plays in the world's weather pattern, the balance of the world's heat budget and the relationship between the atmosphere and oceans.

There have been major changes in the methods of supporting work in Antarctica. Transportation by ship between New Zealand and Antarctica used to take 7 to 10 days. Now, flights take 5 to 8 hours. Small fixed-wing aircraft and most of the earlier types of heavy surface transport have been replaced by helicopters.

In 1973 a joint DSIR/Victoria University of Wellington expedition made the first attempt at descending the crater of Mount Erebus (3,743 m) on Ross Island. Although the crater floor was not reached, samples of volcanic gas were recovered, and the party discovered an active lake of molten lava in the inner crater.

In 1972–73 the United States Navy flew 260 helicopter-hours in support of the New Zealand Antarctic research programme. Dog teams have been almost entirely replaced by motor toboggans to support small mobile field parties. With the formation of metal-and-snow compacted roads around McMurdo and Scott Base, tracked vehicles have been replaced by wheeled vehicles.

The emphasis in Antarctica is swinging away from basic scientific studies to meet the more specialised demands of man's increasing knowledge and so yield rewards of value to society. Despite the many changes and developments Antarctica has largely retained its IGY status as a unique natural laboratory for man to study the earth as a whole. It should continue to be the last relatively undisturbed area on earth from which may also be monitored the effect of man on the remainder of our global environment.

Chapter 39. Section 37; TRAVEL AND TOURISM

BOOM IN TRAVEL AND TOURISM—Travel between countries in and around the Pacific has boomed in recent years and international jet air services have made New Zealand fairly easily accessible to international tourists of all countries. The tourist industry is a fast-growing sector in international commerce; in some countries it has become the largest industry. The industry has grown so fast and is having such an impact on the international balance of payments that the economics of tourism are receiving increasing attention. World spending on travel abroad increased about twice as fast as total national incomes since the 1950s. OECD statistics indicate that international tourist journeys throughout the world increased annually through the 1960s at an average rate of 9 percent. Pre-disposing factors are greater affluence, more leisure, the emancipation of the young, travel as a status symbol, improved transport facilities and arrangements such as package tours.

In New Zealand a healthy domestic tourist industry has led to the growth of all the services necessary for New Zealand's wider participation in world tourism. There has been a considerable surge in building of hotels and motels and the provision of complementary transport and other service facilities. New scenic routes have been developed, while facilities have been improved and extended in major resort areas. There is a network of convenient air services.

A tourist development conference was held in 1969 and the report of the Tourism Committee to the National Development Conference sets out forward planning for the development of the tourist potential in the next decade. A Tourist Development Council has been appointed to co-operate with the National Development Council and to keep under review the measures and resources necessary to attain the target growth rate of 349,000 overseas visitors by 1975–76 and 457,100 by 1978–79.

Travel Arrivals and New Zealand Residents Departing Temporarily—The travel surge has resulted in a doubling of visitors every 8 years as shown in the following table; a similar scale of increase has applied to New Zealanders going overseas, particularly to Australia and Britain.

Year Ended 31 MarchVisitorsThrough Passengers*Total Travel ArrivalsNew Zealand Residents Departing Temporarily
TouristsPersons on BusinessPersons on Working Holiday and for EducationOthersTotal
*Tourists on cruise ships and passengers in transit arriving and leaving in the same vessel or aircraft.
1,96339,4996,2703,8569,26058,88538,73297,61753,625
1,96447,9787,9074,0299,79069,70439,714109,41862,164
1,96557,4988,2136,3439,98182,03540,253122,28874,536
1,96665,0399,96912,73410,27498,01655,265153,28188,145
1,96774,27510,00620,0708,520112,87172,561185,43299,890
1,96889,95312,8589,81410,563123,18884,839208,027104,094
1,969100,34113,7367,52610,299131,90288,783220,685100,819
1,970118,70617,38910,3618,535154,99186,119241,110112,082
1,971141,50625,91411,55211,897190,86980,546271,415117,747
1,972176,56224,20814,89611,914227,58082,444310,024133,878
1,973199,69526,78317,06711,099254,64483,138337,782154,992

Most New Zealand residents departing temporarily are tourists. In the year ended 31 March 1973, of the 154,992 such departures, 120,712 persons were in the tourist category and 7,197 in the related category of working holiday. Of the remainder 21,777 went on business and 2,956 as theatrical performers, sportsmen, etc.

Some of the permanent movement shown in migration statistics in Section 3 concerns travel. Persons intending to be absent for 12 months or more are shown as permanent departures; when they return to New Zealand after 12 months' absence they are shown as immigrants intending permanent residence. Persons arriving on working holidays or for educational purposes are not normally classified internationally as visitors or tourists.

Auckland is the main point of arrival and receives initially 70 percent of all visitors: most of the visitors arrive by air while through passengers are mostly passengers on cruise liners. Of the 14,328 persons at the 1966 census who were usually resident overseas, Auckland had 2,101, Wellington (including Lower Hutt and Petone) 1,98 Hamilton 182, Waitomo 112, Rotorua 425, Taupo 115, Napier 151, Hastings 112, New Plymouth 106, Wanganui 142, Palmerston North 122, Nelson 133, Christchurch 943, Dunedin 270, Queenstown 185, Invercargill 173, Te Anau 165.

Travel Receipts—Travel receipts as shown in the balance of payments account have been as follows in recent years: 1965–66, $13.5 million; 1966–67, $14.5 million; 1967–68, $17.4 million; 1968–69, $20.1 million; 1969–70, $26.0 million; 1970–71, $33.5 million; 1971–72, $45.1 million; 1972–73, $57.4 million. The National Development Conference targets have been raised to $74 million in Reserve Bank travel receipts by 1975–76, $119 million by 1978–79, and $178 million by 1981–82, Tourist promotion also helps to build up the overseas exchange earnings of Air New Zealand. (Travel debits in recent years have been much higher than travel credits in the balance of payments account and totalled $61.9 million in 1970–71 and $75.5 million in 1971–72.)

From a survey commissioned by the Tourist and Publicity Department it was estimated that overseas visitor expenditure in New Zealand in the year ended 31 March 1970 was $31.5 million (including cruise ship passengers $0.8 million). Statistics from the survey are given in the following table.

ItemTourists fromOther Visitors
AustraliaUnited States and CanadaUnited Kingdom and EuropeOther Countries
Total expenditure ($m)14.847.552.391.664.24
Expenditure per tourist ($)—
    Accommodation and meals1131317954
    Transport49453624
    Excursions and souvenirs38333315
    Social, personal, etc.35376435
    Total per tourist235246212128

Given the initial attraction of New Zealand, transport and accommodation are the two factors which convert a potential visitor into an actual one. So far as international travel is concerned, the cost of fares to New Zealand, particularly for non-Australian visitors, accounts for over half the total cost of the trip. Within New Zealand visitors spend more money on transport than on any other item except accommodation. Some 30 percent of internal spending by visitors is on transport of various kinds, principally air travel between metropolitan centres and the main tourist areas and road transport in the form of coach tours and rental vehicles. The following table shows estimated visitor expenditure on domestic transport in 1968 and a forecast by the Institute of Economic Research for 1979, assuming that the visitor targets are achieved.

Mode of Transport1967–681978–79
 $(million)
Air1.15.6
Rental vehicles0.63.5
Motor coach1.04.1
Rail0.1
Sea0.10.6
Other, mainly taxis0.73.0
Totals3.516.9

The greatest part of the increase is thus expected to accrue to domestic air services although in percentage terms the use of rental vehicles is the fastest growing component.

The rapid increase in overseas visitors will have a marked effect on the seasonal pattern of domestic flights. Of the total of 1,173,000 passengers carried in 1968, about 80,000 or 7 percent were overseas visitors. By 1979 the number of overseas visitors using internal air lines is expected to rise to 409,000 or 23 percent of the total. Since most of the increase will take place during the summer months, the seasonal pattern of domestic flights will be heightened, and the proportion of visitors in the summer months may be as much as 40–50 percent.

Countries of Origin—The countries or areas of origin of all visitors other than through passengers to New Zealand during years ended 31 March are given in the following table.

Country or Area1967–681968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
Australia66,04569,88279,62691,982109,788125,466
Canada3,9283,9844,9636,4578,39210,258
United States22,40124,78630,83645,22052,93554,211
United Kingdom10,68111,77812,13313,34314,09618,239
Other countries20,76321,47227,43333,86442,36946,470
All countries123,818131,902154,991190,866227,580254,644

Visitors who are not New Zealanders require permits to enter the country, and temporary permits or student permits are issued as appropriate. Those people who are accorded the right of free entry are not required to apply to make visits. They are granted entry on arrival. Others may make visits without visas under agreements we have entered into with a number of countries, including Japan and United States. Residents of other countries must obtain entry authorities before they set out and these are obtained through the various New Zealand posts overseas. The British posts also have some authority to act in the absence of an accredited New Zealand post. Short-term visitors are asked to submit to very little formality. Those coming under the visa abolition agreements must intend remaining no longer than the periods set out in the agreements, which vary from 30 days to 3 months, and all visitors must have sufficient funds for maintenance, and fully paid tickets which will take them out of the country.

More females than males are tourists. In the year ended March 1972 there were 73 males to every 100 females in New Zealanders travelling overseas and 86 males to every 100 females entering New Zealand as overseas visitors.

The age structure of the New Zealanders travelling overseas differs from that of the tourist coming to New Zealand.

Relatively more New Zealanders under 20 years of age travel overseas (18 percent were in this age group in 1972–73 compared with 14 percent of overseas tourists coming to New Zealand) and fewer elderly New Zealanders (over 60 years of age) go overseas as tourists (20 percent were in this age group compared with 24 percent of visitors to New Zealand). New Zealanders aged 40–59 years comprised 34 percent of all departures, followed in number by those in the 20–39 year age group who comprised 29 percent of all departures in 1972–73.

The most popular destination for New Zealanders touring overseas is Australia, which received 49 percent of the total in 1972–73. Fiji is the next most popular country receiving 16 percent of all New Zealand tourists in 1972–73. United Kingdom follows with 14 percent of all New Zealand tourists. The United States received 3.5 percent and the balance of New Zealand tourists are spread over a large number of countries which in total absorb 18 percent of the outward flow.

The "balance of tourist flow" remains very much in New Zealand's favour with regard to the United States (45,700 United States tourists to 4,000 New Zealand tourists in 1972–73), Canada (8,800 Canadians to 800 New Zealanders), and Australia (100,900 Australians to 58,900 New Zealanders). There was almost a balance in regard to the United Kingdom (13,900 British came to New Zealand, 16,700 New Zealanders went to the United Kingdom) but the balance was not in our favour for Fiji (19,100 New Zealanders went to Fiji and 4,300 Fijians came to New Zealand).

New Zealanders stay overseas longer than overseas tourists stay in New Zealand, but some tourists have an itinerary covering other countries as well as New Zealand, just as New Zealanders going to the United Kingdom for the northern summer usually visit a number of other countries.

Nearly four-fifths of visitors to New Zealand stay less than 1 month, but only two-thirds of New Zealanders have an overseas trip of the same short duration. Twenty-two percent of New Zealanders are away for 1 and under 3 months compared with 15 percent of overseas visitors staying for this period in New Zealand and over twice the proportion of New Zealanders have an overseas trip of over 6 months' duration.

There has been a significant change in the length of stay of tourists. In 1962–63 just under half the tourists stayed 1 month or more; in 1972–73 the proportion was less than one-quarter. Those staying 3 months or more declined from 18 percent to 7 percent in the same period. The trend towards shorter stays is continuing.

Internal Tourism—It has been estimated by the Institute of Economic Research that the average adult New Zealander is away from home 14 nights in the year and that expenditure on holidays in New Zealand is equivalent to about 3 percent of the gross national product.

Estimates for internal tourism in 1967 are given in the following table.

ItemMillion Passenger MilesExpenditure
  $(million)
Air travel (recreation only)1605.0
Rail (excludes suburban travel)2803.5
Sea (roll-on roll-off ferries, etc.)281.1
Public road transport (not suburban)429.4
Private road travel2406.0
Accommodation expenditure (camping, caravan, motels, etc.)..63.0
Miscellaneous outlays associated with holidays13.0
 101.0

Accommodation in New Zealand—Leading hotels in the main centres, and Tourist Hotel Corporation hotels and others in the main resort areas, all provide first-class accommodation. Most of these hotels and motor hotels have a private bathroom or shower and toilet with every bedroom. These establishments usually operate on a room-only basis, with meals an optional extra. Single occupancy room charges range between $11 and $15 a night; double occupancy, $15 to $30.

There are 11 Tourist Hotel Corporation hotels. Mostly these are built in areas where, for reasons of isolation, private enterprise finds it uneconomical to operate. In many cases, the Tourist Hotel Corporation hotel has formed the nucleus on which private enterprise has developed.

Tourist Hotel Corporation hotels are situated at the following places:

North IslandSouth Island
Waitangi, Bay of IslandsMount Cook, Southern Alps
Waitomo (glow-worm caves), King CountryLake Wanaka, Southern Lakes
International, RotoruaFranz Josef Glacier, West Coast
Wairakei, near Lake TaupoLake Te Anau, Fiordland
Tokaanu, Lake TaupoMilford Sound, Fiordland
Mount Ruapehu, central North Island ski-ing fields 

There are large numbers of good-quality motels throughout New Zealand, and twin-occupancy nightly charges range between $8 and $12.

Tourist arrivals are highest from October to March. These arrivals taken in conjunction with the demand from the New Zealand summer holiday period, impose a strain on available hotel accommodation at the major tourist resorts.

Provisional figures extracted from the 1971 census show that of the 24,600 guests in licensed hotels, motels (licensed and ordinary), and in private hotels or guest houses on 23 March 1971, 6,300 (26 percent) were overseas visitors and 18,300 (74 percent) were New Zealand residents.

The resident guest ratio was therefore approximately one overseas visitor to three New Zealanders. However, this ratio varied between different types of accommodation from one overseas visitor to five New Zealanders in private hotels, to one overseas visitor to one New Zealander in licensed motels, as the following analysis shows.

AccommodationOverseas VisitorsNew Zealand ResidentsTotal GuestsOverseas Visitors as Percentage of Total
Licensed hotels2,7005,8008,50032
Licensed motels/motor hotels1,2001,3002,50048
Other motels1,7007,7009,40018
Private hotels and guest houses7003,5004,20017
Totals6,30018,30024,60026

As the census date in March 1971 (prior to the Easter holidays) was selected to minimise the extent to which New Zealanders would be away from their usual place of residence, it is likely that the proportion of New Zealanders shown in the figures above would be lower than at most other periods of the popular summer/autumn months for travelling within New Zealand. The figure of 26 percent for visitor occupancy rate would not therefore be inconsistent with the figure of 18 percent suggested in other papers for an average proportion. Of the 6,423 overseas visitors in hotels, motels, etc., on census night, 3,838 (59 percent) were usually resident in Australia, 1,264 (20 percent) in the United States, 606 (9 percent) in the United Kingdom, 116 in Canada, and the remaining 599 were distributed amongst all other countries.

Employment in hotel/motel industry at the 1971 Census of Population and Dwellings is shown in the following table.

OccupationLicensed Hotels and MotelsUnlicensed Hotels and Motels
MalesFemalesMalesFemales
Hotel proprietor/manager1,448561712618
Administrators, personal services, etc.276117411
Clerk94184721
Stenographer typist6912
Receptionist5836186
Cook/chef5867072836
Kitchenhand/dishwasher86541340
Storeman45
Waiter, waitress1401,5933114
Barman/barman - waiter/barmaid2,998428
Housekeeper11826
Housemaid/domestic1,555308
Laundress303
Hotel porter29489102
Maintenance man2076925115
Others809151
Totals6,2596,9068081,393

Inventory of Accommodation—An inventory of accommodation has been compiled by the Tourist and Publicity Department. It relates only to hotels licensed to supply liquor and to motels. Private hotels and guest houses (and also holiday flats not catering for overnight travellers) have not been included. Private hotels and guest houses, however, provide a significant proportion (up to 20 percent) of all available commercial accommodation. In the following table statistics for licensed hotels and motels are set out by regional areas, as at 31 March 1973.

RegionRooms in Licensed HotelsUnits in Motels
Group 1Group 2Group 3
Northland381351259623
Auckland1,184353158771
Western Waikato152170158381
Coromandel-Thames2784147
Coastal Bay of Plenty76167133379
Rotorua51114052478
Upper Waikato - Inland Bay of Plenty663411186
Taupo14913830441
Gisborne - Northern Hawke's Bay64147144207
Central Hawke's Ray15165130384
Southern Hawke's Bay - Wairarapa6710684
King Country1806291129
Taranaki12049184193
Wanganui-Manawatu160187183300
Foxton - Paremata Coast3227131
Wellington787231179294
Marlborough52246295
Nelson20067124251
West Coast159160199311
North and Mid-Canterbury36822992
Christchurch61824256528
Inland South Canterbury2647850
Coastal South Canterbury - North Otago5751166186
Central Otago8169184
Dunedin2406498190
Southland2513548
Queenstown3463223246
Milford - Te Anau362160
Invercargill - Bluff - Stewart Island11013338124
Totals6,5982,7663,4907,693
NOTE—Licensed hotels are here grouped principally according to availability of rooms with private facilities: Group 1—all or most rooms so equipped; Group 2—sufficient private facilities for general availability; Group 3—a smaller proportion of rooms with private facilities.

Assistance to the Hotel Industry—The New Zealand Government has made available loan and guarantee finance to encourage the building of new hotels and motor hotels and the extension of existing hotels in areas where there was a shortage of accommodation for overseas visitors.

Under this scheme, the Government has made available $10.6 million by way of loan guarantees and $3.9 million by way of loans, resulting in the availability of an additional 3,253 first-class beds.

A similar scheme of financial assistance in respect of tourist facilities other than accommodation was introduced in 1969, to encourage private-enterprise operators to develop amenities, where necessary, in focal tourist areas.

There are generous depreciation allowances for taxation purposes which apply to approved visitor accommodation.

WIDE RANGE OF ATTRACTIONS—New Zealand has often been described as "the world's most exciting travel package". With features such as the amazing thermal areas, magnificent lakes and fiords, glaciers, alpine regions, and unrivalled hunting, fishing, and other sporting opportunities, New Zealand combines in a comparatively small area a host of attractions. In addition to these natural attractions, the dignity and charm of the Maori race offers for study a culture which is unique to New Zealand.

Resort Development—A major development in New Zealand was the opening of the Haast Pass road in November 1965. It links the southern lakes region on the eastern side of the Alps with the West Coast and opens up one of the greatest scenic round-trip drives in the world.

In Rotorua a Maori Arts and Crafts Institute was established to preserve and foster traditional Maori culture. The institute has assumed control of the Whakarewarewa Reserve and displays Maori arts and crafts in traditional settings as well as presenting traditional songs and dances. One of the highlights is the Maori Carving School.

At Queenstown the Government and private enterprise have co-operated in the development of winter sports facilities. At Coronet Peak the access road has been improved, a new restaurant completed, and a chairlift has been in operation since 1964.

At Wairakei the Government is co-operating with local authorities in the area to plan and develop a tourist park in close proximity to the geothermal borefield, the Tourist Hotel Corporation's hotel, and the Wairakei golf course.

Weather—New Zealand lies wholly within the South Temperate Zone. The weather is sunny and rather changeable, but is neither excessively hot in summer nor uncomfortably cold in winter. A large portion of the country is favoured with at least 2,000 hours of sunshine a year.

Seasons—The seasons in New Zealand are the opposite of those in the Northern Hemisphere:

        Summer: December, January, February

        Autumn: March, April, May

        Winter: June, July, August

        Spring: September, October, November

TRANSPORT—All main cities, towns, and tourist resorts are served by regular road or rail services and there is an extensive network of internal air services. In addition to the inter-island air services, the North and South Island are also linked by roll-on roll-off steamer services. These steamer services operate between Wellington and Picton and Wellington and Lyttelton.

Several international and national car rental companies, in addition to locally based companies, supply self-drive cars. All main centres also have chauffeur-driven cars available. Coach tours of a high standard and covering a range of prices and periods are operated by a number of companies.

At several locations, but particularly in the alpine and lake regions of the South Island, set or charter air tours are available.

Travel Services—Fully accredited travel agencies are available throughout New Zealand. Most of the major international agencies are represented or have affiliates in the country and there are the Government Tourist Bureaus which offer a national service for overseas visitors and New Zealand travellers.

SPORTING ATTRACTIONS: Fishing—A wide variety of salt-water fish abound in the coasts, bays, and harbours and in both North and South islands many streams, rivers, and lakes provide excellent rainbow and brown trout fishing.

Sizes of New Zealand trout vary from district to district depending on environment, climate, food available, and angling pressure. Average trout weights are as follows: North Island— rainbow 2–2½ lb and brown 5 lb in the Rotorua lakes, rainbow 4½ lb and brown 5 lb in Lake Taupo, rainbow and brown 2 lb in river systems; South Island—rainbow and brown 2–3 lb in lake systems, sea-run brown 5 lb in West Coast rivers, sea-run "Quinnat" salmon 12 lb in the east coast rivers, landlocked salmon 2–2½ lb.

Big-game Fishing—The warm waters off the east coast of the North Island provide some of the best surf, line, and scuba fishing in the world. The main bases for line fishing from charter boats are at Whangaroa, Bay of Islands (Russell, Otehei Bay, and Waitangi), Tutukaka, Mercury Bay (Whitianga), and Tauranga (Mayor Island).

The most prized catches are broadbill, black marlin, striped marlin and blue marlin, while other types of big game fish found in New Zealand waters are mainly tiger shark, hammerhead shark, mako shark, thresher shark, kingfish (yellow tail), and tuna. The best catches are usually made in February but fishing is good from December to April.

Shooting and Hunting—The principal game birds are duck, swan, pheasant, quail, geese, and chukor, but the sport is limited, the main season usually extending for about 6 weeks from early May.

There are fewer restrictions, however, on stalking—no limit on the number of game animals that can be taken, no licence required, and the season is open all year round. The top trophies are chamois and than but good hunting also includes red deer, fallow deer, wild pigs, goats, and wallaby; other species present in lesser numbers and somewhat scarce are wapiti (elk), sambur deer, rusa deer, sika deer, and whitetail deer. A guide is essential for results.

Ski-ing—The ski-ing in New Zealand extends from mid-July to late October in the North Island and from early July to late September in the South Island. With the operation of ski planes from the airstrip at Mount Cook very good spring ski-ing is also available for experienced skiers on the South Island glaciers.

In the North Island the main ski-ing centre is Mount Ruapehu in the Tongariro National Park. Equipment and instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include three chairlifts, a T-bar, three Poma lifts, and two rope tows. Mount Egmont is the North Island's other principal ski area, with fields at Dawson Falls, Stratford, and North Egmont.

In the South Island the principal areas are Mount Cook (for ski touring), Coronet Peak (Queenstown), Lake Ohau, Porter's Pass, and Arthur's Pass. Coronet Peak, 7 miles from Queenstown, has the best powder snow conditions in New Zealand lying on extensive undulating slopes of varying gradients; equipment and professional instruction is available for skiers, and facilities include chairlifts and a series of ski tows.

Mountaineering and Tramping—The proximity of mountain and forest to the main centres of population encourages tramping in New Zealand. Both North and South Islands have appealing tramping routes and parties can set out to enjoy the beauty and challenge of lonely country.

In the Waitakere and Hunua Ranges near Auckland, the central ranges of the North Island, at Mount Egmont, Tongariro National Park, and the Urewera area, and in the South Island's Fiordland, there are numbers of tracks with high mountain traverses and passages through beautiful scenery.

Other Sports—A wide range of other sports is available. Golf courses are to be found in all parts of the country. Horse racing takes place throughout the year. Rugby football and cricket are widely played during their seasons. There are facilities for bowls, tennis, skating, squash, and most other sports in most parts of the country.

Scenery and Recreation—The 1960 and 1962 issues of the Yearbook contained pictorial supplements entitled "Scenic New Zealand" and "New Zealand's National Parks". In the 1965 issue of the Yearbook the photographs were devoted to the wide opportunities of outdoor recreation, those in the 1967 issue covered "Attractive New Zealand", those in the 1969 Yearbook were devoted to the forests, those in the 1970 issue were entitled "Natural New Zealand" and those in the 1972 issue highlighted "New Zealand Environment". The attractions of the national parks are described in Section 13.

Thermal Areas and Spas—New Zealand is distinctive in having a wide range of volcanic phenomena and associated thermal spas. The chief concentration is in the volcanic belt north-east from the three major volcanoes, all usually quiet, in the centre of the North Island. Most notable in the Rotorua locality are a variety of geysers, mud-pools, pools of boiling water, and steam blow-holes.

Many mineral springs are reputed to have a beneficial effect and mineral baths are maintained by private interests in many places.

Rotorua, with its great variety and abundance of hot springs, is a well-known New Zealand spa.

At Taupo, Wairakei, and Matamata hot mineral waters feed into attractive swimming pools.

Shopping and Souvenirs—Articles of a particularly New Zealand character include attractive jewellery made from paua shell, greenstone, and gem stones, Maori carvings in native timbers, records of Maori singing, pottery depicting Maori emblems, and natural or dyed lambskin rugs and clothing.

Tourist and Publicity Department—Under the Tourist and Publicity Act 1963 the principal functions of the department are to encourage and develop the New Zealand tourist industry and tourist traffic, to, within, and beyond New Zealand; to operate publicity, information, and public relations services; and to maintain a travel service.

The department is responsible for the promotion of New Zealand overseas as a tourist destination and also operates a comprehensive travel service. Bureaus are sited in Auckland, Rotorua, Wellington, Christchurch, Dunedin, and Invercargill, with agencies in other parts of New Zealand. There are overseas offices in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, London, San Francisco, Los Angeles, New York, Tokyo, and Frankfurt. The department also supplies general New Zealand publicity material, publications, films, photographs, and displays for use within New Zealand and overseas to create a background knowledge of New Zealand, its people, and way of life.

Other Tourist Organisations—The New Zealand National Travel Association, an organisation representing private travel interests in New Zealand, is also concerned with the development of the tourist industry.

New Zealand is a member of the International Union of Official Travel Organisations, an association whose principal aims are to ease travel difficulties and obstacles and promote travel research, and also is a foundation member of the Pacific Area Travel Association which was formed in 1952 as a tourist promotional body for the Pacific area.

Chapter 40. Section 38; MISCELLANEOUS

Table of Contents

METRICATION—New Zealand is to convert substantially to the metric system of weights and measures by the end of 1976. The conversion will apply to the whole imperial system of weights and measures that has evolved over the centuries, and will affect every facet of society.

Since 1955 there has been a world-wide change to the exclusive use of the metric system and over 126 countries are now classified by the United Nations as "metric". Countries currently in the process of change include the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, South Africa, and Singapore.

New Zealand's decision to change to the metric system is based almost entirely on the necessity to keep in step with her overseas trading partners, and it is for this reason that planning is for metric conversion in New Zealand to be substantially completed by the end of 1976–1 year after the United Kingdom.

Government policy is that the costs of conversion generally should be borne by those incurring them.

Metric Advisory Board—The Metric Advisory Board was set up by Government in 1969 to encourage, advise, and assist the progressive voluntary adoption of the metric system of weights and measures. Administrative support to the board is provided by the Department of Trade and Industry.

The board has established a number of sector committees to plan for the conversion. These sector committees cover all the main groups in the economy, viz:

Agriculture, building and construction industry, Central and local Government, education, engineering and engineering servicing industries, food and consumer goods and services, fuel and power, manufacturing and processing industries, public relations, recreation, health and sport, science and technology, standardisation, transport and communication, and weighing machines.

The role of the sector committees is to identify problems, prepare timetables, and co-ordinate the metric conversion in their respective sectors of the economy. Where appropriate, divisional committees are established to operate in relation to specific areas with sectors. Wherever possible, sector and divisional committees negotiate with national associations or organisations rather than with local interests or individuals.

Implementation of Conversion—The metric system was being used in New Zealand to some extent before the establishment of the Metric Advisory Board—in the pharmaceutical industry, in hospitals, in scientific establishments, and in some other industries.

The first major steps of the current metric changeover were taken on 1 July 1971 when meteorological reporting of temperature and rainfall changed from degrees Fahrenheit and inches to degrees Celsius and millimetres respectively, and when the wool industry started conducting all trading transactions for unprocessed wool in metric weights.

This was the start of a series of planned and co-ordinated conversions—each designed to be introduced with a minimum of inconvenience to the community. Some of these conversions will affect only specialised sections of the community and will be promulgated through the respective national associations or organisations. Other conversions will affect everybody and these will be publicised on a national basis.

Education—The change in the education system has been instituted smoothly in all levels, and while minor difficulties exist in the acquisition of metric materials for some practical classes, the change has created no major difficulties; in particular, all teaching in primary schools is now in metric units, with imperial measurement no longer being taught.

The planning for the change in national examinations has been implemented, and the 1974 examinations will be completely metric, with no alternative papers or questions.

Retraining in Industry—During 1973 a start was made in retraining those persons whose livelihoods depend on a proper appreciation and use of the new units of measurement. This is being undertaken by the technical institutes, together with the Industrial Training Service of the Department of Labour. Many government departments and large firms are instituting their own training programmes, and have prepared useful training and reference material.

Timescale of Conversion—The changeover from imperial to metric units for weights and measures is a far more extensive change than that made to decimal currency. Consequently, instead of an M-Day, the conversion will be spread over a period of years with substantial conversion planned for the end of 1976. However, there will be some areas in which the conversion will extend well beyond this date—depending on normal replacement cycles for major items of industrial plant or machinery.

Implementation of Timetables—In most sectors of the economy, the timetables have been approved and their implementation is proceeding. In addition to meteorological reporting and wool trading, which went metric in 1971, tidal predictions and land surveying are now metric; road distance signs are in the process of being converted to kilometres; coastal charts are being progressively adapted. In 1973 the building and construction industry commenced to design in metric, also the mechanical engineering industry; the retail sale of petrol in litres is being phased in, and groceries and meat are being retailed in metric quantities. Exports and imports are being expressed in metric measure from 1 July 1974 with the introduction of a new Customs Tariff.

A general guide to changeover dates is as follows:

CategoryDate of Changeover
AgricultureMid 1973 – mid 1974
Building and construction
    DesignOct 1972 onwards
    ConstructionApr 1974 onwards
    Building materials1974–76 (main change 1975)
Forestry1974–75
HorticultureJuly-Dec 1974
Land surveyingJan 1973
Manufacturing
    Butter1973 onwards
    Chemical toiletries1973 onwards
    Clothing and textiles1972–74
    Food1973 onwards
    Electrical and electronic1974–76
    Engineering1973–76
    Footwear and leather goods1972–74
    Meat processingOct 1973
    Motor vehicles1972–78
    Packaging1972 onwards
    Printing and paper1,973
Retailing
    Meat and fish1,974
    Groceries, green groceries1975–76
    Textiles and apparelAug–Dec 1974
    Coal1,974
    Gas1975–76
    Petrol and lubricantsMid 1973–74
Commercial Transport 
    Metric documentation1972 onwards
    Metric freight tariffsApr 1974
Road Transport 
    Road signs1972 onwards
    Regulatory speedsApr 1975
External Trade 
    Exports and ImportsJuly 1974

METRIC SYSTEM—The metric system is not only simpler and more efficient than the imperial system but also has the benefits of internationally agreed definition and standardisation. The modern version of the metric system known as the "International System" (also called SI—"Systeme International d' Unites") has been adopted for use in New Zealand. This system is also being adopted by all those other countries that have recently changed, or are in the process of changing, to the metric system.

The Metric Advisory Board has recommended the following units for use in New Zealand:

CategoryUnitSymbolRelationship
temperaturedegree Celsius°C 
lengthmillimetremm 
 centimetrecm1 cm = 10 mm
 metrem1 m = 100 cm
 kilometrekm1 km = 1000 m
areasquare centimetrecm2 
 square metrem21 m2 = 10,000 cm2
 decaredaa1 daa= 100 m2
 hectareha1 ha =10 daa
volumecubic centimetrecm3 
 cubic metrem31 m3 = 1,000,000 cm3
capacitymillilitreml 
 litre111 = 1000 ml
weightgramg 
 kilogramkg1 kg = 1000 g
 tonnet11 = 1000 kg

In addition to the above 16 units, the decimetre (dm) will be taught to children as a convenient unit of length (1 dm = 10 cm).

Commonplace Units of Measurement
ItemMetricImperial Measure
Man's height1.72 m (metres)5 ft 8 in.
Man's weight74.8 kg (kilograms)11 st 11 lb
Woman's weight57.0 kg (kilograms)9 st 0 lb
Body temp, (normal)37.0°C (degrees centigrade)98.4°F
Door height2.00 m (metres)6 ft 6 in.
Car length4.70 m (metres)15 ft 6 in.
Oil drum capacity200 l (litres)44 gal
Building section's area1,000 m2 (square metres)¼ acre
Dunedin to Christchurch370 km (kilometres)230 miles
Altitude of Mt. Cook3,764 m (metres)12,349 ft

METRIC EQUIVALENTS

1 yard= 0.914 metre
1 mile= 1.609 kilometres
1 inch= 2.54 centimetres
1 square foot= 929.03 square centimetres
1 square yard= 0.836 square metre
1 acre= 0.405 hectare
1 square mile= 2.59 square kilometres
1 ounce= 28.35 grams
1 pound= 0.454 kilograms
1 hundredweight (cwt)= 112 lb = 50.8 kilograms
1 cubic foot= 0.028 cubic metre
1 cubic yard= 0.765 cubic metre
1 gallon= 4.546 litres
1 bushel= 36.37 litres
1 long ton= 1.016 metric tons
1 short ton= 0.907 metric ton
1 mile/gal= 0.354 km/litre
1 cwt/acre= 125.35 kg/hectare
1 m.p.h.= 1.609 km/h
1 hp= 0.746 kW
1 kWh= 3.6 MJ

Full details of individual conversions will be publicised in ample time for public assimilation. The Metric Advisory Board has not produced any detailed conversion aids as these, together with a New Zealand Standard which is an authoritative document on the International System, are available from: Sales Section, Standards Association of New Zealand, Private Bag, Wellington.

Metric Symbol—The metric symbol was introduced in March 1971. A paper defining the conditions of use of the metric symbol may be obtained from the offices of the Metric Advisory Board, P.O. Box 10–243, Wellington.

PATENTS, DESIGNS, AND TRADE MARKS—The legislation concerned is the Patents Act 1953, the Trade Marks Act 1953, and the Designs Act 1953. The total number of applications for the grant of letters patent, and for the registration of designs and trade marks during the financial year 1972–73 was 7,376 which was 182 fewer than in the previous year.

The following table shows the number of applications for patents and for the registration of trade marks and designs for March years.

YearPatentsTrade MarksDesigns
1962–632,8202,304308
1963–643,1922,571366
1964–653,4472,690435
1965–663,4502,591340
1966–673,6652,947361
1967–683,6982,901423
1968–693,9533,195405
1969–703,7013,320301
1970–713,5733,385315
1971–723,4973,593468
1972–733,5183,515343

Patents—The applications received during 1972–73 were broadly classified as follows: chemistry, 1,092; mechanical engineering, 955; electrical engineering, 467; building construction, 322; primary industries, 188; home science and miscellaneous, 494.

Applications originating in New Zealand totalled 1,076, the United States 821, Great Britain 544. Australia 254, with the remaining 823 distributed among 31 other countries.

Trade Marks—During the year 1972–73 applications for trade marks covered the whole of the 34 classes prescribed, the most favoured being: Class 5, pharmaceutical and sanitary substances, etc., 479; Class 3, soaps, detergents, perfumery, cosmetics, etc., 253; Class 25, clothing, boots, shoes, etc., 285.

The countries from which the applications originated were: New Zealand, 1,240; United States, 806; Great Britain, 474; Australia, 320; with the remaining 675 distributed among 24 other countries.

Renewal of registration of 2,556 trade marks was effected during the year.

Designs—A total of 415 industrial designs was registered during the year 1972–73.

INVENTIONS DEVELOPMENT AUTHORITY—In March 1968 the New Zealand Inventions Development Authority was appointed under the Inventions Development Act 1966. The general function of the authority is to promote the development or exploitation of inventions with the object of improving the quality, efficiency, or range of goods or services available for use in New Zealand or for export. The definition of "invention" includes any new or improved process or technique. A main function of the Authority is to secure the development or exploitation of inventions resulting from public research.

There are three main categories of inventions: those from government sources; those from research institutes and universities; and those from private inventors. In general, inventions from government sources are regarded as the property of the Crown. These may be assigned to the Authority for management and exploitation in the national interest at the initiative of the department concerned. A number of such inventions are currently held by the Authority and are either under evaluation, under development, or are licensed for manufacture.

The Authority also assists in the promotion and exploitation of inventions from research institutes and universities if in the public interest and, if desired, becomes the assignee of the patent rights. Revenue sharing with the Authority is by agreement.

The private inventor is, of course, free to make direct contact with industrial firms operating in the field in which his invention lies. If the invention is technically and commercially attractive, a firm may well be willing to develop it to production stage at its own expense. But if industrial interest is not forthcoming, perhaps because the invention is not sufficiently developed for a judgment to be made, the Authority may be able to help.

In the year ended 31 March 1973, 21 inventions were submitted from public research sources and 103 from private inventors; there were 170 other inquiries involving requests for assistance on patenting, development, and exploitation of inventions.

COPYRIGHT—Under the Copyright Act 1962, copyright comes into existence automatically upon the completion of any original literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic work (including photographs). No registration is necessary (or even possible), nor is any other formality required for securing copyright protection.

Copyright also exists in New Zealand for sound recordings, cinematograph films, broadcasts, and published editions (typography) of literary, dramatic, and musical works.

Copyright in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works (except photographs) continues until 50 years after the author's death, if the works are published in the author's lifetime, and until 50 years after publication or 75 years after death (whichever is shorter) if they are unpublished at the death of the author. Copyright in photographs, sound recordings, cinematograph films, and broadcasts continues until 50 years after the making, and in editions until 25 years after publication.

Copyright in New Zealand in literary, dramatic, musical, and artistic works and in cinematograph films extends to all countries which are parties to the International Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Berne Copyright Union) and to all countries which are parties to the Universal Copyright Convention. In some cases sound recordings, broadcasts, and published editions are also protected overseas. New Zealand is a party to both conventions. Most of the important countries of the world (except at present Russia and China, but all English-speaking countries) have acceded to the one or the other or to both conventions.

In New Zealand certain disputes relating to performing rights of copyright works, sound recordings, or films may be determined by the Copyright Tribunal.

INDUSTRIAL DESIGN COUNCIL—This council has been established under the Industrial Design Act 1966 to promote the development of industrial design with the object of improving the quality, efficiency, packaging, and appearance of goods produced in New Zealand. It works in closely with the Inventions Development Authority. It has established a design index whereby approved products can qualify to display the Designmark label. A magazine Designscape is published and liaison functions are provided for a designer service.

STANDARDS COUNCIL—By the Standards Act 1965 the Standards Council was established as an independent body of 43 members from 1 April 1966. The functions of the council are to promote standardisation in industry and commerce and to promulgate standards with the object of improving the quality of goods produced, promoting industrial efficiency and development, and promoting public and industrial welfare, health, and safety. The council largely continues the functions previously performed under earlier legislation in 1941. It functions through the Standards Association which has taken the place of the former Standards Institute. The Standards Association is paying increasing attention to international standardisation and to consumer goods.

PUBLIC TRUST OFFICE—In the early years of settlement in New Zealand those who wished to make provision for the administration of their estates on their deaths often experienced difficulty in selecting a suitable person competent and willing to act as trustee. That difficulty was natural in a new country where the colonists were fully occupied with their own affairs, and were unable to give to the property or business of another the close attention that was demanded.

In these circumstances the Public Trust Office was established in 1872 (it is now constituted under the Public Trust Office Act 1957) under the administration of the Public Trustee, a corporation sole with perpetual succession and a seal of office. The main purpose of the original Act was to provide a means of overcoming the difficulties that have been mentioned and to make available to the public a trustworthy administrator of the estates of deceased persons at a reasonable cost, the integrity of the Public Trustee and his officers being guaranteed by the State. That continues to be the chief function of the Office, but since its establishment the range of services has been very considerably extended. The Public Trustee now acts in many capacities, e.g., as administrator in intestate estates; executor and trustee under wills; trustee under marriage and other settlements; trustee of benefit or relief funds; agent or attorney for absentees or persons desiring to be relieved of business worries; sinking fund commissioner for local authorities; administrator of unclaimed lands and property; manager of the estates of protected patients (other than Maoris); manager (when so appointed by the court) of the estates of aged and infirm persons unable to attend to their own affairs; and trustee of compensation moneys. The wills of persons desiring the Public Trustee to act as their executor and any subsequent will or codicil may be prepared and held in safe custody by him, free of charge. With certain qualifications the Public Trustee may act jointly with another person or persons.

In lieu of obtaining probate or other grant of administration, the Public Trustee may file in an office of the Supreme Court an election by him to administer an estate (testate or intestate) if the gross value of the property in New Zealand is estimated not to exceed $7,500. If after the filing of the election the value of the property is found to exceed $10,000 the Public Trustee must obtain a grant of probate or administration in the ordinary way.

During the year ended 31 March 1973, 5,050 states and funds valued at $51,541,313 were accepted for administration. The administration of 4,880 estates and funds was completed. Estates and funds under administration at 31 March 1973 numbered 19,471 and were valued at $218,642,533.

Capital moneys becoming available for investment either form part of the Common Fund of the Office or, at the option of the testator or settlor, are invested in such securities as he may specify. Interest is allowed on moneys in the Common Fund at the rate fixed from time to time by the Governor-General in Council and is free of all commission and other charges. Both capital and interest are guaranteed by the State, thus affording the complete security that it is the object of the Office to provide. On the other hand, moneys directed to be invested in specific securities do not carry the State guarantee and, subject to the Public Trustee's ordinary liability as a trustee, any loss resulting from their investment falls upon the estate concerned. Commission is charged on the collection of the interest. Recognising that the safety of the moneys is thereby assured, the great majority of testators and settlors desire their funds to be placed in the Common Fund.

Charges and commission rates are contained in the Public Trust Office Regulations 1958.

New investments completed during the year ended 31 March 1973 totalled $15,770,644. The investments held by the Office at 31 March 1973 totalled $75,862,490. These figures relate exclusively to Common Fund investments, and do not include other special investments made on behalf of estates, or investments which constitute assets of estates when the latter came under the Public Trustee's administration and which are still held as assets of those estates.

During the year ended 31 March 1973, 16,351 wills appointing the Public Trustee executor were deposited with him for safe custody. The total number of such wills held on deposit at 31 March 1973 was 253,777. During the year ended 31 March 1973 effect was given in 10,773 cases to changes desired by testators.

BANKRUPTCY—The law relating to bankruptcy in New Zealand is contained in the main in the Insolvency Act 1967 and the Insolvency Regulations 1970. Jurisdiction in bankruptcy matters is vested in the Supreme Court.

All proceedings in bankruptcy are commenced by a petition filed in the court, A petition may be filed either by the debtor or by a creditor, a fee of $12 being payable. The filing of a debtor's petition is equivalent to an order of the court adjudging the debtor a bankrupt, no order being required in this case. Not less than $200 in the aggregate must be owing by the debtor to the creditor or creditors filing a petition.

The Official Assignee is empowered to sell the bankrupt's property, to claim debts due to the bankrupt estate, to carry on the business of the bankrupt so far as is necessary or expedient for its beneficial winding up, or to divide the property among the creditors. The bankrupt may be appointed by the Official Assignee to manage his estate or carry on his business on behalf of the creditors.

Creditors may accept a composition in satisfaction of the debts due to them. In such a case, after approval of the court, a deed of composition is executed and filed, and the bankruptcy annulled.

On application being made by the bankrupt, the court is empowered to grant him an order of discharge, either absolute, suspended, or conditional. The application may be opposed either by the Official Assignee or by any creditor who has proved his claim. A public examination of the bankrupt may be demanded by the assignee on a resolution by creditors. A person adjudged bankrupt is discharged three years after the date of adjudication unless discharged sooner.

Another form of financial failure is covered by private assignments, of which there were 10 in 1968, 6 in 1969, 5 in 1970, 6 in 1971, 2 in 1972, and 1 in 1973. Private assignments are not included in official bankruptcy statistics.

Transactions in Bankruptcy—The number of transactions in bankruptcy during the last 6 years is now given. A long-term record of the more important features will be found in the Statistical Summary given later in this volume.

YearBankruptciesOrders of Discharge or Annulment GrantedCourt Orders for Liquidation of CompaniesTotal Commercial Failures
Petitions by DebtorsAdjudications on Petitions by Creditors
19686936511062820
19695236912167659
19704696619461596
19713505213475477
19723246511872461
1973209467674329

In the case of a partnership, each partner is counted in the total of transactions and also the partnership. The general bankruptcy statistics do not cover assignments and compositions, but relate only to cases dealt with by official assignees.

In some cases of company liquidations, subsequent court orders are given for the winding up of companies to be transferred to private liquidators. There were 15 such cases in 1968, 9 in 1969, 7 in 1970, 3 in 1971, 1 in 1972, 1 in 1973; these are not included in the above table and succeeding tables.

The table following shows for each of the last 11 years the average amount of debts proved per estate, and also the proportion of dividends, preferential claims, and secured claims, to debts.

YearAverage Debts Proved per EstateProportion of Dividends, etc., to Debts
 $percent
19623,61815.3
19632,93423.1
19643,52016.8
19654,61013.3
19664,01015.1
19673,54610.7
19684,5656.8
19695,68014.8
19706,14110.3
19717,27813.7
19728,97711.9
19739,09120.9

Apart from dividends, preferential and secured claims, and Government commission, payments made from assets realised include cost of actions, solicitors' fees, and expenses incurred in managing estates for the benefit of creditors.

In the following table bankruptcies are classified according to amount groups of stated liabilities. With all partnerships the liabilities for each partner are included, but not the partnership. Company liquidations are included.

Liabilities19691970197119721973

*Excludes partnerships, 1969, 4; 1970, 4; 1971, 1; 1972, 3 and also 9 companies for which no statement of liabilities was received.

†Excludes 4 partnerships and also 7 companies for which no statements of liabilities were received.

Under $5007964543123
    $500-$999119115696045
  $1,000-$1,999141137837749
  $2,000-$3,99912994937763
  $4,000-$9,999119104889171
  $10,000 and over68788911367
Totals655*592*476*499*318

Industry Groups of Bankrupts—All persons adjudged bankrupt (whether self-employed, employers of labour, or salary and wage earners) have been classified in the following table according to the industry in which they were last employed.

Industry Group19691970197119721973
*Excludes partnerships as follows: 1969, 4; 1970, 4; 1971, 1; 1972. 9: and 1973, 6.
Agriculture and livestock production6648413112
Forestry, hunting, and fishing252416229
Mining and quarrying22
Manufacturing—
    Food and beverages101516158
    Footwear and textiles71243
    Wood, furniture, and fixtures611452
    Printing and publishing222
    Machinery (not electrical)817323
    Transport equipment28131499
    Other11717117
Construction10690586950
Wholesale and retail trade9189635952
Other commerce3771110
Transport, storage, and communications7272403724
Personal and community services6865794828
Industry not adequately described5337103820
Persons not gainfully employed in any industry3024291613
Totals*588531401380249

The types of activity in which bankrupts were engaged at the time of failure frequently bear little relationship to the fact of insolvency. Personal extravagance or business incompetence are probably much more important factors in the majority of cases.

The occupational status of individual bankrupts is given in the following table. With all partnerships the occupation of each partner is included, but not the partnership.

YearOccupational Status
Working for Salary or WagesEmployer of LabourWorking on Own Account But Not Employing LabourNot Gainfully EmployedTotal*
*Excludes partnerships as follows 1963, 2; 1965, 1; 1966, 4; 1967, 12; 1968, 12; 1969, 4; 1970, 4; 1971, 1; 1972, 9: and 1973, 6
196326910416310546
19642626913913483
19652519112317482
19662629211411479
196730111614330590
196839211919342746
196926312317230588
197024310116324531
19711598712629401
19721578611621380
197397528713249

INTERNATIONAL INDICATORS OF STANDARDS OF LIVING—Measurements of standards or levels of living between countries constitute a complex problem for which there is no completely adequate or satisfactory solution in the way of an index that can be applied internationally. United Nations statistics on estimates of gross national product per head are indicators of relativities in the production of goods and services on a national basis; leading countries include United States, Sweden, Canada, Switzerland, Denmark, France, Australia, Norway, West Germany, Belgium, New Zealand, Netherlands, United Kingdom, Finland, and Japan.

Relative standards of living cannot be compared by taking per-head incomes or expenditure alone. Environmental and other factors are being increasingly recognised as components of quality of life, a much less easily measured concept. In assessing standards of living, the United Nations Economic and Social Council is now giving consideration to the development of social indicators parallel with purely economic terms of measurement. These include health and personal safety; equality of educational opportunity; employment and quality of working life; leisure satisfaction; social security provisions; social opportunity and quality; social, cultural, and communication capabilities; housing and community; physical environment.

Methods of measurement of these factors are being recommended on an international basis. In these wider terms of reference New Zealand's position is appreciably improved.

Some comparative indicators related to standards of living are set out in the following table. In other sections of the Yearbook there are international comparisons on food consumption, life expectancy, infant mortality, and newspaper circulation.

ItemNew ZealandUnited StatesCanadaAustraliaUnited KingdomSweden
*England and Wales, 1967.
Number per 1,000 of population—
    Passenger cars (1971)328454323314221292
    Television sets (1971)245449349227298323
    Telephones (1971)450604468324289557
Enrolment in higher education per 100,000 of population (1969)2,0293,8962,6681,368716*1,439
Public education expenditure as a percentage of GNP at market price4.65.15.73.34.27.4
 (1968–69)(1967)(1965)(1968–69)(1965)(1966)
Newsprint (kg per head) (1971)32.143.830.736.624.931.8
Persons per hospital bed (1969)98123988310667
Persons per doctor (1970)663669700847855768

SOCIAL GOALS—New Zealand, in its approach to the matter of social goals and social indicators has proceeded along the guide lines proposed by the United Nations. In this approach, goals are defined as pragmatically as possible and indicators are sought which are both statistically valid and currently available and have been collected over a number of years. The choice of social indicators is not unduly influenced by matters of immediate concern but reflects the long-run social objectives of the society. The Social Council has recently completed a statement of a goal and objectives for social development in New Zealand and this is set out as follows.

Goal for Social Development—A social, cultural, physical, and economic environment which provides the maximum opportunity for each person now and in the future to achieve self-fulfilment in a caring community concerned for the rights and well-being of all.

Objective A—To strengthen the spirit of community by ensuring each person has the maximum opportunity to:

  1. Create and belong to family and other social units based on mutual co-operation and responsibility, affection, whanaungatanga, and aroha.

  2. Participate in community decision-making.

  3. Contribute towards the generation of community objectives.

  4. Contribute his or her unique qualities towards the achievement of community objectives.

  5. Share in the benefits of attaining community objectives.

Objective B—To enhance the dignity, freedom, and independence of the individual by ensuring that:

  1. Each person is regarded as having dignity and as being worthy of respect.

  2. Each person has the maximum freedom of choice and action without encroaching upon the rights of others.

  3. Decisions relating to community objectives take account of the views and situations of all persons living in the community.

  4. Each person is encouraged to understand and appreciate the views and religious, political, ethnic, and cultural differences of other persons and groups.

  5. Each person has adequate access to processes of law and equal rights before the law.

Objective C—To preserve life and promote health by ensuring that:

  1. Each person has the opportunity to be as physically healthy and fit and emotionally healthy and stable as his potential allows.

  2. A stable family or other intimate group is provided for children growing up (and dependent adults).

  3. Adequate and readily available health services are provided.

  4. The hazards of injury, accident, and crime are kept to a minimum.

Objective D—To share resources fairly by ensuring each person has:

  1. The opportunity of a material standard of living at a level which enables him or her to enjoy a sense of belonging to and participating in the community.

  2. The opportunity to own and enjoy property and possessions.

  3. Access to the knowledge and skills which will lead to the development of the individual and the well-being of the community.

  4. Vocational opportunities which are satisfying and within his or her capabilities.

  5. Ready access to leisure time activities.

  6. Ready access to the community social welfare services.

Objective E—To enhance man's environment by:

  1. Ensuring the ecological balance between man and his environment is such that his use and enjoyment of the environment does not endanger the quality of life of future generations.

  2. Preserving community access to and enjoyment of the country's physical endowments and attractions.

  3. Promoting the social, intellectual, artistic, creative, and physical pursuits which enrich people's lives.

  4. Helping people in other parts of the world in their efforts to achieve a better life.

  5. Promoting world peace and justice and international understanding.

The Department of Statistics is gathering a number of series of social statistics into a compendium Social Trends in New Zealand.

LOTTERIES—Under the Gaming Act 1908 the Police may license raffles where the value of prizes does not exceed in aggregate $50 of the value or any one prize does not exceed $20. The Police may also approve specified organisations conducting raffles, where the aggregate value of prizes in any one raffle does not exceed $10, without the necessity for individual licences. Raffles with prizes exceeding the above maximum values may be licensed by the Minister of Internal Affairs. There were 20,730 licences issued under the Minister's authority during the year ended 31 March 1973, to local, provincial, and national organisations. The Gaming Act precludes the issue of licences to conduct raffles for the purpose of private gain. Otherwise the Police and the Minister may issue licences subject to such conditions as they think fit.

The Gaming Amendment Act 1962 provides for the Minister of Internal Affairs to promote lotteries. The "Golden Kiwi", "Mammoth", and "Special Sweepstake" lotteries conducted in conjunction with certain glamour horse races have been established. The number of tickets in each lottery is restricted to 250,000 at 50C each in the case of the "Golden Kiwi", 250,000 at $2 each in the case of the "Mammoth", and 150,000 at $5 each in the case of the "Special Sweepstake" lotteries. The total prize list is $66,000 in respect of the "Golden Kiwi" lottery, $270,000 in the "Mammoth" lottery, and $400,000 in the "Special Sweepstake" lottery. During the year ended 31 March 1973 42 "Golden Kiwi", 3 "Mammoth", and 4 "Special Sweepstake" lotteries were conducted. The aggregate financial results of these lotteries is shown for the latest 8 years.

Item1965–661966–671967–681968–691969–701970–711971–721972–73
Number of lotteries..5349454750444549
Gross sales$(000)8,8758,3757,1246,6247,3756,2506,3749,750
Commission on sales$(000)776725655653711614627825
Expenses$(000)258245231240231205209241
Prizes$(000)4,7224,4583,7863,5103,9123,3123,3785,158
Lottery duty$(000)887837712662737625637975
Direct profit$(000)2,2322,1091,7391,5591,7841,4941,5232,551

The net profits from these lotteries are required by the Gaming Amendment Act to be distributed for charitable, philanthropic, or cultural purposes or for other purposes beneficial to the community. A lottery board of control has the responsibility of apportioning profits of lotteries to various distributing authorities which consider applications for assistance and make grants. Allocations made by the board in 1972–73 were as follows: $235,000 for the welfare of aged persons; $330,000 for social welfare including various mayoral and other funds for relief or distress; $499,000 for youth organisations, sporting bodies, national water safety, national mountain safety and to various bodies providing community facilities; $125,000 for medical research; $125,000 for scientific research; $260,000 to Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council, and $68,000 for miscellaneous purposes.

For some time, more recently in consultation with the Police and the Department of Justice, the Department of Internal Affairs has been engaged in a comprehensive and intensive study of the gaming and lotteries legislation with a view to complete revision of the present Act, having regard in so doing to overseas experience and to changes in public attitudes in New Zealand.

LIQUOR LICENSING—The principal source of the liquor law of New Zealand is the Sale of Liquor Act 1962. The principles on which the liquor law of New Zealand rests are that no liquor may be sold without a licence, that new licences are not to be authorised unless they are shown to be necessary or desirable in the locality, and that there should be close regulation of the conduct of the trade and of the provision and standard of accommodation, amenities, and services.

There is a Licensing Control Commission whose principal functions are to ascertain the requirements of the public as to the provision of accommodation, services, and other facilities on licensed premises; to determine what new hotel, tavern, and tourist house premises licences, restaurant licences, and wholesale licences are needed and to authorise their issue; to review provisional hotel licences and determine whether the licence to be issued in their place should be a hotel or tavern premises licence; to prescribe and enforce standards of accommodation, amenities, and services; to grant club charters; and to hear appeals from licensing committees. There is a right of appeal to the commission from every decision of a licensing committee except on a matter of law or character in which case the appeal is to the Supreme Court. Many of the commission's decisions are themselves subject to appeal to the Supreme Court, and an appeal may be brought in any case on a point of law. Appeals now lie to the Administrative Division of the Supreme Court.

Licences either in force or authorised at 31 March 1973 comprised 801 hotel premises licences, 264 tavern premises licences, 57 tourist house premises licences, and 171 wholesale licences.

There are 47 permanent club charters and 244 renewable club charters in force. All the permanent charters and some of the renewable charters permit the sale of liquor to members for consumption off as well as on the premises.

A total of 337 wine resellers' licences have been authorised.

New Licences—The Licensing Control Commission decides after a public inquiry whether the issue of a hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licence, or a wholesale or wine reseller's licence is desirable in a particular locality. In the case of a hotel, tourist house, or tavern premises licence, the commission prescribes the minimum standards of accommodation, services, and other facilities that must be provided. It may direct that any bar-room of a hotel or tavern shall contain facilities for sit-down drinking. There is provision for a poll of residents on the question whether a hotel or tavern premises licence is not desired in the locality, and if the majority of votes recorded at the poll is against the licence the commission may not authorise one unless special circumstances exist.

Subject to the result of any such poll the commission (or in the case of a wholesale or wine reseller's licence, the Licensing Committee) then calls for applications for the licence. The decision of the commission or the committee as to which applicant should receive the licence in effect fixes the exact site of the proposed premises. In the case of a hotel or a tavern any adult residing within a quarter of a mile may object to the Town and Country Planning Appeal Board on the grounds that the site is in the immediate vicinity of a church, school, or hospital, or that the objector will be adversely affected by the establishment of a hotel or tavern on the site. In considering an objection on the ground of adverse affection, the board has regard to the provisions of any district planning scheme (or if there is no such scheme, planning principles), to the distance between the site and the nearest substantial number of houses, to the provision made for off-street parking, and to other relevant circumstances.

Hours of Sale—The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 governs the hours of sale. A special general poll was held on 23 September 1967 concerning the closing hours for the sale of liquor in hotel, tavern, and chartered club bar-rooms. The closing hour had been 6 p.m. since 1917. Voting for later closing was 641,105 and for 6 p.m. closing it was 353,662. Under the Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1967 the usual hours of opening and closing of hotels or taverns were fixed at 11 a.m. and 10 p.m. respectively, and the new hours applied from 9 October 1967. Provision was made for the Licensing Committee to vary the hours for particular hotels or taverns but no premises are to be open for the sale of liquor to the public for more than 11 hours a day. Sales from licensed premises are prohibited on Sundays, Christmas Day, and Good Friday.

Legislation in 1960 authorised hotels to serve liquor to guests and lodgers partaking of a meal for consumption with the meal up to 11.30 p.m. on any day and between 12 noon and 2.30 p.m. on Sunday, Christmas Day, and Good Friday. By the same Act the hours during which licensed restaurants may sell and serve liquor to diners were fixed as 12 noon to 2.30 p.m. and 6 p.m. to 11.30 p.m. on any day. The Sale of Liquor Act 1962 authorises the commission to grant permits to a hotel for the sale of liquor in a lounge or lounge bar to diners during hours fixed by the commission, but not later than 11.30 p.m. It also provides for theatre, cabaret, and airport licences and prescribes the hours of sale in each case.

Drinking Age—The Sale of Liquor Amendment Act 1969 made provision from 24 October 1969 for the sale of liquor to persons of the age of 20 years; liquor may also be supplied to persons of 18 years and over as part of a meal if the person is accompanied by a spouse of 20 or more years of age or a parent.

Licensing Trusts—The system of trust control in New Zealand is an alternative to the traditional means of controlling the sale of liquor through privately held licences supervised by licensing committees, and the Licensing Control Commission gives the public an indirect control over the conditions under which liquor is sold. In the case of trusts, public control is direct since the whole of the liquor trade in a trust district is conducted by the trust, which is elected by the residents and is responsible to them.

The first licensing trust in New Zealand was set up in 1944 following the carrying of restoration in the former Invercargill no-licence district. There are now eight district trusts—Ashburton, Clutha, Geraldine, Invercargill, Masterton, Mataura, Oamaru, and Porirua. In addition an increasing number of local trusts scattered throughout the country are operating hotels. Because of the circumstances of the remaining no-licence districts and their relation to the metropolitan areas as a whole, legislation was enacted in 1963 providing a special procedure if any of them should carry restoration, and introducing a new form of trust control known as suburban trusts.

On the carrying of restoration in any remaining no-licence district, the Licensing Control Commission will review the area and decide what hotel, tourist-house, and tavern premises licences and what wholesale licences are necessary or desirable in the district or any locality or place therein. If the commission is of the opinion that it should authorise the issue of any licence a further poll is taken on the question whether all licences to be so authorised should be offered to suburban trusts.

Should the trust proposal be carried, any local authority in the district may apply (or if no such application is made within the prescribed time 100 or more residents may apply) for the licence or licences to be issued to a suburban trust and the application must be granted if it conforms to the standards defined by the commission. A suburban trust would then be established in accordance with the regulations to operate the licence or licences. If the trust proposal were not carried the ordinary procedure under the Sale of Liquor Act would be followed. Under this procedure five suburban trusts have so far been constituted, namely, Johnsonville and Wellington South (in Wellington), and Waitakere, Portage, and Mount Albert in Auckland.

GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS—A general election of parliamentary representatives was held on 25 November 1972, voting in New Zealand for both European and Maori electorates taking place on that day.

The strength of the political party representation among members of Parliament after the 1972 election was Labour 53, National 34. The relative strengths after the eight preceding general elections were as follows: November 1949, National 46, Labour 34; September 1951, National 50, Labour 30; November 1954, National 45, Labour 35; November 1957, Labour 41, National 39; November 1960, National 46, Labour 34; November 1963, National 45, Labour 35; November 1966, National 44, Labour 35, Social Credit 1; November 1969, National 45, Labour 39.

The total numbers of electors on the roll for the election in 1972 was 1,569,937, and persons not on the roll whose votes were allowed totalled 13,319. The percentage of qualified voters who voted was 89.05.

The following table shows for the last four general elections the number of votes recorded by the main political parties, along with the percentages that the various party votes represent of the total valid votes.

Political PartyVotes RecordedPercentage of Total Valid Votes
19631966196919721963196619691972
Labour524,066499,392592,055677,66943.7441.4444.1848.37
National563,875525,945605,960581,42247.0743.6445.2241.50
Social Credit95,176174,515121,57693,2317.9414.489.076.65
Values27,4671.96
Others14,9285,24320,57721,3631.250.441.531.52
Total valid votes1,198,0451,205,0951,340,1681,401,152100.00100.00100.00100.00
Informal votes7,2777,03211,6459,088
Total votes recorded1,205,3221,212,1271,351,8131,410,240

A statement of voting in individual electorates at the general election in 1972 was given in pp. 957–961 of the 1973 Yearbook.

NATIONAL LICENSING POLL—The licensing poll of 25 November 1972 held in conjunction with the parliamentary elections, was the fourteenth at which the three issues—national continuance, State purchase and control, and national prohibition (without compensation)—were submitted to the electors. Official figures of the 1972 poll, together with those of five preceding polls, were as follows.

Voting Issue195719601963196619691972
For national continuance723,059765,952791,767817,760903,962931,778
For State purchase and control160,483138,644157,581176,946242,499244,003
For national prohibition260,132255,157235,959198,859176,055203,791

POLL ON TERM OF PARLIAMENT—On 23 September 1967 a special general poll was held on a proposal that the term of the House of Representatives be changed. Votes for a maximum of 3 years as at present totalled 678,960; votes for a maximum term of 4 years totalled 317,973.

TIME-SERVICE ARRANGEMENTS—One uniform time is kept throughout New Zealand. The New Zealand Gazette of 31 October 1868 contained a Government announcement to the effect that the time corresponding to longitude 172° 30′ east of Greenwich (exactly 11½ hours in advance of Greenwich time) was to be adopted as the New Zealand Mean Time throughout the colony.

This New Zealand Mean Time 11h 30 min, in advance of Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.), was observed continuously up to 1927, when on 6 November clocks were advanced 1 hour until 4 March 1928. Summer Time, with clocks advanced only 30 minutes (to 12 h ahead of G.M.T.), became standard practice in the summer months under the Summer Time Act 1929.

The Daylight Saving Emergency Regulations of 1941 provided for the continuance of Summer Time throughout that year, and its continued observance during subsequent war years was provided for by regulations made annually.

By the Standard Time Act of 1945 the time of the meridian 180° east of Greenwich (12 h in advance of G.M.T.) was adopted as the Standard Time for New Zealand. Thus, what was formerly known as "Summer Time" became "New Zealand Standard Time" as from 1 January 1946.

The time throughout New Zealand is controlled by the New Zealand Time Service, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. The Observatory signal clock is kept as correct as possible by comparison with radio signals from observatories in other parts of the world, and the error rarely exceeds a few milliseconds.

The Observatory provides a time service over Station ZLW and stations of the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation.

BOOK PUBLISHING—The following table classifies the publications for 1972 which have been included by the Alexander Turnbull Library in the New Zealand National Bibliography 1972.

SubjectBooksPamphletsTotal
General172037
Religion, theology, philosophy142943
Sociology, statistics191534
Political science6357120
Law, public administration, social welfare414586
Education4060100
Trade, communications, transport162339
Linguistics, philology131528
Sciences8295177
Technology, and trades255277
Agriculture, forestry315384
Domestic science71522
Commercial management131629
Fine arts, etc.384381
Entertainment, sport211738
Literature383371
Geography, travel292756
History, biography504393
Totals5576581,215

The New Zealand National Bibliography, which commenced publication in 1967, is issued monthly and cumulated annually by the National Library of New Zealand. It lists works published in New Zealand and also works published overseas by authors normally resident in New Zealand, and works that deal in whole or part with New Zealand. It includes books, pamphlets, art prints, maps, new periodicals, and periodicals that have ceased publication.

As at 30 October 1973 there were 1,645 periodicals (other than parish and school magazines) being received regularly under the provisions of the Copyright Act.

COMPUTERS—Technological change is an influential contributor to economic growth. Outstanding examples are the electric motor and the computer. A useful study "The Role of the Computer in the New Zealand Economy" was published in 1968 by the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research. Basically, computers are logical electronic information handlers whether they are used for accounting, traffic control, scientific calculations, design simulation, or controlling industrial processes. The first computer was imported into New Zealand in 1960 and by 1968 the total had risen to 87. (By 1972 the total was estimated to be nearly 200.) In actual practice few computers are sold; they are imported by one of the large computer companies on behalf of the user who rents the equipment and pays importation charges of around three-quarters of the first year's rental (which for a medium-sized unit may be $50,000).

An international comparison of computer rental expenditure in relation to national income in 1967 was made by the Institute of Economic Research. Equating New Zealand's proportion to a base of 100, the corresponding figure for Australia was 140, and for Denmark 180, Norway 135, and Finland 120. (The latter three countries were selected because they have populations under 5 million and have important agricultural sectors). Computer applications in New Zealand are not generally at an advanced stage and few of them are working more than one shift.

The demand for computers has come from Government departments, local authorities, universities, primary producer boards, private firms in industries such as printing, forestry, insurance, oil, food processing, electrical equipment manufacturing, building and construction, clothing, engineering, airways, banking, retailing, motor assembly, paint manufacturing, and stock and station agents. The State Services Commission has established a computer centre in Wellington to serve a number of Government departments, while small private firms use independent bureaus and those run by equipment suppliers. A computer advisory service for commercial firms is available from the Physics and Engineering Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Private Bag, Lower Hutt.

PUBLIC HOLIDAYS—These are listed below.

Holiday1974197519761977
*Date of Queen's Birthday, 21 April 1926.
New Year's Day1 January1 January1 January1 January
New Zealand Day6 February6 February6 February6 February
Good Friday12 April28 March16 April8 April
Easter Monday15 April31 March19 April11 April
Anzac Day25 April25 April25 April25 April
Queen's Birthday* (observance)3 June2 June7 June6 June
Labour Day28 October27 October25 October24 October
Christmas Day25 December25 December25 December25 December
Boxing Day26 December26 December26 December26 December

In addition to the above, there is in each provincial district a holiday for the provincial anniversary. The actual anniversary days are as follows: Northland, 29 January; Auckland, 29 January; Taranaki, 31 March; Hawke's Bay, 1 November; Wellington, 22 January; Marlborough, 1 November; Nelson, 1 February; Canterbury, 16 December; Westland, 1 December; Otago and Southland, 23 March.

When Anniversary Day falls on Friday or later, the holiday is observed on the next Monday; if earlier, it is observed on the preceding Monday. In some cases the holiday is taken on the local show day or some other day; in Taranaki it is the second Monday in March to avoid a clash with Easter observance.

RACE RELATIONS—The Race Relations Act 1971 is designed to affirm and promote racial equality in New Zealand and implements the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination. Discrimination is unlawful on the grounds of colour, race, or ethnic or national origins, for: (a) access by the public to places, vehicles, and facilities; (b) provision of goods and services; (c) employment (including employment of independent contractors); (d) land, housing, and other accommodation. It is also unlawful to publish or display any advertisement or notice which indicates an intention to commit a breach of any of these provisions.

A breach of any of the provisions may be the subject of an investigation by the Race Relations Conciliator.

SPORT AND RECREATION—New Zealand is fortunate in having excellent natural facilities for outdoor pursuits and sports. The climate is temperate and equable.

The long coastline, the numerous rivers, lakes, and mountain ranges give full opportunity for yachting, boating, swimming, surfing, mountaineering, tramping, and ski-ing. Sea and freshwater fishing, both by rod and by line, scuba diving, hunting, and shooting are extremely popular and relatively inexpensive.

Tennis, cricket, athletics, lawn bowls, softball, water sports, and rowing are the most popular summer games and sports.

Rugby football is the leading winter sport but many people play rugby league football, association football, outdoor and indoor basketball, hockey, indoor bowls, table tennis, and badminton.

Golf is a popular summer and winter sport. Boxing, wrestling, gymnastics, judo, and fencing have a small following.

While some sports, for instance rugby football, attract many spectators, the high proportion of persons who actually take an active part in various sports and games compared with those who merely watch, is a striking characteristic of New Zealand life. In many sports there is a close association between school and club activities.

The administration of various sports clubs is generally controlled by national bodies within New Zealand through their district associations. The various sports in New Zealand are amateur. Promising players or performers have ample and equal opportunity on merit to represent first their clubs, then the district, and ultimately New Zealand in competitive play.

In major sports each organisation administers its own affairs. However, competitors to represent New Zealand at Olympic and Commonwealth Games are selected by an Olympic Council made up of representatives of the various sports associations.

The National Mountain Safety Council, together with its member organisations, conducts a national campaign for safety in the mountains and bush. Similarly, the National Water Safety Council, its member organisations, and swimming and lifesaving organisations, conduct a national water safety campaign, which includes general instruction in resuscitation procedures.

The Cobham Outward Bound School was established in Queen Charlotte Sound, Marlborough, in 1962, and several thousand boys aged 16 to 20 years have completed its short courses which use the challenges of the outdoors to promote self-confidence and self-discipline.

Within the schools greater emphasis is now placed on the encouragement of wider recreational interests which may be continued after leaving school and to the range of traditional team sports have been added activities such as golf, squash, surfing, yachting, fencing, tramping, flying, etc.

A system of school camps has been developed by the educational authorities. Permanent camp sites include Kaeo, Kawau, Port Waikato, Kaitawa, Paraparaumu, and Rotoiti. These camps attempt to promote the value of social growth through the provision of opportunities to live and work together and develop qualities of initiative, self-confidence, and independence. Young people are encouraged to enjoy and make use of the natural environment by developing skills of campcraft, tramping, map and compass work, bushcraft, water safety, sailing and canoeing, and climbing, etc. Field work on the natural sciences and geography involves study of the land forms and local ecology of river, sea, and bush life.

In recent years some universities have established facilities and appointed staff to serve the physical recreation needs of the student body at large. Regular physical activity and its accompanying social recreation have been found to produce considerable improvements to health and application to studies.

Recreation involves the arts, including drama, ballet, music, art and craft, just as much as the more active physical sports, and their development is more fully described elsewhere in the Yearbook in the section Support of Cultural Activities.

The range of musical recreation, involving both participants and audiences, includes orchestras, pipe and brass bands, operatic societies, dance bands and pop groups. Music plays a large part in community recreation, especially among the youth. It is interesting to note how the change to later hotel hours has tended to shift the musical focus from the dance hall to the hotel where musical groups now entertain in the evenings.

Maori and Pacific Island cultural groups organise especially for their young people recreational activity, which provides not only a grounding in the richness of their cultural heritage but also helps to counter the stresses placed on those inexperienced in urban living.

Financial Assistance—Grants from Government to national youth organisations to assist their development and leadership training programmes are made to organisations such as the National Youth Council, the Young Men's Christian Association, the Young Women's Christian Association, and the Youth Hostels' Association. During 1972–73 these grants totalled $76,100. In addition a total of $89,500 was allocated in 1972–73 to national uniformed youth organisations by way of capitation grants on the basis of $50 per 100 members, with a maximum grant of $30,000 for any one organisation.

Sporting and recreational organisations receive some financial assistance from lottery profits, but to qualify for assistance the organisation must show a substantial degree of self help.

The Department of Internal Affairs is responsible for a subsidy scheme to provide financial assistance to religious groups of up to one-fifth of the total cost of a project of building or extending a hall or camp used for youth work. For 1972–73 a total of $136,340 was paid out.

The National Mountain Safety Council and National Water Safety Council received for 1972–73 allocations from lottery profits of $35,000 and $75,000 respectively. Twenty-eight mountain safety committees organise courses on bushcraft, alpine instruction, map reading, exposure prevention, and firearm safety.

The department has youth activities officers stationed at each of the main centres with the tasks of maintaining close liaison with local authorities, educational institutions, and youth and community associations in order to gain support and advice for schemes involving recreational activities and of keeping the community informed of the needs of young people.

In November 1972, a Minister of Recreation and Sport was appointed. The Recreation and Sport Act 1973 provided for the establishment of a Ministry of Recreation and Sport and a New Zealand Council for Recreation and Sport. The general functions of the council are to foster and promote the total well-being of, and the fullest use of leisure by the residents of New Zealand; to advise the Minister on any matters relating to recreation and sport; and to investigate developments in recreation and sport, and disseminate knowledge and information about such developments. The sum of $3 million was appropriated through the Ministry during 1973–74 to support community recreational and sporting activities. Grants are designed to encourage the provision of new or expanded facilities or services either by local authorities or voluntary organisations, particularly for young people and senior citizens.

NATIONAL SONG—New Zealand's National Song is God Defend New Zealand, the words being written by Thomas Bracken and the music composed by John J. Woods.

The verses are now given.

  1. God of nations at Thy feet In the bonds of love we meet, Hear our voices, we entreat, God defend our Free Land. Guard Pacific's triple star From the shafts of strife and war, Make her praises heard afar, God defend New Zealand.

  2. Men of ev'ry creed and race Gather here before Thy face, Asking Thee to bless this place, God defend our Free Land. From dissension, envy, hate, And corruption guard our State, Make our country good and great, God defend New Zealand.

  3. Peace, not war, shall be our boast, But, should foes assail our coast, Make us then a mighty host, God defend our Free Land. Lord of battles in Thy might, Put our enemies to flight, Let our cause be just and right, God defend New Zealand.

  4. Let our love for Thee increase, May Thy blessings never cease, Give us plenty, give us peace, God defend our Free Land. From dishonour and from shame Guard our country's spotless name, Crown her with immortal fame, God defend New Zealand.

  5. May our mountains ever be Freedom's ramparts on the sea, Make us faithful unto Thee, God defend our Free Land. Guide her in the nation's van, Preaching love and truth to man, Working out Thy glorious plan, God defend New Zealand.

NEW ZEALAND ENSIGN—The national flag is the New Zealand Ensign described in a Gazette notice of 27 June 1902. Its specifications are given in an Encyclopaedia of New Zealand. The basis is the Union Jack in the upper left quarter, and on a blue ground to the right the Southern Cross is represented by four five-pointed red stars with white borders.

NEW ZEALAND COAT OF ARMS—The New Zealand Coat of Arms is pictured and described as a frontispiece in the 1969 and earlier issues of the Official Yearbook.

Chapter 41. Section 39; OFFICIAL

GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF NEW ZEALAND

His Excellency Sir Edward Denis Blundell, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., K.B.E.

Official Secretary—D. C. Williams, C.V.O.

(His Excellency assumed office on 27 September 1972)

PREVIOUS VICE-REGAL REPRESENTATIVES

Governors since 1840 and Governors-General since 1917 are listed below.

    Vice-Regal RepresentativeAssumed OfficeRetired
THE DEPENDENCY PERIOD    
Lieutenant-Governor    
Captain William Hobson, R.N.30 Jan1,8403 May1,841
THE CROWN COLONY    
Governor    
Captain William Hobson, R.N.3 May1,84110 Sep1,842
Captain Robert FitzRoy, R.N.26 Dec1,84317 Nov1,845
Captain George Grey18 Nov1,84531 Dec1,847
Governor    
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.1 Jan1,8487 Mar1,853
THE SELF-GOVERNING COLONY    
Governor of New Zealand    
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.7 Mar1,85331 Dec1,853
Colonel Thomas Gore Browne, C.B.6 Sep1,8552 Oct1,861
Sir George Grey, K.C.B.4 Dec1,8615 Feb1,868
Sir George Ferguson Bowen, G.C.M.G.5 Feb1,86819 Mar1,873
The Right Hon. Sir James Fergusson, BART., G.C.S.I., K.C.M.G., C.I.E.14 Jun1,8733 Dec1,874
The Right Hon. the Marquess of Normanby, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., P.C.9 Jan1,87521 Feb1,879
Sir Hercules George Robert Robinson, G.M.C.G.17 Apr1,8798 Sep1,880
The Hon. Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, G.C.M.G.29 Nov1,88023 Jun1,882
Lieutenant-General Sir William Francis Drummond Jervois, G.C.M.G., C.B.20 Jan1,88322 Mar1,889
The Right Hon. Earl of Onslow, G.C.M.G.2 May1,88924 Feb1,892
The Right Hon. Earl of Glasgow, G.C.M.G.7 Jun1,8926 Feb1,897
The Right Hon. Earl of Ranfurly, G.C.M.G.10 Aug1,89719 Jun1,904
The Right Hon. Baron Plunket, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.O.20 Jun1,9048 Jun1,910
The Right Hon. Baron Islington, G.C.M.G., G.B.E., D.S.O.22 Jun1,9102 Dec1,912
The Right Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., P.C.19 Dec1,91227 Jun1,917
Governor-General of New Zealand    
The Right Hon. Earl of Liverpool, G.C.B., G.C.M.G., G.B.E., M.V.O., P.C.28 Jun1,9177 Jul1,920
The Right Hon. Viscount Jellicoe of Scapa, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.V.O.27 Sep1,92026 Nov1,924
General Sir Charles Fergusson, BART., G.C.B., G.C.M.G., D.S.O., M.V.O.13 Dec1,9248 Feb1,930
The Right Hon. Viscount Bledisloe, G.C.M.G., K.B.E., P.C.19 Mar1,93015 Mar1,935
The Right Hon. Viscount Galway, G.C.M.G., D.S.O., O.B.E., P.C.12 Apr1,9353 Feb1,941
Marshal of the Royal Air Force the Right Hon. Baron Newall, G.C.B., O.M., G.C.M.G., C.B.E., A.M.22 Feb1,94119 Apr1,946
Lieutenant-General the Right Hon. Baron Freyberg, V.C., G.C.M.G., K.C.B., K.B.E., D.S.O.17 Jun1,94615 Aug1,952
Lieutenant-General the Right Hon. Baron Norrie, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., C.B., D.S.O., M.C.2 Dec1,95225 Jul1,957
The Right Hon. Viscount Cobham, G.C.M.G., T.D.5 Sep1,95713 Sep1,962
Brigadier the Right Hon. Baron Ballantrae, G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., D.S.O., O.B.E.9 Nov1,96220 Oct1,967
The Right Hon. Baron Porritt, Bt., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O., C.B.E.1 Dec1,9676 Sep1,972

SUCCESSIVE MINISTRIES AND PRIME MINISTERS

SINCE THE ESTABLISHMENT OF RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT IN NEW ZEALAND IN 1856
Name of MinistryName of Prime MinisterAssumed OfficeRetired
1. Bell-SewellHenry Sewell7 May1,85620 May1,856
2. FoxWilliam Fox20 May1,8562 Jun1,856
3. StaffordEdward William Stafford2 Jun1,85612 Jul1,861
4. FoxWilliam Fox12 Jul1,8616 Aug1,862
5. DomettAlfred Domett6 Aug1,86230 Oct1,863
6. Whitaker-FoxFrederick Whitaker30 Oct1,86324 Nov1,864
7. WeldFrederick Aloysius Weld24 Nov1,86416 Oct1,865
8. StaffordEdward William Stafford16 Oct1,86528 Jun1,869
9. FoxWilliam Fox28 Jun1,86910 Sep1,872
10. StaffordEdward William Stafford10 Sep1,87211 Oct1,872
11. WaterhouseGeorge Marsden Waterhouse11 Oct1,8723 Mar1,873
12. FoxWilliam Fox3 Mar1,8738 Apr1,873
13. VogelJulius Vogel, C.M.G.8 Apr1,8736 Jul1,875
14. PollenDaniel Pollen, M.L.C.6 Jul1,87515 Feb1,876
15. VogelSir Julius Vogel, K.C.M.G.15 Feb1,8761 Sep1,876
16. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson1 Sep1,87613 Sep1,876
17. Atkinson (reconstituted)Harry Albert Atkinson13 Sep1,87613 Oct1,877
18. GreySir George Grey, K.C.B.15 Oct1,8778 Oct1,879
19. HallJohn Hall8 Oct1,87921 Apr1,882
20. WhitakerFrederick Whitaker, M.L.C.21 Apr1,88225 Sep1,883
21. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson25 Sep1,88316 Aug1,884
22. Stout-VogelRobert Stout16 Aug1,88428 Aug1,884
23. AtkinsonHarry Albert Atkinson28 Aug1,8843 Sep1,884
24. Stout-VogelSir Robert Stout, K.C.M.G.3 Sep1,8848 Oct1,887
25. AtkinsonSir Harry Albert Atkinson, K.C.M.G.8 Oct1,88724 Jan1,891
26. BallanceJohn Ballance24 Jan1,8911 May1,893
27. SeddonRight Hon. Richard John Seddon1 May1,89321 Jun1,906
28. Hall-JonesWilliam Hall-Jones21 Jun1,9066 Aug1,906
29. WardRight Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, BART., K.C.M.G.6 Aug1,90628 Mar1,912
30. MackenzieThomas Mackenzie28 Mar1,91210 Jul1,912
31. MasseyRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey10 Jul1,91212 Aug1,915
32. NationalRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey12 Aug1,91525 Aug1,919
33. MasseyRight Hon. William Ferguson Massey25 Aug1,91914 May1,925
34. BellHon. Sir Francis Henry Dillon Bell, G.C.M.G., K.C.14 May1,92530 May1,925
35. CoatesRight Hon. Joseph Gordon Coates, M.C.30 May1,92510 Dec1,928
36. WardRight Hon. Sir Joseph George Ward, BART., G.C.M.G.10 Dec1,92828 May1,930
37. ForbesRight Hon. George William Forbes28 May1,93022 Sep1,931
38. CoalitionRight Hon. George William Forbes22 Sep1,9316 Dec1,935
39. SavageRight Hon. Michael Joseph Savage6 Dec1,9351 Apr1,940
40. FraserHon. Peter Fraser1 Apr1,94030 Apr1,940
41. FraserRight Hon. Peter Fraser, C.H.30 Apr1,94013 Dec1,949
42. HollandRight Hon. Sir Sidney George Holland, G.C.B., C.H.13 Dec1,94920 Sep1,957
43. HolyoakeRight Hon. Keith Jacka Holyoake20 Sep1,95712 Dec1,957
44. NashRight Hon. Sir Walter Nash, G.C.M.G., C.H.12 Dec1,95712 Dec1,960
45. HolyoakeRight Hon. Sir Keith Jacka Holyoake, G.C.M.G., CH.12 Dec1,9609 Feb1,972
46. MarshallRight Hon. John Ross Marshall, C.H.9 Feb1,9728 Dec1,972
47. KirkRight Hon. Norman Eric Kirk8 Dec1,97231 Aug1,974
48. RowlingHon. Wallace Edward Rowling6 Sep1,974  

THE MINISTRY

Hon. W. E. ROWLING, Prime Minister, Minister of Foreign Affairs, Minister in Charge of the Audit Department, Minister in Charge of the Legislative Department, Minister in Charge of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service.

Hon. R. J. TIZARD, Deputy Prime Minister, Minister of Finance, Minister in Charge of Friendly Societies.

Hon. W. W. FREER, Minister of Trade and Industry, Minister of Energy Resources.

Hon. Dr A. M. FINLAY, Q.C., Minister of Justice, Attorney-General, Minister of Civil Aviation and Meteorological Services, Minister in Charge of Publicity.

Hon. H. WATT, Minister of Works and Development, Minister in Charge of the Earthquake and War Damage Commission.

Hon. M. RATA, Minister of Maori Affairs, Minister of Lands.

Hon. M. A. CONNELLY, Minister of Police, Minister of Customs, Minister in Charge of the Department of Statistics.

Hon. A. J. FAULKNER, Minister of Labour, Minister of State Services.

Hon. N. J. KING, Minister of Social Welfare, Minister in Charge of the Government Printing Office.

Hon. C. J. MOYLE, Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries, Minister of Forests, Minister of Science.

Hon. W. A. FRASER, Minister of Defence, Minister in Charge of War Pensions, Minister in Charge of Rehabilitation.

Hon. H. L. J. MAY, Minister of Local Government, Minister of Internal Affairs, Minister of Civil Defence, Minister in Charge of the Valuation Department.

Hon. Sir Basil ARTHUR, Bt., Minister of Transport, Minister in Charge of the State Insurance Office.

Hon. P. A. AMOS, Minister of Education.

Hon. MRS T. W. M. TIRIKATENE-SULLIVAN, Minister of Tourism, Minister for the Environment.

Hon. J. A. WALDING, Minister of Overseas Trade, Minister of Recreation and Sport, Associate Minister of Foreign Affairs.

Hon. F. M. COLMAN, Minister of Immigration, Minister of Mines, Postmaster-General.

Hon. T. M. McGUIGAN, Minister of Health, Minister in Charge of the Public Trust Office.

Hon. R. O. DOUGLAS, Minister of Housing, Minister of Broadcasting, Minister in Charge of the Government Life Insurance Office.

Hon. R. L. BAILEY, Minister of Railways, Minister of Electricity.

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Prime Minister—Hon. W. E. Rowling

Leader of the Opposition—Hon. R. D. Muldoon

Speaker—Hon. S. A. Whitehead. Chairman of Committees—J. L. Hunt

Clerk of the House—E. A. Roussell, LL.B.

NameElectoral District

*Government Member.

† 7 By-election pending following the death of Rt. Hon. N. E. Kirk on 31 August 1974.

    For European Electorates
Adams-Schneider, Hon. L. R.Waikato
Allen, K. R.Tauranga
Allen, Hon. P. B.Bay of Plenty
Amos, Hon. P. A.*Manurewa
Arthur, Hon. Sir Basil, Bt.*Timaru
Bailey, R. L.*Heretaunga
Barclay, B. G.*Christchurch Central
Barclay, R. M.*New Plymouth
Bassett, M. E. R.*Waitemata
Batchelor, Mrs M.*Avon
Begg, A. W.*Awatua
Birch, W. F.Franklin
Blanchfield, P.*West Coast
Bolger, J. B.King Country
Brooks, I. J.*Marlborough
Burke, T. K.*Rangiora
Carter, Hon. D. J.Raglan
Christie, G.*Napier
Colman, Hon. F. MacD.*Petone
Comber, K. M.Wellington Central
Connelly, Hon. M. A.*Wigram
Davey, T.*Gisborne
Douglas, N. V.*Auckland Central
Douglas, Hon. R. O.*Manukau
Downie, G. P. A.Pakuranga
Drayton, R. P. B.*St. Albans
Faulkner, Hon. A. J.*Riskill
Finlay, Hon. Dr A. M., Q.C.*Henderson
Fraser, Hon. W. A.*St. Kilda
Freer, Hon. W. W.*Mount Albert
Gair, Hon. G. F.North Shore
Gandar, Hon. L. W.Ruahine
Gill, Air Commodore T. F. C.B.E., D.S.O.East Coast Bays
Gordon, Hon. J. B.Clutha
Harrison, J. R.Hawke's Bay
Highet, Hon. D. A.Remuera
Holland, Hon. E. S. F.Riccarton
Holyoake, Rt. Hon. Sir Keith, G.C.M.G., C.H.Pahiatua
Hunt, J. L.*New Lynn
Isbey, E.*Grey Lynn
Jack, Hon. Sir Roy, K.B.Rangitikei
Jelicich, Mrs D. C.*Hamilton West
King, Hon. N. J.*Birkenhead
Sydenham
Laney, W. R.*Oamaru
Lapwood, H. R.Rotorua
Luxton, J. F.Piako
McCready, Hon. A.Manawatu
MacDonell, B. P.*Dunedin Central
McGuigan, Hon. T. M.*Lyttelton
McLachlan, C. C. A.Rakaia
McMillan, Mrs E. E.*Dunedin North
Marshall, C. R.*Wanganui
Marshall, Rt. Hon. J. R., C.H.Karori
Mayson, C. R.*Hastings
May, Hon. H. L. J.*Western Hutt
Moore, M. K.*Eden
Moyle, Hon. C. J.*Mangere
Muldoon, Hon. R. D.Tamaki
Munro, J. B.*Invercargill
O'Brien, J. G.*Island Bay
O'Flynn, F. D. Q.C.*Kapiti
Quigley, I. T.*Otago Central
Ridley, J. W.*Taupo
Rogers, Dr. A.*Hamilton East
Rowling, W. E.*Tasman
Schultz, L. C.Coromandel
Sloans, L. F.Hobson
Smith, M. R.*Whangarei
Talbot, R. L. G.South Canterbury
Talboys, Hon. B. E.Wallace
Thomson, Hon. D. S., M.C. E.D.Stratford
Tizard. Hon. R. J.*Otahuhu
Walding, Hon. J. A.*Palmerston North
Walker, Hon. H. J.Papanui
Wall, Dr G. A.*Porirua
Watt, Hon. H.*Onehunga
Whitehead, Hon. S. A.*Nelson
Wilkinson, P. I.Rodney
Williams, J. H.*Wairarapa
Young, T. J.*Hutt
Young, V. S.Egmont
Young, W. L.Miramar
    For Maori Electorates
Rata, Hon. M.*Northern Maori
Wetere, K. T.*Western Maori
Tirikatene-Sullivan, Hon. Mrs T. W. M.*Southern Maori
Reweti, P. B.*Eastern Maori
PARLIAMENTARY SESSIONS
ParliamentPeriod of Session
Thirty-third20 June 1961–1 December 1961
7 June 1962–14 December 1962
12 February 1963
20 June 1963–25 October 1963
Thirty-fourth10 June 1964–4 December 1964
27 May 1965–30 October 1965
26 May 1966–1 November 1966
Thirty-fifth26 April 1967–24 November 1967
26 June 1968–19 December 1968
15 May 1969–24 October 1969
Thirty-sixth12 March 1970–13 March 1970
1 April 1970–3 December 1970
25 February 1971–25 March 1971
9 June 1971–17 December 1971
8 June 1972–20 October 1972
Thirty-seventh15 February 1973–16 March 1973
5 June 1973–23 November 1973
4 February 1974–29 March 1974
28 May 1974

LEGISLATION 1973—During the parliamentary session of 1973, 123 public Acts, 10 local Acts, and no private Acts were passed.

Notable among the new legislation were the Industrial Relations Act, Broadcasting Act, Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act and the Recreation and Sport Act.

PUBLIC GENERAL ACTS OF NEW ZEALAND—The following list shows the departments responsible for the administration of the public Acts of general application in New Zealand which were in force at January 1974 or which had then been passed to come into force at a later date.

The list does not include references to Acts that are spent or expired or to amending Acts, Appropriation Acts, Finance Acts, or other Acts containing miscellaneous provisions, such as Statutes Amendment Acts, Local Legislation Acts, Reserves and Other Lands Disposal Acts, and Maori Purposes Acts.

ActDepartment
Accident Compensation Act 1972Labour
Accident Insurance Companies Act 1908Justice
Acts Interpretation Act 1924Justice
Administration Act 1969Justice
Adoption Act 1955Justice
Admiralty Act 1973Transport
Adult Education Act 1963Education
Age of Majority Act 1970Justice
Aged and Infirm Persons Protection Act 1912Justice
Agricultural and Pastoral Societies Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Chemicals Act 1959Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Pests Destruction Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Agricultural Workers Act 1962Agriculture and Fisheries
Agriculture (Emergency Powers) Act 1934Agriculture and Fisheries
Agriculture (Emergency Regulations Confirmation) ActsAgriculture and Fisheries
Air Services Licensing Act 1951Transport
Aircrew Industrial Tribunal Act 1971Labour
Airport Authorities Act 1966Transport
Alcoholics Act 1966Justice
Aliens Act 1948Justice
Animals Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Animals Protection Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Animal Remedies Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Annual Holidays Act 1944Labour
Antarctica Act 1960Foreign Affairs
Anzac Day Act 1966Internal Affairs
Apiaries Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Apple and Pear Marketing Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Apprentices Act 1948Labour
Arbitration Act 1908Justice
Arbitration Clauses (Protocol) and the Arbitration (Foreign Awards) Act 1933Justice
Architects Act 1963Internal Affairs
Archives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Armed Forces Canteens Act 1948Defence
Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971Defence
Arms Act 1958Police
Atomic Energy Act 1945Mines
Auckland Harbour Bridge Act 1950Works
Auctioneers Act 1928Justice
Aviation Crimes Act 1972Transport
Bank of New Zealand Act 1971Treasury
Banking Act 1908Treasury
Berryfruit Levy Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Bills of Exchange Act 1908Treasury
Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951Justice
Boilers, Lifts, and Cranes Act 1950Transport
British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act 1948Internal Affairs
Broadcasting Authority Act 1968Broadcasting
Broadcasting Act 1973Broadcasting
Building Research Levy Act 1969Scientific and Industrial Research
Building Societies Act 1965Justice
Burial and Cremation Act 1964Health
Bush Workers Act 1945Labour
Bylaws Act 1910Internal Affairs
Card Tournaments Regulation Act 1933Internal Affairs
Carriage by Air Act 1967Transport
Carriers Act 1948Justice
Charitable Trusts Act 1957Justice
Chartered Associations (Protection of Names and Uniforms) Act 1930Internal Affairs
Chatham Islands County Council Empowering Act 1936Internal Affairs
Chattels Transfer Act 1924Justice
Cheques Act 1960Treasury
Child Welfare Act 1925Social Welfare
Children's Health Camps Act 1972Health
Chiropractors Act 1960Justice
Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Act 1956Works
Cinematograph Films Act 1961Internal Affairs
Civil Aviation Act 1964Transport
Civil Defence Act 1962Internal Affairs
Civil List Act 1950Prime Minister
Clean Air Act 1972Health
Clerks of Works Act 1944Labour
Coal Mines Act 1925Mines
Commercial Trusts Act 1910Justice
Commissions of Inquiry Act 1908Internal Affairs
Commonwealth Fabric Corporation Act 1962Treasury
Companies Act 1955Justice
Companies (Bondholders Incorporation) Act 1934–35Justice
Companies Special Investigations Act 1958Justice
Construction Act 1959Labour
Consular Privileges and Immunities Act 1971Foreign Affairs
Consumer Council Act 1966Trade and Industry
Consumer Information Act 1969Trade and Industry
Continental Shelf Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Contracts Enforcement Act 1956Justice
Contributory Negligence Act 1947Justice
Control of Prices Act 1947Trade and Industry
Cook Islands Act 1915Maori and Island Affairs
Cook Islands Constitution Act 1964Maori and Island Affairs
Co-operative Companies Act 1956Justice
Co-operative Dairy Companies Act 1949Justice
Co-operative Freezing Companies Act 1960Justice
Copyright Act 1962Justice
Coroners Act 1951Justice
Costs in Criminal Cases Act 1967Justice
Counties Act 1956Internal Affairs
Counties Insurance Empowering Act 1941Internal Affairs
Courts Martial Appeals Act 1953Defence
Crimes Act 1961Justice
Criminal Injuries Compensation Act 1963Justice
Criminal Justice Act 1954Justice
Crowns Grants Act 1908Lands and Survey
Crown Proceedings Act 1950Justice
Customs Act 1966Customs
Customs Law Act 1908Customs
Dairy Industry Act 1952Agriculture and Fisheries
Dairy Board Act 1961Agriculture and Fisheries
Dangerous Goods Act 1957Internal Affairs
Deaths by Accidents Compensation Act 1952Justice
Decimal Currency Act 1964Treasury
Declaratory Judgments Act 1908Justice
Deeds Registration Act 1908Justice
Defamation Act 1954Justice
Defence Act 1971Defence
Demise of the Crown Act 1908Internal Affairs
Dental Act 1963Health
Department of Social Welfare Act 1971Social Welfare
Deputy Governor's Powers Act 1912Internal Affairs
Designs Act 1953Justice
Development Finance Corporation Act 1973Treasury
Dietitians Act 1950Health
Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities Act 1968Foreign Affairs
Disabled Persons Employment Promotion Act 1950Labour
Disabled Soldiers' Civil Re-establishment Act 1930Social Welfare
Distillation Act 1971Customs
Distress and Replevin Act 1908Justice
District Courts Abolition Act 1925Justice
District Railways Act 1908Works
Dogs Registration Act 1955Internal Affairs
Domestic Proceedings Act 1968Justice
Door to Door Sales Act 1967Trade and Industry
Earthquake and War Damage Act 1944State Insurance Office
Economic Stabilisation Act 1948Trade and Industry
Education Act 1964Education
Education Lands Act 1949Education
Electoral Act 1956Justice
Electric Linemen Act 1959Electricity
Electric Power Boards Act 1925Electricity
Electrical Supply Authorities Association Act 1930Electricity
Electricians Act 1952Electricity
Electricity Act 1968Electricity
Electricity Distribution Commission Act 1967Electricity
Emergency Forces Rehabilitation Act 1953Social Welfare
Employment Agents Act 1908Labour
Enemy Property Act 1951Public Trust
Engineering Association Act 1961Works
Engineers Registration Act 1924Works
English Laws Act 1908Justice
Equal Pay Act 1972Labour
Estate and Gift Duties Act 1968Inland Revenue
Evidence Act 1908Justice
Exhibitions Act 1910Trade and Industry
Explosives Act 1957Internal Affairs
Export Guarantee Act 1964Treasury
Extradition Act 1965Justice
Factories Act 1946Labour
Family Benefits (Home Ownership) Act 1964Social Welfare
Family Protection Act 1955Justice
Fees and Travelling Allowances Act 1951Treasury
Fencing Act 1908Justice
Fertilisers Act 1960Agriculture and Fisheries
Fire Services Act 1972Internal Affairs
Fishing Industry Board Act 1963Agriculture and Fisheries
Fisheries Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Fisheries (Agreement with Japan) Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Food and Drug Act 1969Health
Foreign Affairs Act 1943Foreign Affairs
Forest and Rural Fires Act 1955Forest Service
Forestry Encouragement Act 1962Forest Service
Forests Act 1949Forest Service
Franklin-Manukau Pest Destruction Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Friendly Socities Act 1909Treasury
Frustrated Contracts Act 1944Justice
Gaming Act 1908Internal Affairs
Gaming Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Gas Industry Act 1958Energy Resources
Gas Supply Act 1908Energy Resources
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade Act 1948Customs
General Wage Orders Act 1969Labour
Geneva Conventions Act 1958Foreign Affairs
Geothermal Energy Act 1953Works
Government Life Insurance Act 1953Government Life Insurance Office
Government Railways Act 1949Railways
Government Service Equal Pay Act 1960State Services Commission
Guardianship Act 1948Justice
Harbours Act 1950Transport
Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Act 1967Lands
Health Act 1956Health
Hire Purchase Act 1971Justice
Historic Articles Act 1962Internal Affairs
Historic Places Act 1954Internal Affairs
Hospitals Act 1957Health
Hotel Association of New Zealand Act 1969Justice
Housing Act 1955State Advances
Hovercraft Act 1971Transport
Human Tissues Act 1964Health
Hunter Gift for the Settlement of Discharged Soldiers Act 1921Lands and Survey
Hydatids Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Illegal Contracts Act 1970Justice
Immigration Act 1964Labour
Impounding Act 1955Internal Affairs
Imprisonment for Debt Limitation Act 1908Justice
Inalienable Life Annuities Act 1910Public Trust
Income Tax Assessment Act 1957Inland Revenue
Incorporated Societies Act 1908Justice
Indecent Publications Act 1963Justice
Industrial and Provident Societies Act 1908Justice
Industrial Design Act 1966Trade and Industry
Industrial Relations Act 1973Labour
Industrial Research and Development Grants Act 1970Trade and Industry
Industrial Societies Act 1908Justice
Infants Act 1908Justice
Inferior Courts Procedure Act 1909Justice
Inland Revenue Department Act 1952Inland Revenue
Innkeepers Act 1962Justice
Insolvency Act 1967Justice
Insurance Companies' Deposits Act 1953Justice
International Air Services Licensing Act 1947Transport
International Finance Agreements Act 1961Treasury
Inventions Development Act 1966Trade and Industry
Invercargill Licensing Trust Act 1950Justice
Iron and Steel Industry Act 1959Mines
Joint Family Homes Act 1964Justice
Judicature Act 1908Justice
Juries Act 1908Justice
Kapuni Petroleum Act 1970Trade and Industry
Kermadec Island Act 1887Maori and Island Affairs
Kitchener Memorial Scholarship Trust Act 1941Education
Labour Department Act 1954Labour
Lake Coleridge Water Power Act 1915Works
Lake Waikaremoana Act 1971Maori and Island Affairs
Lake Wanaka Preservation Act 1973Prime Minister
Land Act 1948Lands and Survey
Land and Income Tax Act 1954Inland Revenue
Land Drainage Act 1908Internal Affairs
Land Settlement Promotion and Land Acquisition Act 1952Lands and Survey
Land Transfer Act 1952Justice
Land Transfer (Hawke's Bay) Act 1931Justice
Land Valuation Proceedings Act 1948Justice
Law Practitioners Act 1955Justice
Law Reform Act 1936Justice
Law Reform Act 1944Justice
Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Act 1949Justice
Legal Aid Act 1969Justice
Legislative Council Abolition Act 1950Legislative
Legislature Act 1908Legislative
Lesotho Act 1969Foreign Affairs
Libraries and Mechanics Institutes Act 1908Internal Affairs
Licensing Act 1908Justice
Licensing Trusts Act 1949Justice
Life Insurance Act 1908Justice
Limitation Act 1950Justice
Lincoln College Act 1961Education
Linen Flax Corporation Act 1945Trade and Industry
Litter Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Employment Protection) Act 1963Internal Affairs
Local Authorities Loans Act 1956Treasury
Local Authorities (Members' Interests) Act 1968Internal Affairs
Local Authorities (Petroleum Tax) Act 1970Internal Affairs
Local Elections and Polls Act 1966Internal Affairs
Local Government Commission Act 1967Internal Affairs
Local Railways Acts 1914Works
Machinery Act 1950Labour
Magistrates' Courts Act 1947Justice
Malaysia Act 1963Foreign Affairs
Manapouri - Te Anau Development Act 1963Works
Maori Affairs Act 1953Maori and Island Affairs
Maori and Island Affairs Department Act 1968Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Education Foundation Act 1961Education
Maori Housing Act 1935Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Purposes Funds Act 1934–35Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Reserved Land Act 1956Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Soldiers Trust Act 1957Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Trust Boards Act 1955Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Trustee Act 1953Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Vested Lands Administration Act 1954Maori and Island Affairs
Maori Welfare Act 1962Maori and Island Affairs
Margarine Act 1908Agriculture and Fisheries
Marginal Lands Act 1950Lands and Survey
Marine Farming Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marine Insurance Act 1908Justice
Marine Reserves Act 1971Agriculture and Fisheries
Marketing Act 1936Agriculture and Fisheries
Marriage Act 1955Justice
Married Women's Property Act 1952Justice
Massey University Act 1963Education
Master and Apprentice Act 1908Labour
Masterton Licensing Trust Act 1947Justice
Maternal Mortality Research Act 1968Health
Matrimonial Proceedings Act 1963Justice
Matrimonial Property Act 1963Justice
Meat Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Control Act 1921–22Agriculture and Fisheries
Meat Export Prices Act 1955Agriculture and Fisheries
Medical and Dental Auxiliaries Act 1966Health
Medical Practitioners Act 1968Health
Medical Research Council Act 1950Health
Mental Health Act 1969Health
Mercantile Law Act 1908Justice
Merchandise Marks Act 1954Trade and Industry
Military Decorations and Distinctive Badges Act 1918Defence
Military Manoeuvres Act 1915Defence
Milk Act 1967Agriculture and Fisheries
Minimum Wages Act 1945Labour
Mining Act 1971Mines
Mining Tenures Registration Act 1962Justice
Ministry of Local Government Act 1972Internal Affairs
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Ministry of Energy Resources Act 1972Energy Resources
Ministry of Transport Act 1968Transport
Ministry of Works Act 1943Works
Minors' Contracts Act 1969Justice
Monetary and Economic Council Act 1961Treasury
Moneylenders Act 1908Justice
Monopoly and Prevention Act 1908Trade and Industry
Mortgagors and Lessees Rehabilitation Act 1936Treasury
Motor Spirits Distribution Act 1953Trade and Industry
Motor Spirits Duty Act 1961Customs
Motor Spirits (Regulation of Prices) Act 1933Trade and Industry
Motor-Vehicle Dealers Act 1958Justice
Municipal Association Act 1939Internal Affairs
Municipal Corporations Act 1954Internal Affairs
Municipal Insurance Act 1960Internal Affairs
Music Teachers Registration Act 1928Education
Mutual Insurance Act 1955Public Trust
Narcotics Act 1965Health
Nassella Tussock Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
National Art Gallery, Museum, and War Memorial Act 1972Internal Affairs
National Expenditure Adjustment Act 1932Treasury
National Housing Commission Act 1972State Advances
National Library Act 1965Education
National Parks Act 1952Lands and Survey
National Provident Fund Act 1950Treasury
National Research Advisory Council Act 1963State Services Commission
National Roads Act 1953Works
National Savings Act 1940Treasury
Native Plants Protection Act 1934Lands and Survey
Natural Gas Corporation Act 1967Mines
Nature Conservation Council Act 1962Lands and Survey
Naval and Victualling Stores Act 1908Defence
New Zealand - Australia Free Trade Agreement Act 1965Trade and Industry
New Zealand Bank Act 1861Treasury
New Zealand Boundaries Act 1863 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution (Amendment) Act 1947 (U.K.)Internal Affairs
New Zealand Constitution Amendment (Request and Consent) Act 1947Internal Affairs
New Zealand Council for Educational Research Act 1972Education
New Zealand Council of Law Reporting Act 1938Justice
New Zealand Counties Association Act 1949Internal Affairs
New Zealand Day Act 1973Internal Affairs
New Zealand Debt Conversion Act 1932–33Treasury
New Zealand Geographic Board Act 1946Lands and Survey
New Zealand Government Property Corporation Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Library Association Act 1939Education
New Zealand Loans Act 1953Treasury
New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
New Zealand National Airways Act 1945Transport
New Zealand Ports Authority Act 1968Transport
New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969Justice
New Zealand Society of Accountants Act 1958Treasury
News Media Ownership Act 1965Justice
Newspapers and Printers Act 1955Justice
Ngarimu V.C. and 28th (Maori) Battalion Memorial Scholarship Fund Act 1945Education
Niue Act 1966Maori and Island Affairs
Noxious Animals Act 1956Forest Service
Noxious Weeds Act 1950Agriculture and Fisheries
Nurses Act 1971Health
Oaths and Declarations Act 1957Justice
Occupational Therapy Act 1949Health
Occupiers Liability Act 1962Justice
Offenders Legal Aid Act 1954Justice
Official Appointments and Documents Act 1919Internal Affairs
Official Secrets Act 1951Justice
Oil in Navigable Waters Act 1965Transport
Opticians Act 1928Health
Orchard Levy Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Overseas Investment Act 1973Treasury
Overseas Representatives Act 1942Foreign Affairs
Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962Legislative
Partnership Act 1908Justice
Passport Act 1946Internal Affairs
Patents Act 1953Justice
Patriotic and Canteen Funds Act 1947Internal Affairs
Pawnbrokers Act 1908Justice
Payment of Jurors Act 1919Justice
Penal Institutions Act 1954Justice
Perpetuities Act 1964Justice
Petroleum Act 1937Mines
Pharmacy Act 1970Health
Phosphorus Matches Act 1910Labour
Physical Welfare and Recreation Act 1937Internal Affairs
Physiotherapy Act 1949Health
Plant Varieties Act 1973Agriculture and Fisheries
Plants Act 1970Agriculture and Fisheries
Plumbers and Gasfitters Registration Act 1964Health
Poisons Act 1960Health
Police Act 1958Police
Police Offences Act 1927Justice
Political Disabilities Removal Act 1960Labour
Pacific Islands Polynesian Education Foundation Act 1972Education
Post Office Act 1959Post Office
Potato Growing Industry Act 1950Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Act 1968Agriculture and Fisheries
Poultry Runs Registration Act 1933Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Primary Products Marketing Act: Regulations Confirmations Acts 1957Agriculture and Fisheries
Private Savings Banks Act 1964Treasury
Property Law Act 1952Justice
Property Speculation Tax Act 1973Inland Revenue
Protection of British Shipping Act 1936Transport
Protection of Depositors Act 1968Justice
Public Authorities (Party Wall) Empowering Act 1919Works
Public Bodies' Contracts Act 1959Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Leases Act 1969Internal Affairs
Public Bodies' Meetings Act 1961Internal Affairs
Public Contracts Act 1908Labour
Public Holidays Act 1955Labour
Public Revenues Act 1953Treasury
Public Safety Conservation Act 1932Justice
Public Trust Office Act 1957Public Trust
Public Works Act 1928Works
Quantity Surveyors Act 1968Works
Quarries Act 1944Mines
Queen Elizabeth The Second Arts Council of New Zealand Act 1963Internal Affairs
Queen Elizabeth The Second Postgraduate Fellowship of New Zealand Act 1963Education
Queen Elizabeth The Second Technicians Study Award Act 1970Education
Race Relations Act 1971Justice
Racing Act 1971Internal Affairs
Radiation Protection Act 1965Health
Rangitaiki Land Drainage Act 1956Internal Affairs
Rates Rebate Act 1973Internal Affairs
Rating Act 1967Internal Affairs
Real Estate Agents Act 1963Justice
Reciprocal Enforcement of Judgments Act 1934Justice
Recreation and Sport Act 1973Ministry of Recreation and Sport
Regulations Act 1936Justice
Rehabilitation Act 1941Social Welfare
Rent Appeal Act 1973Labour
Republic of BangladeshForeign Affairs
Republic of Botswana Act 1967Foreign Affairs
Republic of Cyprus Act 1961Foreign Affairs
Republic of Gambia Act 1970Foreign Affairs
Republic of Ghana Act 1960Foreign Affairs
Republic of Guyana Act 1970Foreign Affairs
Republic of India Act 1956Foreign Affairs
Republic of Ireland Act 1950Foreign Affairs
Republic of Kenya Act 1965Foreign Affairs
Republic of Malawi Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Republic of Nauru Act 1969Foreign Affairs
Republic of Nigeria Act 1963Foreign Affairs
Republic of Sierra Leone Act 1971Foreign Affairs
Republic of Singapore Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Republic of Sri LankaForeign Affairs
Republic of Tanzania Act 1966Foreign Affairs
Republic of Zambia Act 1965Foreign Affairs
Reserve Bank of New Zealand Act 1964Treasury
Reserves and Domains Act 1953Lands and Survey
River Boards Act 1908Internal Affairs
Royal New Zealand Foundation for the Blind Act 1963Education
Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture Act 1953Agriculture and Fisheries
Royal Powers Act 1953Foreign Affairs
Royal Society of New Zealand Act 1965Scientific and Industrial Research
Royal Titles Act 1953Foreign Affairs
Rural Housing Act 1939State Advances
Rural Intermediate Credit Act 1927State Advances
Sale of Goods Act 1908Justice
Sale of Liquor Act 1962Justice
Sale of Wool Act 1937Agriculture and Fisheries
Sales Tax Act 1974Customs
Sand Drift Act 1908Lands and Survey
Scientific and Industrial Research Act 1952Scientific and Industrial Research
Sea Carriage of Goods Act 1940Trade and Industry
Seamen's Union Funds Act 1971Labour
Secondhand Dealers Act 1963Justice
Secret Commissions Act 1910Justice
Services Export Development Grants Act 1973Trade and Industry
Sharebrokers Act 1908Justice
Sharemilking Agreements Act 1937Labour
Shearers Act 1962Labour
Shipping and Seamen Act 1952Transport
Shipping Corporation of New Zealand Act 1973Transport
Shops and Offices Act 1955Labour
Shorthand Reporters Act 1908Justice
Simultaneous Deaths Act 1958Justice
Social Security Act 1964Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with Australia) Act 1948Social Welfare
Social Security (Reciprocity with the United Kingdom) Act 1969Social Welfare
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Act 1941Works
Sovereign's Birthday Observance Act 1952Internal Affairs
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act 1971Labour
Stamp and Cheque Duties Act 1971Inland Revenue
Standards Act 1965Trade and Industry
Standard Time Act 1945Internal Affairs
State Advances Corporation Act 1965State Advances
State Insurance Act 1963State Insurance Office
State Services Act 1962State Services Commission
State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969State Services Commission
State Support of Electrical Energy Act 1917Electricity
Statistics Act 1955Statistics
Status of Children Act 1969Justice
Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Statutes Drafting and Compilation Act 1920Law Drafting Office
Statutory Land Charges Registration Act 1928Justice
Stock Foods Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Submarine Cables and Pipelines Protection Act 1966Transport
Summary Proceedings Act 1957Justice
Superannuation Act 1956Treasury
Surveyors Act 1966Lands and Survey
Swamp Drainage Act 1915Lands and Survey
Swaziland Act 1968Foreign Affairs
Syndicates Act 1973Justice
Taranaki Harbours Act 1965Transport
Taranaki Scholarships Trust Board Act 1957Education
Tarawera Forest Act 1967Maori and Island Affairs
Tariff and Development Board Act 1961Trade and Industry
Technicians Certification Act 1958Education
Technicians Training Act 1967Labour
Tenancy Act 1955Labour
Termites Act 1940State Advances
Territorial Sea and Fishing Zone Act 1965Foreign Affairs
Testing Laboratory Registration Act 1972Scientific and Industrial Research
Timber Floating Act 1954Forest Service
Tobacco-growing Industry Act 1935Trade and Industry
Tokelau Islands Act 1948Maori and Island Affairs
Tonga Act 1970Foreign Affairs
Tourist and Publicity Department Act 1963Tourist and Publicity
Tourist Hotel Corporation Act 1955Tourist and Publicity
Town and Country Planning Act 1953Works
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Australia) Ratification Act 1933Customs
Trade Agreement (New Zealand and Canada) Ratification Act 1932Customs
Trade and Industry Act 1956Trade and Industry
Trade Practices Act 1958Trade and Industry
Trade Unions Act 1908Treasury
Trademarks Act 1953Justice
Trades Certification Act 1966Education
Trading Coupons Act 1931Trade and Industry
Tramways Act 1908Works
Transport Act 1962Transport
Treaties of Peace (Italy, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Finland) Act 1947Foreign Affairs
Treaty of Peace (Japan) Act 1951Foreign Affairs
Trespass Act 1968Justice
Trustee Act 1956Justice
Trustee Companies Act 1967Justice
Trustee Companies Protection Act 1934–35Justice
Trustee Savings Banks Act 1948Reserve Bank
Tuberculosis Act 1948Health
Turangi Township Act 1964Works
Uganda Act 1964Foreign Affairs
Unclaimed Moneys Act 1971Treasury
Underground Water Act 1953Works
Undesirable Immigrants Exclusion Act 1919Labour
Unit Titles Act 1972Justice
Unit Trusts Act 1960Justice
United Nations Act 1946Foreign Affairs
United Nations (Police) Act 1964Police
United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration Act 1944Foreign Affairs
Universities Act 1961Education
University of Albany Act 1972Education
University of Auckland Act 1961Education
University of Canterbury Act 1961Education
University of Otago Ordinance 1869 and University of Otago Amendment Act 1961Education
University of Waikato Act 1963Education
Urban Renewal and Housing Improvement Act 1945Works
Valuation of Land Act 1951Valuation
Valuers Act 1948Valuation
Vegetables Levy Act 1957Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Services Act 1946Agriculture and Fisheries
Veterinary Surgeons Act 1956Agriculture and Fisheries
Victoria University of Wellington Act 1961Education
Visiting Forces Act 1939Foreign Affairs
Vocational Training Council 1968Education
Volunteers Employment Protection Act 1973Labour
Wages Protection Act 1964Labour
Wages Protection and Contractors' Liens Act 1939Labour
Waihou and Ohinemuri Rivers Improvement Act 1910Works
Waikato Valley Authority Act 1956Works
Wairarapa Cadet Training Farm Act 1969Agriculture and Fisheries
Waitangi Endowment Act 1932–33Forest Service
Waitangi National Trust Board Act 1932Lands and Survey
War Expenses Act 1939Treasury
War Funds Act 1915Internal Affairs
War Pensions Act 1954Social Welfare
Waterfront Industry Act 1953Labour
Water and Soil Conservation Act 1967Works
Weights and Measures Act 1925Labour
Western Samoa Act 1961Foreign Affairs
Westport Harbour Act 1920Transport
Whaling Industry Act 1935Agriculture and Fisheries
Wheat Board Act 1965Trade and Industry
Wildlife Act 1953Internal Affairs
Wills Act 1837 (U.K.)Justice
Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Act 1965Internal Affairs
Wool Industry Act 1944Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Labelling Act 1949Trade and Industry
Wool Marketing Corporation Act 1972Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Proceeds Retention Act 1950Agriculture and Fisheries
Wool Testing Authority Act 1964Agriculture and Fisheries

ADMINISTRATIVE TRIBUNALS—Administrative tribunals have gradually developed over a period of more than 50 years. As a rule they are set up by Act of Parliament or under powers conferred by statute. Their growth is related to the continuing expansion of governmental activity and responsibility for the general well-being of the community. This development is common to many countries. A list of administrative tribunals in New Zealand was presented in the 1971 and earlier issues of the Yearbook. A useful reference is The Citizen and Power: Administrative Tribunals—a survey by the Department of Justice.

Appeals from Administrative Tribunals—An Administrative Division of the Supreme Court was established by the Judicature Amendment Act 1968. The Division consists of up to four Judges of the Supreme Court, who are assigned to the Division by the Chief Justice. One of the most important functions of the Division is to determine appeals from such administrative tribunals as are specified by statute. It also hears and determines applications for prerogative writs and other classes of applications and proceedings referred to it by the Chief Justice or specified by statute. Judges who are at present assigned to the Division are the Chief Justice, the Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.G.; the Hon. R. B. Cooke; the Hon. J. N. Wilson; and the Hon. G. D. Speight.

JUDICIARY

Judges of the Court of Appeal and Supreme Court

Chief Justice: Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.G.

Court of Appeal: Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.G. (ex officio); Right Hon. Sir Thaddeus McCarthy, President; Right Hon. Sir Clifford Richmond; Hon. G. D. Speight (temp.)

Supreme Court: Right Hon. Sir Richard Wild, K.C.M.G.; Hon. Sir Alec Haslam; Hon. I. H. Macarthur; Hon. A. O. Woodhouse; Hon. A. C. Perry; Hon. J. N. Wilson; Hon. L. F. Moller; Hon. G. D. Speight; Hon. C. M. Roper; Hon. J. C. White; Hon. D. S. Beattie; Hon. J. P. Quilliam; Hon. D. W. McMullin; Hon. R. B. Cooke; Hon. P. T. Mahon; Hon. J. B. O'Regan; Hon. M. F. Chilwell; Hon. M. E. Casey.

PARLIAMENTARY COMMISSIONER (OMBUDSMAN)

Under the Parliamentary Commissioner (Ombudsman) Act 1962 there has been appointed a commissioner whose principal function is to inquire into complaints from members of the public relating to administrative decisions of Government departments and related organisations, including hospital and education boards. The commissioner is appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the House of Representatives. Complaints to the commissioner must be made in writing and be accompanied by a fee of $2. Investigations are conducted in private, but the commissioner can decide not to investigate complaints where, for instance, the subject matter is trivial or the complainant has not a sufficient personal interest in the subject matter of the complaint.

The Ombudsman is empowered to report his opinion, after such an investigation, to the department and to the Minister concerned, and if no action is taken he may report to Parliament. Nearly all complaints held to be justified are rectified by the department or organisation concerned. No complaint of actual malpractice has been found justified.

An analysis of the complaints made to the Ombudsman and the resultant action is given in the following table.

Action on Complaint1 Oct 1962–31 Mar 19711 April 1971–31 Mar 19721 April 1972–31 Mar 1973Total
*There were 163 cases still under investigation at 31 March 1973
Outside jurisdiction2,0363223403,598
Declined931218123
Discontinued6851662601,111
Withdrawn5108774671
Investigated and considered justified570113154837
Investigated and considered not justified2,3304124003,142*
Totals6,2241,275*1,409*8,745*

GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS

LIST OF DEPARTMENTS OF THE NEW ZEALAND GOVERNMENT, WITH TITLES AND HOLDERS OF CHIEF ADMINISTRATIVE POSITIONS
DepartmentChief Administrative Positions
TitleName
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry ofDirector-GeneralA. T. Johns, PH.D.(CANT)
AuditController and Auditor-GeneralK. Gillies, B.COM., A.C.A.
Crown LawSolicitor-GeneralR. C. Savage, LL.B.
CustomsComptrollerJ. A. M. Kean, ACCTS. PROF.
Defence, Ministry ofSecretaryJ. F. Robertson, A.C.A., D.P.A.
 Chief of Defence StaffLieut.-General Sir Richard Webb, K.B.E., C.B.
 Chief of Air StaffAir Vice-Marshal R. B. Bolt, D.F.C.
 Chief of General StaffMajor-General R. H. F. Holloway, C.B.E.
 Chief of Naval StaffRear-Admiral E. C. Thorne, C.B.E.
EducationDirector-GeneralA. N. V. Dobbs, M.COM., ACCTS. PROF.
Energy Resources, Ministry ofCommissionerR. J. Hogg, B.COM., ACCTS. PROF.
Foreign Affairs, Ministry ofSecretaryF. H. Corner, M.A.
Government Life Insurance OfficeCommissionerL. L. Davis
Government Printing OfficeGovernment PrinterA. R. Shearer.
HealthDirector-GeneralH. J. H. Hiddlestone, M.B., CH.B., M.R.C.P., F.R.A.C.P.
Inland RevenueCommissionerD. A. Stevens, ACCTS. PROF.
Internal AffairsSecretary and Clerk of WritsSir Patrick O'Dea, K.C.V.O., ACCTS. PROF., D.P.A.
JusticeSecretary for JusticeG. S. Orr, B.A., LL.M.
LabourSecretary of LabourE. G. Davey, B.COM., A.C.A.
Lands and SurveyDirector-GeneralR. J. MacLachlan, B.A., B.COM., DIP.U.V.(AUCK.)
Parliamentary Counsel OfficeChief Parliamentary CounselD. A. S. Ward, C.M.G., B.A., LL.B.
LegislativeClerk of House of RepresentativesE. A. Roussell, LL.B.
Maori and Island AffairsSecretary and Maori TrusteeJ. M. McEwen, LL.B.
MinesSecretaryI. D. Dick, M.sc.
New Zealand ElectricityGeneral ManagerP. W. Blakeley, F.I.E.E., R.E.
New Zealand Forest ServiceDirector-GeneralM. J. Conway, M.A.(OXON.)
New Zealand Security Intelligence ServiceDirector of SecurityBrigadier H. E. Gilbert, D.S.O., O.B.E.
PoliceCommissionerSir Angus Sharp, K.B.E., Q.P.M.
Post OfficeDirector-GeneralW. J. Sewell, B.COM., D.P.A., A.C.A.
Prime Minister'sPermanent HeadF. H. Corner M.A.
Public Trust OfficePublic TrusteeJ. M. Fielder, A.C.A.
RailwaysGeneral ManagerT. M. Small, A.M.INST.T.
Scientific and Industrial ResearchDirector-GeneralE. I. Robertson, O.B.E., PH.D., (LOND.), F.R.S.
Social WelfareDirector-GeneralI. J. D. MacKay, ACCTS. PROF.
State Advances Corporation of New ZealandGeneral ManagerE. J. Babe, B.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A., DIP. U.V.
State Insurance OfficeGeneral ManagerN. R. Ainsworth, ACCTS. PROF.
State Services CommissionChairman of Commission MembersI. G. Lythgoe, M.COM.
  T. D. Clifford, ACCTS. PROF.
StatisticsGovernment StatisticianE. A. Harris, B.A., M.COM., A.C.A.
Tourist and PublicityGeneral ManagerJ. E. Hartstonge, B.COM., A.C.A.
Trade and IndustrySecretaryJ. P. Lewin, M.A., LL.B., DIP.JOUR.
Transport, Ministry ofSecretaryR. J. Polaschek, B.A., M.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A.
TreasurySecretaryH. G. Lang, B.A., B.COM., A.C.A., D.P.A.
ValuationValuer-GeneralV. P. McGlone, DIP. V.F.M.
Works and Development, Ministry ofCommissionerN. C. McLeod, B.E.

THE STATE SERVICES

The State services comprise, in the widest sense, all servants of the Crown other than those holding political or judicial office. They include the 36 departments of the Public Service, and the Post Office, Railways Department, Legislative Department, Law Drafting Office, and other State organisations such as Government corporations and agencies, the Police, the armed forces, and the teaching and health services.

Under the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969, the State Services Co-ordinating Committee is constituted as the principal adviser to the Minister of State Services and the official negotiating body with service organisations on all personnel matters which in the opinion of the committee significantly affect more than one employing authority. The committee consists of the following or their representatives: Chairman of the State Services Commission; Secretary to the Treasury; Director-General of the Post Office; General Manager of Railways; Secretary of Defence; Director-General of Health; Director-General of Education. Other State service employing authorities may be co-opted as members of the committee from time to time.

Apart from proposals concerning salaries and related conditions of employment, the committee discusses more general personnel matters referred to it by the Government, individual employing authorities, and employee organisations, and tries to achieve a reasonable degree of inter-service uniformity.

In the following table the staff numbers of the State services are set out. Hospital board employees are also included as they are paid from State funds.

OrganisationStaff Numbers at 31 March
19491964196919721973

*Up to 1969 includes part-time staff.

†At 30 September of preceding year.

‡Reduced by 5,000 with transfer of psychiatric hospitals to local hospital boards.

Public Service departments50,29064,33069,03974,06469,709
Railways Department26,48424,16821,41220,68820,899
Post Office17,69027,76530,67132,47333,165
Education boards and teaching staffs (incl. univ.)13,32124,69927,84231,15137,030
Hospital boards and medical and nursing staff*14,89526,95232,87232,24238,918
Armed forces7,90212,95013,16312,63712,789
Broadcasting Corporation8852,1442,8012,8572,791
Police1,5412,6112,9503,3023,560
National Airways Corporation1,1122,1932,7702,7892,831
Air New Zealand3841,0712,4832,9523,144
Tourist Hotel Corporation477737649718
Legislative Department150151149166171
Totals134,654189,511206,889215,970225,725
Total as percentage of total population7.27.37.47.47.6
Total as percentage of total labour force18.819.819.519.219.6

In New Zealand, with its long tradition of Government activity in many spheres, the work of the State services covers a broad field. The Government decides when a new service is to be provided or a new function undertaken. Work loads increase as a result of population growth, but are offset to some extent by improvements in efficiency. Recent trends have been for more staff for research and resource development and expanded social services.

The relative cost of government as a percentage of gross national product is shown in the following table.

YearGovernment Current Expenditure on Goods and Services*Gross National ProductPercentage
*This figure is net of departmental receipts. It also excludes the operating expenses of trading departments, expenditure of a capital nature, and transfer payments to either persons or local authorities such as social security benefits, pensions, subsidies, and interest on the public debt paid in New Zealand.
 $(million)$(million) 
1938–3946.446410.0
1948–49100.097810.2
1953–54178.01,68110.6
1958–59236.22,27010.4
1963–64320.23,19710.0
1967–68442.44,08310.8
1968–69484.84,31011.2
1969–70539.34,77511.3
1970–71657.85,47812.0
1971–72762.16,26112.1
1972–73843.57,05612.0

STATE SERVICES COMMISSION—The State Services Act 1962 provides for a State Services Commission of up to four persons appointed by the Governor-General in Council on the recommendation of the Prime Minister.

In respect of departments of the Public Service, the Commission is responsible for—

  1. Reviewing the machinery of Government, including the allocation of functions to and between departments, the desirability of or need for the creation of new departments and the amalgamation or abolition of existing departments, the co-ordination of the activities of departments, and the extent and nature of controls exercised by any one department over the operations of another department;

  2. Reviewing the efficiency and economy of each department;

  3. The provision of suitable office accommodation and the prescription and supervision of physical working conditions of all employees in the Public Service;

  4. Approving and reviewing establishments of staff;

  5. Acting as the central personnel authority for the Public Service;

  6. Prescribing basic training programmes, furnishing advice on and assisting with the training of staff, and making recommendations to the Minister on the facilities necessary for the proper training of staff;

  7. Providing management consultation services, including advice as to efficient work and control methods and techniques, data processing equipment, and problems of organisation.

It has complete independence in dealing with individual employees of the Public Service, but is made responsible to a Minister in all other matters.

When directed by the Minister charged with the administration of the Act, at the request of the Minister responsible for another part of the State Services, e.g., the Post Office or the Railways Department, the Commission must associate itself with the head of that particular part of the service in an investigation of its organisation, methods, or procedures. The Commission must also, when requested by the head of or the Minister in Charge of any part of the State Services, provide management consultation services.

Computer Services—A Computer Services Division of the State Services Commission has been established and is responsible for the control of the computer services vested in the State Services Commission. The Cumberland Computer Centre is in Willis Street, Wellington. A further centre, known as the Pipitea Computer Centre, has been established at 61–63 Thorndon Quay, Wellington.

An engineering and scientific computer centre in the Vogel Building, Wellington, is operated by the Ministry of Works and Development as agent for the State Services Commission.

A computer data base is to be established at Wanganui as part of a justice data bank system, with positive means of safeguarding access to information in the data base. A description of the proposed system is contained in a Government caucus committee report published in 1973 and available from Government bookshops. The system is to service the Police, Transport and Justice Departments.

THE PUBLIC SERVICE: Recruitment—The recruitment of public servants is conducted by the State Services Commission through its district representatives, and by departments in collaboration with the Commission. Details of career openings in the Service are regularly supplied to schools, and career leaflets are published.

Promotion—Promotion in the Public Service is based on merit. Although the Service has clearly defined salary scales and avenues of promotion, it also provides quick promotion with special salary increases to officers of outstanding merit. All vacancies above basic level are widely advertised so that all persons in the Service, and sometimes persons outside the Service, may apply for higher positions. Public servants have certain rights of appeal to the Public Service Appeal Board.

Classification and Grading—Since 1963 the Commission has prescribed occupational classes, according to the nature of the duties required to be performed. Each occupational class is graded according to relative levels of responsibility and skills required.

Remuneration—Salary rates are prescribed in accordance with the State Services Remuneration and Conditions of Employment Act 1969 and are related to the levels of remuneration of persons doing comparable work in employment outside the Public Service. Adequate margins are maintained for skill and responsibility.

Efficiency and Economy—In fulfilling its responsibility for reviewing efficiency and economy in the Public Service, the Commission, in collaboration with departments, makes full use of inspection of work and analysis of systems, standards and controls; new training methods and materials; modern technical processes and equipment; clearly defined systems of delegation of authority and of discipline.

Staff Training and Education—A comprehensive Service training and education policy is provided.

Statistics: Staff—The detailed distribution of staff among departments in the Public Service is shown in the Commission's annual report to Parliament (parliamentary paper G. 3). At 31 March 1973 there were 51,013 permanent officers and 1,816 temporary staff (excluding casuals) employed; a year earlier the comparable figures were 53,222 and 2,299 respectively. Distribution of the staff by occupational classes is given in Section 32, Employment.

PAY RESEARCH UNIT—It is accepted that there should be comparability between private sector rates and rates paid to State servants employed on broadly comparable work, taking into account differences in conditions of service and fringe benefits. But it is also recognised that there is a need to make a clear distinction between fact-finding—establishing job comparability, discovering pay and conditions—and the negotiation and arbitration process.

To this end a Pay Research Unit for the State Services was set up in August 1972 and is based in the Department of Statistics.

Such a unit had been recommended by the 1962 Royal Commission of Inquiry into the New Zealand State Services, and again by the 1969 Royal Commission on Salary and Wage Fixing Procedures in the State Services.

The Pay Research Unit has a small consultative and advisory steering committee with equal representation from both the official and the employee organisation sides to decide on which occupational groups should be surveyed, and when such surveys should be undertaken. It will also set up advisory committees and decide their functions and the composition of the committees.

Though the consultative committee decides on the occupational groups to be surveyed, the Pay Research Unit alone is responsible for deciding the fields of employment outside the State Services where comparisons are made.

STATUTORY BOARDS AND COMMITTEES—The following is a list of the main statutory boards and committees grouped according to the Government department responsible for the administration of the legislation or the servicing of the boards. The order of departments is generally that followed in the Yearbook for coverage of the main subject matter.

          Health, Department of

Clean Air Council.

Dental Council.

Dental Technicians Board.

Dental Benefits Central Advisory Committee.

Nursing Council.

Supervising Committee, Rotoroa Island (section 7, Alcoholism and Drug Addiction Act 1966).

Medical Council of New Zealand.

Medical Research Council of New Zealand.

Board of Health.

Dietitians Board.

Plumbers and Gasfitters Board.

Maternity Services Committee.

Commercial, Household, and Agricultural Poisons Committee.

Poisons Committee.

Food and Drug Advisory and Technical Committees.

Radiological Advisory Council.

Drug Assessment Advisory Committee.

Medical Practitioners Disciplinary Committee.

Council of the Pharmaceutical Society.

Laboratory Service Advisory Committee.

Maternity Benefits Negotiating Committee.

Medical Services Advisory Committee.

Ophthalmological Services Advisory Committee.

Otological Services Advisory Committee.

Pharmaceutical Advisory Committee.

Pharmacology and Therapeutics Advisory Committee.

Pharmaceutical Benefits Negotiating Committee.

Radiological Services Advisory Committee.

Hospital Medical Officers Advisory Committee.

Central Committee on Training Orthopaedic Technicians.

Physiotherapy Board.

Occupational Therapy Board.

Chiropodists Board.

Ambulance Transport Advisory Board.

Opticians Board.

Board of Management of the Disabled Re-establishment League.

District Committees Disabled Re-establishment League.

          Social Welfare Department

War Pensions and Rehabilitation

War Pensions Board.

War Pensions Appeal Board.

War Pensions Medical Research Trust.

Rehabilitation Board.

N.Z. Artificial Limb Board.

          Education, Department of

Advisory Committee on the Teaching of the Maori Language.

Central Advisory Committee.

Committee of Inquiry into Pre-school Education.

Committee of Inquiry into the Use of Television in Education.

Education Boards' Employment Review Committee.

Education Development Conference.

National Commission for UNESCO.

National Council for Adult Education.

National Library Board of Trustees.

Ngarimu V.C. Scholarship Fund Board.

N.Z. Council for Educational Research.

N.Z. Foundation for the Blind (Board of Trustees).

Primary Teachers Appointments Appeal Board.

School Certificate Examination Board.

Teachers Assessment Appeal Board.

Teachers Classification Appeal Board.

Teachers Court of Appeal.

Teachers Disciplinary Board.

Technicians Certification Authority.

Trades Certification Board.

University Entrance Board.

Vocational Training Council. (Joint appointments Ministers of Education and Labour.)

          Justice, Department of

Borstal Parole Board.

Prison Parole Board.

Town and Country Planning Appeal Boards.

Legal Aid Board.

Legal Aid Appeal Authority.

Co-operative Dairy Companies Tribunal.

Indecent Publications Tribunal.

Copyright Tribunal.

Crimes Compensation Tribunal.

Chiropractic Board.

Licensing Control Commission.

Licensing Committees (there are 22 of these committees).

Land Valuation Committees (there are 21 of these committees).

Hotel Investment Advisory Committee.

Law Revision Commission.

Property Law and Equity Reform Committee.

Public and Administrative Law Reform Committee.

Contracts and Commercial Law Reform Committee.

Torts and General Law Reform Committee.

Criminal Law Reform Committee.

Company Law Advisory Committee.

Special Companies Act Committee.

Magistrates' Courts Rules Committee.

          Ministry of Defence

Armed Forces Canteen Council.

          Police Department

Police Staff Tribunal.

Transport, Ministry of

Transport Licensing Authorities (5).

Transport Licensing Appeal Authority.

Transport Charges Appeal Authority.

Air Services Licensing Appeal Authority.

Air Services Licensing Authority.

Transport Advisory Council.

Road Safety Research Council.

Shipping Industry Tribunal.

Nominal Defendants Advisory Council.

Marine Council.

Maritime Appeal Authority.

N.Z. Ports Authority.

N.Z. Urban Passenger Transport Council.

          Railways Department

Government Railways Appeal Board.

Government Railways Industrial Tribunal.

          Science, Ministry of

Building Research Association.

Carter Observatory Board.

Cawthron Institute Trust Board.

Coal Research Association Inc.

Dairy Research Institute.

Fruit Research Committee.

Hop Research Committee.

Meat Industry Research Institute.

Mineral Resources Council.

N.Z. Atomic Energy Committee.

N.Z. Fertiliser Manufacturers Research Association.

N.Z. Leather and Shoe Research Association Inc.

N.Z. Pottery and Ceramics Research Association.

Potato Research Advisory Committee.

Research Institute of Launderers, Dry Cleaners, and Dyers.

Ross Dependency Research Committee.

Tobacco Research Committee.

Wheat Research Committee.

Wool Research Organisation.

National Research Advisory Council.

Testing Laboratory Registration Council.

          Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of

Agricultural Chemicals Board.

Agricultural Pests Destruction Council.

Animal Remedies Board.

Apple and Pear Prices Authority.

British Phosphate Commission.

Canterbury Raspberry Marketing Committee.

Central Committee of Raspberry Growers.

Christmas Island Phosphate Commission.

Citrus Canker Advisory Committee.

Citrus Marketing Authority.

Dairy Cattle Breeding Committee.

Dairy Factory Managers' Registration Board.

Dairy Industry Loans Council.

Dairy Products Prices Authority.

Egg Marketing Authority.

Fruit Distributors Ltd.

Honey Marketing Authority.

Hop Marketing Authority.

Marlborough Nassella Tussock Board.

Meat Export Prices Committee.

Milk Prices Authority.

National Hydatids Authority.

Nelson Raspberry Marketing Committee.

N.Z. Agricultural Engineering Institute Management Committee.

N.Z. Dairy Board.

N.Z. Meat Producers Board.

N.Z. Milk Board.

N.Z. Potato Board.

N.Z. Poultry Board.

N.Z. Wool Board.

N.Z. Wool Marketing Corporation.

N.Z. Wool Testing Authority.

North Canterbury Nassella Tussock Board.

Otago Raspberry Marketing Committee.

Veterinary Services Council.

Veterinary Surgeons Board.

(Excludes advisory or technical committees appointed under section 13 of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Act 1953).

          Works and Development, Ministry of

National Roads Board.

National Water and Soil Conservation Authority.

Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council.

Water Allocation Council.

Water Pollution Control Council.

Building Industry Advisory Council.

Auckland Harbour Bridge Authority.

Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel Authority.

Engineers Registration Board.

Engineering Associates Registration Board.

Architects Education and Registration Board.

Quantity Surveyors Registration Board.

Waikato Valley Authority.

Catchment Boards.

          Lands and Survey, Department of

Land Settlement Board.

Marginal Lands Board.

National Parks Authority.

National Parks Board.

Hauraki Gulf Maritime Park Board.

Nature Conservation Council.

Cape Kidnappers Bird Sanctuary Board.

Scenic and Allied Reserve Boards.

N.Z. Survey Board.

N.Z. Geographic Board.

          N.Z. Forest Service

Forestry Development Council.

Timber Production Advisory Committee.

Waipoua Forest Sanctuary Advisory Committee.

Forest Disease Control Advisory Committee.

Forest Parks Advisory Committees (4).

          Maori and Island Affairs, Department of

Board of Maori Affairs.

Maori Purposes Fund Board.

Maori Education Foundation.

Licensed Interpreters Board of Examiners.

          Valuation Department

Valuers Registration Board.

          Ministry of Energy Resources

Natural Gas Corporation.

N.Z. Gas Council.

          N.Z. Electricity Department

Electricians Registration Board.

Electric Lineman Training Committee.

Rural Electrical Reticulation Council.

Committee on Electric Power Development.

Committee to Review Power Requirements.

Electrical Wiring Regulations Committee.

          Trade and Industry, Department of

Advisory Committee on Heavy Engineering Industry.

Consumer Council.

Electronics Advisory Committee.

Emergency Protection Authority.

Industrial Research and Development Grants Advisory Committee.

Metric Advisory Board.

Motor Spirits Licensing Authority.

N.Z. Industrial Design Council.

N.Z. Inventions Development Authority.

N.Z. Linen Flax Corporation.

N.Z. Steel Limited.

N.Z. Wheat Board.

N.Z. Wooltop Making Investigating Co. Ltd.

Productivity Advisory Council.

Regional Development Councils.

Standards Council.

Tariff and Development Board.

Timber Preservation Authority.

Tobacco Board.

Trade Practices and Prices Commission including Price Tribunal.

Overseas Trade

Export Guarantee Advisory Committee.

N.Z. Overseas Trading Corporation Ltd.

Trade Promotion Council.

          Mines Department

Coal Mines Council.

Coal Mining Districts Welfare and Research Fund Council.

          Treasury

Monetary and Economic Council.

Dominion Salt Ltd.

N.Z. Woolpack and Textiles Ltd.

Local Authorities Loans Board.

National Provident Fund Board.

National Provident Fund Investments Committee.

Government Superannuation Board.

Taxation Board of Review.

Co-operative Pig Marketing Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.

Co-operative Milk Marketing Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.

Co-operative Dairy Companies Income Tax Appeal Authority.

Snow Loss Reserve Committee.

Visiting Experts Advisory Committee.

          Labour, Department of

Auckland Advisory Committee on Training and Employment.

Building Industry Technical Training Council

Exempted Goods Committee under Shops and Offices Act.

Higher Salaries Commission.

Immigration Advisory Council.

Industrial Commission.

Industrial Conciliation Service.

Industrial Mediation Service.

National Advisory Council on the Employment of Women.

Port Conciliation Committees under Waterfront Industry Act 1953.

Rent Appeal Boards.

Shops and Offices Exemption Tribunal.

Waterfront Industry Tribunal.

Research Fund Administration Committee for Society for Research on Women.

Vocational Training Council. (Appointments made by Minister of Education and Minister of Labour, acting jointly.)

Construction Advisory Committee.

National Amenities Committee under Waterfront Industry Act 1933.

National Conciliation Committee (Waterfront).

          Internal Affairs, Department of

Local Government Commission.

Fire Service Commission.

Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council.

Lottery Board of Control.

N.Z. Historic Places Trust.

N.Z. Art Gallery and Museum Board.

N.Z. Council for Recreation and Sport.

Winston Churchill Memorial Trust Board.

N.Z. Patriotic Fund Board.

Cinematograph Films Licensing Authority.

Cinematograph Films Censorship Board of Appeal.

Cinematograph Film Projectionists Licensing Board.

Film Industry Board.

University of Hawke's Bay Trust Board.

Art Union Distribution Committees (6).

Auckland Centennial Memorial Park Committee.

Anzac Fellowship Selection Committee.

Literary Fund Advisory Committee.

          Civil Defence

National Civil Defence Committee.

National Civil Defence Plans Co-ordinating Committee (and 10 subcommittees).

          Tourist and Publicity Department

Tourist Hotel Corporation.

New Zealand Maori Arts and Crafts Institute.

New Zealand National Travel Association.

Auckland Intercontinental Properties Ltd.

          Miscellaneous

Earthquake and War Damage Commission.

State Insurance Investment Board.

Government Insurance Investment Board.

HONOURS

Since the preceding issue of the Yearbook the following honours have been conferred by Her Majesty the Queen for services rendered in connection with New Zealand:

NEW YEAR HONOURS JANUARY 1974

CIVIL DIVISION

Knight Commander of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (K.C.M.G.):

Hon. Robert Mafeking Macfarlane, C.M.G.

Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.):

Hon. Albert Royle Henry (of Rarotonga, Cook Islands);

Commissioner William Harold Angus Sharp, Q.P.M.

Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.):

Mr O. Hutchinson; Mr L. N. Ross; Mr K. L. Sandford; Professor Emeritus F. L. W. Wood.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Rev. Canon C. D. C. Caswell, O.B.E.; Rev. Canon Dr C. E. Fox, M.B.E.; Mr J. H. Macky; Mr J. V. McManemin; Mr D. A. Patterson, M.B.E.; Mr A. V. Prendiville; Mr H. Rogers; Rev. Father. F. P. J. Wall; Mr F. M. Warren.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Mr R. L. Archibald; Professor V. J. Chapman; Mr M. M. N. Corner, M.C.; Dr A. Ginsberg; Dr L. R. Hetherington; Mr J. P. Kennedy; Mr J. McDonald; Mr T. B. McDonald; Mr C. J. L. Matheson; Mr E. J. B. Matthews; Dr R. F. Moody, M.B.E.; Mr E. M. Pou; Mrs D. E. Simons; Mrs A. V. C. Slack; Mr J. E. Story; Mr R. C. Stuart; Rev. Te N. T. W. W. Waaka.

Companion of the Imperial Service Order (I.S.O.):

Mr R. Johnson.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Miss K. Alison; Mr I. G. C. Anderson; Lieut. Colonel A. W. Boon; Mrs D. F. Byrne; Mr M. V. Comber; Mr C. A. Corlett; Mrs N. K. Dallinger; Mr H. D. B. Dansey; Mrs I. L. Firman; Mr H. D. Gillies; Mr W. R. Hawkey; Mr R. J. W. Jacobs; Mrs R. M. King; Mr E. J. Kirk; Mr R. J. McLean; Mrs B. H. McPhail; Mr E. R. Manuera; Mr D. H. Mason; Mrs K. M.H. Mildenhall; Mr N. S. Murray; Sister Oliver (Miss N. I. Plunkett); Mr P. J. O'Regan; Mr R. G. Robinson; Mr H. J. Rudolph; Mr J. C. Trimmer; Mr J. C. Wishart.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.):

Mr A. J. H. Allen; Mrs D. M. Barkman; Mr C. H. Barton; Mr G. J. Brady; Mr L. W. Brennan; Mr L. E. Brooker; Miss B. I. Fryer; Mr D. Gough; Miss E. L. Hamel; Mrs C. M. Jones; Mrs C. L. Kerslake; Mrs E. M. Kingston; Mr B. G. Mellor; Mrs R. R. Mete; Mr W. J. Overton; Miss O. M. Rayner; Mrs B. Rhodes; Dr A. R. Ross; Miss I. M. Shaw; Mr L. A. Stuart; Mr P. Trebilcock; Mr P. F. Ward.

Honorary British Empire Medal:

Mrs S. Kaliarou (of Island of Skiathos, Greece).

Queen's Police Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.P.M.):

Chief Inspector J. W. McGuire; Constable A. D. Knight.

Queen's Fire Service Medal for Distinguished Service (Q.F.S.M.):

Chief Fire Officer E. M. Morris; Chief Fire Officer L. F. Wilson; Fireman G. M. MacGregor.

MILITARY DIVISION

Knight Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.):

Lieutenant General R. J. H. Webb, C.B., C.B.E.

Companion of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (C.B.):

Air Vice Marshal D. F. St. George, C.B.E., D.F.C., A.F.C.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Major General R. H. F. Holloway, O.B.E.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Lieut-Colonel J. A. Mace, M.B.E.; Wing Commander C. M. Hanson.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Lieut. L. A. Mangos; Warrant Marine Engineering Artificer A. J. Kildare; Major M. B. Walker; Major A. O. Bloomfield, E.D.; Warrant Officer First Class M. H. Edwards; Warrant Officer Second Class R. C. Spraggs; Wing Commander P. R. Adamson, A.D.C; Flight Lieutenant B. J. Germain.

Member of the Royal Red Cross (R.R.C.):

Matron A. Tamaki.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C.):

Flight Lieut. G. R. Lloyd.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.):

Warrant Officer Wren J. C. O'Donnell; Warrant Officer Second Class E. M. Dix; Flight Sergeant J. F. Walsh; Flight Sergeant L. Harrison; Flight Sergeant E. E. Morton.

ROYAL VISIT JANUARY AND FEBRUARY 1974

Knight Grand Cross (G.C.V.O.):

His Excellency Sir Edward Denis Blundell, G.C.M.G., K.B.E.

Knight Commander of Royal Victorian Order (K.C.V.O.):

Mr Patrick O'Dea.

Commander of Royal Victorian Order (C.V.O.):

Mr B. D. Crompton.

Member of Royal Victorian Order (M.V.O.) fourth class:

Mr D. J. Cummings M.V.O. (fifth class); Temp. Lieutenant Colonel M. J. Dudman; Lieutenant Colonel R. S. Straight; Mr F. E. Wilson; Lieutenant-Commander K. F. Wilson.; Chief Traffic Superintendent D. F. Ross.

Member of Royal Victorian Order (M.V.O.) fifth class:

Superintendent A. G. Berriman; Mr R. Butler; Mr D. C. Gordon; Miss C. Major; Miss K. M. Wood

Royal Victorian Medal (R.V.M.):

Mr A. T. H. Broughton; Mr R. G. Hawthorn; Mr P. F. Orr.

JUDICIARY

Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (K.B.E.):

Right Hon. Sir Thaddeus McCarthy, K.B.

Knight Bachelor (K.B.):

Hon. Alec Leslie Haslam.

BIRTHDAY HONOURS LIST, JUNE 1974

CIVIL DIVISION

Knight Bachelor (K.B.):

Mr Charles William Feilden Hamilton, O.B.E.; Mr Alfred Hamish Reed, C.B.E.; Mr Ronald Stewart Scott.

Companion of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George (C.M.G.):

The Rev W. F. Ford; Dr H. D. Purves.

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E):

Mrs W. Cooper, M.B.E.; Mr H. H. Innes; Mr R. M. McCulloch, M.B.E.; Mr G. E. Roth; Mr W. J. Scott; Professor J. Stevens.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Miss J. E. Ballard; Mrs E. E. Bell; Professor Emeritus E. M. Blaiklock; Dr J. Burstein; Mr R. J. P. Columbus; Mr J. B. F. Cotterill; Dr E. E. Davidge; Mr A. M. Fernie; Dr R. R. Grigor; Dr E. K. Hughes; Mr J. R. Johnstone; Mr A. J. Smaill, B.E.M.; Mr R. W. S. Stevens; Mr D. O. Walker.

Companion of the Imperial Service Order (I.S.O.):

Mr A. M. Dinsdale.

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Mr E. N. Adams; Mrs A. P. Barker; Miss E. H. F. B. Cooper; Mr H. H. Craig, E.D.; Mr G. F. Duxfield; Mrs A. Ellison; Mr I. D. Galloway; The Rev M. J. Goodall; Detective Chief Superintendent F. A. Gordon; Mr H. R. Heiford, E.D.; Mr C. L. Hewson; Miss C. I. Johnstone; Mr T. W. Lee; Mr M. J. Lepper; Mrs D. E. McCulloch; Mrs M. E. MacKenzie; Professor J. M. McStay; Dr A. H. Meikleham; Mr W. Te R. Poutapu; Mr M. A. Till; Mr E. B. Weber; Mrs B. A. Wood; Mrs R. M. Woods.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.):

Mrs D. M. Allen; Mr A. T. Anderson; Mrs M. F. McK. Becks; Mr C. F. B. Clarke; Mrs A. E. Cole; Mrs E. M. Currin; Mr W. A. Dingle; Mrs D. I; Eyre; Dr M. M. Gow; Mr E. H. Gowan; Mrs W. B. Hamilton; Miss E. A. Hobson; The Rev A. McG. Kirkwood; Mrs G. H. McArthur; Mr N. N. McDonald; Mrs C. E. B. Matthews; Mr A. L. Murray; The Rev Father J. A. Noonan; Mr L. F. Parker; Mrs T. P. Reweti; Mr A. S. Robins, M.C.; Mr E. N. Rowe; Mrs M. O. Russell; Mrs E. Taylor; Mrs M. A. Taylor; Mrs N. C. Taylor; Mrs M. M. Webber.

MILITARY DIVISION

Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (C.B.E.):

Commodore J. F. McKenzie, O.B.E.

Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (O.B.E.):

Group Captain M. F. McD. Palmer; Captain F. H. Bland; Lieutenant Colonel A. P. Coster, E.D.;

Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (M.B.E.):

Lieutenant Commander G. M. Walton; Squadron Leader D. G. McAllister; Chaplain Third Class J. E. Carde; Captain J. D. Carson; Flight Lieutenant K. D. Breeze; Warrant Officer First Class H. E. Luskie; Warrant Officer E. R. Patterson; Stores Warrant Officer K. M. Mutch.

Air Force Cross (A.F.C.):

Flight Lieutenant J. D. Peterson, D.F.C.

Associate of the Royal Red Cross (A.R.R.C.):

Matron H. J. Macann.

British Empire Medal (B.E.M.)

Flight Sergeant P. H. Newall; Staff Sergeant P. W. Cussen; Staff Sergeant G. S. Vivian; Flight Sergeant W. L. Taylor; Control Electrical Artificer First Class R. G. Wilson; Flight Sergeant T. R. McGregor; Stores Chief Petty Officer W. R. Linn; Petty Officer R. M. R. J. Hudson.

NEW ZEALAND DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION OVERSEAS

Embassies

Austria—Obersteinergasse 11, A 1190 Vienna, Postfach 1471.

Belgium—51 Rue de la Lai, Brussels 1040.

Chile—Magdalena 160, El Golf, (postal address: Casilla 112, Las Condes).

China—Unit 1, Diplomatic Building, San Li Thun, Peking.

France—7 Rue Leonardo de Vinci, 75116 Paris.

Germany, West—53 Bonn, Bonn-Centre H1 902, Bundeskanzlerplatz, Bonn.

Indonesia—60 Djalan Prof. Moh. Yamin S.H., Menteng, Djakarta.

Ireland—New Zealand House, Haymarket, London, S.W.1.Y. 4.T.Q.

Italy—Via Zara 28, Rome, 00198.

Japan—20–40 Kamiyama-Cho, Shibuya-Ku, Tokyo 150.

Korea—1–42 Dongbinggo-Dong, Yongsan-Ku, Seoul.

Laos—64 Silom Road, Bangkok, Thailand.

Luxembourg—51 Rue de la Loi, Brussels 1040, Belgium.

Nepal—39 Golf Links Road, New Delhi 3, India.

Netherlands—Lange Voorhout 18, The Hague 52.

Peru—Avenida Salaverry 3006, San Isidro, (postal address: Casilla 5587), Lima.

Philippines—3414 Connaught Centre, Hongkong.

Thailand—Anglo-Thai Building, 64 Silom Road, Bangkok.

United States—19 Observatory Circle, N.W., Washington, D.C., 20008.

U.S.S.R.—44, Vlitza Voroskovo, Moscow.

Yugoslavia—Via Zara 28, Rome 00198.

Vietnam—45 Phung Khac Khoan, Saigon.

High Commissions

Australia—Commonwealth Avenue, Canberra, A.C.T. 2601.

Bangladesh—39 Golf Links Road, New Delhi 110003, India.

Britain—New Zealand House, Haymarket, London, S.W.Y. 4TQ.

Cook Islands—Rarotonga.

Canada—Commonwealth Building, 77 Metcalfe Street, Ottawa, KLP 5L6.

Fiji—P.O. Box 1378, Suva.

India—39 Golf Links Road, New Delhi 110003, India.

Malaysia—Police Co-operative Building, Suleiman Road, Kuala Lumpur.

Singapore—13 Nassim Road, Singapore 10.

Sri Lanka—39 Golf Links Road, New Delhi 3, India.

Tonga—Apia, Western Samoa.

Western Samoa—Apia.

Other Missions

Australia—Consulate-General, United Insurance Building, corner George and Hunter Streets, Sydney.

European Communities—New Zealand Mission, 51 Rue de la Loi, Brussels 1040.

Greece—Consulate-General, Leoforos Vasilissis Sophias 29, Athens T.T. 138.

Hong Kong—New Zealand Commission, 3414 Connaught Centre.

New Caledonia—Consulate-General, 3 Boulevard Vauban, Noumea.

Philippines—Minister, 1124 Prince's Building, Chater Road, Hong Kong.

South-East Asia Treaty Organisation—Council Representative, 64 Silom Road, Bangkok.

Switzerland—Consulate-General, 58 Rue de Moillebeau, CH/1211, Geneva 19.

United Nations—New Zealand Mission, 733 Third Avenue, New York, N.Y., 10017.

New Zealand Mission, 58 Rue de Moillebeau, CH/1211, Geneva 19.

United States—Consulate-General, 630 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y., 10020.

Consulate-General, 153 Kearney Street, San Francisco.

Consulate-General, 510 West Sixth Street, Los Angeles.

DIPLOMATIC REPRESENTATION IN NEW ZEALAND

Argentina—Consulate of the Argentine Republic, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington.

Australia—Australian High Commission, I.C.I. House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Austria—Hon. Consulate-General, Wool House, 139 Featherston Street, Wellington.

Belgium—Embassy of Belgium, Dominion Farmers Institute, Featherston Street, Wellington.

Brazil—Hon. Consul, 5 Elliott Street, Auckland.

Britain—British High Commission, Reserve Bank Building, Wellington.

Auckland Office, Norwich Union Building, Queen Street, Auckland 1.

Canada—Canadian High Commission, I.C.I. House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

China, People's Republic of—2–6 Glenmore Street, Wellington.

Costa Rica—Consul-General, 2–12 Parnell Road, Auckland.

Czechoslovakia—Legation of Czechoslovakia, 12 Anne Street, Wellington.

Denmark—Royal Danish Embassy, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Princes Court, Princes Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, Commercial Building, The Square, Palmerston North.

Hon. Consul, 100 Cumnor Terrace, Woolston, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 12–20 St. Andrew Street, Dunedin.

Ecuador—Hon. Consul, General Buildings, Waring Taylor Street, Wellington.

El Salvador—Hon. Consul, 283 Main Highway, Orewa, Auckland.

Fiji—New Zealand Agents for Fiji, L. D. Nathan and Co. Ltd., Fort Street, Auckland.

Finland—Hon. Consul, C.P.D. House, 108 The Terrace, Wellington.

France—Embassy of France, Government Life Insurance Building, Wellington.

Hon. Consular Agent, 904–908 Colombo Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consular Agent, Corner French and Robert Streets, Dunedin.

Germany, West—Embassy of the Federal Republic of Germany, 3 Claremont Grove, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Colombus House, 14–18 Customs Street East, Auckland 1.

Greece—Hon. Consul-General, 270 Wakefield Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Prudential Building, 9 Manukau Road, Auckland.

Holy See—Apostolic Nunciature, 112 Queen's Drive, Wellington 3.

India—High Commission of India, 49 Willis Street, Wellington.

Indonesia—Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, 11 Fitzherbert Terrace, Wellington 1.

Italy—Embassy of Italy, 24 Grant Road, Wellington.

Hon. Consular Agent, corner Queen and Fort Streets, Auckland.

Hon. Consular Agent, 68 Lichfield Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consular Agent, 353 Trafalgar Square, Nelson.

Hon. Consular Agent, 356 High Street, Dunedin.

Japan—Embassy of Japan, 298 Oriental Parade, Wellington.

Consulate-General of Japan, Bank of New South Wales Building, 45 Queen Street, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, J. Pallot and Co. Ltd., Christchurch.

Korea—Embassy of the Republic of Korea, Molesworth House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Rainger House, 150 Victoria Street West, Auckland.

Malaysia—High Commission, 200 Oriental Parade, Wellington.

Mexico—Hon. Consul, Tatra House 96 Tory St., Wellington 1.

Netherlands—Royal Netherlands Embassy, 96 Shell House, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 83 Customs Street East, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, 178 Cashel Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Consul, National Mortgage and Agency Co., Dunedin.

Norway—Hon. Consul-General, 38–42 Waring Taylor Street, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, 13 Brighton Terrace, Mairangi Bay. Auckland.

Hon. Vice-Consul, Corner of Colombo and Lichfield Streets, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 365 Princes Street, Dunedin.

Philippines—Hon. Consul, Wilson and Horton Ltd., Auckland.

Poland—Embassy of the Polish People's Republic, 1 Heaton Terrace, Wellington.

Portugal—Hon. Consul, L. D. Nathan, P.O. Box 190, Auckland.

Hon. Consul, Challenge House, 105–109 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Vice-Consul, Midland Street, Dunedin.

Romania—Consul-General, 100 Evans Bay Road, Wellington.

Singapore—High Commission, Molesworth House, Molesworth Street, Wellington.

South Africa—Consul-General, Federation House, 95–99 Molesworth Street, Wellington.

Sri Lanka—Hon. Trade Commissioner, Huddart Parker Building, Wellington.

Sweden—Royal Swedish Embassy, 48 The Terrace, Wellington.

Hon. Consul, Church Street, Onehunga, Auckland 6.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 154 Hereford Street, Christchurch.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 40 Jetty Street, Dunedin.

Hon. Vice-Consul, 98 Layard Street, Invercargill.

Switzerland—Embassy of Switzerland, D.I.C. Building, Lambton Quay, Wellington.

Hon. Consular Agent, 48 Carr Road, Mount Roskill, Auckland.

Thailand—Royal Thai Embassy, 2 Burnell Avenue, Wellington.

Tonga—New Zealand Agents for the Government of Tonga, Beachcroft Avenue, Auckland 6.

Turkey—Hon. Consul-General, 228 Queen Street, Auckland.

U.S.S.R.—Embassy of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, 57 Messines Road, Wellington.

U.S.A.—Embassy, I.B.M. Centre, 151 The Terrace, Wellington 1.

Consul-General, A.M.P. Building, Queen Street East, Auckland.

Hon. Consular Agent, 311 Manchester Street, Christchurch.

Venezuela—Hon. Consul, Brooklyn Flats, Emily Place, Auckland.

Vietnam—Embassy of the Republic of Vietnam, 40 Panama Street, Wellington.

Western Samoa—Trade and Development Office, 7 Fanshawe Street, Auckland 1.

Yugoslavia—Embassy, 49 Hobson Street, Wellington.

Countries with diplomatic representation in Canberra, Australia, with responsibility for New Zealand are: Arab Republic of Egypt, Argentina, Austria, Brazil, Burma, Chile. Finland, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Khmer Republic, Korea, Laos, Mexico, Norway, Pakistan, Philippines, Spain, Sri Lanka.

NEW ZEALAND TRADE REPRESENTATION OVERSEAS

There are official trade commissioners at the diplomatic missions in Canberra, Sydney, London, Athens, Hong Kong, Tokyo, Kuala Lumpur, Singapore, New York, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Brussels, Fiji, Paris, Bonn, New Delhi, Rome, and Bangkok at the addresses given on a preceding page.

Addresses of additional official trade commissioners and other representatives are as follows

American Samoa—Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand, Fagatogo, Pago Pago.

Australia—330 Collins Street, Melbourne.

M.M.I. Building, 344 Queen Street, Brisbane.

16 St. George's Terrace, Perth 6000.

Canada—635 Dorchester Boulevard West, Montreal 101, Quebec.

700 West Georgia Street, Vancouver 2, B.C.

Djakarta—Resident in Singapore.

Guyana—Resident in Trinidad.

Jamaica—Resident in Trinidad.

Korea—Resident in Tokyo.

New Caledonia—Trade Correspondent, 12 Rue du General Maugin, Noumea.

Pacific—Resident in Fiji. (P.O. Box 1378, Suva).

Philippines—Resident in Hong Kong.

Tahiti—Trade Correspondent, Air New Zealand Ltd., Rue du General de Gaulle, Papeete.

Trinidad and Tobago—90 Independence Square, Port of Spain.

U.S.A.—Association's Building, 1145 19th Street, N.W., Washington D.C., 20036.

Trade Correspondent, 2270 Kalakaua Avenue. Waikiki, Honolulu, Hawaii.

Fuller information and also details of official overseas trade representation in New Zealand are set out in the booklet Overseas Representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand Representatives Overseas published by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Wellington.

Chapter 42. STATISTICAL SUMMARY

TOTAL POPULATION AND EXTERNAL MIGRATION
YearPopulationMean PopulationNatural IncreaseNet Migration*
At 31 MarchAt 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 MarchYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 DecemberYear Ended 31 March

*Excluding tourists on cruising liners and members of armed forces, etc.

†Does not include armed forces personnel overseas.

1,9231,325,3011,343,0211,311,3821,328,19316,9095,527
1,9241,347,8531,370,4031,334,0291,352,61817,7205,767
1,9251,379,4871,401,2301,359,9951,384,42818,02512,298
1,9261,409,8121,429,6691,392,0731,413,74317,38711,735
1,9271,438,1321,450,3561,420,8381,439,00416,67811,664
1,9281,453,8211,467,3701,443,5511,456,07516,078-1,235
1,9291,471,1101,486,1341,460,3631,473,41915,639711
1,9301,489,2031,506,8091,478,0271,493,01915,6772,385
1,9311,511,7001,522,7621,498,4161,514,21515,8055,109
1,9321,525,5451,534,7351,517,9401,527,06214,660-3,172
1,9331,538,0281,547,1241,530,1191,539,59014,342-2,595
1,9341,550,1251,558,3731,542,6511,551,53213,410-2,335
1,9351,560,9921,569,6891,554,2971,562,23313,486-3,150
1,9361,573,9271,584,6171,565,2631,575,23113,737-1,114
1,9371,587,2111,601,7581,578,7571,589,97214,681-353
1,9381,604,4791,618,3131,594,2751,606,76313,9712,386
1,9391,624,7141,641,6391,611,3621,628,51216,9394,963
1,9401,640,9011,633,6451,633,4471,637,30521,0706,028
1,9411,636,2301,631,2761,635,7151,630,94822,123714
1,9421,634,3381,636,4031,630,4191,639,57219,701209
1,9431,634,0941,642,0411,640,1911,635,63517,562541
1,9441,643,9001,676,2861,637,5701,655,79520,988107
1,9451,679,9721,727,8171,664,5851,694,64123,8481,018
1,9461,756,7561,781,2141,710,6801,759,52629,8042,343
1,9471,789,4761,817,4531,770,2911,798,26232,2563,038
1,9481,828,0251,853,8061,807,6111,834,65531,7775,756
1,9491,864,5601,892,0421,843,7671,871,74831,2634,181
1,9501,902,8831,927,6291,881,3171,909,09231,2477,880
1,9511,938,0321,970,5221,917,9341,947,52930,9707,522
1,9521,984,7302,024,5561,958,7291,996,14932,95015,664
1,9532,037,5532,074,7812,009,5062,048,82633,53422,032
1,9542,087,7402,118,4342,061,3762,094,91035,17915,441
1,9552,130,9272,164,7342,105,7672,138,94636,3717,030
1,9562,175,3732,209,1322,150,2902,182,83336,8358,092
1,9572,221,1692,262,8142,194,1082,232,59137,56311,492
1,9582,275,5152,315,9002,246,0932,285,85240,25515,408
1,9592,326,1292,359,7462,298,8142,334,61740,6709,992
1,9602,370,1662,403,5672,345,6022,377,01041,8873,213
1,9612,414,2962,461,2432,388,0042,426,65443,6081,620
1,9622,474,5882,515,8352,441,4002,484,87342,93318,832
1,9632,527,8682,566,9152,498,3572,536,91242,11113,639
1,9642,582,4072,616,9702,550,1142,589,15039,44115,484
1,9652,628,9002,663,8432,601,2192,635,35237,07111,991
1,9662,676,7782,711,3182,647,1962,682,60436,22512,021
1,9672,725,9142,744,9632,694,6802,727,65838,01514,435
1,9682,752,6622,772,9332,735,2072,753,51237,648-8,090
1,9692,777,2102,804,0592,760,0772,780,10138,199-10,848
1,9702,815,9872,852,1372,788,8392,819,60237,210-2,060
1,9712,860,8732,899,0672,831,2222,864,39240,1517,845
1,9722,909,916‡2,960,9962,876,388‡2,916,57238,41410,851
1,9732,974,6593,026,9302,932,4062,978,67635,41325,475
VITAL STATISTICS
YearNumbersRates per 1,000 of Mean PopulationDeaths Under 1 Year per 1,000 Live Births*Marriages
Live Births*DeathsDeaths Under 1 YearLive Births*DeathsNumberRate per 1,000 of Mean Population
*Figures from 1926 have been revised to exclude registrations under Section 24 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1925 and Section 14 of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1951 (late registrations).
1,92329,14812,239..21.959.21..10,3527.79
1,92429,26011,540..21.638.53..10,5027.76
1,92529,86911,8441,30921.578.5643.8210,8177.81
1,92629,90412,5171,31221.158.8543.8710,9947.78
1,92729,27812,6001,31620.358.7644.9510,7967.50
1,92828,93812,8601,16619.878.8340.2910,9197.50
1,92928,85913,2201,08619.598.9737.6311,4037.74
1,93028,82213,1451,11219.308.8038.5811,4947.70
1,93128,86713,0621,07719.068.6337.3110,2546.77
1,93227,53512,8751,03918.038.4337.7310,4926.87
1,93327,20412,8621,04317.678.3538.3411,0677.19
1,93427,22013,8101,06017.548.9038.9411,7887.60
1,93527,15013,6641,12817.388.7441.5512,7448.16
1,93628,39514,6581,16818.039.3141.1314,4489.17
1,93729,89615,2151,17818.809.5739.4014,9739.42
1,93830,84516,8741,53719.2010.5049.8315,9599.93
1,93932,87215,9331,37120.199.7841.7117,79110.92
1,94036,94515,8751,36222.569.7036.8718,08411.04
1,94139,17017,0471,56224.0210.4539.8813,8308.48
1,94237,81818,1171,38823.0711.0536.7012,7757.79
1,94334,68417,1221,35021.2110.4738.9212,0217.35
1,94438,03717,0491,47322.9710.3038.7313,6468.24
1,94541,53417,6861,44924.5110.4434.8916,6939.85
1,94647,52417,7201,52427.0110.0732.0721,09611.99
1,94749,69817,4421,48727.649.7029.9219,04710.59
1,94849,06217,2851,35026,749.4227.5217,7509.67
1,94948,84117,5781,46826.099.3930.0617,3549.27
1,95049,33118,0841,36425.849.4727.6517,0998.96
1,95149,80618,8361,37425.579.6727.5916,9158.69
1,95251,84618,8961,47525.979.4728.4517,0618.55
1,95351,88818,3541,33525.338.9625.7317,2248.41
1,95454,05518,8761,30225.809.0124.0917,5578.38
1,95555,59619,2251,36525.998.9924.5517,7958.32
1,95656,53119,6961,31325.909.0223.2317,5318.03
1,95758,42520,8621,42026.179.3424.3017,6147.89
1,95860,55620,3011,41626.498.8823.3818,3058.01
1,95961,79821,1281,47726.479.0523.9018,3157.84
1,96062,77920,8921,42026.418.7922.6218,9097.96
1,96165,39021,7821,49026.958.9822.7919,4268.01
1,96265,01422,0811,33126.168.8920.4719,5727.88
1,96364,52722,4161,26925.448.8419.6719,8567.83
1,96462,30222,8611,19324.068.8319.1520,7208.00
1,96560,04722,9761,17422.798.7219.5521,7028.23
1,96660,00323,7781,06422.378.8617.7322,9498.55
1,96761,02223,0071,10222.378.4318.0623,5158.62
1,96862,11224,4641,16422.568.8818.7424,0578.74
1,96962,36024,1611,05722.438.6916.9524,9718.98
1,97062,05024,8401,04022.018.8116.7625,9539.20
1,97164,46024,3091,06622.508.4916.5427,1999.50
1,97263,21524,08198821.678.5015.6326,8689.21
1,97360,72725,31498520.398.5016.2226,2748.82
EDUCATION
Roll Numbers at Educational Institutions
At 1 July*PrimarySecondaryHigher
State SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsState SchoolsRegistered Private SchoolsTechnical Institutes (Full-time Students)Teachers' CollegesUniversity Institutions (Including Extra-mural and Part-time Students)

* Figures earlier than 1928 are for December.

† Excludes Correspondence School pupils.

1,923218,64626,01019,4912,134..1,2024,202
1,924220,07826,30220,2792,473..1,2744,236
1,925221,44925,93320,7822,511..1,2714,442
1,926225,60826,77822,6502,794..1,1984,653
1,927227,77727,35823,4742,932..1,2004,878
1,928221,16926,39427,0843,506..1,1154,802
1,929220,34726,55628,5133,877..1,1884,623
1,930219,27426,61729,2844,513..1,1554,801
1,931220,97626,44831,0534,602..1,1655,111
1,932217,23626,39030,9444,512..9905,171
1,933203,58926,09730,4734,315..4435,085
1,934201,87026,58430,9154,430....5,059
1,935200,13526,92331,6114,743..4295,101
1,936213,49727,54031,8945,108..1,1855,218
1,937212,07627,50732,1155,595..1,3465,238
1,938209,96128,27134,3456,059..1,5225,707
1,939208,64127,97235,6926,266..1,5885,979
1,940208,43327,86835,2736,379..1,4575,528
1,941208,59527,83633,2536,451..1,5035,065
1,942208,72126,98332,3916,483..1,4634,373
1,943206,88428,52134,8937,184..1,7755,953
1,944207,29229,22340,7238,121..1,6787,267
1,945211,74229,58344,2798,933..1,4318,425
1,946218,12930,58144,9859,424..1,57511,361
1,947229,80431,92945,2499,968..1,63411,874
1,948235,24332,81845,1099,793..1,87511,964
1,949244,37733,94146,51210,243..2,32111,598
1,950254,66435,77548,23210,511..2,68411,515
1,951265,23037,10950,68211,045..2,70410,956
1,952282,69939,34254,12411,622..2,71010,691
1,953298,48141,27759,55812,476..2,76910,831
1,954311,54142,79766,34413,627..2,83410,803
1,955320,58044,08672,11714,970..2,84710,851
1,956332,04946,26175,35415,832..2,96311,077
1,957344,95947,95378,84316,265..3,21811,761
1,958356,22448,41882,69916,984..3,60212,881
1,959365,76151,54989,50817,663..3,75314,388
1,960371,82552,88799,36519,293713,83815,809
1,961376,47554,079109,63220,7522213,81416,820
1,962384,31355,293118,52322,2904414,22317,214
1,963392,59556,341124,97823,6035324,53618,303
1,964404,25757,154128,70924,4396204,69119,640
1,965415,58257,244132,09425,0738574,79022,145
1,966429,91656,050136,10425,5851,1635,02224,302
1,967445,04554,910141,92226,2321,3555,15626,313
1,968455,11953,782152,42227,0201,4856,09628,821
1,969461,30552,407155,87327,9101,6616,91231,494
1,970465,46050,904157,79728,4411,8827,58734,446
1,971467,09751,009160,83929,2672,2367,79137,257
1,972468,69250,859166,85129,8043,1188,08838,482
1,973470,27350,711171,97830,2013,3787,85338,995

NOTE—In addition, in 1973, 32 students attended Massey University, 19 attended Otago University and 172 attended Lincoln College for courses of less than one year's duration, 98,308 students were enrolled for part-time day and evening classes, including 17,679 with the N.Z. Technical Correspondence Institute; 887 pupils received tuition from the Primary Correspondence School and 697 pupils received tuition from the Secondary Correspondence School.

JUSTICE
YearMagistrates' Courts*Supreme CourtPrisoners in Jail at End of Year (Undergoing Sentence)
Summary ConvictionsRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationPersons SentencedRate per 1,000 of Mean PopulationNumberRate per 1,000 of Population

*Revised series. Excludes minor traffic offences as well as applications for prohibition, affiliation, maintenance and separation orders.

†Change in legislation resulting in more offences dealt with in Magistrates' Courts.

1,92331,17923.476250.471,1410.85
1,92427,55920.375550.411,1970.87
1,92528,86720.855110.371,2840.92
1,92625,75918.225690.401,3880.97
1,92726,11318.155690.401,4831.02
1,92824,50816.834780.331,4350.98
1,92925,18617.104730.321,3420.90
1,93025,19216.875380.361,5231.01
1,93123,25915.366000.401,6141.06
1,93223,23615.226360.421,5220.99
1,93320,35513.225310.341,4100.91
1,93419,65412.674900.321,1990.77
1,93519,67212.594720.301,1120.71
1,93621,45013.624620.299150.58
1,93723,56314.825070.327900.49
1,93823,76214.784880.307770.48
1,93924,77415.215710.358950.55
1,94025,67015.675470.338630.53
1,94124,52915.045420.339880.61
1,942....4570.281,3040.63
1,943....4940.301,0240.62
1,944....5600.349450.56
1,945....6190.379980.58
1,946....6550.379920.56
1,94720,18711.227400.411,0880.60
1,94821,91011.947170.399860.53
1,94922,02111.766760.369410.50
1,95021,10211.056420.341,0430.54
1,95122,40911.506440.331,0400.53
1,95227,15113.607040.351,0830.54
1,95328,99414.151790.091,0880.52
1,95431,48815.031480.071,1960.57
1,95532,44415.161470.071,1180.52
1,95635,30216.172040.091,3620.62
1,95736,96916.551990.091,4740.66
1,95835,39315.482060.091,6420.72
1,95931,83713.362120.091,7140.73
1,96033,97014.292860.121,7770.75
1,96135,31814.552940.121,8180.75
1,96238,31215.412650.121,7070.69
1,96339,12815.423090.121,7650.69
1,96439,54915.242420.091,6890.65
1,96539,96515.163040.121,6530.63
1,96642,14915.702800.101,8980.71
1,96747,49117.403180.121,9830.73
1,96852,35119.013510.132,0230.73
1,96954,01019.423140.111,9670.71
1,97055,56019.703600.132,3650.84
1,97161,70121.544040.142,6360.92
1,97258,98620.224760.162,5310.87
1,973....4740.162,5670.86
POSTAL AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Year Ended 31 MarchMail Posted*TelephonesTollsTelegramsMoney Orders and Postal Notes*RevenueExpenditure

*Calendar year until 1945.

†Installed as at 31 March. At 31 March 1974 there were 933,883 subscribers.

 million(000)millionmillionmillion$(m)$(m)
1,924214111.48.06.03.6....
1,925236120.18.66.33.8....
1,926243130.29.06.74.1....
1,927248137.39.36.44.4....
1,928259144.69.76.24.4....
1,929266152.510.76.34.76.86.8
1,930271161.311.46.04.77.37.2
1,931233161.710.75.53.67.47.4
1,932218160.89.53.93.37.56.7
1,933231155.69.03.43.56.66.5
1,934243155.19.13.54.06.46.4
1,935263159.19.93.44.56.66.6
1,936267166.611.43.84.67.17.1
1,937274178.613.14.34.57.87.7
1,938304192.014.54.64.78.58.5
1,939296206.215.64.94.39.19.1
1,940266217.915.74.53.49.79.2
1,941262228.316.14.23.210.19.6
1,942..235.416.94.53.110.510.0
1,943..238.417.65.73.011.210.4
1,944..244.818.16.33.011.810.3
1,945237256.719.56.53.012.611.8
1,946..265.821.07.3..13.312.7
1,947294282.322.77.13.316.414.3
1,948301300.623.96.73.417.116.4
1,949319322.825.36.73.418.018.0
1,950343348.527.16.93.418.118.4
1,951358370.027.26.93.321.821.2
1,952347394.628.37.03.424.624.8
1,953358425.229.37.03.426.626.7
1,954359456.331.17.03.431.731.0
1,955386496.334.07.33.534.734.0
1,956408534.536.57.63.737.136.7
1,957412568.338.87.53.640.039.9
1,958439605.241.97.53.544.244.1
1,959446641.343.97.23.645.345.2
1,960464686.047.57.33.848.548.4
1,961495744.851.77.54.153.353.2
1,962507801.955.57.24.460.160.0
1,963526850.658.27.14.264.964.8
1,964534902.061.07.24.470.270.1
1,965551962.664.47.24.677.876.6
1,9665731,025.167.67.34.787.084.9
1,9675761,085.169.17.24.991.593.6
1,9685681,119.467.76.14.8106.6100.8
1,9695751,155.568.35.94.9112.8106.6
1,9705951,202.667.05.74.9119.5117.1
1,9716151,262.467.95.55.5129.8143.5
1,9726221,304.764.85.15.4169.8169.5
1,9736451,358.167.15.05.5186.9188.9
1,9746691,444.073.94.9 206.3212.5
GOVERNMENT RAILWAYS
Year Ended 31 MarchMiles Open for TrafficRevenue Train-milesRail Passenger JourneysGoods and LivestockRevenueExpenditure

*Equivalent tonnage of livestock.

†From 1925–26 figures relate to railway operation only.

  (000)(000)tons(000)$(000)$(000)
1,9243,0539,02528,4366,91813,96810,808
1,9253,0859,08426,1077,02514,22611,090
1,9263,13810,31927,6537,24715,17812,330
1,9273,16410,72426,0027,30014,84612,316
1,9283,18010,83925,3807,35814,68812,604
1,9293,28711,11325,7577,61315,05012,750
1,9303,28712,02225,4147,78914,94813,696
1,9313,32211,28222,8146,95813,56212,812
1,9323,31510,16919,1515,82511,57810,604
1,9333,3159,82918,3675,49110,6789,668
1,9343,32010,16319,0475,64211,2589,754
1,9353,32010,62619,6546,02411,81610,278
1,9363,32011,05020,3586,18912,48811,046
1,9373,32011,86821,2356,81313,8012,676
1,9383,32312,77822,4417,51615,18414,584
1,9393,31913,07323,2667,53916,01015,328
1,9403,39013,36724,4547,67417,52415,886
1,9413,39013,56026,2778,42619,38816,814
1,9423,39013,97928,6118,47420,76817,806
1,9433,46015,14036,1338,88724,83020,040
1,9443,50415,32938,6119,02726,93022,732
1,9453,50412,80332,9958,95424,89623,394
1,9463,52813,45532,4189,21026,21025,100
1,9473,52813,16928,8699,32925,64827,290
1,9483,52613,71225,8879,52427,92830,180
1,9493,52613,89526,1689,66630,67833,576
1,9503,52614,42125,8959,94832,12434,722
1,9513,53114,15324,8249,61637,00037,450
1,9523,53912,37121,2929,82940,19443,030
1,9533,53513,40921,45510,02645,17845,510
1,9543,50413,71923,2729,63547,36447,242
1,9553,48914,42024,73510,33654,01851,084
1,9563,42214,88425,07510,67855,74253,550
1,9573,41815,10225,37710,32557,01457,388
1,9583,46614,82524,81710,33260,02062,128
1,9593,42014,60525,43710,36759,64661,010
1,9603,33614,48026,13410,54360,54261,516
1,9613,33314,77326,23310,83062,85862,978
1,9623,33214,94826,32410,82263,39063,632
1,9633,26314,57525,66510,04462,75266,874
1,9643,26514,91825,73411,09067,64867,946
1,9653,25415,31625,13711,97272,78671,932
1,9663,25115,42823,88911,88874,75373,228
1,9673,21215,35923,72311,53475,02875,151
1,9683,11813,83922,18610,58171,65371,880
1,9693,06313,44722,26110,79874,60272,892
1,9703,06313,29521,03111,59383,19479,836
1,9713,01213,59420,78411,85086,99996,502
1,9722,98713,28220,11511,311101,296107,277
1,9732,98613,29718,56512,127112,162117,197
1,9742,98213,94818,94413,167125,789135,363
AGRICULTURE
SeasonWheat for ThreshingYield of
AreaYieldYield per HectareOatsBarleyPeas for ThreshingPotatoes
*Includes yield of beans.
 hectaresbushels (000)bushels bushels (000) tons (000)
1922–23111,6028,39575.225,688598697*114
1923–2470,3604,17559.341,965597363*106
1924–2567,5685,44880.635,707798411*122
1925–2661,3804,61775.224,116947288*144
1926–2789,0657,95289.284,9981,243455*117
1927–28105,6189,54190.333,853862802*121
1928–29103,3218,83385.493,065781528124
1929–3095,4827,24075.823,002755294130
1930–31100,7727,57975.213,377838241152
1931–32108,7626,58360.532,818537309117
1932–33122,43011,05590.305,132561585129
1933–34115,8309,03678.013,243731698131
1934–3591,2125,93365.051,980485437109
1935–36100,6208,85988.043,303745563121
1936–3789,7557,16979.873,525747481126
1937–3875,2516,04380.302,6411,086372147
1938–3976,5995,56472.642,6051,07738788
1939–40104,2208,01076.862,081916563141
1940–4198,4188,30684.403,1151,06674294
1941–42104,4108,67183.053,4451,29785290
1942–43116,1449,81984.542,8091,058889139
1943–4494,6107,20876.191,834833889162
1944–4574,4166,99293.964,2091,3851,038126
1945–4665,1745,43983.452,7971,872817140
1946–4757,2255,36893.802,6862,0271,231116
1947–4850,0804,53990.632,8542,0881,129155
1948–4959,3705,958100.353,7192,2561,195110
1949–5050,6504,90096.742,6202,4341,243135
1950–5158,5846,272107.061,8281,902626120
1951–5236,4043,890106.862,4702,18273070
1952–5351,4864,52587.892,3852,14061495
1953–5446,0594,783103.859453,335954156
1954–5542,0834,11397.741,6021,992885144
1955–5627,7122,65895.921,9472,032635101
1956–5726,6052,950110.882,8882,855846145
1957–5833,9683,727109.721,4603,5521,047157
1958–5953,7886,039112.271,5762,661830150
1959–6066,0288,700131.761,8253,137924157
1960–6175,5909,309123.152,3493,416931190
1961–6275,3887,835103.931,8863,561763191
1962–6391,3579,156100.221,0294,2021,001181
1963–6482,54010,068121.971,5845,7761,102201
1964–6574,4509,198123.552,4944,670878243
1965–6680,74510,721132.772,3995,0301,058231
1966–6793,30512,778136.941,5535,9091,183184
1967–68126,65116,253128.332,4679,6741,334232
1968–69129,97516,779129.092,87410,2542,080252
1969–70108,39410,55397.363,1817,6921,822249
1970–7197,52811,965122.683,29311,4341,905207
1971–72106,59614,299134.142,72614,7922,113216
1972–73108,86113,870127.412,46511,3292,180234
LIVESTOCK
YearBeef CattleDairy Cows in MilkTotal Dairy CattleTotal CattleSheepPigs
*Coverage to 1959 relates to holdings of 1 acre and over; thereafter to 10 acres and over outside borough boundaries, except that Manukau City has been included since Manukau County was absorbed by the city. Since 1970–71 the coverage applies to 2 acres and over.
 (000)(000)(000)(000)(000)(000)
1,923..1,125..3,48123,081401
1,924..1,185..3,56323,776407
1,925..1,196..3,50424,548440
1,926..1,181..3,45224,905473
1,927..1,182..3,25825,649520
1,928..1,243..3,27427,134587
1,929..1,291..3,44629,051557
1,930..1,390..3,77030,841488
1,931..1,479..4,04429,793469
1,932..1,562..4,07228,692506
1,933..1,703..4,15527,756584
1,934..1,796..4,26428,649653
1,935..1,807..4,25729,077755
1,936..1,803..4,21730,114801
1,937..1,785..4,35231,306795
1,938..1,743..4,46932,379749
1,939..1,724..4,52831,879676
1,940..1,719..4,49631,063706
1,941..1,759..4,53931,752769
1,942..1,757..4,642..689
1,943..1,715..4,448..605
1,944..1,648..4,43933,200573
1,945..1,697..4,59133,975594
1,9462,0661,6622,6004,667..549
1,9472,0481,6582,5864,63432,682546
1,9482,0781,7142,6384,71632,483548
1,9492,0411,7472,6814,72332,845545
1,9502,0881,8502,8674,95533,857555
1,9512,1491,8982,9115,06034,786564
1,9522,2821,9062,8835,16535,384566
1,9532,4781,9622,9685,44636,193628
1,9542,6341,9993,1105,74538,011649
1,9552,8081,9953,0795,88739,117681
1,956........40,255..
1,9572,8611,9982,9485,80942,382602
1,9582,9151,9672,9705,88646,026628
1,9592,9701,9313,0045,97346,876692
1960*3,0191,8872,9735,99247,134660
1,9613,3341,9293,1116,44648,462655
1,9623,4621,9683,1366,59848,988686
1,9633,5581,9973,1336,69150,190766
1,9643,5682,0113,1286,69651,292771
1,9653,6282,0323,1746,80153,748716
1,9663,8562,0883,3627,21857,343667
1,9674,2412,1313,5067,74760,030603
1,9684,5492,2323,6988,24760,474614
1,9694,8122,3043,7938,60559,937553
1,9705,0482,3213,7298,77760,276578
1,9715,2802,2393,5398,81958,913617
1,9725,5742,2003,4258,77460,883580
1,9735,7332,1903,3559,08856,684507
TRADE*
YearExportsImports (c.d.v.)Imports c.d.v. + 10 percent
TotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean PopulationTotalPer Head of Mean Population

*Figures are in terms of New Zealand currency. Gold and specie excluded.

†From 1955 c.i.f. value.

‡Provisional.

 $(m)$$(m)$$(m)$
1,92390.568.1278.859.3686.765.29
1,924103.976.8288.265.2297.171.75
1,925109.579.1295.368.84104.875.72
1,92689.563.3190.664.0699.670.46
1,92795.966.6681.456.5889.662.23
1,928110.275.6681.555.9989.761.58
1,929108.973.9188.660.1297.566.14
1,93088.859.4780.653.9988.759.39
1,93168.745.4048.231.8253.084.99
1,93268.945.1044.829.3449.332.28
1,93379.351.5246.530.2151.233.22
1,93492.059.2857.036.7262.740.39
1,93590.257.7266.042.2672.646.49
1,936110.770.2880.551.0888.556.18
1,937130.582.11102.164.22112.370.63
1,938114.271.04100.862.71110.868.98
1,939112.869.2989.855.1298.760.63
1,940143.687.7089.154.4198.059.84
1,941131.380.5089.454.8198.360.29
1,942159.197.0597.959.72107.765.69
1,943140.685.98173.2105.87190.5116.46
1,944152.792.24157.194.87172.8104.35
1,945160.794.85100.159.09110.265.00
1,946200.2113.80130.173.95143.181.34
1,947256.8142.78233.9130.06257.3143.06
1,948294.4160.48233.7127.37257.0140.11
1,949293.3156.72218.2116.59240.0128.25
1,950364.9191.12287.1150.41315.9165.45
1,951494.6253.95375.5192.80413.0212.08
1,952479.5240.22458.9229.88504.8252.87
1,953470.7229.74327.2159.70359.9175.68
1,954488.0232.92426.3203.48468.9223.83
1,955518.1242.20501.3234.37574.2268.47
1,956554.5254.02469.5215.51536.8245.91
1,957552.5247.48523.4234.42594.1266.09
1,958499.9218.68505.5221.14570.0249.38
1,959586.6251.26410.1175.64462.7198.21
1,960604.6254.35506.2212.94564.5237.48
1,961567.4233.76576.4237.48649.7267.64
Jan-Jun
1,962332.6134.32237.495.88264.3106.74
Year ended
June
1,963627.5249.42523.7208.16576.6229.18
1,964737.3286.72637.4247.88694.0269.91
1,965742.2282.95662.7252.64724.5276.20
1,966767.3288.54729.4274.31792.8298.13
1,967727.2268.57752.2277.79813.2300.32
1,968820.5299.04622.9227.03674.7245.91
1,969989.1357.56799.2288.91852.9308.32
1,9701,086.7388.3944.3337.41,007.2359.9
1971x1,131.7398.21,070.6376.71,155.5406.6
19721,369.8474.21,149.6397.91,235.9427.8
19731,787.0606.21,276.2433.01,366.3463.5
EXPORTS OF NEW ZEALAND PRODUCE
YearWool
GreasyScoured and WashedTotal, including Slipe*
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

*Including fine animal hair.

†Provisional.

 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
1,92375,01315.811,2453.498,68621.8
1,92473,49622.78,2353.793,52630.5
1,92575,30128.56,8583.293,31635.5
1,92675,54117.47,7412.796,68523.7
1,92781,29020.36,4822.4100,01825.9
1,92885,91627.14,9972.2102,87733.4
1,92989,97825.15,7862.3106,57430.7
1,93069,95411.25,7401.589,46715.3
1,93175,0688.25,0120.996,03411.0
1,93284,6838.66,5971.0108,03611.5
1,933104,13011.39,1411.5129,86714.8
1,93495,07720.27,4992.0116,02825.0
1,93578,88910.37,1551.5100,99714.2
1,936118,72421.17,6581.9142,61426.6
1,937106,20430.94,9821.9128,06738.1
1,938102,01219.45,7091.6123,05224.4
1,939102,74818.45,8591.5125,82323.3
1,940104,76224.29,3422.9136,20933.8
1,94173,31517.411,1643.797,85925.2
1,94297,77823.317,3985.8139,50136.7
1,94369,62318.511,3534.093,81327.0
1,94458,61815.813,4594.885,54725.4
1,94530,9968.425,1639.575,41425.4
1,946119,94935.818,9267.5165,74553.2
1,947116,75040.023,02511.6170,24563.9
1,948147,23764.818,25311.8190,97289.0
1,949148,44766.918,40011.7194,89793.1
1,950137,201110.615,09716.4178,704149.3
1,951111,820188.510,81524.5143,727256.4
1,952154,629122.715,35416.6198,723164.0
1,953137,903124.714,68618.2177,630169.2
1,954137,692130.816,14220.4178,216176.9
1,955146,417138.118,72323.2189,408187.9
1,956151,350136.618,44922.0194,163183.1
1,957153,478161.219,41125.3195,880212.1
1,958162,595122.018,71317.7207,333160.1
1,959188,118137.421,20919.4240,037179.5
1,960182,542152.923,58925.3236,947205.0
1,961197,367152.924,33824.3251,723200.7
Jan-June
1,962128,18697.815,32514.6163,039127.5
Year ended
June
1,963204,338163.229,59628.5261,724214.5
1,964195,139201.832,00939.7256,547271.6
1,965180,920149.932,31436.1241,066208.6
1,966212,149170.237,15837.8278,228231.9
1,967158,468117.736,06732.9227,150174.1
1,968182,29799.748,91535.6268,427158.2
1,969205,260131.465,91355.1307,915212.4
1,970196,430119.374,68463.3303,053204.2
1,971173,926100.282,22565.7293,494187.8
1972179,632119.997,23684.4315,074229.8
1973160,212224.294,798152.6287,917424.2
YearBeef and VealLamb and MuttonAll Meat
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
*Provisional.
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
1,92337,8241.8113,37715.9154,63818.0
1,92434,3521.7126,29217.0163,25719.0
1,92536,9432.2132,01319.7173,45022.3
1,92622,4871.2126,88415.4154,15217.3
1,92723,2421.390,32616.1120,14618.2
1,92838,4762.3144,03317.2192,73520.6
1,92919,7961.3138,77717.2169,48719.8
1,93021,2891.5173,23319.2205,07121.9
1,93123,9421.2175,93115.7210,26117.8
1,93227,1910.9195,63115.0236,00116.9
1,93347,1641.9193,92716.0264,33019.7
1,93445,6261.9177,24519.0252,46023.8
1,93547,0202.2184,48020.0264,50325.5
1,93643,2262.3177,18520.2260,09824.5
1,93750,9113.0184,92922.0274,88329.4
1,93852,5143.6184,85822.4272,97730.2
1,93962,1114.5203,87922.2300,05130.8
1,94075,9856.0237,85727.8354,42939.4
1,94140,2093.5192,19224.5268,48333.2
1,94246,6144.5221,01027.6291,67635.6
1,94325,8312.3188,74823.9224,17327.6
1,9447,1410.6194,01623.0211,13725.0
1,94529,9232.9243,11430.3287,22935.2
1,94662,4886.7255,78635.9343,08746.5
1,94768,4648.7259,64345.1353,36258.7
1,94868,9768.1253,43343.8349,00857.2
1,94959,9666.7261,04943.0349,55654.4
1,95059,9717.0258,00945.6343,44257.2
1,95143,5675.8212,07439.6278,92950.7
1,95257,42110.3299,71760.9384,16278.8
1,95345,0989.9256,12960.5239,04778.8
1,95460,48714.7281,44878.0367,237100.5
1,95595,58126.8262,34683.8383,562121.2
1,956119,67529.2274,39487.2420,635127.7
1,957117,40231.3254,66887.0394,531128.1
1,958117,62751.1273,91085.5411,773146.9
1,95990,27944.4326,81087.0441,574142.4
1,96099,99244.4350,45497.2474,188152.3
1,96197,02444.4348,27889.9467,883144.2
Jan-June
1,96249,55821.6218,81152.5282,28280.6
Year ended
June
1,963128,77758.8358,46698.2516,376169.5
1,964121,19758.1368,993107.2522,744180.0
1,965121,39357.4366,434135.0519,742208.5
1,966101,19754.6369,234121.4501,983193.1
1,967106,25163.9367,842119.5505,425200.8
1,968129,33889.3413,227147.0581,251256.2
1,969133,226109.1473,286175.5645,443304.5
1,970177,704154.2439,344182.9658,534364.3
1,971180,858170.4425,311186.5647,785385.7
1972*186,195187.8450,446180.8678,721396.4
1973*202,750240.3441,395257.3690,478534.4
YearButterCheeseMilk, dried and condensed
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue
*Provisional.
 tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)tonnes$(m)
1,92363,51021.473,23013.77,3581.0
1,92464,49223.381,00414.06,1151.0
1,92563,26620.569,94311.66,2330.9
1,92659,33917.474,25011.95,1370.7
1,92773,94521.875,83811.25,6350.7
1,92873,64222.679,62213.47,8100.8
1,92984,01726.590,38314.06,2300.7
1,93095,72423.792,10412.96,8950.7
1,931101,02421.383,1308.95,8270.5
1,932111,03121.390,9599.97,2730.5
1,933133,87723.3100,7389.58,0010.6
1,934132,82420.1100,8189.49,7800.8
1,935141,70327.287,7648.89,4270.7
1,936142,05130.684,24110.210,7690.8
1,937151,19234.083,68010.711,2100.7
1,938132,82533.081,81811.99,3150.6
1,939124,12632.285,20911.711,1340.8
1,940133,24036.5103,30716.511,9930.8
1,941115,00731.6120,21119.713,4451.4
1,942121,80633.9136,53823.712,5131.4
1,943102,61929.4102,11018.311,8801.2
1,944117,23137.178,95014.98,3601.1
1,945105,16738.688,82919.015,3472.0
1,946103,43839.776,96216.917,2682.4
1,947129,75857.788,44123.220,3023.3
1,948137,81167.576,83722.426,9664.4
1,949150,04070.995,44625.334,9425.7
1,950140,48671.7101,49329.141,2846.6
1,951149,83083.0108,33033.347,4637.9
1,952186,982112.392,72031.163,73913.1
1,953161,660102.9102,98736.764,00112.6
1,954134,60789.691,87432.845,9498.2
1,955153,388102.086,40727.451,7427.2
1,956170,137106.390,30344.552,9168.8
1,957147,40376.989,89635.868,79811.5
1,958178,20777.790,86324.853,8827.6
1,959196,075111.684,79144.271,50911.5
1,960159,572100.380,68837.161,28711.1
1,961167,68978.889,01339.851,2678.4
Jan-June
1,96286,07841.552,99021.330,7264.4
Year ended
June
1,963167,22790.993,68937.064,3679.5
1,964184,875109.689,00035.173,76811.0
1,965192,180119.694,74640.788,05018.9
1,966193,472109.698,03741.7101,15222.0
1,967203,163109.4104,36045.1135,23529.8
1,968204,467112.2100,28147.4140,45030.3
1,969206,378114.887,66142.6134,73323.1
1,970198,021109.790,58244.3184,35131.1
1,971194,464113.992,68148.0160,45234.1
1972*187,680182.488,92966.2193,27677.3
1973*172,249135.195,46479.4197,41587.0
YearCaseinApples and PearsGrass and Clover Seeds
QuantityValueQuantityValueQuantityValue

*Provisional.

†Whole fruit only.

‡As from 1970, quantity is in centals.

 tonnes$(m)lb(000)$(m)cwt$(m)
1,9232,5540.45,9540.147,0310.4
1,9242,3480.39,7840.236,3310.3
1,9252,2300.28,7870.245,3680.3
1,9261,8520.229,3500.757,7260.4
1,9272,3760.321,8410.590,3620.5
1,9282,1410.340,6181.050,2380.3
1,9292,9060.340,3431.257,8590.4
1,9302,9110.353,0911.336,5600.3
1,9312,6880.253,6071.340,9530.3
1,9322,1730.163,2221.634,3370.2
1,9332,4730.257,5371.480,3080.3
1,9342,9330.362,6791.648,7510.3
1,9353,3100.341,5781.071,6490.4
1,9364,1070.449,3371.279,9820.5
1,9373,9390.537,7200.958,1070.4
1,9382,1030.261,8471.545,4840.5
1,9391,9570.141,9061.145,8290.6
1,9401,2370.123,7090.545,7420.7
1,9416300.142588,1911.1
1,94225032782,4991.2
1,9437500.118590,7201.3
1,94430520158,4752.9
1,9458180.1159166,5533.6
1,9467550.112,1590.3150,5983.9
1,9472,6340.7239147,0113.3
1,9484,1901.240,2041.7174,8433.4
1,9495,5481.221,3640.8161,9933.0
1,9505,6271.328,6031.4164,1144.2
1,9515,9871.927,9441.488,4282.5
1,9528,4982.655,2694.1163,4524.2
1,9538,7452.546,1223.4179,2673.7
1,9548,2772.549,6933.1184,2535.6
1,95512,4873.741,6392.679,3982.7
1,95613,6234.264,4864.1146,4033.2
1,95714,3554.557,3893.6162,5522.4
1,95820,3866.273,1374.6148,2303.0
1,95929,6488.876,7544.891,2212.0
1,96028,6558.476,8064.8128,4583.4
1,96129,4948.881,8404.8131,9212.6
Jan-June
1,96214,9564.689,8515.660,0611.2
Year ended
June
1,96330,2468.474,4824.7163,5263.6
1,96442,18911.384,9875.3182,2443.5
1,96552,59416.897,1496.191,2162.0
1,96642,98520.0113,7407.1203,1843.2
1,96743,26518.688,5285.5223,1643.2
1,96840,92318.191,5865.7234,6073.7
1,96950,02621.797,1706.1180,3173.5
1,97061,98925.8127,2989.4175,0273.6
1,97169,53430.2122,5689.2214,2624.9
1972*42,11225.4134,68410.7300,7464.5
1973*27,79622.0153,25113.4351,9036.5
YearHides and SkinsSausage CasingsTallow*
 $(m)$(m)tonnes$(m)

*From 1923 to 1948 figures cover only inedible tallow, and unrendered fats of bovine cattle, sheep, or goats are included in all figures.

†Provisional.

1,9234.80.825,6481.6
1,9246.31.124,3731.6
1,9257.71.425,4401.8
1,9266.41.621,4671.5
1,9276.51.524,2581.4
1,9287.71.626,1611.6
1,9295.91.321,1661.4
1,9304.41.625,0231.4
1,9312.50.823,6370.8
1,9322.10.525,7840.9
1,9333.70.828,4701.0
1,9344.41.328,1061.0
1,9354.81.625,6831.3
1,9366.61.326,5141.3
1,9374.51.526,3561.3
1,9384.81.530,0881.1
1,9395.11.429,6050.9
1,9406.51.834,6861.4
1,9418.21.639,9591.6
1,9429.51.852,6102.3
1,9438.82.244,6602.1
1,9449.02.127,0511.2
1,94510.02.231,2191.8
1,94611.52.825,1532.1
1,94720.83.126,1384.7
1,94818.94.520,3854.3
1,94913.44.125,8405.1
1,95020.05.330,0714.3
1,95125.77.830,1345.1
1,95219.99.849,3959.4
1,95321.44.940,4333.9
1,95420.96.439,4965.1
1,95518.48.144,1315.7
1,95621.29.840,2545.3
1,95720.29.346,9496.1
1,95816.69.052,0836.8
1,95926.58.354,4196.6
1,96026.67.060,4225.9
1,96124.37.358,6496.3
Jan-June
1,96215.26.036,6353.1
Year ended
June
1,96325.410.560,3524.8
1,96430.412.077,3517.2
1,96531.711.158,8557.1
1,96640.010.951,5866.7
1,96733.612.066,4137.0
1,96839.89.974,6377.0
1,96955.410.971,7426.6
1,97048.714.073,5519.2
1,97150.614.165,83810.2
197262.515.2102,1589.0
197396.413.977,1809.6
YearTimberWood PulpNewsprint
*Provisional.
 $(m)tons(000)$(m)cwt(000)$(m)
1,9230.9
1,9240.9
1,9251.1
1,9261.0
1,9270.9
1,9280.8
1,9290.9
1,9300.6
1,9310.3
1,9320.5
1,9330.5
1,9340.6
1,9350.7
1,9360.5
1,9370.4
1,9380.4
1,9390.3
1,9400.4
1,9410.4
1,9420.2
1,9430.1
1,9440.1
1,9450.1
1,9460.3
1,9470.4
1,9481.0
1,9491.1
1,9500.7
1,9511.5
1,9521.2
1,9531.340.4
1,9541.8201.6
1,9552.5272.37
1,9562.1474.05153.1
1,9571.8655.37184.3
1,9582.9695.58355.3
1,9594.4775.88735.4
1,9604.2705.69886.2
1,9614.4645.09245.4
Jan-June
1,9622.6332.74272.3
Year ended June
1,9634.1695.51,4418.0
1,9645.0665.52,14711.5
1,9656.5564.72,21911.9
1,9666.5706.02,34111.9
1,9677.3725.91,89010.1
1,96816.5746.22,50415.8
1,96928.5887.42,42716.1
1,97034.1817.22,39215.8
1,97137.1959.42,19414.0
1972*40.811211.22,57716.5
1973*44.914014.22,42116.2
PRODUCTION
SeasonWool ProductionMilkfat ProductionTimber ProductionMeat Production
Total Production (Greasy Equivalent)Average Price (Greasy Wool)Total ValueTotal ProductionYield per Cow in MilkAverage Payout per kg

*Provisional.

†Milkfat for butter and cheese making. Excludes payment for milkfat in milk and cream consumed as such. These figures do not include payments for non-fat solids in the whole milk delivered for butter manufacture; therefore they cannot be used as a measure of total income from milk for manufacture.

 kg(m)c per kg$(m)tonnes (000)kgc per kgbd ft(m)tonnes (000)
1921–229514.7014.0908926.63315..
1922–239519.9318.91039131.24304..
1923–249828.9928.41048828.48317..
1924–2510137.1337.61099231.24344..
1925–2610321.9122.71069033.07353..
1926–2710923.3225.51179928.48306..
1927–2811530.6235.11209733.07270..
1928–2911927.3432.613110234.00270..
1929–3011915.7218.714210329.39282..
1930–3111710.4312.31469821.12229..
1931–321229.6611.81549820.21154..
1932–331269.4611.918010416.53166..
1933–3413220.3526.819410716.53198..
1934–3512012.0214.418610217.46244..
1935–3613816.7823.119810922.97293..
1936–3713728.8639.720811525.18306..
1937–3813518.4524.919711227.93323..
1938–3914916.8425.118110430.31317..
1939–4014122.4433.219511230.69336..
1940–4115122.4935.521111930.69342..
1941–4215620.5137.019811230.86324..
1942–4315425.6441.318510631.42342..
1943–4415025.6640.217610533.44351..
1944–4516925.6845.319611537.30340..
1945–4616625.5144.116910038.96345541
1946–4716633.0054.518511043.54354560
1947–4816446.1475.819010948.88431549
1948–4916647.4278.920711751.08470556
1949–5017769.78123.421111353.64478577
1950–51177161.38285.522211656.95528530
1951–5218573.83136.322511763.56575602
1952–5319084.86160.924012268.34575578
1953–5419392.33178.422311171.47574589
1954–5520691.25188.322811370.17616637
1955–5621084.86177.823811869.82626682
1956–57223100.60224.023511770.00597670
1957–5822575.62170.125012767.79597688
1958–5924566.27162.325012960.25637731
1959–6026282.03214.724512969.45694773
1960–6126774.12197.724912861.55714758
1961–6226671.98191.724812560.80693821
1962–6328178.70221.325312660.45643828
1963–64279101.17283.126513164.29666852
1964–6528377.40218.828213867.62736823
1965–6631576.46241.129214065.75766830
1966–6732264.77208.429613865.86750891
1967–6833050.42166.528912961.95687986
1968–6933261.86205.430113060.587191,014
1969–7032856.48185.327812061.257651,035
1970–7133453.42178.427912565.50*7841,040
1971–72*32266.46214.229413371.947401,066*
1972–73309143.96444.528312278.107571,100*
FACTORY PRODUCTION
YearEstablishmentsPersons* EngagedSalaries* and Wages PaidCost of MaterialsOther Expenses of ProductionValue of ProductionNet Output (Net Value Added)Value of Land and Buildings, Plant and Machinery

*For the year 1915–16 and earlier years, figures refer to productive employees only.

†Estimates based on results of sample survey carried out during that year.

N.B. Series revised back to 1956–57 to exclude Industry 468—Motor Vehicle Repairs which from 1972–73 will be included in the quinquennial Census of Distribution and Services.

 No.No.$(million)
1885–861,83319,653......12.9..8.1
1890–912,15223,7613.3....17.1..8.7
1895–962,36125,3973.57.1..18.5..9.6
1900–013,05938,6515.615.4..33.0..13.1
1905–063,38145,1987.226.6..43.2..19.1
1910–113,42142,1428.737.5..57.1..24.0
1915–163,65744,67310.659.7..83.8..31.6
1920–213,89462,97223.5106.0..151.0..51.4
1925–264,64370,21228.3102.614.5156.9..64.8
1930–315,04770,62527.890.616.9143.437.069.0
1932–334,84762,58321.377.915.0120.328.465.9
1933–344,88365,96121.587.015.1131.830.763.9
1934–355,12672,09523.497.716.3146.633.764.8
1935–365,39178,70126.2113.717.3167.537.566.4
1936–375,58487,82232.6135.019.6198.845.368.8
1937–385,78093,53437.4143.519.6213.051.072.6
1938–396,00293,63839.9142.318.6213.253.477.2
1939–406,19899,34943.8160.420.7240.660.882.0
1940–416,252104,78448.6186.022.4274.867.784.3
1941–426,225108,27553.6193.024.1291.275.587.5
1942–435,985106,17958.9203.825.1311.684.089.3
1943–446,062109,22162.8214.127.3329.789.892.0
1944–456,340113,53468.4233.029.1357.296.697.5
1945–466,8471.18,88675.8234.130.6367.1103.9103.6
1946–477,498124,92583.0262.734.6411.3115.8111.6
1947–487,822130,50495.9349.740.2518.4130.5126.6
1948–497,852132,427102.8390.143.9572.8141.0147.2
1949–507,815133,245112.5430.048.3634.7158.8156.0
1950–518,113138,435130.0533.857.7760.4171.6175.2
1951–528,546144,352150.1581.564.0862.0219.7195.0
1952–538,511143,164157.0637.970.5927.9222.9218.2
1953–548,377146,488173.2665.80.5990.4247.8244.5
1954–558,366153,575196.8730.695.71,101.2278.6276.5
1955–568,515158,238215.9769.6113.11,171.9294.4337.1
1956–576,793143,040203.3766.280.61,152.0277.7334.4
1957–586,774148,641219.8810.5888.71,233.4303.5349.9
1958–596,757153,811235.3808.596.71,257.4321.9380.9
1959–606,709156,778250.0846.3101.51,345.066.8415.7
1960–616,875165,572277.3905.0111.01,441.9393.9462.8
1961–626,984171,108296.9936.7120.51,532.4439.3521.6
1962–637,025174,417312.2964.1128.41,596.7461.9591.8
1963–647,317181,399338.61,115.0139.31,832.0531.7626.5
1964–657,554191,995378.81,292.5156.22,081.6580.6693.3
1965–667,659203,165418.81,360.0174.92,260.7664.0792.1
1966–677,838207,999451.71,402.3193.82,354.9691.0874.3
1967–687,788204,510454.21,427.1203.92,404.9704.0912.2
1968–697,667207,703483.51,591.0224.72,645.8757.1969.0
1969–707,686220,108559.61,791.4255.12,994.8867.11,130.4
1970–717,600229,104676.02,014.6306.73,401.4995.71,239.3
1971–727,783232,424780.32,288.6354.43,872.91,129.31,436.9
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsDeficitSurplus
From TaxationFrom Other SourcesTotal
*Excludes duty on motor spirits refunded under the Transport Amendment Act; $1.9 million in 1958–59, $4.7 million in 1959–60, $2.0 million in 1960–61, $0.8 million in 1961–62, $0.8 million in 1962–63, $0.8 million in 1963–64.
$(million) CONSOLIDATED FUND
1,92432.823.159.952.33.6
1,92533.124.257.354.82.5
1,92634.015.549.547.12.3
1,92733.816.149.948.71.2
1,92833.716.650.249.90.4
1,92935.711.547.248.41.2
1,93039.011.750.750.40.3
1,93137.28.946.149.43.3
1,93232.413.145.449.74.3
1,93331.213.945.145.1
1,93434.112.947.048.41.4
1,93540.411.952.349.03.3
1,93643.19.252.351.80.6
1,93753.98.462.361.40.9
1,93863.326.389.688.01.6
1,93964.622.887.485.81.6
1,94065.628.293.893.20.6
1,94168.732.2102.998.53.5
1,94270.338.7109.1105.83.3
1,94372.437.8110.2101.88.3
1,94484.031.1115.1110.74.5
1,94591.428.5119.9117.42.4
1,94696.731.1127.8125.32.5
1,947181.435.2216.6207.49.2
1,948192.242.0234.2230.73.6
1,949202.141.0243.0237.85.3
1,950207.742.3250.0241.48.6
1,951244.443.2287.5271.016.5
1,952313.947.7361.6336.325.3
1,953308.547.1355.6349.06.6
1,954312.452.2364.6361.03.6
1,955325.057.4382.4368.813.7
1,956334.960.0394.9386.68.3
1,957345.667.0412.6405.96.7
1,958317.969.3387.2387.50.3
1,959409.771.1480.8*480.0*0.8
1,960552.976.8629.7*628.4*1.3
1,961474.894.0568.7*567.9*0.8
1,962508.393.0601.3*600.6*0.6
1,963471.5101.8573.3*581.2*7.9
1,964512.6120.6633.2*635.9*2.7
CONSOLIDATED REVENUE ACCOUNT
1,965783.2120.5903.7894.59.2
1,966852.2122.2974.5970.93.5
1,967918.8132.51,051.31,050.60.7
1,968949.4147.31,096.71,095.31.4
1,969992.1162.51,154.61,146.97.7
1,9701,102.0170.51,282.51,275.17.4
1,9711,363.0203.21,566.21,560.95.3
1,9721,617.3203.41,820.71,812.38.4
1,9731,830.9304.92,135.82,141.0-5.2
1,9742,291.6220.52,512.22,509.82.4

NOTE—The figures shown in the above table are not on a comparable basis over the whole period.

GROSS GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SOCIAL SERVICES*
Year Ended 31 MarchHealthEducationSocial SecurityWar PensionsTotal

*Includes capital expenditure.

†Includes hospital boards.

‡Includes health benefits.

$(million)
1,95038.822.078.610.7150.1
1,95137.224.687.811.2160.8
1,95244.029.297.312.9183.4
1,95348.831.497.913.3191.4
1,95451.234.6104.414.5204.7
1,95556.438.4110.716.0221.5
1,95663.242.4116.116.9238.6
1,95771.246.2118.817.9254.1
1,95878.251.4124.619.6273.8
1,95983.055.8142.521.9303.2
1,96089.659.8180.023.2352.6
1,96197.467.2192.027.4384.0
1,962104.071.0196.327.5398.8
1,963113.0178.8196.528.3416.6
1,964121.287.0209.929.7443.8
1,965132.099.0210.329.9471.2
1,966148.0110.4217.730.5506.6
1,967161.7124.4225.430.9542.4
1,968168.2136.8244.830.7580.5
1,969178.8145.6254.830.8610.0
1,970200.1168.4272.032.4672.9
1,971238.7214.9301.333.5788.4
1,972283.1279.6338.536.1937.3
1,973333.8309.1468.440.21,151.5
SOCIAL SERVICES EXPENDITURE (INCLUDING AND EXCLUDING EDUCATION) AS PERCENTAGE OF GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT, AND OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
Year Ended 31 MarchGross National ProductTotal Government ExpenditureTotal Social Services ExpenditureSocial Services Expenditure less EducationTotal Social Services Expenditure as Percentage ofSocial Services Expenditure less Education as Percentage of
Gross National ProductTotal Government ExpenditureGross National ProductTotal Government Expenditure
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)%%%%
1,9501,101271.7150.1128.113.655.211.647.2
1,9511,396282.2160.8136.211.557.09.848.3
1,9521,446343.9183.4154.212.753.310.744.8
1,9531,517366.7191.4160.012.652.210.643.6
1,9541,681388.4204.7170.112.252.710.143.8
1,9551,860402.1221.5183.111.955.19.845.5
1,9561,965427.5238.6196.212.155.810.045.9
1,9572,061462.9254.1207.912.354.910.144.9
1,9582,184489.6273.8222.412.555.910.245.4
1,9592,270527.9303.2247.413.457.410.946.9
1,9602,434585.4352.6292.814.560.212.050.0
1,9612,622631.4384.0316.814.760.812.150.2
1,9622,722654.9398.8327.814.760.912.050.1
1,9632,921691.2416.6337.814.360.311.648.9
1,9643,197738.2443.8356.813.960.111.248.3
1,9653,491802.0471.2372.213.558.810.746.4
1,9663,784872.1506.6396.213.458.110.545.4
1,9673,933935.6542.4418.013.860.010.644.7
1,9684,084966.5580.5443.714.260.110.945.9
1,9694,3101,031.8610.0464.414.259.110.845.0
1,9704,7751,142.5672.9504.514.158.910.644.2
1,9715,4781,346.6788.4573.514.458.610.542.6
1,9726,2611,575.7937.3657.715.059.510.541.7
1,9737,0561,878.11,151.5842.416.361.311.944.9
INDEBTEDNESS OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT—AMOUNT OF DEBENTURES AND STOCK IN CIRCULATION (Nominal Amounts)
As at 31 MarchDomiciled inTotalPer Head of Population
United States and World BankLondon and EuropeAustraliaNew Zealand

*Includes $1.9 million in 1964. $17.5 million in 1965, $29.9 million in 1966, $44.9 million in 1967, $65.1 million in 1968, $72.3 million in 1969, $76.8 million in 1970, and $74.5 million in 1971 held by International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

†Comparability affected by devaluation on 22 November 1967. Devaluation adjustments added $21.5 million to the debt in London and $29.0 million to the debt in United States.

 NZ$(million)$
1,924229.74.2209.3443.2328.80
1,925241.65.9208.1455.6330.30
1,926256.17.3214.3477.7338.80
1,927265.08.1218.6491.7341.90
1,928279.58.3214.9502.8343.80
1,929298.78.3221.4528.4359.80
1,930293.28.6233.1534.8359.20
1,931309.18.4234.7552.1365.20
1,932268.97.8236.8511.5335.30
1,933270.45.7236.7512.9333.50
1,934269.45.8278.0553.2356.90
1,935269.64.4234.9508.8325.90
1,936265.03.2244.5512.7325.80
1,937261.11.8260.1523.0329.30
1,938261.51.8264.9528.0329.10
1,939261.31.8292.5555.6341.90
1,940263.31.8328.3593.4361.70
1,941264.41.8380.4646.5395.10
1,942255.11.7461.6718.4439.60
1,943264.21.7609.4875.3535.60
1,944265.91.7733.51,001.1608.90
1,945266.21.7806.51,074.5639.60
1,946189.11.7945.51,136.3646.80
1,947189.11.7966.01,156.8646.40
1,948166.41.6988.21,156.2632.50
1,949159.91.31,068.81,230.0659.70
1,950156.31.31,130.21,287.8676.70
1,951155.61,178.81,334.5688.60
1,952155.61,151.81,307.3658.70
1,953155.61,179.81,335.4655.40
1,954175.61,233.21,408.7674.80
1,955195.61,261.61,457.2683.80
1,956191.61,278.81,470.4675.90
1,9578.9200.91,304.51,514.2681.70
1,9587.9199.21,357.11,564.2687.40
1,95947.1236.61,349.01,633.1702.10
1,96037.9235.51,415.61,689.0712.60
1,96137.0216.31,483.01,736.3719.20
1,96225.1254.01,528.61,807.7730.50
1,96341.5272.51,620.41,934.3765.18
1,96441.8279.91,700.02,021.7782.89
1,96554.3*276.51,908.82,139.6813.87
1,96688.3*244.8-'1,922.82,256.0842.78
1,967107.3*283.42,021.32,412.0884.42
1968170.7*329.42,116.52,616.6949.72
1,969179.2*336.22,261.02,776.5998.40
1,970184.2*341.62,351.32,887.11,023.50
1,971178.6397.82,430.53,007.01,051.06
1,972159.4494.12,533.03,186.61,095.22
1,973135.1428.92,939.13,503.11,198.00
1,974113.3351.93,269.33,734.51,220.75
LOCAL AUTHORITIES*
Year Ended 31 MarchReceiptsPaymentsTotal Gross Indebtedness
RevenueOther ReceiptsTotal
From RatesFrom Other Sources

*Exclusive of hospital boards.

†Debt up to 1967 shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent. As from 1968 the gross public debt is shown in New Zealand currency only, including overseas debt.

‡Includes petrol tax $14.9 million.

 $(million)
1,9238.612.514.835.831.486.4
1,9248.913.411.433.733.093.1
1,9259.314.415.939.638.8106.7
1,92610.116.015.741.841.8118.8
1,92710.617.214.041.943.5128.0
1,92811.219.012.042.144.9132.8
1,92911.718.412.942.942.6138.6
1,93012.020.711.944.544.1142.4
1,93111.320.49.741.444.4145.4
1,93211.018.110.039.140.2144.8
1,93310.517.09.837.237.8145.0
1,93411.016.58.536.135.5124.0
1,93511.017.29.037.237.4142.5
1,93611.218.09.939.038.7140.8
1,93712.019.19.440.540.4137.1
1,93813.121.19.743.944.1136.1
1,93914.022.613.550.050.2136.4
1,94014.624.414.553.551.4139.0
1,94114.725.410.250.349.5136.0
1,94214.926.07.248.048.1153.2
1,94315.527.46.149.046.5130.3
1,94415.629.64.950.047.6126.5
1,94515.830.15.050.950.4122.5
1,94617.330.86.454.454.7120.0
1,94719.133.08.560.661.0115.6
1,94819.634.410.064.064.9114.2
1,94921.638.212.372.071.6113.2
1,95023.340.716.280.279.3112.6
1,95125.243.416.785.386.5112.2
1,95229.049.121.398.497.7115.7
1,95330.855.231.5117.4116.7128.9
1,95432.864.641.0138.5136.4146.9
1,95536.570.642.1149.2148.0158.6
1,95637.876.850.9165.4167.1176.0
1,95741.379.160.7181.2181.5198.2
1,95845.484.771.1201.2196.6229.4
1,95948.897.869.6216.2213.2255.9
1,96051.5101.783.6231.8231.2287.1
1,96155.0108.788.1251.8245.0318.8
1,96258.0118.978.7255.6267.5337.6
1,96362.4125.596.2284.1286.5370.2
1,96468.3153.2120.0351.5329.6401.8
1,96577.2164.0122.7363.8361.1436.2
1,96680.5176.4119.0375.8387.5461.4
1,96785.9191.2119.4396.5401.6485.0
1,96892.4200.2137.3430.0420.7533.5
1,96999.9223.7149.1472.6456.6564.3
1,970108.1240.2155.1503.3492.1597.2
1,971117.9262.7155.5536.2539.2629.8
1,972126.3297.6169.6593.5604.7667.1
LOCAL AUTHORITIES*—LOAN INDEBTEDNESS
(Exclusive of Inscribed Debt)
As at 31 MarchCountiesCities and BoroughsHarbour BoardsElectric Power DistrictsOtherTotal

*Exclusive of hospital boards.

†Debt up to 1967 shown at its nominal amount, that portion domiciled overseas not being converted to its New Zealand currency equivalent. As from 1968 the gross public debt is shown in New Zealand currency only, including overseas debt.

 $(million)
1,9226.036.116.53.07.168.7
1,9237.643.217.26.17.681.7
1,9248.044.218.39.58.588.4
1,9259.251.819.513.08.6102.2
1,92610.856.120.017.510.1114.4
1,92712.060.120.520.210.8123.6
1,92812.463.221.020.411.6128.5
1,92912.764.521.524.011.7134.4
1,93013,163.020.925.316.1138.4
1,93113.364.321.026.016.9141.4
1,93213.463.421.126.216.9141.0
1,93313.263.621.226.117.1141.2
1,93413.162.721.026.417.0140.3
1,93512.862.021.126.816.4139.0
1,93612.561.520.427.016.3137.5
1,93712.361.020.324.116.1134.0
1,93812.261.119.723.816.2133.0
1,93912.261.219.524.915.5133.4
1,94012.461.519.926.216.0136.0
1,94112.360.019.926.214.7133.1
1,94212.259.319.625.014.6130.7
1,94311.757.719.624.714.2128.0
1,94411.356.419.423.613.9124.6
1,94510.855.119.023.112.9120.8
1,94610.454.518.722.412.7118.7
1,9479.953.416.821.712.5114.3
1,9489.553.016.522.212.1113.2
1,9499.351.916.123.212.0112.4
1,9508.952.215.624.011.4112.1
1,9518.652.514.824.911.2112.0
1,9528.654.315.026.011.8115.7
1,9538.659.517.828.814.1128.8
1,9548.668.020.731.917.6146.9
1,9559.273.421.634.420.0158.6
1,95610.280.223.237.724.6176.0
1,95711.989.426.139.631.3198.2
1,95813.5102.831.442.639.0229.4
1,95914.8111.535.145.945.6256.0
1,96017.4124.140.147.857.7287.1
1,96119.8132.646.049.371.2318.8
1,96222.3141.448.051.474.4337.6
1,96324.0156.656.154.179.5370.2
1,96428.4172.465.453.781.8401.8
1,96531.8187.272.158.187.0436.2
1,96631.5202.579.860.087.6461.4
1,96735.5214.482.862.090.3485.0
1,96840.2227.788.064.5113.0533.5
1,96942.9241.295.266.5118.5564.3
1,97046.1251.8103.370.6125.4597.2
1,97148.1265.0111.173.8131.8629.8
1,97253.6277.3121.576.3138.4667.1
BANKING AND CURRENCY
YearAssets of Trading BanksLiabilities of Trading BanksNotes in Hands of PublicNet Overseas Assets of Banking System||
Advances and Discounts*Notes and Coin and Balances at Reserve BankSecuritiesTotal Selected Assets§DepositsTotal Selected Liabilities§

*Includes term loans and export finance from 1964 on.

†Average of weekly figures.

‡Average of monthly figures.

§As at last balance day in December, assets exclude shareholders' funds, while both assets and liabilities exclude inter-branch accounts within New Zealand, contingencies, and certain transit items.

||Includes holdings of Reserve Bank.

¶Devaluation adjustment November 1967.

 $(million)
1,93589.419.410.2166.0123.0132.012.884.0
1,93691.825.011.0167.8130.4131.815.078.2
1,93798.428.215.8171.6133.6135.617.863.4
1,938111.423.015.8170.2130.0133.620.042.0
1,939109.431.623.0192.2134.6152.024.020.6
1,94096.040.433.6203.0154.8164.029.647.2
1,94199.435.442.0210.6161.4168.234.860.2
1,94290.847.656.2237.8181.8201.643.077.0
1,94386.665.875.4265.4212.6229.255.284.4
1,94493.678.877.2281.8235.2244.464.299.6
1,945103.6104.863.6329.0260.2285.270.0160.8
1,946116.6135.657.0358.0299.6321.076.4201.4
1,947153.0132.046.0384.0328.4355.280.2205.2
1,948196.4137.637.8387.0351.0381.681.6168.2
1,949166.8172.229.4416.6372.2417.885.0141.2
1,950189.4173.426.8450.6404.4468.090.4150.2
1,951265.8166.626.4540.6501.4550.698.0208.0
1,952339.6127.426.0536.4506.0510.2102.0145.2
1,953273.6210.628.0582.6530.6563.2106.8207.2
1,954314.0183.850.4603.2563.6611.6115.4236.0
1,955365.8137.050.4600.6559.8599.0119.0176.6
1,956341.2144.857.6575.4537.4568.8120.0171.8
1,957329.8155.857.4599.2557.8592.2122.4173.0
1,958350.8152.057.0577.0558.0560.2124.2104.2
1,959340.2161.057.0632.6566.8629.8125.4179.8
1,960355.4212.646.8700.6647.8720.6131.2195.0
1,961435.0170.646.6648.2652.0705.4135.0107.4
1,962401.0192.446.4687.2646.6701.2133.2128.4
1,963403.8187.046.2722.6676.5723.8133.0159.2
1,964439.9188.046.2804.8724.8782.2129.6167.4
1,965493.2145.253.4812.0729.9796.0128.0139.5
1,966513.4114.664.7826.6731.7817.9125.3114.8
1,967527.596.672.3826.2721.5800.8117.8116.0
1,968522.479.984.1879.6739.9851.3121.4181.2
1,969580.885.0117.9x1,022.4809.1953.1130.4188.5
1,970669.189.0130.5x1,080.8907.01,026.8142.4184.2
1,971738.578.2167.9x1,233.8x1,017.51,182.2x158.9225.6
1,972774.6120.9429.71,721.7x1,290.71,654.4x176.4393.2
1,9731,014.5287.3476.12,253.31,835.22,169.0207.8632.4
POST OFFICE SAVINGS BANK
YearNumber of Accounts at End of YearTotal Amount of Deposits During YearInterest Credited to DepositorsTotal Amount of Withdrawals During Year*Excess of Deposits plus Interest over WithdrawalsTotal Amount to Credit of Depositors at End of Year

*From January 1958 includes interest paid out on investment accounts.

†Excess of withdrawals over deposits.

‡Excludes 15,439 amounts credited with $0.6 million transferred to Apia, Western Samoa.

§Includes School Savings Accounts from 1 April 1964. From 1 October 1969 includes National Development Bonds, and from 1 March 1970 Post Office Bonus Bonds.

 Number  $(million)  
1923–24710,15759.23.359.03.592.2
1924–25735,14859.23.460.81.793.9
1925–26758,15563.73.565.21.995.8
1926–27783,82758.93.560.32.198.0
1927–28804,72555.23.561.2-2.495.5
1928–29828,29654.53.556.21.897.3
1929–30852,75757.13.659.21.698.9
1930–31878,04349.13.556.1-3.595.3
1931–32877,09038.93.250.9-8.886.5
1932–33797,09733.92.939.3-2.484.1
1933–34798,26238.92.535.65.789.7
1934–35817,61748.42.641.99.198.8
1935–36840,67151.22.847.17.0105.8
1936–37880,85761.33.054.110.3116.1
1937–38920,80566.13.359.310.2126.3
1938–39946,82260.93.569.2-4.9121.4
1939–40960,56550.33.258.9-5.4116.0
1940–411,142,79258.53.350.611.2127.2
1941–421,298,48368.43.750.821.3148.5
1942–431,399,89680.33.853.830.3178.8
1943–441,494,136107.94.471.241,0219.8
1944–451,570,586121.35.584.642.2262.1
1945–461,605,981148.66.5114.041.0303.1
1946–471,634,548155.17.5129.333.3336.4
1947–481,652,765157.78.2143.522.4358.8
1948–491,679,692153.68.7142.020.3379.1
1949–501,730,072197.99.7161.646.0425.1
1950–511,760,541189.310.2179.619.9445.0
1951–521,800,709215.610.8198.927.5472.5
1952–531,835,552216.911.4207.620.7493.3
1953–541,868,788237.212.1214.934.4527.7
1954–551,900,649255.712.8243.624.9552.6
1955–561,927,422255.213.3256.412.1564.7
1956–571,971,731279.116.3265.829.4594.1
1957–582,013,664311.717.9291.238.5632.6
1958–592,052,626294.218.5307.45.3637.9
1959–602,084,837326.318.9311.034.1672.0
1960–612,116,675374.620.1350.144.6716.6
1961–622,143,586383.421.0383.720.7736.7
1962–632,190,757409.122.0397.233.9770.6
1963–642,245,339471.623.6442.952.3822.8
1964–652,563,154506.725.1501.730.0855.8§
1965–662,604,058507.825.8521.911.8867.6
1966–672,639,890525.626.0542.09.6877.3
1967–682,646,284488.127.2512.42.9879.3
1968–692,681,654487.728.0507.97.8878.1
1969–702,700,874568.528.2561.834.9922.0
1970–712,736,917620.929.6626.424.1946.1
1971–722,756,109663.528.9676.216.3962.4
1972–732,399,767782.430.5736.576.31,038.7
1973–74..913.031.9843.8101.11,139.8
MORTGAGES AND LAND TRANSFERS
Year Ended 31 MarchMortgagesAverage Rate of Interest On New MortgagesLand Transfers
RegisteredDischargedNumberConsideration

*Land sales restrictions removed in 1950.

†Provisional

 $(m)$(m)percent $(m)
1,92475.744.56.3833,29367.7
1,92582.259.56.3034,28967.3
1,92694.267.96.2236,03870.4
1,92780.058.56.4734,10664.7
1,92866.448.06.4631,14160.3
1,92967.150.56.4630,76062.3
1,93077.756.76.3532,11261.7
1,93160.440.16.2525,62644.1
1,93226.820.16.2816,94326.4
1,93318.316.35.8815,38122.0
1,93415.618.25.5615,76019.1
1,93523.727.55.0618,62824.4
1,93632.535.14.7323,04431.2
1,93739.439.64.6025,17837.7
1,93838.038.74.6526,26946.7
1,93940.133.24.5828,96547.3
1,94035.228.24.6928,05744.2
1,94132.531.94.6928,82851.5
1,94229.130.24.7328,20746.5
1,94324.333.44.7227,65748.3
1,94431.240.14.6333,70176.3
1,94536.242.04.5133,28464.9
1,94645.046.64.1038,06076.7
1,94762.251.93.8542,99489.9
1,94864.150.83.9048,80180.9
1,94970.646.83.9836,56476.8
1,95072.046.23.9939,05881.3
1951*91.664.54.0957,938158.7
1,952135.974.54.1556,609218.3
1,953147.462.84.2948,378201.4
1,954140.872.04.4952,615228.8
1,955169.282.34.6956,571273.4
1,956192.570.74.7649,100241.9
1,957182.475.45.0945,334229.4
1,958199.192.25.2450,573279.4
1,959217.188.85.1549,153255.2
1,960239.0102.35.0152,855285.4
1,961300.8136.65.0161,412375.6
1,962331.5133.85.2757,813360.1
1,963295.1135.65.5153,566336.3
1,964339.8168.85.7059,836419.9
1,965420.0206.85.7869,548536.2
1,966487.7230.06.0771,508592.6
1,967493.4293.36.3168,639589.2
1,968467.8236.16.6463,925541.8
1,969482.3260.96.7465,655576.5
1,970573.9328.16.7772,624724.4
1,971703.0376.56.8883,610918.9
1,972759.8415.87.4086,042985.4
1,973940.7510.57.60105,1931,339.9
1,9741,301.7672.97.86125,7962,133.0
BANKRUPTCIES AND NEW COMPANY REGISTRATIONS
YearBankruptciesNew Company Registrations*
Number of BankruptciesAmount Realised by Official AssigneeAmount of Debts ProvedNumber of New RegistrationsAmount of Nominal Capital

*Public, private, and overseas.

†The extraordinarily high figure for 1934 is due to the inclusion of all overseas companies (numbering 187 with an aggregate nominal capital of $386 million) which had previous to 1934 established places of business in New Zealand and which were reregistered in 1934 under Part XII of the Companies Act 1933.

‡Since 1954 company liquidations are included in the total.

  $(000)$(000) $(m)
1,923674249.31,337.850226.0
1,924670237.31,408.056542.7
1,925653197.3942.162129.5
1,926752205.81,171.465521.5
1,927867217.71,359.069817.4
1,928806233.21,534.673622.0
1,929687182.41,004.290324.9
1,930780166.61,654.789313.4
1,931848217.62,084.479516.6
1,932661151.31,249.881213.7
1,933450123.4979.883014.6
1,93432689.1517.8933401.5
1,93525782.1451.081048.5
1,93626066.0339.794219.9
1,937222111.9343.488812.2
1,938267129.0460.982413.2
1,93926788.3451.068117.8
1,94021384.8250.63917.6
1,94116570.9142.028822.5
1,9428259.564.51981.9
1,9434537.840.12703.1
1,9445126.9102.14643.0
1,9454537.1236.47416.8
1,9465241.997.01,43522.1
1,9477431.189.51,81319.2
1,948148100.6286.61,75117.4
1,94917976.8406.32,15716.0
1,95014298.5251.82,07420.4
1,95114596.5273.62,02025.6
1,952168112.5502.31,74466.8
1,953215144.3762.02,04186.1
1954277165.1826.92,68555.5
1,955304224.8764.62,69536.7
1,956390261.11,095.53,25541.2
1,957437360.71,564.53,502161.1
1,958495369.61,638.33,03461.5
1,959618389.81,510.42,73794.2
1,960495331.21,337.83,76774.0
1,961425303.61,415.83,56771.7
1,962591446.12,138.43,35145.1
1,963566441.11,660.34,16574.1
1,964507325.51,784.95,05490.0
1,965507335.62,337.55,56385.8
1,966507378.52,033.55,609187.3
1,967652373.92,312.24,829102.7
1,968820437.23,743.55,010190.1
1,969659746.53,743.56,403286.6
1,970596466.53,660.16,431282.9
1,971477604.43,471.75,490359.0
1,972461698.54,138.56,5474,271.1
1,973329783.02,991.0  
INSURANCE
YearLife (Ordinary and Industrial)AccidentFire
Policies in ForceSum AssuredNet Revenue*Net Expenditure*Net Revenue*Net Expenditure*

*Excluding unexpired risks reserves.

†Excludes annuities.

 (000)  $(million)  
1922–233701311.41.32.92.3
1923–243891411.51.42.92.4
1924–254121521.71.62.92.6
1925–264331632.32.03.02.4
1926–274551742.72.33.02.7
1927–284801842.72.43.02.9
1928–295031962.82.63.03.1
1929–305322113.32.93.02.7
1930–315532243.53.13.12.6
1931–325462253.12.93.12.9
1932–335432242.62.43.02.3
1933–345582262.52.22.92.2
1934–355892332.82.42.72.1
1935–366282483.02.82.82.0
1936–376862723.53.42.72.0
1937–387513024.44.32.61.9
1938–398013225.24.72.72.0
1939–408363415.64.82.82.1
1940–418653555.34.62.92.2
1941–429003745.24.53.02.3
1942–439223884.84.13.12.7
1943–449544085.44.63.42.6
1944–459924385.44.93.12.6
1945–461,0364775,95.33.32.7
1946–471,0965326.85.73.73.1
1947–481,1515938.16.94.13.3
1948–491,1926508.98.04.63.4
1949–501,22670710.19.05.13.8
1950–511,26377412.010.45.54.5
1951–521,30486613.712.16.14.9
1952–531,34595816.414.46.85.6
1953–541,3811,05818.416.17.56.2
1954–551,4271,18420.418.18.36.5
1955–561,4631,32422.820.88.47.1
1956–571,4941,46425.623.78.87.3
1957–581,5281,62328.326.49.38.1
1958–591,5611,80430.728.710.08.4
1959–601,5982,02633.430.511.18.8
1960–611,6952,27837.533.312.19.7
1961–621,7232,54840.936.113.410.7
1962–631,7512,84344.339.614.812.0
1963–641,7933,19549.043.716.413.6
1964–651,8463,60954.248.717.614.6
1965–661,9114,07063.055.619.615.7
1966–671,9734,58769.361.621.617.4
1967–682,0285,09573.067.223.019.9
1968–692,0875,57975.870.025.422.3
1969–702,1496,15581.577.127.523.2
1970–712,2306,89492.889.431.925.7
1971–722,3377,996111.9104.136.730.7
1972–732,4439,445133.0120.046.739.9
INDUSTRIAL STOPPAGES
YearTotal Industrial Stoppages*Firms AffectedTotal Duration (Days)Average Duration (Days)Workers InvolvedWorking Days LostAverage Days Lost per Worker InvolvedEstimated Loss in Wages

*The number of lockouts included in total industrial stoppages were: 1925, 2; 1928, 2; 1929, 1; 1931, 1; 1940, 1; 1944, 1; 1965, 2; 1970, 3; and 1971, 1.

†Includes workers indirectly involved.

‡Includes in 1964, 4; in 1966, 4; and in 1971, 2 additional penalty (suspension) stoppages provided for under Port Bureau Rules.

§A limited number of stoppages affected a large number of firms the totals of which are not available and hence excluded.

        $(000)
1,923497960312.317,162201,81228.18228
1,92434581343.9414,81589,1056.01125
1,92583935987.209,90574,5527.5398
1,92659673145.326,26447,8117.6365
1,9273840832.184,47612,4852.7924
1,92839562536.499,25821,9972.3845
1,92947603427.287,15125,8893.6254
1,930384439210.325,46731,6695.7975
1,931243726210.926,35648,4867.6389
1,932236731313.619,355108,60511.61211
1,933154320513.673,55865,09918.30119
1,93424371205.003,77310,3932.7514
1,9351265887.332,32318,5637.9931
1,936431282215.147,35416,9802.3126
1,93752723206.1511,41129,9162.6264
1,938721032873.9911,38855,4563.1184
1,939666364166.3015,68253,8013.43121
1,94057994357.6310,47528,0972.6856
1,94189972332.6215,26126,2371.7269
1,94265781432.2014,34551,1893.57126
1,943691141221.7710,91514,6871.3540
1,9441492692811.8929,76652,6021.77148
1,9451541,2553792.4639,41866,6291.69185
1,946961222592.7015,69630,3931.9480
1,9471342348346.2226,970102,7253.81375
1,9481018856086.0228,49493,4643.28392
1,9491231,3156725.4661,536218,1723.55782
1,9501291,1895674.4091,492271,4752.971,028
1,9511093543,46431.7836,8781,157,39031.386,223
1,952501771082.1616,29728,1231.73139
1,953738801451.9922,17519,2910.8797
1,954614471362.2316,15320,4741.27133
1,955651142113.2520,22452,0432.57371
1,956504263907.8013,57923,8701.76168
1,95751881653.2415,54528,1861.81166
1,95849831523.1013,70918,7881.37128
1,959731192293.1418,76229,6511.58215
1,96060803445.7314,30535,6832.49233
1,96171893534.9616,62638,1852.30299
1,962961294985.1839,92193,1572.33749
1,96360913666.0914,91154,4903.65496
1964932303333.5834,77966,8341.92513
1,9651052182872.7315,26721,8141.43184
1966145151§4623.1833,13299,0952.99878
1,967891075716.4228,490139,4904.90869
1,9681532098585.6137,458130,2673.481,097
1,9691693251,1386.7444,041138,6753.151,384
1,970323693§1,9686.09110,096277,3482.522,425
19713135901,9856.3486,009162,5631.892,109
1,9722844341,2734.4868,110140,6722.072,046
1,9733945951,8924.80115,865271,7062.354,289

Chapter 43. CHRONOLOGY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS

NOTEWORTHY EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF NEW ZEALAND

1642 European discovery of New Zealand by Tasman.

1769 Captain Cook's first visit to New Zealand.

1791 Discovery of Snares and Chatham Islands.

1792 First sealing gang left on New Zealand coast.

1814 Arrival of Rev. Samuel Marsden, and introduction of Christianity. Horses, cattle, sheep, and poultry first brought to New Zealand.

1820 Hongi's visit to England.

1823–28 Jurisdiction of Courts of Justice in New South Wales extended to British subjects in New Zealand.

1825 First attempt at colonisation, by an expedition under Captain Herd.

1227 Hongi's forces destroyed mission station at Whangaroa.

1831 Tory Channel whaling station established. Application of 13 chiefs for the protection of King William IV.

1833 Mr James Busby appointed British Resident at Bay of Islands.

1834 Waimate Pa, near Opunake, shelled and captured by British—first occasion on which HM troops employed in New Zealand.

1835 Declaration of independence of the whole of New Zealand as one nation, with title of "United Tribes of New Zealand". Ngati-Awa tribes migrated to and conquered Chatham Islands.

1838 Pelorus Sound discovered.

1839 Governor of New South Wales authorised to include within the limits of that colony any territory that might be acquired in sovereignty by Her Majesty in New Zealand. Preliminary expedition of New Zealand Company under Colonel Wakefield arrived at Port Nicholson.

1840 Arrival of New Zealand Company's settlers at Port Nicholson. Treaty of Waitangi signed. British sovereignty proclaimed. Captain Hobson appointed Lieutenant-Governor, with residence at Auckland. Settlements formed at Petre (Wanganui) and Akaroa.

1841 Issue of charter of incorporation of New Zealand Company. New Zealand proclaimed independent of New South Wales. Arrival of New Plymouth settlers.

1842 Settlement founded at Nelson.

1843 Affray with Maoris at Wairau.

1844 Royal flagstaff at Kororareka cut down by Heke.

1845 Destruction of Kororareka by Heke.

1846 Arrival of first steam vessel (HMS Driver) in New Zealand waters. Capture of pa at Ruapekapeka and termination of Heke's war. Maori hostilities near Wellington. Te Rauparaha captured and detained as a prisoner. New Zealand divided into two provinces, New Munster and New Ulster, and representative institutions conferred.

1847 Attack by Maoris on Wanganui.

1848 Suspension of that part of New Zealand Government Act which had conferred representative institutions. Otago founded.

1850 Surrender of New Zealand Company's charter, all its interests reverting to the Imperial Government. Canterbury founded.

1852 Discovery of gold at Coromandel. Constitution Act passed, granting representative institutions to New Zealand, and dividing country into six provinces.

1854 Opening at Auckland of first session of the General Assembly.

1855 First members elected to the House of Representatives under system of responsible Government. Very severe earthquake on both sides of Cook Strait.

1856 Appointment of first Ministry under system of responsible Government.

1857 Goldfield opened at Collingwood.

1858 New Provinces Act passed.

1860 Hostilities in Waitara district.

1861 Truce arranged with Waitara Maoris. Bank of New Zealand incorporated. Southland Province established. Gold discovery at Gabriel's Gully, Otago.

1862 Coromandel proclaimed a goldfield. Wreck of s.s White Swan, with loss of many public records. First electric-telegraph line opened - Christchurch to Lyttelton.

1863 Wreck of HMS Orpheus on Manukau bar, with loss of 181 lives. Control of Maori affairs transferred to Colonial Government. Commencement of Waikato War. Defeat of Maoris at Rangiriri, and occupation of Ngaruawahia. First railway in New Zealand, portion of Christchurch-Lyttelton line, opened.

1864 Severe fighting in Waikato and elsewhere, including battles of Rangiaowhia, Orakau, Gate Pa, and Te Ranga. First major discovery of gold on West Coast of South Island.

1865 Seat of Government transferred to Wellington. Further fighting, followed by proclamation of peace. Activities of Hauhau fanatics, including murders of Europeans. Rebel Maoris defeated at Wairoa.

1866 Cook Strait submarine telegraph cable laid.

1867 Opening of Thames Goldfield. Lyttelton Tunnel completed. Admission of four Maori members to House of Representatives as direct representatives of Maori people.

1868 Maori prisoners, under leadership of Te Kooti, seized schooner Rifleman and escaped from Chatham Islands to mainland where they massacred Europeans. Considerable fighting with these and other rebel Maoris.

1869 Continuation of fighting with rebels and of pursuit of Te Kooti. Visit of H.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgh. Government Life Insurance Office established.

1870 Further fighting with Te Kooti. Last of Imperial troops left New Zealand. Commencement of San Francisco mail service. Possession taken of Bounty Island. Inauguration of Vogel public works policy. Act passed to establish the New Zealand University.

1871 Commencement of railway construction under public works policy.

1872 Resumption of friendly relations with Waitara Maoris. Appointment of Maori chiefs (two) to Legislative Council. Public Trust Office created.

1873 Establishment of New Zealand Shipping Co.

1874 In pursuance of immigration and public works policy, 31,774 assisted immigrants arrived.

1875 Resumption of amicable relations with Maori King. Establishment of Union Steam Ship Company.

1876 New Zealand connected by cable with Australia. Abolition of Provinces Act came into operation, provincial institutions being abolished and the country divided into counties and boroughs.

1877 Education Act passed, providing for free compulsory education.

1878 Completion of the Christchurch-Invercargill railway.

1879 Triennial Parliaments Act passed. Adult male suffrage introduced. Kaitangata coal mine explosion, whereby 34 lives lost.

1881 Wreck of s.s. Tararua, with loss of 130 lives.

1882 First shipment of frozen meat from New Zealand.

1883 Direct steamer communication inaugurated between New Zealand and England.

1885 New Zealand Industrial Exhibition at Wellington.

1886 Tarawera eruption, involving loss of 101 lives and destruction of Pink and White Terraces.

1887 Annexation of Kermadec Islands. Members of House of Representatives reduced to 74, including four Maoris.

1888 British protectorate over Cook Islands proclaimed.

1889 South Seas Exhibition at Dunedin.

1890 Great maritime strike. First election of House of Representatives under one-man-one-vote principle.

1891 Inauguration of Liberal regime under Hon. John Ballance.

1892 Introduction of lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure.

1893 Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Prime Minister. Franchise extended to women. Special licensing poll introduced.

1894 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act passed. Government Advances to Settlers Act passed. Wreck of s.s. Wairarapa, with loss of 135 lives.

1896 Brunner Mine explosion, causing 67 deaths. Abolition of non-residential or property qualification to vote. Government Valuation of Land Act passed.

1898 Old-age Pensions Act passed.

1899 Labour Day instituted. New Zealand contingent (the first of 10) sent to South Africa.

1900 Number of European representatives in Lower House increased to 76.

1901 T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York visited New Zealand. Penny postage adopted by New Zealand. Cook and other Pacific islands annexed.

1902 Pacific cable opened. Wreck of s.s. Elingamite, with loss of 43 lives. Conference of colonial Premiers in London.

1903 Empire Day proclaimed. State Fire Insurance Act passed.

1905 Workers' Dwellings Act passed. Title of New Zealand's representative in London altered to "High Commissioner".

1906 Death of Right Hon. R. J. Seddon, Premier. Advances to Workers Act passed. New Zealand International Exhibition at Christchurch.

1907 New Zealand constituted a Dominion. Lease-in-perpetuity system of land tenure abolished. Parliament Buildings destroyed by fire.

1908 Through railway communication established between Wellington and Auckland.

1909 S.s. Penguin wrecked in Cook Strait, with loss of 75 lives. Battle cruiser presented by New Zealand to Imperial Government. System of compulsory military training introduced.

1910 Public Debt Extinction Act and National Provident Fund Act passed.

1911 Wireless telegraphy installed in New Zealand. Widows' Pensions Act passed. First poll on national prohibition taken.

1912 Public Service placed under Commissioner control.

1913 Extensive strikes.

1914 Western Samoa occupied by New Zealand Advance Expeditionary Force. Main Expeditionary Force left for Egypt. Huntly coal mine disaster, with loss of 43 lives.

1915 New Zealand Expeditionary Force engaged in operations on Gallipoli Peninsula. National Cabinet formed. Pensions for miners introduced.

1916 New Zealand Division transferred to Western Front, Mounted Brigade being retained in Egypt. Compulsory enrolment of men for war service introduced. Lake Coleridge electric-supply scheme opened.

1918 S.s. Wimmera sunk by enemy mine off New Zealand coast, with loss of 26 lives. Otira Tunnel pierced. End of First World War. Great influenza epidemic, causing nearly 7,000 deaths.

1919 Women made eligible for seats in Parliament. New Zealand represented at Peace Conference by Right Hon. W. F. Massey, Prime Minister.

1920 Visit of H.R.H. the Prince of Wales. Railway strike. First aeroplane flight over Cook Strait. League of Nations gave New Zealand mandate to administer Western Samoa. Anzac Day constituted.

1921 Samoa Act passed, making provision for government in terms of mandate. New Zealand represented at Disarmament Conference, Washington.

1922 Meat-export trade placed under control of a board.

1923 Opening of Otira Tunnel. Ross Dependency proclaimed, and placed under jurisdiction of Governor-General. Dairy Produce Export Control Act passed.

1924 Railway strike. Direct two-way radio communication effected with England. Motor Vehicles Act provided for registration and annual licensing of motor vehicles. Pensions for blind persons introduced. S.s. Ripple foundered off Cape Palliser with loss of 16 lives.

1925 New Zealand and South Seas International Exhibition at Dunedin. Administration of Tokelau (Union) Islands transferred to New Zealand.

1926 Family Allowances Act passed.

1927 Visit of T.R.H. the Duke and Duchess of York. Summer Time Act passed.

1928 Kingsford Smith and party made first successful flight across Tasman Sea.

1029 Severe earthquake in Murchison-Karamea district caused 17 deaths. Daylight saving (half hour) permanently adopted for summer months.

1930 Legislation providing for relief of unemployment first passed.

1931 Worst earthquake in history of New Zealand occurred in Hawke's Bay, resulting in the loss of 255 lives. General reduction of 10 percent in wages and salaries. Parliament approved draft Statute of Westminster. Mortgagors' relief legislation passed.

1932 Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Amendment Act made important changes in industrial legislation. National Expenditure Adjustment Act made reductions in old-age and other pensions, in salaries of State employees, and in rentals, interest rates, and other fixed charges. The historic Waitangi Estate presented to the nation by Their Excellencies Lord and Lady Bledisloe. New Zealand represented at Ottawa Conference.

1933 Exchange rate raised to £125 N.Z. for £100 London (telegraphic transfers). Sales tax instituted. Conversion of internal public debt with reduction in interest rates, and provision made for local authorities interest reduction and loans conversion. Successful experimental shipments of chilled beef to England.

1934 First official trans-Tasman air mail. Reserve Bank incorporated and commenced business. First licensed air transport service commenced operations.

1935 Rural Mortgagors Final Adjustment Act passed, and Court of Review established. National Government defeated at general election, and Labour Government assumed office for first of four successive terms.

1936 Inauguration of inter-Island trunk air services. Reserve Bank nationalised. System of basic prices for butter and cheese introduced. Forty-hour week became operative. Powers of Court of Arbitration restored. Railcar services inaugurated. New Zealand elected to seat on League of Nations Council.

1937 New Zealand represented at Imperial Conference by Right Hon. M. J. Savage. Death of Lord Rutherford of Nelson.

1938 Mr W. J. Jordan, New Zealand's representative on League of Nations, elected President of the League Assembly. Social Security Act passed. Introduction of import selection and control.

1939 Declaration of war with Germany. Recruitment for 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Arrangements for purchase of farm products by Britain. New Zealand Centennial Exhibition opened at Wellington.

1940 Centennial celebrations. Departure of First Echelon of 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force. Death of the Prime Minister, the Right Hon. M. J. Savage; succeeded in office by Hon. P. Fraser. Declaration of war with Italy. RMS Niagara sunk off New Zealand coast by enemy mine. Ballots for military service. National savings scheme inaugurated.

1941 Daylight saving period extended to cover whole year. First enrolment of married men for military service. Declaration of war with Japan. Territorial Forces mobilised.

1942 Complete mobilisation of Military Forces ordered. Introduction of control of industrial manpower. Compulsory enrolment of all male British subjects between ages of 18 and 65 inclusive, in Emergency Reserve Corps. Lend-lease reciprocal aid extended to include Australia and New Zealand. Rationing introduced. Mobilisation of women for essential work.

1943 North African campaign brought to a successful conclusion. Railway accident near Hyde—21 persons killed. 2nd NZEF (3rd Division) took part in action against Japanese in the Pacific Area.

1944 Australia - New Zealand Agreement 1944, providing for collaboration on matters of mutual interest. Mutual-aid Agreement between Canadian and New Zealand Governments signed.

1945 War in Europe ended (8 May). Manpower controls in regard to women and young persons relaxed. Wartime press censorship abolished. War Cabinet dissolved. War in Pacific ended. Japan formally surrenders (15 August). Electoral Amendment Act providing for abolition of the "country quota" passed. South Island Main Trunk Railway opened, through rail connection from Picton to Bluff established.

1946 Restrictions on consumption of electric power imposed in North Island. Remaining manpower controls lifted in June. Family benefit of $1 per week made universal as from 1 April. Lieutenant-General Sir Bernard Freyberg, v.c., assumed office as Governor-General (17 June).

1947 $25 million presented to United Kingdom Government by New Zealand. Local Government Commission appointed. First woman Cabinet Minister in New Zealand appointed. Marketing of dairy produce taken over by Dairy Commission. Statute of Westminster adopted by New Zealand Parliament.

1948 Licensing Control Commission appointed. Adjustment of exchange rate to parity with sterling as from 20 August.

1949 Polls on the establishment of off-course betting and on an alteration in hotel hours held in March. Referendum agrees to compulsory military training. Labour Government defeated and National Government assumed office under Right Hon. S. G. Holland.

1950 British Empire Games held at Auckland. Control of land sales, except of farm land, lifted. Control of sterling funds and securities relaxed. Abolition of petrol and butter rationing. Legislative Council Abolition Act passed. Kayforce sailed from Wellington for Korea.

1951 Prolonged waterfront strike resulted in Proclamation of State of Emergency, and issue of regulations under the Public Safety Conservation Act. Servicemen kept essential cargoes moving. Waterfront unions deregistered. Establishment of Civil Emergency Reserve. Off-course betting operations commenced by Totalisator Agency Board. United States, Australia, and New Zealand signed Pacific Security Treaty.

1952 Royal Commission on Railways. Accession of Queen Elizabeth II. New Zealand team at Olympic Games at Helsinki gained one gold and two bronze medals. Report of Royal Commission on the Waterfront Industry released.

1953 Power restrictions suspended in North Island, first time for 12 years. Coronation Day for Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second. Mt. Everest conquered on 29 May by British expedition, the summit being reached by the New Zealander Edmund Hillary and the Sherpa Tensing. Armistice agreement signed in Korea. The London-Christchurch air race won by RAF Canberra No. 3 in record time of 23 hours 51 minutes. National Housing Conference held. New Zealand's worst railway disaster occurred at Tangiwai on Christmas Eve, with a death roll of 154 persons. Arrival of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth the Second and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, on 23 December, the first occasion on which a reigning monarch had visited these shores.

1954 The Queen opened a special session of Parliament. New Zealand took seat on United Nations Security Council. New Zealand won seven gold, seven silver, and five bronze medals at Empire Games in Vancouver. The Executive Council and Cabinet held meetings at Auckland on 25 May to mark the centenary of parliamentary government in New Zealand. New Zealand signed the South-east Asia Treaty at Manila.

1955 New Zealand made contribution to defence of South-east Asia by sending squadron of fighter bombers and part transport squadron to Malaya and, later in the year, an Army Special Air Service Squadron. Pulp and paper mill at Kawerau began operation. Rimutaka tunnel opened for traffic in November.

1956 Report of Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems released. Roxburgh and Whakamaru power stations in operation. Building controls abolished. Team sent to Olympic Games at Melbourne wins two gold medals. Colombo Plan Conference held in Wellington.

1957 New Zealand Antarctic Expedition established Scott Base at Pram Point, McMurdo Sound. Dairy produce given unrestricted, duty-free right of entry to Britain till 1967. Plan announced to almost double generating capacity of New Zealand's power systems by 1970 at cost of $470 million, including the laying of a cable across Cook Strait. Lord Cobham succeeded Lord Norrie as Governor-General on 5 September. Separate Court of Appeal constituted. Sir Leslie Munro elected President of United Nations General Assembly. Labour Government assumed office under Right Hon. W. Nash. Battalion sailed for service in Malaya.

1958 Import selection and exchange allocation brought into force to conserve overseas exchange. Sir Edmund Hillary and companions reached South Pole overland from Scott Base. Royal Tour of Her Majesty the Queen Mother. PAYE taxation on incomes introduced. Electric power restrictions in North Island. New Zealand won four gold, six silver, and nine bronze medals at Empire Games in Cardiff. Power generated from geothermal steam at Wairakei and from coal station at Mercer.

1959 Mr C. M. Bennett, a distinguished Maori, appointed High Commissioner in Malaya. National Consumer Council appointed and four regional consumer committees established. Scheme provided for capitalisation of family benefit for housing purposes. Auckland Harbour Bridge opened (May). Reconstructed Wellington Airport opened for traffic (July). S.s. Holmglen foundered off Timaru with loss of 15 lives. Twelve nations, including New Zealand, signed treaty to preserve Antarctica for peaceful scientific research for all time.

1960 Government signed agreement for company to use power from Te Anau - Manapouri Lakes system for large aluminium smelting industry. Regular television programmes began in Auckland. Commission on Education appointed with Sir George Currie as chairman. Institute of Economic Research established. Industrial Development Conference held in Wellington. New Zealand athletes won two gold medals in one day at Olympic Games in Rome, also one bronze medal. Government Service Equal Pay Act passed. Conference of British Commonwealth Statisticians held in Wellington. Labour Government defeated and National Government assumed office under Right Hon. K. J. Holyoake.

1961 Review of Maori Affairs (Hunn Report) published. United Nations seminar on Human Rights held in Wellington. Right of unrestricted and duty-free access to United Kingdom market for meat and dairy produce emphasised in discussions on possible entry of United Kingdom into European Economic Community; assurance given that special arrangement would be sought to protect vital interests of New Zealand. Minister to European Economic Community appointed. Expansion of overseas trade posts. Tasman Empire Airways became wholly owned by New Zealand (later renamed Air New Zealand). Monetary and Economic Council appointed. New Zealand joined International Monetary Fund, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and International Finance Corporation. Industrial Development Conference held. Television broadcasts extended to Wellington and Christchurch.

1962 Western Samoa became first independent Polynesian State. Cook Strait rail-ferry service commenced with Aramoana. Protracted discussions, including Commonwealth Prime Ministers' Conference, on possible trade repercussions of Britain's proposal to join European Economic Community. Report presented by Royal Commission on State Services chaired by Mr Justice McCarthy. Extensive building programme for universities approved. Brigadier Sir Bernard Fergusson succeeded Lord Cobham as Governor-General. New Zealand won 10 gold, 12 silver, and 10 bronze medals at Commonwealth Games at Perth. New Tasman cable link completed as part of Commonwealth Pacific cable.

1963 Breakdown of Britain's bid to enter European Economic Community. Export Development Conference held in Wellington. Visit of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh. The Queen opened New Zealand House in London. Approval given by Government for development of iron and steel industry. The World Bank loaned $5.6 million for port development. Work was begun on Manapouri tail-race tunnel as part of electric-power project. Crash of a National Airways Corporation DC3 aircraft in the Kaimai Ranges killed 23 persons, and 15 lives lost in accident to a bus returning from Waitangi Royal celebrations. Controversy over proposed French nuclear tests in Pacific.

1964 Three Cook Strait cables, each of 25 miles, laid as part of inter-Island transmission project. Start made on Tongariro hydro-electric power scheme. Oil refinery opened at Whangarei. Exports and Shipping Council established. New agreement on beef exports to United States. Agricultural Development Conference held. New Zealand team won three gold and two bronze medals at Olympic Games in Tokyo. Reports made by overseas consultants on steps to meet traffic problems of central areas of main cities. Private savings banks opened by trading banks.

1965 United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East held its twenty-first session in Wellington. Eleventh Conference of Commonwealth Parliamentary Association held in Wellington. Contract let for oil-fired thermal power station at Marsden Point, Whangarei. Artillery unit committed to combat service in Vietnam. Limited free trade agreement negotiated with Australia. Cook Islands became self-governing. Auckland International Airport came into use. Jet airliners (three DC8's) obtained by Air New Zealand. Haast Pass highway opened to link south Westland and Otago. Millionth telephone installed.

1966 Labour force reached 1,000,000. Licensed television sets reach 500,000. Collier Kaitawa sank off Cape Reinga with loss of 29 lives. Royal Tour by Her Majesty the Queen Mother. Visit by the President of the United States, Mr Lyndon B. Johnson. An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand published. New Zealand won 8 gold, 5 silver, and 13 bronze medals at Commonwealth Games in Jamaica. Revival of United Kingdom interest in joining European Economic Community.

1967 Matahina electric power station brought into operation. Explosion at Strongman mine caused 19 deaths. Low wool prices led to extensive purchases by Wool Commission. Decimal currency introduced on 10 July ($2 equal to former unit of £). Contributions by public to Freedom from Hunger Campaign since 1962 reached $3.5 million. Infantry battalion moved to Vietnam. Extension from 6 p.m. to 10 p.m. of hotel hours for sale of liquor. Taxation Review Committee Report completed. Roll-on roll-off vessels on Wellington-Lyttelton run and Auckland-Lyttelton-Dunedin run. New Zealand put case to GATT session for improved trade arrangements for agricultural products. Devaluation of the New Zealand dollar by 19.45 percent following United Kingdom devaluation by 14.3 percent of pound sterling. Sir Arthur Porritt succeeded Brigadier Sir Bernard Fergusson as Governor-General.

1968 SEATO Conference held in Wellington. Prime Minister attended five-power defence conference held at Kuala Lumpur. T.E.V. Wahine foundered in Wellington Harbour in severe storm with loss of 51 lives. Strong earthquake in Inangahua area resulted in three deaths. Coaster Maranui sank in gale off Coromandel Peninsula with loss of nine lives. Manapouri tunnel pierced. Construction commenced of natural gas pipeline from Kapuni to Auckland and Wellington. Jet planes introduced in internal air services. Guidelines for economic growth in next decade contained in report of Targets Committee of National Development Conference. New Zealand team won one gold and two bronze medals at Olympic Games in Mexico City. Human Rights Year specially observed.

1969 National Development Conference held; 632 recommendations approved to assist in attainment of growth targets in indicative planning for 10 years ahead. National Development Council and advisory councils set up. Vocational Training Council appointed. Technical Committee on Statistics made a special report to the National Development Council. Transport Advisory Council and Ports Authority appointed. Royal Commission on Social Security commenced hearings. Electric power generated from giant Manapouri project. Construction of aluminium smelter at Invercargill commenced. First output from steel mill at Glenbrook. Construction of thermal power station at New Plymouth commenced. Oil strike off shore at Taranaki. Widening of Auckland Harbour Bridge completed. Motorways extended into Auckland and Wellington. Selection of Auckland and Wellington as major container ports. Prime Minister and Deputy Prime Minister press in EEC capitals New Zealand's special case in regard to butter and lamb exports to the United Kingdom. Special celebrations for bi-centenary of Captain James Cook's discovery of New Zealand. Voting rights extended to 20-year-old persons.

1970 Council for Asian and Pacific Co-operation (ASPAC) met in Wellington. Queen Elizabeth the Second, the Duke of Edinburgh, Prince Charles, and Princess Anne made a Royal Tour in connection with Cook bi-centenary celebrations. New Zealand represented at Pacific Basin Economic Co-operation Council in Japan and participated in Expo 70, Trade Fair at Osaka, Japan. New Zealand granted associate status in Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Physical Environment Conference held. Report made by Commission on proposal to raise level of Lake Manapouri to provide additional electric power. Natural gas from Kapuni supplied to Auckland. Tender accepted for international airport at Rarotonga, Cook Islands. New Zealand team won two gold, six silver, and six bronze medals at Commonwealth Games in Edinburgh. Visit of Mr G. Rippon, Britain's representative in EEC negotiations. In Europe, Deputy Prime Minister further presented New Zealand's claim for special consideration in the marketing of butter, cheese, and lamb in an enlarged EEC.

1971 South Pacific Year observed; forum held in Wellington with Heads of State attending from Cook Islands, Western Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, and Nauru. Commonwealth Declaration adopted at conference in Singapore. Centenary of birth of Lord Ernest Rutherford. Ministry of Works completes 100 years of public works dating from Vogel era. Centenary of formation of first co-operative dairy company. Stabilisation of Remuneration Act in operation, and also price justification scheme. Negotiations by Britain with members of European Economic Community secure New Zealand's position by special arrangement for her butter and cheese exports to the United Kingdom; Britain decides to join EEC in 1973 and later signs Treaty of Accession. Crisis with meat schedule price for lambs, related to large increase in freight rates and imposition of levy on meat imports by United Kingdom. First container ships loaded at Wellington and Auckland. Seamen's Union deregistered. Major shipments of ironsand to Japan from Taranaki coast. Bluff aluminium smelter in commercial operation and first exports made. All seven generators installed at Manapouri hydro-electric station. Silver Star express introduced on North Island main trunk line. Tenders called for fourth Cook Strait rail ferry. Natural gas reticulation to Wellington completed. Consumers Price Index Revision Advisory Committee presents its report. Introduction of first steps of metric conversion for weights and measures. Fixed exchange rate adopted between New Zealand and the United States dollar; devaluation adjustment of 1.75 percent in line with Australia. Withdrawal of New Zealand combat troops from Vietnam.

1972 Right Hon. J. R. Marshall succeeded Right Hon. Sir Keith Holyoake as Prime Minister. Special measures for stabilisation of remuneration and prices. Sheep retention scheme payments. National Development Conference re-convenes to set revised targets. Meeting of Pacific Basin Economic Council held in Wellington. Educational Priorities Conference held. Royal Commission on Social Security presented its report; some recommendations applied in 1972 Budget. Report presented by Royal Commission on Containers. Containerised shipping service in operation from Auckland and Wellington to United Kingdom and Europe. First container train ran from Invercargill to Wellington. Wellington Airport runway extended to enable DC8 jet aircraft to be operated on trans-Tasman service. Strong lead on opposition to nuclear testing in atmosphere given by New Zealand at United Conference on the Environment in Stockholm. Tunnel 4 miles long completed for Tongariro electric power project. Wool price recovery. New Zealand team won 1 gold, 1 silver, and 2 bronze medals at Olympic Games in Munich. Sir Denis Blundell succeeded Sir Arthur Porritt as Governor-General. Legislation passed for Wool Marketing Corporation, Equal Pay, and Accident Compensation. Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council of Food and Agricultural Organisation met in Wellington. Meeting of 12 Antarctic Treaty consultative powers held in Wellington. Overseas reserves reach record levels. National Government defeated and Labour Government assumed office under Right Hon. N. E. Kirk. Third Cook Strait rail ferry in operation.

1973 Britain joins European Economic Community; future supply and prices for New Zealand butter and cheese in traditional market affected. Wool Marketing Corporation established. Farm income equalisation scheme extended; farmers meet Government request to freeze part of their income. Commission of inquiry into meat industry. Trade negotiations with China; Embassy opened in Peking. Extension of trade with Peru, Brazil, and Chile. New Zealand becomes member of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). First DC10 jet aircraft with 241 seats in service with Air New Zealand, and purchase of fourth DC10 approved. Reduced air fares in Pacific. Lake Manapouri to be controlled only within natural levels for electricity generation. Agreement reached for development of Maui field of natural gas offshore from Taranaki. Electricity restrictions. Regional development promoted. Timber and pulp mill opened at Whirinaki, Napier. Price control policy extended; subsidy on sheep meats for home consumption. United Kingdom agrees to compensate New Zealand dairy farmers for losses due to sterling exchange adjustment related to average value of currencies of major trading partners. New Zealand currency placed on "near float arrangement" of relationships with major trading partners. Revaluations of 3 percent and 10percent. Official overseas reserves reach $1,000 million. Broadcasting Council appointed. Colour television introduced. White Paper on New Zealand Superannuation Scheme. First step of Equal Pay Act in effect. Industrial Relations Act passed. New Zealand Shipping Corporation established; two ships purchased for overseas trade and one roll-on roll-off ship for coastal trade. Moves to economise in oil and petrol consumption and review energy resources. Construction of 100-megawatt Rangipo hydro-power station and 550-megawatt Huntly coal-fired power station approved. Peak of 845 road deaths.

Chapter 44. SPECIAL ARTICLES IN PREVIOUS ISSUES

SubjectYearPage
Building stones1,892194
Varieties of soil1,892193
Acclimatisation1,894430
Co-operative system of constructing public works1,894234
Frozen meat trade, the1,894311
Labour in New Zealand.1,894362
Railways in New Zealand: Their history and progress1,894377
Sheep farming1,894302
Southern Alps, the1,894474
State farms1,894243
West Coast Sounds, the1,894482
Shipping companies1,895389
Wellington-Manawatu railway, the1,895381
Laws of England and New Zealand, difference between1,896281
Waihi Gold Mining Co.1,897432
Mount Cook: Its glaciers, and the Hermitage1,898552
Scenic wonderland, a1,898565
Christchurch to West Coast, journey from1,899548
Forest trees and the timber industry1,899470
Gold dredging industry, the1,899509
Mount Cook district, the1,899554
Journeys in Central North Island1,899520
Tuhoeland1,899546
Chatham Islands, the1,900531
Coal deposits of New Zealand, the1,900479
Hemp industry, the1,900477
Kauri gum1,900489
Maori mythology1,900536
Mount Sefton, ascent of, and a nigh on Mount Cook1,900519
New Zealand contingents for South Africa1,900449
Pumice-stone deposits of New Zealand1,900486
Wanganui River, up the, to Tokaanu1,900509
Maori religion1,901530
Marlborough Sounds, and Otago lakes, the1,901517
Cook Islands, the laws of1,902573
Maori, Neolithic, the1,902578
Maori sociology1,903641
Maori, colour sense of the1,905637
Maori marriage customs1,906638
Maori, ancient: His amusements, games, etc.1,907707
New Zealand international exhibition1,907701
Maori, ancient: His clothing, etc.1,908734
Agriculture in New Zealand1,912809
HMS New Zealand and Government training ship Amokura1,913932
Mineral waters of New Zealand1,913896
External trade of New Zealand, the1,915858
Maori, topographical nomenclature of the1,919936
Wages and working hours in New Zealand1,919860
Education system of New Zealand, the1,925816
Effect of nativity order on infant mortality1,925835
Local government in New Zealand1,925845
Terman intelligence tests in New Zealand schools1,925823
Cancer in New Zealand: A statistical study1,926889
Totalisator, the1,926838
Britomart, mission of, at Akaroa, in August 18401,9271,012
Mortality rates, New Zealand1,927995
Livestock production: A review based on standard values and units1,929990
Dairy farm survey1,938429
Ross Dependency1,938900
Plants and fauna1,94028
Libraries1,940928
Tourist attractions: mineral waters and spas1,940932
Alexander Turnbull Library1,946914
National Film Unit1,946724
Retail prices in New Zealand, with reference to the Consumers' Price Index1947–49998
Economic policy and national income1,9501,033
Department of Scientific and Industrial Research1951–521,066
Standardisation1951–521,076
Sources of statistical information1,9531,016
Royal Tour of New Zealand, 23 December 1953 to 31 January 19541,9541,121
New Zealand: Its tourist industry, tourist and sporting attractions1,9551,143
Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems: Summary of report1,9561,201
Consumers' Price Index—1955 Revision1,9571,214
New Zealand activities in the Antarctic1,9581,247
New Zealand's international activities1,9591,221
Grassland research in New Zealand1,9601,243
University education for science and technology1,9611,186
New Zealand and the European Economic Community1,9621,150
Visit of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and His Royal Highness the Duke of Edinburgh, 6 to 18 February 19631,9631,167
The development of New Zealand's railway system 1863–19631,9631,175
The arts in New Zealand, including the visual arts, literature, music and opera, and drama and ballet1,9641,145
The Maori people as shown by the Population Census 19611,9651,160
Industrial relations—The next ten years and beyond1,9661,131
Population growth and economic development in New Zealand1,9661,136
Scientific research in New Zealand1,9671,118
Recent constitutional changes in the South-west Pacific1,9681,104
National Development Conference 19691,9691,103
Development of forestry and forest industries1,9691,107
Captain James Cook and his three voyages of discovery in the Pacific 1768–791,9691,116
Metrication1,9701,110
Human pressures on the natural environment1,9701,115
Ministry of Works, 1871–19711,9711,110
Evolution of social security in New Zealand1,9721,015
Evolution of New Zealand dairy industry 1871–19711,9721,024
Development of the meat industry 1922–721,9731,047
New Zealand membership of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development1,9731,064
Tenth British Commonwealth Games 19741,9731,068

Chapter 45. SUPPORT OF CULTURAL ACTIVITIES

PATRONAGE has always been part of the history of the arts, If the arts are to flourish in the face of strong competition from mass media entertainment there must be both private patronage and assistance from the State and from other sources of public funds. In New Zealand private patronage has become an important source of finance and encouragement for the arts, and the State and public bodies are playing an important part by providing direct financial help as well as other forms of assistance. The Departments of Internal Affairs and Education, the Council of Adult Education, and the Broadcasting Corporation have for many years given valuable assistance to the arts in the course of their everyday functions, and many local statutory bodies make worth-while donations of finance and facilities. There is a move for support for development of the arts by business and commercial enterprises in purchasing works of art and offering various forms of awards and sponsorship.

The Government displayed a notable interest in historical literature at the time of the centennial celebrations in 1940. A series of centennial surveys, covering various aspects of the country's history, and other works, such as the Dictionary of New Zealand Biography and Making New Zealand, were commissioned and published by the Department of Internal Affairs, making a landmark in New Zealand historical publishing.

In 1946 State aid for literature was put on a permanent basis by the establishment of the New Zealand Literary Fund, financed from the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs.

Assistance to the arts other than literature began in 1947 when a Cultural Fund administered by the Department of Internal Affairs was instituted. The fund was used mainly to help talented young people to further their studies abroad by awarding bursaries to them to pay for travel and study.

Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council—To commemorate the visit of Her Majesty the Queen to New Zealand in 1963, the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council was formed in 1964. The arts council was charged to encourage, foster, and promote the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, to make accessible to the public of New Zealand all forms of artistic and cultural work, to improve the standard of execution of the arts, and to foster and maintain public interest in the arts and culture of New Zealand.

In pursuit of its principal objective of raising the standard of both the practice and appreciation of the arts in New Zealand, the council assists individuals working in the arts, and incorporated and non-profit making organisations, which have the capacity to work at a consistent level of artistic achievement so as to maintain sound standards of management and promotion, and which can offer career opportunities to trained and gifted people. Activities which are professional in character and standard thus receive priority of consideration for financial support.

The council recognises that a strong amateur movement represents the foundation on which professional activity is built. Through national bodies representing amateur theatre, operatic and musical comedy societies, and art societies the council channels funds to assist a variety of projects undertaken either by the national body itself or by the affiliated groups.

In April 1970, the council sponsored Arts Conference 1970, at which individuals and representatives of organisations from throughout New Zealand reviewed existing cultural policies and made a bold attempt to reach agreement on a policy for the arts which would be valid for the next decade. Two main themes emerged: the needs of the individual artists and the needs of the regions.

The council concerns itself with the needs of each art form nationally and the artistic needs of each community, and the council and its staff continues to seek advice regularly from experts. Hitherto this advice has, in the main, been sought from "advisory panels" that were obliged by their size to meet infrequently. In the future, advice is to be sought more frequently from ad hoc consultants available in respect of specific matters, although all advisory channels will be kept open.

In order to assist the emergence of film making in New Zealand the Council has set up a Creative Film Fund to provide assistance for specific film projects being undertaken by both established and experimental filmmakers and groups.

The council recognises that local government has an important role to play in the arts. In pursuing a policy of regional development of the arts the council will, in assessing levels of subsidy, take into account the financial support organisations can attract from the public and from local government. The council will also encourage the development of community arts councils with local government involvement.

The Government grant for 1973–74 was $610,000. Added to this was a maximum subsidy of $50,000 on funds raised by beneficiary organisations. The Lottery Profits Board of Control grant was $260,000 for the year ended 31 March 1974.

Sector Council for Cultural Affairs—Towards the end of 1970 the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council of New Zealand agreed to act as a Sector Council within the N.D.C. structure. The Social and Cultural Committee of the 1969 National Development Conference recommended that a cultural co-ordinating committee be set up to survey needs and support in the arts, to keep in touch with developments and to encourage desirable trends and advise Government. Following Arts Conference 1970, the Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council was asked to assume responsibility for the functions outlined in the Social and Cultural Committee's report. The Sector Council has a separate secretariat provided by the Department of Internal Affairs and has an augmented membership.

Some of the specific functions outlined by the Social and Cultural Committee were the need for an institution to provide advanced training for the whole range of the arts, the assessment of the cultural needs of the individual and of the nation, economic implications, and the problems of patronage and support of the arts in a small democracy.

The brief of the Sector Council is much wider than would normally be associated with "the arts", for culture can be defined as an expression of the way of life of a people—the activities and the products of these activities, which are recognisable as expressing a distinctive way of life. The interest of the Sector Council, therefore, ranges over a wide area. It has already considered such things as the film industry, Maori culture, the transition of young people from school to the adult community, the financial needs of museums and art galleries, and the various matters relating to literature and the arts.

ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS

Individual art galleries and museums were described in the 1971 and earlier issues of the Yearbook. These subjects are very well covered in An Encyclopaedia of New Zealand under the headings Art in New Zealand, and Museums, while Music is another heading for cultural activity and is covered separately.

AWARDS EST LITERATURE AND ARTS

The following awards are available:

  1. New Zealand Literary Fund—This fund is financed by a yearly appropriation on the vote of the Department of Internal Affairs. Assistance from the fund is granted by the Minister of Internal Affairs, who is advised by the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. The approved categories of, and order of priority for, assistance for written works of literary quality are: (1) grants towards the publication costs of creative literature in book form; (2) grants to New Zealand authors undertaking creative work of a determinate nature and likely to assume book form; (3) grants towards the publication costs of New Zealand literary magazines; (4) grants towards the publication costs of reprinting works by New Zealand authors; (5) grants towards the publication costs of historical, critical, and other scholarly studies in book form; (6) grants to New Zealand authors undertaking determinate projects other than those which may be included in (2); and (7) such other grants as from time to time appear appropriate.

  2. Scholarship in Letters—The scholarship is awarded annually to an established New Zealand writer by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. $3,000 is available from lottery profits under section 22 of the Gaming Amendment Act 1962, and $1,000 from the Literary Fund, hence it is of the value of $4,000. The scholarship is intended to enable the recipient to give all or most of his time to the project or projects nominated by him, either in New Zealand or abroad, during the year of tenure. Applications are made to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

  3. Writing Bursary—The bursary is awarded annually to a New Zealand writer with potential by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee. It is of the value of $4,000. The bursary is intended to enable the recipient to give all or most of his time to the project or projects nominated by him, either in New Zealand or abroad, during the year of tenure. Applications are made to the Secretary, New Zealand Literary Fund Advisory Committee, Department of Internal Affairs, Private Bag, Wellington.

  4. Robert Burns Fellowship in Literature—This fellowship in literature is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago, a condition being that the fellow shall be resident for the academic year. The fellowship is open to New Zealand writers, preferably under 40 years. Subject to the availability of funds, the Fellow receives the equivalent; of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by .10 August each year.

  5. Award for Achievement—The Award for Achievement, of $500, recognises the contribution of one person to New Zealand literature. The award is granted each year by the Minister of Internal Affairs, on the recommendation of the Literary Fund Advisory Committee, from funds available from lottery profits under section 22 of the Gaming Amendment Act 1962 and the Literary Fund. (Applications are not called for.)

  6. Esther Glen Award—This award of the New Zealand Library Association is available annually for award to the author of the most distinguished children's book written by a New Zealander and published during the year. The award consists of a medal and the sum of '$50. (Applications are not called for.)

  7. Hubert Church Prose Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, is available annually for the best prose writing by a New Zealand author during the year in question. The amount is $200. (Applications are not called for.)

  8. Jessie Mackay Poetry Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund is available annually for the best poetry written by a New Zealand author during the year in question. The amount is $100. (Applications are not called for.)

  9. Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award—The Bank of New Zealand, in association with the New Zealand Women Writers' Society (Inc.), sponsors a biennial prestige memorial award for the short story. The award is open to New Zealand citizens or persons who have been resident in New Zealand for the past 5 years. The value of the award is $200, and for 1969 and 1971 the award was for published or unpublished work.

  10. Bank of New Zealand Young Writers' Awards—Concurrently with the Katherine Mansfield Memorial Award, the Bank of New Zealand sponsors two awards for young writers. These are—the senior award, valued at $100, for entrants aged 24 years and under; and the junior award for secondary school students, valued at $50. Both awards are for the short story.

  11. Winn-Manson Menton Fellowship—The fellowship is to allow a New Zealand writer to write and study at Menton in the South of France. Applicants must be ordinarily resident in New Zealand and either New Zealanders by birth or by naturalisation, or resident in New Zealand continuously for a period of 10 years prior to the year the fellowship is awarded. Applicants must be serious writers who would use the fellowship to further their literary studies and endeavours. For 1973 the fellowship consisted of an award of $1,750, and return passage. Applications should be made to the Hon. Secretary of the Winn-Manson Menton Fellowship, P.O. Box 10256, Wellington.

  12. Young Writers' Award—This award of PEN (New Zealand Centre) with the assistance of the New Zealand Literary Fund, the New Zealand Book Council, and the McKenzie Foundation, is available annually for writing by people under 20 years of age. There are categories for prose and poetry. The prize money available is $400, covering both categories. Applications should be made to the Secretary, P.O. Box 2283, Wellington.

  13. James Wattie Book of the Year Award—This award is made each year by Sir James Wattie C.B.E., in association with Wattie Industries Limited, and in 1973 Sir James Wattie donated the sum of $2,000 for a first prize of $1,000, a second prize of $650 and a third prize of $350 to implement this award. Books written by New Zealand-born authors, and authors of any nationality permanently resident in New Zealand, and published during the months between 1 July of the pre-award year and 30 June of the award year by members or associate members of the New Zealand Book Publishers Association are eligible for entry. For full conditions of entry for the James Wattie Book of the Year Award, which is aimed mainly at encouraging the growth of publishing in New Zealand, please write to the Secretary, NZBPA, care of P.O. Box 36064, Auckland 9.

  14. (n) One-act Playwriting Competition—This annual competition is open to New Zealand citizens or persons who have been resident in New Zealand for a minimum of 12 months preceding the closing date of entries. The winning play is workshopped and produced with Theatre Federation assistance and scripts recommended by the adjudicator are accepted for inclusion in the Theatre Federation Library. Applications should be made to the Secretary, New Zealand Theatre Federation, P.O. Box 6158, Wellington.

  15. Biennial Playwriting Competition—This competition for full length plays is open to New Zealand citizens or persons who have been resident in New Zealand for a minimum of 12 months preceding the closing date of entries. For 1974 the winning play will be workshopped and produced with Theatre Federation assistance and the playwright will receive an award of $100. Applications should be made to the Secretary, New Zealand Theatre Federation, P.O. Box 6158, Wellington.

  16. J. M. Sherrard Awards—These awards of the Historical Association (Canterbury) are available biennially for outstanding work in the field of New Zealand regional history. The amount is about $150. The current period is 1974–75. (Applications are not called for.)

  17. Professor J. C. Reid Award for Arts Criticism—In order to encourage high standards in news, critical and feature writing about the arts, the Queen Elizabeth the Second Arts Council of New Zealand sponsors on annual award for excellence in arts criticism in conjunction with the New Zealand Journalists' Association. The competition is open to financial members or organisations affiliated to the New Zealand Journalists' Association. Entries for the competition must have been written and published in New Zealand, though not necessarily in daily newspapers, and a certificate from the editor of the circumstances in which the article or the review was commissioned and produced should accompany each entry. The award is judged by three judges, one of whom is appointed by the Arts Council, one by N.Z. Journalists' Association, and one jointly by the two bodies. The award carries a prize of $150. The competition is administered by the New Zealand Journalists' Association, Box 1238, Wellington, from which further particulars are obtainable.

  18. Frances Hodgkins Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand painters and sculptors preferably under 40 years. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August each year.

  19. Mozart Fellowship—The fellowship is open to New Zealand musicians who are serious composers. It is tenable for 1 year, with provision for extension, at the University of Otago. Applicants should be at least 27 years old. Subject to the availability of funds, the fellow receives the equivalent of a lecturer's salary. Applications are made to the Registrar, University of Otago, Dunedin, by 10 August each year.

HISTORIC ARTICLES ACT 1962

This Act, which came into force on 1 April 1963, has for its main purpose the control of the export from New Zealand of Maori artifacts made in or brought to New Zealand before 1903, important books and papers more than 90 years old of which there is no copy in the main types of library, and biological, botanical, and mineralogical type specimens. Permission of the Minister of Internal Affairs for the export of historic articles must be secured, and the Minister may withhold permission if he is satisfied that removal would be detrimental to historical or scientific study or research in New Zealand, or contrary to the public interest.

Government has approved grants being made on a four-year basis to the National Museum to enable the purchase of Maori artifacts.

NATIONAL ARCHIVES

Though a Controller of Dominion Archives was appointed in 1926, in the person of the Librarian of the General Assembly Library, it was not until the Archives Act 1957 was passed that the protection of New Zealand's public records was put on a firm statutory basis.

The Archives Act established a National Archives to provide for the custody and preservation of the public archives of New Zealand. The Chief Archivist, appointed under the Act, has certain statutory powers. No public archives, as defined in the Act, can be destroyed without his approval and he has powers of inspection and direction in respect of the keeping of public records. Government records of permanent value are deposited with National Archives, and considerable original research is done in the National Archives by scholars, students, officials, and the public. As well as the public archives (i.e., public records out of current use) there are small holdings of semi-official and private papers of Governor Sir Thomas Gore Brown and some political figures, including Sir Frederick Weld, W. P. Reeves, Sir James Allen, C. F. Skinner, and T. P. Shand. The papers of R. J. Seddon and Sir Walter Nash provide larger collections. The Nash collection is one of great significance covering his life and times. At present Professor Keith Sinclair, as Sir Walter's official biographer, is working with the papers. There are also the papers of the New Zealand Company. Some of the more noteworthy public documents are to be found amongst the archives of the Governor, Colonial Secretary, Maori Affairs Department, Samoan administrations, and the armed forces both in peace and war.

National Archives has a records centre in Lower Hutt and one in Auckland. These provide storage for semi-current Government records as well as public archives. The total staff, including that of records centres, is 15. An officer of the National Archives collaborates with departmental records officers and occasionally with the State Services Commission on assignments on the management of current records. Some public archives of regional interest are deposited with certain non-government repositories approved by the Minister of Internal Affairs, such as the Hocken Library in Dunedin, the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch, the Hawke's Bay Art Society Gallery and Museum in Napier, the Auckland Institute and Museum, the New Plymouth Public Library, and the Marlborough Historical Society Museum in Blenheim.

National Archives publishes an annual Summary of Work, including a list of new accessions to its holdings.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST

Under the Historic Places Act 1954, the New Zealand Historic Places Trust was created with the complementary functions of fostering public interest in places and objects of national or local historic interest, and assisting with, or itself undertaking, the preservation and maintenance of such places and objects. The Trust is currently composed of 15 members, 11 of whom are either ex officio or appointed on the nomination of some outside agency, 3 of whom are elected by associate or public members, and 1 who is co-opted for special knowledge. The Trust operates locally through Regional Committees.

Much of the early emphasis of Trust work was concerned with the erection of bronze plaques and notice boards to commemorate significant sites or buildings. The Trust is now giving more attention to preservation which, in the case of buildings, often means first-aid repairs and, less frequently, restoration. Repairs are usually financed through a grant-in-aid to the owner or occupant. The Trust administers six properties which are open to the public; these are the Waimate Mission House, Pompallier House in Russell, Clendon House in Rawene, Ewelme Cottage and Alberton in Auckland, and old St Paul's in Wellington. The Trust also owns several other properties, and is involved in the administration of properties owned by other organisations.

Historic sites are sometimes, but not yet on a scale to satisfy the Trust, protected by some form of reservation. The Trust is also aware of the accelerated loss of our prehistoric heritage. Roading, hydro-electric development, closer settlements, and other undertakings, all on an increasing scale, have meant the loss or destruction of many archaeological remains. The Trust collaborated with the Ministry of Works to survey the areas affected by the Tongariro power development scheme and the Kapuni gas pipeline, and to rescue, wherever possible, the field monuments threatened by those two projects. The Trust employs its own archaeologist.

The Trust publishes booklets and leaflets, usually about buildings and sites in which it has been actively interested. It also has a growing photographic collection.

Chapter 46. Select Bibliography
New Zealand Books

Compiled in the Alexander Turnbull Library, National Library, Wellington

THE following list of books has been compiled to give New Zealand and overseas readers a selective approach to the country's literature and sources of information. Entries are arranged alphabetically under appropriate subject headings which are in approximate order of the Dewey Classification. Emphasis has been placed on works which are known to be in print. Selection has covered books published in New Zealand as well as books published overseas about New Zealand or written by resident New Zealanders. Works which are clearly university or school texts have been omitted unless they represent the most concise and authoritative treatment of a subject. Works of less than 75 pages have been indicated by an asterisk.

The standard current bibliography of New Zealand books and pamphlets as from 1967 is the New Zealand National Bibliography issued by the Alexander Turnbull Library for the National Library of New Zealand. Prices of New Zealand imprints are as shown in the Associated Booksellers' New Zealand books in print, in publishers' catalogues and from other sources, but prices of overseas publications are given at the overseas rate.

GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY, LIBRARIES, AND ENCYCLOPAEDIAS

ALEXANDER TURNBULL LIBRARY. Union Catalogue of New Zealand and Pacific Manuscripts in New Zealand Libraries. Wn, 1968–1969. 2 v.

BAGNALL, A. G., ed. New Zealand National Bibliography to the Year 1960. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969-. v. 2, 1890–1960, A-H, published 1969; v. 3, I-O, published 1972.

AN ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF NEW ZEALAND, edited by A. H. McLintock. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. 3 v. $15.

FAIR, A. P. R. Guide to Book Values, New Zealand - Australia - Pacific - Antarctic; Book Auction Records 1962–1967. Wn, the author, 1967. $3.

GENERAL ASSEMBLY LIBRARY. Copyright Periodicals Currently Received 1971. Wn, 1972. $2.

HOCKEN, T. M. A. A Bibliography of the Literature Relating to New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1909. o.p. Reprinted. Wn, Newrick Associates, 1973. $20.

MC ELDOWNEY, W. J. The New Zealand Library Association 1910–60 and its Part in New Zealand Library Development. Wn, New Zealand Library Association, 1962. $1.80.

NEW ZEALAND BOOKS IN PRINT 1970, ed. by B. B. Collie. Wn, New Zealand Book Publishers Association, 1970. $5.

NEW ZEALAND LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. Bibliography of New Zealand Bibliographies. Wn, 1967.

OXFORD NEW ZEALAND ENCYCLOPAEDIA. London, O. U. P., 1965. $6.65.

RODGER, D. M. Theses on the History of New Zealand. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1968–72. 4 v.

TAYLOR, C. R. H. A bibliography of publications on the New Zealand Maori. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1972. $3.50.

TAYLOR, C. R. H. A Pacific Bibliography. 2nd ed. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. $22.50.

UNION CATALOGUE OF NEW ZEALAND NEWSPAPERS PRESERVED IN PUBLIC LIBRARIES, NEWSPAPER OFFICES, AND LOCAL AUTHORITY OFFICES, compiled by J. S. Gully. 2nd. ed. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1961. $1.30.

UNION LIST OF SERIALS IN NEW ZEALAND LIBRARIES. 3rd ed. Wn, National Library of New Zealand, 1969–1970. 6 v. $25.

UNION LIST OF THESES OFTHE UNIVERSITY OF NEW ZEALAND, 1910. 1954, compiled by D. L. Jenkins. Wn, New Zealand Library Association, 1956. o.p.

Supplement, 1955–1962. $1.25. Supplement, 1963–67. $4. Supplement, 1968–71. $4. See also Rodger above.

*WILSON, J. O. A Finding List of British Parliamentary Papers Relating to New Zealand. 1817–1900. Wn, General Assembly Library, 1960. $1.

*WOOD, G. A. A guide for students of New Zealand history. Dn. McIndoe, 1973.

SOCIAL SCIENCES AND PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

ADMINISTRATION IN NEW ZEALAND'S MULTI-RACIAL SOCIETY, edited by R. H. Brookes and I. H. Kawharu. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1967. $2.

ASIA ANDTHE PACIFIC INTHE 1970S; the Roles of the United States, Australia, and New Zealand. Bruce Brown, editor. Wn, Reed, 1971. $5.

BETTS, G. M. Betts on Wellington; a City and its Politics. Wn, Reed for the Wellington City Council and Victoria University of Wellington, 1970. $6.95.

BROWN, B. M. The Rise of New Zealand Labour; a History of the New Zealand Labour Party from 1916–1940. Wn, Price Milburn, 1962. $3.50.

BUSH, G. W. A. Decently and in Order; the Government of the City of Auckland 1840–1971. Ak, Collins for the Auckland City Council, 1971. $5.

CLEVELAND, L. The Anatomy of Influence; Pressure Groups and Politics in New Zealand. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1972. $3.85.

CLEVELAND, L. and A. D. ROBINSON, comps. Readings in New Zealand Government, Wn, Reed Education, 1972. $8.50.

COLEMAN, M. D. The New Zealand Labour Party, 1916–1966; a bibliography. Wn, Library School 1972.

CONTEMPORARY NEW ZEALAND: essays on the human resource, urban growth, and problems of society, edited by K. W. Thomson and A. D. Trlin. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1973. $10.40.

DEFENCE PERSPECTIVES: papers read at the 1972 Otago Foreign Policy School. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1972. $2.

*DOLLIMORE, H. N. The Parliament of New Zealand and Parliament House. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. 20c.

ESSAYS ON RACE RELATIONS ANDTHE LAW IN NEW ZEALAND; A series of Lectures Delivered at the Victoria University of Wellington. Ed. by W. A. McKean. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1971. $5.50.

FIGHT FOR LIFE; New Zealand, Britain, and the European Economic Community. Papers and commentaries read at the 1970 Conference of the Institute and edited by Keith Jackson. Wn, Price Milburn for the New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1971. $1.50.

GRIMSHAW, P. Women's Suffrage in New Zealand. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $5.25.

HEALTH ADMINISTRATION IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. J. Latimer. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1969. $2.

JOHNSTON, R. J. Urbanisation in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1973. $10.50.

JOLLIFFE, W. Jolliffe's Local Government in Boroughs and Counties. 8th ed., edited by J. P. McVeagh. Wn, Ferguson and Osborn, 1964-. 2 v.

KENNAWAY, R. N. New Zealand foreign policy 1951–1971. Wn, Hicks Smith, 1972. $4.50.

MACLEAN, F. S. Challenge for Health; a History of Public Health in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.50.

MILNE, R. S. Political Parties in New Zealand. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966. $6.90; $5.

MITCHELL, A. V. Government by Party; Parliament and Politics in New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. $3.

NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENT OF JUSTICE. Crime in New Zealand; A Survey. Wn, Govt. Print., 1968. $4.50.

NEW ZEALAND FOREIGN POLICY: statements and documents, 1943–1957. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $9.

NEW ZEALAND PARLIAMENTARY RECORD, 1840–1949, edited by G. H. Scholefield. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. $3.50.

Supplement 1950–1969 edited by J. 0. Wilson. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969.

NEW ZEALAND. ROYAL COMMISSIONON SOCIAL SECURITY IN NEW ZEALAND. Social Security in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $3.95.

ORAM, C. A. Social Policy and Administration in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand University Press, 1969. $5.

PACIFIC HORIZONS: a regional role for New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Institute of International Affairs, 1972. $2.

PERRY, C. S. The Indecent Publications Tribunal; a Social Experiment. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1965. $2.75.

POLICIES FOR REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN NEW ZEALAND, ed. by G. A. Town. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration, 1972. (Studies in Public Administration, No. 17.) $2.50.

ROBINSON, H. A History of the Post Office in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964. $3.50.

ROBSON, J. L. ed. New Zealand; the Development of its Laws and Constitution. 2nd rev. ed. London, Stevens, 1967. $10.50.

ROTH, H. O. Trade unions in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1973.

SAUNDERS, J. L. The New Zealand School Dental Service. Wn, Govt. Print., 1964.

SCOTT, K. J. The New Zealand Constitution. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1962. $3.65; £2.50.

SOCIAL PROCESS IN NEW ZEALAND; Readings in Sociology, edited by John Forster. Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $7.50.

SUTCH, W. B. The responsible society in New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971. $2.40.

THOMPSON, K. W., and A. D. TRLIN, ed. Immigrants in New Zealand. Palmerston North, Massey University, 1970. $5.

VAUGHAN, G. M., ed. Racial issues in New Zealand. Ak, Akarana Press, 1971. $3.60.

WEBB, S. D., AND J. COLLETTE., eds. New Zealand society; contemporary perspectives. Sydney, J. Wiley, 1973. A$9.

ECONOMICS AND BANKING

BERL PUBLICATIONS LTD. Equity Investment, 1971–72; a Ten Year Review of Public Companies Listed on New Zealand Stock Exchanges, Including Share Prices, Earning Rates, Dividend Yields and Asset Backings. Wn, 1971. $4.

BRIGHT, T. N. Banking Law and Practice in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1969. $12.

CAREY, R. H., and F. W. HOLMES. A Preliminary Bibliography of New Zealand Economics and Economic History. Wn, Victoria University of Wellington, 1967. $2.

CONDLIFFE, J. B. The Economic Outlook for New Zealand. Wn, Whitcombe and Tombs for the New Zealand Institute of Economic Research, 1969. $3.

COWAN, T. K. Financial Accounting in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1966. $8.

FIGGE, A. H. Introduction to Economic Policies in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $5.

THE FUTURE OF MANUFACTURING IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by C. A. Blyth. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1964. $2.50.

HANLEY, G., ed. Personnel Management in New Zealand. 3rd rev. enl. ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1967. $5.

HAWKE, G. R. Between governments and banks; a history of the Reserve Bank of New Zealand Wn, Govt. Print., 1973.

HOLMES, F. W. Money, finance, and the economy. Ak, Heinemann, 1972.

JOHNSTON, T. R. The Law and Practice of Company Accounting in New Zealand. 4th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $14.

LLOYD PRICHARD, M. F. An Economic History of New Zealand to 1939. Ak, Collins, 1970. $8.

LLOYD PRICHARD, M. F. Economic Practice in New Zealand 1954/55–1967/68. Ak, Collins, 1970. $5.60.

MARRIS, E. C. New Zealand Investment Guide. Rev. ed. Wn, N.Z. Financial Times Co. 1970. $3.

NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE. Investment in New Zealand; a Ready Reference for the Overseas Investor. Rev. ed. Wn, 1972. gratis.

NEW ZEALAND FARM PRODUCTIONAND MARKETING, edited by M. J. Moriarty. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1963. $1.80.

NEW ZEALAND MONETARY AND ECONOMIC COUNCIL. New Zealand and an Enlarged EEC. Wn, Govt. Print., 1970.

NEW ZEALAND'S EXTERNAL RELATIONS, edited by T. C. Larkin. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1962. $1.80.

PLANNING AND FORECASTING IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by J. P. M. Cornwall. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1965. $2.

RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND. Overseas Trade and Finance, with Particular Reference to New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, 1966. $1.

SUTCH, W. B. Takeover New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1972. $3.50.

LAW

ADAMS, F. B. Criminal Law and Practice in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1971. $28.

BRIGHT, T. N. Banking Law and Practice in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1969. $12.

BUTTERWORTH'S CASES ANNOTATIONSOF THE NEW ZEALAND STATUTES REPRINT. 1908–57, by H.J. Wily. Wn, Butterworth, 1958–1965. 3 v. $40.

CAMPBELL, I. B., and D. P. NEAZOR. Workers' Compensation Law in New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1964. $8.50.

CHESHIRE, G. C., and C. H. S. FIFOOT. Law of Contract. 3rd New Zealand ed., by J. F. Northey. Wn, Butterworth, 1970.

CUNNINGHAM, H. A. Taxation Laws of New Zealand. 7th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1970. 3 v.

ESSAYS ON CRIMINAL LAW IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by R. S. Clark. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1971. $5.

ESTATE PLANNING. Rev. ed. Wn, New Zealand Society of Accountants, 1971. $6.

GARROW, J. M. E. Garrow's Law of Trusts and Trustees. 4th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $17.50.

GARROW, J. M. E., and H. R. Gray. Garrow and Grays' Law of Personal Property in New Zealand. 5th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $9.50.

GARROW, J. M. E., and J. D. WILLIS. Garrow and Willis's Criminal Law. 5th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $14.

HINDE, G. W. Land Law Study Guide. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1972. $5.50.

INGLIS, B. D. Family Law. 2nd ed. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1968–1970. 2 v. $12 ea.

KELLY, E. M. Summary of the Law Relating to Land Surveying in New Zealand. 4th ed., enl. and rev. by B. H. Davis. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Surveyors, 1971. $8.

A LEGAL BIBLIOGRAPHY OFTHE BRITISH COMMONWEALTH OF NATIONS, v. 6: Australia, New Zealand, and Their Dependencies. 2nd ed. London, Sweet and Maxwell, 1958. £2.50.

MATHIESON, D. L. Industrial Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1970-. v. 1 1970. $13.

MULHOLLAND, B. D. Introduction to the New Zealand legal system. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. $7.50.

NEW ZEALAND LAWS, STATUTES, ETC. Reprint of the Statutes of New Zealand, 1908–57. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958–1961. 16 v. $7.50 ea.

NEW ZEALAND PUBLIC AND ADMINISTRATIVE LAW REFORM COMMITTEES. Reports … to the Minister of Justice. Wn, Govt. Print., 1968–1971. 5 v.

NORTHEY, J. F. Introduction to Company Law in New Zealand. 7th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1971. $8.50.

NORTHEY, J. F., and W. C. S. LEYS. Commercial Law in New Zealand. 4th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1969. $9.

O'KEEFE, J. A. B., and W. L. FARRANDS. Introduction to New Zealand law. 2d. ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1973.

PATERSON, D. E. An Introduction to Administrative Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1965. $8.

ROBINSON, K. The Law of Town and Country Planning. 2nd rev. and enl. ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $8.

SIM, Sir W. A. Sim's Divorce Law and Practice in New Zealand. 8th ed., by W. J. Sim. Wn, Butterworth, 1971. $15.

SMITH, N. W. Maori Land Law. Wn, Reed, 1960. $4.20.

STEPHENS, M. O. Traffic and Transport Law in New Zealand. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1964. $8.50.

STOUT, R. and W. A. SIM. The Practice of the Supreme Court and Court of Appeal of New Zealand. 11th ed., by W. J. Sim. Wn, Butterworth, 1972. 2v. $30.

SZAKATS, A. Trade Unions and the Law. Wn, Sweet and Maxwell, 1958. $5.

WARD, D. A. S., and H. R. C. WILD. Mercantile Law in New Zealand. 5th ed. (rev.) Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1968. $4.50.

WILY, H. J. Wily's Magistrates' Courts Practice. 6th ed. Wn, Butterworth, 1968. $15.

EDUCATION

BATES, R. J., ed. Prospects in New Zealand Education. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1970. $2.40.

COMPULSORY EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND; a Study Initiated by the National Commission for UNESCO. Rev. ed., prepared by J. L. Ewing. Paris, UNESCO, 1969. $1.90.

EWING, J. L. Development of the New Zealand Primary School Curriculum 1877–1970. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1970. $5.25.

EWING, J. L., and J. SHALLCRASS, comps. An Introduction to Maori Education; Selected Readings. Wn, New Zealand University Press; Price Milburn, 1970.

HALL, D. O. W. New Zealand Adult Education. London, Joseph, 1970. £5.

HAVILL, S. J., and D. R. MITCHELL, eds. Issues in New Zealand Special Education. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton in Association with University of London Press, 1972. $4.80.

MC DONALD, G. Maori mothers and pre-school education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1973. $4.

MITCHELL, F. W., ed. Looking Ahead in New Zealand Education. Wn, Reed for New Zealand College of Education, 1971. $2.95.

New Zealand COMMISSION ON EDUCATION IN NEW ZEALAND. Report. Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. $2.74.

NEW ZEALAND. COMMITTEE OF INQUIRY INTO PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION. Report. Wn, Department of Education, 1971. 95c.

NEW ZEALAND POST-PRIMARY TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION. CURRICULUM REVIEW GROUP. Education in Change; Report … Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $2.

ROTH, H. O. A Bibliography of New Zealand Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research, 1964. $2.25.

SEMINAR ON ASPECTS OF TERTIARY EDUCATION, WELLINGTON, 1968. Trends and Issues in Higher Education. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research and the Association of University Teachers of New Zealand, 1970. $2.40.

WATSON, J. E. Intermediate Schooling in New Zealand. Wn, New Zealand Council for Educational Research; 1964. $3.75.

THE MAORI PEOPLE, PAST AND PRESENT

BARROW, T. T. Decorative Art of the New Zealand Maori. Wn. Reed, 1964. $3.50.

BARROW, T. T. Maori Wood Sculpture of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1969. $9.50.

BEST, E. The Maori as He Was. Wn, Govt. Print., 1952. $2.

BIGGS, B. G. Let's Learn Maori; a Guide to the Study of the Maori Language. Wn, Reed, 1973. $3.50.

BIGGS, B. G. Maori Marriage; an Essay in Reconstruction. Wn, Reed for the Polynesian Society, 1970. $2.95.

BIGGS, B. G., P. W. HOHEPA, and S. M. MEADS, eds. Selected Readings in Maori. Rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1967. $1.50.

BIGWOOD, K. V., and H. DANSEY. New Zealand Maori in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1967. $3.50.

BUCK, Sir P. The Coming of the Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1950. $3.75.

BUCK, Sir P. Vikings of the Sunrise. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1954. $3.85.

FIRTH, R. W. Economics of the New Zealand Maori. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $7.

GOLSON, J., ed. Polynesian Navigation; A Symposium on Andrew Sharp's Theory of Accidental Voyages. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed for the Polynesian Society, 1972. $3.95.

GREY, S G. Polynesian Mythology and Ancient Traditional History of the Maori. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1956. $1.75.

HARRE, J. N. Maori and Pakeha; a Study of Mixed Marriages in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1966. o.p.

MEAD, S. M. Traditional Maori Clothing; a Study of Technological and Functional Change. Wn, Reed, 1969. $6.95.

METGE, J. The Maoris of New Zealand. London, Routledge, 1967. $3.

MITCHELL, J. H. Takitimu. Wn, Reed, 1972. $3.50.

OPPENHEIM, R. S. Maori death customs. Wn, Reed, 1973. $4.95.

ORBELL, M. R. Maori Folk Tales in Maori and English. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1968. $2.50.

PHILLIPPS, W. J. Carved Maori Houses of Western and Northern Areas of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955. $5 (Dominion Museum. Monograph No. 9.)

Also others in the same series.

RITCHIE, J. E. The Making of a Maori; a Case Study of a Changing Community. Wn, Reed, 1963. o.p.

RYAN, P. M. A Dictionary of Modern Maori. Ak. Heinemann Educational, 1971. $1.20.

SCHWIMMER, E. G., ed. The Maori People in the Nineteen Sixties; a Symposium. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1968. $7.

SCHWIMMER, E. G., ed. The World of the Maori. Wn, Reed, 1966. $2.10.

SHARP, C. A. Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia. Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $2.10.

TROTTER, M. M., and B. MC CULLOCH. Prehistoric Rock Art of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $2.95.

VAYDA, A. P. Maori Warfare. Wn, Reed for the Polynesian Society, 1970. $2.95.

WESTRA, A., and J. RITCHIE. Maori. Wn, Reed, 1967. $6.30.

WILLIAMS, J. A. Politics of the New Zealand Maori; Protest and Co-operation, 1891–1909. Ak, O.U.P. for the University of Auckland, 1969. $7.75.

WILLIAMS, W. A Dictionary of the Maori Language. 7th ed., by H. W. Williams. Rev. and augmented by the Advisory Committee on the Teaching of the Maori Language, Department of Education. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. $4,50.

WILLIAMS, W. L. First Lessons in Maori. 13th ed. Wn, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. $1.35.

SCIENCE, GENERAL

DIRECTORY OF NEW ZEALAND SCIENCE. 4th ed., edited by H. Jansen. Wn, New Zealand Association of Scientists, 1962. $4.50.

LOCKLEY, R. M. Man Against Nature; a Survival Special on New Zealand Wildlife. Wn, Reed, 1970. Wn, Reed, 1970.

MC BRIDE, C. P. Scientific Research in New Zealand; Expenditure and Manpower 1926–1966. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1966. 50c.

MILLER, M. C. Reef and beach life of New Zealand; an introduction. Ak, Collins, 1973. $9.80.

GEOLOGY

ADKIN, G. L., and B. W. COLLINS. A Bibliography of New Zealand Geology to 1950. Wn, D.S.T.R., 1967. $4.50.

BECK, R. J. New Zealand Jade; the Story of Greenstone. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.95.

COTTON, Sir C. A. Geomorphology. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1958. $3.25.

EIBY, G. A. About Earthquakes. New York, Harper, 1957. US$4.95.

EIBY, G. A. Earthquakes. 2nd rev. ed. London, Muller, 1967. $3.

*GARNER, D. M., and N. M. RIDGWAY. Hydrology of New Zealand Offshore Waters. Wn, Govt. Print., 1965. $1.50.

GRINDLEY, G. W., H. J. HARRINGTON, and B. L. WOOD. The Geological Map of New Zealand, 1:2,000,000. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1959. $3.25.

HORNIBROOK, N. de B. A Handbook of New Zealand Microfossils (Foraminifera and Ostracoda). Wn, D.S.I.R., 1968. (D.S.I.R. Information Series No. 62.) $2.20.

NEW ZEALAND WATER AND SOIL DIVISION. Land Use Capability Survey Handbook; a New Zealand Handbook for the Classification of Land. Rev. ed. Wn, Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, 1971.

SALMON, J. H. M. A History of Goldmining in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $3.75.

SOIL BUREAU. Soils of New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1968. 3 v. (Its Bulletin 26.) $15.

THOMPSON, B. N. New Zealand Volcanology. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1965. 3 v. (D.S.I.R. Information Series No. 50.) $4.

ZOOLOGY

BULLER, Sir W. L. Birds of New Zealand. New ed., by E. G. Turbott. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs 1967. $16.50.

DOAK, W. T. Fishes of the New Zealand region. Ak, Hodder and Stroughton, 1972.

FALLA, R. A., R. B. SIBSON, and E. G. TURBOTT. A Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand and Outlying Islands. 2nd ed. London; Ak, Collins, 1970. $5.

GASKIN, D. E. The Butterflies and Common Moths of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. $4.75.

FORSTER, R. R., and L. M. FORSTER. Small Land Animals of New Zealand. Dn, McIndoe, 1970. $5.85.

FORSTER, R. R. New Zealand spiders. Ak, Collins, 1973. $10.60.

HOWARD, W. E. Control of Introduced Mammals in New Zealand. Wn, D.S.I.R, 1965. $1.25.

LAIDLAW, W. B. R. Butterflies of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1970. $2.70.

MILLER, D. Common Insects in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $6.50.

LESLIE, M. A. Animals of the Rocky Shore of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1968. $2.50.

MARSHALL, J., F. C. KINSKY, and C. J. R. ROBERTSON. The Fiat book of common birds in New Zealand. 2 v. Wn, Reed, 1972–73. $3.60.

ORNITHOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF NEW ZEALAND. CHECKLIST COMMITTEE. Annotated Checklist of the Birds of New Zealand, Including the Birds of the Ross Dependency. Wn, Reed, 1970. $4.95.

PENDERGRAST, J. G., and D. R. COWLEY. An Introduction to New Zealand Freshwater Insects. Ak; London, Collins, 1966. $1.80.

POWELL, A. W. B. Shells of New Zealand; an Illustrated Handbook. 4th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $2.25.

SHARELL, R. New Zealand Insects and Their Story. Ak, Collins, 1971. $9.20.

SHARELL, R. The Tuatara, Lizards, and Frogs of New Zealand. London, Collins. 1966. $3.50.

WILD ANIMALS IN NEW ZEALAND, compiled under the direction of A. L. Poole. Wn, Reed, 1970. $4.50.

BOTANY

ALLAN, H. H. A Handbook of the Naturalised Flora of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1950. o.p.

ALLISON, K. W., and J. CHILD. The Mosses of New Zealand. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1971. $6.60.

COCKAYNE, L. New Zealand Plants and Their Story. 4th ed., by E. J. Godley. Wn, Govt. Print., 1967. $3.

COCKAYNE, L. and E. P. TURNER. The Trees of New Zealand. 6th ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1967. $2.50.

CONNOR, H. E. The Poisonous Plants in New Zealand. Wn, Department of Agriculture, 1960. 20c.

FLORA OF NEW ZEALAND. Wn, Govt. Print., 1961-. 3 v. v.1 by H. H. Allan, 1961. $10.50; v. 2 by L. B. Moore and E. Edgar, 1970. $4.50.

LAING, R. M., and E. W. BLACKWELL. Plants of New Zealand. 7th ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $3.85.

MARTIN, W., and J. CHILD. Lichens of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1972. $6.50.

MOORE, L. B., and N. M. ADAMS. Plants of the New Zealand Coast. Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $1.80.

PHILIPSON, W. R., and D. HEARN. Rock Garden Plants of the Southern Alps. Ch, Caxton Press, 1962. $4.75.

POOLE, A. L., and N. M. ADAMS. Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $2.50.

SALMON, J. T. Field Guide to the Alpine Plants of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1968. $5.60.

TAYLOR, G. M. Mushrooms and Toadstools in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.50.

TECHNOLOGY AND AGRICULTURE

AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION COUNCIL. Economic Position of the Farming Industry in New Zealand. Wn, 1971. 50c.

ALLSOP, F. The first fifty years of New Zealand's Forest Service. Wn, Govt. Print., 1973.

ATKINSON, J. D. Diseases of Tree Fruits in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. $7.50.

DU FAUR, R. T. Dairy Farming for Profit. Wn, Reed, 1967. $4.50.

—— Sheep Farming for Profit. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1967. $4.50.

DURING, C. Fertilisers and Soils in New Zealand Farming. 2d. ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $6.

EVANS, B. L. A History of Agriculture Production and Marketing in New Zealand. Palmerston North, Keeling and Mundy. 1969. $3.20.

FARRELL, B. H. Power in New Zealand; a Geography of Energy Resources. Wn, Reed, 1962. $4.25.

FISHER, M. E., E. SATCHELL, and J. M. WATKINS. Gardening with New Zealand Plants, Shrubs, and Trees. Ak, Collins, 1970. $6.

THE FUTURE OF MANUFACTURING IN NEW ZEALAND, edited by C. A. Blyth. Wn, New Zealand Institute of Public Administration; London, O.U.P., 1964. $2.50.

HADFIELD, J. W. Arable Farm Crops of New Zealand, rev. by J. H. Claridge. Wn, D.S.I.R., 1972. $9.50.

HARRISON, R. E. Handbook of Bulbs and Perennials for the Southern Hemisphere. 2nd ed. rev. Palmerston North, R. E. Harrison, 1963. $5.50.

HARRISON, R. E. Handbook of Trees and Shrubs for the Southern Hemisphere. 4th ed. rev. Wn, Reed, 1967. $5.50.

HEALY, A. J. F. Identification of Weeds and Clover. Wn, Editorial Services, 1970. $4.50.

LANGER, R. H. M. Pastures and pasture plants. Wn, Reed, 1973.

LEVY, E. B. Grasslands of New Zealand. 3rd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1970. $5.50.

LEITCH, D. B. Railways of New Zealand. Ak, L. Fullerton; Newton Abbot, Devon, David and Charles, 1972, $9.10.

MC CASKILL, L. W. Hold this tend; a history of soil conservation. Wn, Reed, 1973. $8.50.

METCALF, L. J. The cultivation of New Zealand trees and shrubs. Wn, Reed, 1972. $12.50.

NEW ZEALAND FARMERS' VETERINARY GUIDE. 4th ed. Wn, New Zealand Dairy Exporter, 1972. $6.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE. New Zealand Beef Production, Processing, and Marketing, edited by A. G. Campbell. Wn, 1970. $7,50.

NEW ZEALAND INSTITUTE FOR TURF CULTURE. Turf Culture. 2nd ed. Palmerston North, 1971. $9.

NEW ZEALAND. ROYAL COMMISSIONTO INQUIRE INTOAND REPORT UPON HANDLING OF CONTAINERS, SEAFREIGHTERS, AND UNITISED CARGO. Containers; Final Report of the Royal Commission. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $1.20.

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT CONFERENCE, VICTORIA UNIVERSITY OF WELLINGTON, 1970. Reports, Papers, and Proceedings. Ed. by C. K. McMahon. Wn, Environmental Council, 1972. $5.

POOLE, A. L. Forestry in New Zealand; the Shaping of Policy. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton in association with the English Universities Press, London, 1969, $3.

REES, S. W. Pig Farming for Profit. Rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. $5.50.

SIMPSON, T. E. Kauri and radiata: origin and expansion of the timber industry of New Zealand. Ak, Hodder and Stroughton, 1973.

THORPY, F. Wine in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1971.

WATKINSON, J. G. and SMITH, R. New Zealand fisheries. Wn, Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries. 1972.

ARTS IN GENERAL

*AUCKLAND CITY ART GALLERY. Ten Years of New Zealand Painting in Auckland. 1958–1967. Ak, 1967.

Also similar catalogues on New Zealand artists.

* BRASH, C. O. Present Company; Reflections on the Arts. Ak, Longman Paul, 1966. 75c.

BROWN, G. H., and H. H. KEITH. An Introduction to New Zealand Painting, 1839–1967. Ak, Collins, 1969. $7.50.

*COLQUHOUN, N., comp. New Zealand Folksongs; Song of a Young Country. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. $2.25.

DOCKING, G. C. Two Hundred Years of New Zealand Painting. Wn, Reed, 1971. $22.50.

JENSEN, O. The N.Z.B.C. Symphony Orchestra. Wn, Reed, 1966. $4.

KNIGHT, H. Photography in New Zealand; a Social and Technical History. Dn, McIndoe, 1971. $7.20.

NORTHCOTE-BADE, S. Colonial Furniture in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1971. $5.95

STACPOOLE, J. M. and P. BEAVER. Architecture, 1820–1970. Wn, Reed, 1972.

SPORT, INCLUDING MOUNTAINEERING

BULL, M. A. Vintage Motor Cycling; a Record of Motor Cycling in New Zealand from 1899 to 1931. Masterton, Hedley's Bookshop, 1970. $4.

BURRELL, R. W., ed. Bushcraft Manual. Wn, National Mountain Safety Council, 1968. 40c.

DOOGUE, R. B., and J. M. MORELAND. New Zealand Sea Anglers' Guide. 5th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $2.75.

FORRESTER, R. and ILLINGWORTH, N. Hunting in New Zealand. 2d. ed. Wn, Reed, 1973. $4.50.

HARRIS, G. A Land Apart; the Mount Cook Alpine Region. Wn, Reed, 1971. $12.50.

HEINE, A. J. Mountaincraft Manual. Wn, National Mountain Safety Council of New Zealand, 1971. 80c.

HERBERT, F. T. Harking Back; a History of Hunting in New Zealand 1870–1969. Hastings, the author, 1970. $4.

HINTZ, O. S. Trout at Taupo. New enl. ed. London, Reinhardt, 1970. $3.60.

KELLY, G. G. Fishing for trout. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1973. $2.50.

KELLY, G. M. Golf in New Zealand; A Centennial History. Wn, New Zealand Golf Association, 1971. $4.50.

LAIDLAW, C. R. Mud in your eye; a worm's eye view of the changing world of rugby. Wn, Reed. 1973. $4.95.

MAC LEAN, P. J. The Veteran Years of New Zealand Motoring. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.95.

MAHONEY, D. J. C. Trio at the Top; the Story of Bruce McLaren, Denny Hulme, and Chris Anion. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1970. $3.90.

SWAN, A. C. They played for New Zealand; a complete record of New Zealand rugby representatives 1884–1972 and their matches. Wn, N.Z. Rugby Football Union, 1973. $1.

LITERATURE, GENERAL

CURNOW, W. T. L. Essays on New Zealand literature. Ak, Heinemann, 1973. $5.50.

MC CORMICK, E. H. New Zealand Literature; a Survey. London, O.U.P., 1959. £1.25.

ORBELL, M. R., comp. Contemporary Maori Writing. Wn, Reed, 1970. $2.95.

RETD, J. C., ed. A Book of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1964. $1.70.

POETRY

CURNOW. T. A. M. The Penguin Book of New Zealand Verse. Harmondsworth, Eng., Penguin Books, 1966. $1.25.

DOYLE, C. D., ed. Recent Poetry in New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1965. o.p.

JONES, G. M. These islands; a collection of New Zealand verse. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973. $2.95.

NGATA, A. T., ed. Nga Moteatea. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1959–72. 3v. Collection of Maori Songs.

O'SULLIVAN, V., comp. An Anthology of Twentieth-century New Zealand Poetry. London, O.U.P., 1970. $6.99; $7.50.

POETRY NEW ZEALAND. V. 1. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1971. $3.

SMITHYMAN, W. K. A Way of Saying; a Study of New Zealand Poetry. Ak, Collins, 1965. o.p.

WOODHOUSE, A. P., comp. New Zealand Farm and Station Verse, 1850–1950. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1967. $2.50.

ALLEY, R. Winds of Change; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1972.

*BAXTER, J. K. Runes. Wn, O.U.P., 1973.

JAMES K. BAXTER; A memorial volume. Wn, A Taylor, 1972. $2.95.

WEIR, J. E. The Poetry of James K. Baxter. Wn, Oxford U.P., 1970. $1.25.

BRASCH, C. O. Not Far Off; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1969. $1.60.

CAMPBELL, A. Kapiti; Selected Poems, 1947–71. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972. $3.50.

CURNOW, T. A. M. Whim Wham Land. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $2.50.

DALLAS, R. Shadow Show; Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1968. $1.50.

FAIRBURN, A. R. D. Collected Poems. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1966. $2.50; paperback $1.75.

JOHNSON, O. A. A. R. D. Fairburn, 1904–57; A Bibliography of His Published Work. Ak, University of Auckland, 1958. 50c.

GLOVER, D. Enter Without Knocking. Enl. ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972. $4.

HYDE, R. Houses by the Sea and Later Poems. Ch, Caxton Press, 1952. $1.25.

MASON, R. A. K. Collected Poems. With an Introduction by Allen Curnow. New ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1972. $3.50.

*O'SULLIVAN, V. G. Bearings. Wn, O.U.P., 1973. $4.

RODDICK, A. M. The Eye Corrects; Poems 1955–1965. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $1.25.

SMITHYMAN, K. Earthquake Weather. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $2.25.

*STEAD, C. K. Crossing the Bar. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1972. $2.25.

FICTION

HOLCROFT, M. H. Islands of Innocence; the Childhood Theme in New Zealand Fiction. Wn, Reed, 1964. 55c.

NATIONAL LIBRARY OF NEW ZEALAND. SCHOOL LIBRARY SERVICE. Fiction for Post-primary Schools; an Annotated List. 2nd ed., rev. and enl. Wn, 1960.

RHODES, H. W. New Zealand Fiction Since 1945. Dn, McIndoe, 1968. $1.20.

STEVENS, J. The New Zealand Novel, 1860–1965. 2nd ed. Wn, Reed, 1966. $1.50.

STEAD, C. K. New Zealand Short Stories. 2nd series. London, O.U.P., 1966. $1.55.

AMATO, R. The Full Circle of the Travelling Cuckoo. With a memoir of the author by M. Shadbolt. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1967. $1.95.

ASHTON-WARNER, S. Bell Call. London, Hale; Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971.

ASHTON-WARNER, S. Three; a Novel. London, Hale; Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971. $4.30.

BALLANTYNE, D. A Friend of the Family. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1966. $1.90.

BILLING, G. J. The Alpha Trip. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1969. $3.60.

BRATHWAITE, E. The Evil Day. London, Collins, 1967. $2.40.

BRATHWAITE, E. The Flying Fish. London; Ak, Collins, 1964. $2.25.

COURAGE, J. Such separate creatures. Ch, Caxton, 1973. $4.

DAVNI D. Brides of Price. London, Hale, 1972. $4.

DUCKWORTH, M. Over the Fence is Out. London, Hutchinson, 1969. $2.80.

DUGGAN, M. N. O'Leary's Orchard and Other Stories. Ch, Caxton Press, 1970. $3.50.

DUGGAN, M. N. Summer in the Gravel Pit; Stories. Hamilton, B. and J. Paul; London, Gollancz, 1965. $2.10.

FRAME, J. The Adaptable Man. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1965. $2.10.

FRAME, J. Daughter Buffalo. Wn, Reed, 1973.

FRAME, J. Intensive Care; a Novel. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.95.

FRAME, J. The Rainbirds. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1969. $2.75.

FRAME, J. A State of Siege. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1967. $2.25.

EVANS, P. D. An Inward Sun; the Novels of Janet Frame. Wn, New Zealand University Press Price Milburn, 1971. $1.50.

GEE, M. In my Father's Den. London, Faber, 1972. $3.50.

GLENDAY, A. Follow, follow. Ak, Collins, 1973.

GROVER, R. F. Another Man's Role. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $2.10.

HILLIARD, N. H. Maori Girl. London, Heinemann, 1971. $3; paperback, $1.80.

HILLIARD, N. H. A Night at Green River. London, Hale; Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1969. $2.

HYDE, R. The Godwits Fly. 2nd ed. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1970. $3.

IHIMAERA, W. Pounamu, Pounamu. Ak, Heinemann, 1972. $3.80.

TANGI. Ak, Heinemann, 1973.

JOSEPH, M. K. The Hole in the Zero. B. and J. Paul, 1967. $2.25.

LEE, J A. Children of the Poor. London, Mayfair Books, 1963. 50c.

LEE, J A. Shining with the Shiner. London, Mayfair Books, 1963. 55c.

MC NEISH, J. H. P. Mackenzie; a Novel. Ak, Hodder and Stoughton, 1970. $5.50.

MANDER J. Allen Adair. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1971. $3.70.

MANSFIELD, K. Selected Stories, Chosen and Introduced by D. M. Davin. London, O.U.P., 1969. $1.40.

MULGAN, J. A. E. Man Alone. 2nd ed. Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $1.80.

SARGESON, F. Collected Stories. Ak, Longman Paul, 1969. $2.50.

SARGESON, F. Joy of the Worm. London, MacGibbon and Kee, 1969. $3.

SARGESON, F. Man of England Now. Ch, Caxton Press, 1972. (New Zealand Short Stories, No. 2.) $4.50.

SARGESON, F. Once is enough; a memoir. Wn, Reed, 1973. $4.50.

SATCHELL, W. The Land of the Lost. Ak, Auckland U.P.; Wn, O.U.P., 1971. $4.20.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. An Ear of the Dragon. London, Cassell, 1971. $4.80.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. Strangers and journeys. London, Hodder and Stroughton, 1972. $8.40.

STEAD, C. K. Smith's Dream. Ak, Longman Paul, 1971. $3.50.

TAYLOR, W. Episode. London, Hale; Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1970. $3.05.

WENDT, A. Sons for the return home. Ak, Longman Paul, 1973.

PLAYS

BAXTER, J. K. The Sore-footed Man [and] The Temptations of Oedipus. Ak, Heinemann Educational Books, 1971. $1.50.

CURNOW, A. Four Plays. Wn, Reed, 1972. $5.50.

MASON, B. E. G. Awatea; a Play in Three Acts. Wn, New Zealand University Press; Price Milburn, 1969.

NEW ZEALAND DRAMA COUNCIL. List of Recommended Plays. Wn, 1957. 25c.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—GENERAL

BIGWOOD, K. V. New Zealand in Colour. Rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. 2 v. $9.

BRATHWAITE, E. F. The Companion Guide to the North Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1970. $5.50.

BRATHWAITE, E. F. The companion guide to the South Island of New Zealand. Ak, Collins, 1972. $6.50.

GRIFFITH, R. J. and J. PASCOE. New Zealand from the Air in Colour. Wn, Reed, 1968. $3.50.

IMBER, W. and K. B. CUMBERLAND. Pacific land down under. Wn, Reed, 1973.

MC LINTOCK, A. H., ed. A Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1959. o.p.

PASCOE, J. D., ed. National Parks of New Zealand. 2nd ed. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. $3.50.

THE PATTERN OF NEW ZEALAND CULTURE, edited by A. L. McLeod. Melbourne, O.U.P.; Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell University Press, 1968. A$9; US$10.

POPE, D. M. and POPE, J. D. Mobil New Zealand travel guide, North Island. Wn, Reed, 1973. $3.50.

REED, A. H. The Four Corners of New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1963. $2.50.

REED, A. W. A Dictionary of Maori Place Names. Wn, Reed, 1961. $1.50.

SHADBOLT, M. F. R. The Shell Guide to New Zealand. rev. ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1973. $4;75.

WISE'S NEW ZEALAND GUIDE; a Gazetteer of New Zealand. 5th ed. Ak, Wises Publications, 1972.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—HISTORICAL

ADAMS, C. W. A Spring in the Canterbury Settlement. Ch, Capper Press, 1971. Also other facsimile titles by the same publisher.

BEST, A. D. W. The Journal of Ensign Best, 1837–1843. Edited by Nancy M. Taylor. Wn, Govt. Print., 1966. $3.50.

BUTLER, S. A First Year in Canterbury Settlement. Edited by A. C. Brassington and P. B. Maling. Hamilton, B. and J. Paul, 1964. $1.85.

DRUMMOND, A. E. H. At Home in New Zealand; an Illustrated History of Everyday Things Before 1865. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967, $3.

DRUMMOND, A. E. H. Married and Gone to New Zealand; Being Extracts from the Writings of Women Pioneers. London, O.U.P.; Ak, Longman Paul, 1963. $1.85.

EARLE, A. Augustus Earle in New Zealand, by A. Murray-Oliver. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1968. $15.

EARLE, A. Narrative of a Residence in New Zealand. Edited by E. H. McCormick. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1966. $7.55.

GUTHRIE-SMITH, W. H. Tutira; the Story of a New Zealand Sheep Station. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $8.50.

HEAPHY, C. Narrative of a Residence in Various Parts of New Zealand. London, Smith, Elder, 1842. Dn, Hocken Library, 1968. $4.25 Facsimile ed.

MANING, F. E. Old New Zealand; a Tale of the Good Old Times. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1952. $1.25.

MARKHAM, E. New Zealand, or Recollections of It. Edited with an introduction by E. H. McCormick. Wn, Govt. Print., 1963. $3.

SHARP, C. A., comp. Duperrey's Visit to New Zealand in 1824. Wn, Alexander Turnbull Library, 1971. $4.75.

TAYLOR, N. M. Early Travellers in New Zealand. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1959. $9.60.

TROLLOPE, A. With Anthony Trollope in New Zealand. Edited by A. H. Reed. Wn, Reed for Dunedin Public Library, 1969. $2.50.

WAKEFIELD, E. J. Adventure in New Zealand from 1839 to 1844. Ak, Wilson and Horton, 1971. $2.50. Also similar titles in paperback by the same publisher.

YATE, W. An Account of New Zealand and of the Church Missionary Society's Mission in the Northern Island. Wn, Reed, 1971. $10.95.

DESCRIPTIVE WORKS—REGIONAL

The following are representative of the many titles in this category:

ARBUCKLE, G. A. The Chatham Islands in Perspective; a Socio-economic Review. Wn, Hicks Smith. 1971.$3.

LISTER.. R. G., ed. Central Otago. Dn, New Zealand Geographical Society, 1965. $3.50.

NEW ZEALAND TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING DIVISION. Wanganui Region. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. (National Resources Survey, Pt. 7) $7.50.

Also similar titles on other regions.

QUARTERMAIN, L. B. New Zealand and the Antarctic. Wn, Govt. Print., 1971. $5.85.

TEMPLE, P. Mantle of the Skies; the Southern Alps of New Zealand. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971. $9.95.

HISTORICAL WORKS—GENERAL AND PERIOD INCLUDING MAORI WARS

BASSETT M. Confrontation 1951; The 1951 Waterfront Dispute. Wn, Reed, 1972. $4.50.

BEAGLEHOLE, J. C. The Discovery of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, O.U.P., 1961. o.p.

BEGG, A. C., and N. C. BEGG. James Cook and New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1969. $4.50.

BENTLEY, G. RNZAF; a Short History. Wn, Reed, 1969. $5.50.

CHAPMAN, R. M., and K. SINCLAIR, ed. Studies of a Small Democracy; Essays in Honour of Willis Airey. Ak, Longman Paul, 1965. $3.

CONDLIFFE, J. B. New Zealand in the Making. 2nd ed. London, Allen and Unwin, 1959. $3.20.

COOK, J. The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery. Edited by J. C. Beagle-hole. Cambridge, Hakluyt Society, 1955-.5 v. to date. (Hakluyt Society. Extra series No. 34.)

COWAN, J. The New Zealand Wars. Wn, Govt. Print., 1955–1956. 2 v. $9.

HALL, D. The Golden Echo; Some Aspects of New Zealand Social History. Ak, Collins, 1971. $3.80.

INGRAM, C. W. N. New Zealand shipwrecks, 1795–1970. 4th ed. Wn, Reed, 1972. $9.50.

JACKSON, W. K. The New Zealand Legislative Council; a Study of the Establishment, Failure and Abolition of an Upper House. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1972. $7.40.

LISSINGTON, MVP. New Zealand and Japan, 1900–1941. Wn, Govt. Print., 1972. $5.75.

LISSINGTON, MVP. New Zealand and the United States, 1840–1944. Wn, Govt. Print, 1972. $3.

MC LINTOCK, A. H. Crown Colony Government in New Zealand. Wn, Govt. Print., 1958. $3.50.

MORRELL, W. P. The Anglican church in New Zealand; a history. Dn, McIndoe, 1973.

MORRELL, W. P. The Provincial System in New Zealand, 1852–76. 2nd rev. ed. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1964. $4.50.

MULGAN, J. A. E. Report on Experience. 2nd ed. Ak, B. and J. Paul, 1967. $1.80.

NEW ZEALAND CENTENNIAL BRANCH. Making New Zealand; Pictorial Surveys of a Century. Wn, 1939–40. 2 v. o.p.

NEW ZEALAND HISTORIC PLACES TRUST. Leaflets on various historic sites; Booklets. Sec under individual authors, e.g., Standish, M. W., Wilson, G.H.O., in following section, gratis.

NEW ZEALAND WAR HISTORY BRANCH. Documents Relating to New Zealand's Participation in the Second World War, 1939–45. Wn, 1949–63. 3 v. 1 o.p.; 2, $1.25; 3, $2.50.

OLIVER, W. H. The Story of New Zealand. 2nd ed. London, Faber, 1963. $3.50; paperback $1.35.

PASCOE, J. D. Exploration New Zealand. Wn, Reed. 1971. $3.95.

REED, A. W. It happened today in New Zealand. Wn, Reed, 1973. $1.95.

ROSS, A. New Zealand Aspirations in the Pacific in the Nineteenth Century. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1964. $6.45.

Ross, J. O. This Stern Coast; the Story of the Charting of the New Zealand Coast. Wn, Reed, 1969. $3.95.

SHARP, C. A. The Voyages of Abel Janszoon Tasman. London, O.U.P., 1968. $8.

SINCLAIR, K. A History of New Zealand. Rev. ed. Harmondsworth, Penguin Books, 1969. $1.35.

SINCLAIR, K. The Origins of the Maori Wars. 2nd ed. Wn, New Zealand University Press, 1961. $3.

SUTCH, W. B. Poverty and Progress in New Zealand; a Reassessment. 2nd rev. ed. Wn, Reed, 1969. $4.95.

SUTCH, W. B. The Quest for Security in New Zealand, 1840 to 1966. Wn, O.U.P., 1966. $6.50; paperback $3.

WARDS, I.M. The Shadow of the Land; a Study of British Policy and Racial Conflict, 1832–1852. Wn, Historical Publications Branch, 1968. $6.

WOOD, F. L. W. The New Zealand People at War; Political and External Affairs. Wn, Historical Publications Branch in conjunction with Reed, 1971. $5.95.

HISTORY—REGIONAL AND LOCAL

The following are representative of the many titles in this category;

ADKIN, G. L. The Great Harbour of Tara; Traditional Maori Place Names and Sites of Wellington Harbour and Environs. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1959. 75c.

A HISTORY OF CANTERBURY. Ch, Canterbury Centennial Historical and Literary Committee; Whitcombe and Tombs, 1957–71. 3v.

ALLAN, R. M. Nelson; a History of Early Settlement. Wn, Reed. 1965. $4.50.

BUCHANAN, J. D. H. The Maori history and place names of Hawke's Bay. Wn, Reed, 1973.

CARMAN, A. H. The Birth of a City. Wn, The author, 1970. $4.

GILLESPIE, O. A. South Canterbury; a Record of Settlements. 2nd ed. Timaru, South Canterbury Centennial History Committee, 1971.

HALL-JONES, J. Early Fiordland. Wn, Reed, 1968. $3.95.

MC DONALD, K. C. City of Dunedin; a Century of Civic Enterprise. Dn, Dunedin City Corporation. 1965.

MAY, P. R. The West Coast Gold Rushes. 2nd rev. ed. Ch, Pegasus Press, 1967. $5.

NEWPORT, J. N. W. Collingwood; a History of the Area from Earliest Days to 1912. Ch, Printed at the Caxton Press, 1971. $5.40.

OLIVER, W. H. Challenge and Response; a Study of the Development of the Gisborne East Coast Region. Gisborne, East Coast Development Research Association, 1971. $4.50.

PINNEY, R. Early South Canterbury Runs. Wn, Reed, 1971. $9.95.

PLATTS, U. The Lively Capital, Auckland 1840–1865. Ch, Avon Fine Prints, 1971. $12.

REED, A. H. The Gumdiggers; the Story of Kauri Gum. Wn, Reed, 1972. $3.75.

SCOTTER, W. H. Ashburton; a history. Ashburton, 1972. $6.

SMART, M. J. G. and A. P. BATES. The Wanganui story. Wanganui Newspapers, 1972. $5.90.

*STANDISH, M. W. The Waimate Mission Station. Wn, Govt. Print., 1962. 50c.

Also others issued by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust.

BIOGRAPHY

NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENT OF INTERNAL AFFAIRS. The New Zealand Honours List. 8th ed. Wn, Govt. Print. 1972. $3.50.

WHO'S WHO IN NEW ZEALAND. 10th ed., edited by G. C. Peterson. Wn, Reed, 1971. $6.50.

AIREY, W. T. G. A Learner in China; a Life of Rewi Alley. Ch, Caxton Press and the Monthly Review Society, 1970. $4.50.

CRESSWELL, W. D. The Letters of D'Arcy Cresswell. Ch, University of Canterbury, 1971. $6.

DUNMORE, J. Norman Kirk; a Portrait. Palmerston North, New Zealand Books, 1972. $2.80.

HALL-JONES, J. Mr Surveyor Thomson; Early Days in Otago and Southland. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.95.

HENDERSON, J. M. Ratana; the Man, the Church, the Political Movement. 2nd ed. Wn, Polynesian Society, 1972. $3.95.

HOLCROFT, M. H. Reluctant Editor; the Listener Years, 1949–67. Wn, Reed, 1969. $3.50.

LUSH, V. The Auckland Journals of Vicesimus Lush, 1850–63, ed. by A. Drummond. Ch, Pegasus, 1971. $7.

*MC CORMICK, E. H. The Fascinating Folly; Dr Hocken and His Fellow Collectors. Dn, University of Otago Press, 1961. 65c.

RAFTER, P. Never Let Go; the Remarkable Story of Mother Aubert. Wn, Reed, 1972. $5.50.

ROGERS, L. M. Te Wiremu; a biography of Henry Williams. Ch, Pegasus, 1973. $7.50.

ROLLESTON, R. William and Mary Rolleston. Wn, Reed, 1971. $4.50.

SINCLAIR, K. William Pember Reeves; New Zealand Fabian. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1965. $6.90.

STACPOOLE, J. William Mason; the First New Zealand Architect. Ak, Auckland U. P.; Wn, O. U. P., 1971. $7.40.

STUART, P. Edward Gibbon Wakefield in New Zealand; His Political Career, 1853–54. Wn, Price Milburn for Victoria University of Wellington, 1971. $2.50.

WRIGHT-ST. CLAIR, R. E. Thoroughly a Man of the World; a Biography of Sir David Monro, M.D. Ch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1971. $6.50.

Chapter 47. NEW ZEALAND PORTS AND SHIPPING DEVELOPMENTS

(Adapted from New Zealand Transport Policy Study 1973)

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PORTS—The first New Zealand port at which commercial shipping arrivals were recorded was the Bay of Islands. During 1838, on the eve of organised mass colonisation, 130 vessels called at this port. Port development soon followed in northern harbours such as Hokianga, Mangonui, and Auckland. Shipping statistics were first published for New Zealand as a whole in 1853, and by that time there was already a dispersed pattern of ports with 11 overseas ports of entry scattered throughout the country to serve a European population of approximately 30,000.

Although the sequence of port development which has occurred since that date must be viewed as a process rather than a series of distinct phases, it is possible to identify some broad stages in the evolution of the existing spatial pattern of New Zealand's ports.

Scattered Distribution of Ports—An important factor in the choice of settlements by the colonising bodies was access to safe harbours*. Penetration routes from the coastal settlements to the interior were very weakly developed, due to the dense bush, rugged terrain, and occasionally, hostile natives, and the need for interconnection by sea was vital. Rimmer considers that the development of parochialism fostered during this period of isolation has been a persistent factor in the subsequent attempts to develop New Zealand ports on a national basis.

With the spread of economic activity beyond the boundaries of the initial planned settlements, a rapid and very scattered distribution of ports eventuated. By 1867 New Zealand had 112 ports recorded as being in operation, of which 26 were overseas ports of entry. Indeed, there were so many ports "… that a circle, or part of a circle, described around each one would give an average undisputed hinterland of only 30 miles"§.

Two main factors contributed to this widespread profusion of ports. First, there was the spread of extensive pastoralism in the Wairarapa, Hawke's Bay, and on to the tussock grasslands of the South Island. Secondly, there were the major discoveries of gold in Otago, Thames, and Westland. With the movement away from the established centres, communication by land became extremely difficult. At this early stage in its development, New Zealand's railways were poorly developed and the mountainous terrain, lack of road building materials, and high rainfall made road building (and maintenance) costly. Effective land communications were difficult to finance and establish under these conditions and the sea proved the most economic and convenient means of linking the scattered settlements in both islands. Almost every settlement established its own port||.

The Effects of Penetration Routes—Although a highly dispersed pattern of ports existed in 1867, even then it was becoming apparent that shipping was beginning to concentrate at a limited number of ports. In his review of this period Rimmer found that the ports at Dunedin (Otago), Lyttelton, Wellington, Auckland, Nelson, Hokitika, and Greymouth, at the starting points of the earliest penetration routes, built to reach areas of mineral exploitation, to develop potential agricultural areas, and to establish military control in the North Island, had thrived at the expense of their neighbouring ports . These seven ports had developed by providing direct overseas, provincial, and interprovincial shipping services. As they enjoyed a virtual monopoly of imports they served as trans-shipment centres for the remaining ports.

* Indeed, the New Zealand Ports Authority, in their review of the main factors which have governed development of the present ports system in New Zealand, considered that "a convenient port in close proximity to settlement was an essential prerequisite of colonisation". (Report of the New Zealand Ports Authority for the year ended 31 March 1970.)

† P. J. Rimmer, "The Changing Status of New Zealand Seaports, 1853–1960", Annals of the Association of American Geographers, Volume 57. Issue 1 March 1967.

‡ The main early settlements were founded at Wellington (1848), Auckland (1840), Wanganui (1842), Nelson (1842), New Plymouth (1842), Otago (1848), and Canterbury (1850).

§ Rimmer, op. cit.

|| The only important concentration of population away from the sea was on the goldfields of Central Otago.

¶ Rimmer, op. cit., p. 93.

This gradual concentration of activity on a limited number of ports was strengthened with extension of railway lines from 46 miles of track in 1867 to over 1,280 miles by 1881. Although primarily intended as a means of opening up the country, railway construction did, in effect, give those ports served by rail a great advantage. By 1881 the ports of Otago, Lyttelton, Auckland, and Wellington monopolised New Zealand's import and export trade, handling 80 percent of this trade, as shown in the following table.

IMPORTS, EXPORTS AND TOTAL OVERSEAS TRADE HANDLED BY THE PORTS OF AUCKLAND, WELLINGTON, LYTTLETON, AND OTAGO, 1867–1970
Expressed as Percentage of Total Volume for All Ports
YearAucklandWellingtonLytteltonOtagoTotal, Four Ports
ImportsExportsAll TradeImportsExportsAll TradeImportsExportsAll TradeImportsExportsAll TradeImportsExportsAll Trade
 (percentage)
1,86714.66.29.89.53.96.312.910.910.929.521.323.467.442.450.4
1,88120.013.516.913.213.813.620.818.623.929.932.725.384.778.679.7
1,91129.517.222.328.120.124.415.614.515.013.67.110.487.759.072.1
1,93038.422.133.836.743.038.511.68.010.68.84.87.695.577.990.5
1,94047.030.241.829.231.830.010.47.99.68.93.87.395.573.785.2
1,95043.934.441.527.631.428.611.38.810.78.25.07.491.079.688.2
1,96038.426.835.222.814.320.512.86.711.16.34.45.881.252.272.6
1,97025.518.622.912.45.39.86.73.95.72.03.32.547.531.340.9

Interconnection and Port Concentration—As the initial railway lines, generally short lines running from a port to an inland settlement, further developed and the railway network became more interconnected, certain ports were able to expand their hinterlands even further. Between the period 1867 and 1881 all the ports from Waipara to Bluff on the east coast of the South Island had been linked by the 524-mile South Island Main Trunk railway. Although some ports were closed or reduced in status, the earlier development of inland penetration lines from Timaru and Oamaru was sufficient for these ports to develop resistance to competition from Otago and Lyttelton*. Fierce local patriotism and heavy capital investment enabled these two secondary ports to continue to develop their artificial harbours.

The rail link-up and intensive competition also meant that smaller North Island ports were deprived of proportions of their trade. Nevertheless, certain provincial ports survived these difficulties (e.g., Napier, New Plymouth, and Wanganui) even though some of them could not accommodate the increasing size of vessels. In such cases the vessels had to be lightered in the roadstead.

During this period of port concentration, many small ports specialised in exporting refrigerated produce, which was expensive to move long distances on account of its perishable nature and high bulk in relation to value. But in the case of relatively high value, low bulk, and non-perishable imports, the expansion of the internal transport network permitted Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Otago to capture trade from the other ports. By 1911 their aggregate share of imports had increased to 88 percent, as their positions on the rail network enabled them to serve a very wide area (see preceding table).

As well as provincial ports experiencing a reduction of their level of cargo throughput, a change was occurring in the relative rankings of the major ports. In 1881 the two South Island ports, Lyttelton and Otago, handled just over 50 percent of New Zealand's total overseas cargo. By 1911 their position as the country's major ports had been usurped by Wellington and Auckland which had grown as a result of the accelerated economic development within the North Island. Wellington benefited because most of the produce from the prosperous farming areas within the Wairarapa and the Manawatu was shipped through the port, and it also had an advantage derived from its unique position in connecting the transport network of the North and South Islands. Wellington became the country's main distribution centre and many South Island firms shifted to Wellington to obtain the benefits of the capital's central position.

* This competition was intensified by railway rates, which were designed to concentrate cargoes at larger ports.

Centralisation—During the early years of the twentieth century overseas trade began to increasingly concentrate at the ports of Auckland and Wellington. From handling 46.7 percent of New Zealand's overseas trade in 1911, these two ports handled 72.3 percent in 1930 and 71.8 percent in 1940. This trend reflected the influence of market forces which had a powerful centralising effect upon economic activities in New Zealand. The same trend was further reinforced by the continuing improvement of land communications which meant that any part of the country was within convenient travel time of either Wellington or Auckland. Much of Wellington's growth was derived from its important position as a trans-shipment port. Large quantities of imports intended for consumption in the hinterlands of ports within the South Island and the southern parts of the North Island were unloaded from overseas ships at Wellington and forwarded to their destination by coastal ship. Conversely, goods intended for export were shipped from the local port by coaster to Wellington and then loaded into overseas vessels.

In contrast, Auckland's increase stemmed from the rapid growth of population, manufacturing, and pastoral production in the port's hinterland, rather than from capitalising on the possibilities for trans-shipment.

The accelerated growth in overseas trade at both Wellington and Auckland was in part at the expense of the ports of Otago and Lyttelton, whose combined share of the country's export trade declined from over 25 percent in 1911 to under 17 percent in 1930. But in spite of this trend the overseas trade handled by these four ports expanded from 72 percent of the country's total overseas trade in 1911 to over 85 percent in 1940.

Decentralisation—Even during this period of centralisation many New Zealand provincial ports clung tenaciously to their overseas trade and invested in cargo-handling facilities on the basis of optimistic forecasts of future developments within their hinterlands. So powerful were their local interests that the Government, despite vigorous opposition from overseas shipping companies, permitted the reopening of six ports closed during the enforced wartime concentration of overseas shipping. This policy has resulted in a dispersion of overseas cargo through a wide range of ports (see following table).

The ports which benefited particularly from the dispersion of cargo were Whangarei, Tauranga, Napier, Taranaki, Nelson, Timaru, and Bluff*. Increases at Whangarei and Tauranga since 1960 have been spectacular—for example, Whangarei's share of New Zealand's imports increased from 1.2 percent in 1960 to 40 percent in 1970, and Tauranga's share of the export trade grew from 5.5 percent in 1955 to 36.7 percent in 1970. Part of the growth of these two ports resulted from the separation of specialist functions from the port of Auckland: Whangarei's prominence has arisen from New Zealand's sole oil refinery being located there, and Tauranga's rise was due almost entirely to the exploitation of forests within the central North Island area.

VOLUME OF OVERSEAS TRADE MOVEMENTS THROUGH NEW ZEALAND PORTS, 1950–1970
(Percentage of Total Overseas Trade)
Port19501955196019651970
ImportsExportsImportsExportsImportsExportsImportsExportsImportsExports.
Whangarei0.30.00.90.01.20.037.69.740.02.1
Auckland42.731.541.232.538.225.826.222.125.418.4
Tauranga0.00.10.15.55.416.02.820.53.336.7
Gisborne0.00.00.10.90.10.80.00.60.10.9
Napier1.99.04.46.84.37.93.25.93.67.5
Taranaki6.95.65.76.35.16.93.95.62.93.8
Wellington26.928.825.121.522.713.812.27.912.45.3
Nelson0.60.00.61.50.72.70.32.60.48.5
Lyttelton11.08.111.96.312.86.58.05.66.73.9
Timaru0.54.40.13.70.44.20.46.40.62.3
Otago7.94.68.34.86.34.33.13.32.03.3
Bluff1.26.41.56.73.55.92.35.62.64.9
All other ports0.11.50.13.50.75.20.04.20.02.4

In comparison, the growth of other provincial ports—Napier, Taranaki, Nelson, Timaru, and Bluff—was due largely to the expansion of farm produce exports, and the similar increase in levels of bulk cargo imports (such as manures, fertilisers, etc.). The installation of mechanical all-weather loaders at Timaru and Bluff and the decision taken in 1966 to divert all South Island meat shipments destined for London and Liverpool through these two ports has consolidated their positions. The relative levels of export cargoes shipped through Auckland, Wellington, Lyttelton, and Otago have steadily declined since 1955 (from 65.1 percent of total exports in 1955 to 30.9 percent in 1970). Similar relative declines have occurred within their levels of cargo imports.

*The decentralisation of shipping enabled these ports to capture bulky imports of petroleum products, hardwoods, and fertilisers and exports of farm and forest produce which had been handled hitherto by the main ports.

The decentralisation of trade contributed towards an increase in the number of "unproductive" days overseas vessels were spending on the New Zealand coast. For example, the number of days spent by the British Conference Line vessels visiting New Zealand's export ports increased from 51.68 days in 1950 to 62 17 days in 1961. It is not surprising, therefore, that during this period the British Conference Lines were active in pressing for the concentration of exports at a limited number of ports.

Many changes occurred during the 1960s which will have an important impact on the future spatial structure of New Zealand's port system.

An Exports and Shipping Council was constituted in 1964 with representation from producer boards, the British Conference Shipping Lines, and other transport, business, and industrial organisations. While the council has no statutory powers, its purpose is to promote exports and to speed up the turnaround of ships by streamlining procedures. A further development aimed at achieving greater efficiency in the planning of New Zealand port investments occurred in 1969 when the New Zealand Ports Authority was set up. This step was deemed necessary in view of the heavy investment and proposed investment in capital works at New Zealand ports. New Zealand is certainly "on the threshold of unit and container techniques which are bringing about a revolution in handling methods and a new concept of co-ordination of transport through the substitution of capital-intensive for labour-intensive operations". In recent years facilities for roll-on roll-off vessels have been provided at Wellington, Picton, Auckland, Otago, and Lyttelton, and both Wellington and Auckland have installed facilities for handling containerised cargo§. In addition, single-point, off-shore-mooring terminals for loading ironsands have been installed at Waverley and Taharoa.||

The investment in this expensive cargo handling plant should lead to an increasing rationalisation in the movements of particular trades and commodities through selected New Zealand ports, but it is by no means certain that these processes favouring centralisation will be strong enough to counter the opposing forces of decentralisation.

SHIPPING DEVELOPMENTS—Far-reaching changes in methods of handling cargo in ports have taken place in recent years and are expected to become much more widespread in the next few years. Goods transport in container or other unit loads overland, across ports, and by sea has become increasingly common, and ships have had to be fitted out to carry containers or to enable cargo to be loaded by the roll-on roll-off principle. A number of broad developing shipping concepts are having a marked impact on the type of facilities ports must provide and the amount of time ships spend in port loading or discharging cargo. Some of these concepts are described.

Cellular Container Ship—The term "containerisation" refers to a transport system in which cargo is unitised, received, and transported within containers of standard net dimensions equipped with material handling and securing fittings to provide for compatibility and interchangeability between different transport modes. In a cellular container ship containers are carried and secured in the ship by means of a series of vertical steel web frameworks forming cells into which containers can be lowered, automatically aligned, and locked by twist locks in special corner attachments*.

Unitised Cargo Ship—Containerisation is one example of the unitisation concept, but the term "unitised cargo ship" is generally used to describe a Scandinavian shipping development which utilises side opening doors to facilitate mechanical loading by fork-lift truck. The Zaida and Zira, which have recently entered the New Zealand - Japanese trade, are examples of this type of ship.

Roll-on Roll-off Ship—This is a ship specially constructed with large open-between-deck areas instead of holds and with stern or side ramps, so that cargo, including containers and other unitised loads, can be loaded and unloaded by wheeled vehicles such as fork-lifts or side loaders. The Cook Strait road/rail ferries are roll-on roll-off ships designed to carry railway rolling stock, as well as laden motor vehicles.

Appendices to the Journal of the House of Representatives; section H. 49, 1950 and 1962.

‡Streamlining basically involves a reduction in the number of calls made by overseas ships at New Zealand ports. As the recommendations of this council have progressively been adopted, there has been some reduction in the number of calls overseas ships made at port while on the New Zealand coast.

§Otago has also invested in container handling facilities, though this port does not have a shore-based container crane. These port developments are discussed later.

||These terminals are giant buoys linked by chains to anchors in the sea floor. A flexible hose is connected to the pipeline from shore and a floating section of the hose is connected to the ship when it is moored to the buoy.

Barge-carrying Systems—Two barge-carrying systems have recently been introduced within the maritime industry, the "lash" (lighter aboard ship) and "seabee" systems. The common denominator of both systems is the mothership with a complement of barges or lighters, which by its self-supporting nature can be employed in virtually any part of the world regardless of whether normal port facilities are available. In addition, the shallow draft barges can be pushed or towed to inland locations inaccessible to ocean-going vessels. To maintain their independence each mothership is fitted with heavy-lift equipment allowing loading or discharging to take place away from crowded dock areas using the minimum manpower.

Lash System (Lighter Aboard Ship)—This concept involves placing loaded barges in a large ocean carrier for part of the voyage. These barges are stowed latitudinally and can be lifted on or off the specially designed ships by hoisting equipment at the stern. Alternatively, the carrier ship may act as a floating dock, submerging itself sufficiently to permit the barges to be floated in and out. One of the advantages of this system is that the motive unit can be detached from the freight-carrying unit—enabling a much higher utilisation of the expensive machinery and engines. Each barge can be loaded with about 300 tons of cargo, and discharge and reloading is extremely rapid.

This method of cargo handling was introduced to New Zealand with the arrival of the Philippine Bear at Auckland in May 1973. The two 23-knot lash ships scheduled to service New Zealand, Philippine Bear and China Bear, can carry 47 lighters plus 540 containers. The lighters, each holding up to 450 tons of cargo, are loaded and unloaded by a deck straddling crane at the stern of the ship. Containers are handled by a 30-ton capacity on-board gantry working independently of the lighter crane.

Developments Within Particular Trades—Some specific developments and anticipated developments within particular trades are now reviewed.

United Kingdom Trade—The container service planned for this trade by the four British lines (the New Zealand Shipping Co., Shaw Savill Line, Port Line, and Blue Star Line) was abandoned in May 1971. The lines felt that rapid cost escalations meant the service would not survive, let alone reward the investment made, unless freight rates were raised more rapidly and by a substantially greater amount than New Zealand shippers had ever been willing to concede in the past.

Following this decision, Associated Container Transportation in conjunction with the Australian National Line announced that they would modify their existing container service between Europe and Australia to include calls at Auckland and Wellington. This service commenced in September 1972 (almost a year ahead of the proposed but now abandoned OCL/ACT service) and was initially operated by four container ships, Act 1, Act 2, Australian Endeavour, and Act 5. Early in 1974 a fifth ship, the 41,000 ton Remuera, joined the fleet, increasing the frequency of sailings from every 17 days to every 14. The ships make calls at Sydney, Melborne, Wellington, Auckland, London, and Liverpool. It is estimated that this service will handle only 20 percent of the New Zealand - United Kingdom trade, leaving the balance to be shipped by other means.

A supplementary refrigerated container service between Britain and South Island ports is being introduced by P. and O. (N.Z.) Ltd. Six of their conventional vessels now operating on this trade are being converted to handle a limited number of containers. Each ship will carry 26 containers on deck and will be equipped with their own travelling cranes and gantries to handle these containers. The service is designed primarily to be used in conjunction with the mechanical meat loaders at Timaru and Bluff.

East Coast - North America Trade—All of New Zealand's East Coast - North America trade is, now carried by two container services operated by Columbus Line and Associated Container Transport Ltd. (A.C.T.). Columbus Line runs three cellular container ships serving Otago (Port Chalmers) Wellington, and Auckland, while Associated Container Transport Ltd.'s three ships only serve Wellington and Auckland.

Farrell Lines Inc., a privately owned American-flag steamship company, has recently commenced a container service on this trade. The first of an intended four container ships, the Austral Envoy, arrived at Auckland and Wellington on its maiden voyage on 11 November and 13 November 1972 respectively. This was followed by the second of the new Farrell ships, the Austral Ensign which arrived in Auckland in April. Two other vessels, the Austral Endurance and the Austral Entente, have joined the service and a regular 15-day service to New Orleans, Charleston, Philadelphia, Norfolk and New York, from Auckland, Wellington, Sydney, Melbourne, and Brisbane is in operation.

*Royal Commission on Container, Final and Interim Reports, June 1972, Government Printer, Wellington.

Each of the new container vessels being constructed for Farrell Lines has a service speed in excess of 22 knots, is 668 ft 6 in long, has a 90-ft beam, and is equipped with a 70-ton conventional boom aft and a 30-ton crane forward. Both types of crane have an outreach of 20 ft from the maximum beam of the ship and enable heavy-lift cargo and containers, where shore-side container facilities are unavailable, to be handled. The container ships each have a capacity of 1,098, 20-ft container equivalents in a mixture of 20- and 40-ft containers. Of these 228 are reefer containers capable of carrying over 4,300 tons of frozen beef, lamb, or dairy products a trip. Although more 40 ft units are appearing in container services the predominance of meat as a north-bound cargo means that a substantial number of 20-ft containers will always be needed*. There is 210,000 cu ft of space for non-containerised lift cargo.

The vessels feature a new system of refrigeration which uses liquid nitrogen to maintain deep-freeze temperatures within the insulated containers ashore and 10-below-zero cold in three holds to protect refrigerated cargoes at sea. These refrigerated holds can also be converted to carry non-refrigerated cargo. When a refrigerated container for export is received into the terminal a cylinder containing liquid nitrogen gas is connected to the container and by means of a thermostat control the gas is automatically injected as required and this maintains the cargo at the pre-set temperature. This system has the advantage of being completely independent of any power source which gives much greater flexibility regarding stacking areas in the terminal.

West Coast - North America Trade—The Columbus Line is considering introducing a full container ship service to the West Coast of the United States. Although final plans have not yet been decided, it is possible that three new vessels each carrying approximately 800 containers and maintaining a 24-day service might be introduced. Ports serviced in New Zealand would be Auckland, Wellington, and Port Chalmers.

The Pacific Far East Line company commenced its lash service between New Zealand (calling at Wellington and Auckland) and the West Coast of North America in May 1973, with the arrival of the Philippine Bear at Auckland. Preliminary indications are that two lash ships will operate a 25-day service between the two areas.

These ships are 820 ft in length, with a 100-ft beam and a net tonnage of 18,706 tons, and are capable of steaming at 23 knots. A mixture of lighters and containers will be carried. The lighters (47 in total) are 61½ ft long, 31 ft 2 in. wide, and 13 ft in depth, and have a 450-ton capacity. In addition, 540 containers can be carried. The ships will carry their own cranes—a 550-ton lighter crane, a 30-ton. container crane, and two 5-ton ship's store cranes—and are thus completely independent of shore equipment. Barges may therefore be left or picked up at any port without any special shore facilities being needed. Bulk, liquid, containerised, refrigerated, palletised, or large single-piece cargoes can be carried. The lighters will be floated off the stern, either alongside a wharf or at anchorage, and the ship will be able to be fully loaded or discharged within 24 hours.

Scandinavian Trade—A new service commenced towards the end of 1972 should result in 95 percent of New Zealand's trade with Scandinavia becoming containerised or unitised. A consortium of shipping lines trading under the name "Scandinavian Lines" is replacing three conventional freighters at present on the run with four multi-purpose, part-container ships ("Scandia" ships). Each ship will carry 200 containers, 90 in special cells below deck and the remainder on deck. The rest of the cargo will comprise unitised loads, such as wool, and there will also be ranks for liquids. As well, there will be space for reefers and a special space for wet cargoes, such as hides, which are unsuitable for containers.

The four vessels will have their own equipment and will not have to rely on port container cranes. As well as special 25-ton cranes for handling containers, they will have 125-ton and 40-ton heavy-lift derricks, two 15-ton, two 10-ton, and two 5-ton derricks. One of the vessels, the Torrens, will also have side doors for loading and discharge.

Unlike full container ships, the Scandia ships load conventional cargo and call at non-container ports, providing a more flexible service than container ships. Indications are that the Scandinavian Lines will provide a 5-weekly service, calling at the ports of Auckland, Lyttelton, Dunedin, and Bluff, with occasional calls at Tauranga and Napier. They will call at several ports in Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and Northern Europe.

*Frozen meat is a cargo of such high density and concentrated weight that it can only be shipped efficiently in 20-ft containers. Filling a 40-ft unit with this product would result in a load too heavy to be manageable. There are also difficulties in keeping the whole cargo frozen in a 40-ft container.

Japanese Trade—The P. and O. group introduced a 6,300-ton unit load ship, the Zaida, to this service in March 1972 and a second unit load ship (the Zira) made a run early in 1973.

A feature of these ships is that freight is loaded through two sideports. An outboard conveyor at each sideport is fed with special pallets by fork-lift trucks working on the wharf. The pallets are conveyed automatically to an elevator which is pre-set to deliver the goods to one of four decks where the ship's own forklifts take the cargo to stowing positions. Provision is also made to carry 56 containers on deck, and a 25-ton crane makes the ship independent of shore facilities.

PORT CONSTRUCTIONS—The future role of many New Zealand ports will be largely determined by the type of shipping which emerges as best suited to meet the special requirements of the country's overseas trade. A description of some of the major developments recently completed at New Zealand ports to match continuing requirements is now presented. Constructions related to non-cargo handling activities, such as the provision of boating marinas, are omitted.

Recent and Contemplated Port Developments—During the period 1960 to 1969 capital expenditure at New Zealand ports, excluding the capital requirements associated with maintaining works and services, exceeded $109 million. Some recent developments undertaken at New Zealand ports, and future port plans, are summarised.

Northland—A bulk-cargo (fertiliser) wharf has recently been constructed by the Northland Harbour Board at Whangarei. This wharf, along with associated roading and an amenities building, cost slightly in excess of $500,000. Works under construction include the development of industrial sites at Kioreroa and Kaituna, replacement dredging and reclamation for the Pahia Jetty, and the consolidation of 105 acres of reclaimed land at Port Whangarei.

The Board has undertaken considerable research into the development of a national container port at Marsden Point, and more recently has put forward proposals for the establishment of a bulk-handling complex at its port at Marsden Point. The port has a natural safe deep-water approach and the depth at the bulk-cargo berth would be 55 ft M.L.W.S.

Auckland—The Fergusson Wharf container terminal has been the most important development project undertaken by the Auckland Harbour Board in recent years. A 45-ton, twin-lift container crane was installed and commenced operations in June 1971, and 1,500 ft of breastwork have now been constructed, together with related storage and marshalling facilities. Extensions of the breastwork to 1,800 ft are being made (this permits two container ships to be served concurrently), and the adjacent terminal area is being extended by paving the remaining 9.8 acres of reclamation and providing the necessary additional services and facilities for the second berth. Approval was granted during 1972 to construct a permanent break-bulk container base shed of 80,000 sq. ft at Monash Street to cope with the increasing trade through the container terminal. The Fergusson Wharf development also entailed the relocation of the existing roll-on berth.

Plans to demolish and redevelop the older wharves located in the central port area have been advanced. The need to extend the roll-on method of cargo handling, plus the need to upgrade the Kings, Marsden, and Captain Cook wharves, has resulted in the Auckland Harbour Board adopting a scheme to demolish these wharves and construct a four-berth terminal for roll-on and other unitised cargoes in their place.

The board also has a tentative long-range development plan aimed at satisfying future increases in the level of dry bulk-cargo throughput. A report on bulk granular cargo by the Battelle Institute indicated that the development of the upper harbour was necessary to meet these requirements, and the plan requires extensive dredging plus the construction of new berths. Phase I of the upper harbour development, involving a site investigation, has been authorised by the board.

The remaining strip of rock outcrop in the Rangitoto channel was removed during 1971 and capital dredging associated with the Fergusson container complex is substantially complete. Major maintenance dredging of the berths and approaches to the main wharves is planned for the coming years.

Bay of Plenty—Development dredging has recently been completed at a total cost of $749,000 and the port is now operating at 31-ft draught (H.W.). Dredging of the entrance, cutter channel, and Maunganui roads was involved. Other works recently completed include: the construction of a 700-ft wharf extension (extension No. 8, Mount Maunganui Wharf), to allow vessels of up to 35-ft draught to berth and with the wharf deck designed for heavy unit loads; a special berth for the board's two tugs; and a slipway, capable of accommodating 600-ton vessels, which was completed in late 1971, and will service all the Board's floating plant (total cost approached $350,000).

Further development schemes are being contemplated to increase the port's draught, reclaim further land, and construct special tanker and fertiliser berths. Included is a further 300-ft berth extension, establishment of a "forestry industry terminal" principally for the trans-Tasman trade, and early attainment of 35-ft draught (H.W.).

Gisborne—A recent development at the port of Gisborne has been the provision of two 1,000-ton silos, together with associated loading and discharge equipment, costing $110,000, for the export lucerne trade. Work has commenced on constructing a 34-ft wide gate in the river diversion wall giving access to a proposed 150-ft fishing wharf in the Turanganui River. This wharf, being adjacent to a fish processing plant, should enable the direct unloading of fish. The project is estimated to cost $100,000.

Napier—A port development plan, involving an increase in berthage space and draught, as well as reclamation to provide cargo aggregation space, has been outlined to cover the 10-year period ending 1981. The plan provides as a first-stage development an enclosed harbour, protected by extensions of Higgins and Kirkpatrick wharves backed by reclaimed land, providing 10 berths for overseas ships and 1 berth for coastal vessels.

The construction of some of the facilities contained in this plan has already commenced. A 380-ft breastwork wharf between Higgins and Geddes wharves has been built, backed by ¾ acres of reclaimed land. This wharf is for use by coastal vessels and in particular bulk cement carriers. An extension of 800 ft to Higgins Wharf is providing an additional overseas berth. Approximately 20 acres of reclamation will serve the Higgins Wharf berths. (The total estimated cost of the Higgins Wharf extension and associated dredging and reclamation works is $2,200,000.) Application has been made to the New Zealand Ports Authority for approval to construct the following facilities on this reclamation:

  1. A 126,000 sq ft shed for the storage of wood pulp, a new trade based in the area. Most cargoes would be carried to and from the shed by road until about 1975 when the pulp is expected to be delivered by rail. The building is designed to store 37,000 tons of wood pulp.

  2. A shed to store 55,000 tons of phosphate rock, half of which would be used for other fertilisers until 1980. The phosphate shed would be filled at 1,000 tons per hour by a belt conveyor fed from a 20-ton clump hopper between the berths of Higgins Wharf. It would be discharged into lorries loaded by front-end loaders.

  3. Two silos to store 2,000 tons of lucerne pellets or maize with handling and weighing equipment to receive 50 tons per hour, discharging equipment for 400 tons per hour, and two 100-ton-per-hour ship loaders.

Taranaki—This port is currently completing an extensive development programme costing approximately $10 million which was commenced in 1962. Harbour works completed during the course of this programme included, the erection of a new lee breakwater 2,400 ft in length, a 600-ft extension to the main breakwater, a major dredging programme which increased the maximum permissible entry draught to 29½ ft, the reclamation of the seabed adjoining the Blyde and Moturoa wharves, and the construction of Blyde Wharf. This wharf is 1,400 ft in length and has a depth (low water) alongside of 36 ft. The berths comprise a 64-ft quay apron with four rail tracks arranged for rail/direct loading or rail/unit load operation and for unrestricted vehicle servicing. An extensive cargo storage area serves this wharf. The board is also taking steps to set up a small container base operation on the reclaimed area backing Blyde Wharf.

Prior to Government's decision not to fire the New Plymouth power station with coal, work had commenced on a special collier berth. This job was converted to a reclamation which provided approximately 5 acres of land adjoining Moturoa Wharf.

The board anticipates construction of a special berth approximately 200 ft long on the east side of the Blyde Wharf reclamation for use by the oil consortium developing the Maui gas field. Within the port area land will be provided for use by the consortium and for the final establishment of a long-term marine base.

Wanganui—During 1972 the New Zealand Ports Authority made a broad study of the future role to be played by this port in the country's transport system. In the course of their investigations they received a large number of submissions from interested parties. In February 1973 the Minister of Transport determined that the time was inopportune to proceed with this study until further progress was made on the question of regional development. Accordingly the ports authority ceased its inquiries.

The harbour board had made engineering estimates for proposals which would increase the port's draught to 26 ft L.W.O.S.T., with a further extension to 30 ft being possible. This would permit overseas vessels in the 8–10,000 ton range to enter or leave the port for intermediate loading or unloading on any tide. The development concept would require dredging of the channel approaching the entrance, the entrance itself, and the inside channel and basin. Dredging at the entrance is suggested as producing the greatest improvement to the port's ability to handle ships. A trailing suction hopper dredge costing approximately $1,650,000 would have to be purchased. The estimated cost of these works is $2,837,000, with a further $1,200,000 being necessary to improve navigation.

An alternative and more expensive scheme of development envisages the diversion of the Wanganui River through the South Spit. This scheme would eliminate river silt being deposited at the entrance or in the channel, dredging in the basin would be reduced, and land reclamation on a large scale would be possible.

Wellington—Many important engineering works are currently being undertaken by the Wellington Harbour Board. Following Government's decision that the ports of Wellington and Auckland be developed as container terminals, the port has been active in providing the necessary facilities. By June 1971, when the first cellular container ship arrived in port, approximately 1,300 ft of breastwork had been completed and paved, a 34-acre reclamation had been completed and compacted, and a 7-acre back-up area to the container berth had been fully paved and the necessary facilities and services installed and made operational, A 45-ton twin-lift, quayside container crane was installed and became operational in August 1971. It is estimated that this container terminal (Thorndon container terminal, berth 2), will be capable of a throughput of 19,000 containers each way per year.

Work has also proceeded on Thorndon container terminal berth 1, which, is initially capable of a throughput of 24,000 containers each way per year. New Zealand Railways have constructed a 95-ton Goliath rail/road transtainer crane for the transfer of all refrigerated and general cargo containers between rail and road or terminal transport.

The board has also been engaged in constructing a second road/rail ferry berth, which became operational during late 1972. This has necessitated reclaiming 7½ acres of land, installing a linkspan, the intermediate and ship end lifting machinery and towers, and a concrete access ramp at the rear of the berth.

Another major development underway is the construction of a new oil tanker berth at Point Howard. Longer term plans may entail the reclamation of additional land at Korokoro (possibly up to 140 acres), and further reclamation at the Kaiwharawhara development.

Marlborough—Marlborough Harbour Board, in conjunction with New Zealand Railways, has spent several million dollars on the construction of a second roll-on roll-off berth and ancillary facilities at Picton. The development entailed the diversion of the Waitohi Stream into an underground culvert, the reclamation of the Waitohi Lagoon and other foreshore land, and the construction of a berth, linkspan, and overpass.

Construction of a bulk-lucerne meal-storage silo, estimated to cost $160,000, is underway. Planning is well advanced to extend the western Waitohi breastwork to provide 950 ft of breastwork with 42 ft at low spring water, with 9.3 acres of land on the breastwork. It is anticipated that this proposal will cost $1,600,000 and will be completed by 1974.

The board has had a study prepared to indicate the feasibility of exporting the potential bulk produce from the West Coast South Island ports by tug and barge, for trans-shipment at Picton to overseas bulk carriers.

Nelson—A dredging programme has been in operation at this port since 1952, but following a disastrous storm in April 1968 a major capital dredging programme had to be commenced as a matter of extreme urgency to facilitate the export of wind-thrown logs to Japan. The aim was to increase the permissible draught of log vessels to 28 ft and this has been achieved. Other recent works include the completion of Kingsford Quay (a breastwork wharf 850 ft long with a wharf area of 3½ acres), and the opening of a 1,200-ton slipway in May 1970, while work has taken place on an extension to McGlashen Quay. This quay presently provides over 1,100 ft of berthage and handles the woodchip export trade (loaded by a moveable chip loading gantry owned by Nelson Pine Forest Limited).

The Nelson Harbour Board has drawn up a port development plan which aims at reclaiming additional land within Nelson haven and extending the port's berthage. Proposed extensions will increase total berthage from 4,050 to 7,000 ft, and it would be possible to further increase this to 21,000 ft. A start has been made in constructing a new overseas roll-on roll-off berth (Brunt Quay) as the board feels that with the increasing trend towards containerisation, Port Nelson may become a container feeder port.

Lyttelton—Construction of additional roll-on facilities at Gladstone pier was halted when the original breastwork wharf line was reinstated (following the termination of one of the coastal roll-on services). The berth associated with the project was rebuilt to withstand a 50-ton axle loading from mobile plant. Provision has been made for the completion of these works at a later date if required.

The major current development has been the construction of the third berth at Cashin Quay which was commenced in November 1971. With the completion of the third berth, berthage totalling 2,205 ft has been provided at Cashin Quay, of which 670 ft has been constructed to heavy design standards (providing for a maximum axle loading from mobile plant of 50 tons). As with the existing berths at Cashin Quay, a depth of 40 ft at M.L.W.S. will be provided by dredging. The board had originally intended installing a bulk unloader container crane at this new berth, but following the further decline in the import of raw materials for fertiliser manufacture, this has been deferred. Accordingly, vessels handling containers will initially be required to use their own shipboard cranes while a small number of containers may be handled by the harbour board's floating cranes.

Changes are being made to the area behind the steamer express terminal to improve the handling of roll-on cargo and vehicles.

An application to the New Zealand Ports Authority seeking authority to raise a $675,000 loan to provide facilities for an export woodchip trade was approved in 1972. Facilities to be provided by the board include a stacker, equipment to reclaim the woodchips to a conveyor system, and a ship loader (which will be capable of handling other types of bulk cargo). An area of approximately 134 acres will need to be provided at the eastern end of Cashin Quay for the stockpiling of up to 30,000 tons of woodchips.

A proposal to construct on overhead bridge across the railway line at the end of Gladstone Quay Road is under consideration.

Timaru—A development plan covering the period 1973–78 was prepared in 1972 by the Timaru Harbour Board. While a number of the proposals contained in the plan are dependent on the development of certain trades, the overall plan is designed to develop Timaru as a specialist bulk-loading port. This is in keeping with recent developments at the port resulting in the provision of two bulk handling installations.

Additional channel depth is required to cater for the trend in the meat trade towards one-port loading and increasing quantities of cartoned meat. Also there is the likelihood of expanding grain exports from the South Canterbury area as well as other bulk trades.

Planning is under way to strengthen certain wharves so that cargo-handling plant having greater axle loads may be utilised. Wharf extensions are also being considered to provide for the anticipated increase in vessel length that may occur with greater channel depths.

Other facilities including a coastal roll-on roll-off terminal, additional bulk handling installations, cool stores, bulk cement installations and wool-handling facilities are planned, but the construction of these will be dependent on trade development.

Oamaru—The major construction activity at this port in recent years was the reconstruction of Holmes Wharf, together with the widening of the sole access to the wharf, and improved lighting on the wharf. This work was completed at the end of 1971 at a cost of approximately $200,000.

Otago—Several major works have been undertaken by the Otago Harbour Board in recent years. In 1971 the extension to the bulk-fertiliser wharf at Ravensbourne was completed, which extended the wharf by 100 ft enabling the larger vessels new serving the trade to be accommodated.

Of paramount importance has been the development of the Port Chalmers container terminal. To cater for the first cellular container service to operate in New Zealand—the direct service to East Coast - North American ports provided by the Columbus Lines—the board constructed the following terminal facilities at the Beach Street Wharf, Port Chalmers: a refrigerated container stacking area of 0.85 acres with a capacity of 54 containers with underground electrical supply for clip-on units; a dry container stack area of 1.75 acres with capacity for 172 containers.

A further 9 acres have been reclaimed to provide additional container storage space. Concurrently with this reclamation programme, the harbour entrance has been dredged to a depth of 45 ft L.W. It is also aimed to improve the depth in the lower harbour channel to the order of 33 ft L.W. This will enable container ships of maximum Panama Canal dimensions to be berthed at practically all states of the tide and weather.

A tentative expenditure forecast for contemplated works has been outlined by the board, with the implementation of the works dependent on future demands and trends. Proposals at Port Chalmers include the construction of woodchip export facilities and the extension of the single-berth container terminal to a two-berth complex with 27 acres of land. Reclamation of land adjacent to the existing roll-on terminal, the construction of a second roll-on wharf, and the construction of bulk-lucerne silos, and handling facilities are seen as future works at Dunedin.

Using its own resources the harbour board has built two tugs to replace the existing steam-powered oceangoing tug.

Southland—The construction of the smelter wharf at Tiwai Point to serve New Zealand Aluminium Smelters Limited, has been the major recent development at the port of Southland (Bluff). The wharf which is 650 ft in length and has a 4,175-ft approach, was opened in April 1971 with the first shipment of aluminium being exported in October 1971. A bulk aluminium discharger has been installed which feeds a belt conveyor to silos ashore. It is anticipated that bulk carriers of up to 35,000 tons will eventually berth at the wharf.

To accommodate larger vessels, the board has embarked upon a project to widen and deepen the entrance channel. This involves rock removal by both dredging and plaster blasting on the northern side and the Mararoa Rock area in No. 3 reach of the entrance channel.

Development plans foresee extensions to berthage provided at Island Harbour (20-acre reclamation plus an additional 1,800 ft of berthage) to serve the forestry trade and possible overseas roll-on vessels. Extensions to No. 11 berth, old wharf, are anticipated to serve the larger liquid and dry bulk cargo vessels.

HARBOUR BOARD ASSETS—Individual harbour board assets total $195 million in value and vary from approximately $38 million in the case of the Auckland Harbour Board to over $10,000 at Raglan. Auckland accounts for almost 20 percent of the country's total port assets and other ports having substantial investments are Wellington (12 percent of the total), Whangarei, Lyttelton, Taranaki, and Bluff (each having approximately 9 percent).

Grouping these port assets into broad categories of function, almost 40 percent of the $195 million is represented by wharves, breakwaters, moles, and breastworks. Real estate and reclaimed land makes up a further 18 percent of the total and wharf sheds and other buildings 12 percent. Floating plant such as tugs, dredges, floating cranes and launches, and other plant and equipment (cranes, forklifts, tractors, silos, weighbridges, etc.) each account for approximately 7 percent of total port assets. The remaining assets are made up of docks and slipways, capital dredging, stock and materials, and office furniture and fittings.

Wharves provided at main New Zealand ports, and the number of berths at these wharves, are presented in the following table. These berths range from oil jetties at Whangarei, to roll-on roll-off berths at Otago, Lyttelton, Picton, Wellington, and Auckland, to berths designed to accommodate cargo handling.

WHARVES PROVIDED AT MAIN NEW ZEALAND PORTS
As at 30 September 1972
PortLength of WharvesNumber of Berths
*One or more additional berths under construction.
 (feet) 
Opua/Whangarei3,80911
Auckland13,56733*
Onehunga9264
Raglan1531
Tauranga6,15412
Gisborne3,0657
Napier3,5868*
Taranaki4,1007*
Wanganui1,8706
Wellington25,72633*
Picton1,2023*
Nelson4,07314
Westport2,3506
Greymouth1,1003
Lyttelton10,69217
Timaru4,2758
Oamaru9002
Otago9,78019
Bluff10,62515
CARGO MOVEMENTS AT MAIN NEW ZEALAND PORTS IN CARGO FORM
Year Ended 30 September 1971
PortCargo FormTotal
Liquid BulkDry BulkRoll-onContainerGeneral Cargo

*Year ended 31 December 1971.

†Year ended 31 March 1972.

 tons (000)
Opua/Whangarei*5,9906781586,826
Auckland1,0961,155419211,8894,580
Onehunga66172238
Tauranga4423801,8592,682
Raglan22527
Gisborne167389
Taranaki281277239797
Napier261239435935
Wanganui592181
Wellington8141341,858267933,626
Nelson93206334634
Picton1,346411,386
Westport*2043207
Greymouth18624
Lyttelton4501895795561,774
Timaru112118195425
Oamaru1515
Otago165711319284660
Bluff170282387840
Total9,8754,1154,332577,46625,845
COMMODITIES PASSED THROUGH NEW ZEALAND PORTS
Commodity19711973

* Includes roll-on roll-of ferry traffic.

† If contents not known.

 Manifest Tons
Butter179,603171,042
Cheese101,14391,261
Other milk products350,700475,298
Meat, frozen and preserved716,793741,100
Tallow70,03478,007
Hides, skins, and pelts85,96385,096
Fruit, fresh and preserved251,209321,055
Vegetables90,623102,104
Cereal and bakery products38,81925,863
Flour37,16816,304
Grain318,648356,381
Seeds23,91213,723
Salt36,34646,704
Sugar257,080227,132
Tea, cocoa, and coffee beans29,39627,549
Wines, spirits, ale, beer69,56751,978
Tobacco and cigarettes11,68814,053
Coal and coke306,625303,542
Fertilisers, lime, rock phosphate, etc.1,672,4012,113,572
Cement1,085,9791,412,982
Sand, shingle and shell833,2152,376,693
Gypsum, plaster of paris100,663140,690
Glass, glassware and crockery53,33147,480
Iron and steel, pipes, etc.543,618681,168
Machinery227,718196,874
Motor vehicles, parts and tyres*2,236,4023,019,604
Motor spirit, kerosene2,370,1513,571,377
Oil products, (diesel, fuel, etc)6,216,1307,091,745
Bitumen213,816192,276
Rubber, crude and manufactures28,55632,777
Textiles150,599156,465
Timber, hardwood and softwood2,159,8292,277,896
Paper, newsprint, etc.232,900228,023
Wood pulp133,332224,422
Wool342,999321,448
Goods in reusable containers784,8211,050,504
Goods, not elsewhere specified2,968,2124,276,502
Total26,209,44932,560,721
CONTAINER TRAFFIC 1972 AND 1973
PortContainersHandled*
19721973

*Equivalent in length to 20 ft; about 25 percent were empty containers because of imbalance between export and import trades.

†Growth due mainly to increasing use of containers on United Kingdom service. Indications are that this total could grow to 260,000 in 1980–215,000 in the North Island and 45,000 in the South Island.

Auckland12,30028,600
Wellington14,15023,400
Otago3,7503,620
Other..3,000
Totals30,20058,620

Chapter 48. PUBLICATIONS OF THE NEW ZEALAND DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS

Obtainable from the Government Bookshop, Mulgrave Street (Private Bag), Wellington; Cubacade, Wellington; State Advances Building, Rutland Street (P.O. Box 5344), Auckland; 130 Oxford Terrace (P.O. Box 1721), Christchurch; T. & G. Building (P.O. Box 1104), Dunedin; and Barton Street (P.O. Box 857), Hamilton.

TitleLatest No.Date of Issue
* $6,000 a year.
Annual Report of the Government Statistician (G. 28)1,974June 1974
New Zealand Official Yearbook1,974October 1974
New Zealand Pocket Digest of Statistics1,974July 1974
Catalogue of New Zealand Statistics1,972February 1973
Annual Statistical Reports:
    Agricultural Statistics1970–71May 1974
    Balance of Payments1970–71June 1972
    Incomes and Income Tax to 1970–71..March 1974
    Industrial Injuries1968 and 69December 1973
    Industrial Production1971–72October 1974
    Insurance1971–72September 1973
    Justice1,971May 1973
    Local Authority Statistics1971–72March 1974
    National Income and Expenditure1972–73July 1974
    Population, Migration, and Building1970–71November 1973
    Prices, Wages, and Labour1,972April 1974
    Transport1,972April 1974
    Vital Statistics1,971November 1973
Trade Publications:
    ExportsJul-Dec 1971July 1973
    External Trade, Country AnalysesJan-June 1972June 1974
    External Trade, Report and Analysis of1970–71March 1974
    Imports (pt. A) Commodity by CountryJul-Dec 1971October 1973
    Imports (pt. B) Commodity by CountryJul-Dec 1971September 1973
Inter-industry Study of the New Zealand Economy:
    Part 1. Transactions between 110 Productive Industries at Producers' Prices1959–60September 1966
    Part 2. Derived Tables from Transactions of 110 Industries1959–60December 1966
    Part 3. Transactions Between 44 Productive Industries and Derived Tables1959–60March 1967
    Part 3. A Description of the Input-Output Tables and System1959–60December 1967
Monthly Abstract of Statistics
Census of Building and Construction1968–69July 1971
Census of Distribution1,968July 1970
Census of Libraries1,969November 1971
Population Census:
    Vol. 1. Increase and Location of Population1,971October 1972
    Vol. 2. Ages and Marital Status1,966August 1968
    Vol. 3. Religious Professions1,966September 1968
    Vol. 4. Industries and Occupations1,966August 1969
    Vol. 5. Incomes1,966May 1969
    Vol. 6. Education and Birthplaces1,966November 1969
    Vol. 7. Race1,966June 1969
    Vol. 8. Maori Population and Dwellings1,966March 1970
    Vol. 9A. Dwellings1,966April 1970
    Vol. 9B. Households1,966February 1971
    Vol. 10. General Report (Including Details of War Service, Dependent Children, and Usual Place of Residence)1,966April 1971
    Provisional Results: Census of Population and Dwellings1,971September 1971
      Life Tables and Life Annuity Tables1965–67April 1970
      Maps of Statistical Boundaries1,971March 1972
      Territorial Area Supplements1,9711973–74
Special Supplements to Monthly Abstract of Statistics
    Compound Interest, Annuity-certain and Life Annuity Tables..August 1963
    Consumers' Price Index, 1965 Revision..September 1966
    New Nominal Wage Rates Index..October 1968
    N.Z. Tables of Male Working Life1,966March 1970
    Population Projections1971–2001July 1973
    Maori Population and Labour Force Projections1970–90February 1971
    Remarriage and Length of Widowhood, 1965–67..February 1971
(*) $6.00 a year.

Chapter 49. SUPPLEMENTS TO MONTHLY ABSTRACT OF STATISTICS

TitleLatest No.Date of Issue
  Accounts of the Government Sector1968–69September 1971
  All Farming Costs Price Index March 1974
  Balance of Payments1972–73May 1974
  Census of Mining and Quarrying, and Prospecting1968–69January 1971
  Census of Population and Dwellings1,971Oct-Nov 1971
  External Trade1972–73June 1974
  Exports and Imports Transported by AirTo Jun 1973July 1974
  Ex-Nuptial Births..January 1967
  Factory Production, General Summary1971–72November 1973
  Farm Employment1,972July 1974
  Gross Domestic Product and G.N.P. at Constant Prices1972–73April 1974
  Income TrendsTo 1972January 1973
  Indexes of Production and Productivity1972–73February 1974
  Industrial Classification of Salary and Wage Payments1971–72May 1974
  Industrial Injuries1969–70July 1973
  Land Transfers1973–74August 1974
  Manufacturers' StocksDec QuarterJune 1974
  Mortgages1972–73May 1974
  National Income and Expenditure1972–73April 1974
  Price, Volume and Terms of Trade Indexes for External Trade..May 1972
  Private Superannuation Funds1967–68August 1969
  Projections of Permanent Private Dwellings up to 1980..Oct-Nov 1969
  Seasonal Correction of Statistics..May 1968
  Survey of Commercial Gardeners' Incomes1971–72July 1973
  Survey of Dairy Farmers' Incomes1971–72October 1973
  Survey of Orchardists' Incomes1971–72September 1973
  Survey of Sheep Farmers' Incomes1971–72October 1973
  Survey of Tobacco Growers' Incomes1971–72July 1973
  Survey of Town Milk Producers' Incomes1971–72October 1973
MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES  
  Supplements on nearly 100 manufacturing industries are also available.

Chapter 50. LATEST STATISTICAL INFORMATION

Later statistical information has become available during the course of printing the Yearbook. Some of these statistics are entered in the Statistical Summary (pp. 1009 to 1036). Other information is given in the following pages with references to appropriate sections of the Yearbook. Readers are referred to the Monthly Abstract of Statistics for the most recent information on many statistical series.

POPULATION

Population (p. 54)—Recent figures are given in the following table for the total population.

DateTotalMean Population for Year
31 December 19733,026,9302,978,676
31 March 19743,042,8002,995,400

The above figures do not include the population of the Cook Islands, 21,227 (at 1 December 1972); Niue Island, 4,272 (at 30 September 1973); and Tokelau Islands, 1,587 (at 26 September 1973).

Migration (p. 69)—Total arrivals and departures are classified in the following table.

CategoryYear Ended 31 March
197219731974 
*Mainly on cruise ships
Arrivals   
Permanent and long-term arrivals45,09954,651 
New Zealand residents returning135,602160,087 
Temporary visitors227,580254,644 
Totals408,281469,382597,844
Crews150,581157,518172,248
Through passengers*82,44483,138101,029
Grand totals, all arrivals641,306710,038871,121
Departures   
Permanent and long-term departures37,54635,483 
New Zealand residents departing temporarily133,878154,992 
Temporary visitors departing226,006253,432 
Totals397,430443,907564,950
Crews151,420156,859171,445
Through passengers*82,44483,138101,029
Grand totals, all departures631,294683,904837,824

Age Distribution (p. 82)—The estimated age distribution of the population at 31 December 1973 is given below.

Age Group in YearsN.Z. MaorisTotal Population
MalesFemalesTotalMalesFemalesTotal
Under 519,33218,64237,974157,686150,924308,610
5–919,50018,74038,240154,850148,200303,050
10–1419,30018,88038,180164,040157,350321,390
15–1914,66014,50029,160146,180139,550285,730
20–2410,45010,40020,850126,060120,860246,920
25–298,0108,10016,110113,800111,850225,650
30–347,1807,11014,29096,73093,600190,330
35–396,1406,15012,29080,39077,930158,320
40–445,2505,32010,57081,18077,420158,600
45–494,0403,9808,02082,62078,070160,690
50–543,1003,0506,15075,75076,440152,190
55–592,1802,2904,57064,11068,180132,290
60–641,8601,6703,53058,93062,820121,750
65–691,2101,0902,30046,41052,35098,760
70–747007001,40032,12040,39072,510
75–7934034068017,71028,01045,720
80 and over25023048015,16029,26044,420
Totals123,602121,192244,7941,513,7261,513,2043,026,930
Totals—
    Under 1454,64252,812107,454444,916426,114871,030
    Under 1661,45259,622121,074507,516486,134993,650
    Under 2072,79270,762143,554622,756596,0241,218,780
    Under 2175,02273,012143,034648,976621,0441,270,020
    20 and over50,81050,430101,240890,970917,1801,808,150
    21 and over48,58048,18096,760864,750892,1601,756,910
    65 and over2,5002,3604,860111,400150,010261,410

TRANSPORT

Railway Transport (pp. 301–309)—Summarised statistics of railway transport for the year ended 31 March 1974 are compared with previous years.

ItemUnitYear Ended 31 March
197219731974
*Including road motor, rail-road ferry, and other subsidiary services.
Passenger journeys—
    Railways(000)20,11618,94421,031
    Railway road motor services(000)21,52420,86618,637
Livestock tonnagetons (000)13510377
Goods tonnagetons (000)11,17612,02413,091
Revenue—
    Railway operation$(000)101,296112,162125,789
Total*$(000)122,368134,990152,179
Expenditure—
    Railway operation$(000)107,277117,197135,363
Total*$(000)126,696138,340160,832

Road Transport (p. 316)—Statistics of motor vehicles licensed at 31 March 1974 are compared with those for 31 March 1973.

ClassAs at 31 March
19731974
*Mostly farm tractors, etc.
Cars1,032,2281,091,160
Trucks194,654200,127
Contract vehicles1,1171,109
Omnibuses and service cars3,1003,054
Totals1,231,0991,295,450
Motor cycles47,69860,755
Power cycles24,95026,655
Vehicles exempted from payment of licence fees*92,930103,098
Trailers and caravans256,281279,650
Grand totals1,652,9581,765,608

Registration of new vehicles and those vehicles previously registered only in another country during the year ended 31 March 1974 were: cars 100,817, motor cycles (including power cycles), 32,167, commercial vehicles, 24,258, trailers, 32,414, total, 189,656. The figures for the year ended 31 March 1973 were 95,582; 20,637; 23,971; 22,235; 162,325.

BUILDING AND HOUSING (pp. 521–542)

Building Permits—The following table presents the latest statistics on building permits issued (including Government buildings).

Type of Building PermitYear Ended 31 March
19731974
NumberValueNumberValue
  $(m) $(m)
New houses and flats32,770365.739,734544.7
Alterations and additions to houses and flats40,91349.445,59767.6
Other buildings (including alterations)16,530330.717,539387.0
Totals, all buildings90,213745.9102,870999.3

Houses and Flats Completed—There were 31,900 houses and flats completed in the year ended 31 March 1974 compared with 27,400 in the preceding year. Additional units created by conversion totalled 650 in 1973–74 combined with 560 in 1972–73. Demolitions notified totalled 2,900 in 1973–74 compared with 22,500 in 1972–73.

MARKETING OF FARM PRODUCE

Wool (p. 573)—Weight, sale value, and average value per kilogram of greasy wool sold at auction in New Zealand in the last three seasons are shown below.

SeasonWeight of Greasy Wool SoldSale ValueValue per KgIndex Numbers* Base: 1963–64 (= 1000)
*Based on price on floor, clean.
 kg(m)$(m)c 
1971–72209.2139.066.46693
1972–73196.2282.5143.961,423
1973–74199.1278.7139.191,376

DOMESTIC TRADE (pp. 578–599)

Retail Trade—Values of quarterly turnover for retail stores, adjusted for seasonal fluctuations and for price and population changes, are shown in the following table for the latest quarters.

Quarter EndedTotal TurnoverTurnover per Head of Population
In Current $sIn Constant 1957–58 $sIn Current $sIn Constant 1957–58 $s
As RecordedSeasonally AdjustedBefore Seasonal AdjustmentSeasonally AdjustedAs RecordedSeasonally AdjustedBefore Seasonal AdjustmentSeasonally Adjusted
 $(m)$(m)$(m)$(m)$$$$
1973 Dec913.89821.43493.62443.90304.12273.35164.27147.72
1974 Mar792.83841.80419.57445.40261.15277.28138.20146.71
*Provisional.

Hire Purchase Trade—The following statistics show trade for the latest quarter (compared with previous quarters) by surveyed businesses covering about 72 percent of total hire purchase business.

Quarter EndedValue of Goods Sold on Hire PurchaseTotal Amount Owing Under H.P. Agreements*
Motor VehiclesPlant and MachineryTelevision SetsOther Household and Personal GoodsTotal
*As at end of quarter.
1973—$(000)$(m)
    December61,62214,0351,18217,12093,959192.9
1974—
    March50,3058,8231,08012,75772,966192.6

Summary of Stocks—The following table gives a summary of stocks held by manufacturers wholesale traders, and retail traders.

StocksAs at 31 March
1971197219731974
Manufacturers—$(million)
    Materials394.4444.1450.6 
    Finished goods180.5210.3209.7 
Wholesale416.2473.9462.7510.0
Retail363.0394.6408.5487.6
Totals1,354.11,522.91,531.5 

PRICES

Retail Prices (pp. 666–687)—Details of the consumers' price index for later quarters are set out in the following table.

CONSUMERS' PRICE INDEX
Base: Weighted average 25 centres, 1965 (=1000)
Group or SubgroupCalendar Year 1965Quarter Ended 31 March 1974Quarter Ended 30 June 1974
Food—
    Fruits and vegetables1,0001,6701,749
    Meat and fish1,0002,1092,098
    Other foods1,0001,5201,552
            Food1,0001,7301,758
Housing—
    Rent1,0001,7221,774
    Home ownership1,0001,9292,006
            Housing1,0001,8661,935
Household operation—
    Fuel and light1,0001,3401,375
    Home furnishing1,0001,5491,594
    Domestic supplies and services1,0001,5921,628
            Household operation1,0001,5071,547
Apparel—
    Clothing1,0001,6371,684
    Footwear1,0001,6411,716
            Apparel1,0001,6381,689
Transportation—
    Public transport1,0001,7511,761
    Private transport1,0001,7461,816
            Transportation1,0001,7471,802
Miscellaneous—
    Tobacco and alcohol1,0001,5711,572
    Other supplies1,0001,7191,744
    Other services1,0002,0802,154
        Miscellaneous1,0001,7531,781
All groups1,0001,7231,765

WAGES (p. 902)

Average weekly wage payouts per person from the latest half-yearly survey by the Department of Labour are as follows.

 Oct 1973Apr 1974
 $$
Full time and half part-time employees—
    Aggregate (including overtime)80.0186.32
    Aggregate ordinary time71.8277.07
Nominal weekly wage—adult males74.7477.17

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT FINANCE (pp. 729–739)

Taxation Receipts—This table shows direct and indirect taxation.

Source: (Receipts and Payments of the Public Account.)

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197319741975*
*Estimated
Direct taxation—$(thousand)
    Income tax1,314,4951,697,9082,100,000
    Estate and gift duty28,56633,82338,000
    Land tax3,4003,2654,000
    Property speculation tax205..
Total—Direct taxation1,346,4611,735,2012,142,000
Indirect taxation—
    Customs duty168,338201,163230,000
    Beer duty41,90144,67447,000
    Sales tax171,142206,359243,000
    Payroll tax46,30833,506
    Racing duty16,51319,26122,000
    Film hire tax352429..
    Stamp duties19,91729,40736,000
    Motor vehicle fees and charges19,99521,61925,000
    Highways taxation95,706103,166107,000
Total—Indirect taxation580,172659,584710,000
Total—Taxation receipts1,926,6332,394,7852,852,000

The functional classification of gross Government expenditure is shown in the following table

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF GROSS GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE
Item1973–741974–75*
*Estimated
Administration—$(m)
    General administration85.099.0
    Law and order63.277.2
    Government services60.674.6
    Miscellaneous services17.620.4
    Stabilisation120.197.7
Totals346.7368.9
    Foreign relations—
    Defence140.5159.0
    Foreign Affairs38.552.6
Totals179.1211.7
Development of industry—
    Land use194.3234.9
    Fuel and power165.6217.0
    Other industrial services48.158.3
Totals408.0500.2
Education442.7507.8
Social services655.7774.5
Health401.9467.9
Transport and communications—
    Transport321.6372.4
    Communications235.1270.5
Totals556.7642.9
Debt services and miscellaneous investment transactions345.0410.8
Totals3,335.73,884.5

Consolidated Revenue Account Expenditure—The following table shows expenditure from the Consolidated Revenue Account.

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197319741975*

*Estimated.

†Excludes National Water and Soil Conservation.

‡Includes $7m. for losses incurred in Post Office and $11.7 m. for losses incurred in Railways.

 $(thousand)
Permanent appropriations—
        Under Special Acts of Legislature—
            Civil List1,1281,5591,572
        Debt services—
                Interest184,817200,323220,000
                Transfer to Loans Redemption Account50,00050,00050,000
                Administration and management1,6891,6011,550
                Total—Debt services236,506251,924271,550
Special Acts—
    Superannuation Act 195619,15518,87922,141
    Miscellaneous7,5278,0587,304
                Total—Special Acts26,68226,93729,445
                Total—Permanent appropriations264,316280,421302,567
Annual appropriations—
    Administration—
        General administration—
            Vote—
                Accident Compensation2021
                Audit1,3461,5761,790
                Broadcasting284182
                Customs5,0946,0096,370
                Inland Revenue11,32413,19315,965
                Internal Affairs11,57617,23421,515
                Legislative1,6282,0682,430
                Prime Minister's Department137227455
                Rural Banking and Finance Corporation13
                State Advances Corporation151833
                State Services Commission6,1539,3748,730
                Statistics3,2864,5185,105
                Treasury3,0413,2913,980
                Valuation2,9703,5144,220
                Total—General administration46,59861,08370,709
        Law and order—
            Vote—   
                Crown Law302357408
                Justice21,18523,82028,175
                Police26,24932,28838,495
                Security Intelligence Service504628728
Total—Law and order48,23957,09367,806
        Government services—
            Vote— 
                Government Printing Office9,58711,66814,725  
                Works45,20433,18336,500  
                Total—Government services54,79244,85251,225  
        Stabilisation—  
            Vote—  
                Stabilisation36,195112,18597,700  
                Total—Administration180,433275,212287,440  
        Foreign relations—  
            Defence—  
                Defence129,823140,511159,050  
            Foreign affairs—  
                Foreign affairs22,49432,45447,535  
                Total—Foreign relations152,317172,965206,605  
        Development of industry—  
            Land use—  
                Agriculture and Fisheries96,99978,2726,680  
                Forest Service4,9465,7466,680  
                Lands and Survey8,89810,36413,310  
                Total—Land use110,84394,383100,390  
            Fuel and power—  
                Energy Resources170225  
                Mines1,7451,1673,174  
                Total1,7451,3383,399x  
            Other industrial services—  
                Labour9,9389,92811,135  
                Scientific and Industrial Research16,15418,92422,095  
                Tourist and Publicity7,1977,5538,130  
                Trade and Industry7,0799,78014,900  
            Total—Other industrial services40,36846,18556,260  
                Total—Development of industry152,956141,906160,049  
        Education—  
            Education379,353442,660507,800  
        Social services—  
                Internal Affairs1,9793,000  
                Maori and Island Affairs11,02611,91913,388  
                Social Welfare509,535621,003698,690  
Total—Social services520,561634,901715,078  
            Health—  
                Health339,575399,044463,745  
            Transport—  
                Transport35,21836,65145,281  
                Total—Annual appropriations1,765,3632,103,3382,385,998  
Adjustment on currency realignment12,85714,369..  
Unauthorised expenditure3,3935,971..  
Defence credits and other special entries95,09795,6885,060  
Additional contributions to Loans Redemption Account10,000..  
Provision for Supplementary Estimates20,000  
Total payments2,141,0262,509,7792,713,625  

National Roads Fund Expenditure

ItemYear Ended 31 March
197219731974
 $(thousand)
Highways maintenance14,39615,72516,745
Highways construction32,83838,02935,973
Subsidies to local authorities33,79039,38839,343
Administration and general7,0738,5707,457
Unauthorised693
Total expenditure88,103101,72299,522

Summary of Budget Proposals—The Financial Statement was presented on 30 May 1974. Principal changes from the existing situation are as follows.

Major extensions of Government finance for housing to lower income groups. Annual target for State rental houses raised. Building permits for houses larger than 1,500 sq. ft. may be deferred for 18 months. Building controls for commercial buildings extended.

Increased monetary social security benefits; rail fare concessions to income-tested beneficiaries.

New benefit of $1,000 to dependent widow or widower of spouse who dies before the age of 65 years.

Savings incentives include New Zealand savings certificates on 5-year term with tax exemption on interest.

Tax exemptions extended on savings bank interest, superannuation and life assurance payments.

Establishment of adverse events bonds for farmers. Loan limits of Rural Banking and Finance Corporation raised.

Tax concessions to firms for increase of exports, productivity or savings or to achieve a more efficient use of resources.

Official assistance to developing countries raised.

Social Security Benefits (p. 182)—The table below gives a summary of the weekly rates of cash benefits as from 3 July 1974.

Benefit13 Feb 19743 July 1974
Superannuation*—$$
    Unmarried person24.5026.85
    Married person20.3522.35
Age*—
    Unmarried person24.5026.85
    Married couple if both eligible (each)20.3522.35
    Married woman whose husband is not eligible20.3522.35
    Married man whose wife is not eligible40.7044.70
Widows*—
    Widow24.5026.85
Domestic purposes—
    Solo parent*24.5026.85
    Woman alone24.5026.85
Caring for sick or infirm—
    Unmarried person under 18 years18.8026.85
    Unmarried person 18 or over24.5026.85
    Married person20.3522.35
Orphans (each child)12.3013.50
Family (each child)3.003.00
Invalids*—
    Unmarried person 18 years or over24.5026.85
    Unmarried person under 18 years18.8020.50
    Married man with wife included40.7044.70
    Married woman20.3522.35
Miners—
    Unmarried person24.5026.85
    Married man with wife included40.7044.70
    Miners widow22.9025.25
Sickness*—
    Unmarried person under 18 without dependants18.8020.50
    Unmarried person 18 years or over24.5026.85
    Married man with wife included40.7044.70
    Married woman20.3522.35
Unemployment*—
    Unmarried person under 20 without dependents18.8020.50
    Unmarried person 20 years or over24.5026.85
    Married man with wife included40.7044.70
    Married woman20.3522.35
*Any of above benefits with dependent children—
    Solo parent and 1 child37.7041.70
    Solo parent and 2 children40.7044.70
    Each subsequent child1.251.25
    Married couple with 1 child43.7047.70
    Each subsequent child1.251.25
Supplementary assistanceAccording to circumstances
EmergencyAccording to circumstances

GENERAL FINANCE

Industrial Classification of Salary and Wage Payments (p. 901)—The total salary and wage bill is given below for 1971–72.

Industry Group1969–701970–711971–72
 $(000)
Agriculture and livestock production108,545116,386125,395
Forestry, hunting and fishing9,76610,93411,908
Mining and quarrying13,17515,30916,268
Manufacturing, food, beverages and tobacco177,271222,748261,085
Manufacturing, textiles, wearing apparel and made-up textiles89,023107,197121,027
Manufacturing, wood, paper, chemical, (etc., products including miscellaneous manufacturing)266,868318,832376,262
Manufacturing, metals and metal products179,045223,773265,594
Construction205,698243,269278,850
Electricity, gas, water and sanitary services (not construction)38,08845,74353,845
Commerce—Wholesale and retail trade392,374460,199534,616
Commerce—Other130,254150,531174,678
Transport, storage and communication293,099366,329424,330
Services, community, business, recreation and personal600,967729,596916,242
Activities not adequately described377634461
Total2,504,5513,011,4813,560,561
Increase on previous years            Percent11.320.218.2

Land Transfers (pp. 280–282)—The average amount per transaction (urban properties) in 1973–74 was $14,823 as compared with $10,279 in 1971–72 and $11,349 in 1972–73.

ItemYears Ended 31 March 
1971197219731974
Urban properties—    
    Number..74,02076,54394,015110,732
    Consideration($m)701.7786.81,068.01,641.4
Rural properties—     
    Freehold—     
        Number..9,0809,10610,76014,494
        Areahectares (000)628.4513.8620.7896.7
        Consideration$(m)205.0190.0260.6470.9
Weighted overall average price per hectare$315.80312.21355.82466.83
All properties: Total consideration$(m)918.9985.41,339.92,133.0

Mortgages (pp. 835–840)—Particulars of gross totals of mortgages registered and discharged during the last four financial years are shown below.

Year Ended 31 MarchRegisteredDischarged
NumberAmountNumberAmount
  $(m) $(m)
197197,942703.074,562376.5
1972102,900759.875,699415.8
1973119,004940.790,868510.5
1974138,9931,301.7109,600673.1

Overseas Exchange Transactions (p. 829)—The following statement gives statistics of overseas exchange transactions for the latest four March years.

(Source: Reserve Bank)

ItemYear Ended 31 March
1971197219731974
RECEIPTS—$(million) 
    1. Exports—  
        (a) Butter115.4149.5109.2111.3  
        (b) Cheese50.264.574.657.5  
        (c) Other dairy products82.799.8133.1137.6  
        (d) Meat405.2440.2547.8599.8  
        (e) Wool206.3225.1383.1415.3  
        (f) Other animal products92.5105.2122.9133.6  
        (g) Forest products76.186.591.8118.9  
        (h) Other primary products48.356.161.275.0  
        (i) Manufactured exports82.0100.0122.8156.0  
        (j) Miscellaneous6.55.66.28.5  
Total exports1,165.11,332.51,652.71,813.7  
    2. Other current receipts194.4246.4327.3414.5  
Total current receipts1,359.61,578.91,980.02,228.2  
    3. Capital receipts—  
        (a) Government borrowing47.5107.330.72.0  
        (b) Other official borrowing0.6  
        (c) Private101.4153.5208.9180.0  
Total capital receipts149.0260.8239.6182.6  
    4. I.M.F.—  
        (a) Drawings  
        (b) Allocations of SDRs19.319.1  
Total Receipts1,527.91,858.82,219.62,410.8  
PAYMENTS—  
    1. Imports—  
        (a) Government58.262.169.063.6  
        (b) Private951.3991.51,113.71,571.3  
Total imports1,009.51,053.71,182.71,634.9  
    2. Other Current Payments—  
        (a) Government68.779.588.997.6  
        (b) Private320.2350.7422.5525.7  
Total other current payments388.9430.2511.4623.3  
Total current payments1,398.51,483.81,694.12,258.2  
    3. Capital Payments—  
        (a) Government debt repayments21.150.690.466.5  
        (b) Other official repayments5.15.45.5  
        (c) Private53.382.4100.2180.5  
Total capital payments79.5138.4190.7252.4  
Total Payments1,478.01,622.21,884.82,510.6  
Balance on trade transactions+155.6+278.8+470.0+178.8  
Balance on invisible transactions-194.5-183.8-184.2-208.8  
Current account balance-38.9+95.0+285.9-30.0  
Capital account balance+69.5+122.4+48.9-69.8  
I.M.F. transactions (incl. SDRs)+19.3+19.1  
Change in official overseas reserves+39.9+257.3+287.3-137.7  
Official overseas reserves at end of period372.6629.9917.2779.5  

ESTIMATES OF POPULATION AT 1 APRIL 1974

STATISTICAL AREAS

Statistical Area1971 CensusEstimate at 1 April 1974
*Includes Shipboard: North Island 3,278; South Island 1,508; New Zealand 4,786.
North Island—
    Northland96,19198,520
    Central Auckland698,400775,460
    South Auckland - Bay of Plenty422,299453,350
    East Coast47,34248,150
    Hawke's Bay133,250141,000
    Taranaki100,895102,260
    Wellington552,986581,760
        Totals2,051,3632,200,500
South Island—
    Marlborough31,64233,430
    Nelson68,83871,160
    Westland22,86122,430
    Canterbury398,830420,870
    Otago182,749184,360
    Southland106,348110,050
        Totals811,268842,300
        Totals, Statistical Areas2,862,6313,042,800

STATISTICAL DIVISIONS AND URBAN AREAS

Statistical Division (S. Div.) and Urban Area (U.A.)1971 CensusEstimate at 1 April 1974
Auckland S. Div.—
    Northern Auckland U.A.107,965133,140
    Western Auckland U.A.89,946105,350
    Central Auckland U.A.286,787291,050
    Southern Auckland U.A.165,048196,480
    Remainder S. Div.48,65449,440
Totals698,400775,460
Hamilton S. Div.—
    Hamilton U.A.80,81292,050
    Remainder S. Div.55,19455,400
Totals136,006147,450
Napier - Hastings S. Div.—
    Napier U.A.43,60147,920
    Hastings U.A.45,51249,670
    Remainder S. Div.7,8207,870
Totals96,933105,460
Palmerston North S. Div.—
    Palmerston North U.A.57,06561,470
    Remainder S. Div.23,66723,800
Totals80,73285,270
Wellington S. Div.—
    Upper Hutt Valley U.A.30,98634,870
    Lower Hutt Valley U.A.92,00396,950
    Porirua Basin U.A.47,85854,100
    Wellington U.A.136,782141,100
    Remainder S. Div.16,40319,880
Totals324,032346,900
Christchurch S. Div.—
    Christchurch U.A.275,968292,520
    Remainder S. Div.26,64228,010
Totals302,610320,530
Dunedin S. Div.—
    Dunedin U.A.111,059113,310
    Remainder S. Div.6,6816,560
Totals117,740119,870
Urban Areas not included in Statistical Divisions—
    Whangarei U.A.34,02936,320
    Tauranga U.A.40,34946,570
    Rotorua U.A.39,75245,390
    Gisborne U.A.30,16131,820
    New Plymouth U.A.38,78041,840
    Wanganui U.A.37,98238,070
    Masterton U.A.20,14720,880
    Nelson U.A.37,99441,160
    Timaru U.A.28,95929,940
    Invercargill U.A.50,68153,120
Totals, 24 Urban Areas1,930,2262,095,090
Totals, 7 Statistical Divisions1,756,4531,900,940
CITIES AND BOROUGHS
City or Borough1971 CensusEstimate at 1 April 1974
North Island—
    Kaitaia3,5013,820
    Kaikohe3,3403,450
    Whangarei C.30,74633,000
    Dargaville4,1014,190
    Helensville1,2901,320
    East Coast Bays15,92920,700
    Takapuna C.24,03325,000
    Devonport11,02211,000
    Northcote9,58110,050
    Birkenhead15,81919,500
    Henderson5,8896,340
    Glen Eden6,7717,520
    New Lynn10,02910,250
    Auckland C.151,580152,600
    Newmarket1,2291,220
    Mount Albert26,15127,000
    Mount Eden20,08420,700
    Mount Roskill33,84934,400
    Onehunga15,69315,600
    One Tree Hill12,96113,000
    Ellerslie5,0625,530
    Mount Wellington20,17821,000
    Howick12,00814,450
    Otahuhu9,91610,050
    Papatoetoe C.21,81623,100
    Manukau C.104,024127,800
    Papakura17,21020,800
    Pukekohe7,5908,270
    Waiuku2,8793,160
    Tuakau1,8141,890
    Huntly5,3105,310
    Cambridge6,4356,940
    Ngaruawahia3,9954,140
    Hamilton C.74,78485,600
    Te Awamutu6,9297,140
    Te Kuiti4,8424,860
    Taumarunui6,6926,690
    Thames5,7805,950
    Paeroa3,4313,620
    Waihi3,0713,080
    Te Aroha3,2003,140
    Morrinsville4,4524,440
    Matamata4,0574,290
    Putaruru4,5854,660
    Mount Maunganui8,77110,300
    Tauranga C.28,18832,500
    Te Puke3,4063,810
    Rotorua C.31,26536,200
    Taupo10,56312,400
    Whakatane9,74810,550
    Kawerau6,6877,870
    Murupara2,7602,830
    Gisborne C.28,20029,800
    Wairoa5,4185,470
    Napier C.40,18644,600
    Hastings C.29,75332,400
    Havelock North7,2848,630
    Waipawa1,7251,680
    Waipukurau3,5983,570
    Dannevirke5,6105,590
    Woodville1,5171,520
    Waitara5,1255,460
    New Plymouth C.34,31437,000
    Inglewood2,0862,180
    Stratford5,3985,360
    Eltham2,3212,320
    Hawera8,1348,300
    Patea1,9501,940
    Ohakune1,4181,400
    Raetihi1,3591,350
    Wanganui C.35,78235,800
    Taihape2,7932,760
    Marton4,7004,680
    Feilding9,78010,130
    Foxton2,8082,810
    Palmerston North C.51,89355,800
    Levin13,05114,300
    Otaki3,7743,900
    Upper Hutt C.26,25629,400
    Lower Hutt C.61,37564,100
    Petone9,4649,430
    Eastbourne4,7274,820
    Porirua C.36,21441,400
    Tawa11,24412,250
    Wellington C.137,376141,800
    Pahiatua2,6102,630
    Eketahuna722690
    Masterton18,49419,150
    Carterton3,7343,900
    Greytown1,7251,740
    Featherston2,0902,290
    Martinborough1,3901,350
Totals, North Island1,475,0521,586,730
South Island—
    Picton2,8243,140
    Blenheim14,85916,050
    Nelson C.29,28231,300
    Richmond5,7076,700
    Motueka3,8743,980
    Westport4,9854,880
    Runanga1,4491,330
    Greymouth7,9367,710
    Hokitika3,3323,410
    Rangiora4,8545,500
    Kaiapoi3,9624,660
    Riccarton7,1367,120
    Christchurch C.165,637170,600
    Lyttelton3,2813,200
    Ashburton13,31214,000
    Geraldine1,9371,980
    Temuka3,3163,450
    Timaru C.28,32629,300
    Waimate3,2283,190
    Oamaru13,07813,100
    Port Chalmers3,0072,950
    Dunedin C.82,23583,600
    St. Kilda6,4536,400
    Green Island6,1496,590
    Mosgiel8,3778,880
    Milton2,1642,180
    Kaitangata1,0991,040
    Balclutha4,6014,780
    Tapanui854880
    Lawrence604620
    Roxburgh750770
    Naseby109110
    Alexandra3,5514,130
    Cromwell988970
    Arrowtown260280
    Queenstown2,1592,610
    Gore8,6489,030
    Mataura2,5492,520
    Winton2,0552,280
    Invercargill C.47,42049,700
    Bluff3,2413,250
    Riverton1,3111,350
Totals, South Island510,899529,520
Totals, Cities and Boroughs1,985,9512,116,250
ADMINISTRATIVE COUNTIES
County1971 CensusEstimate at 1 April 1974
North Island—
    Mangonui7,1167,170
    Whangaroa1,9501,900
    Hokianga4,3383,990
    Bay of Islands14,68815,130
    Whangarei13,40213,200
    Hobson5,3985,200
    Otamatea6,2026,090
    Rodney7,4027,510
    Waitemata103,769133,120
    Waiheke2,3522,480
    Great Barrier Island267270
    Franklin17,03416,750
    Raglan9,3668,940
    Waikato15,58615,670
    Waipa15,06514,970
    Otorohanga9,9809,850
    Waitomo6,4195,660
    Taumarunui6,2465,620
    Coromandel3,3703,700
    Thames3,8524,240
    Hauraki Plains5,3095,120
    Ohinemuri4,0724,140
    Piako11,51111,200
    Matamata29,75032,480
    Tauranga15,65516,780
    Rotorua17,24418,100
    Taupo14,05414,300
    Whakatane14,70614,370
    Opotiki6,5566,240
    Waiapu4,9744,500
    Waikohu3,2473,240
    Cook8,4458,310
    Wairoa5,8695,520
    Hawke's Bay20,87421,200
    Waipawa3,4863,460
    Patangata3,0382,850
    Waipukurau1,2001,170
    Dannevirke3,8863,690
    Woodville1,4971,460
    Clifton2,0802,010
    Taranaki8,6829,130
    Inglewood2,9622,860
    Stratford5,2985,120
    Egmont5,7485,510
    Eltham3,0652,910
    Waimate West2,4602,350
    Hawera4,5224,340
    Patea2,9562,760
    Waimarino1,5831,400
    Waitotara2,8242,790
    Wanganui2,9242,830
    Rangitikei14,51514,590
    Kiwitea1,8721,730
    Pohangina924880
    Oroua4,7634,900
    Manawatu6,4706,400
    Kairanga5,7476,080
    Horowhenua12,23713,260
    Hutt34,27039,580
    Pahiatua2,2382,070
    Akitio940900
    Ekatahuna1,4371,340
    Masterton4,0924,060
    Wairarapa South2,5722,540
    Featherston3,0322,880
Totals, North Island569,488604,810
South Island—
    Marlborough9,3169,570
    Awatere1,6691,590
    Kaikoura3,0703,160
    Golden Bay3,3753,280
    Waimea15,82515,700
    Buller3,2593,040
    Inangahua2,2191,970
    Grey4,4374,140
    Westland5,6775,810
    Amuri2,7062,600
    Cheviot1,5201,510
    Waipara2,7242,590
    Ashley2,9132,970
    Rangiora4,0204,180
    Eyre2,5242,770
    Oxford1,5611,600
    Malvern6,4136,410
    Paparua27,14730,900
    Waimairi61,49067,800
    Heathcote7,5828,430
    Mount Herbert683720
    Akaroa1,5521,520
    Chatham Islands716730
    Wairewa687660
    Ellesmere7,5127,870
    Ashburton11,20911,050
    Geraldine4,4694,420
    Levels4,8044,800
    Mackenzie5,1598,260
    Waimate5,3465,050
    Waitaki9,4198,050
    Waihemo1,7141,670
    Waikouaiti4,0293,770
    Taieri7,9458,210
    Bruce3,5743,480
    Clutha5,7135,500
    Tuapeka4,1303,950
    Maniototo2,6282,560
    Vincent3,9813,890
    Lake2,9853,400
    Southland26,51826,250
    Wallace12,03813,160
    Fiord135140
    Stewart Island414410
Totals, South Island296,807309,540
Totals, Administrative Counties866,295914,350

INDEX

NOTE—Where more than one reference to a subject is given, the chief reference, wherever it has been possible to determine it, is indicated by bold type. Two or more references to a subject so indicated signify major, and approximately equal, importance.

A

Abattoirs, registered, 398
Abortion, 102, 112, 148
Access, 368, 369
Accident Compensation Act, 325, 927–930
Accident insurance, 862–865, 927–930
Accidents—
aircraft, 113, 150, 340
drowning, 112
cases treated in hospitals, 150
drowning, 112
causes of, 320–324, 936–937
drowning, 112
deaths from, 102, 103, 112–114, 320–321, 930
drowning, 112
farming, 113, 937–938
frequency and severity rates, 930–937
industrial, 113, 927–942
in home, 113, 150
mining, 113
motor-vehicle, 112, 150, 320–324
poisoning, 150, 151
railway, 113, 150, 1040
time lost through, 931–933, 935
transport, 113, 150, 320–321
water, 114, 150
Acclimatisation of fish, 453
Accommodation, 139, 960
tourist, 959–961
Accommodation licences, 976
Accommodation services, 139
Accounts—
inter-industry study, 719–720
public, 729–739
Acts (see Legislation)
Administrative tribunals, 283, 994
Adolescent dental service, 130
Adoptions, 93–94 177–178
Adult education, 231–232
National Council of, 231
Adultery, 120
Adults, heights and weights of, 160–162
Advances—
bank, 809–811, 1031
bank, control policy, 812–814
bank, reserve ratio, 812
building societies, 847–850
rural, 840–841, 843, 846, 847
Advertisements, medical, 126
Advertising, radio, television, and press, 354, 355, 356
Aerated water and cordial industry, 477, 507
Aerial—
land survey, 366, 384
topdressing, 336, 408
work operations, 336, 340
Aero clubs, 339, 340
Aerodromes, 338, 339
Age benefits, 23, 166, 167, 169, 170, 1090
Age distribution of population, 77, 78, 80–81, 82, 1082
Agricultural (see also Farms, Farming Corps, etc.)—
aviation, 336
imports of, 651, 655
clubs, 214
imports of, 651, 655
Development Conference, 402, 422, 1042
imports of, 651, 655
Economics Research Unit, 238
imports of, 651, 655
machinery, 479, 519
imports of, 651, 655
production, 383, 391–401, 852, 1015
Production Council, 402, 725
research, 233–234, 404
Workers Act, 924
Agriculture, 236, 383, 1015
Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of, 236, 402–404, 416, 418
publications on, 1058
Aid—
commonwealth schemes, 40
distribution of New Zealand, 33–34, 37–42
legal, 260
Air—
accidents, 113, 150, 340
Force, Royal New Zealand, 270–272
licensing and control, 332, 339
mails, 334, 338, 342
navigation services, 332–333
pollution, 125–126, 375–376
Aircraft—
imports of, 653
manufacture, 470
types of domestic services, 333
types of international services, 331, 336
Air New Zealand, 331, 332, 336, 735, 997, 1044
Airport statistics, 338
Alcoholic liquors—
consumption of, 690
duty on, 660–661, 740, 742
exports of, 618–620, 690
imports of, 649, 654
sale of, 975–976
Alexander Turnbull Library, 356–357
Aliens, 75–76
Aluminium, 470
Amenities of dwellings, 540
Amortisation of public debt, 759–764
Amputees, 184
Amusement tax, 361
Angling, 453, 963
Animal life, publications on, 1057–1058
Animals, noxious, 434
Anniversary Days, 923, 979
Annual Holidays Act, 923
Annual value system of rating, 765
Annuities, 188–194
Antarctic, N.Z. activities in the, 236, 952–955, 1041
Ante-natal services, 128
Anzac Day Act, 924
ANZAM, 36
ANZUK, 36, 273
ANZUS Treaty, 25, 28, 36
Apiaries and apiculture, 427
Apples, 410, 419
consumption of, 419, 689
exported, 570–571, 618, 620, 637, 690, 1021
marketing of, 419, 570–571
Apprentices, 885–886
Arable farming, 409–418, 1015
Arahanga, G.M.V. 303, 335
Aramoana, G.M.V. 303, 335
Aranui, G.M.V. 303, 335
Arbitration Court, 23, 24, 48, 243, 885, 907, 908, 1040
Area of New Zealand, 365
of farmland, 387–388
of forested land, 428
Armed Forces—
honours and awards conferred, 1003–1005
in war, 274–276, 1039–1040
pay and allowances, 697, 699
serving overseas, 272–274
strengths of 274–275, 997
superannuation, 188–190
Army, 269–270
Arrivals (see Migration)
Arson and incendiarism, 869
Art galleries, 1048
Articles on special subjects in previous issues, 1045–1046
Artificial aids (under Social Security), 137
Arts in New Zealand, 1047–1050, 1059
Asbestos, 463
Asian Development Bank, 34, 40, 707, 735, 833–834
Assessable income, 778–802
Assessment of—
income tax, 784–799
land tax, 750
Assurance, life, 855–862
Astronomy, 237
Auckland Harbour Bridge (see also Harbour Bridge Authority), 49, 310
Auckland Regional Authority, 768, 769, 770, 777
Audio-visual teaching aids, 216–217
Australia—
trade with, 598, 599, 600, 602–603, 607, 626, 627, 646
Free Trade Agreement with, 602–603, 613, 662
New Zealand representation in, 1005, 1006
representation in New Zealand, 1007
shipping to and from, 393
Social security reciprocity with, 175–176
visitors and migrants from, 72
Aviation, 331–340
agricultural, 336
Awards, cultural, 1048–1050
Awards to armed forces personnel, 1003–1005

B

Bacon and ham—
consumption of, 399, 689
curing, 477, 503
Balance of payments, 503, 706–719, 1092
capital account, 706, 708, 709, 711
current account, 706, 708, 709–710
insurance, 708
overseas direct investments in New Zealand, 713–714, 715–719, 798–799
survey of companies with overseas affiliations, 715–719
Balance of trade, 605
Bananas—
consumption of, 689
imports of, 572, 649, 653, 947
Bank notes, 804, 806
denominations of, 825
in circulation, 825, 1031
Bank of New Zealand, 807–808
Bankruptcy, 970–972, 1034
industry groups of bankrupts, 972
Banks and banking, 531, 803–834, 1031
assets and liabilities, 806–807, 1031
economics, publications of, 1054
merchant banks, 823
overseas assets of, 827, 1031
savings, 814–820, 1032
Barley, 410–413, 618, 620, 1015
Beds, hospital, 142–143
Beef—
cattle, 422–423, 1015
consumption of, 399, 689
exports of, 560, 576–577, 629–630, 690, 1019
production of, 391–393, 502
retail prices of, 675
slaughterings for, 502
Beer—
consumption of, 690
duty on, 660, 740, 1086
export of, 618, 620
production of, 506
Bees, 427
Beeswax, 427
Benefits, social security, 135–138, 163–176, 699, 700, 702, 1090
Bentonite, 455, 463
Berryfruit, 417
Beverage industries, 477, 506, 793, 810, 852
Bibliography, New Zealand publications, 978–979, 1052–1064
Big-game fishing, 453
Bird sanctuaries, 379
Biographies and autobiographies, 1064
Biological survey, 373
Biology publications, 1057–1058
Birth rate, 85–88
Birthplaces of population, 83
Births, 85–93, 1010
ex-nuptial, 91–93
first, 90–91
multiple, 88–89
of Maoris, 86
registration of, 86
still, 89, 94, 111
Biscuit industry, 477, 505
Blind, benefits for and education of, 173, 204
Board of Health, 124
Boarding of school children, 214
Boatbuilding and ship repairing, 479
Boilers, inspection of, 940
Bonds, National Development, 817
Bonus Bonds, 817
Bonus issue tax, 748
Book publishing, 978
Books—
imports of, 653
library, 356–359
New Zealand, 1052–1064
Boroughs 50, 61–62, 768–770
area of, 61, 62
capital and unimproved values, 286
councils, 50, 767
debt, 773, 775, 777, 1030
franchise, 50
number of, 50
population, 61–62, 1094
stores in, 581
Borstal institutions and training, 244, 253
Breeding ewes, 422, 423, 424
Breweries, 477, 506
Brick production, 515, 529
Brides and grooms, 116–117
Bridges and bridging, 303, 310, 313
Brigades, fire, 871
Britain—
New Zealand representation in, 1005
relations with, 27–30, 35–37, 600
representation in New Zealand, 1006
British—
Airways, 336
postal orders, 343
sovereignty, 22
trade preference, 661–665
Broadcasting, radio and television, 349–355, 997
for schools, 217, 352
local, 352
stations, 352
Building (see also Housing), 521–542
board, exports, 617–619
imports of, 654
business of private contractors, 523, 523
imports of, 654
Census of, 522
imports of, 654
costs, 522, 530, 535
imports of, 654
employment, 529
imports of, 654
index of production, 721
imports of, 654
Industry Advisory Council, 522, 529
imports of, 654
materials, 515–517, 529, 534–541
imports of, 654
overseas investment in, 718
permits, 525–528, 1083
persons engaged in, 523, 529, 876
programming, 521
wages and working hours of employees, 523, 904–905
work put in place, 528
Building societies, 531, 847–850
assets and liabilities of, 850
Bullion production, 462
Burials, 100, 124
Bursaries—
dental, 130
ex-servicemen's children, 184
teachers, 217
university, 219–220
war, 184
Buses, 316, 318, 321, 325, 864–865
Bush, 370, 428–429, 431
Business—
census of, 578–588
failures, 971, 1034
loans, 842, 843
Butter (see Dairy produce)
Butterfat (see Milkfat)

C

Cabinet, 47
Cable tramway, 327, 330
Cables, overseas, 346
Cadet Corps, 272
Cadets—
navy, 268
Calves, slaughter and marketing of, 398
Campbell Island, 2, 54
Camps, health, 129, 140
Canada—
exchange rate with, 825
New Zealand representation, 1005
reciprocal trade with, 601, 608, 624, 627, 662, 710
representation in New Zealand, 1006
Canberra Pact, 28
Cancer—
ages of decedents, 105
deaths from, 104–106, 147, 149
site of disease, 106, 107
Canned and preserved meats, etc.,
exported, 618, 619
production of, 502
Canned fruits—
consumption of, 689
production of, 477, 506
Canned vegetables—
consumption of, 689
exports of, 618, 620, 690
production of, 477, 506
Capital—
account, 709, 711–714
expenditure on farms, 389–390
formation, 694
invested in electric-power undertakings, 551–552, 554
invested in manufactured industries, 471, 495–496
of companies, 796–798, 851–854, 1034
transfers, 829
value of land, 285–287, 766
Capital punishment, 246
Capitalisation of family benefit, 166, 173, 524, 535, 842
Carbonettes, 460
Cargo carried by air transport, 334, 335, 337–338
Cargo handled at ports, 288–293, 295–299, 1067, 1076–1077
Casein exported, 564, 615, 618, 619, 634
Casein produced, 394, 564, 1021
Casualties in war, 275–276
Catchment authorities, 374, 767
number of, 50
Cattle, 422–423, 425, 1015, 1037
hides exported (see Hides, skins, and pelts)
slaughtered, 398
Cement—
exports of, 619
industry, 479, 516
production of, 516, 529
Census, 54
age distribution of population, 77
country of birth, 83
employment statistics, 883
ethnic groups, 82
income earners in each household, 801–802
incomes of individuals, 800–802
major industrial groups, 889
marital status, 77–78
occupations of married women, 893–894
occupations of population, 887–888, 890–891
of agriculture, 411
of building and construction, 527
of distribution, 578–588
of dwellings, 536–541
of educational qualifications, 895
of home vegetable production, 418
of libraries, 358–359
of mining and quarrying, 466
of pleasure craft, 300
of poultry, 426
of religious professions, 81
of transport to work, 321, 892
of travel time, 892
publications, 1079
Central Government finance, 729–764, 1026–1027, 1086–1089
Cereals, 409–411, 412, 413–414, 415
consumption of, 690, 1015
Certificates of title, 278
Chatham Islands—
schools, 204
peat wax, 454, 463
Cheese (see Dairy produce)
Chemicals and chemical products industry, 479, 513
Chemists, 134, 138
Childbirth accidents, etc., 102, 103, 111, 112, 148
Child health and welfare, 128–129, 177–180, 257–258
Children—
adopted, 93–94, 177, 178
affected by divorce proceedings, 120–121
allowances, 163, 164, 165–167, 169–173
born, number and sexes, 88
deaths of (see Infant mortality)
dental treatment of, 130
dependent, 177
delinquent, 178–179, 257–258
handicapped, 129, 140, 208, 209
heights and weights of, 156–159
legitimated, 93
intellectually handicapped, 139–140, 208–209
offences by, 257, 258
restrictions on employment of, 924
school, 198–200, 204–214
under supervision, 180
Children's courts, 178–179, 257–258
Children's homes, 129, 177–178
China, People's Republic of, 627
Christchurch-Lyttelton Road Tunnel, 311
Chronology of principal events, 1037–1044
Churches, 81
marriage in, 119
Cigarettes and tobacco—
duty on, 660
imports of, 649, 654
production of, 477, 507
Cinemas, 360–362
Cities and Boroughs, 59, 61, 62, 768–770, 1030
Cities, area and population of, 61–64, 1094
Citizenship, 74–75
Citrus fruits, 410, 418, 420, 572, 947
imports of, 572, 648, 653, 658
consumption of, 689, 947
marketing of, 420
Civil—
aviation, 331–340
defence, 266–267, 772
jurisdiction, 258–259
List, 45
Civilian Rehabilitation Centre, 131, 878
Claims, insurance—
accident, 862–863
fire, 866–870
motor vehicle (third party), 863–865
Clays, 455, 515
Clean Air Council, 376
Clergy of each church, and marriages by, 118–119
Climate, 11–20
observations for year, 19–20
Clinics—
ante-natal, 128
child health, 129
dental, 130
Clothing and footwear, retail prices of, 675–676
Clothing, imports of, 646, 653
Clothing industry, 478, 508–509, 671, 793, 852
Clover, 410–412
seed (see Grass and clover seed)
Club charters, 975
Clutha River, development of, 550
and petroleum products industry, 479, 520
consumption of, 459, 489–490
deposits, 8, 457–459
exports of, 621
mining, 457, 460
production of, 455, 457–459, 466
research, 457
resources, 457–459, 465
State mines, 460, 735, 736
used in gas industry, 557
Coastal shipping, 288–289
Coastline, 2, 368, 433
Co-education, 200, 212
Cocoa imported, 649, 653
Cocoa manufacture, 505
Coffee imported, 649, 653, 665
Coin and coinage, 825
held by banks, 808
Colleges—
teachers', 203, 204, 215, 216
Colombo Plan, 40, 223
Colonisation, 22
Commerce Commission, 666
Commercial failures, 971, 1034
Commercial radio and television, 352
Commodity sales—
retail, 588–594
wholesale, 586–587, 595–596
Common Market (see European Economic Community)
Commonwealth, 35–36
aid schemes, 40
defence, 35–36, 272–273
Education scheme, 40
Strategic Reserve, 272
Communications, 341–362
radio, 346–349
satellite, 347
Community centres, 232
Community nurses, 133
Companies, 851–854, 1034
balance dates of, 800
bank advances to, 810
deposits with, 822–823
finance, 822–824
financial statements, analysis of, 853–854
income of, 693, 697, 699, 702, 783, 791–799
joint stock, 582, 851–854
overseas, 798–799, 832, 851–853
paid-up capital, 796–798
private, 582, 797, 851–853
public, 582, 797, 851–854
registered, 851–854, 1034
share prices, indices, 685
taxation of, 747, 783
with overseas affiliations, 715–718
Comparisons with other countries (see International comparisons)
Compensation—
criminal injuries, 259–260
workers, 927–930
Compulsory—
arbitration, 910
unionism, 912, 914
Computers, 979
Conciliation service, 909
Concrete products industry, 479, 516, 529
Condensate, natural gas, 460
Confectionery industry, 477, 505
Confinements, 89, 136
Conjugal status of persons marrying, 116
Conservation—See Physical environment Consolidated Revenue Account, 166, 313, 314, 315, 571, 739, 1026–1027, 1087–1089
Constitution of New Zealand, 42–49
Construction Act, 940
Construction, building, and housing, 521–542, 840–847
Consumer Council, 668–669
Consumer prices, 666–677
index, 669–674, 1085
Consumer information, 668
Consumption of food, 394, 399, 451, 688–692
Contagious diseases (see Diseases)
Convictions, 247–258
for traffic offences, 249–250, 324–327
of juveniles, 257–258
of women, 250
Convictions in Magistrates' Courts, 247–250, 324–325, 1012
Convictions in Supreme Court, 245–246, 1012
Cook Islands, 10, 28, 31–32, 54, 72, 83, 943–952, 1038
constitutional changes, 31
history, 31
immigrants from, 71, 82, 83
population, 54, 945
public finance, 948
trade, 641, 658, 829, 947–948
Cook Strait—
air freight services, 303, 335, 1042
submarine power cable, 550–551
vehicular ferry service, 303, 305
Co-operative credit associations, 841
Co-operative dairy companies, 395–396
Copper ore, 462, 465
Copra, 947, 949, 950, 952
Copyright, 969
Cordial and aerated-water industry, 477, 507
Correspondence schools and classes, 198, 204, 212, 214
Corso, 223
Cosmetics, manufacture of, 479, 514
Cost of living, 669–674
Cotton piece-goods, imports of, 650, 654
Council for—
Adult Education, 231
Educational Research, 229, 237
Counties, 50, 63–65, 767–770
area, of, 63–65
debt, 773, 775, 777, 1030
franchise, 50
population, 62–63
roads and roading, 310, 314–315
building values, 528
debt, 773, 775, 777, 1030
franchise, 50
population, 62–63
roads and roading, 310, 314–315
capital and unimproved values, 286
debt, 773, 775, 777, 1030
franchise, 50
population, 62–63
roads and roading, 310, 314–315
population of, 63–65, 1094
debt, 773, 775, 777, 1030
franchise, 50
population, 62–63
roads and roading, 310, 314–315
councils, 50, 315, 765
debt, 773, 775, 777, 1030
franchise, 50
population, 62–63
roads and roading, 310, 314–315
Country Library Service, 357
County Boroughs, 51, 63
County towns, area and population, 51, 63
Court of Appeal, 241–242, 244–245, 259
Court of Arbitration, 23, 24, 48, 243, 885, 907, 908, 1040
Courts (see also Supreme, Magistrates, etc.), 241–251
Judges of, 242–243, 994
structures and types of, 48, 242–243
Cows in milk, 425
Cranes, inspection of, 946
Crayfish, 447, 448, 449, 452
exports of, 451, 452, 617–619
Cream, consumption of, 688
Credit, rural intermediate, 841
Creditors' petitions, 971
Cremation, 100, 124
Crime, law and, 241–263, 332, 1012
Criminal—
appeals, 241, 242, 244–245
injuries compensation, 259–260
jurisdiction, 244–251
reformation and punishment, 243–244, 253–257
Crippled children (see also Handicapped children), 140
Crops, 387, 388, 409–418, 1015
Crown land, 278–279, 376–382, 387
Cultivation, area in, 387–388
Cultural awards, 1048–1050
Currency and banking (see also Exchange), 803–834, 1031
Currency realignment, 825
Customs tariff and revenue, 659–665, 704, 740–742

D

Dairy—
Board, 395–396
account, 574
consumption of, 688, 691
export, 299, 393, 574–576, 598, 611, 615, 618–619, 632–634, 690, 829, 830, 1020
export price index, 681–682, 686–687
inspection of, 403
marketing of, 562–565, 568, 569, 574–576
prices for, 574–576
subsidies on, 692
cows, 394, 425, 1016
account, 574
consumption of, 688, 691
export, 299, 393, 574–576, 598, 611, 615, 618–619, 632–634, 690, 829, 830, 1020
export price index, 681–682, 686–687
inspection of, 403
marketing of, 562–565, 568, 569, 574–576
prices for, 574–576
subsidies on, 692
factories, 394, 395, 477, 503
account, 574
consumption of, 688, 691
export, 299, 393, 574–576, 598, 611, 615, 618–619, 632–634, 690, 829, 830, 1020
export price index, 681–682, 686–687
inspection of, 403
marketing of, 562–565, 568, 569, 574–576
prices for, 574–576
subsidies on, 692
farming, 387–388, 390, 391–393, 394–396, 778–779, 783, 810
account, 574
consumption of, 688, 691
export, 299, 393, 574–576, 598, 611, 615, 618–619, 632–634, 690, 829, 830, 1020
export price index, 681–682, 686–687
inspection of, 403
marketing of, 562–565, 568, 569, 574–576
prices for, 574–576
subsidies on, 692
machinery, 408–409, 620
account, 574
consumption of, 688, 691
export, 299, 393, 574–576, 598, 611, 615, 618–619, 632–634, 690, 829, 830, 1020
export price index, 681–682, 686–687
inspection of, 403
marketing of, 562–565, 568, 569, 574–576
prices for, 574–576
subsidies on, 692
produce, 391–393, 394–396, 503, 1024
account, 574
consumption of, 688, 691
export, 299, 393, 574–576, 598, 611, 615, 618–619, 632–634, 690, 829, 830, 1020
export price index, 681–682, 686–687
inspection of, 403
marketing of, 562–565, 568, 569, 574–576
prices for, 574–576
subsidies on, 692
Deaf, education of, 208, 215
Death duty, 704, 740, 752–757
estates passed for, 754–757
Death rates, 85, 95–114
Maori non-Maori comparisons, 85, 95–96, 97–99, 105–107, 108–110
Deaths, 85, 95–114, 146–150, 1010
accidental (see Accidents)
by ages, 96
by causes, 101–108
distribution over year, 96
due to earthquakes, 10
from accidents on farms, 938
from external causes, 112–114
in hospitals, 146–150
in mental hospitals, 155
international classification, 101
neo-natal and perinatal, 102, 111, 149
of friendly society members, 196
of infants, 96, 1010
of Maoris, 96, 97, 98, 99, 101–104
of insured persons, 858–860
of servicemen, 275
registration of, 100
Debt—
hospital boards, 144–145
local government, 772–777, 1029–1030
public, 704, 759–764, 1028
Debtors' petitions, 971
Decimal currency, 825
Defence, 265–277
Civil, 266–267
expenditure on, 266–267, 704
science, 266
services, strength of, 267
Degrees, university, 220, 225
Delinquency, juvenile, 178–179, 257–258
Demography, 53–84, 1010
Demolition of buildings, 525
Denominational schools, 200
Dental—
benefits (social security), 130
bursaries, 130
Council, 133
health, 129–131
nurses, 130
research, 130
services, 124, 129–130, 137, 138
Department of—
Health, 123–133, 135, 140, 141, 164, 524, 531, 942
Internal Affairs, 941
Justice, 208, 243
Labour, 73, 74, 127, 164, 542, 878, 901, 939
Lands and Survey, 365, 368, 370, 384
Maori and Island Affairs, 180–181, 231, 315, 383, 524
Scientific and Industrial Research, 233–236, 373, 375, 454
Social Welfare, 163–197, 208
Trade and Industry, 300, 612, 614, 666
Departments, Government (see also under individual Departments), 47–48, 995–996
Departures (see Migration)
Dependants of servicemen, pensions for, 182–184
Dependent children, 177–180
Deposits—
interest rates on, 809, 816–818, 821–822
time, 808, 809
with building societies, 850
with Reserve Bank, 806–807
with savings banks, 814–815, 816–820, 821, 1031
with stock and station agencies, 820–821, 824
with trading banks, 824
Depreciation allowances, 748–749
Desertion in marriage, 120, 171
Designs, registration of, 968
Detention centre, 244, 253
Development Finance Corporation, 472, 728, 934
Diagnostic laboratory services, 136, 138
Diagrams and graphs (see Contents, vii)
Diatomite, 455, 463
Diesel and diesel-electric rail transport, 303, 304
Dietitians, 134
Diphtheria, whooping cough, and tetanus immunisation, 129
Diplomas, 223, 229
Diplomatic representation, 1005–1007
Direct private investment, 713, 714, 715–719
Directories and encyclopaedias, 1052
Disabled Re-establishment League, 131
Disabilities from industrial accidents, 930–931, 933–934
Disability war pension, 183–186
Disabled civilians, rehabilitation of, 131, 878
Disabled servicemen, 181, 182
Discount rates, 806
Diseases—
deaths from, 102–112, 147–149
mental, 153–155
occupational, 127
treated in hospitals, 147–149
Displaced persons. 73
Disputes, industrial, 907–911, 918–923, 1036, 1038, 1041
Disqualified drivers, 322
Dissolution of marriage, 119–121
Distribution—
census of, 578–588
of labour force, 876
of population, 58–67
by ages, 77, 82
by industries, 889
District planning, 51, 267
District high schools, 204, 212, 214
Dividends—
assessable, 795, 796
taxation on, 746
totalisator, 758
Divorce, 117, 119–121
Divorced persons remarrying, 117
Doctors (see Medical practitioners)
Dogs, 426
Dolomite, 455
Domains, public, 379
Domestic assistance, 137
Domestic proceedings, 260
Domestic purposes benefit, 171, 1090
Domestic trade, 578–597, 1084
Dominion, 27
Drainage boards, 767, 768, 775
number of, 50
Drivers' licences, 316, 321
Drowning accidents, 112
Drugs, 126–127, 135
dangerous, 247
therapeutic, 126
Drunkenness, 247, 250, 324
Ducks, 426
Duties—
cheque, 757
customs and excise, 659–665, 740
estate and gift, 740, 752–757
instruments, 740, 757
lottery, 757
Dwellings (see also Houses and flats), 521–542
amenities, 540
census of, 536–541
materials used, 535, 541
number of rooms and occupants, 534
projections of, 525
tenure, 539

E

Earthquakes, 9–11, 1037, 1039
Earthquake and War Damage Insurance, 873
Earth resources, satellite programme, 366, 375
Ecological survey, 373
Earths, soil types, 385–386
Economic—
aggregates, 694–728
pensions, 182, 183
planning, 725–728
research, 237
Economic and banking publications, 1054
Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE), 30, 33
Education (see also School), 198–232, 1011
Act, 198, 926, 1038
adult, 231–232
annual appropriations, 734, 1088
boards, 198–199, 203
buildings, 202–204, 521, 738
Commonwealth scheme, 40
Department of, 198–199, 208–209, 214
dental health, 129–130
development, 229
expenditure on 200–202, 704, 738, 1027
handicapped children, 208–209
health, 129
higher, 218–225, 1010
Maori, 211, 230–231
of prisoners, 254
Pacific Islands, 230, 231, 952
pre-school, 200, 209
primary, 200, 209–211, 1011
psychological service, 208
publications, 217, 1055
rural, 213
secondary, 199, 211–213, 1011
special classes, 200, 208
system, 198–200
technical, 226–228, 885–887
training of teachers, 215–216
Educational—
Development Conference, 229
planning, 198
qualifications of labour force, 228, 801, 895
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), 34
Eels, 453
Effective weekly wage rates, 905–906
Eggs—
consumption of, 688
export of, 618, 619, 691
marketing of, 426, 572
production, 426
retail price of, 675
subsidy on, 572
Elderly, housing of, 531–532
Elections, general, 43, 44, 45, 977
Electoral—
Act 1956, 42, 48
Representation Commission, 45
roll, 49
Electorates, 987
Electric—
appliances in homes, 540
boards, 50, 193, 552–556
estimates, 544, 550, 551
finance of, 551–552, 1030
in manufacturing industries, 488–489
supply account, 736
power, 543, 545, 546, 547, 548–556, 767
boards, 50, 193, 552–556
estimates, 544, 550, 551
finance of, 551–552, 1030
in manufacturing industries, 488–489
supply account, 736
railways, 303
supply account, 736
stations, 548–550, 553
supply account, 736
Electrical machinery and appliances imported, 645, 652, 655, 656
Electrical machinery and appliances industry, 480
Electronics, manufacture, 470
Embassies, 1006–1007
Emergency benefits, 166, 167, 170, 175
Emigration, 69–71
Employers—
liability insurance, 862, 873
unions, 911, 912–913, 916
Employment, 874–896
building, 529
by local authorities, 882–883
centres, 878
forestry, 444–445
in coal mining, 469
index of, 721–722
on farms, 389, 906
placement service, 878, 884
promotion, 878–880
public service, 881–882, 997
regulations affecting, 923–926
survey of, 880
vacancies, 884
women in labour force, 874–877, 892–895
Encyclopaedias and directories, 1052
Endowment, land, 377–378
Energy, 543–558
Energy Resources, Ministry of, 545, 547
Engineering industries, 480, 517–520, 718
Ensilage (see Silage)
Environment—
commissions for, 371–372
physical, 363–376
Environmental health, 125
Epilepsy, 140
Equal pay, 900, 1044
Erosion, 7, 8, 336, 374–375, 433
protection, forest, 433
Estate duty, 740, 752–757
Estates—
administered by Public Trust Office, 970
assigned, 971
passed for death duty, 754–757
Ethnic groups, 82
Europe, relations with, 25
European Economic Community (EEC), 26, 29, 562, 563, 565, 566–568, 598, 599, 600, 601, 1042, 1044
investment in New Zealand, 712, 713
trade with, 560, 561, 566–568, 603, 608, 611, 624, 626, 647, 648, 710
European Free Trade Association (EFTA), 603, 608, 611, 624, 626, 647, 648
Events, historical, 1037–1044
Ewes, breeding, 422
Examinations, 199, 207, 208, 218, 223
Excess retention tax, 748
Exchange allocation, 612, 803, 804, 826, 831–832
Exchange (currency)—
control of, 803, 804, 826, 831–832
New Zealand—London, 826
rates of, 826
Exchange transactions, overseas, 829–831, 1092
Exchanges, telephone, 344–345
Excise duties, 660–661, 704, 740
Executive council, 46
Ex-nuptial infants, 91–92
ages of mothers, 92
births of, 91–93, 177
legitimation of, 92
paternity, 261–263
protection, of, 177
Exotic forest, 365, 429, 430, 432, 445
Expectation of life, 98–100
Expeditionary forces, 274–276, 1039–1040
Expenditure—
broadcasting and television, 353–354
cinemas, 361
civil aviation, 333
defence, 266–267, 704
education, 200–202, 704, 738
electric power, 554–555
farms, 389–390
Forest Service, 435
government (see Government Finance)
health, 125, 704
hospital boards, 143–145
insurance companies, 858, 860, 862, 867–868, 1035
local government, 314, 768–771, 1029
national, 693–705
National Roads Fund, 313–315, 739
Post Office, 348
Railways, 304–305, 306, 1014, 1082
rehabilitation, 187, 704
research, 238–239
roads, 312–316, 738–739, 1089
social security, 166–167
social services, 167, 700, 704, 734, 738, 1027
urban transport, 328
war pensions, 185–186
Explosives, 941
Export Guarantee Office, 472, 615
Export-Import Corporation, 472, 615
Exports and Shipping Council, 288, 573
Exports (see also under individual products) 471, 559–578, 598–641, 1017–1023
by ports, 297, 299, 640, 1067
value, 615–616, 619–623
volume, 617–618
dairy produce, 569
meat, 569–570, 600–604, 607, 610, 1019
Index numbers, 681–682, 686–687
classification of, 621–623
value, 615–616, 619–623
volume, 617–618
dairy produce, 569
meat, 569–570, 600–604, 607, 610, 1019
Index numbers, 681–682, 686–687
commodities exported—
value, 615–616, 619–623
volume, 617–618
dairy produce, 569
meat, 569–570, 600–604, 607, 610, 1019
Index numbers, 681–682, 686–687
control of, 612
dairy produce, 569
meat, 569–570, 600–604, 607, 610, 1019
Index numbers, 681–682, 686–687
destination of, 559, 601–604, 607–611, 623–639
Index numbers, 681–682, 686–687
gross farming income from, 393
Index numbers, 681–682, 686–687
incentive scheme, 612, 750
Index numbers, 681–682, 686–687
licences, 612
Index numbers, 681–682, 686–687
of manufactures, 471
Index numbers, 681–682, 686–687
prices, 573–577
Index numbers, 681–682, 686–687
targets, 726
value of, 606–611, 615–616, 829, 1017–1024, 1092
volume, 611–612, 617–618, 629–639, 1018–1023
index numbers, 611–612
Ex-servicemen—
dependants of, 182–184, 186
disabled, 181–187
pension for, 181–187
rehabilitation, 187, 842
External—
migration (see also emigration, immigration), 54, 69–70, 1010
trade, 559, 598–665, 1017–1023

F

Factories, 467–520, 521, 526, 528, 1025
accidents in, 931–933
Act, 924
classified by size, 485
coal consumed in, 489–90
dairy, 394, 395, 477, 503
employees, 473–480, 482–485, 1025
expenses of operation, 495
fire losses, 870
summary of operations, 500
Factory production, 467–520, 1025
Family—
and the law, 260
capitalisation of, 166, 173, 524, 535, 842
benefits, 163, 164, 165–167, 169–173, 704
capitalisation of, 166, 173, 524, 535, 842
homes, 180
planning, 129
Farm—
accidents, 113, 937–938
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
advisory service, 403
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
area in cultivation, 387–388
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
capital expenditure, 389–390
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
employees, 389, 906
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
rates of pay, 906
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
superannuation, 192
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
finance, 382, 810, 840–841
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
gross farming income, 391–392, 393
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
holdings, 387–388, 425
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
classification by types, 387–388
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
incomes, 391–392, 393
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
industry reserves, 578
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
machinery, 408–409, 480
imports of, 651, 655
production of, 519
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
produce—
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
export of, 298–299, 393, 598, 1018–1022
marketing of, 559–578, 1083
index of, 392–393, 721
production, 391–401, 402, 1015
index of, 392–393, 721
settlement and assistance, 380–382
subsidies, 407–408
tractors, 409
Farmers' mutual insurance association, 871
Farming, 385–427, 793
arable, 382–383, 409–418, 1015
cattle, 419, 422–423, 1015
costs price indexes, 680–681
dairy, 387–388, 390, 391–393, 394–396, 422, 1015
investment in, 718
nature of, 386
occupations, 387–388
sheep, 386, 387, 396, 397, 398, 422, 423, 424, 1015
Fathers, ages of, 89
Federation of Labour, 573, 912
Female suffrage, 49, 1038
Female wage rates, 485, 487–488
Ferry services, 302, 303, 305, 307
Fertiliser—
imports of, 298, 645, 649, 650, 654
industry, 479, 502, 513
land topdressed with, 404–405
subsidy, 407, 408
Fibreboard, 440
Fiction, selected New Zealand, 1060–1061
Film-hire tax, 740, 759, 1086
Filmmaking, 1047
Finance—
and investment, 835–854
companies, 822–823, 824
farm, 382, 810, 840–841
for electricity, 551–552
Government, 700, 703–705, 729–764, 1026–1027, 1086–1089
hospital board, 144–145
housing, 523–524, 530, 531, 534
local government, 705, 766
Fines, 243
Fire—
boards, 50, 193, 767
brigades, 871
districts, 869
insurance, 866–871
losses, 869–870
prevention in forests, 433
Service Council, 868, 871
Fires—
causes of, 869–870
on vessels, 300
First births, 90–91
Fish—
acclimatisation of, 453
and fisheries, 446–453
consumption of, 451, 689
exported, 447, 451, 619, 639, 690
imported, 643, 653
mercury level in, 375, 451, 453
value of production, 448–450
Fishing, 446–453, 721, 726, 810, 962
big-game, 453, 963
industry, index of production, 721
Industry Board, 447
Fixed deposits, 808, 809, 821
Flag, New Zealand, 982
Flats (see Houses and flats)—
pensioners', 139, 524
Flax, linen, 421, 477
Flax, phormium (see Phormium)
Flour—
production of, 504
Fluoridation, 131
Fodder crops, 410, 411, 412, 415
Fog signals, 300
Food—
And Agriculture Organisation (FAO), 34, 223
and Drug Act, 126, 127
consumption, 688–692
imports of, 642–643, 648–649, 653, 658
inspection and sale of, 126
poisoning, 126
production, 477, 501–506
retail prices of, 675
subsidies, 692
Footwear and clothing, retail prices of, 676
Footwear industry, 478, 509, 671, 793, 810
imports of, 646
Foreign Affairs, Ministry of, 29
annual appropriations, 734
Foreign citizenship, 74
Foreigners, naturalisation of, 74, 75
Foreign policy, 27–42
Forest—
conservation, 368–370, 430
exotic, 429, 430, 432, 445
fire prevention, 433
indigenous, 428, 429–430, 431, 445
private, 435
produce exported, 442–443, 617, 619
Research Institute, 373
resources, 429–430
service, 369, 373, 430–435
State, 369–370, 428–436, 446
utilisation, 436–441
Forestry, 1, 428–445, 726, 793, 852
development and future prospects of, 445
Development Conference, 445
Development Council, 445
overseas investment in, 718
persons engaged in, 444–445
publications, 430
research, 434, 444
taxation incentives, 750
training, 444
Forty-hour week, 923
Fowls, 426
Franchise, central government, 49, 1038
Franchise, local government, 50
Freehold land, 280–282, 381, 387
Freight—
carried by air transport, 334, 335, 337–338
carried by shipping, 288–299
carried by trains, 307
Freshwater fisheries, 453, 444
Friendly societies, 195–197
Frost, 16, 18, 20
Frozen foods, 506, 690
consumption of, 689
export, 618–620
Fruit—
berry, 417
citrus, 410, 418, 420, 572, 947
consumption of, 689
export of, 299, 419, 616, 618–620, 1021
imports of, 298, 643, 648, 649, 653, 658, 947
industry, 410, 417, 418–420
marketing of, 419, 420, 570–571
stone, 418
sub-tropical, 420
Fruit and vegetable preserving industry, 477, 505–506
Fuels and lubricants, imports of, 642, 644
Furniture and fixtures industry, 478, 510, 852

G

Gardens, market, and nurseries, 388, 417
Gas—
appliances in homes, 540
boards, 767
council, 545, 556
generation and supply, 556–558
price, 558
subsidy, 557
Gazetteers, 1061–1062
Geese, 426
General—
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 34, 562, 663, 664
Assembly (see Parliament)
Assembly Library, 356
Elections, 43–44, 977
wage orders, 898
Geographical features, 2–6
Geological Survey, 235, 464–465
Geology, 7–9
maps, 464–465
publications, 9, 1057
Geothermal steam, electric power stations, 235, 549, 1040
Geysers (see Thermal activity)
Gift duty, 740, 752–754
Glaciers, 4, 9
Glass and glass products industry, 479
God Defend New Zealand, 982
Gold—
discovery of, 5
exported, 623
mining and production, 462
reserve, 804, 807
Goods—
carried on railways, 305, 307, 1014
Government—
and public administration publications, 1053
Departments (see also under individual names), 47–48, 995–996
employees, 997
finance, 700, 703–705, 1026–1027
houses, sale of, 845
housing, 522, 523, 533–535, 840–847
Railways (see Railways)
Industrial Tribunal, 925
superannuation fund, 187–190, 790, 824
system of, 42–52
Governor-General, 983–984
powers, duties, etc., 42, 4647, 241
Graduates, university, 215–224
Grain—
crops, 409–411, 412, 413–414, 1015
milling, 477, 504
Grapes and vineyards, 410, 418–419
Grass and clover seed, 410–412, 416–417, 1021
exports of, 638
Grasses, 404, 410–412, 415
Grassland and grasses research, 236, 404
Grasslands, 404, 421–423
Greenstone, 455, 463
Groceries, retail prices of, 675–676
Gross—
capital formation, 694–701
of Central Government, 759–764, 1028
of local government, 772–777, 1029
domestic expenditure, 694–698
of Central Government, 759–764, 1028
of local government, 772–777, 1029
domestic product, 723–724
of Central Government, 759–764, 1028
of local government, 772–777, 1029
farming income, 391–392, 393
of Central Government, 759–764, 1028
of local government, 772–777, 1029
indebtedness—
of Central Government, 759–764, 1028
of local government, 772–777, 1029
national product, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 726, 1027
Guardianship, 178

H

Hail, 16
Halloysite, 463
Ham (see Bacon and ham)
Handicapped children, 129, 208–209
Harbours, 2
Harbour boards, 50, 193, 766, 1030, 1065–1077
Harbour Bridge Authority, 50, 314
Harvests, 413–416, 1015
Hay, 404, 410–411
Health—
Act 1956, and others, 100, 124
annual appropriations, 704, 738, 1089
benefits, 125, 135–138, 164–175
Board of, 124
camps, 129, 140
centres, industrial, 942
child, 128–129
dental, 124, 129
Department of, 123–156, 164, 533
education, 129, 130
expenditure, 125, 704, 738, 1027
hazards, 128
insurance, 195–197
mental, 152–156
occupational, 127
Heart disease, 103, 104, 107–108, 147, 149
Heavy traffic fees, 313, 742
Herbicides, 375
Hides, skins, and pelts exported, 299, 502, 615, 618–619, 636–637, 1021
High commissions, 1005–1007
Higher education (see Education)
Higher School Certificate, 199
Highways, 312–315
taxation, 739, 740, 742, 1086
Hire purchase trade, 583, 596–597, 1084
Historic Articles Act, 1050
Historic Places Trust, 378, 1051
Historic reserves, 378
History of New Zealand, 21–27, 1037–1044
Niue Island, 22
Tokelau Islands, 22
publications on, 1062–1064
Holdings (see Land holdings)
Holidays, 923–924, 979–980
Home lay-by accounts, Post Office Savings Bank, 816
Home service (in war), 276
Homes—
accidents in, 113, 150–151
children's 129, 177–178
joint family, 535
old people's 139
Homicide, 112, 150, 246
Honey, 427
consumption of, 690
exported, 618, 619, 691
marketing of, 572
Honours conferred, 1003–1005
Hops, 420–421
export of, 618, 620
Horse-racing, 758–759
Horticulture, 392–393, 403
Hosiery and other knitting mills, 477, 507
Hospital—
benefits, 135–138, 166
employees, 997
expenditure, 144–145
finances of, 144–145, 705
indebtedness of, 144
Boards, 50, 141–143, 193
employees, 997
expenditure, 144–145
finances of, 144–145, 705
indebtedness of, 144
districts. 141
Hospitals (see also Patients), 141–156, 521, 526, 528
beds in, 142–143
deaths in, 146–150
general, 143
Karitane, 140, 156
maternity, 136
mental, 152–156
old people's 139
private, 141, 142, 143
psychiatric units, 136, 141, 145, 150, 152–156
public, 142–151
staff of, 144, 156, 997
Hostels, 139, 533, 878
pre-release, 255
Hot springs, 963
Hotels, licensed, 959–961, 975–976
Hours of work, 499, 502–520, 902–903, 923, 924
Households, 78–81
electricity consumption 555, 556
incomes of, 79 801–802
size of, 79
age group of head, 79
occupational status of head, 79
House of Representatives, 27, 42, 43, 45, 987–988
members of, 42, 43, 44, 45
Houses and flats (see also Dwellings), 521–542, 840–847
census enumerations, 536–541
completed, 524, 1083
conversion to flats, 524, 1083
finance of, 523–524, 530, 531, 534, 840–842, 843–846
fire losses on, 870
for the elderly, 139, 524, 531–532
Maori, 524, 532, 772
mortgages, 531, 841–842, 843–846
rental value of owner-occupier, 670, 673–674, 693, 699
rents, 537–538, 670, 673, 674
sale of State, 845
State, 522, 523, 533–535, 840–847
Housing, 521–542, 841–842, 843–846
Division, Ministry of Works, 534, 840
of elderly, 139, 531–532, 772, 846
rural, 532
Housing Corporation, 840
Humidity, 17
Hunting, 963
Hydro-electric power, 544
water sources, 4–5
Hydrology, 372
Hygiene, 123–128

I

Ice cream—
consumption of, 688
industry, 477, 504
Illegitimacy (see Ex-nuptial)
Ilmenite, 454
Immigration, 72–74, 1010
ages of migrants, 71
assisted, 73
hostels, 878
original, 22
policy, 72–74
Immunisation, 123, 129
Import price indexes, 683–684, 686–687
Importers, bank advances to, 810
Imports, 443, 642–658, 1017
by end use, 656–657
by ports, 297–298, 697–698, 1067
classification of, 642–646
licensing and control of, 612–614
of heads of households, 539, 540
origin of, 600–604, 607–611, 646–653
payments on account of, 829, 830
value of, 606–612, 642–653
volume of, 443, 653–656
volume index numbers, 611–612
Income—
company, 693, 697, 699, 708, 791–799
earners in each household, 801–802
gross farming, 391–392, 393
industrial classification of, 793–795
investment, 782, 787, 788, 789, 854
national, 693–705, 742
of heads of households, 539, 540
of individuals, 693, 778–790, 800–802
of salary and wage earners, 778, 781
of self employed, 778, 779, 780, 783, 787, 788, 789
of women, 786, 800–802
private, 693, 694, 698, 699, 708
returnable, 784–799
sources of, 778, 787–789 Income tax, 704, 740, 743–751
Indebtedness (see Debt)
Index numbers—
building and construction, 721
by commodity groups, 681–682
commodity prices, 678–679
by commodity groups, 681–682
consumers' price, 669–674, 686–687, 1085
by commodity groups, 681–682
employment, 721–722
by commodity groups, 681–682
export prices, 681–682, 686–687
by commodity groups, 681–682
external trade, volume of, 611–612
farm production, value and volume, 392–393, 721
farming costs prices, 680–681
gross domestic product, 723
gross farming income, 392–393
import prices, 683–684, 686–687
manufacturing industries production, value and volume, 498, 1025
production, 720–721
productivity, 722
reproduction, 87
retail prices, 670–674
retail turnover, 592–593
share prices, 685
urban house property price, 530
volume of production, 498, 721
wage rates, 904–905
wholesale prices, 677–678, 686–687
wool prices, 574
Indigenous forest, 428, 429–430, 431, 445
Industrial—
associations, 917
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
classification of salary and wage payments, 900–901, 1091
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
Commission. 908–911
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
conciliation and arbitration, 907–911, 1038
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
Conciliation Service, 909
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
Court, 908, 911
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
Design Council, 969
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
disputes, 907–911, 918–923, 1035
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
distribution of population, 900–901
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
Health Centres, 942
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
injuries, 930–938
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
life assurance, 859–860
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
Mediation Service, 908
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
production, 467–520, 1025
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
Relations Act, 908
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
research, 237–238, 472
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
stoppages, 918–923
days lost through, 919, 920, 921–923
unions, 911–915, 918
Industrial accidents, 113, 930–938
compensation paid, 931
deaths from, 113
frequency and severity rates, 931–933
time lost through, 931–933, 935
Industries—
bank advances to, 810
aids to development, 478
export earnings, 471
manufacturing, 467–520, 1025
aids to development, 478
export earnings, 471
Industry—
groups of bankrupts, 972
persons engaged in, 473–480, 482–485, 1025
State aid to, 738, 842, 843
wages and overtime, 473–480, 485–488, 499, 500, 502, 503–520, 903–905
Infant mortality, 109–111, 1010
Injuries, industrial, 930–937
Input-output tables, 719–720
Insanity, 152–155
Insecticides, 336, 375
Insects and fungi, control in forests, 434
Insolvency, 971, 1034
Instalment credit trading, 596–597
Institute of Nuclear Sciences, 235
Instruments, duty on, 740–757
Insurance, 855–873, 1035
accident, 862–865, 1035
balance of payments, 713
earthquake, and war damage, 873
employers' liability, 862
fire, 866–871, 1035
life, 855–862, 1035
motor-vehicles, third party risks, 324, 863–865
policies, 855–860, 1035
sickness, 196
State, 871–873
tax exemptions, 747
Intellectually handicapped children, 139–140
Intelligence service, 277
Intercensal records, 55
Inter-industry studies and sector accounts, 719–720
Interest—
credit by savings banks, 814, 816, 818, 819, 1031
fixed deposits, 809, 821, 1033
mortgages, 837–838
public debt, 761, 763, 844
on local government debt, 773–776
fixed deposits, 809, 821, 1033
mortgages, 837–838
public debt, 761, 763, 844
on Post Office capital liability, 732
fixed deposits, 809, 821, 1033
mortgages, 837–838
public debt, 761, 763, 844
on public debt, 697, 700, 703, 704, 759, 761, 762
fixed deposits, 809, 821, 1033
mortgages, 837–838
public debt, 761, 763, 844
payments to consolidated revenue account, 732
fixed deposits, 809, 821, 1033
mortgages, 837–838
public debt, 761, 763, 844
rates on—
fixed deposits, 809, 821, 1033
mortgages, 837–838
public debt, 761, 763, 844
savings banks, 816–818, 821–822
stock and station deposits, 821
International—
Activities, 25
air services, 331–332, 336–338
Bank for Reconstruction and Development, 34, 302, 707, 735, 760, 761, 831–832, 1028, 1042
Coffee Agreement, 665
Finance Corporation, 34, 831–832
investment income, 829
Monetary Fund, 34, 706, 707, 712, 713, 735, 827, 828, 830, 831, 832–833, 1092
relations, New Zealand's, 27–42
Sugar Agreement, 665
Wool Secretariat, 401, 561
International comparisons—
birth and natural increase rates, 85
heights and weights, 158, 160
cinema attendance, 362
heights and weights, 158, 160
consumption of foodstuffs, 691
heights and weights, 158, 160
dairy produce consumption, 691
heights and weights, 158, 160
doctor to population ratio, 133
heights and weights, 158, 160
expectation of life, 100
heights and weights, 158, 160
external trade per head, 605
heights and weights, 158, 160
fish consumption, 451
heights and weights, 158, 160
hire purchase trade, 596
heights and weights, 158, 160
infant mortality rates, 109
heights and weights, 158, 160
libraries, 359
heights and weights, 158, 160
life assurance, 855
heights and weights, 158, 160
marriage rates, 115
heights and weights, 158, 160
motor accident, death and injury rates, 324
heights and weights, 158, 160
newspapers, 355
heights and weights, 158, 160
population, 87
heights and weights, 158, 160
prices, 677, 680
public expenditure on education, 202
standards of living, 972–973
telephones, 344
wages, 906
wholesale prices, 680
women in the labour force, 892–895
Invalids' benefits, 166, 167, 169, 173, 1090
Inventions Development Authority, 968
Investment—
accounts, 817
and finance, 835–854
incomes, 782, 787, 788, 789, 854
in New Zealand and overseas, 713, 714, 715–719, 807
pool—National Provident Fund, 192–193
Reserve Bank, 807
societies, 847–850
State, 761–762
Invisible imports and exports, 829
Iron and steel—
imports of, 298, 645, 651, 654, 655
industry, 462, 470
Iron ores and ironsands, 299, 454
Irrigation, 375, 405–406
Island territories, 1–2, 54, 231, 943–952
constitutional changes, 31
Islands, 1, 2

J

Jails, prisoners in, 252–253
Japan, trade with, 559, 560, 562, 598, 599, 601, 609, 610, 625, 646
shipping to and from, 293
Joinery industry, 510
Joint family homes, 535
Judiciary, 48, 241–242
members of, 994
superannuation of, 188–190
Juries, 242–243
Justice, 241–264, 1012
Justices of the Peace, 243
Juvenile—
delinquency, 257
offenders, 178–180, 257–258
working conditions, 924

K

Karitane hospitals, 140, 156
Kauri gum, 463, 617, 619
Kermadec Islands, 10, 54, 1038
Kindergarten schools, 204, 205, 209
Knitting mills and hosiery industry, 477–507

L

Laboratory diagnostic services, 136, 138
Labour—
Department of, 73, 74, 127, 164, 542, 878, 901, 939
distribution of, 876
educational qualifications of, 228, 895
projections, 877, 879
Disputes Investigation Act, 907
distribution of, 876
educational qualifications of, 228, 895
projections, 877, 879
force, 473
distribution of, 876
educational qualifications of, 228, 895
projections, 877, 879
hours, 499, 502–520, 902–903
laws and working conditions, 897–900, 907–908
Lactose, 394
Lake Manapouri, 549
Lakes, 5–6
access to, 368, 369
artificial, 5–6
Lamb—
consumption, 399, 689
exported, 576–577, 630–631, 690, 1019
produced, 396, 398
Lambs, 422–423
slaughtered, 397, 398, 502
Land, 278–287, 376–384
classification for soil conservation, 375
classification by farm types, 387–388
mortgages on, 835–847
conservation, 364–368
classification by farm types, 387–388
mortgages on, 835–847
Crown, 278–279, 376–382
classification by farm types, 387–388
mortgages on, 835–847
development, 379, 382
classification by farm types, 387–388
mortgages on, 835–847
drainage boards, 50
classification by farm types, 387–388
mortgages on, 835–847
holdings, 387, 425
classification by farm types, 387–388
mortgages on, 835–847
Maori, 278–279, 382–383
registration, 278–279
settlement promotion, 279, 380, 381, 382, 737
Settlement Board, 380
surveys, 384
tax, 704, 740, 750
tenure, 278, 387
transfers, 280–282, 1033, 1091
use, 363, 387–388
Use Advisory Council, 365
Valuation Court (see Supreme Court)
valuation of, 283–287, 765
Law (see Legislation)
Law
and the family, 260
and crime, 241–260, 1012
revision of, 241
Lawnmowers, 501, 520
Lead, 463
Leaf protein, 234
Leasehold landholdings, 279, 280, 380–381, 387
Leather and leather products, 479, 512
Legal aid, 260
Legal profession, 243
Legal tender, 825
Legislation—
in force in January 1974, 989–994
influences on, in New Zealand, 24
labour and allied, 897–900, 907–908
passed in 1973, 988
Legislative authority, 42–46
Legislative Council, 27, 42
Legitimations, 92
Letters, etc., posted, 341–343, 1013
Libraries, census of, 358–359
Library school, 357
Library services, 200, 356–359
Licences—
aerodrome, 329
transport, 318–319
drivers', 316, 324
transport, 318–319
export, 612
transport, 318–319
flight crew, 339
transport, 318–319
import, 612–614
transport, 318–319
motor-vehicle, 316–318, 1083
transport, 318–319
petroleum prospecting, 460–461, 465
transport, 318–319
publicans', 975–976
transport, 318–319
radio and television, 354–355
transport, 318–319
restaurant, 975
transport, 318–319
Licensing.—
authorities (road services), 319
Control Commission (liquor), 975–976, 1040
poll, 975–976, 977
trusts, 976
Licensing—
commercial air services, 332, 339
goods and passenger services, 319
lotteries and raffles, 974
motor vehicles, 316–318
private hospitals, 141
sale of alcoholic liquor, 975–976
Life annuity tables, 99
Life insurance, 855–862
international comparison, 855
Life, expectation of, 98–100, 896
Lifts, inspection of, 939, 940
Lighthouses, 300
Lime—
for agriculture, 404–405, 407
industry, 479
Limestone, 455, 466
Linen flax, 421, 477
Linseed, 415
Liquor licensing, 975–976
Literary awards, 1047, 1048–1050
Literature, New Zealand, 1052–1064
Livestock, 421–426, 1015
slaughtering, 397–398
traffic, 307
Loans—
allocation of, 735, 761–762
by building societies, 847–850
dates of maturity, 764
domicile of, 1028
farm, 840–841, 843
forestry, 435
harbour boards, 774, 775
hospital boards, 144
housing, 524
land development, 381
national development, 739
of local government, 772–777, 1029–1030
on assurance policies, 861
overseas, 760, 762, 763
personal, 817
redemption of, 737, 739, 760, 1087
State Advances, 840–847
supplementary, 846
suspensory, 846
Local Authorities (see under Local Government and individual names, e.g., Hospital Boards, Counties, etc.)
Local Authority Loans Board, 532, 772–775
Local Government, 49–52
advances to, 843, 845, 846
Commission, 51
debt of, 772–777, 1029–1030
districts, 49
employees of, 882–883
expenditure of, 314, 705, 768–771, 1029
finance of, 705, 765–777, 1029–1030
franchise, 50
health and welfare responsibilities of, 125, 524
history of, 49–52
housing by, 524
investment pool, 191, 192–193
number of local authorities, 50
rates, 705
revenue of, 312–319, 705, 1029
roading of, 312, 315
stock, 775
subsidies and grants to, 312–313, 314–315, 705, 738, 771–772
superannuation, 192
taxation, 705
urban transport operated by, 327–330
Local railway board, 308, 767, 768
Lockouts, 920, 1036
Locomotives, 304
Lodges, friendly societies, 195–197
Logging, 436–437
London prices for meat, 576
Losses from fire, 869–870
Lotteries, 974–975
duty on, 757, 975
grants, 139, 975, 981
Lubricants, and fuels, imports of, 642, 644
Lucerne, 410, 412, 416

M

Machinery—
accidents, 937
exports, 620
farm, 479, 519
imports of, 298, 408–409, 645, 651, 652, 653, 655
industry, 479, 519, 520, 852
safety of, 939–940
used in manufacturing industries, 488–489
Magistrates' Courts, 48, 121, 242, 246–250, 259, 1012
Magistrates, Stipendiary, 242
Mails, 341–343, 1013
air, 334, 338, 342
Maize, 234
Malaysia, reciprocal trade with, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 663
Manganese ore, 462
Manila Treaty, 28, 36, 265
Manpower Planning Unit, 879
Manufacturing industries, 467–520, 726, 793, 810, 852, 1025
assets of, 495
by employment districts, 474–476
coal consumed in, 489–490
development, 467–472, 725
expenses of operation, 495–496, 1025
export earnings, 471
motive power, 488–489
net output (net value added) in, 493–494, 498, 500, 502–520, 1025
persons engaged in, 473–480, 482–485, 876, 1025
stocks, 496–497, 1084
summary of operations, 500
value of production, 473–480, 491–494, 501–520, 1025
volume of production, 474, 475–476, 494, 498, 501–520
wages in, 473–480, 485–488, 903–905, 1025
Maori—
Affairs, Board of, 383
and Island Affairs Dept., 180, 181, 231, 383, 524
Appellate Court, 242, 279
apprentices registered, 886–887
birth rate, 86
bulletin Te Wharekura, 217
children, heights and weights of, 158
council, 180
death rate, 102–107, 108
education, 211, 230–231
Education Foundation, 230
electorates, 44–45, 48
housing, 532
Land Court, 242, 279, 382
lands, 278–279, 368, 382–383, 429
life expectancy, 98–99
Members of Parliament, 44–45, 48, 987, 1038
population, 68–69, 99, 103, 104, 1082
pupils, 211, 212, 230
Purposes Act 1951, 115
trustee, 383
welfare organisations, 180
Women's Welfare League, 180
youths, trade training for, 886
Maoris—
children attending schools, 211, 212
census of, 68–69
deaths of, 85, 104–107
expectation of life, 99
franchise, 48, 49
history of, 21–24, 26, 27
infant mortality of, 109–111
natural increase of, 85
population, 65, 68–69, 1082
pre-employment courses, 886–887
publications and articles on, 1056–1057
scholarships for, 230, 231
settled on farms, 382–384
Maps—
factory production, 475–476
mineral resources, 456
New Zealand (end of volume)
rainfall, 15
topographical, 384
Marginal land, 382
Marine Division (see Ministry of Transport)
Marine officers certificates, 300, 925
Marital status, 77–78, 116
Market gardens, 410, 411, 417–418
Marketing of primary produce, 559–578, 1083
Marriage guidance, 121–122
Marriages, 115–122, 1010
dissolution and nullity, 119–121
rates, 115
Marine pollution, 375
Maritime parks, 371, 379
Masseurs (see Physiotherapists)
Materials used in manufacturing industries, 473–476, 490–491, 1025
Maternal deaths, 112
health, 128
Maternal welfare, 128–129, 136, 140
Maternity—
benefits, 136, 138, 166
hospitals, 128
nurses, 133, 136
Meat—
consumption of, 399, 689
wages and hours worked, 904–905
export of, 299, 396–398, 559–561, 569–570, 576–577, 611, 615, 618–620, 629–632, 690, 829, 830
wages and hours worked, 904–905
export price index, 681
wages and hours worked, 904–905
freezing and preserving industry, 477, 502
wages and hours worked, 904–905
industry reserve account, 578
inspection of, 403
levy on, 569
marketing of, 569–570
prices for, 576, 577
production, 396–399, 502, 1024
retail prices, 675
Meat Producers Board, 398, 569, 577
Mediation, industrial, 908
Medical—
advertisements 126
benefits, 135–138, 166–167
care societies, 197
Council, 132
practitioners, 133, 135, 783
Research Council, 124, 132, 237
research foundations, 132
services, 123–156
statistics, 131
Medicine, physical, 131
Members of Parliament, 44–45, 987
salaries of, 45–46
superannuation of, 46, 188, 190
Mental—
diseases, 153–155
health and psychology publications, 152
hospitals, 152–156
Mercantile marine, 275, 288–300
pensions, 184
Merchant banks, 823
Mercury, 463
Mercury level in fish, 375, 451, 453
Metal products industry, 479, 519, 810, 876, 889, 901, 903–905
Meteorological—
observations for year, 18–20
Service, 332
Meteorology (see also Climate), 11–20
publications, 11
Metric equivalents, 966–967
Metrication, 576, 965–967
Metric Advisory Board, 965–966
Midwives, 133, 136
Migration, external, 53, 69–74, 1010, 1081
Mileage of—
bus, etc., routes, 329–330
commercial air services, 334–335
railways, 302, 1014
roads, 309, 311
State highways, 314
Mileage tax, 313, 740
Military—
colleges, 269
forces, 269–270
Milk—
boards, 571, 576, 666
consumption, 576, 688
dried and condensed, exports of, 618, 634, 1020
dried and condensed, production of, 394, 503
levy on, 571
marketing of, 571
subsidy, 571
Milkfat, 394, 395, 1024
Milk products (see Dairy products)
Milking machines, 408–409
Minerals and mineral production, 454–466, 479, 513, 726
Miners' benefits, 165, 166, 167, 169, 173, 1090
Mines Department, 457, 460, 940
Mining and quarrying, census of, 466
Mining, 372, 454–466, 513, 810
accidents, 113, 931
investment in, 718
legislation, 457
persons engaged in, 460
State aid to, 464
taxation, 751
value of production, 455, 457, 464, 466, 513
Ministers of each Church, and marriages by, 118, 119
Ministers of the Crown, 986
Ministries, successive, 984–985
Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, 236, 402–404, 416, 418
Ministry of Energy Resources, 545, 547
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 29
annual appropriations, 734
Ministry of Transport, 288, 300, 324, 940
Ministry of Works, 302, 310, 312, 369, 374, 405, 461, 534
Minors, marriages of, 117–118
Monarch, the, 42
Monetary and Economic Council, 669, 834
Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems, Royal Commission on, 832
Monetary policy, 812–814
Money orders, 343, 1013
Mortality (see Deaths)
Mortgage guarantee scheme, 842
Mortgages, 531, 835–840, 841–854, 861, 867, 1033
discharged, 839–840, 1033, 1091
rates of interest on, 837–838, 1033
registered, 835–839, 1033, 1091
sources of finance, 531, 839
State Advances, 840–847
Mothers—
ages of, 89–90
in ex-nuptial cases, 91
issue of, 90
Motive power in factories, 488–489
Motor body building industry, 480, 518
Motor cycles, 316
Motor spirits—
consumption of, 317
imports of, 298, 654
retail price of, 666, 676
taxation on, 312, 313, 739, 740, 742, 778
Motor vehicles—
accidents, 112, 113, 150, 320–324
assembly of, 470, 480, 518
drivers' licences, 316
imports of, 298, 652, 653, 655
inspection of, 325
insurance, 325, 863–865
registration and licensing of, 316–318, 1083
taxation, 313, 704, 740, 742, 1086
value of hire purchase sales, 597
Motorways, 310, 314
Mountaineering, 963, 980, 1059
Mountains, 1, 2–3, 7–13
Multiple births, 88
Murder, 112, 150, 246
Museums, 217
Music in New Zealand, publications on, 1059
Mussels, 447, 749
Mutton—
consumption of, 399, 689
exported, 396, 559–560, 569, 631, 690, 1019
produced, 396–397, 502
retail prices of, 675
Mutual insurance associations, 871

N

Narcotics, 127
Nassella tussock boards, 50, 407
National—
accounts, 693–724
Airways Corporation, 331–336, 735, 997
Archives, 1050–1051
Art Gallery, 1048
Development bonds, 817
Development Conference, 240, 367, 402, 546, 559, 725–727, 956, 1043
targets, 725–727, 956
Development Council, 267, 455, 725–727, 1043
development loans, 735, 739, 844, 845
Film Library, 217
flag, 982
Health Institute, 124, 132, 237
Health Statistics Centre, 131
income and expenditure, 693–705, 742
Land Inventory, 365
Library of New Zealand, 200, 356
licensing poll, 977
Marriage Guidance Council, 121–122
Mountain Safety Council, 980–981
parks, 370–371, 376–380
Provident Fund, 191–194, 790, 824
Radiation Laboratory, 128
Research Advisory Council, 238
Roads Board, 48, 311–315, 770
Roads Fund, 311–315, 739, 1089
Safety Association, 941
scheme for farm employees, 192
song, 982
superannuation scheme, 192
Water and Soil Conservation Authority, 373, 374, 375
Nationality and naturalisation, 74, 75
Native bush, 370, 428–429, 431
Natural gas, 544, 550, 554, 556–558, 735, 761, 1042, 1044
Natural increase of population, 53, 85
Natural resources, 363–376, 428–429, 454–466
Naturalisation, 74–75
Nature Conservation Council, 372, 379
Naval (see also Royal New Zealand Navy) bases, 268
defence, 267–268
vessels, 267–268
Navigational aids, air, 332–333
Netherlands, immigration from, 71, 72, 73
Net value added in manufacturing, 493–494, 498, 1025
New Zealand—
Apple and Pear Marketing Board, 419, 570–571
area of, 2, 67, 365
Australia Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 602–603, 613, 662
books, 1052–1064
boundaries of, 1–2
Broadcasting Authority, 350
Broadcasting Corporation, 350–351, 352–355, 735
Broadcasting Council, 350
Citrus Marketing Authority, 572
constitution, 42–49
Council for Recreation and Sport, 981
Dairy Board, 395–396, 569
Egg Marketing Authority, 572
Electricity Department, 552, 941
Export-Import Corporation, 615
Forest Products Ltd., 438
Gazette, 46, 49
in the Commonwealth, 29–30
Literary Fund, 1048
mean time, 978
Meat Producers Board, 398, 569
Milk Board, 571, 576
Ports Authority, 288
Red Cross Society, 140
representation overseas, 1005–1006
Road Safety Council, 325
Shipping Corporation, 288
Steel Ltd., 462, 470, 735, 761
Wheat Board, 414
Wool Board, 401
Wool Marketing Corporation, 401
Newspapers, 355–356, 653, 979
produced, 501
Newsprint—
exports of, 299, 442, 617, 619, 639, 1023
imports of, 442, 443
production, 438–440, 469
usage of, 511
Niue Island, 2, 21, 22, 31–32, 54, 72, 83, 641, 658, 943, 948–950
immigrants from, 72, 82
Noise, 375
Note issue, 804, 806
Notes in circulation, 825, 1031
Noxious animals, 434
Nurseries, plant, 417
Nurses—
community, 133
dental, 130
in public hospitals, 144
industrial, 128
male, 133
Plunket, 128, 140
psychiatric, 133
psychopaedic, 133
registration of, 133
training of, 130, 133
Nursing, 124, 133, 144
Nutrition, 127

O

Oatmeal, etc., 504
Oats, 410, 411, 412, 413, 1015
Occupational—
classification of—
of bankrupts, 972
married women, 894
population, 890–891
school-leavers, 213
health, 127–128
safety, 938–942
therapy, 131, 133
Oceanographic Institute, 235, 375
OECD, 34–35, 1044
Office machines, imports of, 651
Officers' Certificates (Marine), 300
Offices Act, Shops and, 924
Oil discharge, 375
Oil drilling and prospecting, 460–461, 465
Oil, imports of, 298
Oil refinery, 548, 1042
Old people's homes, 139
Ombudsman (Parliamentary Commissioner), 48, 994
Onions, 412, 415, 689
exports of, 618, 620, 690
Opossum skins exported (see Hides)
Opticians, registration of, 134
Oranges, imports of, 648, 653, 658, 689
Orchards, 410
Orchestras, NZBC, National Youth, 353
Orphans benefits, 166, 167, 169, 170, 172, 1090
Ottawa Agreement, 659
Outpatients, 142, 143
Output of manufacturing (net), 493–494, 498, 500, 502–520
Outward Bound School, 980
Overdraft authorities, unexercised, 812
Overdraft rates, 809
Overseas—
companies, 798, 799
exchange transactions, 803, 804, 826–832, 1092
investment, 713, 714, 715–719, 798–799
representatives in New Zealand and New Zealand representatives overseas, 614, 1006–1007
reserves (banks), 826–828, 1031
ships, registry of, 294
students, 206, 223
territories (see Island territories)
travel allowances, 831
war service, persons with, 274–275
Overtime, 499, 502–520, 902–903
Oysters, 446, 447, 452, 749

P

Pacific Islands (see Island territories, or individual islands)
constitutional changes, 31–32
Paint and varnish industry, 479, 514, 529
Painting in New Zealand, publications on, 1059
Paper and paper products industry, 438–440, 469, 510–511
Paper and pulp, external trade in, 299, 438–440, 442–443, 478, 616, 617, 619, 645, 650, 654, 1023
Parcel post, 343
Parents—
ages of, 89–90
births by duration of marriage, 90–91
previous issue of, 90
solo, 169, 171, 182, 1090
Parks, National, 370–371, 376–380
Parliament, 27, 987, 988, 1037–1044
Members of, 987
term of, 977
Parliamentary—
Commissioner (Ombudsman), 48, 994
elections, 44, 977
functions and control, 43–44
procedure, 43
salaries, 45–46
Parole boards, 256
Particle board, 440, 470, 517
Passenger services—
railway, 305
road, 319–320
Passengers—
buses, etc., 308–309, 327–330
commercial aircraft, 334, 335, 337–338
overseas, 69–71, 1010
railway, 305, 306–307, 308, 1014
shipping, 291
Passports, 74
Pasture grasses, 404
Patents, designs, trade marks, 968
Patients in hospitals, 146, 152
Patients in mental hospitals, 152–155
Paua, 447, 453
PAYE taxation, 743–746, 1041
Payments, balance of (see Balance of payments)
Pears, 410, 418, 419
consumption of, 689
export of, 570–571, 618, 620, 690, 1021
marketing of, 419, 570–571
Peas, 410–413, 1015
export of, 618, 620, 638
Pelts (see Hides, pelts, and skins)
Penal institutions, 244, 252–253
Penal system, 243–244
Pensions—
social security, 163–176, 181–187
war, 165–181-187
Perinatal mortality, 111
Periodic detention, 244
Perlite, 455, 463
Permanent heads of Government departments, 995–996
Permits, building, 525–527
Personal loans service, 817
Pest destruction boards, 50, 408
Pesticides, 375
Petitions—
bankruptcy, 971
divorce, 119–120
Petrol (see Motor spirits)
Petroleum, 455, 547
imports of, 642, 644, 649, 654
industry, 460–461, 479, 520, 547
prospecting, 460, 465
usage of, 547
Pharmaceutical benefits, 135, 138, 166
Pharmaceutical chemists, 134
Pharmaceutical Society, Council of, 134
Pharmaceuticals, manufacture of, 479, 514
Phormium, 477
Phosphate rock, 463, 513
imports of, 649, 654
Photography, aerial, 384
Physical education, 159
Physical welfare and recreation, 962–963
Physical medicine, 131
Physiotherapists, 131, 133
Physiotherapy benefits, 136
Pig-meats—
consumption, of, 399, 689
exports of, 577, 631, 690
prices for, 675, 677
production of, 502, 503
Pigs, 391–393, 426, 1015
slaughtered, 502, 503
Pilots air, 339
Placement service, 878, 884
Planing mills, 478, 509
Planning—
economic, 725–728
town and country, 52, 366–368
Plantations, 411, 428
Plastics, industry, 480, 519
Platinum, 463
Play centres, 204, 209
Pleasure craft, 301
Plumbers, registration of, 134
Plunket Society, 128, 129, 140
Plywood and veneer, 440, 478, 516–517, 529, 617, 619
Poems, publications of, 1060
Poisoning, 112
Poisons, 126, 127
Police, 179, 263–264, 997
youth aid section, 179
superannuation, 188–190
Political parties, 43, 977
Polynesian Education Foundation, 230
Polling at—
general elections, 977
Pollution—
air, 125–126, 375, 376
Pollution—
mercury, 451
tax incentives to reduce, 749–750
water, 375–376
Population (see also Census), 53–84, 97, 1010–1012, 1081–1082, 1093–1095
age distribution, 77, 80–81, 1082
density of, 66–67
distribution of, 58–67
ethnic groups, 82
heights and weights, 156–162
increases, 53–56, 68, 85
industrial distribution of, 889
international comparisons, 55, 84, 85
Maori, 56, 68–69, 98
projections, 57–58
sex proportions of, 66–67
urbanisation of, 65–66
vital statistics, 85–122
world, 84
Pork (see Pig-meats)
Portfolios of Ministers, 986
Port Agriculture Service, 404
Ports—
and shipping developments (special article) 1065–1077
Authority, 288
fishing, 450
imports by, 297–298, 697–698
of arrival and departure, 291
safety of, 940
shipping trade of, 288–299
Postal notes, 343
Post Office, 341–349, 1013
bonus bonds, 950
superannuation of, 188–190
debt, 732
superannuation of, 188–190
employees, 349, 997
superannuation of, 188–190
National Development Bonds, 750
Savings Bank, 530, 815–818, 821, 824, 1032
Staff Tribunal, 925
Potato Board, 414, 571
Potatoes, 409–412, 414–415, 571, 618, 620, 1015
consumption of, 689
export of, 618, 690
Pottery, china, and earthenware industry, 479, 515
Poultry, 426, 1037
consumption of, 689
Power (see Electric power)
Preferential tariff, 659–665
Pregnancy, diseases, etc., 112, 147–149
deaths from, 102, 103, 147–149
Premiums, insurance—
accidents, 862–865
fire, 866–870
life, 856–861
motor vehicle (third party), 863–865
Pre-school education, 130, 200, 209
Preserved meats, etc., production of, 502
Preventive detention, 244
Price Tribunal, 666
Price control, 666–668
Prices, 666–687
basic for dairy produce, 574–575
index numbers, 669–674, 1085
comparisons with other countries, 676–677
index numbers, 669–674, 1085
export, 573–577
index numbers, 669–674, 1085
export, indexes of, 681–682
index numbers, 669–674, 1085
farming costs index, 680–681
index numbers, 669–674, 1085
import, indexes of, 683–684
index numbers, 669–674, 1085
retail, 669–674
index numbers, 669–674, 1085
stabilisation of, 667–668, 669
Trade Practices Act, 608
wholesale, 677–678
Primary products—
consumption of, 394, 399, 400, 688–692
by ports, 298–299
export of, 299, 559–577, 598–601, 611, 615–620, 628–639, 1018–1022
by ports, 298–299
marketing of, 559–577
Primary schools, 199, 201, 204, 205, 209–211, 801
Prime Ministers, successive, 984–985
Principal events, 1037–1044
Printing and publishing industry, 478, 511
Prisoners of war, 275
Prison service superannuation, 188–190
Prisons and prisoners, 252–256, 1012
Private—
income, 693, 694, 702
investment, 713, 714, 715–719
savings banks, 531, 818, 822, 824, 1042
schools, 199, 200, 204, 205, 211, 1011
Privy council, 242
Probation of offenders, 178, 243, 246, 247, 248
Production, 720–728, 1024
building materials, 515–517
clothing, 478, 508
dairy, 391–393, 394–396
farm, 391–401, 402, 1024
fisheries, 447–449
index numbers of, 498, 720–721
manufacturing industries, 467–520, 1025
meat, 396–399, 502, 1024
mineral, 455, 457, 464, 466, 513
pulp and paper, etc., 438–440, 478, 510–511
timber, 436–437, 1024
wheat, 413–414
wool, 391, 392–393, 400–401, 1024
Productivity Advisory Council, 472
Productivity Centre, 727
Productivity index, 722
Projections—
labour force, 877, 879
permanent private dwellings, 525
population, 57–58
school population, 207
Property price index, 530–531
Property speculation tax, 751
Psychiatric health, 152–156
Psychiatric units of public hospitals, 152
Public—
accounts, 703–705, 729–764
administration and Government, publications on, 1053
authority sector of national income and expenditure, 703–705
debt, 704, 759–764, 1028
interest on, 697, 700, 703, 704, 759, 762,
finance, 729–764, 1026–1027
health, 123–133
holidays, 923–924, 979–980
Public Service, 925, 996–999
employees, 881–882, 925–926, 997
superannuation, 188–190
Public Trust Office, 969–970
Public Works—
maintenance appropriations, 704, 738
occupational safety, 941
railway construction, 302
road construction, 309–316
services, maintenance of, 704, 738
Publicans' licences, 975–976
Publications (see also by subject)
Education, 217
Education Gazette, 217
New Zealand Listener, 353
School Journal, 217
Publishing and printing industry, 478, 511, 977–978
Pulp and paper industry, 438–440, 469, 478, 510–511, 793, 810
export of, 299, 441–442, 616, 617, 619, 639, 1023
import of, 441–442, 644, 649
Pumice, 455, 619

Q

Quadruplets born, 88
Quarries, 466
accidents at, 931
persons engaged in, 466
safety in, 940
Quarrying and mining, census of, 466
Queen Elizabeth II Arts Council, 1047–1048

R

Rabbit boards (see Pest destruction boards)
Race relations, 980
Racing taxation, 740, 758–759, 1086
Radiation protection, 128
Radio and television, 349–355
advertising, 351–355
assembly and manufacture of sets, 479, 501, 517
licences, 354, 355
Radio—
beacons, 300
private commercial, 351, 352
communications, 346–349
private commercial, 351, 352
New Zealand, 350, 351
private commercial, 351, 352
time signals, 978
Radioactivity, protection against, 128
Radiology, 128
Radiotelephone services, 346, 347
Raffles, 974
Railcars, 303
Rail traffic—
goods, 305, 307, 1014
passengers, 305, 306, 1014
Railway equipment, imports of, 652
Railways, 301–309, 1014, 1082
accidents, 113, 150, 308, 1040
air freight service, 303, 335
debt, 833
employees, 308, 997
licensing protection, 318–319
notional, 302
private, 308
revenue and expenditure, 304–306, 735, 736, 1014, 1082
road-rail ferry service, 303, 305, 104
road services, 305, 308, 1082
superannuation, 188–190
Tribunal, 897, 925
Rainfall, 13–15, 18
Rangemaking industry, 479, 517
Raoul Island, 2, 10
Rarotonga Island (see also Cook Islands), 944
Rates, local government, 765–766
valuation for, 283–284
Rates of exchange, 826
Re-afforestation, 372
Reciprocal tariff and trade, 661–665
Recreation, 433, 962–963, 980–981
Recreational land, 368–371
Redemption of loans, 737, 739, 760
Re-exports, 640
Refrigerators, 501, 520, 540
Refugees, 73
Regional—
Authority, 49
development, 471
planning, 366
Registrars, marriages before, 115, 118
Registration of—
adopted children, 92–94
aircraft, 339
aliens, 75–76
apiaries, 427
apprentices, 885–886
births, 86
chemists, 134
child care centres, 178
community nurses, 133
companies, 851–853
deaths, 100–101
dental technicians, 133
dentists, 133
designs, 968
dietitians, 134
electors, 49
employers' unions, 916
ex-nuptial births, 92
friendly societies, 196
land titles, 278
land valuers, 287
land values, 283–284
male nurses, 133
marriages, 116–118
maternity nurses, 133
medical practitioners, 133
midwives, 133
mortgages, 835–839, 1033
motor vehicles, 316–318
nurseries, 417
nurses, 133
occupational therapists, 133
opticians, 134
patents, 968
pharmaceutical chemists, 134
physiotherapists, 133
plumbers, 134
private schools, 200
psychiatric nurses, 133
psychopaedic nurses, 133
still births, 94
trade marks, 968
trade unions, 911–912
unemployed, 883–884
vessels, 295
Rehabilitation, 181, 187, 704, 842
disabled civilians, 131, 878, 929
Religious professions, 81
marriages by ministers of, 118, 119
Renewable leases, 380, 381
Rental cars, 316–320, 864–865
Rental value, owner-occupier houses, 670, 673–674, 693, 699
Rents, 537–538
stabilisation of, 542
Representation Commission, 42, 45, 49
Representation in New Zealand, 1006–1007
Representation overseas, 1005–1006
Representatives, House of, 27, 42, 43, 44, 45, 987, 1037
Reproduction index, 87
Research, 232–240
agricultural, 233–234, 404
animal, 236
Antarctic, 236, 952–955
coal, 457
dental, 130
economic, 237
educational, 229, 237
expenditure, 238–239
fishery, 453
forestry, 434, 441
grassland and grasses, 236, 404
industrial, 472
leaf protein, 234
medical, 132, 237
mining, 457
plant, 233–234
scientific and industrial, 234–236, 238
social sciences, 237
soil, 234
wheat, 233
wool, 401
Reserve Bank, 24, 48, 713, 803–807, 808, 809, 812, 813, 814, 825, 832, 853
assets and liabilities, 806–807
securities held, 807
Reserve ratio bank advances, 812–814
Reserves—
air force, 272
farm industry, 578
military, 270
naval, 268
overseas (banks), 826–828
public or scenic, 370–371, 376–380
Restaurant licences, 975, 976
Retail prices, 669–674, 1085
index numbers, 670–674
Retail trade, 578–584, 588–590, 592–594, 1084
Retailers, bank advances to, 810
Revenue—
broadcasting and television, 353–354
cinemas, 361
customs, 661, 704
electric power, 554, 555
forest service, 435
Government (see Government finance)
insurance companies, 858, 860, 862, 867–868, 1035
local government, 312–313, 700, 767, 1028
National Roads Fund, 313–315, 739
Post Office, 348
railway, 304–305, 1014, 1082
urban transport, 327–328
Rice, 653
River boards, 59, 767, 768, 775
Rivers, 4–5
Access to, 368
control of, 373–374
hydro-electric development on, 548–549, 550
Road—
accidents, 113, 150, 321–324
boards, 50, 767–768
districts, 312
safety, 324–325
services, 319, 327–330
transport, 309–324, 327–330
Tunnel Authority, 50, 311
Roads, 309–330
expenditure on, 312–316, 738–739, 1089
taxation, 738–739, 740, 742–743
Rock lobsters (see crayfish)
Rolling stock, railway, 303, 306
Roman Catholic schools, 211
Ross Dependency, 2, 54, 236, 952–955, 1039
Royal Commission on Monetary, Banking, and Credit Systems, 832
Royal New Zealand Air Force, 270–272
Royal New Zealand Naval Volunteer Reserve, 268
Royal New Zealand Navy, 267–268
Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre, 236
Rubber products, 479, 512, 649
Rural—
Rural Banking and Finance Corporation, 840
education, 213
housing, 532
intermediate credit associations, 841
land transfers, 282
mail deliveries, 342
mortgages, 835–839
population, 65–66
Reticulation Council, 544
Ryegrass, 416

S

St. John Ambulance, 140
Safeair Limited, 335
Safety of machinery, 939–940
Safety of workers, 924, 927–942
Salaries and wages, 697, 699, 702, 897–906, 1025
and social security benefits, 167
average, 789
effective, 905–906
minimum, 900
nominal, 903–905
weekly, 901–902, 906
by industry groups, 794, 900–901, 903
average, 789
effective, 905–906
minimum, 900
nominal, 903–905
weekly, 901–902, 906
by institutional sectors, 900
average, 789
effective, 905–906
minimum, 900
nominal, 903–905
weekly, 901–902, 906
by occupations, 902–903, 904–905
average, 789
effective, 905–906
minimum, 900
nominal, 903–905
weekly, 901–902, 906
equal pay, 900
average, 789
effective, 905–906
minimum, 900
nominal, 903–905
weekly, 901–902, 906
hourly average, 902–903
average, 789
effective, 905–906
minimum, 900
nominal, 903–905
weekly, 901–902, 906
industrial classification of, 900–901, 1091
average, 789
effective, 905–906
minimum, 900
nominal, 903–905
weekly, 901–902, 906
in manufacturing industries, 473–480, 485–488, 1025
average, 789
effective, 905–906
minimum, 900
nominal, 903–905
weekly, 901–902, 906
international comparisons, 906
average, 789
effective, 905–906
minimum, 900
nominal, 903–905
weekly, 901–902, 906
legislation, 897–900
average, 789
effective, 905–906
minimum, 900
nominal, 903–905
weekly, 901–902, 906
lost through industrial stoppages, 920–921, 1036
average, 789
effective, 905–906
minimum, 900
nominal, 903–905
weekly, 901–902, 906
rates, 897–900
average, 789
effective, 905–906
minimum, 900
nominal, 903–905
weekly, 901–902, 906
Salaries of members of—
Executive Council, 45–46
House of Representatives, 45–46
Sales tax, 740, 759, 1086
Salt, 455, 464
Samoa (see Western Samoa)
Sanctuaries, bird and other wildlife, 379
Sand and gravel, 455
Sand dunes, stabilisation of, 433
Satellite earth resources programme, 366
Sausage casings, export of, 616, 618, 619, 637, 1022
Sausage casings, production, 477
Savings—
accounts and bonds (National), 750, 817
banks, 814–820, 1032
private, 694, 695, 698, 699, 701, 821, 1042
small, 814–820, 824
Sawmills, etc., 436, 478, 509
Scenic reserves, 378
Scheelite, 462
Scholarships—
for Maoris, 230
for Pacific Islanders, 230
university, 208, 219
School—
Certificate, 199, 212, 801
ages of, 210, 211
boarding allowances, 214
duration of attendance, 212
intended occupations of, 213
medical examinations of, 129
roll numbers of, 204, 206, 207, 210–211
transport, 214
children, 198–200, 204–214
ages of, 210, 211
boarding allowances, 214
duration of attendance, 212
intended occupations of, 213
medical examinations of, 129
roll numbers of, 204, 206, 207, 210–211
transport, 214
committees, 199
dental service, 124, 130
inspectors, 212
Journal, 217
Library Services, 216, 357
Savings Bank, 817
of Pharmacy, 134
teachers (see teachers)
Schools—
area, 213
broadcasts to, 217
consolidation of, 213
correspondence, 204, 205, 1011
curricula, 209, 211, 213
district high, 212
denominations, 211
free textbooks for, 209, 216
intermediate, 204, 210, 211
military, 269
primary, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 204, 209–211, 1011
private, 199, 200, 204, 205, 211
publications, 217
roll numbers, 204, 206, 207, 208, 209–212
secondary, 198, 199, 200, 204, 205, 211–213, 1011
size of classes, 210
special, 200, 208–209
State, 198–214
technical, 204, 205, 226–228, 1011
Science in New Zealand, 232–240
budget, 238
publications, 240, 1057
Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of, 233–236, 464
Sea fisheries, 446–453
Seals, 447
Seamen Act, Shipping and, 940
Seaweed, 447
Secondary education (see also Schools, education), 211–213, 801
Secondary school boards, 199
Secondary School Councils, 199
Securities, Government, 845, 861, 867
Security Service, 277
Seed certification, 416
Seed sowing, aerial, 336
Seeds, grass and clover, 410–412, 416–417
exported, 638, 1021
Seismology, 9–11
Self employed, incomes of, 778, 779, 780, 783, 787, 788, 789
Sentences by courts, 245–251
Separation, marital, 120
Separation orders, 261–262
Serpentine, 455, 463, 513
Service establishments (trade), 587–581
Service-coach licenses, 316
Servicemen (see also Ex-servicemen)—
casualties on active service, 275
dependants of, 182–183, 184, 186
Settlement of land, 279, 380–382
Sex proportions of population, 66–67
Sexes of—
children born, 88
factory employees, 485, 487–488
prisoners, 252, 253
Sexual offences, 246, 247, 253, 258
Share prices, index numbers, 685
Shares in building societies, 847–850
Shearers' wage rates and amenitites, 925
Sheep, 422, 424, 562, 1037
and lambs slaughtered, 397, 398
farming, 386, 387, 396, 397, 398, 422, 423, 424, 778, 779, 783, 810, 1015
Sheep retention incentive scheme, 398
skins and pelts exported (see Hides)
Sheetmetal-working industry, 519
Shellfish, export of, 690
Shipping, 288–300, 1065–1077
Shipping and Seamen Act, 925
Ships (see Vessels)
Shops, 578–584
and Offices Act, 924
fire losses on, 870
Short-wave radio broadcasting, 357
Sickness 147–149
benefits, 166, 167, 169, 174–175, 1090
funds, 196
insurance, 196, 862–865
Silage, 404, 410–411
Silica, 455, 463
Silver, 462
Silviculture, (see Forestry)
Sixth Form Certificate, 199, 212
Ski-ing, 963
Skins (see Hides, pelts, and skins)
Slaughter of animals for food, 397–398, 502
Snow, 16
Soap industry, 501, 513
Soaps, export of, 618, 620
Social goals, 973–974
Social science and welfare publications, 1053–1054
Social Security, 163–180, 1027
Act, 24, 163, 164, 1040
annual appropriations, 704
benefits, 135–138, 163–176, 699, 700, 702, 1090
reciprocity with other countries, 175, 176
supplementary assistance, 166, 175
taxation, 166, 704, 740
Social services, expenditure on, 167, 700, 704, 734, 738, 1027
Social welfare, 163–197
Soil conservation, 365, 385–386
Soils, 365, 385–386
Soldiers, 269–270
South-east Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO), 28, 36, 265, 1042
Southern Alps, 3, 8, 16, 17
South Pacific—
students from, 206
Bureau for Economic Co-operation, 26, 31
Commission, 31, 952
Forum, 26, 601
trade training for youths, 886–887
trade with, 601, 641, 658, 829, 947–949, 951
Sovereignty, 26–27
Special articles—
in previous issues, 1045–1046
Ports and shipping developments, 1065–1077
Special education, 204, 208
Speed limit, 324
Spirits—
consumption of, 690
duty on, 660–661
imports of, 649, 654
production of, 507
Sports, 962–963, 980–981
publications on, 1059
Stabilisation of Prices Regulations, 667, 668
Stabilisation of Remuneration Act, 898–899
Stamp duties, 740, 757, 1086
Standard time, 978
Standards Council, 969
Standards of living, international indicators of, 972–973
State—
Advances Corporation, 425, 530, 532, 824, 840
accident and fire, 872–873, 923
earthquake and war damage, 873
life, 871–872
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
aid to private schools, 200
accident and fire, 872–873, 923
earthquake and war damage, 873
life, 871–872
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
coal mines, 460, 735, 736,
accident and fire, 872–873, 923
earthquake and war damage, 873
life, 871–872
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
departments, 47–48
accident and fire, 872–873, 923
earthquake and war damage, 873
life, 871–872
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
finance, 700, 703–705, 1026–1027
accident and fire, 872–873, 923
earthquake and war damage, 873
life, 871–872
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
forests, 369–370, 428–436
accident and fire, 872–873, 923
earthquake and war damage, 873
life, 871–872
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
highways, 314, 315, 739
accident and fire, 872–873, 923
earthquake and war damage, 873
life, 871–872
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
housing, 522, 523, 533–535, 840–847
accident and fire, 872–873, 923
earthquake and war damage, 873
life, 871–872
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
indebtedness, 759–764, 1028
accident and fire, 872–873, 923
earthquake and war damage, 873
life, 871–872
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
insurance, 871–873
accident and fire, 872–873, 923
earthquake and war damage, 873
life, 871–872
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
placement services, 878, 884
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
schools, 201–214, 1011
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
Services, 925–926, 996–999
Commission, 925, 941, 997–999
wards, 179–180
Statistical areas, 59
area and population of, 59, 1093
cinemas in, 361
crops grown in, 410–411
divisions and urban areas, 59–60
industrial production by, 473, 481–482, 483–484, 486–487, 492, 493–494
livestock, 423
retail trade in, 579
wholesale trade in, 585
Statistical—
information, latest, 1081–1095
publications, 605, 1078–1080
summary, 1010–1036
Statistics of world population, 84
Statutes of Westminster, 27, 241, 1040
Statutes (see Legislation)
Statutory Boards and Committees, 999
Steel and iron, imports of, 298, 645, 651, 654, 655
Steel industry, 462, 470
Sterling exchange rates, 826
Stewart Island, 2, 27, 65
Still births, 89, 94, 111
Stock and station agents—
advances to, 810
deposits, etc., with, 820–821, 824
Stock, registered, local government, 776
Stocks—
manufacturers', 469–497
retail, 579–586, 582–584, 1084
wholesale, 585–586
Stoppages, industrial, 918–923, 1036
Straits Air Freight Express (see Safe Air Limited)
Stranding of vessels, 300
Strikes, 918–923, 1036, 1038, 1041
Students, teachers' college, 205, 215, 1011
Students—
Overseas, 206, 223
projected, 207
university, 205, 215, 1011
Studentship, secondary teacher, 215, 216
Submarine power cable, Cook Strait, 550–551
Subscribers, telephone, 344
Subsidies, 692, 697, 700, 705
agricultural, 407–408
highways, 313, 314, 315
on butter, 692
on eggs, 572
on milk, 571, 576
on food, 692
superannuation fund, 187–190
to gasworks, 557, 692
to local government, 312, 313, 314, 315, 524, 705, 739, 771–772
to mining, 464
Suffrage, 49
Sugar—
consumption of, 690
duty on, 660, 661
imports of, 298, 643, 648, 653
international agreement on, 665
used by factories, 504–507
Suicides, 102, 114, 150
ages of, 114
Sulphur, 463
imports of, 650, 654
used in fertiliser industry, 513
Summary convictions, 247–251, 1012
Sunshine, 17–20
Superannuation—
farm employees, 192
government, 187–190
national scheme, 192
New Zealand Scheme, 188
of Members of Parliament, 46, 188–190
private schemes, 194
self schemes, 194
social security, 165–167, 170, 1090
Superphosphate and fertiliser industry, 479, 502, 513
Supreme Court, 119, 241–243, 245–246, 249, 258, 283–284, 994, 1012
Surveys—
aerial land, 366, 384
employment, 880
geological, 464–465
land, 384
of ships, 300
Sweepstakes, 974–975
Swimming accidents, 112

T

Tallow exported, 299, 634, 1022
Tallow produced, 502
Tallow, usage of, 513
Tanning industry, 479, 512
Tariff and Development Board, 613
Tariff, Customs, 659–664
Tariffs and Trade Agreement (GATT), 34, 562, 663, 664
Tasman Pulp and Paper Co., 438, 469, 761
Taxation (see also individual taxes), 740–759
amendments to legislation, 746
direct, 699, 700, 704, 740, 1086
exemptions from, 743, 746–747, 789–790
incentives, 749–750
indirect, 697, 699, 700, 704, 740, 1086
rates of, 746–748, 794
Taxis, 316, 864–865
Taxpayers, incomes of, 784–799
Tea—
consumption of, 690
imports of, 649, 653
Teacher studentships, 215, 216
Teachers, 205
College councils, 199
Guidance, 212
primary school, 205
secondary school, 205
superannuation, 188–190
training of, 199, 203, 205, 214, 215–216
Teaching aids, 215, 216
Technical Correspondence Institute, 204, 226, 228, 885
Technical education (see also Education, Schools), 203, 204, 226–228, 885–887, 1011
Technology—
Central Institute of, 226, 227
publications on, 1058
Telecommunications, 346–347, 1013
Telegraph services, 345–346
Telephone rental concession, 175
Telephone services, 344–345, 540, 1013
Television, 349–351, 352, 353, 354, 355
value of sets sold on hire purchase, 597
Television and radio assembly and manufacture, 470, 501, 517
Telex (teleprinter) services, 346
Temperature, 16–20
Tenancy Act, 542
Tenure—
of Crown lands, 380
of dwellings, 380, 539
of occupied land, 278–282
Terms of trade, 684–685, 686, 724
Territorial Air Force, 271, 272
Territorial Forces (Army), 269–270
Tetanus immunisation, 129
Textbooks in schools, free, 209, 216
Textiles, production of, 477, 508
Theatres, etc., fire losses on, 870
Theft, 246, 247, 253, 258
Therapists, occupational, 131, 133
Thermal activity, 3, 963
Third-party risks insurance, 324, 863–865
Thrift club accounts, Post Office Savings Banks, 816
Thunderstorms, 16
Timber, 428–445, 509, 529, 1024
exports of, 299, 442–443, 617, 619, 639, 1022
imports of, 442–443, 654
inspection of, 434
output, 436–437, 509, 529, 1024
plantations, 428
preservation of, 441, 478, 509
resources, 428–429
usage of 516–517
Timber Preservation Authority, 441
Time service (radio), 978
Tin, 463
Tobacco—
consumption of, 690
duty on, 660, 661
growers, 421
imports, of, 649, 654
industry, 421, 477, 507
Tokelau (Union) Islands, 2, 21, 22, 32, 54, 83, 181, 641, 658, 810, 852, 951–952
Toll service, 344
Tonnage of registered vessels, 294–295
Tonnage of shipping and cargo, 288–299
Topdressing, 404–405, 408
Topographical mapping, 384
Totalisator—
Agency Board, 758–759
taxation, 758–759
turnover on, 758–759
Tourist—
accommodation, 959–961
and Publicity Department, 961, 964
attractions, 962–964
Hotel Corporation, 959, 997
industry, 726, 956–964
Town and country planning, 51, 366
Town districts, 51, 61, 767, 768, 774
area of, 61–62
capital and unimproved values, 286
debt, 774
mileage of streets, 310
population of, 61–62
Tractors, imports of, 651, 655
Tractors on farms, 409
accidents, 114, 938
Trade, domestic, 578–597, 1084
marks, 968
overseas investment in, 718
practices, 668
retail, 578–584, 588–590, 592–594, 1084
training of Maori youths, 886–887
unions, 911–915, 918
wholesale, 584–587, 595–596, 1084
Trade external, 598-
agreements, 661–665
balance of, 605
commissioner service, 614
direction of exports, 600–604, 607–610, 623–639
origin of imports, 600–604, 607–611, 646–653
per head value of, 604, 607–611
Promotion Council, 614–615
representation overseas, 1007–1008
statistics, compilation of, 605
terms of, 684–685, 686
volume of, 611–612, 617–618, 629–639
Trade Certification Board, 228, 885
Trades, examinations, 228, 885
Trading and works account, State, 736–739
Trading banks, 807–812, 824, 1031
advances, classification, 810–811, 821, 1031
Traffic—
accidents, 113, 150, 321–324
deaths from, 320–321
air, 331–340
motor, 316–318
offences, 248–251, 324–327
railways, 305–307
Tramways, 327, 330, 1014
Transhipment of cargo, 297
Transport, 288–340, 962, 1082–1083
accidents (see Traffic accidents)
boards, 50
equipment, imports of, 645, 652
equipment industry, 479, 518, 810, 852
licensing. 318–319
overseas investments in, 718
of school children, 214
research, 320
to work, 321
urban, 321, 327–330, 772
Travel and tourism, 956–964
allowance overseas, 825, 831
time, 892
Trawling, 446
Treasury bills, 813
Treaty of Waitangi, 27, 278, 1037
Trees, forest, 370, 429–430
Tribunals, administrative, 994
Triplets born, 88–89
Trolley-buses, 329–330
Trout, 5, 447, 962
Trust (liquor) control, 976
Trustee, Public, 969–970
Trustee savings banks, 818–820, 821
Tuberculosis, 140, 149
deaths from, 102, 103, 149
Tungsten ore, 462
Tunnels, road and railway, 303, 311
Turkeys, 426
Tussock boards, 50, 407
Twins born, 88–89

U

Undergraduates, 218–224
Underground water authorities, 50
Unemployment, 883–884
benefits, 166, 167, 169, 173–174, 884, 1090
UNESCO, 34, 223
Unexercised overdraft authorities, 812
Unimproved value of land, 285–287
rating on, 765–766
Unions, trade, 911–915, 918
United Kingdom—
communications with, 342, 347
dairy produce and meat imported into, 565–569
debt domiciled in, 1028
exchange rate with, 826
Investment in New Zealand,
New Zealand representation in, 1005
relations with, 27, 565, 600
representation in New Zealand, 1006
shipping to and from, 293
social security reciprocity, 176
trade agreements with, 600, 661–662
trade with, 559, 565, 598, 600, 608, 623, 624, 626, 627, 646, 710
visitors and migrants from, 72, 83
United Nations, 32–34, 273
United States of America—
debt domiciled in, 1028
exchange rate with, 825
investment in New Zealand,
New Zealand representation in, 1005
representation in New Zealand, 1006
shipping to and from, 293
trade with, 559, 599, 600, 601, 608, 625, 627, 646, 710
visitors and migrants from, 72
Unit titles, 523
Universities, 203–204, 444, 737
buildings, 203–204
bursaries, 219
colleges of agriculture, 219, 220
education, 213–225
entrance examinations, 199, 217, 218
graduates, 215, 224, 801
Grants Committee, 203, 218, 533
scholarships, 208, 219
staff, 225
students, 205, 218–224
Uranium, 462
Urban—
areas, 59–60
population, 59–60
stores in, 580
drainage boards, 50
house price index, 530–531
mortgages, 835–839
movement, 65–66
population growth of, 65, 1093
renewal, 523, 532, 533, 772
transport, 321, 327–330, 772
transport boards, 50
Urbanisation—
effects of, 362–363, 368
of population, 65–66

V

Vacancies, employment, 554
Valley authority, 767, 768
Valuation—
of land, 283–287
roll, 283
Value added in manufacturing (net), 493–494, 498, 500, 502–520, 1025
Valuers' Registration Board, 287
Veal—
consumption of, 399, 689
export of, 629–630, 690, 1019
production of, 399, 502
Vegetable growing, commercial, 410–412
Vegetables—
consumption of, 689
exported, canned and frozen, 618–620, 690
home production, 418
retail prices of, 675
Vehicles, motor (see Motor vehicles)
Veneer and plywood, 440, 478, 516–517
Venereal disease, 102, 147
Vessels—
entered and cleared, 288–295
fishing, 449
nationality of, 294
safety of, 925, 940
wrecked, 300
Veterans' allowances, 183–187
Veterinarians, training of, 219, 220
Veterinary services, 403
Vineyards and grapes, 477
Visitors, to New Zealand, 69–70, 956–964
points of arrival of, 957
Visual aids, in teaching, 217
Vital statistics, 85–122
Vocational guidance, 181, 217–218, 255, 885
Vocational Training Council, 228, 879–880, 1043
Volcanism, 9
Volcanoes, 2–3, 9, 11, 1038
Volunteer Service Abroad (V.S.A.), 39
Voluntary welfare organisations, 140
Voting—
at general elections, 49, 977
at licensing polls, 977
qualifications, 49

W

Wages (see Salaries and wages)
Waikato Valley Authority, 767, 768
Waitangi, Treaty of, 27, 278, 1037
War—
bursaries for ex-servicemen's children, 184
casualties, 275
damage and earthquake insurance, 873
pensions, 165, 181–187, 1027
pensions, supplementary assistance, 184
veterans' allowances, 183
Warships, 267–268
Washing machines, 501, 520, 540
Water—
boards, regional, 374
conservation, 304, 369, 373–374
pollution, 373–374, 375
power, development of, 548–556
resources, 373–374
safety campaign, 373–374
Safety Council, National, 980, 981
subsidies, 771
supply boards, 50, 369
Waterfront control, 926
Wax—
bees, 427
peat, 454, 463
Weather, 11–20, 962
Weedkiller, aerial spraying of, 336
Welfare—
Maori, 180–181
maternal, 128–129, 140
of children, 177
of workers, 924
organisations, 180–181, 532
Pacific Islanders, 180–181
services, 139–140
Western Samoa, 10, 28, 31–32, 54, 72, 83, 624, 648, 952, 1039, 1042
Westminster, Statute of, 27, 241
Whales and whaling, 954
Wheat, 410–414, 1014
card, 414
imports of, 653
milled, 504
research, 233
Whey butter (see Dairy products)
Whisky, imports of, 649, 654
Whitebait, 453
Wholesale—
liquor licences, 975
prices, 677–678, 686–687
trade, 584–587, 595–596, 1084
Widowers, remarriages of, 116
Widows—
benefits, 166, 167, 169, 171, 1090
number of 77
remarriages of, 116
war pensions, 182, 183
Wildlife sanctuaries, 379
Wills administered by Public Trust Office, 970
Winds, 12–13
Wine, consumption of, 690
Wine licences, 975
Winemaking industry, 477, 506
Withdrawals from savings bank, 814–815, 816–820, 1032
Women—
accident compensation, 928
Air Force, Royal New Zealand, 273
child bearing ages of, 89, 90
criminal charges and convictions against, 251
deaths of, in childbirth, 102, 103, 148
employed in industry, 474–476, 484–485, 487–488, 880–882, 874–877, 892–895
incomes of, 786, 800–802
in labour force, 874–877, 892–895
married, occupations of, 893–895
nationality laws, re, 74
Naval Service, Royal New Zealand, 268
offences by, 250
on juries, 242
police, 264
wage rates of, 474, 485, 487, 900
working conditions of, 923–926
working hours of, 499
Wood-chip industry, 437
Woodhouse Report, 862
Wood preservation, 441
Wood and cork products industry, 440, 478, 644, 649, 793
Wood pulp—
exports of, 617–619, 639, 1023
imports of, 644, 649
production of, 438–440, 469, 478, 510–511
Wool—
Board, 401
Corporation Account, 578
export, 299, 570, 611, 615, 618, 628–629, 829, 830, 1018
export price index, 574
imports, 649
levy, 401
Marketing Corporation, 401, 570, 573
marketing of, 570, 573
prices for, 573–574, 667, 1083
production, 391, 392–393, 400–401, 477, 1024
research, 401
scouring, 477
used at local mills, 508
Woollen mills, 400, 477, 507–508
Woollen piece-goods, imports of, 650, 654
Workers' compensation, 927–930, 931
Workers—
Educational Association, 232
safety and welfare, 927–942
unions of, 911–915, 918
Working—
conditions, 923–926
hours, 902–903
life expectancies, 896
Works and trading account state, 736–739
Works and Development Ministry of, 302, 310, 312, 369, 374, 405, 461, 534
Works programme, 738
World Bank (see International Bank for Reconstruction and Development)
World Health Organisation, 34, 131, 223
World population statistics, 84
Wrecks, 1038–1043

X

X-ray services, 136

Y

Youth hostels, 533
Youths, working conditions of, 924

Z

Zinc, 463